Bureau of StandaKift

OCT 1 9 1932

' COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 9, No. 4 OCTOBER, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Acting Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F, Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McAllister, Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pradfice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of producft, method, or

pradlice. Its fundlion is to bring together all parties inter- e^ed in a projedf of this charadfer, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradfice, formulation of a simplified pradfice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a request for written acceptance of the adfion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a ^landing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudfing periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any com- modity or adlivity in which it will reduce

wa^le. The division Elands ready to render

service in developing and making effedlive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce wa^le, dlabilize business, or exlend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering con^lrudlion adlivities. It works to modernizie building codes and to encourage improved dlandards for the quality of building con^lrudlion, and the practical application of the latedl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, dleadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largest single class of

buildings which the construction induSlries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to diSlribute building adlivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludluation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedlive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedl to other Slrudlures, Slabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

sySlems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

(T*.0 ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.

TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adlivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, didlributors, and consumers; and telling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the standardization

and specifications promoting adlivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSls of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares diredtorics of governmental and

nongovernmental teSling laboratories and the Diredlory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Produdls.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufadtured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

didlation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundlions

chiefly as a neutral agency to sec that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadlory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no active opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdls meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protesting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induSlry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D. C., OCTOBER, 1932 Number 4

SUBJECT ANAYLSIS

INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

New Canadian standard announced

ELECTRICAL

American Institute of Electrical Engineers

Canadian Engineering Standards Association PUBLICATIONS

Clinical thermometers

Hospital rubber sheeting

Revised pamphlet on metric system issued Solders and soldering

Sulphonated oils (sulphated) saponifiable ty^pes

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Page90 Science and the home

Standard grading rules for Douglas fir plywood

Page7780

97

91

84

98

84

82

94

PAPER, METAL, AND TEXTILES

Commercial laundry extractors, tumblers, and washers.

Fast selvage terry towels Grinding wheels and coated abrasive products

Paper and paper products

Solders and soldering Surface quality standards in machined surfaces

Utility and durability tests for textiles Wrought iron and wrought steel pipe

GROUP ACTIVITIES

86

82

86

95

8294

85

98

INDUSTRIAL STANDARDIZATION

Standardization work of the Ingersoll-Rand Co 81 Standard qualities of petroleum products 89 Tons and tonnage 87 Use of specifications in purchasing 83

American Society for Testing Materials 93 American Standards Association 96

Federal specifications 84 Grades for cattle hides 94 Meeting to standardize specifications for road oil 76

Simplified practice in California 92

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

138224—32 1 75
Meeting

to Standardize Specifications

for Road Oil

T

he out^anding problem confronting the second annual Road

Oil Congress, which is meeting October 13 and 14, at Tulsa,

Okla., is the matter of standardiz,ing road oil specifications.

This problem will head the discussion at the meeting and will be of

considerable importance to the refining and marketing branches of the

oil industry.

The specification committee of the congress is expected to recommend

a tentative ^andardi^ed schedule which will provide for all possible

simplifications that may be made in the present confused road oil sped''

fication set'up.

Considering the fad that there are more than 700 different specifications for road oil in the country, it is readily appreciated what standardiz,ation will mean to the refiners. The latter are said to be handicapped in not being able to manufadure and dore any quantity of a given road oil but are forced by the ridiculously wide variation in

demand, to make up comparatively small orders for almost every

individual case. The result is that the price of the produd is said to be

higher than it need be. If the various States and the minor subdivisions

could agree on dandard specifications for given conditions, it is believed

that the total number could be reduced to a round half do2;en. Such a program would undoubtedly put more refiners in the business, bring

healthy competition and manufaduring economies leading to lowered

prices for the road builders.

76
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 77

SCIENCE AND THE HOME

Bureau of Standaids Aid Home Planning and Construction

By Henry D. Hubbard, Bureau of Standards

Science and the power machine are exalting home

life. To-day motors trap house dust in a vacuum,

take the toil out of sewing, clean our clothes and

dishes, cool our food, and make breezes to refresh us. Science is behind many such services. At a motion

of the hand a vibrant world of melody, speech, and

knowledge enters our living room. Seated at ease we may converse across continents, over oceans, with people in 40 nations. We turn night into day with a tungsten thread. These and scores of Aladdin-like

miracles we perform. With new science and technics we may make our own home environment what we

will, giving the household optimum conditions for

perfect living.

That our standard yard, pound, and gallon comes from our national Bureau of Standards is well known.

It is not so well known that scores of other newer

kinds of measurement require many new types of

standards or instruments. We rate electrical power

in watts; electrical pressure in volts; light in candlepower ; food energy and heat in calories ; and radium

in curies. For these and many similar measures the

bureau must to-day have standards, units, instruments,

and scientific methods of measurement.

Measurements are everywhere needed to locate the

home and to design, build, equip, and maintain it. This brings us many contacts on fundamentals. The

use of such measures calls for researches and tests. Ideal standards of quality, performance, and practice

are measured ideals, for in the home technologies of

to-day guesswork should no longer enter. Service

must be built into the machines and structures to give

predictable results. “ How to Own Your Home ” and “ Present Home

Financing Methods,” widely circulated manuals for

the prospective home maker, were prepared by the

division of building and housing of the Bureau of

Standards. The practical problems of the householder

in keeping his home in good condition are treated in

I the pamphlet “ Care and Repair of the House,” in- cluding minor improvements. Cooperation is given to the “ Better Homes in America ” movement, under

whose auspices demonstration homes are exhibited

each year in hundreds of places to stimulate and

educate popular interest. Stall assistance was rendered to most of the comj* ' mittees of the President's Conference on Home Build-

! ing and Home Ownership, held in December, 1931,

and the housing division is taking part in the continu1 ing activities that have been instituted as a result of

the conference. Technical phases of home building

are given in publications dealing with plumbing re- quirements for dwellings, masonry walls, floor load

requirements, and so on. These were prepared by the

Building Code Committee appointed by the Secretary

; of Commerce, and are based upon data acquired by

expert experience and embody results also of bureau’s

researches and tests, as well as tho.se of other laboraI tories.

i.

1

I

This article tells with more detail some ways in which the Bureau of Standards aids the activities and

welfare of the home.

The division of building and housing serves cities and towns with valuable technical information essential to city planning and to the efficient regulation of

housing and building in the public interest. Its “ Zoning Primer ” describes the modern policy of

establishing special districts restricted to certain types

of construction and occupancy. This protects home

neighborhoods from unwarranted and uneconomic in- trusion of commercial or other uses of property that

are undesirable as neighbors to houses. It protects the

homeowner’s equity in his property and gives stabil- ity to the city plan, a subject described in “A City

Planning Primer.”

The bureau’s work affects the household through

tests and researches upon structural materials, building construction, and the utilities which serve the

home. Nearly every division has work in progress

of direct interest to the household. The division of

building and housing was specially organized by the

Secretary of Commerce to gather data useful in chea})-

ening, improving, and encouraging the building of

homes and other structures. The bureau’s experimental research on plumbing

so vital to household health—is credited as being a most scientific treatment of the subject. The published results aid home builders in providing adequate,

safe, economical plumbing facilities. Many bureau

researches and tests help to improve home-building

materials through quality and service studies on

cement, brick, tile, lime and lime plaster, stucco, paint,

roofing, tiling, lightning rods, fabric, wall boards, and

the like. The j>ractice of plastering, stucco application, painting, and the installation of plumbing, gas

service, electric service, and house construction have

received careful experimental study.

To aid the household to protect the home from

wear, weather, fire, lightning, noise, and other things,

many researches and investigations have been undertaken by the bureau. A popular 127-page publication on “ Safety for the Household ” deals with safety

precautions to protect the home from electrical, lightning, gas, and fire hazards, and the dangers from

chemicals and accidents. It was “ designed to pre- sent the subject to adults and thus aid the growing

movement for safeguarding life and property from

avoidable accidents.”

The bureau’s i^ublication “ Protection of Life and

Property Against Lightning ” describes the histoiw

and technique of adequate protection against lightning, which causes many fires, especially of farm

buildings. The damage to such property b}’ lightning exceeds $20,000,000 annually. The Bureau of

Standards points out how such losses can largely be

prevented by the use of lightning rods properly in- stalled, but that rods improperly mounted or without

suitable ground connections are useless. The value

of such protection for farm buildings having typical
78 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

exposure was emphasized. One interesting discovery was published on the proper grounding of wire

fences to reduce the losses of livestock in open fields. To safeguard the home from fire, the bureau’s re- searches on fire hazard contribute new data on the

nature, causes, and avoidance of fires in homes.

Actual fii'es are studied for various purposes. The

bureau has a furnace in which can be burnt to destruction specimen house Avails of most varied design and

material—to perfect our knowledge of how to build

homes Avith minimum fire hazards.

A special brick building is used at the bureau to

test the destructiA^e eft'ects of fire on A^arious kinds of

equipment. In Washington, a large brick building

and a smaller one next door AA^ere about to be dis- mantled to alloAv Government building operations.

The bureau, under close observation ami measurement

of temperatures throughout, burned them to complete

destruction. Kesulting data on the failure of the tin

roof, brick Avails, and floors enter into building practice to help perfect the design of houses. A construction. such as a Avail, is rated on its ability to satisfactorily hold back fire and prevent ignition of combustible materials in contact Avith the .side aAvay from

the fire. The length of time the Avail affords this protection is determined in a standard furnace test. The fire resistance of building materials and construction is determined by subjecting them to a test

fire, the intensity of Avhich is regulated so that given

temperatures in the furnace obtain at stated times

after the fire is started. Even the garage—noAV often

built in or attached to the house itself—Avas not over- looked, and the standard of “ 1-hour fire resistance”

Avas suggested by tbe Bureau of Standards to assure adequate safety.

Compiled data on seasonal variations in fires, on

fire resistance in dAvellings, and on the fire hazard from

discarded cigarettes, cigars, and matches Avere published Avith suggestions for reducing such hazards.

Many researches are conducted Avhich sooner or later are reflected in technical details of home construction.

In the experimental fires, for example, the bureau has

studied the hazard of shingles, hoAv roofing fails, hoAv

embers are formed and carried by the Avind, the temperatures of fires, and a score of subjects vital to home

safety and economy. Such data find their Avay

through building codes into practice, or through the

designers of equipment, or the architects of dAA’ellings.

On the roof of the bureau’s chemistry laborator^^

sheets of various colors are exposed to natural Aveather

day by day, month by inontb. Paints are having their

fortunes told, for some Avill live or die commercially

by these tests. Inside the same laboratory “ acceler- ated tests ” of .similar paints are in progress. Weather

affects coated surfaces—a vital problem in the life of

structures. Among materials tried out as protective

coatings are oil jAaints, enamel paints, lacquers, bituminous saturated felts, and bituminous roofing materials. The accelerated Aveathering test is similar to and more rapid than actual Aveather exposure. Artificial rainfalls on the specimens, folloAved by artificial sunlight rich in idtra-violet, simulate the clestructiA^e forces of Aveather and play in repeated sequence on

the painted specimens. Outdoor exposure tests and

indoor accelerated tests thus tell pertinent factors as

to hoAv paints hold up under Aveathering. Such neAv

facts for the paint industry eventually help the household more effectively and durably to save the surface

and thus add longer life to the home.

The bureau has studied means for cleaning marble,

and determined hoAV to minimize disfigurement of the

exterior of the house. Soluble salts in masonry materials often disfigure walls by efflorescence. Efflor- escence is often attended by disintegration of material,

particularly mortar. It was found that moisture in

the wall is the immediate cause, and that moisture

penetration can be lessened by proper design, construction, and maintenance. It may appear and dis- appear for a feAv seasons, but with each successive

appearance gradually diminishes in extent until finally

it neA^er again becomes noticeable.

Quiet—the laudable goal of modern antinoise cru- sades—is essential to restful home life. The bureau

has helped fundamentally by measuring the sound

transmission properties of some 26 kinds of wall and

floor of ATarious materials and internal design. This

research gave neAV light on how to minimize the invasion of noise through walls and floors of rooms. Ways are noAV knoAvn for making practically soundproof Avails and floors, and home and apartment house

designers are furnished data needed for building quiet

into the structure as effectively as Ave build strength.

Further research Avill add neAV data on this subject.

In the course of the experiments sih^er tarnish, identified as silver sulphide, Avas made in quantity, made

up into Avire and found to possess interesting electrical

properties. The bureau later has jointly Avith other

agencies, help to produce a tarnish-resistant-silA^er—

a

practical step toAvard a nontarnishing silver. Again

the bureau, upon request, aided the makers of en- ameled-metal kitchen ware by finding the cause and

cure for the chipping or flaking which marred the

Avare and actually threatened the industry. Research on the relatiA’e expansion of the metal and the enamel

disclosed that unequal expansion caused the “ fish- scaling ” as it was called. Ncav technique in cleaning

and appl3dng the enamel and a neAv formula for the

enamel Avere developed in experiments in which

40,000 specimens Avere ])roduced and studied. The

houseAvife using enamel-metal ware Avill be interested

to recall that science and technics at the Bureau of

Standards helped perfect the art of making such Avare. The household draAvs to its service man^^ arts and

sciences, and such services Avill multipl}^ as we use

intelligently all means noAV so available and so ]Aotent

for human Avell-being. The era of artificial refrigeration actively began coincidently Avith the completion

of the bureau’s precise determination of the properties

of refrigeration materials—data essential to and

underlying scientific refrigeration, and the design and

construction and operation of refrigerating devices.

To-da^q Avith 2,000 ncAv refrigerating devices each day

entering American homes, machine-made cold has

become a household product.

It is now jAOssible to install in the home scientifically

designed poAver-driven cold-producing machines.

The Bureau of Standards’ series of classic researches on the refrigerating properties of materials has con- tributed in no small measure to this end. Active

^^ears of research ^fielded accurate technical data unsurpassed elseAvhere by aii}^ similar research in other

branches of engineering.

As early as 1904, the bAireau controlled the humidity

of some of its electrical laboratories, blowing the air
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 79

against radiators cooled below the freezing point of

water by calcium chloride brine. This froze the water

out of the air, thus drying it. Many inquiries were

answered concerning this bureau provision of air- moisture control—then a laboratory necessity, now an

industrial service, and aid to health and comfort in our great theaters, and slowly coming into the home,

to add comfort for the family.

Perhaps dust-free air, of optimum temperature,

humidity, and motion, may eventually be supplied as everyday practice in the home for the sake of the

household, as is already done in scores of industrial

oiierations for the sake of the material products. In

the control of air conditions for research in many

lines ; for example, in its paper testing and textile

testing laboratory, altitude chamber for simulating

high altitude condition, and elsewhere, the bureau has

helped show that air control is feasible. Controlled

climate indoors will doubtless become as much an

object of home technology as house heating in winter.

Again, if roofs were white outside and aluminum

jiainted inside, attics would be cooler in summer and warmer in winter. This was discovered by the

Bureau of Standards from measurements of the radiative and reflective properties of materials. Attics

cool in summer and warm in winter may add a fifth to the habitable space of the home. If suitable heat

insulation is aiiplied under the roof, many livable

attics could be attained more easily.

The walls of the home are built to keep out wind,

rain, and snow. Summer heat and winter cold still force their way in, bearing bodily discomfort and ills. The bureau is helping toward a more ideal indoor

weather by measuring accurately the heat transmissive

quality of various materials. A useful letter-circular

giving the results has been distributed by thousands to aid home makers and house designers to build temperate conditions into the home. lYith these data artificial heat can be kept indoors and summer heat kept

outdoors more ef^'ectiA'el3^ Economy is the welcome

partner of comfort from heat-insulating walls since

coal bills may often be cut down one-third if recom- mended precautions are taken.

All households in America are daily buj^ers of in- dustrial pi-oducts. They are America’s largest buying

group, but the}’ lack ex]iert knowledge of what they

buy and of how to buy wisely. The national Government is one of the next largest buying units. The 74

technical committees of its Federal Specifications

Board formulate quality-describing specifications to govern Federal purchases. Its 748 Government

master sj)ecifications cover some 4,000 items, hundreds

of whicli are of direct interest to the buying household.

Idle bureau has put successfully into effect its beneficial

" certification plan ” to aid household buying. Under

this plan the bureau publishes a “ willing-to-certify ”

list of firms willing, when requested, to deliver goods

certified to conform to the United States Government

specifications. More than 8,000 firms have registered

for this list. This gives the benefit of the Government’s specifications to all who wish to use specifications. To this plan is added the system of “ self- identifying quality-guaranteeing labels ” under whicli

the products and their sale are brought within the

purview of the agencies which safeguard the buying

iniblic from misbranding and mislabeling commodities.

Full weight and measure in marketing concerns every householder. Accurate deliveries over the

counter depend on the Bureau of Standards along

four principal lines : First, through its standardization of the shop standards by which trade measures

are made; second, through its standardization of the

State standards with which local sealer’s ” standards are inspected and verified ; third, through annual

conferences of State and national officials, encouraging the adoption of the model State law, standard

tolerances, and adequate local ins])ection; and fourth,

by information to the household and the inspectors.

These four activities since 1901 steadily have developed what is now a nation-wide interest in full weight

and measure in the markets in the interest of the

buyer.

As aids, the bureau has published and widely dis- tributed for the use of the household : “ Buying Commodities by Weight and Measure,” “ Measurements for

the Household,” and a kitchen card. The first helps

the household in methods of buying with special re- gard to quantity measurements. The bureau’s kitchen

card for the household gives tables of weights and

measures, equivalents of the units of measurement

used in cooking, standard heights and weights of chil- dren at each age, and other facts. The bureau’s handbook for sealers is the reference work for the local inspectors throughout the country.

Practically everything used by the household calls for measurements, and accuracy is essential to fair

dealing, and oftentimes to utility. All of us as buyers

pay the last cent due in a purchase, so equally the

last ounce due should be assured to the purchaser.

Large buyers check the weight and measure of all deliveries. Households rarely do so, but rely on the

sealer and tradesman for correct measui’e over the

counter. The bureau’s nation-wide campaign for honest weight and measure is saving buyers millions of

dollars formerly lost through short measure. State

laws and local inspection services are now general

and the household is freer from preventable injustice.

The bureau’s simplified practice division aids the

household by stimulating the industries to simplify

sizes and varieties of many houseliold articles—beds,

springs, mattresses, sheets, bed blankets, table china- ware, and others. Here the more acceptable sizes (as reflected in the sales) were retained on the manufacturers’ schedules. A notable success was in simplifying and standardizing builders’ hardware, latches,

bolts, locks and keys, knobs, sash jiulleys, brackets,

umbrella holders, chest handles, and so on. Througli

the efforts of the simplified practice unit of the bureau,

the industry has reduced the sizes and varieties of

face brick from 33 to 1 in the nation-wide elimination

of waste activity of the Department of Commerce.

Simplification has been attained even in such details as the milk and cream bottles (now reduced to four

kinds) and bottle caps (now of one size).

Clay products from bricks to chinaware, from terra cotta drain pipes to the beautiful tile of the bathroom,

are of concern to the household. White glazed file and unglazed ceramic mosaic were sinqilified, terms

defined, and a form of certification was agreed upon.

Sets of chinaware for hospital and hotel use have

been selected so as to give a simplified set of general

service utility. Weights, widths, and lengths of bedsteads and bed linen have been concurrently simplified
80 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

to promote economy in production and sale. In all, 120 commodities are noAv simplified as to size, grade,

and variety. Such simplifications effect many economies, facilitate replacement, and assure benefits such as come from even partial standardization.

The bureau has designed and built an apparatus to simulate the Avear of carpet in service. Tavo leatherfaced abrading Avheels give the stress and a vacuumcleaner picks up the abraded material, the amount of

Avhich measures the AVear. The code of gas practice has given basic data to

local Governments for effective and safe control of

gas service. The bureau has made experimental and

field studies of gas hazards and the efficiency of gas

appliances. The consumers and the manufacturers

have shoAvn interest in this Avork and felt the stimulus

to design more efficient appliances. In household

practice the bureau’s circular on “ Hoav to Get Better

Service Avith Less Natural Gas in Domestic Gas Appliances ” shoAved. that tAvo-thirds of the natural gas

then used in the home could be saved by using the

type of burner devised and recommended by the bu- reau for the purpose. The burner Avas found to have

an efficiency several times that of the type in common

use. The saving made possible (at replacement

value) Avas estimated at $250,000 a day, if the bureau’s

suggestions Avere fully adopted. The effects of

changes in the heating value of gas furnished to the

home Avere described in another published paper.

Optimum conditions for efficiency, capacity, and

safety of burners Avere designed for the domestic use

STANDARD GRADING RULES FOR DOUGLAS

FIR PLYWOOD

With a feAv minor changes the commercial standard

grading rules for Douglas fir plyAvood Avere approved

and recommended for acceptance by a general con- ference of the industry on August IT, 1932, in Tacoma,

Wash. The conference Avas attended by manufacturers Avhose combined production represented ap- proximately 80 per cent of the total. Douglas fir plyAvood is a built-up or laminated

board Avhich usually consists of three or five plies

of veneer Avith the grain of each contiguous layer

running at right angles to the one next to it. The

pieces of veneer are covered Avith a Avaterproof glue

and united under heavy pressure into the finished

product.

The sheets of veneer are cut from large choice logs

of Douglas fir that have previously been steamed to

facilitate their cutting. The log is mounted in a massive lathe Avhich is revolved against a large cut- ting edge that is so tilted against the log that a con- tinuous sheet of Avood of predetermined thickness is cut. The long sheets are clipped to the desired size and thoroughly seasoned in mechanical driers.

The sheets are then covered Avith a Avater-resistant

glue and united usually in a three or fiA-e ply construction under heavy pressure. Sometimes a larger

number of plies are employed Avhere greater thick- ness is desired, but they are alAvays of an odd number.

Since each alternating layer extends at right angles

to the adjacent one, the tendency of shrinking and

of tAvo of the neAver fuels knoAvn as propane and butane. A study AA^as also made of the efficiency and

safety of acetylene burners. At one of the national

conventions of the American Gas Association, the bu- reau exhibited methods of utilizing natural gas and

the best types of burners in use. The serious hazard

from the presence of carbon monoxide in the air AV'as made the basis of extended experiments and data for

municipal regulations concerning the inspection and

safety of gas appliances in the home.

Engineers of State utility commissions have met at the bureau to discuss problems of residential use of

gas and electricity. The bureau’s service of standardization for Avater, gas, and electric meters has brought

uniformity and helped to maintain accuracy in the

measured service of electricity, gas, and Avater—satis- fying both to the household and to those Avho furnish

such service—minimizing disputes, complaints, and

promoting good Avill in the assurance of full measure

to the home. The bureau’s Avork on meters for electricity, gas, and Avater is chiefly in certifying the

standards or standard instruments used to control the

accuracy of manufacture and adjustment.

We have completed our survey and seen some of

the Avays in Avhich the Bureau of Standards aids the

home. Its 60 or more specialized lines of research of

interest to the household could not be fully told here. The examples described may give an idea of Avhat

the 2 cents per capita spent for our Bureau of Standards is doing for the American home—one, not the

least, of the many beneficiaries of its research.

SAvelling is largely eliminated because the greatest

shrinkage of Avood occurs in a tangential direction or, in other Avords, across the face of the regular flat saA\m

board. In plyAvood, hoAveA^er, this tendency is checked

by the adjacent layers of Avood running in the opposite

direction. The tendency is further reduced by the

thorough drying of the component layers in the

finished plyAvood.

The glue joints are as strong as the AVOod itself and

because of the alternate grain direction the product is highly resistant to splitting and is nearly as strong in

both directions.

Because of its strength characteristics and large

panel sizes it has a Avide field of usefulness, including

the building field, Avhere it is employed for interior

paneling, partitions, sheathing, subflooring, shelving, concrete forms, etc. It is also used for AvindoAV dis- plays, cabinets, and other furniture items; in auto- mobile bodies and a Avide range of other industrial

applications.

To meet the requirements of these varied uses the

industry recommended the acceptance of definite grade

rules as the universal basis of understanding in the

trade. Architects, engineers, contractors, and industrial users Avill thus be able definitely to specify their

needs from recognized grades and eliminate the misunderstanding that is ever possible betAveen buyer and

seller in the absence of grade specifications.

The recommended standard has been sent out for the

formal acceptance of the entire industry and is available gratis to anyone interested, upon application to the Division of Trade Standards, Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 81

STANDARDIZATION WORK OF THE INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

By Arthur Huntress, Standards Department, Ingersoll-Rand Co.

About three years ago the management of the plant

with which the writer is connected decided that the

time had come for revamping its company standards.

The following brief article tells something of the ex- periences and the methods developed since that time.

The product of the plant is of considerable variety

;

the main lines are air compressors, air rock drills,

turbines, condensers, pumps, and oil engines. The

expansion of plant activities, in past years, into new

lines of product has been such that the several main

divisions have, to some extent, been fairly independent

of one another in the establishment of their own

standards. Some standards were in common use in more than one division, but there was considerable

duplication of effort, lack of cooperation (due largely

to lack of complete dissemination of available knowledge on a subject among divisions), some disregard

of commercial and national standards and other similar conditions.

A general realization that a more complete and

comprehensive system was needed to handle this work,

in a better way than it had been in the past, led us

to study ; first, our own actual conditions at the time

;

second, basic ideas of modern plans already in operation; and third, methods of application to our own

individual case. As a result of this, we have adopted

a basic plan which we believe is such that anything

which comes within the field of standardization, such

as any article of stores, a practice or a function, will

easily and logically fit into the scheme. The method

of development of an Ingersoll-Rand standard is, briefly, as follows

:

A standards committee has been formed, composed

of representatives from each of the main divisions

and departments. The chairman of the committee

is the assistant chief engineer. The secretary is a

full-time man. The main business of the secretary

is to investigate the subject of a proposed standard

and to prepare a draft for the consideration of the

committee. If the subject is of such nature that a

special subcommittee is deemed advisable, such a committee is appointed to assist in the work, but this committee is considered temporary.

When a proposed standard has the approval of the

main standards committee, it must finally be approved

for publication by the general superintendent. In

theory, only a two-thirds majority of the standards

committee is required to be in favor of a proposal to secure committee approval. In practice, we have al- ways had a very much higher percentage of the committee in favor of a proposal before final approval.

A standard may be revised at any time, and the

procedure is practically the same as for the original

development. A new standard or a revision is never promulgated until all interested parties have had

opportunity to study and criticize a proposal. In

short, this method is both representative of all interests and centralized, thus making available, for all parts of the plant, these articles of stores and ac- cepted practices which appear to the committee to be in tlie best interest of all. In operation this method

of standards development nearly always brings out

the fact that some division or department has a dis- tinctly better method of handling a particular subject

than the other divisions. Thus a practice which has

distinct merit, but which has previously been confined

to one division perhaps, becomes standard for the

plant.

A proposal to standardize any particular subject

may come from any division or department, but so far the committee has had plenty of work ahead of

it in the subjects that were known to be in need of

attention from the beginning. The plan which we

have adopted, divides the whole possible field of standardization, within the company, into several main

divisions or groups, with each group designated by

a letter. When it is decided to standardize any particular

subject, whether it is an article of stores, a practice, or a function, the group and class must first be

selected. The group into which a subject naturally

falls should generally be easy to select. The class which covers the general subject (as, for instance,

bolts and screws) may have already been started, in

which case it is only necessary to add further sheets

to cover new varieties or specifications. If the general

subject has not been previously started, it is necessary

to begin a new class. The general subject of each

class is then subdivided (if required), and each subdivision is assigned a sheet number to cover the specification for a single subdivision of a subject only.

In the system adopted for sheet numbering, the

group letter and class number are preceded by the

sheet number. This automatically separates numbers

for sheet and class, without a hyphen or other means,

and works in with the method of developing part

symbols, for articles of stores, for the same reason.

It should also be stated that the sheet number bears no relation to any other number or symbol whatever,

being assigned in the index solely as a sheet to cover

the information pertaining to a ])articular subject.

A system for part symbols, to be used wherever

possible, has been developed in connection with the

sheet numbering system. This paid symbol is in- tended for general use on drawings, in storerooms, in

correspondence, and wherever it is necessary to identify an article of stores. It should be pointed out that

a sheet number completely identifies the general

character of an article as for instance : Sheet 20 A2-

American Std. Hex. Head NC-2 Semi-Fin. Machine

Bolts. This does not identify the material and size,

however, and these are taken care of by the following

method

:

On each sheet where this part-symbol system is used,

a list of I-R material specification numbers is given

covering materials from which the articles may be

ordered. Each material specification number appearing on that list is assigned a material s5unbol lettei’ which must be understood to identify the particular

material specification number for that one sheet only.

This point is particularly important as the same material symbol (for instance the letter C) may refer.
82 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

on different sheets, to the same general material (carbon steel) but to different material specification numbers, on various sheets. This is illustrated by the case of carbon-steel bolts and carbon-steel hex. cap screws. The material symbol in both cases is the letter C but

the material specification referred to is"No. 175 in the

case of bolts and No. 307 in the case of hex. cap screws. The size of an article is identified by a plain number

in a part-number list. For instance, No. 335 is a %

by 4 inch bolt on all American standard and United

kStates standard regular bolts. For a % by 4 inch

hex. cap screw, however, the number is 192. This

illustrates the point that, as in the case of material

symbols, the part number is used as a means of identification only in connection with the sheet from which

it is taken. These three factors are then combined to give a part symbol which completely identifies the

article and is easy to locate in the standards without

reference to any index. The part symbol is made up

as follows

First, sheet number; which gives general

character.

Second, material symbol; Avhich gives I-R material specification number.

Third, part number; which gives size (or some

other third characteristic).

For instance, part symbol 20 A2 C335, in Avhich 20

A2 means American standard hex. head NC-2, semifinish machine bolt, C means I-R material specification

No. 175, carbon steel, and 335 means %-inch diameter

i)y 4 inches long.

Two distinct advantages of this part symbol system

are : First, that it does not require the assignment of

large blocks of part numbers from a master part

number list ; and second, the ability to make quick

and complete identification of parts. Some of the

work has been covered, but much remains to be done.

There is not time to go into such questions as methods

of enforcement, reduction in inventor}^ etc., l)ut we

believe that the plan we are working to has the prime

FAST SELVAGE TERRY TOWELS

The majority of manufacturers Avho have acceptetl

simplified practice recommendation R119-31, cover- ing fast selvage terry towels (turkish toAvels) have ex- pressed their intention to identify the simplified lines

in new catalogues and trade lists, according to information received b.y the division of simplified practice.

Bureau of Standards.

This simplification jirogram, which Avas ]iroposed

and developed by the industry, provides a simplified

list of six stock sizes of terry toAvels. Formerly 74

sizes Avere in use. The recommendation does not a])]Aly to special sizes made against jAarticular orders for

purposes other than stock, nor to sizes smaller than

16 by 30 inches or larger than 24 by 28 inches.

It is expected that identification of the sim])lified lines in trade literature Avill assist this industry in

maintaining close adherence to the waste elimination

jArogram, and that the cooperation of all interests in the industry will greatly increase the benefits and

economies possible through simplified practice. Several national associations rejiresenting users of simplivii-tues of flexibility, unified directing force, and real

l)lant team Avork. This does not mean, of course, that

Ave have not met with difficulties and objections, but

it is also true that the general degree of cooperative

sjAirit shoAvn has been high. Any commercial standard is a compromise, almost Avithout exception, involving sacrifice of personal preference in some cases. The objector frequently honestly believes that a standard tends to suppress initiative and progress. Obviously this is not true if a standard is kept up to date and the limits of its usefulness are thoroughly

recognized and agreed to. Certainly a standard is not intended to limit experience and change in their

})roper fields, but only to act as an established authority for present practice and to repress any unnecessary

indiAdduality.

Although the standardization idea is far from new,

it has undoubtedly receiA’ed much greater general

attention in the years since the World War than before. It has enemies as Avell as friends, and by some

people it is vieAved as an ominous bogey. It seems

proliable, hoAvever, that this viewpoint is largely the

result of the same handicap Avhich was once offered,

by a celebrated Englishman as an explanation of

his Avell-knoAvn antipathy for a certain contemporarA".

When asked if he Avas personally acquainted with the

object of his dislike, he replied, “ Of course I don’t

know him or I could not hate him as I do.”

No system or plan will run itself and will never be

any better than the people who try to operate according to it. In a small plant there is obviously no necessity for much of the formal procedure that is required

in a large and diversified products plant. In the

large and complicated organization, however, there

are a thousand unobtrusive Avays of losing money constantly Avhich a real standard system Avill largely re- duce. This has been so thoroughly demonstrated that

it is beyond argument. Every commercial organization exists principally to produce profit for someone and standardization has proven one of the most usefid agencies for that purpose to-day.

fied commodities have for some time strongly urged

that this ]Aolicy be adopted by manufacturers Avho ha\^e

accepted the various simplified practice recommendations. When the simplified items are so identified in trade literature their selection can be made Avithout

difficulty and often much Avaste noAV incurred in checking files and auxiliary records for this data is eliminated.

SOLDERS AND SOLDERING

In order to facilitate ansAvering many inquiries on

this subject, the Bureau of Standards has just issued an S-page mimeographed letter circular, LC343,

Solders and Soldering.

Three classes of solders are described, namely, soft

solders, hard solders (sirter and brazing), and aluminum solders. The composition and properties of each

are outlined together with the methods of application

and fluxes to be used, and a short bibliography folloAvs. Copies of this letter circular may be obtained

upon request to the Bureau of Standards.
OCTOBER. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 83

USE OF SPECIFICATIONS IN PURCHASING

County Official Reviews Value of Check Testing in Making Bulk Purchases and Certification in Minimizing

Expense of Testing

By W. R. COKTKIGHT^

The recognition of purchasing as a business function is the result of a slow and steady development

which started in the old industrial shops, where the

foreman or superintendent was also the buyer. Increased volume in latter years made it increasingly more difficult for one indiiddual to handle efficiently

both oiierating and management questions. The

monetary values involved, and the contradictory fact

that procurement of materials was formerly looked

upon as an unimportant incidental duty of those who

were to use the materials often led to transactions

which were not to the interest of the purchasing principal, due to lack of care on the part of the buyer or

to various forms of commercial bribery.

Evils in this field grew to such proportions as to

attract Federal regulation, and the situation was such

as to establish an unpleasant aroma in the popular

mind whenever purchasing was mentioned, especially

governmental purchasing. Peculiarly, this attitude

did not exist in regard to the complementary transaction of selling. There were some sincere and well

qualified buyers, but even they were handicapped by

the nonexistence of generally used specifications, by

restricted distribution, by limited advertising, and by

a scarcity of trade and technical publications.

For some time past there has been a steady trend

toward a more efficient handling of purchasing. The

formation of various groups of governmental and

industrial buyers into associations has been important,

and the formation of the National Association of

Purchase Agents in 1915 was an outstanding expression of this movement. All include in their purposes

the elevation of the moral and ethical standards of

those engaged in purchasing and the improvement of

the mode of operation.

Simultaneously the use of specifications has taken on a greatly added importance. For example, an

order calling for “ good ” coffee could be filled with a multitude of products and each product would find

somebody who thought it good. On the other hand,

a specification calling for a certain percentage of

stated kinds of coffee berries of a certain size can give

but one result. Such a specification recently permitted a buyer to enter claim and receive settlement

in the amount of several hundred dollars where the

coffee was “ good ” and was used, but was afterwards

found to be not equal to the detailed specification. In

other words, the specification was a definite statement

of what the seller had agreed to furnish and what the

buyer expected from the seller. With such a state- ment clearly formulated and expressed before start- ing the transaction and strictly adhered to in the completion of the transaction, there is little possibility

of chicanery or misunderstanding.

The jiroblem now commonly arises of preparing

proper sjDecifications or the selection of the right ones

1 Chief assistant purchasing agent, County of Los Angeles, Los

Angeles, Calif. 141752—32 2

from the large and diversified list already available

to those who are interested. The Federal Specifications Board and the Bureau of Standards have a very

complete list. There are numerous societies and trade

bodies which have established other such specifications

applying to certain lines of commodities, such as the

American Society for Testing Materials, the American Petroleum Institute, the various engineering societies, canning associations, etc. In addition, there

are many State specifications and State laws which

serve as specifications. Whether any of these established specifications are used or new ones are prepared

by the purchaser for his particular use, there are two

limits which must be observed: (1) They must be

adequate. Vendors may intentionally or unintentionally leave out essential qualities of a product if such qualities are not specified. They can not be

criticized for this as they are compelled to meet competition and may be justified in assuming that a vendor who uses the specification has included all elements required. (2) They must not be too comprehensive by including points which are not needed

or which can not be checked. Such an excess of specifications will either be a source of unnecessary additional expense or will lead to disregard by certain

bidders of the points which can not be checked, and

possibly some of the essential points.

The scope and detail of a specification should be

settled upon after consideration of the market in which

the purchase will be made and the volume involved.

An occasional purchase of two barrels of laundry

soap would probably be made from a local dealer's stock and it would be necessary to buy from among the

brands available locally, whereas a monthly purchase

of two carloads of soap for the same purpose would

justify a chemical specification and would attract quotations from manufacturers. The cost of checking

delivery by analysis would be the same in either case and would be entirely out of question in the case of two

barrels, but would be only an incidental expense of

inconsequential percentage when applied to the larger

purchase.

Whatever specification is adopted, it must be backed

by means for checking as to compliance by the vendor.

Specifications giving only the required performance

ai’e the simplest and the easiest to check; for exam]ile,

hack-saw blades, or carbon paper, or any commodities

which can be used and results determined at once. Other commodities do not lend themselves to this

method and must be covered by physical tests for

qualities which will be indicative of their ability to meet the required service. It is impossible to define

accuratel}^ and impractical to check accurately per- formance in service of a piece of cotton sheeting, but

a comjiarativety simple matter to state the thread

count, weight per square yard, and tensile strength

required. These characteristics will give a good indication of the service Avhich can be expected.
84 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932 An item regarding fiber of cotton used in the sheeting could be introduced but would add nothing to the

practical results and would possibly increase the cost. Other commodities lend themselves only to a chemical

specification while many others require a combination

of physical and chemical. A large tonnage of chute

steel or of steel piling would justify an inclusion of

both physical and chemical requirements and even the

inclusion of additional tests, depending upon usage

conditions, and not found in the standard specifications as issued by the Government or other organizations. In making use of and checking merchandise against

specifications, each buyer has four God-given allies in his senses of sight, feeling, taste, and smell. Valuable assistance can be obtained by the use of a yardstick, a micrometer, a magnifying glass, and a set of ordinary scales reasonably accurate in weighing up

to about 20 pounds. The frequent use of these tools

coupled with an extensive curiosity which is inherently part of the nature of a good buyer will assure the obtaining of good values. A connection should be

made with a reputable commercial laboratory or with some available educational laboratory for handling

CLINICAL THERMOMETERS

The printed revision of the Commercial Standard

for Clinical Thermometers is now available and for

sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 6 cents per copy. The standard has

been entirely rewritten by the industry with a view

toward clearer statement of methods of testing and more definite requirements.

This revision is designated CSl-32 and became

effective June 1, 1932.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Fifteen specifications were acted on by the Federal

Specifications Board during the month of September.

Of this number, six proposed specifications and nine

revisions have been sent out for official comment and

criticism. Copies of these specifications are available

in mimeographed form and further information can

be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board,

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New desig- nation Specifications proposed Old

F. S. B. No.

Aluminum bars, rods, shapes, and wire Aluminum-alloy; bars, rods, shapes, and wire (alumi- num-manganese)

Cement; Keene’s—..

Feathers.

Fire-alarm systems; electric, hand-operated, shunt-type. Screw drivers SPECIFICATIONS TO BE REVISED

C-m351 Ligatures, catgut, boilable 357 N-P-lOla Paste, office, and paste-brushes ....... . T-C-571 Cord, sash, cotton, braided 528 T-R-601 Rope, Manila 61b

T-T-881'a Twine, cotton, seine . MM-L-751,... Lumber and timber, softwood 533a GGG-B-671.._ Braces, ratchet 1 .... . . 416 GGG-G-521 Goggles, rubber-frame 542 GGG-H-131-. Hatchets 433

- - —

chemical tests and the more complicated physical and

performance tests. For the buyer who does not wish to handle the

checking of shipments against specifications there have

been established by the Bureau of Standards lists of

“ willing-to-certify ” manufacturers. The use of this

method in purchasing permits the buyer to take advantage of these established specifications without the

inconvenience or expense of testing, and is, of course, dependent upon the reliability of the manufacturer

giving the certification. However, the advantages and

benefits to be gained by this method of procedure are considerable and thoroughly justify its use wherever

applicable.

In this era of acute competition, there are many

vendors who are not as scrupulous as they should be

or who may even make unintentional mistakes. Frequently merchandise is offered which looks like a full dollar-for-dollar transaction and is sufficiently dis- counted to prove of interest to the buyer, whereas the

actual value may be only a few cents. The old saying

that “All that glitters is not gold ” was never more

true ; and adequate specifications and their use to their

full extent will assure all buyers of receiving maximum values for each taxpayer’s dollar spent.

REVISED PAMPHLET ON METRIC SYSTEM

ISSUED

A revision of a miscellaneous publication of the

Bureou of Standards, entitled, “ The International

Metric System of Weights and Measures,” has just

been issued. This publication, containing 13 pages,

presents a brief description of the international metric system of weights and measures. The purpose of

this publication is to give such information as will

adequately answer some of the more simple questions

addressed to the Bureau of Standards on this subject,

particularly those coming from educational institutions. The pamphlet sets forth a working knowledge of

the metric system, gives a brief account of its origin,

information concerning the International Bureau of

Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, France;

the international standards kept there, and the national prototype standards of the United States,

which are kept at the Bureau of Standards.

A synopsis of the metric system is given which

shows the derivation of the primary units, their in- terrelation one with another, the method of forming

the multiples and submultiples, the abbreviations

used, comparisons of the units with those of our cus- tomary system of weights and measures, and tables

of equivalents. The status of the metric system in

the United States is shown by citations of congressional enactments and departmental orders.

This publication (M135) is a revision of Miscellaneous Publication No. 2, entitled “ The International Metric System of Weights and Measures.” It may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., at 5 cents per copy. Circular No. 47, Units of

Weight and Measure, contains more extensive tables

and may be purchased from the Superintendent of

DocumentSj for 20 cents per copy.
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 85

UTILITY AND DURABILITY TESTS FOR TEXTILES

Fundamental Studies of Chemical and Physical Behavior of Fabrics Conducted at Bureau of Standards

By R. K. WoRNEE, Bureau of Standards

Textile studies at the Bureau of Standards are con- cerned with a variety of problems of interest to the consumer and to the manufacturer. They range from

studies of the ultimate nature of the fibers themselves,

through investigations of the relation of the yarn and

fabric construction and finish to the properties of the

finished fabric, and include studies of utilization,

storage, and maintenance. The development of

standard test methods for measuring the quality and

predicting the utility of yarns and fabrics for particular purposes is an essential part of this work.

This series of articles

deals briefly with some of

the studies in progress on

the development of fabrics

for specific uses and the re- sulting accomplishments.

Adequate test methods

are prerequisite to fundamental studies of the chemical and physical behavior

of textile fibers, yarns, and

fabrics, and to the evaluation of their utility or durability. The development

of new and better test methods is one of the most

important functions of the textile section of the

Bureau of Standards.

In the past, textile testing was usually limited to

tests for breaking strength, number of threads per

inch, weight per square yard, and the like. To-day,

however, it is generally recognized that although these

characteristics are a criterion of quality of cloth for some purposes, they may be only remotely, if at all, related to the value of cloth for other purposes. Accordingly, attention is directed first to a study of the

conditions to be met by the cloth in service, then to an

analysis of the characteristics which it is desirable to measure, and finally to the development of quantitative

tests for these characteristics.

For example, the suitability of cloth for many purposes is dependent upon its feel or “ handle.” We are

so accustomed to referring gliby to this characteristic

that its evaluation at first thought appears a simple

matter. A critical examination, however, shows that

“ handle ” depends upon several physical properties,

among them compressibility, stiffness, resilience,

smothness, thickness, and weight. Until recently,

there were no adequate methods for measuring all of

these properties. As a result of work at the Bureau

of Standards, methods are now available for measuring all of the characteristics of cloth that contribute

to its “ handle.”

A very sensitive “ flexometer ” has been developed

for the evaluation of stiffness and resilience of even

the finest silk fabrics. The re.sulting data can be

interpreted in terms of wrinkleability of the cloth. Since stiffness, resilience, and weight are the properties of a cloth that contribute to its ability to drape

well, this instrument offers a means for evaluating the

draping quality of different fabrics.

A simple method for specifying the slipperiness or smoothness of a fabric has also been devised. A block

covered with the fabric to be tested is simply placed on an inclined plane covered with a portion of the

fabric, and the coefficient of friction between the two

fabrics is determined. Slipperiness is desirable in

linings used in coat sleeves and in shoes. It is not

desirable in the backing of rugs. An ordinary thickness gage for measuring textile

fabrics consists essentially

of a fixed horizontal plate

called the anvil, and a movable upper plate called the

presser foot. The fabric to be measured is placed on

the anvil and the presser

foot lowered until it rests on the fabric. The thick- ness is then read directly

from a dial. The thickness

of a fabric depends upon

its elastic properties, and

the size, shape, and weight

of the presser foot. Since

the presser feet in different

instruments vary widely in these characteristics, it is obvious that thickness measurements of soft fabrics,

such as blankets, velvets, and carpets, made with different instruments are not comparable. Furthermore,

the rate of change of thickness of textiles with change

in load is not known, so that readings on one instrument can not be converted to those of another. A neAv gage has been constructed at the Bureau of Standards to measure the thickness of fabrics under varying loads. With it both the thickness and the pressure

are read directly. It furnishes a means also for evaluating the “ softness,” “ hardness,” and “ compressive

elasticity ” of fabrics.

The air permeability is a vital characteristic of

parachute cloth and must be held within a fairly

definite and narrow range. If the cloth is impermeable, it Avill not be able to resist the air px-essure when the parachute opens and Avill rupture. If the

cloth is too permeable, the descent will be too fast for

comfoi’t and safety. An apparatus has been developed which measures the amount of air passing

thi’oixgh a definite area of cloth in definite times at definite pressures. This apparatus is also usefxd for

determining the permeability of clothing fabrics,

Avhich has an important bearing on the selection of

clothing from the point of vieAV of comfort and

hygiene.

Warmth or the ability of fabrics either to I’etain or to transmit heat is another characteristic of intei’est from the stand]xoint of the health and comfort

of the individual. An appai-atus has been built to measure the amount of heat passing through fabrics

under definite controlled conditions. This apparaThis is the first of several articles describing

the activities of the textile section of the Bureau

of Standards. In these several articles the author

will describe the work of the textile section and

its relationship to the producing, distributing,

and consuming elements of the industry. This

month’s article explains the utility and durability

tests for textiles, in which is pointed out the

benefits derived from such tests by the ultimate consumer. The second article will appear in

the November issue of Commercial Standards

Monthly.
86 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

tus is being used in the study of underwear fabrics,

blankets, and outer clothing materials.

The average diameter of wool fibers is the characteristic on which is based the present system of classi- fication into commercial grades. It is the characteristic that largely determines the value of the fibers for manufacturing purposes. Commercial grading

is done by men of long experience in the industry who

merely observe and handle the wool. Until recently

there was no satisfactory mechanical method for

grading wool accurately without making a large

number of individual diameter determinations on sep- arate fibers. A simple optical instrument based on

the laws of diffraction has been designed which makes

it possible to measure the average diameter of a bundle of fibers directly and rapidly. The instrument, which is called an “ eriometer,” is small and

portable and should find wide application in both the

field and the laboratory.

To predict the utility of certain fibers, accelerated

aging tests that simulate as nearly as possible the

conditions that will be met by the fabric in service are necessary. A number of such tests have been

developed at the Bureau of Standards. It has been

found that by exposing silk to the radiation from a carbon-arc lamp for a few hours, results which are

in substantial agreement with those obtained by nat- ural aging for several months are obtained. This

makes it possible to predict the comjDarative life of

different silk fabrics. A cycle of treatments including light exposure, wetting and drying, and mechanical crumpling has been worked out for the laboratory

testing of waterproofed fabrics.

To test the endurance of sash cord, a machine has

been constructed which subjects the cord to the same

action that it would receive if a window were re- peatedly raised and lowered until the cord broke.

A comparison of the breaking strength and endurance of a large number of samples of sash cord showed

that the breaking strength is not a criterion of endurance. The strongest cord will not necessarily last the longest in service. The machine has been used

in a study of the relation between the type of construction and the kind of finishing materials on the

cord and its endurance.

A carpet wear testing machine has been designed

to simulate the effect of walking on carpets. Tests

of carpets made with the machine show good agree- ment with the known serviceability of the carpets.

This machine is being used for studies of the durability of carpets as related to the height of pile, the

quality of wool used for the pile, and the pile density.

The results should assist the manufacturer in making

the most serviceable rug for a given price, and the consumer in the selection of serviceable carpets and

rugs. One of the questions often arising in connection

with a fabric of unknown history or one submitted for

conformance to a certain Federal specification is “ Of

what is it made?” Generally, it is not sufficient to give the fiber composition qualitatively, which a microscopist can do readily. The quantity of each fiber,

the amount and nature of the finishing materials, and

the quality of the fiber are required. Attention is being given to the quantitative analysis of fabrics

containing several kinds of fibers. This involves the

refinement of methods for determining the amount of

sizing materials and methods for the quantitative

chemical separation of each different fiber from the

mixture.

Many silk fabrics contain tin and other metal salts which have been added to them in the processing in

order to increase the weight and modify the feel or draping quality. Methods have been worked out for

identifying the weighting material and determining

the amount present.

In general, it may be said that the Bureau of Standards is striving not only to improve existing methods,

but to devise methods of test for those characteristics

of textiles which are of the greatest importance to the user but which have not heretofore been evaluated

quantitatively and to apply these tests to the improvement and development of yarns and fabrics for particular purposes. From this brief outline it is evident

that substantial progress has been made.

COMMERCIAL LAUNDRY EXTRACTORS, TUMBLERS, AND WASHERS

The required degree of support by the industry has

been accorded simplified practice recommendations

R139-32, R140-32, RlIl-32, and R142-32, covering

commercial laundiy extractors, ironers, tumblers, and

washers, respectively. These recommendations, which

Avere proposed and developed by the industry under

the auspices of the Bureau of Standards, ivill be con- sidered effectUe as of October 1, 1932.

The simplified schedules for washers and tumblers

are concerned with the size, the type of drive, the

number of compartments, the number of cylinder

doors, and the number of vertical and horizontal partitions. The tumbler program also provides for the

method of heating. Types and diameters are con- sidered in the extractor recommendation, and sizes,

types, drii^e, and method of heating are contained in

the flatwork ironer program.

GRINDING WHEELS AND COATED ABRASIVE

PRODUCTS

The proposed revisions of simplified practice rec- ommendations R45-32, and R89-32, covering grinding

wheels and coated abrasive products, respectively, have

been accorded the required degree of support by the

industrjn

In the latest revision of the grinding wheel recom- mendation, the third since the recommendation was

formulated and developed by the industry in 1925,

the tables listing standard wheels of various types are rearranged to facilitate the selection of any particular

wheel. New wheel sizes also have been added.

The present changes made in the coated abrasii^e

products recommendation as well as those made in the

grinding wheel recommendation were necessary to meet current needs of the consumer. Both of these

revised schedules are to be effective as of October 1, 1932.
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 87

TONS AND TONNAGE

Modern Usage Traced to Medieval “ Tun ” of Wine

Many people may wonder what is meant when they

read that the Leviathan^ the greatest ship under the

American flag, a ship which at one time had the greatest tonnage of any sli^p in the world, has a rating of

“ more than 59,000 tons.” Does this mean the weight

of the vessel, either empty or fully loaded? Or is there some special significance to this expression, only

indirectly, perhaps, associated with weight? Or,

turning to a different field, it may be a surprise to many to knoiv that in certain places in the United

States a legal ton of coal represents 12 per cent more

than it does in most places and that this oversized ton

is likewise the basis for the collection of certain important Federal revenues. An understanding of the numerous meanings of the

ex^iressions “ ton ” and “ tonnage ” is essential for an

intelligent interpretation of commercial statistics or

the conduct of large-scale commercial transactions,

particularly when these involve ships and water ship- ments. It is unfortunate that there exists a considerable diversity in the specialized meaning of these

terms, yet many of the usages are so well established

that there appears to be little basis for the hope that

any substantial simplification can be effected. As a unit of weight, the ton is the modern counter- part of the large weight units which have had cur- rency from time to time in various countries throughout the world. Many of these units have been con- siderably greater than present-day tons, and some

have been less. For example, expressing their approximate equivalents in terms of our “ short ” ton

of 2,000 pounds, it is found that the Persian “ Kara ” equaled G.2 tons; the “ garsah ” of Southern India,

5.1 tons; the “ sau man” of Northern India, 4.1 tons; the Danish “last,” 2.9 tons; the Swedish “last,” 2.7 tons; the “Livorno last” of Italy, 2.1 tons; the Norwegian “ last ” of butter, 1.5 tons ; the “ ton ” of

Pernambuco, Portugal, 1.1 ton; both the Prussian

“ ton ” and the Spanish “ ton,” 1 ton ; and the “ shipping ton ” of Portugal 0.9 ton. In the United States our tons, like our other cus- tomary units of weight and measure, are a heritage

from England. During the reign of Edward I of

England (1272-1307) the ton of 2,000 pounds, consisting of 20 “ hundredweights ” of 100 pounds each, was in use. The relation of 20 hundredweights to the ton seems generally to have been maintained, but

the value of the hundredweight has not been constant. A century ago a ton of 2,400 pounds—20 hundredweights of 120 pounds each—was recognized in tlie canal trade of England, and was known as “ longweight.” The ton of 2,240 pounds is now very generally used in Great Britain; this consists of twenty

112-pound hundredweights, each of which represents

eight “ stones ” or units of 14 pounds. There is also

the Cornish mining ton of 2,352 pounds which coinprises 21 hundredweights of 112 pounds each ; this

has only a restricted use, however.

In the United States the 2,240-]iound ton and the

2,000-pound ton have been in use from early Colonial

daj's, although it was not until early in the nineteenth

century that the latter began to come into general use

;

since that time, however, this “ short ” or “ net ” ton

has gradually displaced the long ton and is now very

generally used. It is of interest to note that the

2,000-pound ton is now also finding favor in various

portions of the British Empire, being legal in Canada,

the Union of South Africa, and Australia.

The long ton of 2,240 pounds, also knoAvn as the

“ gross ” or “ shippers ” ton, is used in this country by

the Federal Government in the assessment of import

duties and in the purchase of coal for Government use

in the District of Columbia. This ton has likewise

been specifically legalized, or specified for particular

uses, by several of the States, alfhough recently some

of these statutes have been repealed ; it is still required

in Delaware and the District of Columbia that when

coal is sold by the ton it be sold by the long ton. The “metric ” ton, consisting of 1,000 kilograms and

equivalent to 2,204.6 pounds, is of very considerable

importance, being regularly used in countries employing the metric system of weights and measures. Before leaving the subject of the ton as exclusively a weight unit, mention ma}^ be made of the very special

“ assay ” ton, a unit of 29^6 grams, which contains the same number of milligrams as there are troy ounces

in a 2,000-pound ton; the number of milligrams of

precious metal recovered in assaying a sample of one

assay ton of ore represents the richness of the ore in

troy ounces per short ton. In connection with ships and ship cargoes Ave find

that both the long ton (2,240 pounds) and the metric

ton (1,000 kilograms, or 2,204.6 pounds) are used, but

the use is usually in connection Avith some form of

“ tonnage ” Avhich is expressed in terms of the units

mentioned. At the same time there are other varieties of tonnage expressed in terms of “ tons ” Avhich are exclusively units of cubic measure. The histor}’- of ship tonnage goes back to the Middle

Ages. It Avas pointed out in a recent article on this

subject by Commissioner Arthur J. Tyrer, of the

Bureau of Navigation of the Department of Conimei’ce, that the necessities of King Henry V of England (1416-1423) in connection Avith the collection of

taxes Avere perhaps the incentive Avhich hnally re- sidted in the establishment of a fixed method b}^

Avhich the carrying capacity of vessels Avas to be

reckoned. Henry V had fixed the standard size of a

“ tun ” of Avine at 252 Avine gallons; these casks (tuns)

occupied a space of about 42 cubic feet and Aveighed

approximately 2,240 pounds. It Avas decreed that the

number of tuns Avhich a vessel could carry should be

her “ tunnage,” from Avhich, by a change of spelling,

AA-e arriA’e at the “ tonnage ” of to-day. Commissioner

Tyrer pointed out the interesting fact in this connection that King Henry established his tax rate as 1 tun for each 10 tuns of Avine carried bj" a vessel. The relation of 42 cubic feet ])cr ton of 2,240 pounds

A’aried from time to time after its establishment, but in principle this Avas adhered to up to the dcA’clopment

in 1835, of the “ iieAv measurement rules ” upon Avhich

the tonnage of the British NaA-y Avas based. Nineteen
88 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY

years later the “ register ” ton of 100 cubic feet became

the standard for merchant vessels, as noted below.

Modern usage in relation to ships recognizes sev- eral varieties of tonnage. For merchant vessels these

may be classified as follows

1. “ Gross tonnage,” or “ gross register tonnage,” is the total cubical capacity of a ship expressed in

“register” tons of 100 cubic feet (2.83 cubic meters),

less such space as hatchways, bakeries, galleys, etc., as are exempted from measurement by different governments. The mathematical formulas by which leading maritime nations have agreed to comxiute the gross

tonnage were devised by George Moorsom, of England, in 1852, at which time the English Government

revised its method of measuring and registering vessels. These rules were incorporated in the English

shipping laws in 1854 and were subsequently adopted

by other nations. There is some lack of uniformity

in the gross tonnages as given by different nations on

account of lack of agreement on the spaces that are

to be exempted.

The exemptions result in a gross tonnage short of

the real gross capacity. In 1873 an International

Tonnage Commission formulated a special set of rules

for the Suez Canal in order to secure figures that

approximated more closely the real capacity. Another

special set of rules made necessary by the present

variations in ship construction was put into local

effect when the Panama Canal was opened.

2. The “ net tonnage,” or “ net register tonnage,”

is the gross tonnage less certain additional spaces

specified by maritime nations in their measurement

rules and laws. The spaces that are so deducted are those totally unavailable for carrying cargo, such as the engine room, coal bunkers, crew’s quarters, chart

and instrument room, etc. The net tonnage is the basis for tonnage dues, wharf

charges, and other commercial charges. Statistics

of entrances and clearances to ports are likewise in

terms of the net tonnage.

3. The “ register under-deck tonnage ” is the

cubical capacity of a ship under her tonnage deck

expressed in register tons.

4. The “ displacement tonnage,” or “ light displacement tonnage,” is the weight, expressed in long or in

metric tons, of a vessel with crew and supplies on

board, but before any fuel, cargo, or passengers have

been taken on. “ Loaded displacement tonnage ” is the weight of a vessel Avhen she is loaded to her maximum draft line ; that is, to the safety line of loading

;

“ actual displacement tonnage ” is her weight as she

is equipped and loaded at any particular time. Displacement tonnage may also be considered in terms of

the \mlume of water displaced by a A-essel. A vessel

Avill displace a ton of water for each ton of her

weight; 2,240 pounds of sea water has a volume of

approximately 35 cubic feet, while the corresponding

figure for fresh Avater is 36 cubic feet. Displacement

tonnage is computed from the dimensions and the

shape of the submerged portion of a vessel’s hull,

using the proper conversion factor for the Aveight

per cubic foot of the Avater so “ pushed aside ” by the

floating ship. Dis]ilacement tonnage as such is of

only secondary importance with respect to merchant

vessels.

OCTOBER, 1932 j

I 5. The “ dead weight tonnage ” is the difference be- i tAveen the “ loaded ” and “ light ” displacement ton- j nages of a vessel. It is expressed in terms of the long ! ton or of the metric ton, and is the weight of fuel, i jjassengers, and cargo that a vessel can carry when | loaded to her maximum draft. The term is applied j to ore vessels and A^essel load lots of commodities, and ' knoAvledge of the dead Aveight tonnage of a vessel en- j ables owner or charterer to determine, within certain ; limits, the quantity of any particular commodity . | which the vessel can carry. The term is of rare appli- | cation to express steamers, or vessels operated in a ! general freight service. '

6. The term “ measurement ton ” refers to cargo I space in a vessel, and is a unit of 40 cubic feet. Much

ocean freight is shipped as measurement cargo. ; Ocean freight rates are based on this unit; if a com- modity requires more than 40 cubic feet for a long ton,

the freight is paid according to the space occupied; : if the commodity has such a density that less than 40

cubic feet are required for a long ton, the freight is charged according to the actual Aveight.

The “ tonnage ” of a merchant vessel, as the term is I ordinarily used, means tonnage in terms of register ! tons of 100 cubic feet, because earning capacity is a j characteristic of prune importance for merchant ships. i When it is learned, therefore, that the “ tonnage ” of j the Leviathan is in excess of 59,000, it is meant, not i that she Aveighs a certain amount, but that her cubical

capacity is nearly 6,000,000 cubic feet.

j With respect to war vessels the factor of importance i is their displacement tonnage, and this expression is j almost exclusively used in connection with such vessels.

j “ Loaded ” and “ actual ” displacement tonnage mean | the same in the case of a war vessel as in the case of a ; merchant vessel, but another term, “ normal displace- | ment tonnage,” which is never applied to a merchant

vessel, has the special meaning Avith respect to Avar

vessels of displacement tonnage when the ship is fully ’ equipped and manned. When the term “ displace- i ment ” is used without qualification with respect to a

j war A^essel, “ normal displacement ” is meant. This ; rating differs in different countries because of varying j alloAvances for stores, etc. j “ The accurate measurement of a merchant vessel is j A"ery important,” said Commissioner Tyrer in the : article previously mentioned. “ On these measure- ' ments are based canal tolls, tonnage taxes, dry dock- i age, and port charges of all kinds both in our OAvn I ports and in those of foreign countries. For this I reason, it can be seen that an accurate and fair de- j termination of tonnage is important in the profitable

j operation of a merchant A^essel. I “ It is sometimes difficult to determine the cubical content of a vessel because it can not be ascertained i simply b,y multiplying her length, breadth, and depth.

j A ship has numerous curves and variations of all ; kinds and an accurate determination of her cubical j contents can be ascertained only through geometric j; calculations based on parabolic curves. This very !' highly technical work, as far as the American mer- j- chant marine is concerned, is under the supervision of l! the Bureau of Navigation. In the measurements di- | vision of the bureau, a large number of technical men ji are working at A^arious points throughout the ji country.” j
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 89

STANDARD QUALITIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

Preparation of Specifications for Lubricants and Other Oils from Results of Tests by the Bureau

of Standards

By H. C. Dickinson, Bureau of Standards

Among the many commodities with which the re- search and testing work of the Bureau of Standards

is concerned are petroleum and its products.

The mining and refining of petroleum oil are cov- ered by the' Bureau of Mines, while the properties and

utilization of its products are within the field of the

Bureau of Standards. Among the various projects

which relate to petroleum the following may be of

interest. Petroleum oils are recovered from the earth in a crude form containing various percentages of a great

many individual substances known as hydrocarbons.

These are made up, as their name implies, of varying

chemical combinations of hydrogen and carbon. They

vary in composition and in physical properties ail the way from methane or marsh gas, the simplest of

them, to the very complex heavy substances which

make up gear transmission oils, paraffin wax, and

petroleum. For several years the Bureau of Standards has been making a very careful analysis of the

various pure hydrocarbons which constitute petroleum. For this purpose, the pure compounds must

be separated one by one from the crude oil by methods

which are the last word in accuracy and ingenuity.

Of the many thousands of these compounds only 24

have yet been obtained in a pure state, but these are among the most important.

Among all the products of petroleum, gasoline or motor fuel is probably familiar to the greatest number of people. Some 30,000,000 people purchase supplies of it at frequent intervals. About 10 years ago

the Bureau of Standards, in cooperation with the

petroleum refiners and the builders of motor vehicles,

undertook a continuous research to maintain the most

economic relation between the qualities of motor fuels

and the current requirements of motor vehicles. Various questions have arisen during this time. First,

it was found, contrary to expectation, that the heaviest

or “ poorest ” gasoline which could be used was the

most economical, and for several years this knowledge

resulted in important savings to the public. Dilution

of oil in the crank case by unvaporized fuel, however,

placed a limit on the fuels which could be used. A

study of this problem furnished information on the

basis of which engines were so designed to avoid this

trouble, which now has practically disappeared.

The starting of engines in cold weather has always

been a problem. The research project covered this

point and showed exactly what qualities in the gasoline were necessary to start an engine at any particular temperature. With this information at hand the

refiners have been able to supply fuels in winter and

in summer from Florida to Montana, which are so well adjusted to the particular weather conditions

where they are used that starting troubles are no

longer serious except under very extreme conditions.

But gasoline which starts easily may be so volatile

as to give trouble by boiling in the fuel line in very

hot weather. A study of this subject has shown what

sort of gasoline to use at any particidar temperature

in a given motor car, and also how the fuel lines of

the car can be so designed as to minimize trouble from

“ vapor lock,” which is the term used for bad engine

performance resulting from overheated fuel. The latest problem, still in progress, with the assist- ance of many laboratories of the oil and automobile

companies, has to do with fuel knock. High compression engines require special fuels and it has been

necessary to find a means of testing, and evaluating

such fuels. A suitable test method has been devised

and is in general use, but it is as yet not fully

perfected.

Lubricants for most purposes are produced from

petroleum. The Bureau of Standards has been called

upon by other Government departments to assist in

preparing suitable specifications for petroleum lubri- cants for many uses. The Bureau of Standards has been studying the various properties of lubricating oils for the past 10 years

or more and has only begun to find out a few of the

important facts about them. Recently a new set of

specifications for automobile crank case oils has been

proposed which may further assist the purchaser.

Such reliable information as is available may be had

in the form of letter circulars. Such other petroleum

products as fuel oils, kerosene, greases, and cleaningfluids are tested by the Bureau of Standards for purchase on Federal specifications by other departments.

These tests, however, are mainly of a routine nature

and are performed only on request of Government

departments with the following exceptions

:

One of the important problems in the testing of

petroleum products is the maintenance of uniformity

among all the various laboratories concerned. This

is required in order that the refiner supplying material on contract may know with certainty from his own

tests whether the material will meet the Government

tests. To assist in maintaining this uniformit3L the

Bureau of Standards makes check tests of petroleum

products submitted b}^ other testing laboratories for

purposes of comparison. In case of disagreement between laboratories the Bureau of Standards ma}'^ make

referee tests on the request of both parties to the

controversy.

Another service which is important to the petroleum

industry is the maintenance of standards of vdscosity

and the testing of commercial viscosimeters for use in

other laboratories. The bureau also certifies and dis- tributes samples of oil of known viscosity which are designed for the standardization of viscosimeters, or

if desired tests a small sample from a larger batcli

retained by another laborator^^ as a viscosity standard.

Motor fuels, lubricating oils, and other petroleum

products are usually bought and sold on the basis of

measured volume. It is important, therefore, that ac- curate information and equipment be available for
90 COMMEBCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

determining volume with satisfactory commercial ac- curacy. Because of the fact that the volume of petroleum products changes with temperature it is necessary, especially where large volumes are involved, to reduce measured volumes to a standard temperature,

and in order for this to be done correctly, accurate knowledge of the rate of expansion of various petroleum products is required. In order to obtain this

necessary information extensive investigations were

carried out by the Bureau of Standards and from

the results obtained volume correction tables were

prepared which have been widely accepted by the

petroleum oil industry.

Through its testing laboratories and through the

activities of the National Conference on Weights and

Measures, the Bureau of Standards has also taken an active part in the testing and certifying of correct measuring equipment, and in the development of adequate specifications and tolerances for such equipment.

Through cooperation with the American Petroleum

Institute the bureau has assisted in the development

of an extensive series of standards for use in oil production equipment. These standards include threaded

connections for well casing, drill pipe, sucker rods,

and other necessary equipment. Master gages have

been prepared for these standardized threaded connections, and by reference to these, complete interchangeability of parts is brought about, and much of the

former confusion and nonassembly of parts have been

overcome. There have been compiled by the division of specifications of the Bureau of Standards, lists of sources of supply of Stoddard solvent and domestic and in- dustrial fuel oils guaranteed to comply with the re- quirements of commercial standards Nos. 3-28 and

12-29. These lists, which now contain the names of

37 and 51 willing-to-certify firms, are sent to Federal,

State, county, and municipal purchasing agents and

given the widest possible distribution, use being made

of every available channel for such distribution.

There have also been compiled by the division of

specifications, an index with brief outline of all nationally recognized specifications, including those for pe- troleum and petroleum products, which index has been

given publicity as the National Directory of Commodity Specifications, the second edition of which has

just come olf the presses of the Government Printing

Office. In the volume of the Encyclopedia of Nonmetallic Minerals and Their Products, which was issued

by the Bureau of Standards in 1930, were reproduced

the substance of every nationally recognized specification then available for petroleum and petroleum

products.

The bureau’s division of trade standards has played

a conspicuous part in bringing the petroleum industry

together for the establishment of definite nationallyrecognized specifications for two of its products. Several years ago the cleaning and dyeing industry was

experiencing difficulty in obtaining uniform drycleaning petroleum naphthas and their problem was

presented to the Bureau of Standards. Through the

regular procedure of the division of trade standards,

conferences were arranged which included the refiners

and users of this product and which finally led to the

adoption and acceptance of a commercial standard

specification for dry-cleaning naphtha generally re- ferred to as Stoddard solvent, commercial standard

CS 3-28. This specification includes flash point, cor- rosion properties, distillation range, and other important characteristics of this material, together with

definite test methods.

This definite specification enables the dry cleaner to purchase a solvent of limited fire hazard with the

nroper drying characteristics and other attributes that

he requires and b}^ the same token the producer can

furnish a product the satisfaction of wffiich he can thoroughly guarantee.

With the increase in the use of oil as a domestic

fuel, the manufacturers of oil-burning equipment be- came confronted with the complaints which quite

frequently resulted from the use of oil unsuited to the burner on hand. Accordingly the manufacturers

of oil burners, through their trade association, drafted

a preliminary specification for several grades of fuel

oil that were aclapted to the several types of burners on the market.

Under the auspices of the division of trade standards, the oil-burner manufacturers were brought into

conference with the fuel-oil refiners, distributors, and

users and there adopted a specification known as “Domestic and Industrial Fuel Oils, Commercial

Standard CS12—29.” This standard sets definite limitations on the flash point, water and sediment, pour

point, distillation range, and viscosity of three grades

of domestic and three grades of inclustrial fuel oils. The commercial standard oils are numbered from 1 to 6 and in this manner the oil-burner manufacturers

can definitely recommend one particular grade of oil with assurance that it Avill give satisfactory results. The consumer can purchase the desired oil merely by

reference to the number and without reference to

specific gravity, color, and other extended details. Confusion is eliminated between the distributor

and the refiner of fuel oils, and the industr}^ as a whole

benefits by a better understanding of each other and

their mutual problems.

NEW CANADIAN STANDARD ANNOUNCED

An established list covering cap screws (hexagon,

flat, oval, fillister, and button heads), set screws and

studs, and common and semifinished, slotted and

castellated hexagon nuts, has just been announced by

the Canadian Engineering Standards Association.

These lists cover (1) milled from the bar or coldheaded products, with rolled or cut threads, and with

slotted or unslotted heads; and (2) hexagon nuts. These lists are primarily for the guidance of designing engineers, draftsmen, purchasing agents and

the industi'y generally, and give a range which should

be sufficient for all practical puiqooses.

The preparation of this standard was under the

direction of a special committee of the association,

under a subcommittee organized in January, 1930, to deal specifically with cap and set screws, studs and

hexagon nuts. In the preparation of the standard

the report of the National Screw Thread Commission

of 1928 (United States) and the standards of the

Society of Automotive Engineers for 1931 (United

States) were carefully considered.
OCTOBER. 1932 COMMERCIAL STAXDAEDS MONTHLY 91

CANADIAN ENGINEERING STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Secretary of Association Reviews Electrical Standardization in Canada

By B. Stuart McKenzie^

The value of standardization in the electrical field becomes more apjiarent as the work progresses and

the Canadian Engineering Standards Association continues to exert efforts in this field. The Canadian Electrical Code, Part I, the second

edition of which was issued in January, 1930, is proving of great benefit in the standardization of electrical rules throughout Canada, and in assisting the different

provincial and mimicixial electrical inspection departments to work on a uniform basis. The province of

Xew Brunswick in 1931 passed legislation officialh' adopting the Canadian Electrical Code and it is ex- pected that a provincial inspection department will

be orgamzed. It is interesting to report that electrical contractors and electrical workers have endorsed the

action of the Goverament and have asked that this

inspection department be established at the earliest

possible date. The C. E. S. A. provincial code committee in this province has been very active in an educational campaign with particular reference to haz- I ards involved in electrical installations and have put on special dis^ilays at local fall exhibitions. The code

is now adopted in all Provinces in Canada except

Manitoba. In ^Manitoba a provincial power commission has been organized on lines similar to those 1 adopted by the Ontario Hvdro-Electric Power Commission and it is hoped that before long this province

will also adopt the code.

The electrical code committee of the C. E. S. A.

held a meeting in September, 1931, in Toronto, to consider proposed revisions to the code, and it was at

first suggested that a supplement to the present edition be issued in preference to an entire new edition.

As a result of the discussion at the meeting, however,

it was finally decided to postpone official action until

1933 when it is proposed to issue an entire new edition. In the ineantime the revisions recommended at i the meeting have been incorporated in the C. E. S. A.

Bulletin for December 31. 1931. This was done for

the benefit of inspection departments and it was understood that these were recommendations only and

they have not been finally approved by the C. E. S. A.

committee as official code revisions.

The work on Part II of the Canadian Electrical

Code, covering approvals specifications for electrical

apparatus, is being continued and draft specifications

covering electric signs, electrical ecpiipment for oil- burning apparatus, inclosed switches, service-entrance

and branch circuit breakers, electric clocks and portable electrical displays and incandescent lamp signs,

have been prepared. The specification for radio was

published in March. 1932. Comments from many

sources on the specifications for electric signs, electrical ecpiipment for oil-burning apparatus, circuit

breakers, and electric clocks have been received and a memorandum lias been distributed to those interested.

The drafting of these various specifications is under

the direction of a special committee on specifications

1 Seci-etary. Canadian Engineering Standards Association,- Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada.

and copies of the drafts are sent to interested manufacturers for their comment, every effort being made

to cooperate as closely as possible with them.

In connection with Part III of the Canadian Electrical Code, covering outside wiring rules, the four

sections covering overhead systems, underground

systems, inductive coordination, and conductive co- ordination are making progress. Questions dealing

with grounding under both outside and inside conditions are now being handled by the C. E. S. A.

grounding committee. The chairman of this committee has been added to the correlating subcommittee, which is directly supervising this work.

In connection with overhead systems, discussion has

been most active on the question of safety factors in

construction. IVith reference to inductive coordination, general principles and practices are being studied

and special consideration given to radio interference.

It is probable that a conference may be called to dis- cuss this particular question with different inspection

departments and interested manufacturers. Data are being collected on the efficiency of grounding methods,

and the committee is cooperating closely with water

works interests with reference to the use of water

piping systems for grounding purposes. In connection with conductive coordination the question of

electrolysis is being studied.

A specification for ]iower transformers is still under

consideration, and it is hoxied to have this issued in

the near future. This will probably include information covering standardization of transformer bushings and up-to-date information on terminal clear- ances. Eor transformer and switch oils, a draft

sjiecification has now been prepared and is being con- sidered by a special committee. The committee which was formed to consider specifications for lead-covered

]DOwer cable has held its first meeting and has decided

to enlarge the scope and consider insulated j)0’5^er

cable in general. A s^iecial committee to draft a sp>ecification is now at Avork, and a rejDort on paper-insulated, lead-coA'ered cable has been jrrepared.

Revisions to the C. E. S. A. specifications for

alternating-current watt-hour meters and a proposed

i neAv sx>ecification for demand meters has been under

consideration during the A'ear by the C. E. S. A. committee, also by the meter committee of the Canadian

Electrical Association. A comxM’chensive summary

of comments was sent out and meetings to consider

final draft were held in Toronto in March and April.

Additional inteiq^retations of electrical code rules have

been ]mblished during the year in the C. E. S. A.

bulletin and have been reprinted in the technical

press. The relations of the C. E. S. A. Avith electrical

manufacturers and contractors haA’e continued to be

most cordial, and the electrical industry in general

has continued its generous supjAort of the association

by sub-scriptions to its budget. This has been all the more encouraging in the light of the industrial deX^ression Avhich has x^revailed during the year.
92 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932 SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE IN CALIFORNIA

Dr. Julius Klein, Assistant Secretary of Commerce,

in a recent address, made the following statement on

the value of simplified practice

Simplified practice is the policy of limiting varieties of any

given manufactured article to such convenient minimum as

will satisfy ali normal and reasonable demands. Within 10 years it has attained a wide and beneficent application in American industry. Machinery has been set up tor voluntary

self-government in business on a large scale, designed to mobilize an effective attack on costly wastefulness—on the extravagance of variety in common utilitarian things, such

as bricks, hardware, steel, lumber, and countless other products, but leaving unimpaired the desirable shifting of style, the free play of artistic novelty in matters of appeai’ance,

ornament, and individuality of taste. Simplification in industry does not mean in the least destruction of style. Simplified practice offers one of the best means by which

business cau accomplish its necessary task of getting down

costs of finished goods to levels that will place them within

reach of temporarily reduced buying power.

Simplified practice is just a rational, appealing, carefully

devised plan to save money and promote good business. Since October, 1929, the California State Chamber

of Commerce has cooperated with the United States

Department of Commerce in promoting simplified

practice in California. This work has had the active

assistance of such representative trade organizations

and groups as : Purchasing Agents Association, Pacific

Coast Electrical Association, Foundry Associations,

Clay Products Institute, Reinforcing Steel Institute,

Structural Steel Institute, and the Industrial Accident Commission.

In a recent report the California State Chamber of

Commerce discloses some of the results obtained in

specific commodity fields. Simplified invoice.—Investigations by the State

chamber of commerce showed that as many as 30 different types and sizes of invoices were received in one day by individual concerns, and that considerable sav- ing could be made by general use of the national simplified invoice. The State chamber, with the cooperation of the Purchasing Agents Association, recom- mended and sponsored adoption of this standard by

California concerns, and 145 industries of the State

have adopted this standard. Recent action by the

railroads of the country requiring the use of the simplified invoice as a definite saving of time and expense

has given considerable impetus to the adoption of this

standard in California and elsewhere. The national

groups who initiated this waste elimination measure

have estimated that national savings should result which would exceed $15,000,000 a year. Estimated on a comparative basis of value of manufactured products as reported in the 1929 census, this represents an annual

saving to California business and industry of $670,500.

Reinforcing steel.—California reinforcing steel dealers were handling 23 sizes of reinforcing steel,

while in the East only 11 sizes were carried. The

local industries were suffering from intense competition. The California State Chamber of Commerce

brought all of these industries together and recom- mended adoiition of the 11 national standard sizes,

which was accepted unanimously and made effective in California on August 1, 1931, with the support of all 16 plants. This simplification has resulted in a substantial reduction in inventories of stocks carried, ac- companied by an appreciable decrease in handling

charges, and, at the same time, satisfactorily meeting

every requirement of the trade.

The committee, in reporting on the benefits of this

standard, stated that this reduction in the number of

sizes of reinforcing steel will mean that approximately $300,000 less capital will be tied up in inventory per year as compared with the former practice

involving 33 sizes and 3 grades of reinforcing steel. This does not include the saving to the steel mills in

inventory or in operation.

Common hrich.—California manufacturers of com- mon brick were experiencing difficulty in marketing

their product. It was found that 12 different sizes of common brick were made in this State. The State

chamber recommended one size which has now been

adopted by 29 out of 31 leading manufacturers. The

committee reported that the adoption of this standard

has. lessened difficulties in present-day construction,

increased the possibility of masonry design to the

most practical value, and lowered costs of production

and ultimate saving to the consumer.

Pole-line hardware and packages.—In response to an urgent request from local industries, the State

chamber enlisted the active cooperation of the Pacific

Coast Electrical Association to initiate the simplification of pole-line hardware and packages in California.

As a result, California users have adopted as standards 17 items of pole-line hardware, representing approximately 60 per cent of the types used. Twelve

items formerly used have been abandoned. A list of

85 items has been reduced to 53, or a reduction of 37.6

per cent. Fifty-six standard packages for various

items of pole-line hardware have been adopted, which

completes the major work on packages.

The committee has reported the following benefits to the manufacturer, jobber, and consumer:

The adoption of standard packages results in easier handling, greater storing facilities, simplifying of inventories, less need for breaking standard packages to fill small mail orders

as the standard packages now adopted contain a smaller quantity than some of the old types of packages.

It is estimated that this simplification of pole-line hardware

and packages will result in an annual saving of $700,000 to the electrical industry of California. New projects under consideration.—A number of

suggestions for new projects have recently been re- ferred to special committees for careful study and

recommendation on projects that would prove beneficial to California business and industry. These in- clude the following: Manhole frames and covers; uniform markings on valves and fittings; purchase

order form ; valves and valve gages ; standard size for

bolts, nuts, and construction wrench openings as well

as standard packages for set screws and cap screws. During the past fiscal year the California State

Chamber of Commerce accomplished 88 per cent of

its objective in 10 projects of simplified practice.

Three hundred California concerns participated in

the State chamber’s program by acceptance and application of simplified practice recommendations beneficial to their respective industries.

Leading group representatives report that this application of simplified practice and elimination of waste

will normally result in benefits to business and industry in California of approximately $10,000,000 a year.
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STARTDAEDS MONTHLY 93

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Elaborate Test Program Under Way on Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

The elaborate and comprehensive test program for

studying corrosion of nonferrous metals and alloys

which is being carried out by the American Society for

Testing Materials, is supported by many of the leading companies of the country. It has been estimated

that over the past five years during which extensive

tests have been performed and preparations made for

the unparalleled series of exposure tests now under

way, these companies have contributed more than

$175,000 in the form of materials, special testing equipment, labor, and funds.

The active support of this work and the expense in- volved is indicative of its impoi’tance alike to con- sumers and producers of nonferrous metals. Annual

losses from corrosion run into millions of dollars. As

a result of the program new data on various metals

and alloys will result to enable this loss to be materially reduced. About 23,000 test specimens are being used in various phases of the work. Of these,

13,000 are in the form of standard tension test specimens, each carefully machined and finished. The re- maining 10,000 are in various forms depending on the

type of test. The most extensive program is that sponsored by

the subcommittee on atmospheric corrosion. These

exposure tests will extend over a period of 25 years

and involve the use of the greater part of the 23,000

specimens. Twenty-four different metals and alloys are being tested. The amount of corrosion undergone

by each metal and alloy is to be measured in two ways

:

(1) Determining the change in weight of plate speci- mens and (2) determining the loss in strength and

ductility by means of tension tests. An investigation of the films of corrosion products

which form on the various metals and alloys will be

conducted by the division of metallurgy of the Bureau

of Standards. It is anticipated that this study will

yield valuable information regarding the formation

and character of protective and nonprotective films. The materials are exposed in the form of plates 9 by

12 inches, 0.035 inch thick and tension test specimens

of the same materials machined to conform with the

standard A. S. T. M. specimen for sheet materials.

The surfaces of the plates and tension test specimens were left in the original condition as received from

the rolling mills and given no special preparation

other than to remove with benzine, ether, and alcohol

all traces of the rolling mill lubricants. There are four plate specimens of each material exposed at each

test location, two designated as “ removable,” two as

“ permanent.” Thirty tension test specimens of each

material under test are also exposed at each test location. In addition, an extra set of 30 tension test speci- mens of each mateiual was prepared and placed in

air-tight gla.ss containers and stored at the Bureau of

Standards.

At various times during the 25-year period the two

“ removable ” plate specimens of each material will

be taken from their racks and returned to the Bureau

of Standards for inspection and weighing. The cor- roded plate specimens will be weighed just ,as they

are received from the test racks Avithout attempting

to remove any surface deposits or films of corrosion

products. A set of six tension test specimens of

each material Avill also be remoA^ed from the racks

and tested to determine their tensile strength and

elongation. At the same time six tension test speci- mens of each material Avill be removed from the set stored in the air-tight containers at the Bureau of

Standards and their tensile properties determined co- incidentally with the specimens Avhich have been cor- roded in the atmosphere. These latter tests must be

made in order to determine Avhat changes may have

taken place in the physical properties of the materials through simple aging so that allowances can

be made for such changes in interpreting the tensile

data secured from the corroded specimens.

After weighing and inspection, the “ removable ” plate specimens are to be returned to the various test locations for further exposure. In transporting the

plate specimens back and forth from the test locations, they will be shipped in specially designed containers to insure minimum damage to the corrosion

films formed on the surface of the specimens. To

make sure of the exact identity of each plate and

tensile specimen, a number was stamped on each one

Avith steel dies. With the assistance of printed forms

a record was made of the exact position of each specimen in the individual specimen racks which are identified by numbered brass tags attached to them.

Since the atmospheric corrosion tests may continue

for 25 years, it was necessary to select a fairly per- manent type of construction for the specimen racks

and supporting structure. The individual specimen

racks and the main framework on which they are mounted were therefore built of structural steel protected by a heavy coating of zinc applied by the hotdip galvanizing jDrocess. All fittings, nuts, bolts,

etc., used in assembling the test racks were likewise

hot-dip galvanized. The vertical members of the

main supporting framework were buried in the

ground with substantial footings of concrete to afford a suitable foundation and earth anchorage. At seven

of the nine test locations, the test racks are in inclo- sures protected from disturbance by high wire fences. The other two locations are roofs of industrial buildings in Altoona, Pa., and New York, N. Y.

In selecting locations for the exposure tests, an

effort was made to secure a Avide variety of atniosjiheric conditions which, at the same time, Avould be

fairly representative of the atmospheres in which the

metals and alloys included in these tests are used in

large percentages. The types of atmosphere included

in the nine test locations can be broadly classified as industrial, rural, and seacoast. There is considerable

variation between the atmospheric conditions at the

individual locations included in any one of the foregoing groups, and therefore these general classifica- tions have only a broad significance. It is also appreciated that the severity of the atmospheric attack Avill vary considerably eA^en within the immediate neighborhood of a test location. Differences in elevation,

variations in exposure to prevailing air currents, and

tlie amount of atmospheric pollution in the form of

industrial gases can all be found to vary widely be- tAveen two locations only half a mile apart.
94 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932 SURFACE QUALITY STANDARDS IN MACHINED SURFACES

Research has Made Possible the Obtaining of More Satisfactory Surfaces by Machine-Tool Manufacturers

By R. E. W. Harrison ^

The technique of lubrication engineering has progressed far during the last few j-ears. With the aid

of their research laboratories conducting expensive

investigations along chemical and physical lines, and

with the aid of their field tests and carefully recorded

data secured over a number of years of experience,

the producers of high-grade lubricants have been able

to place at the disposal of industry satisfactory products especially suited to meet the needs of any specific

application.

In the past, the properties of the lubricant have

been largely the essential factor in insuring long life of parts of machinery moving relative to one another.

Recently, however, there has been a marked trend to- ward higher speeds and higher loads made possible

by the development of alloy steels of high tensile

strength. This trend has not only made necessary the

development of lubricants with higher load-carrying

capacity, but it has also forcibly focused attention on

the quality of the surfaces being separated by the

lubricant. A quality of surface which would be satis- factory under light loads might be the cause for se- rious damage to the machine after a few hours of

operation under heavy load. Serious consideration of

the quality of moving surfaces in relation to the operating conditions of speed and load is economically

desirable in view of the increased use of power driven

machinery, practically all of which to-day involves a maintenance and replacement cost, which in the ag- gregate must reach an enormously high figure.

This cost probably rivals and possibly exceeds the enormous economic losses due to the Avastage Avhich is directly chargeable against the old bugbear of oxidation. It is a well-knoAvn fact that the war on oxidation has created a demand for large quantities of

* Engineering sales director, Cincinnati Milling Machine & Cincinnati Grinders (Inc.) ; chairman, Cincinnati section, A. S. M. E. ; and secretary, Machine Shop Practice Division, A. S. M. E

GRADES FOR CATTLE HIDES

The United States Department of Agriculture,

through its Bureau of Agricultural Economics, has

announced tentatit^e standards for market classes and

grades of butcher and country green salted cattle hides. These grade descriptions are the result of careful study by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics,

and have been indorsed bj^ represent atiA^es of the Hide

Bureau of the Tanners’ Council of America, and to the

Inspection Bureau of the Ncav York Hide Exchange.

The preparation and issuance of tentatiA^e standards

for this class of hides is a part of a general conservation program undertaken jointly by the hide and

leather industries and the United States Department

of Agriculture to improve the take off, quality, and

condition of domestic hides and skins for the purpose

of enhancing their usability and value. Any improvement in the quality of domestic hides will increase

their value to the producer, since they may be used

for the production of better grades of leather.

stainless steels and irons, and that the tendency of all fabricators is to use the nonoxidizing materials AvhenCA^er it is economically desirable to do so. Increased

loads on power-transmitting and load-carrying dcAuces

had resulted in a someAvhat analogous situation, and

the answer to the problem from the design standpoint

is to use as high a quality of finish as is economically

feasible. A considerable amount of attention has been given

to this matter during the last feAv years, and a number

of methods of obtaining more satisfactory surfaces

have been made available by the machine-tool manufacturers. HoAvever, Avhile continued research indi- cates that perfection is unattainable, the fact has been

brought to light that a scheme of finish tolerances or standards analogous to the established theor}! on toler- ances applying to size control is a desirable thing, and

in fact a necessary element in the engineering control

of the manufactured product.

The establishment of definite standards of finish,

each standard indicating the tolerated deviation from

the true plane, together Avith the broadcast publication

of the methods in\mlved in obtaining the different

standards, as Avell as the establishment of a universally

accepted method of calibration Avould have the folloAV- ing beneficial results

1. Establish the at present undefined element in all manufacturing engineering contracts.

2. Provide the engineering profession with a com- mon terminology.

3. Provide means whereby costly initial Avear can

be readily computed and compensated for in the de- sign and tolerance specifications on dimensions.

4. Provide the production engineer Avith a proper

basis on AA-hich to compute production costs.

5. Exercise an enormous economic influence in controlling, and in many cases halting the process of Avear Avhich eA-entually destroys most mechanical appliances.

SULPHONATED OILS (SULPHATED)

SAPONIFIABLE TYPES

General approval of the commercial standard for

the standard grading of sulphonated oils has been

indicated in its acceptance by a very large percentage

of the manufacturers and users of these oils. Accordingly, an announcement of its adoption by the industry Avas made in a circular letter sent out from the

office of the diAUsion of trade standards, on September 7, 1932.

This commercial standard covers the standard grading of the saponifiable types of sulphonated (sulphated) oils, and includes nomenclature, definition,

and a rule for expressing strength or concentration,

together with methods of analysis for determining the

percentage of Aveight of the various ingredients.

Mimeographed copies of the standard may be obtained by addressing the Division of Trade Standards, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 95

PAPER AND PAPER PRODUCTS

Simplified Practice, as Applied to Paper Industries, Has Aided in Reducing Waste

By FMwin W. Ely, Bureau of Standards

At the request of the standing committee in charge

of simplified practice recommendation No. 22, the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of

Standards recently mailed a questionnaire to approximately 8,000 representative manufacturers, converters, and users of paper products. The purpose of

this survey is to secure constructive suggestions on

tlie desirability of revising the present schedule,

which became effective on July 1, 1924. The recom- mendation presents a simplified list of stock sizes of

paper for general printing and publishing, bond,

ledger, writing, and book publishing.

At a recent meeting of the standing committee the

following groups were represented : A-inerican Paper

and Pulp Association,

National Industrial Advertisers Association, National Paper Trade Assoelation. Lithographers

National Association, National Publishers Association, National Association

of Purchasing Agents,

Association of National

Advertisers, United Typothetae. of America, Direct Mail Advertising

Association, Associated

Business Papers (Inc.), and the American Association of Advertising Agencies.

At that time the committee decided to send out the

questionnaire. The chairman, in commenting on the

proposed revision, said : “ The revisions and additions

to recommendation No. 22 should effect real economies

for jirinters, advertisers, and paper manufacturers and

distributors, and we urge everjmne who receives the

(luestionnaire to fill it in and return it promptly.” In

the questionnaire, the committee requests expression

of opinion on changing one of the stock sizes of paper

u.sed for general printing and publishing and adding new sizes to the schedule for bond, ledger, and writ^

ing paper. The committee also recommends the addition of stock sizes of cover paper and index bristol, new items in the jirograni. It is expected that the

standing committee will meet in September to consider

the report.

Simplified practice recommendation No. 22 is one

of several recommendations developed by various in- dustries concerned with paper products. The annual

volume of these in the United States is such that the

principle of mass production can be apjilied profitably

so as to insure ade<iuate output at minimum cost. Simplified practice is an important aid to this in- dustry in obtaining the maximum benefits of production, di.stribution, and use of its products. Bj^ simplified practice is meant cooperative action of all ele- ments of an industry in selecting for stock purposes

the minimum number of varieties and sizes of products necessary to meet the normal requirements of

those concerned.

A typical simplification program in the x^aper in- dustry is the one for ]iaxier bags used in grocei'y stores. Prior to the develoxmient of the recommendation

which was made voluntarily^ by the industry, with the

cooxieration of the Bureau of Standards, there existed

G,280 varieties of bags, considering size and other

features. This variety was reduced to 4,700 thus

effecting an elimination of 2.5 cent. Bags made

to conform to the sizes selected for regular stock purXioses by the industry^ bear the familiar syunbol SS in an oval, on the side of the bag, as the xiroducers’ guarantee to the trade, of standard sizes. The business world has recognized the value of

sim^jlification as b> bank checks, notes, drafts,

and similar instruments;

and to commercial forms,

such as invoices, inquiry,

and xiurchase-order forms.

The adoxition by industiy

of uniform sizes and

XM'inting for these busi- ness forms results not only

in economy in x^roduction,

but in convenience of handling and filing. Since

the simxilified

recommendation covering

bank checks became effec- tive, a survey made b_y the American Bankers’ Association showed that 85 x^er cent of the check business

in the country is being done Avith simxilified sizes carryfing uniform x^lacement of essential data. A similar

surA’ey^ in connection with invoice forms shoAvs that the

sinixplified iiiAmice form is gaining in use and faAmr.

Simxilification has also been ax^x^lied to sxiecial

Xiaxiers. An examxile of this is found in xihotographic

Xiaxier, used by amateur and XR’ofessional x^hotograXihers for xiortraiture and commercial XRH'Xioses. The

simxililied-xiractice recommendation in this field Avas based uxion a factual surA^ey made by the industry.

Consideration of the current demand for various

sizes of xffiotograxffiic x^^xier showed that of 73 x^er cent, rexiresenting 97 x^er cent of the total xM’oduction,

14 sizes satisfied 79.2 xier cent of the demand.

The condition as regards variety^ which was found

in this industry is observable in other industries. It

is tyx)ical to discoA'er that 80 ])er cent of an industry^’s

business is transacted Avith 20 xier cent of the total variety offered. The remaining 20 per cent of the

business is scattered over 80 x)cr cent of that A ariety.

When this condition is found, an opx)ortunity is offered for industry-Avide simplification, the effects of

Avhich hold benefits for all concerned.

The sinqffified practice recommendations aforementioned are for x^ax^er ]iroducts AAdiich liaA'e been manufactured or conA’erted from paper of one kind or another. Paper used in the pointing industry lias also been simxilified, and under this x^i’ogram there

have been selected stock .sizes of jAajier for general

printing and ])ublishing, for book publication, and for

(, =1: 4= ^Xie time, Ave needed some sxiecial forms. The last such forms had been bought in

another city and had cost us $4.50 xier hundred.

When the local man saAv the samples he asked

if Ave could not use a standard form, and we

found that it Avould do just as well. On the

standard form Ave saved $3.50 x^er hundred.

* * * ” C. D. Garretson, x^resident. Electric

Hose and Rubber Co., in Nation’s Business

(August, 1932).
96 COMMEECIAL STAKDAIIDS MOKTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

forms and letterheads. In simplified practice recom- mendation No. 22, on paper, are shown the sizes of

paper and their doubles, which are basic for

economical cutting.

Other simplified-practice recommendations for

paper products in everyday use include tissue paper,

paper boxes for coffee, binder’s board used in bookbinding, composition books for schools, the familiar

paper shipping tag, glassine bags used in the candy

and confectionery business. No. 1 kraft paper sealing

tape used for sealing cartons and the like, waxed tissue

paper, ice-cream cups, restaurant guest checks, and

paper boxes and bags used in department and specialty

stores. Surveys by industries in connection with other

paper commodities are in process as bases for other

simplified-practice recommendations.

Simplified practice is a commercial rather than a technical procedure. The purpose of industry in each

application of simplification is to discover those varieties, sizes, etc., which satisfy the normal requirements

of the trade, and to adhere to that list as a guide for

stock purposes. The resultant benefits to all interested are in direct proportion to the adherence accorded the

simplification programs.

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of

the American Standards Association have been re- ported by that association.

Inch-millimeter conversion.—A general conference

under the auspices of the American Standards Association will be held in New York on October 21 to give American industry an opportunity to discuss a request made by the Ford Motor Co. to the ASA that

the value 25.4 be adopted as the American standard

ratio between the inch and the millimeter in so far as industrial measurements are concerned.

In the United States the official ratio between the

inch and the millimeter is based on the relationship

between the meter and the inch as laid down by law

in 1866, namely, 1 meter equals 39.37 inches. This

gives the following approximate relationship between

the inch and the millimeter; 1 inch equals 25.40005

mm. The difference between this figure and the value

25.4, only 2 parts in 1,000,000, is negligible in all cases except those where the highest accuracy of measure- ment is required. It is of a smaller order of magnitude than the degree of accuracy required even in

manufacturing industries working with the greatest

precision in the sizing of parts except gages and precision measuring instruments. For this reason it has

been common practice for years to use the ratio 25.4

in many lines of manufacturing. However, different

figures, such as the official ratio 25.40005 and the

rounded figure 25.4001, are also given; for example,

in engineering handbooks, with consequent dissimilarity in the conversion tables based on these re- spective figures.

In Great Britain, where the official ratio also differs from the figures 25.4, industry has already approved a national standard based on the ratio 25.4

and giving corresponding conversion tables. It seems

probable that if the same ratio is adopted for practical use by American industry, this figure will become

a world standard and all confusion that may arise

from variety in conversion practice will be removed.

The decision of this conference will be an important one, particularly to all manufacturing industries

that use limit gaging practice. "Wliile the answer to the Ford Motor Co.’s request depends mainly on the

approval of the ratio 25.4, matters of secondary importance can probably also be easily decided in principle at the conference, such as the general set-up of

the conversion tables based on this ratio, which probably will be deemed necessary for practical purposes.

Goffer wire l)ars.—As the result of recent action by

the A. S. A. standards council, the following two

specifications for copper wire bars have been added to the list of American standards : Standard specifications for lake copper wire bars, cakes,

slabs, billets, ingots, and ingot bars. Standard specifications for electrolytic copper wire bars, cakes, slabs, billets, ingots,

and ingot bars. The American Society for Testing Materials has

been granted proprietary sponsorship to care for fu- ture revisions of these specifications. These standards, which are revisions of earlier A. S. T. M. specifications for copper wire bars, were developed by a committee of the A. S. T. M. in order to harmonize

minor differences in the provisions of available specifications covering these materials. Both standards

are widely used, and are, in fact, generally recognized

for all copper transactions in the United States. They are also used as a basis for practically all copper transactions abroad, through the use of French

and German translations prepared by the Copper

Exporters Association.

Wood foundry fatterns.—A new American recom- mended practice for foundry patterns of wood has

been approved by the American Standards Association. The standard was submitted to A. S. A. by

the American Foundrymen’s Association, which had

an important part in its development and which

offered to be sponsor for the standard or joint sponsor

with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

if the A. S. M. E. so desired. Since this suggestion was approved by the A. S. M. E., the two organizations have been appointed joint sponsors. The standard color markings provide the molder with correct information regarding location of cores, the surfaces

to be machined, the portions to be filled, where stopoff construction is to be used, and also insure preparation of the mold in the proper manner. The standard was issued in 1930 by the Bureau of Standards as Commercial Standard CS19.

Electrical definitions.—A report on proposed American standard electrical definitions has been prepared

by the sectional committee on definitions of electrical terms. For more than three years the sectional committee, under the sponsorship of the American Insti- tute of Electrical Engineers, has been working on the

preparation of this report. The scope of the committee’s work is defined as “ Definitions of technical terms
OCTOBER, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 97

used in electrical engineering, including correlation

of definitions and terms in existing standards.” In

many cases, a number of synonymous terms are now

in use where but one term would be far more desirable ; in other cases, the same term is defined in several

ways, although the application in each case is identical. The work of the committee has been to clear

up such conditions, to coordinate the existing definitions, and to collate the definitions deemed desirable

of inclusion in the report.

The report lists more than 3,000 definitions and

terms. These range from the fundamental definitions on which the science of electricity is based (including

a section on laws and effects, where this material is gathered together for the first time in convenient,

accessible form) to definitions for practical applications, such as those for control equipment, generation,

transmission and distribution, welding, illumination,

wire and radio communication, electrobiology, and

electrotherapeutics.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

Secretary of the A. I. E. E. Standards Committee Reviews Standardization Activities

By H. E. Fakeee^

The chief point of interest during the past year

in standardization work in the electrical field has been

in what might be termed a new phase of development

;

a phase in which it is hoped definitely planned and

organized cooperation covering the entire electrical

field will be the keynote.

Ever since the establishment of the American

Standards Association, or, as it was originally known,

the American Engineering Standards Committee, it was evident to those anxious to expedite standardization work that further steps must be taken to insure more effective operation of the machinery provided

under the procedure laid down for the American

Standards Association. With this in mind, and on

the recommendation of the A. I. E. E. Standards

Committee, the board of directors of the institute, in

January, 1930, approved, in principle, the proposition calling for the formation of an electrical standards committee. In October, 1931, the Electrical

Standards Committee came into being, in a meeting

at which it superseded the Electrical Advisory Committee of the A. S. A. The Electrical Standards

Committee, which is so constituted with its membership of 17 official representatives from 11 major electrical organizations and groups, that it can speak authoritatively for the electrical industry, has three dis- tinct functions : It is the standards committee of the

electrical industry; the electrical advisory committee

of the A. S. A. ; and, with certain additions to its personnel, the United States national committee of the

International Electrotechnical Commission.

In the standardization work which the institute has

been carrying on, under the procedure of the A. S. A.,

sole sponsorship or joint sponsorship has been ac- quired for some 25 sectional committees.’ Of these

25 projects, 12 are held jointly, principally with the

National Electrical Manufacturers Association. Representation is also held upon some 30 sectional committees under other sponsorships.

With regard to the joint projects, it should be noted

that there is now a very definite tendency to urge

that such undertakings be placed under the sole spon-

‘ Secretary, Standards Committee American Institute of Electrical Engineers. New York, N. Y. . ’ A sectional committee is a committee made up, in accordance with

certain rules of A. S. A. as to balance, of representatives designated

by the various bodies concerned with the assigned project, and If necessary, additional specially qualified individuals. It Is under the guidance of a sponsor organization and Is in reality a miniature in- dustrial legislature, organized to develop a standard or code.

sorship of the Electrical Standards Committee, and in a number of cases, the institute board of directors has

approved such procedure. A closely related step is indicated in the consolidation of sectional committees

whose scopes cover related types of apparatus, result- ing in the formation of group sectional committees,

bringing within the scope of each such individual

group committee many types of apparatus. iCmong

those suggested are rotating electrical machinery (already in operation), transformers, power switch gear,

etc. These two movements (elimination of plural

sponsorship and consolidation) should expedite the

work which has been slow in developing, largely be- cause of the complicated procedure involved in multiple sponsorships and will, at the same time, minimize the man hours required to carry on the work.

A number of sectional committees, under the sole sponsorship of the A. I. E. E. or joint sponsorship,

have recently submitted reports for approval by

A. S. A., notably, mercury arc rectifiers, abbreviations

for scientific and engineering terms, graiDhical symbols used in radio, graphical symbols used in electric

power and wiring, and graphical symbols used in electric traction, including railway signaling, and several

subcommittee reports of the committee on insulated

wires and cables. Probably one of the most extensive projects under

way and now nearing report stage and for which the

A. I. E. E. is sole sponsor is the work on electrical

definitions. This sectional committee, which had its inception in 1928, is made up of representatives from

about 30 national engineering and scientific societies,

trade associations. Government interests, communication interests, and miscellaneous groups. Its work has

been divided among 17 subcommittees which, with

their immediate personnel and that of cooperative

groups, means active participation by close to 300 in- dividuals, embracing experts and specialists in all divisions of the electrical and related fields. The

first emission of the committee will constitute approximately 3,250 definitions of the total of from

5,000 to 6,000 estimated for the completed undertaking.

In the development of new prospects and in the re- vision of existing A. I. E. E. standards which now

number 38, with 19 approved as American standard

or tentative standard, the institute standards committee is now depending almost entirely on the various
98 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY OCTOBER, 1932

A. I. E. E. technical committees; notably, the committees on electrical machinery, protective devices,

instruments and measurements, and applications to the marine industry. The two most recent actual

developments within the institute are the reports on

proposed standards for relays and on electrical re- cording instruments.

Those who have made a close study of standardization feel that it is to such committees within the insti- tute and other similar organizations, made up as they

are of men closely in touch with the trends and the

needs of particular fields, that the electrical industry can look most logically for suggestions on revisions

of existing standards and codes, and drafts of new

material. If the sectional committees which, in most

cases, must eventually consummate the desired standards, and irrespective of those committees’ personnel

or sponsorship, can have before them, when they hold

their first meetings, proposed reports or drafts of

the work they aie expected to accomplish, much time

and expense can be saved. It is Avith sucfi a practice

in mind that the institute has been offering, through

A. S. A. procedure, not only its accepted standards,

but its reports on proposed standards, as conditions seem to warrant such action.

In order that the electrical industry might become

full}' cognizant of a ncAv work undertaken by the

institute, there was published during the past year a report on a proposed test code for transformers which,

it is expected, will be followed by test codes for other

types of apparatus. It is the purpose of these test codes to provide in convenient reference form the more

generally applicable and accepted methods of conducting and reporting tests of a commercial nature which

apply to the fulfillment of performance guaranties

and to acceptance tests, as specified in the A. I. E. E.

standards. It is not intended that the codes shall cover all possible tests or those of a research nature. In closing, and for the benefit of those Avho may

liaA^e a considerable concern Avith electrical standardization results and yet Avho haA'e not had the time to follow the intricacies and ramblings of its development over a period of years, further emphasis should

be placed upon the conditions touched on in the opening paragraphs and the various instances of which

ai’e generally outlined in this article. So, to repeat,

these conditions are indicative of standardization procedure noAv at a critical stage of transition; a transition Avhich has great possibilities—possibilities in the

reduction of man hours necessary heretofore to accomplish a desired result, and eA^en greater and more

desirable possibilities iiwolved in the elimination of

organization friction.

HOSPITAL RUBBER SHEETING

A printed pamphlet on Hospital Rubber Sheeting,

Commercial Standai'd GS38-32, is now available and

for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents iier copy. The sheeting I specified is made from a cotton fabric coated on one

or both sides Avith a rubber compound containing

not less than 30 per cent by weight of rubber. The

standard as established Amhmtarily by the industry, covers chemical and physical requirements together

Avith packing, marking, and certification to buyers.

The standard became effectiA'e June 1, 1932.

WROUGHT IRON AND WROUGHT IRON

STEEL PIPE

The reA'ised simplified practice recommendation

(E57-32) coA^ering wrought iron and wrought steel

I pipe, valves and fittings, has been accorded the re- quired degree of support by the industry, and is to be effectiA^e as of October 1, 1932.

This reAusion eliminates from the original recom- mendation the 3%-inch nominal inside diameter pipe

from Table 3, “ double extra-strong ” pipe. The rec- ommendation applies only to new installations and

production of pipe.
Announcing the ?S[ew

STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1932

Prepared annually by the BUREAU OF STANDARDS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

400 pages, bound in blue buckram

DO NOT FAIL TO READ “Let us raise a standard to which the wise and the Symposium on Standardization in Communication honest can repair.’’

(Chapter I) —WASHINGTON.

THE STANDARDS YEARBOOOK for 1932 is full of suggestion and data for all engaged

in standardization. The many aspects of the subject call for a concise summary for busy

men who need to keep in touch with the latest advances in the standards field. The

Standards Yearbook is designed to meet this need.

To the interest taken by several departments of the Federal Government in simplification and standardization, a special chapter is devoted.

The Yearbook includes summaries of important national and international standardization activities and accomplishments of the Government standardizing laboratories of

England, France, Germany, Canada, Japan, and of the Bureau of Standards of the

United States.

Another chapter is devoted to the standardization activities of American technical

societies and trade associations.

An abstract of the work in standardization conducted by national standards associations

throughout the world is another feature of the Standards Yearbook.

There is also given a brief account of international cooperation in standardization.

The Standards Yearbook should be in the personal library of all engaged in work on

standards, or concerned with its application.

CONTENTS

Chapter

I. Standardization in Communication—a symposium.

II. International standardizing agencies.

III. National governmental standardizing laboratories. IV. National industrial standardizing bodies. V. Federal standardizing agencies.

Chapter VI. National Bureau of Standards.

VII. Municipal, county, and State purchasing

agencies. VIII. General standardizing agencies, U. S. A. IX. Standardizing activities of technical societies and trade associations. X. Index.

Price $1

Compiled by Bureau of Standards

Miscellaneous Publication No. 133

Cloth bound For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * + * its ideals are clear; That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal airports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuaet, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt, and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annualbq and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Lyman J. Briggs, Acting Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial jiractices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it. Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION AND STEAMBOAT INSPECTION, Arthur J. Tyrer and Dickerson N. Hoover,

Assistant Directors. Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Construction and administration of navigation laws covering

documentation, ship mortgage act, entry and clearance, move- ment of vessels, welfare of seamen, admeasurement, load line, adjudication of fines, collection of fees, tonnage tax, etc. Compilation of Federal statistics of tonnage and merchant seamen. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and lifesaving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboatmen, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

opies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued.

S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: f932