EARLY 

HEAD 

START 

NATIONAL 

RESOURCE 

CENTER 

Technical Assistance Paper No. 

5 

Linguistic Diversityand 

Early Literacy: 

Serving Culturally Diverse Families in Early Head Start 

Prepared by 

Early Head Start National Resource Center @ 

ZERO TO THREE 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

Administration for Children and Families 

Administration on Children, Youth and Families 

Head Start Bureau
EARLY HEAD START NATIONAL RESOURCE CENTER


Technical Assistance Paper No. 5 

Linguistic Diversityand 

Early Literacy: 

Serving Culturally Diverse Families in 

Early Head Start 

This document was developed by the staff of the Early Head Start 

National Resource Center @ ZERO TO THREE in collaboration with 

the Head Start Bureau. The contents of the paper are not intended to 

be an interpretation of policy. 

Early Head Start National Resource Center @ ZERO TO THREE 

2000 M Street, NW, Suite 200 

Washington, DC 20036-3307 

Phone:202-638-1144 

Fax: 202-638-0851 

www.ehsnrc.org 

The EHS NRC is funded by contract #105-98-2055 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

Administration for Children and Families 

Administration on Children, Youth, and Families 

Head Start Bureau 

On the Cover 

CESA #11, Early Head Start, Turtle Lake, WI 

EOC, Early Head Start, St. Joseph, MO 

(c) 2001 

ISBN #0-943657-53-9 

Printed in the United States of America 

First Printing, December 2001 
page 

1 

5 

Technical Assistance Paper No.
 

Linguistic Diversityand 

Early Literacy: 

Serving Culturally Diverse Families in Early Head Start 

INTRODUCTION 

E

arly literacy refers to the experiences and developmental skills from birth through early childhood 

that promote the later development of reading 

and writing. Early Head Start (EHS) programs serving 

children and families whose primary language is other 

than English have a unique challenge and responsibility 

to create an environment that is culturally responsive and 

rich in literacy experiences for all participating families. 

EHS programs provide literacy experiences in a variety 

of settings. Some programs may have predominantly 

English-speaking families and may be struggling with 

how to meet the needs of the one or two families for 

whom English is a second language. Other programs are 

serving a large number of English-speaking families and 

non-English-speaking families simultaneously. At the 

same time, still other programs are providing services to 

large numbers of families who reflect many different 

Tennessee Cares Early Head Start, Weakley, TN 

cultures and who use a variety of languages. In all of 

these situations, programs are required to: 







provide child development experiences that promote 

the child’s cognitive and language skills; 

create family literacy experiences that recognize a 

child’s parents as his or her primary teachers and that 

promote child development, adult education, and 

self-sufficiency; and 

support cultural diversity by recognizing the 

importance of the child’s home language and culture 

to his or her social, emotional, physical, and cognitive 

development. 

Although literacy experiences play an important role 

in early childhood education, the acquisition of literacy 

skills is not the only criteria for school readiness and 

should not be the sole focus of early childhood programs. 

The characteristics that children develop in the early 

years—confidence, curiosity, self-control, and cooperativeness—provide the motivation to want to learn and 

the skills needed to function effectively later in school 

and in society (National Research Council Institute of 

Medicine, 2000; ZERO TO THREE, 1992). These 

characteristics are formed during the earliest months and 

years of life, are intimately tied to a child’s sense of self, 

and are deeply rooted in family and culture. 

This context of the child in relation to his or her 

caregivers is the context within which we consider how 

the foundation for literacy is developed in infancy and 
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E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

toddlerhood. Before children can learn 

to read or write, they first learn to 

understand and speak a given language 

through interactions with their primary 

caregivers. Thus, this paper will largely 

focus on early language development in 

children from culturally and linguistically diverse families and the 

implications for later literacy development. The first section of the paper is 

an overview of how very young children 

learn language and the different contexts in which language acquisition 

occurs. We share some of the current 

research on language development in 

bilingual children and some of the particular risks faced 

by low-income, bilingual children in the area of literacy 

development. The second section of the paper focuses on

family literacy and the process to create literacy-rich 

environments in culturally and linguistically diverse settings. The third section provides strategies for using 

program management systems to support family literacy 

as well as cultural and linguistic diversity. The paper 

concludes with profiles of two EHS programs that serve 

culturally diverse families and these programs’ approaches to literacy development. 

CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY LITERACY 

Grantee and delegate agencies must provide for the 

development of each child’s cognitive and language skills 

by: 

(iii) Promoting interaction and language use among children 

and between children and adults; and 

(iv) Supporting emerging literacy and numeracy development 

through materials and activities according to the 

developmental level of each child. 

45 CFR 1304.21(a)(4)(iii)–(iv) 

Murray Early Head Start, Murray, KY 

Grantee and delegate agencies must support social and 

emotional development by: 

(E) Supporting and respecting the home language, culture, and 

family composition of each child in ways that support the 

child’s health and well-being. 

45 CFR 1304.21(a)(3)(i)(E) 

Infants and toddlers learn language within the context 

of their natural environments. Formally teaching infants 

and toddlers how to understand or speak languages is not 

necessary. Children and caregivers naturally attempt to 

communicate with one another in a variety of ways 

through their daily interactions. Tone of voice, gestures, 

and facial expressions all communicate important 

messages to others. Infants and toddlers who are culturally 

and linguistically diverse need environments in which 

they can communicate with their caregivers regardless of 

the languages spoken by the children or their caregivers. 

In the case where the primary caregiver speaks only 

English, that caregiver should communicate naturally 

with infants and toddlers in a variety of ways by responding to their needs, establishing warm relationships, and 

providing them with a rich, interactive environment. 
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TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

EHS Programs may be challenged with how to honor a 

child’s home language and culture when their child 

development and family services are primarily in English. 

Program staff members should be aware of both how 

children learn languages and the context in which they 

learn languages to provide culturally and linguistically 

appropriate services to children. The context for how 

children learn languages includes the different kinds of 

environments to which the child is exposed. A few of 

the many possible contexts include the following: 









Only the non-English language is spoken in the 

home by all family members, and the family lives in a 

community that also uses that language. 

Only the non-English language is spoken in the home, 

but the family is situated in a predominantly Englishspeaking community. 

Particular family members speak only the non-English 

language, but other family members speak English. 

All family members speak both the non-English and 

English languages. 

Learning to Speak, Read, and Write 

Literacy skills begin from birth and unfold in the context 

of relationships between the infant and his or her caregivers. Newborns first learn about language as they hear 

the voices of their caregivers during the everyday routines 

of eating, dressing, and sleeping. Within a few short 

months, they are responding in turn with their own 

vocalizations and verbal play. Eventually, their random 

coos and vocalizations begin to approximate words and 

symbolize significant people or objects. Even young 

infants enjoy being read to and will look at simple picture 

books as well as babble in response to their caregivers’ 

storytelling. Children who see the significant people in 

their lives enjoying reading and writing feel an irresistible 

urge to imitate their behavior, pretending to “read” 

magazines and newspapers or scribble with crayons. 

These early literacy skills emerge in all children when 

they are exposed to these language experiences. However, 

also important is to recognize that some culturally and 

linguistically diverse families may have early language 

and literacy practices that differ from the American 

culture. For example, some cultures have a rich history 

of using storytelling rather than the written word for 

education and entertainment. EHS programs should be 

respectful of these differences and offer individualized 

services to meet the literacy needs of all families. 

The Cultural and Linguistic Context of Early 

Literacy Experiences 

Culturally and linguistically diverse families provide 

early literacy experiences to children in a variety of ways. 

In some circumstances, very young children may be 

exposed only to their non-English language and culture 

in their homes and communities. If this circumstance is 

the case, then children before the age of 3 years will 

develop their non-English language as their first language. 

These families may prefer to wait until their native 

language is firmly established and then introduce English 

to their child at some point after the age of 3 years. 

Other families may choose to simultaneously expose 

their children to their native language and culture and 

to the English language and American culture. Children 

Laconia Early Head Start, Laconia, NH 
page 

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E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

who are exposed to a second language after the age of 3 

years will experience a different process and context for 

language learning than children who are exposed to a 

second language in infancy. Because of the differences 

in these cases, the early literacy experiences that EHS 

programs develop for these families also will differ. 

Non-English speaking infants and toddlers are exposed 

to the English language and American culture in many 

ways. They may hear English and experience American 

culture in interactions with family members, in child-care 

settings, on community outings, through exposure to the 

media, and when receiving services through EHS programs. 

The degree of exposure to a second language and the use 

of the two languages will vary among children within 

and after the first 3 years of life. Some children may be 

consistently exposed to two languages but in very different contexts. For example, some children may be in an 

environment in which caregivers use both languages 

interchangeably, moving back and forth between English 

and another language within a single conversation or 

even within a single sentence. Other children might 

experience caregivers who use different languages in 

different environments. For example, the child may hear 

only the non-English language spoken in the home and 

English outside the home. 

When children participate in early care and education 

settings outside of the home, providers should be aware 

of how the child’s home language and culture is reflected 

in the child-care setting. Infants and toddlers are just 

forming their sense of identity and self-esteem, and they 

IN PRACTICE: CHILD DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCES THAT PROMOTE THE CHILD’S COGNITIVE AND
 

LANGUAGE SKILLS
 

Recognize the link between early language development and later literacy skills. Learning language is the first step in learning how to 

read and write. 



















Read aloud to children frequently and early in infancy. Even the youngest infants are stimulated by the sound of your voice and simple 

visual images. 

Choose books, music, and other materials that reflect the range of cultures and languages of participating families so all children can see 

images and hear words and music with which they can identify. 

Talk directly to children, even in early infancy. For example, you can describe what you are doing as you pick them up for diapering, a 

change of clothes, or a bath. Describe what the infant is experiencing so he or she can begin to connect words with actions. 

Make books with children by assembling collections of photos or clips of magazine pictures that represent culturally diverse families and 

life experiences. 

Imitate infants’ vocalizations, creating a back-and-forth dialogue. This reciprocal turn-taking sets the stage for later language learning. 

Provide opportunities for young infants to use the fine-motor muscles of their hands and fingers in manipulative play with rattles and 

other safe objects. Older toddlers enjoy manipulating crayons and other writing utensils. Allow children to scribble without their markings 

having to represent anything. First, they must enjoy the process of creating before they will be ready to intentionally write letters or draw 

pictures. 

Encourage children to talk to their peers. Help them to find the words to express their ideas and feelings to one another. 

Sing songs with children. Infants and toddlers love fingerplays such as the "itsy bitsy spider" or "pat-a-cake." 

Recognize that children learn language and literacy skills at different rates. Train staff members to recognize the signs of language delay 

and the range of typical development. Use community resources for early identification and referral for language problems. Assist parents 

in obtaining access to culturally and linguistically appropriate developmental evaluations of their children. 
page 

5 

Champaign County Early Head Start, Champaign, IL 

depend on the sensitivity of their caretakers to respond 

to them in ways that affirm their developing sense of self. 

The Head Start Program Performance Standards recognize 

the importance of reflecting each child’s home language 

and culture in the EHS setting 

Grantee and delegate agencies’ program of services for 

infants and toddlers must encourage: 

(i) The development of secure relationships in out-of-home 

care settings for infants and toddlers by having a limited 

number of consistent teachers over an extended 

period of time. Teachers must demonstrate an 

understanding of the child’s family culture and, 

whenever possible, speak the child’s language. 

45 CFR 1304.21(b)(1)(i) 

Although continuity between home and other environments has clear advantages, finding qualified staff 

members who reflect diverse cultures and languages can 

be difficult. Staff development and training in the area of 

cultural diversity is critical for the success of any 

program. Staff members should have opportunities to 

explore their attitudes and beliefs about working with 

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

families who are from a different culture than themselves. 

Programs should identify the specific challenges that staff 

members struggle with when dealing with culturally and 

linguistically diverse families and should provide training 

about culturally and linguistically appropriate services to 

families as well as to infants and toddlers. 

Language Development in Bilingual Children 

As discussed above, children are exposed to both their 

non-English language and the English language in many 

different ways within their own families and in community 

settings outside of the home. Low-income families from 

minority cultures typically have fewer resources and 

options available to them with respect to their child’s 

education than more affluent families have. In addition, 

a particular danger lies in the messages, both subtle and 

overt, from the popular culture that convey the notion 

that the non-English culture is irrelevant and the 

non-English language is an impediment to success in 

school and later in life (Tabors & Snow, in press). EHS 

programs need to educate participating families to 

make informed decisions about their child’s early 

language and literacy goals and then to support families 

in those decisions. 

Research in the area of bilingual language acquisition 

in very young children is scarce. The complexities of the 

environments in which children are exposed to more 

than one language are numerous. Bilingualism may best 

be conceptualized as a continuum (Tabors & Snow, in 

press). One end of the spectrum represents the children 

who are raised speaking the non-English language in a 

non-English community with minimal exposure to 

English. The other end of the spectrum represents the 

children who are primarily exposed to the English 

language and minimally proficient in the non-English 

language. In every case, language proficiency has an 

effect on literacy development. Researchers have 

identified particular risks that bilingual children face as 

they develop language in the early years. 
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E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 







Lack of continuity in language development: Very young 

children who experience the same language in both 

the home setting and out-of-home settings follow a 

typical course of language acquisition and preliteracy 

development in whichever language they speak. 

Children with a well-developed primary language are 

generally able to transfer those skills to proficiency in 

a second language (Wong Fillmore, 1991). A lack of 

continuity can disrupt the language development 

in both languages, leaving the child vulnerable to 

language delays and literacy problems later. 

Smaller vocabulary size in each language: Vocabulary size 

is tied directly to reading skill. Researchers have noted 

that, although the number of words that a bilingual 

child knows across both languages is comparable to 

that of monolingual (one language), English-speaking 

children, the size of the vocabulary in each language is 

smaller. Certainly, the amount of time the child is 

exposed to each language influences how sophisticated 

his or her language skills are in receptive (ability to

understand) domains and in expressive (ability to 

verbalize) domains. 

Limited literacy experiences in both languages: Some families are eager for their children to learn the English 

language to help them succeed in school and in the 

American society. They may choose to limit the 

children’s exposure to the non-English language to 

foster the acquisition of English. At the same time, 

these parents may not be adequately proficient in the 

English language to support the higher-level preliteracy 

activities that the children need to become literate in 

English. If the children are not experiencing these 

literacy activities in either language, they are at an 

increased risk of failing to achieve literacy skills in 

both languages. 

The implications for early childhood settings such as 

EHS are numerous. Program staff members can help parents identify their literacy goals, educate parents on the 

advantages and disadvantages of various early learning 

environments, and help parents become advocates for 

their children. Most importantly, EHS programs can 

provide an environment that recognizes that the quality 

of the interactions, not the language of the interaction, 

is what promotes very young children’s interest and 

ability to communicate in meaningful ways with the 

world around them. 

FAMILY LITERACY 

The term “family literacy services” means services that 

are of sufficient intensity in terms of hours, and of 

sufficient duration, to make sustainable changes in a 

family, and that integrate all of the activities: 

(a) Interactive literacy activities between parents and 

their children. 

(b) Training for parents regarding how to be the primary 

teacher for their children and full partners in the education 

of their children. 

(c) Parent literacy training that leads to economic 

self-sufficiency. 

(d) An age-appropriate education to prepare children for 

success in school and life experiences. 

Head Start Act, Section 636.[42 U.S.C. 9832](3)(a–d) 

Early Head Start, Sumter, SC 

Young Families 

Early Head Start, Billings, MT 
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

Grantee and delegate agencies must provide, either 

directly or through referrals to other local agencies, 

opportunities for children and families to participate in 

family literacy services by: 

(i) increasing family access to materials, services, and 

activities essential to development; and 

(ii) assisting parents as adult learners to recognize and address 

their own literacy goals. 

45 CFR 1304.40(e)(4)(i)–(ii) 

Family literacy is central to the goals of the Head Start 

program. The Head Start Act, as amended in 1998, provides a definition of family literacy that specifies the four 

types of experiences that EHS programs must provide to 

enrolled families: (1) interactive literacy experiences 

between parents and children; (2) parent training to 

help parents become their child’s primary teacher and to 

become full partners in education; (3) parent literacy 

training that leads to economic self-sufficiency; and (4) 

age-appropriate education for children to prepare them 

to succeed in school and later in life. 

EHS programs should work in partnership with families 

to establish specific language goals for children as well 

as their parents and to help parents establish strong 

communicative relationships with their children. The 

language in which service providers offer early literacy 

experiences to children and families is a critical factor in 

attaining the specific language outcomes the family has 

identified for themselves and their children. One family 

may want to encourage the rapid acquisition of English 

and may request that books and literacy experiences be 

delivered only in English. Another family may want to 

ensure that they preserve their native culture by immersing their child in their native language and delaying 

English language experiences until after their native language has been well established. EHS programs should 

respect the family’s approach to early literacy and should 

educate parents about early language development in the 

context of cultural diversity so they can make informed 

decisions about their family’s literacy goals. 

Communication between parent and child forms the 

foundation for the quality of their relationship. Parents 

must be able to read and interpret their child’s signals 

and emerging attempts at language for the child to feel 

understood and valued. If the language goals that parents 

have for their children are different than the goals that 

service providers who are working with the family have, 

then great potential exists for confusing the child and 

disrupting the parent-child relationship. Service 

providers who can support parents in establishing secure 

communicative relationships with their children, help to 

foster a strong parent-child bond and to promote literacy 

skills across cultures and languages. 

IN PRACTICE: CREATING A LITERACY-RICH
 

ENVIRONMENT IN CULTURALLY DIVERSE
 

SETTINGS
 

Help parents to identify literacy goals for themselves 


and their children.
 

page

7 Involve parents and families in sharing their language 

and culture through a range of activities. 

Communicate with the families in a variety of ways 


using different language approaches and resources. For
 

example, provide information both verbally and in 


written form.
 

Use the Family Partnership Agreement process to address
 

family literacy needs, assets, and goals.
 

Collaborate with community partners as well as state and
 

local programs such as public libraries, museums, Even
 

Start, and other family literacy programs.
 

Actively involve all parents in curriculum development.
 

Ensure that the curriculum is individualized to support 


the literacy goals that parents have identified for their
 

children.
 

Encourage parents to share music and songs for children
 

that are from other cultures.
 

Use visual images (books, posters, photos), furnishings,
 

toys, and foods that reflect the cultural diversity of the
 

families.
 

Respect and support the cultural values of families.
 

Create an environment that is open and that accepts differences. This acceptance is reflected in all aspects of how
 

the program is carried out, including how staff members
 

recruit and engage families, how the environment is
 

designed, what toys and other materials are available to
 

families, when and where program services are offered,
 

what community partnerships are provided that support
 

culturally diverse families, and what kinds of daily interactions occur among children, staff, and parents.
 
page 

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E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

IN PRACTICE: USING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 

TO SUPPORT FAMILY LITERACY AS WELL AS 

CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY 

PROGRAM PLANNING 

Your Community Assessment will help you identify the 

cultural and linguistic diversity in the community. The specific 

needs of the families you enroll will further define your 

curriculum as well as the short- and long-term objectives of 

your program. EHS programs and families should work in 

partnership to achieve the following: 

Identify the languages used in the community and by all 

the family members in each participating family. 

Identify the language goals for the child and family. (Is the 

goal to learn the native language first, to learn the native 

language and English simultaneously, or to learn English 

first?) 

Consider different program choices with respect to 

language options. For example, you may be able to offer 

families a choice of a non-English, home-based program 

option or a center-based, bilingual option. 

Individualize the curriculum according to the child’s needs. 

The kinds of literacy experiences offered to families should 

reflect the individual goals of the families. 

Conduct developmental and language assessments in both

languages to obtain accurate information about language

development. 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Effective communication systems are important on all levels 

of interaction, including between staff members and parents, 

among staff members, between the staff and governing 

bodies, and between parents within a family unit. Programs 

who serve culturally and linguistically diverse families but 

who lack bilingual-bicultural staff members experience 

particular challenges to ensuring that information is shared 

in a timely manner, is shared with all appropriate parties, 

and is shared in culturally sensitive ways. 

Develop a communication system that ensures that all 

parents will receive ongoing programmatic information. 

Provide written materials in the language best understood 

by the parents. Internet-based translation services may 

be of benefit; however, do ensure that the information 

has been accurately translated in a way that can be 

understood by families. These translation services may 

offer a rough translation that might not precisely convey 

the information that you intended. 

Provide parents with opportunities to interact formally 

and informally with staff. 

Provide staff and families with opportunities to learn 

another language. 

Train staff and families in language and cultural issues. 

Encourage parent participation in EHS activities by creating a welcoming environment that encourages, supports, 

respects, and values cultural diversity as well as the use 

and learning of the non-English language. 

RECORD KEEPING AND REPORTING 

A challenge that surfaces in programs serving linguistically 

diverse families concerns written documents for non-English 

speaking families. Consider how the forms your program 

uses in connection with the family (enrollment forms, consent 

forms, children’s assessments) can be offered in both English 

and other languages. At times, providing bilingual forms is 

very difficult for programs to do because they lack qualified 

bilingual staff members. Nonetheless, EHS programs need to 

provide alternative ways to record and report important 

information concerning culturally and linguistically diverse 

families. 

Consider who needs the information in the written records, 

and make sure that it is accessible to and understood by all 

appropriate parties. 

Hire bilingual staff members, use a translator, have written 

forms available in more than one language, or provide 

some combination of these services to aid effective record 

keeping for programs serving non-English speaking families. 

Consider contacting EHS programs that serve large numbers 

of culturally and linguistically diverse families. These 

programs may have forms and other resources in different 

languages that your program could adapt. 

Recruit bilingual volunteers from your families, the 

community, or other institutions to provide oral and 

written translation services. 

SELF-ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING 

The annual program self-assessment should include mechanisms for understanding how your program is meeting the 

needs of culturally and linguistically diverse families. Ask 

families whether they are comfortable with how their culture 

and language are represented in program services. Seek 

feedback from the families you are serving with respect to 

your success in meeting the families’ literacy goals. Get their 

perspective and suggestions on how to best represent their 

culture and language. Integrate appropriate cultural and 

linguistic materials by taking the following actions: 

Incorporate parents’ suggestions and ideas in all areas 

when developing a curriculum that includes their language 

and culture. 

Provide parents opportunities and resources to assess 

written and visual materials in their non-English language 

that are appropriate for them and their children. 

Invite an individual who speaks the parent’s native 

language to talk with the family about how their needs 

are being met. (Families are often more comfortable 

sharing this kind of information with someone who is from 

their own culture and who speaks their native language.) 

Identify and partner with community agencies that can 

assist your program in providing appropriate cultural and 

linguistic services. 
page 

9 

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

PROGRAM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS TO 

SUPPORT CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND EARLY 

LITERACY 

In order to help children gain the social competence, 

skills and confidence necessary to be prepared to succeed 

in their present environment and with later responsibilities in school and life, grantee and delegate agencies’ 

approach to child development and education must: 

(i) Be developmentally and linguistically appropriate, 

recognizing that children have individual rates of 

development as well as individual interests, 

temperaments, languages, cultural backgrounds, and 

learning styles: and 

(ii) Provide an environment of acceptance that supports 

and respects gender, culture, language, ethnicity and 

family composition. 

45 CFR 1304.21(a)(1)(i)–(ii) 

Grantee and delegate agencies must support the social 

and emotional development of infants and toddlers by 

promoting an environment that: 

(ii) Supports the emerging communication skills of 

infants and toddlers by providing 

daily opportunitiesfor each child 

to interact with others and to 

express himself or herself freely. 

1304.21(b)(2)(ii) 

EHS programs should work in 

partnership with culturally and 

linguistically diverse families to 

determine how best to support their 

culture and language as well as to 

design early literacy practices to 

meet those needs. Service providers 

should have management systems in 

place to carry out the necessary 

services to meet the identified needs. 

TRANSITION ISSUES: MOVING FROM EHS TO 

PRESCHOOL SETTINGS 

The transition from EHS to other early childhood programs provides an opportunity to further assist parents 

with identifying and advocating for the family’s literacy 

goals. As children move from EHS into preschool settings 

and, later, into other educational institutions, parents 

typically experience increased tension between preserving the home language and culture and controlling the 

growing influence of the English language and American 

culture. Parents are better able to manage this tension 

and give their children the best opportunities for success 

when families feel supported, respected, and empowered. 

EHS programs should be familiar with the various 

language approaches used by community programs 

serving preschool children and should help parents 

understand them also. The language goals and literacy 

experiences of available preschool programs vary and 

may be different from what families have experienced in 

EHS. Keep in mind that parents may have different goals 

Ounce of Prevention Fund, Chicago, IL 
Children may first use the non-English language in the 

English classroom even though they may not be understood by the teacher. It may take some time for these 

children to understand that a different language is 

being spoken in the new setting. 





page 

10 

E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

for their preschool age children than they had for their 

infants or toddlers and, thus, may seek a different type of 

setting. 

EHS staff members can help parents make the decision 

about what kind of a literacy environment they want for 

their child and how to advocate for what they want as 

they prepare for preschool. Giving parents some ideas 

about how the new setting could affect their child’s 

development is helpful. For example, a child may leave 

EHS understanding and speaking one language more 

readily than another, understanding both languages 

equally well, or understanding only his or her non-English language. Parents who are preparing their 

non-English speaking child to enter to a preschool where 

only English is spoken should be aware that the complex 

process of learning a second language typically involves 

the following developmental stages (Tabors, 1997): 

Children may then stop using their non-English language in the new setting during what is called a “nonverbal” period. They do not, however, stop communicating. They will use nonverbal 

gestures such as crying, whimpering, 

pointing, and so forth to make 

their needs known. They are developing a receptive understanding of 

the new language during this time 

in preparation for using the new 

language. 

In the third stage, children tend to 

use the English language in the 

form of telegraphic or formulaic 

speech and may repeat routine 

words or phrases such as “uh-oh,” 

“mine,” “okay,” “bye-bye.” These 

simple phrases help children begin 

to be involved in the social activities of the group. 

Finally, children begin using language productively. 

They are able to form new sentences and gain a more 

complex understanding of the English language. 

Naturally, children will proceed through this developmental sequence at different rates depending on factors 

such as the child’s motivation, personality, and age. Yet 

this type of developmental information can help prepare 

parents for what to expect in the new setting, can help 

them identify and establish ongoing literacy goals, and 

can enable them to advocate for what they most want 

for their children. 

IN SUMMARY 

EHS is uniquely suited to provide children and families 

from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds a 

strong foundation in early literacy development by creating an environment of acceptance that embraces cultural 

diversity and empowers families to identify their own 

literacy goals. EHS programs can play a pivotal role in 

supporting parents’ efforts to make educational decisions 

that best meet their literacy goals during the child’s 

formative first 3 years and later in life. 

Southern Oregon Early Head Start, Central Point, OR 
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

Program Profiles
 

Two EHS programs are profiled below. The first program 

is located in a large metropolitan area, and approximately 

40% of the families are Spanish speaking or Spanish and 

English speakers. The second program is a Native 

American Indian program located in rural Wisconsin, 

which strives to pass on the native Objibwe language 

and customs to future generations. 

FAMILY STAR EARLY HEAD START 

Family Star Early Head Start is an urban, center-based, 

full-day, year-round, infant-parent education center serving children from 2 months through 3 years of age. The 

Infant Parent program is a special program component 

dedicated to expectant parents. The center’s design is 

based on a dual language (Spanish and English) Montessori approach. It serves many two-parent families from a 

predominantly Latino population. Ten percent of the 

population are teens, and 12–14% are children with 

identified disabilities. Approximately 10% of the families 

are monolingual Spanish speaking, roughly 30% are 

bilingual (Spanish and English), and the rest are English 

speakers. 

Family Star demonstrates its strong belief in strengthening the communities in which its programs are located 

by hiring neighborhood women to assist in the classrooms. 

The eight classrooms at the northwest center have a 

minimum of three qualified, full-time staff members for 

eight children to maintain a high-quality environment 

and to provide both English and Spanish speakers to 

interact with the children. All children hear both 

languages, have the opportunity to learn both languages, 

and learn to differentiate who speaks Spanish and who 

speaks English. 

page

11 

Currently, the program’s two centers have 26 bilingual 

speakers, 9 additional staff members who speak primarily 

Spanish, and 23 English speakers. We hold weekly 

forums for all levels of the staff for staff development 

activities, including addressing cultural and diversity 

issues. Two weeks of in-service training annually provide 

opportunities for addressing topics such as cultural diversity, child development, working with families, and how 

to work effectively with two languages and two cultures. 

This past February, the program was fortunate to have a 

Montessori trainer from Mexico City facilitate a 2-day 

workshop with the classroom staff, focusing on language 

development. She conducted these workshops in both 

English and Spanish. 
page 

12 

E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

Family Star respects the diversity of its families and 

staff by having every memo, flyer, newsletter, and conference as well as all written materials available in both 

English and Spanish. Spanish interpreters are available 

for all parent nights, seminars, Policy Council meetings, 

and home visits. The staff members who are in key roles 

that involve family contact such as the health coordinators, family service coordinators, and male involvement 

coordinators are Latino and bilingual. 

The centers offer diverse cultural experiences to children so they may develop a sensitivity and understanding 

of the many cultures in our world. The staff, children, 

and parents explore many different cultures through 

books, activities, materials, songs, fingerplays, poems, 

and chants. Both parents and staff are wonderful 

resources who provide children (and adults) with bilingual, multicultural learning experiences and who use any 

opportunity to learn from one another. Trainings for staff 

members allow them to explore the rich cultural experiences they had as children and to bring that

self-awareness into their work. Family Star 

has a strong partnership with a local library 

for culturally diverse books in Spanish and 

English. 

The program has a strong focus on early 

literacy through its Great Start Early Literacy 

Program, which has been in operation for 

several years. This program consists of intensive staff training, daily preliteracy 

experiences in the classroom, and parent education workshops designed to give parents the 

tools to support their child’s preliteracy skill 

development at home. Some of the literacy 

activities and resources are included in the 

following descriptions. The effort to involve 

parents in the literacy program has motivated 

them to spend more time in the classroom, 

reading, observing, and getting involved in 

the literacy activities. 

Breakfast with Books: This event occurs quarterly and is 

scheduled during arrival time. Parents are served 

breakfast and invited to browse through an assortment 

of books to expand their home libraries. The books are 

available for 25 cents a piece. 

Alphabet Soup: Offered twice a month, this activity is an 

opportunity for parents to socialize with one another 

and engage in conversation with respect to parental 

issues that they share. At the end of each session, 

parents are able to check out books and materials that 

are used in the classroom. 

Resource Library: Family Star’s on-site resource library 

includes books, videos, journals, and articles on various 

topics such as health, parenting, child development, 

and fiction for children and adults. The library is open 

during regular center hours. 

Early Head Start, Sumter,SC 
page 

13 

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

Music Literacy Playgroup: Many parents participate in this 

bimonthly parent-and-child interactional group that 

was designed to promote social interaction, language, 

and preliteracy skills through music, storytelling, and 

multisensory activities. Another primary purpose of 

the group is to help working parents bond and reconnect with their children in a positive and playful environment after the work day. Families leave the group 

with many ideas and home activities to enhance their 

child’s language, motor, and emotional development. 

The staff person coordinating Family Star’s literacy 

efforts attended a 5-day intensive training at the National 

Center for Family Literacy. The training focused on the 

philosophical, theoretical, and practical foundations of 

the family literacy movement. Four component areas 

were emphasized: adult education, child education, parent literacy training, and parent-child interaction. This 

staff member has also joined the Colorado Department 

of Education’s statewide literacy consortium as the EHS 

representative. Family Star is now collaborating with the 

Department of Education and the National Center for 

Family Literacy to sponsor a 2-day intensive training on 

literacy for EHS programs in the metro area. The focus 

will be on the four components described above and will 

help EHS programs understand not only how to implement family literacy within their own programs but also 

the importance of starting early to support families by 

helping them to achieve their literacy goals. 

TERRY HUDGES, Family Star 

2246 FEDERAL BLVD. 

DENVER, CO 80211 

303-477-7827 

RED CLIFF BAND OF THE OBJIBWE INDIANS 

Members of the Red Cliff Band of Objibwe Indians 

are descendants of The Great Buffalo, one of the Lake 

Superior Chippwea. The Red Cliff Reservation spans 

approximately 14,541 acres along the southern shore of 

Lake Superior, about 90 miles east of Superior, Wisconsin. 

The ancestral lands of the Objibwe once extended along 

both shores of Lake Superior and west to the Turtle 

Mountains of North Dakota. In 1854, under Chief Buffalo, 

the Red Cliff Band of Objibwe signed the LaPointe 

Treaty, which established its reservation. The Objibwe 

Indians are one of the largest grouping of tribes in North 

America. In Wisconsin, six Objibwe reservations are 

located throughout the northern part of the state; these 

reservations form a portion of the Lake Superior Tribe of 

Chippwea Indians. 

Over the years, many of the Wisconsin Objibwe have 

moved away from their reservations to seek employment, 

education, and other opportunities in the region’s urban 

areas. Even so, the tribe has made a number of advances 

in recent decades. Tribal councils established under the 

1934 Indian Reorganization Act promoted widespread 

improvements in health, social services, and housing. 

The tribe is organized under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. The reservation is governed by an elected 

nine-member Tribal Council. Officers include a chairperson, vice chairperson, secretary, and treasurer. Each 

council member serves a 2-year term. The government 

oversees the business of 25 different departments ranging 

from education to social services to health care. Additionally, tribal courts expanded their jurisdictions to 

include child welfare, small claims, and development of 

air and water standards. 

Traditionally, high unemployment rates among the 

Objibwe have been greatly mitigated by the establishment 

of bingo and other gaming operations during the past 

decade. Other sources of tribal income include commercial fishing, forestry, production and sales of arts and 

crafts, and the region’s tourist and service economy. 
page 

14 

E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

Interest in traditional culture has seen a resurgence in 

recent years with renewed interest in the Big Drum 

Society as well as in powwows and other ceremonies. 

The Red Cliff Reservation maintains a respected tribal 

museum. 

Low educational achievement continues to be apparent 

within the population. For the adult population 18 years 

and older, 43% did not have a high school diploma or 

general equivalency certificate in 1990. The population 

of Red Cliff has been growing faster than the population 

of the surrounding communities. Births to American 

Indian teen mothers at Red Cliff accounted for 26% of 

the total births. Of all family households of American 

Indians at Red Cliff, 15.6% are females who head a 

household with children under 18 years and 4.9% are 

males who head a household with children under 18. 

Overall, 20.5% of all American Indian households at 

Red Cliff are single family units. 

The Red Cliff Early Head Start program predominately 

serves adolescent and single mothers. Although the primary language spoken in the community is English, the 

Objibwe language is being reintroduced into the tribal 

community by the EHS program and the Touchpoints 

Fatherhood Initiative. The Objibwe culture is integrated 

SHARE Greenville-Pickens 

Early Head Start, 

Greenville, SC 

in the Red Cliff program through language, art, 

music activities, and tribal ceremonies. A partiallanguage immersion program is in operation where 

teachers for infants and toddlers read, sing, and 

speak to the children in Objibwe and English. 

Many of the children’s favorite books are translated 

into Objibwe by the teachers. Members of the EHS 

staff are enrolled in an Objibwe language class 

taught on the Red Cliff reservation through the Lac 

Courte Oreille Tribal College by a Red Cliff native who 

is one of the community’s most fluent native 

language speakers. EHS staff members are also studying 

Objibwe philosophy and history. In addition, community 

members instruct the staff and children in the art of 

Objibwe basketry, rice harvesting, and flute music. 

Grandma Jenny, an 80-year-old tribal elder who is the 

cook at the Red Cliff Early Childhood Center, teaches 

moccasin making to children and staff. Powwows are 

held every Thursday at the EHS center and are open to 

all of the members of the Red Cliff community. The 

children learn the traditional grass dances, and EHS 

fathers and other men from the community bring the 

ceremonial drums to the early childhood center to drum 

and sing for the dances. 

The indoor and outdoor learning environments are 

filled with culturally specific items. A beautiful ribbon 

dress that was made by an EHS child’s auntie is displayed 

on an infant classroom wall. Wigwams are a treasured 

space in each infant-toddler learning environment. The 

wigwam is a replica of the traditional Objibwe house 

constructed of birch bark. It symbolizes the four Objibwe 

core values of respect, honesty, kindness and sharing. 

Bear rugs, gathered from hunting trips in the north 

woods of the reservation, adorn the floor of the wigwams. 
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PAPER NO .5 

The EHS teachers keep an Objibwe dictionary in the 

toddler classroom. Children often have questions how to 

translate English to their native language and meaning 

making is referenced in Objibwe. Many of the toddlers 

have a vocabulary of 30 to 40 Objibwe words. The EHS 

staff members also translate the activities and questions 

the children ask from English to Objibwe in a multileveled effort designed for language education and 

preservation. EHS parents are learning the Objibwe 

language from their children, and the center’s newsletter 

informs parents of native language activities as well as 

the children’s progress in acquiring Objibwe. 

Reverence for nature is an essential element of Objibwe 

culture and is integrated into the EHS curriculum. For 

example, in the winter, the children are curious about 

the animal tracks they observe in the snow near their 

homes and early childhood center. The children spend 

time learning Objibwe songs and stories about animals as 

well as hibernation and migration patterns. This educational element is a natural part of Red Cliff child’s world. 

The EHS center is situated deep within the alpine and 

birch north woods and is surrounded by an 8-foot fence 

to keep the bears out of the children’s playground. Often 

when the toddlers go for a walk, they see deer, rabbits, 

fox, and other small animals as well as many different 

kinds of birds. The outdoor learning environment is 

filled with the sounds of hawks, crows, and songbirds. 

The EHS staff and children join the Head Start community in participating in the sacred pipe ceremony. The 

purpose of this ceremony is to invite the ancestors to 

watch over and guide the adults in all of their endeavors 

for the benefit of the children. In the ceremony, thanks 

is given to the Four Winds and the Four Directions. 

The EHS staff comprises equally Objibwe and nonnative staff members. The non-native staff has received 

extensive training in cultural sensitivity. 

A team of early childhood professionals trained with 

Dr. T. Berry Brazelton and the Touchpoints faculty to 

acquire skills in promoting father and male involvement 

in the EHS program. The Red Cliff Touchpoints project 

incorporates Objibwe culture into a Touchpoints Model 

that will focus on father involvement. The purpose of 

the Touchpoints Community Project is threefold. The 

Touchpoints project is designed to enhance the relationships among the EHS educators, parents, as well as 

community health and social service caregivers through 

the development of an early childhood development 

curriculum that is universal and cohesive as well as culturally sensitive. An outcome of this model is reflected 

in the common language of developmental terms that is 

generated by using the Touchpoints Model for children 

from ages birth to 5 years. The second purpose of the 

project is to enhance the parenting skills and knowledge 

of early development with a special focus on fatherhood 

that is achieved by expanding opportunities for the 

fathers (or significant male role models) of young 

children to participate in the care and education of their 

children in a culturally significant manner. The third 

purpose is to use the Touchpoints Model to train 

education and health professionals around key points in 

a young child’s development. The training emphasizes 

prevention through anticipatory guidance and development of relationships between parents and providers. 

page 

15 

ROB GOSLIN, Fatherhood Demonstration Project 

DEE GOKEE-RINDALL, Director of Early Childhood Services 

RED CLIFF BAND OF THE OBJIBWE 

PO BOX 529 

BAYFIELD, WI 54814 

715-779-5030 
page 

16 

E ARLY HEAD S TART NATIONAL RESOURCE C ENTER 

Resources
 

REFERENCES 

National Research Council Institute of Medicine. (2000). 

From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early 

childhood development. 

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Tabors, P. (1997). 

One child, two languages. 

Baltimore: Brookes. 

Tabors, P., & Snow, C. (in press). 

Young bilingual children and early literacy development. 

In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook on 

research in early literacy. 

New York: Guilford. 

Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). 

When learning a second language means losing the first. 

Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 323–346 

ZERO TO THREE. (1992). 

Heart start: The emotional foundations of school 

readiness. 

Washington, DC: Author. 

PUBLICATIONS 

Barclay, K., Benelli, C., & Curtis, A. (1995). 

Literacy begins at birth: What caregivers can learn from 

parents of children who read early. 

Young Children, 50, 24–29. 

California Department of Education. (1998). 

Early messages: Facilitating language development and 

communication. (video). 

Sacramento, CA: Author. 

Health Partners. (1997). 

Food for thought. (video). Minneapolis, MN: Author. 

National Association for the Education of Young 

Children. (1995). 

Position statement: Responding to linguistic and cultural 

diversity: Recommendations for effective early childhood 

education. Washington, DC: Author. 

National Association for the Education of Young 

Children. (1998). 

Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate 

practices for young children. A joint position statement 

of the International Reading Association and the National 

Association for the Education of Young Children. 

Washington, DC: Author. 

Soto, L. D. (1991). 

Understanding bilingual/bicultural young children. 

Young Children, 46, 30–36. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1997). 

Emerging literacy: Linking social competence to learning. 

Washington, DC: Head Start Bureau. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1991). 

Promoting family literacy through Head Start. 

Washington, DC: Head Start Bureau. 

NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 

ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics 

4646 40th Street, NW 

Washington, DC 20016 

800-276-9834 

http://www.cal.org/ericcll 

Languages and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguistics 

1118 22nd Street, NW 

Washington, DC 20037 

800-276-9834 

National Association for Bilingual Education 

1220 L Street, NW Suite 605 

Washington, DC 20005-4018 

202-898-1829 

NABE@nabe.org 

http://www.nabe.org 

National Center for Family Literacy 

401 South Fourth Avenue, Suite 610 

Louisville, KY 40202 

502-584-1133 

Reading is Fundamental (RIF) 

600 Maryland Avenue, SW, Suite 600 

Washington, DC 20024 

202-287-3196 
EARLY HEAD START NATIONAL RESOURCE CENTER
 
EARLY HEAD START NATIONAL RESOURCE CENTER
 

 

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