NAT L INST. OF STAND & TECHI R

A1110M

NiST

PUBLICATIONS

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Technology

Administration

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Projects 1993

NIST SP 838-1

NIST

Building

Fiie

Research

Laboratory

U.S. Department

off Commerce

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary

Technology

Administration

Mary L. Good,

Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute

off Standards and

Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director

Noel J. Raufaste

August 1993
National Institute of Standards U.S. Goverment Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1993

Special Publication 838-1

,

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 838-1

129 pages (Aug. 1993)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
FOREWORD

The competitiveness of all U.S. industries

and the quality of life of all people depend

on the quality of the constructed facilities

that shelter and support most human activities. Construction also is of great direct

economic importance. Annually, in excess

of $600 billion is spent in the United States on the design, construction, maintenance,

repair, and renovation of constructed facili- ties, according to statistics from the U.S.

Department of Commerce. New construction alone employs 6 million people. The

quality of constructed facilities directly

affects the productivity of the U.S. building

and fire community and affects the safety

and quality of life of all constructed facili- ties. Over two-thirds of the Nation's fixed

reproducible wealth is invested in the constructed facilities.

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) is the only federal technology agency with the specific mission of

helping U.S. industry to strengthen its international competitiveness. NIST:

1. helps U.S. industry improve its competitiveness through new technologies, modernized production processes, improved quality control,

and rapid commercialization;

2. improves public health, safety, and

the environment; and

3. conducts fundamental research that

advances science and engineering.

NIST develops measurement technology,

testing procedures, quality assurance methods, and innovations that help build the

infrastructure upon which much of the U.S.

economy rests.

About BFRL. The mission of the Building

and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL), one

of NIST's eight Laboratories, is to enhance

the competitiveness of U.S. industry and

public safety through performance prediction and measurement technologies and

technical advances that improve the life cycle quality of constructed facilities.

BFRL performs and supports field, laboratory, and analytical research to understand

the performance of construction materials,

components, systems and practices, and

the fundamental processes underlying the

initiation, propagation, and suppression of

fires. Its focus is on structural, materials,

and mechanical engineering, and fire safety

and sciences. BFRL's key customers in- clude the architectural and engineering

firms, manufacturing industries, the construction and fire safety industries, codes

and standards officials, Federal and state

agencies, and occupants and users of buildings and other structures including transportation conveyances.

BFRL's work enhances the international

competitiveness of U.S. building services

and products through advancements in building and fire technology. BFRL performs and supports field, laboratory, and

analytical research on the performance of

construction materials, components, systems and practices, and the fundamental

processes underlying the initiation, propagation, and suppression of fires. The Laboratory produces technologies to predict,

measure, and test the performance of

construction and fire prevention and control

products and practices.

BFRL's laboratory facilities include:

six-degree-of-freedom structural testing

facility; large-scale structural testing facility

with the 53 MN (12-million pound) universal structural testing machine; environmental chambers; guarded hot-plate; calibrated

hot-box; plumbing tower; building materials

imaging and modeling laboratory; large burn

facility for conducting experimental fires in full-scale and related combustion toxicity

facility, large industrial fire test facilities,

and fire suppression test facilities; and a

fire simulation laboratory.

BFRL is a major nonproprietary source of

technical information for development of

voluntary standards by such organizations

iii
as ASTM; American Concrete Institute;

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers; American

Society of Civil Engineers; Institute of

Electronics and Electrical Engineers; and

National Fire Protection Association. The

resulting standards are widely used in building and fire codes.

BFRL works closely with its international

peer organizations to maintain awareness

of foreign research developments, as well as assure that generic research efforts are complementary, and U.S. interests are represented in the preparation of international standards and practices. BFRL cooperates closely with other U.S. and foreign

laboratories in the conduct of its research.

Seventy-eight research associates from

U.S. industry, guest researchers from foreign laboratories, and faculty members

from universities worked at BFRL during

1992 for periods averaging about a year.

BFRL participates in about 150 national

standardization activities; provides leadership in national and international standardization organizations and chairs more than

20 voluntary standardization committees.

BFRL annually publishes over 230 reports,

articles for research journals, and articles

for professional and trade journals. BFRL

staff annually makes hundreds of presentations to professional and technical meetings

of building community organizations. For

23 years, BFRL has hosted a monthly Building Technology Symposia Series in cooperation with other organizations concerned

with building research and practice and

hosts weekly Fire Research Seminars for

NIST staff and colleagues from the fire community. These are effective means of

transferring the latest knowledge to practitioners and peer researchers. The Fire

Research Information Service (FRIS) consisting of national and international fire research literature and FIREDOC, the automated database of fire research literature,

is the only comprehensive national library resource for the fire community.

BFRL has 201 employees of which 144 are professional staff, 74 have Ph.D.s, and 17

are registered engineers. BFRL's budget for

FY 1993 is $24 million. Congress provides

$12 million to develop core competence in emerging research areas which will be used

to assist in solving Federal agency and

industry needs. The remainder, $12 million, is from Federal agencies ($10 million)

for solving their mission needs and from

industry ($2 million).

About this Report. This report summarizes BFRL's research for 1993. The report

is arranged by its research programs: structural engineering, materials engineering,

mechanical and environmental systems, fire safety engineering, and fire science. Each

summary lists the project title, the BFRL

point of contact, sponsor, research, and

recent results.

For further information about BFRL, its facilities, opportunities for Guest Researcher assignments, collaborative programs,

and contracted research contact BFRL's

Office of Cooperative Research Programs,

Building 226, Room B250, NIST,

Gaithersburg, MD 20899. The fax number

is 301-975-4032.

iv
CONTENTS

iii Foreword

1 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

2 Performance Requirements for Passive Energy Dissipation Systems for

Buildings and Lifeline Structures

3 Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

4 Seismic Strengthening Methodologies for RC Frame Buildings

5 Geotechnical Options for Mitigating

Liquefaction Effects

6 Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC)

7 Development of Standards for Existing Federal Buildings

8 Plan for Developing and Adopting

Seismic Design Guidelines and Standards for Lifelines

9 UJNR Bridge Workshop

10 Geotechnical Evaluation for Lifelines

1 1 Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects

1 2 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR

13 Nonlinear Chaotic Behavior of Dynamic Structural Systems

14 Design Wind Load Criteria for

Manufactured Housing in Hurricane

Zones

15 Calibration of Marshall Compaction

Hammers

1 7 High Performance Concrete

1 8 Transport Properties of Porous Media

19 Computer Simulation of the Transport Properties of Cement-Based

Materials

20 Development of Microstructure and

Permeability in Mortar and Concrete

2 I Cementitious Materials Modeling

Laboratory (CMML)

22 Whole-Pattern Fitting Methods for

Quantitative X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis of Clinker and Cement

23 Performance Criteria for Long Lived

Concrete for Radioactive Waste

Storage

24 Concrete Degradation Computer

Code for LLW Performance Assessments

25 Cracking in Parking Garage MLP-7A

at NIH

26 COATINGS

27 Modeling the Degradation of HighPerformance Organic Protective

Coating Systems

28 Coating Technology Consortium

29 Method for Measuring Water Stripping Resistance of Asphalt/Siliceous

Aggregate Mixtures

30 Organic Coatings

31 Long-Term Performance of PolymerBased Encapsulants for Lead-Based

Paint on Interior Walls of Air Force

Buildings

16 CONCRETE

v
32 Long-Term Performance of PolymerBased Encapsulants for Lead-Based

Paint on Interior Walls of Army

Buildings

33 Coatings Suitable for Application to

Damp Steel Surfaces

34 QUALITY ASSURANCE

35 Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory

36 AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory

37 Construction of Addition to BFRL's

Concreting Materials Building

37 Quantification of External Weathering Stresses

38 Performance Criteria for Single-Ply

Roofing Membranes

39 Materials and Processes for Durable

Relocatable Rigid Wall Structures

40 REFRIGERATION AND MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

41 Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with Refrigerant 1 23 and Horizontal Two-Phase

Flow of R32/R134A

42 Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures

43 Mixtures of Fluorocarbons on Alternatives for R1 1 , R1 2, R22, and

R502

44 Alternative Refrigerants in Heat

Pumps

45 Evaluation of a Modified Residential

Heat Pump Using a Zeotropic Mixture

46 Zeotropic Water Cooled Chiller

46 Evaluation of Maintenance Practices

of Large Centrifugal Chillers

47 Communication Protocols for Building Controls

48 Real Time Fault Detection and Diagnostics

50 HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER

51 Experimental Validation of BFRL

Moisture Transfer Model

52 Advanced Thermal Insulation Products

53 Moisture Control Guidelines for

Attics, Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl

Spaces, and Walls

54 Thermal Resistance Measurements

on Foam Insulation and PowderPanel Insulation

56 RESIDENTIAL EQUIPMENT ENERGY

USE

57 Monitoring an Advanced Variable

Speed Integrated Heat Pump/Water

Heating Appliance

58 Test Methods for Heat Pumps and

Air Conditioners Integrating Thermal

Energy Storage and Water Heating

59 Test Procedures for Heat Pumps and

Air Conditioners

60 Test Procedures for Furnaces, Boil- ers, and Integrated Appliances

61 Revised Test Procedures for Refrigerator-Freezers

62 Revised Test Procedures for Pool

and Spa Heaters
63 INDOOR AIR QUALITY

64 Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality Models

65 Ventilation Assessment in Commercial Buildings

66 Development of a System for Ventilation Assessment in Commercial

Buildings

67 Fluid Mechanics of Airflow Measurement in Ventilation Systems

68 Large Building Ventilation Guide

69 Radon Entry and Mitigation in Large

Buildings

71 COMPUTER INTEGRATED CONSTRUCTION

72 Building Industry Framework for

Developing Step Application Protocols

73 Computer-Based Building Regulations and Standards

74 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY

75 Field Measurement and Modeling of

Lighting Distributions

76 Lighting and HVAC Interactions

77 Test Procedures for Lighting Fixtures

and Systems

78 Evaluation of Occupant Response to

Lighting Retrofits

79 Requirements for High Technology

Workstations

80 LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

81 Simulation of Turbulent Combustion

and Transport in Fires

81 Office Building Fire Research Program

82 In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

83 Characterization of Large Fires

84 Large Scale Test Facility

85 FIRE MODELING

88 Ceiling Fires

87 Large Scale Smoke Movement

88 Hazard Development

89 Development of the Fire Data Management System (FDMS) Database

System for Fire Related Data

90 FIRE PROTECTION APPLICATION

91 Furniture Flam inn ability

92 Merger of FPETOOL and HAZARD I

92 Cone/Lift/Toxtcity Support

93 Comprehensive Fire Risk Assessment Method

94 Heat and Smoke Movement Influ- ence on Detector and Sprinkler

Response in Enclosed Spaces with

Complex Ceiling Geometries

95 Technical Assistance for Evaluating

Fire Barrier Performance

96 Effects of Fire Suppressants on

Safety Related Equipment

97 Fire and Thermal Characteristics of

Navy Fire Fighter Trainers

97 Live Fire Testing

98 Public Education Booklet on Household Fire Warning Equipment

vii
98 Escape Planning for Board and Care

Facility Residents

99 Sprinkler Standard for Board and

Care Facilities

100 Fire Research Computer Bulletin

Board System (FRBBS)

100 Fire Research Information Service

102 SMOKE DYNAMICS RESEARCH

103 Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

104 Soot Formation and Evolution

105 Study of Smoke Agglomerates

105 Smoke Sampling Techniques Training Course and Smoke Sampling in Saudi Arabia

106

107 Polymer Flammability Modeling

108 Burning Rate of Materials

109 Flame Retardant Study on Engineering Plastics

1 10 Fire Resistant Aircraft Materials

1 1 1 Radiative Ignition and Flame Spread

Over Cellulosic Materials

1 12 Kevlar Barrier Effectiveness in CB

133

117 Agent Screening for Halon 1301

Aviation Replacement

1 18 Agent/System Compatibility for

Halon 1301 Aviation Replacement

1 1 9 Risk Analysis for the Fire Safety of

Airline Passengers

120 Cigarette Ignition Metrology

121 Smoke Movement and Smoke Layer

Development in High Bay Areas

121 Evaluation of Metal Versus Plastic

Piping in Fire Sprinkler Systems

MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH

1 1 3 FIRE SENSING AND EXTINGUISHMENT

1 14 Advanced Fire Detection Systems

1 1 5 Detecting and Monitoring Fires with

Open-Path FTIR Spectroscopy

116 Dynamics of Fire Suppression

viii

i
STRUCTURES

DIVISION

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Performance Requirements for

Passive Energy Dissipation Systems

for Buildings and Lifeline Structures

Principal Investigator:

Harry Shenton

Structures Division

301-975-6067

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop standard performance criteria and test procedures to evaluate seismic base-isolation

bearings.

Problem

Passive energy dissipation systems for seismic

base isolation is effective in reducing the level of

response in structures during strong earthquake

ground shaking. The primary component of a

base-isolation system, the bearing, must be

capable of withstanding complex static and

dynamic loads during the normal life of the

system. However, there are no standard performance criteria and test procedures to evaluate

seismic base-isolation bearings.

Approach

This research involves five tasks:

1 . Perform a survey data from technical publications, journal articles and manufacturers reports on

seismic isolation bearings used in buildings,

bridges and other large structures. This survey

includes information on materials, design, test procedures, performance characteristics, energy

dissipation capacity, tension up-lift capacity,

displacement limiting devices, fire protection,

maintenance, and repair or replacement.

2. Create an oversight committee of individuals

from the base-isolation community, with expertise

in design, fabrication and testing, to act in an

advisory capacity throughout the development of

the draft standard.

3. Develop a summary of existing or potential

performance criteria and testing procedures from

reviews of data and input from the oversight

committee. This information will serve as the

basis for a workshop.

4. Conduct a two- or three-day workshop on

performance criteria and test procedures for baseisolation bearings. Participants will be invited from

the design, fabrication, manufacturing and re- search communities to discuss issues related to the standardization of performance criteria and

test procedures, and provide input for the development of a draft standard.

5. Develop a draft standard using input from the

oversight committee, workshop, and data survey.

The results of the research will produce a draft standard serving as a resource document for voluntary standard/specification writing bodies.

Recent Results

Shenton, Harry W., Ill, "Design Criteria for Base

Isolation of Buildings," Wind and Seismic Effects,

Proceedings of the 24th US-Japan Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects, NIST SP 843, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, September

1992.

Shenton, Harry W., Ill, Lin, Albert N., and Lew,

H.S., "Performance of Fixed and Isolated Structures," Tenth World Conference on Earthquake

Engineering, Vol. 7, pp 2485-2490, July 1992,

Madrid, Spain.

Shenton, Harry W., Ill and Lin, Albert N., "Relative

Performance of Fixed-Base and Base-Isolated

Concrete Frames," ASCE, Journal of the Structural Division, June 1 992.

Lin, Albert N., "Design Force Levels for BaseIsolated Structures," Proceedings, 1992 CIB World

Congress, Montreal, Canada, May 1 9, 1 992.

Lin, Albert N. and Shenton, Harry W., Ill, "Seismic

Performance of Fixed-Base and Base-Isolated Steel

Frames," ASCE, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 118, No. 5, May 1992.

2
Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

Principal Investigator:

William Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Geraldine S. Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

and

The American Concrete Institute Concrete Research Council

Objective

The objectives of this project are to develop

technical data and to recommend rational and

consistent seismic design provisions for moment

resistant precast concrete beam-column connections.

Problem

Careful attention to connection detail is required to ensure ductility and to prevent premature yielding

of connections. To exploit the benefits that exist

in precast construction, ATC-8, the Proceedings of Workshop on Design of Prefabricated Concrete

Buildings for Earthquake Loads, identified

research on moment resistant joints between

precast beam and column elements as the top

priority item.

Strength and ductility of joints of precast beamcolumn connections can be achieved by posttensioning the precast elements, special reinforcing arrangements, and fiber reinforced grout in the

joints. Technical data are needed to establish

provisions for code and standards, thereby

promoting precast construction in seismically

active regions.

Approach

Currently, there is limited guidance for the design

and detailing of precast concrete structures for seismically active regions. The 1985 UBC permits

the use of precast concrete elements to resist seismic forces when the design and detailing

satisfies the Code requirements for cast-in-place

concrete structures. The 1985 edition of the UBC

Code was in use at the time this research was

initiated. Precast structures tend to be less ductile

and tend to have a less stable inelastic response

than do cast-in-place monolithic structures. This is primarily because the inelastic strains are concentrated in the connections. Thus, the connections

are often unavoidable weak links. A task group of individuals form the academic

research community, the Precast/Prestressed

Concrete Institute, the Portland Cement Association, and the design profession, has been formed

by ACI to provide technical guidance on the

project. This task group will guide the design of specific joint details for BFRL's consideration. An

experimental model study will be performed to characterize joint behavior. The experimental

program is divided into four phases:

1 . Exploratory phase to determine a viable

connection.

2. Parametric study of details developed in Phase

1.

3. Effect of partially bonded tendons.

4. Effect of using low strength steel in conjunction with post-tensioning in a precast connection.

The successful completion of this project will have

a broad impact on building construction in seismic

zones. Precast moment-resisting frames can be

erected at substantial time savings over traditional monolithic (cast-in-place) construction techniques.

Furthermore, there is enhanced material quality

control afforded by using pre-manufactured

elements. Both of these factors will improve U.S. construction productivity and competitiveness.

Recent Results

Cheok, Geraldine, Stone, William, and Lew, H.S.,

"Seismic Performance Behavior of Precast Concrete Beam-Column Joints," Submitted to Pro- ceedings of the ASCE Structures Concrete, April

1993.

Stone, William, "Model Precast Concrete Beam-toColumn Connections Subjected to Cyclic Loading," PCI Journal, accepted December 1992.

Cheok, Geraldine, Stone, William, and Lew, H.S.,

"Partially Prestressed and Debonded Precast Concrete Beam-Column Joints," Proceedings of

the Third Meeting of the U.S. Japan Joint Technical Coordinating Committee on Precast Seismic

3
Structural Systems (JTCC-PRESSS), San Diego,

CA, November 18-20, 1992.

Seismic Strengthening Methodologies for RC Frame Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Long Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop seismic strengthening guidelines for

lateral load resisting capacity of lightly reinforced

concrete (RC) frame buildings.

Problem

Most RC structures in the eastern United States

are not designed to resist large earthquakes.

Thus, in the event of a strong motion earthquake,

many RC buildings, which were designed primarily

for gravity loads, are vulnerable to severe damage

or even to total collapse. To minimize such

vulnerability, local weaknesses in the buildings

must be accurately identified, and the building as a whole must be strengthened with appropriate

lateral load resisting elements to provide adequate

stiffness and strength to resist lateral loads

produced by moderate earthquakes and sufficient

ductility to absorb imparted energy of a strong

earthquake without collapse.

Analytical tools are not available to identify the

weaknesses in a structural system and to assess proposed strengthening schemes, both at the

sophisticated level needed for analytical research,

and at the simplified level needed for day-to-day

practice by design engineers. Also lacking is practical guidance for engineers to select and design retrofit schemes.

Approach

A systematic examination of available test data,

performed by BFRL in FY 1 992 has yielded

empirical hysteresis models for one-bay, one-story

bare frames, monolithic wall-frame constructions,

frames strengthened by cast-in-place infilled wall,

and frames strengthened by precast concrete

panels. The models were incorporated into the

program IDARC for use in inelastic analysis,

successful validation of the model has been

4
obtained utilizing results of a one-bay, one-story

test and a one-bay, three-story test.

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop hysteresis

models of:

Existing B-C joints,

Columns strengthened by jacketing,

Frames infilled by masonry walls, and

Frames strengthened by steel bracing.

The complete set of hysteresis models will provide

the program IDARC with an enhanced capability in inelastically analyzing existing RC structures and

structures strengthened by the various schemes

described above. This analytical capability will be

used to perform a parametric study on a number

of selected buildings.

The system identification method also will be used

to develop empirical expressions, using the same

experimental database, for ultimate shear capacity, energy absorption, and ductility factor of un- strengthened and strengthened structures.

These empirical expressions could be used by

design engineers to predict the capacities of the

structures before and after strengthening. The

results of parametric study, coupled with the

expressions for structural capacities, will provide

the basis for developing guidelines for seismic

strengthening of lightly RC structures in future

years.

The results of this project are expected to produce

guidelines for providing lateral load resisting

elements. They will be used to evaluate the

capacity of existing buildings and identify deficiencies; and to predict seismic performance of the

buildings after strengthening and provide quantitative assessment of the improvement in seismic

performance.

Recent Results

Phan, Long, T., Todd, Diana, R., Lew, H.S.,

"Seismic Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete

Frame Buildings," submitted to the 1993 National

Earthquake Conference, Memphis, TN.

Phan, Long T, Todd, Diana, R., Lew, H.S.,

Strengthening Methodology for Lightly Reinforced

Concrete Frames-/, NISTIR 5128, National Insti- tute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, February 1993.

Geotechnical Options for Mitigating

Liquefaction Effects

Principal Investigator:

Felix Y. Yokel

Structures Division

301-975-6069

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To study the effectiveness of ground improvement

and other options for mitigating or preventing

liquefaction.

Problem

Many lifeline systems are vulnerable to the effects

of liquefaction. While it is in most instances

feasible to locate critical structures and support

facilities on sites which are not susceptible to large

ground displacements and other liquefaction

effects, similar precautions are not always possible

for long, linear system elements such as pipe and

rail lines. Furthermore, there are many existing

lifelines which are vulnerable to earthquake effects

because of their location or because of antiquated

design and deterioration due to age. Even when

aging system elements are replaced, it is not

always possible to relocate these systems in less vulnerable areas because of right-of-way restric- tions or the geographical location of existing

developed areas which must be served.

Two strategies are available for dealing with the

liquefaction problem: (1) design the lifelines to

resist or accommodate large ground displacements

and other effects associated with liquefaction; and

(2) implement ground or system improvements

which will prevent liquefaction or modify its effects. Strategy (2) is of particular interest in conjunction with retrofit of existing systems. This

project will concentrate on ground improvement.

Known ground improvement options include

drainage, densification and soil modification by

grouting or other methods. The greatest impediment to ground improvement is cost.

Two problems need to be addressed: 1 . determine

the effectiveness of proposed methods; and 2. develop in-situ and laboratory performance tests which can measure the success of the implementation of the improvement and provide reasonable

quality control in the field.

5
Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will: 1 . conduct analytical

modeling of the soil improvement; and 2. develop

in-situ and laboratory tests that can be used to measure the success of the improvement. For the

former, analytical studies will be conducted in which various soil improvements will be modeled

to determine the difference between the response

of the improved and the unimproved site. Actual

performance data, to the extent available, also will be collected. For the latter, various test methods

will be examined, including in-situ tests (SPT,

CPT, geophysical, ambient vibration effects) which

can determine the change in soil density and

possibly shear strength, and laboratory tests on

undisturbed samples (as feasible).

Recent Results

New project late 1 992.

Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in

Construction (ICSSC)

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor.

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Office of Earthquakes and Natural Hazards

Objective

The objective of this project is to facilitate and

expedite the work of the Interagency Committee

on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC), by

providing the Chair and Secretariat.

Problem

The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction

Program (NEHRP) established the ICSSC to assist

Federal departments and agencies develop,

improve, and maintain seismic safety programs for

all types of construction. Thirty Federal departments and agencies participate in ICSSC. The

National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Act

(amended by Public Law 101-614) designates the

Director of NIST, or his Deputy, as the Chair of

the ICSSC. NIST provides the Secretariat to the

ICSSC, to facilitate, document, and disseminate

the work of the Committee. The ICSSC is currently developing seismic evaluation and rehabilita- tion standards for existing Federally owned and

leased buildings.

Approach

NIST schedules and chairs at least two annual

meetings of the Full Committee and at least one

annual meeting of the Steering Committee. BFRL

develops the meeting agendas and minutes,

maintains membership rosters, and performs administrative tasks as needed to maintain this Committee.

NIST, working with ICSSC's Subcommittee 1 and

Full Committee, will develop consensus seismic

standards for assessment and rehabilitation of

existing Federally owned and leased buildings.

Recent Results

Council of American Building Officials, Assessment of the Seismic Provisions of Model Building

Codes, NIST GCR 91-598, National Institute of

i
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

July 1992.

Todd, Diana and Bieniawski, Ann, Eds., Guidelines

and Procedures for Implementation of the Executive Order on Seismic Safety of New Building Construction, NISTIR 4852, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

June 1992.

National Conference of States on Building Codes

and Standards, Seismic Provisions of State and

Local Building Codes and Their Enforcement, NIST

GCR 91-599, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June 1 992.

Development of Standards for Existing Federal Buildings

Principal Investigator.

H.S. Lew

Structures Division

301-975-6061

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor.

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Office of Earthquakes and Natural Hazards

Objective

The objective of this project is to meet the requirement of Section 8(a)(1) of Public Law 101-614 to develop standards for assessing and enhancing

the seismic safety of existing Federal buildings.

Problem

Buildings constructed without adequate consideration of seismic safety present a significant

potential threat to human life during an earthquake. No nationally accepted private sector standards exist to address this issue. The Federal

Government wishes to set an example by establishing standards for the evaluation and rehabilita- tion of Federally owned and leased buildings. The

standards developed will be used by Federal

agencies.

Approach

The standards to be forwarded to the President

are to be approved by consensus of the ICSSC. A

contractor will develop drafts of performance

objectives, rehabilitation criteria, standards, and

supporting documents. ICSSC Subcommittee 1 (Standards for New and Existing Buildings) will review and revise the draft documents as appropriate. The revised draft standard will be forwarded to the Full Committee of the ICSSC for consensus approval. After OMB review and approval,

the standard will be submitted to the office of the

President.

Development of standards for Federal use is expected to contribute to a long-term FEMA

project to develop guidelines for national private sector use. When the standards are adopted and

enforced, the seismic safety of existing Federal

buildings will be enhanced.

7
Recent Results

Dagenkolb, HJ. Associates, Engineers, Rutherford

& Chekene, Consulting Engineers, Proceedings:

ICSSC Issues Workshop, Development of Seismic

Evaluation and Rehabilitation Standards for

Federally Owned and Leased Buildings, NIST GCR

92-617, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1992.

Plan for Developing and Adopting

Seismic Design Guidelines and

Standards for Lifelines

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

and

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Office of Earthquakes and Natural Hazards

Objective

To develop a National Plan, including technical

issues, organizational requirements, timetable, and

budget, for developing and adopting seismic

design guidelines and standards for lifelines.

Problem

Lifelines are public works and utilities systems that

support human activities. Lifeline systems include

electrical power, gas and liquid fuels, telecommunications, transportation, and water supply and

sewers. These systems are vulnerable to earthquakes. At least 39 of the 50 States are subject

to severe or moderate earthquake hazards.

Assessment of earthquake hazards indicate that one or more server earthquakes can be expected

to strike U. S. metropolitan areas in the next

decade.

While loss of life and property damage would be

confined within an earthquake's felt area, economic losses, particularly those caused by the failure of lifeline systems, are widely spread throughout

the nation as the result of the nation's close

interdependency of its commerce activities. Public

Law 101-614 mandated that NIST, working with

FEMA, would create a Plan for developing and

adopting seismic design and construction stan- dards for lifelines. The Plan will be reviewed by

FEMA, the NEHRP Advisory Committee, the

ICSSC, and OMB as it is completed for submittal

to Congress.

Approach

BFRL has worked with private sector experts

through a Steering Group, conducted a September

1991 lifelines workshop, and prepared a first draft of the Plan in the spring 1 992 for review by FEMA

and the NEHRP Advisory Committee. The draft

8
incorporates comments of the Advisory Committee; a revised version is being reviewed by the

Advisory Committee. It is expected that the

proposed Plan will be forwarded to OMB in February and to Congress in the spring of 1 993.

The Plan represents the consensus recommendations of the Federal agencies and the private sector recommendations for developing and

adopting seismic design guidelines and standards

for lifelines. Two reports will be published in the

summer of 1 993: 1 . Proceedings of the September 1991 Workshop on Lifelines, and 2. A Plan for

Developing and Adopting Seismic Design Guidelines and Standards for Lifelines.

Recent Results

Developed draft National Plan on seismic design

guidelines and standards for lifelines.

UJNR Bridge Workshop

Principal Investigator:

H.S. Lew

Structures Division

301-975-6061

Sponsor.

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Engineering and Highway Operations

Research and Development

Objective

To hold, under the auspices of the UJNR Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, a joint U.S.-Japan

bridge workshop to exchange the latest developments in wind and seismic design criteria, construction methods, and repair and strengthening

techniques.

Problem

Both the United States and Japan continually

update design criteria based on research and field performance data. Timely exchange of technical

data is beneficial for both countries for updating

design and construction standards for bridge

structures.

Approach

In cooperation with an academic institution, a joint

workshop was planned and held at Tsukuba,

Japan in May 1993.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

9
Geotechnical Evaluation for Lifelines

Principal Investigator:

Steven Glaser

Structures Division

301-975-6051

Felix Y. Yokel

Structures Division

301-975-6065

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To assess and propose improved methods of site exploration and predictive models for large earthquake-induced ground displacements and their effect on lifelines.

Problem

Lifeline systems are vulnerable to large earthquake-induced ground displacements, such as

those associated with liquefaction, land slides,

slope failures and fault displacements. They also are vulnerable to pressure gradients and particle

migration associated with liquefaction. Many older

lifeline systems deteriorated by corrosion and

other aging effects are especially vulnerable. As

new lifeline systems become more complex, their vulnerability often is increased. While in most

instances it is feasible to locate critical structures and support facilities on sites which are not

susceptible to large ground displacements, similar

precautions are not always possible for long linear system elements such as pipelines, communication and electrical transmission lines, highways,

and rail lines. To design lifelines that resist or accommodate large ground displacements, it is necessary to map the location of critical areas and

reasonably estimate the magnitudes of anticipated

displacements.

Approach

Two aspects of this problem are of general

interest: Identification of vulnerable sites; and

quantification of displacements which are potentially harmful to lifelines. The study approach will have two components: (1 ) assessment and

refinement of soil exploration methods; and (2) assessment of models for predicting ground

displacements.

Initially, the emphasis in this research is on

liquefaction and its effects. Liquefaction potential

may be ascertained by in-situ exploration methods

such as SPT, CPT and SASW. BFRL will consider

the possibility of applying system identification

methods, such as those recently used by BFRL in a study of building response in the San Francisco

Bay area, and consider state-of-the-art geophysical

methods. BFRL will refine instrumentation, developed in a previous study, to measure forces and

velocities in the drill rod below the anvil in the

SPT. The instrumentation will be used in field studies conducted by others to determine whether

the added information on the load-displacement

function at the lower end of the rod can be used

to improve the prediction of liquefaction potential

and effects. The results of this work will provide

sound estimates of actual performance of liquefiable sands during earthquake loading.

Recent Results

Glaser, Steven, D., Estimating Soil Parameters

Important for Liquefaction Siting Using Identification Techniques, NISTIR 5143, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

March 1993.

Glaser, Steven, D., "Estimation of Soil Parameters

Using System Identification Theory," ASCE

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, submitted

February 1993.

10
Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects

Principal Investigator.

Noel J. Raufaste

BFRL Headquarters

301-975-5905

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

and

10 Federal Agencies

Objective

To provide the U.S. Secretariat of the U.S.-Japan

Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects.

Problem

Loss of life and property from high winds and

seismic loads often result from inadequate knowledge to cost-effectively design and construct

buildings and other structures. The development

of improved mitigation practices are in its early

stages of development. Technical collaborations

between experts in the United States and Japan

need to continue to realize improvements in knowledge of natural hazard mitigation practices.

Such improvements are possible through joint

working relations with such experts through

performing joint research projects and exchanges

of research personnel, technical data and information, and research equipment. This Panel is part

of the U.S.-Japan Natural Resources Development

Program under the aegis of the U.S.-Japan

Cooperative Science Program of 1961.

Approach

1 . Manning U.S.-side activities (20 Agency

membership), hosting two U.S. Panel's domestic

meetings, and managing the U.S. delegation's

technical contributions to Annual Joint Meetings.

2. Planning and coordinating technical activities of

the Panel's 10 Task Committees.

3. Maintaining liaison with U.S. and Japan Panel

members and other experts associated with the

Panel's activities.

The Panel's generated data influences on-going

U.S. and Japan structural engineering research,

influences BFRL's structural engineering program

planning, and guides improvements of building

codes and standards of both countries. Data has

advanced technologies in the areas of steel structures under seismic forces, large-scale testing

of masonry structures, soil dynamics and liquefaction, large-scale bridge piers subjected to seismic

loads, ground motion, pavements, and dynamic

stability of embankment dams.

Recent Results

Raufaste, Noel J., Wind and Seismic Effects,

Proceedings of the 24th Joint Meeting, NIST

Special Publication 843, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

September 1 992.

Tokida, Ken-ichi and Raufaste, Noel J., List of

Publications 1969-1991, Panel on Wind and

Seismic Effects, NIST Special Publication 835,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, April 1992.

Raufaste, Noel J. (Ed), Earthquake Resistant

Construction Using Base Isolation Volumes 1 and

2, NIST Special Publication 832 Vol 1 & 2,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, April 1992.

4. Preparing and distributing periodic activities reports and publishing annual Proceedings and

other materials as appropriate for distribution to

U.S.-side Panel members and users of such

knowledge.

1

1
STRUCTURES

DIVISION

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR

12
Nonlinear Chaotic Behavior of Dynamic Structural Systems

Principal Investigator.

Emil Simiu

Structures Division

301-975-6076

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a computational and experimental

basis for the study of nonlinear and chaotic phenomena of potential interest in structural engineering.

Problem

Engineering systems exhibiting nonlinear behavior

may undergo chaotic motions. The understanding

of basic aspects of such motions is needed to develop the theoretical basis of design and evaluation methods appropriate for these systems.

Approach

Based on results of experimental and numerical

studies obtained earlier in this project, it will be

shown that certain noise-driven stochastically

unstable motions may be approximated arbitrarily

by deterministic chaos orbits. The study will be

conducted for oscillators whose unperturbed

counterpart exhibits homo- and herteroclinic orbits

and will make use of the generalized Melnikov

distance, the attendant traveling horseshoe

sequence concept, and the estimation of transport across pseudo-separatrices via one-sided flux. The approach will be developed by Gaussian and

Non-Gaussian noise. The identity of the results obtained by this approach and by the FokkerPlanck approach will be verified in a canonical

case.

Recent Results

Simiu, Emil and Grigoriu, M., "Non-Gaussian Noise

Effects on Reliability of Multistable Systems,"

submitted to 1 2th International Conference on

Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, June

1993.

Frey, E. and Simiu, Emil, "Noise-Induced Chaos

and Phase-Space Flux," Physica D Nonlinear Phenomena, February 1 993.

Simiu, Emil and Cook, Graham, "Empirical Fluid- elastic Models and Chaotic Galloping: A Case

Study," Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 1 54,

No. 1, pp. 45-66, 1992.

Frey, E. and Simiu, Emil, "Deterministic and

Stochastic Chaos," Computational Stochastic Mechanics, Cheung and Yang, eds. Elsevier (submitted Dec. 1 992)

Simiu, Emil and Frey, E., "Melnikov Function and

Homoclinic Chaos Induced by Weak Perturbations," Physical Review A1 5, in review.

Simiu, Emil and Frey, E., "Noise Modeling and

Reliability of Behavior Prediction for Multi-Stable

Hydroelastic Systems," Proceedings of the 11th

International Conference on Offshore Mechanics

and Arctic Engineering, June 1992.

Simiu, Emil and Frey, E., "Equivalence Between

Motions with Noise-Induced Jumps and Chaos

with Smale Horseshoes," Engineering Mechanics,

Proceedings of the Ninth Engineering Mechanics

Conference, ASCE, May 1992.

13
Design Wind Load Criteria for Manufactured Housing in Hurricane

Zones

Principal Investigator.

Richard D. Marshall

Structures Division

301-975-6071

Sponsor.

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

Innovative Technology Division

Objective

To develop revised wind load criteria for the

design of manufactured housing intended for hurricane regions.

Problem

The Manufactured Home Construction and Safety

Standards (CFR Pt. 3280) were implemented in 1976. Section 3280.305 contains structural design requirements which include the effects of

live loads, wind, and snow loads. Paragraph (c)(2)

defines the designation Hurricane Resistive (Zone

II) and requires that the home and each wind

resisting part and portion thereof be designed for horizontal wind loads of not less than 25 psf

(1 .20 kPa) and net uplift of not less than 1 5 psf

(718 Pa). Experience in South Florida and Louisiana during Hurricane Andrew suggests that

these wind load requirements may not adequately

describe the forces that a manufactured home is likely to experience in a hurricane. There is a need

to critically examine the wind load requirements of CFR Pt. 3280 in light of this experience and

develop revised wind load criteria which will improve the performance of manufactured homes

in hurricane winds.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will perform the following:

3. Assemble data on damage to manufactured

housing units in the path of Hurricane Andrew and

document the surface wind speeds associated

with the passage of Andrew across South Florida.

4. Develop revised design wind load requirements

based on existing data from full-scale and wind

tunnel model studies. The revised criteria will address the effects of wind exposure, blockage,

and channeling, and will address overall forces,

internal pressures, and wind pressures on tributary areas.

5. Review the relevant structural load tests described in CFR Pt. 3280 and outline a program

for the development of test methods that will ensure compliance with the revised wind load design requirements.

6. Prepare a report of findings and recommendations.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

1 . Review the current CFR wind load requirements in light of the corresponding provisions of the South Florida Building Code and ASCE 7-88

(Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other

Structures).

2. Provide HUD with recommendations on

issuance of interim wind load design criteria.

14
Calibration of Marshall Compaction

Hammers

Principal Investigator.

Harry Shenton

Structures Division

301-975-6067

Sponsor.

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Engineering and Highway Operations

Research and Development

Pavements Division

Objective

To develop a practical testing apparatus which can

be used to "calibrate" mechanical hammers used

in the Marshall asphalt mix design procedure.

Problem

The Marshall test procedure is currently used by

most state and local highway agencies for asphalt

mix design. The first step in the procedure consists of compacting mix specimens using a manual

or mechanically operated Marshall compaction

hammer. Tests are then performed on the compacted specimen to establish various design

parameters. The results of many round-robin mix

exchange programs has shown there to be a wide

variation in mix design parameters when a given

mix is compacted with different compaction

hammers. Several hammer-related variables have

been found to play a key role in influencing

Marshall test results, a few include: pedestal

support, hammer alignment, hammer mass and

friction. A method for quantifying the effect of key

equipment-related variables is needed, so a

"standard" level of energy can be delivered to specimens using different compaction hammers.

The desirable method should include the following

attributes: simple to use, robust calibration device,

suitable for a laboratory or field environment, and

a calibration procedure.

Approach

Conduct a literature search to establish the state- of-knowledge on the effect of hammer-related

variables on test result inconsistencies. Conduct a

limited experimental investigation to determine the

load-deformation and energy absorption characteristics of four typical asphalt mix designs. Based

on the literature search and experimental investigation, one or more initial design concepts for the

calibration device will be developed and presented

to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) for review. The prototype calibration device will be

fabricated and assembled into a testing equipment

package. A calibration procedure will be established for adjusting the number of blows for a given set of Marshall equipment so a "standard"

level of energy can be imparted to test specimens.

BFRL will perform laboratory evaluation of the

device by calibration under simulated conditions,

similar to those determined from test result inconsistencies. Results will be documented in a

final report and the prototype device delivered to the FHWA.

The results of this work are expected to provide more uniform asphalt pavement designs and

higher quality pavements.

Recent Results

New project late FY 1 992.

15
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

CONCRETE
High Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator.

Nicholas Carino

Structures Division

301-975-6063

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for the formulation, evaluation, and engineering applications of high-performance concretes.

Problem

After many years of relatively slow advances in concrete technology, a worldwide awareness has

arisen that the performance of concrete in areas such as ease of placement, strength development

and durability can be significantly improved. This

is evident from the program plans of the CEB and

the high level of concrete research activities in Japan, Norway, and Canada. In the United

States, programs such as the Concrete and

Structures program of the Strategic Highway

Research Program and the establishment of the

NSF Center for Advanced Cement-Based Materials

are a response to the need for improved concretes

and the recognition of the possibility of their development. However, because these programs

are either of a problem-solving nature or an

exploratory nature, they are unlikely by themselves to provide the measurement technology

and design guidelines needed for U.S. leadership in high-performance concrete (HPC) technology. U.S

leadership in high-performance concrete technology can be a major contributor to enhancement

of the competitiveness of the nation's construction industry. As the Nation's central building

research organization, BFRL is in a unique position to provide a focus for the development of highperformance concrete technology.

Approach

This multi-year project is aimed at advancing the

understanding of the properties and long-term

performance of high-performance concrete and

the development of guidelines for: 1 . proportioning

and mixing HPCs; 2. evaluating the physical

properties and durability of HPC; 3. performing

structural design with HPC; and 4. performing field construction with HPC. Two of the urgent needs

identified at the NIST/ACI Workshop held in May

1990 were (1) information on the mechanical and

physical properties of HPC, and (2) information on

the durability of HPC compared with conventional

concrete.

BFRL's research in FY 1991 included determining

the applicability of the maturity method to HPC. In FY 92, work was initiated on developing a basis

for standards for compressive strength testing of

HPC and on determining the applicability of

standard frost resistance tests for conventional

concrete to HPC. The frost resistances of HPC

and neat cement specimens with a water-to-solids

(w/s) ratio of 0.38 were studied using ASTM C

666, "Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing

and Thawing." The effects of curing ages,

between 1 and 91 days, and curing conditions were investigated. Also, different methods for measuring the rate of degradation were investigated. The results suggest that if non-air entrained

HPCs are given a season of curing, they may have

adequate frost resistance and that the curing time

(14 days) in ASTM C 666 is not adequate for evaluating HPCs. In FY 1 993, BFRL will evaluate

the frost resistance of non-air entrained HPC with

a w/s of 0.28. In these studies, relationships between degree of hydration, pore structure, and air bubble spacing of HPC and frost resistance are being investigated. These tasks will be completed

in FY 1 993. The work on standards for compressive strength testing of HPC involves a factorial design with five variables; HPC strength, test cylinder size, capping material and method, testing

machine, and rate of loading. Based on the

results of these tests, recommendations will be

made for modification of ASTM Standards to improve test reliability.

In FY 1 992, BFRL was given the responsibility by

the ASCE's Civil Engineering Research Foundation

(CERF) for leading the development of a national

research plan for high-performance concrete and

steel. Two working sessions, one on concrete

and the other on steel, were held at NIST for the

purpose of developing the plan. Participants in the

working sessions were from academia, industry,

and governmental agencies. The national plan will be submitted to CERF in FY 1 993.

Recent Results

Carino, Nicholas J., Knab, Lawrence I., and

Clifton, James R., Applicability of the Maturity

17
Method to High-Performance Concrete, NISTIR

4819, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, May 1 992.

Stutzman, Paul E. and Clifton, James R., "Microstructural Features of Some Low Water/Solids,

Silica Fume Mortars Cured at Different Temperatures," Proceedings of 14th International Confer- ence on Cement Microscopy, International Cement

Microscopy Association, 1 992.

Transport Properties of Porous

Media

Principal Investigator.

Edward Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop and apply analytical and computer

simulation models that predict the microstructureproperty relationships of porous materials like hardened cement paste and concrete, and apply

these relationships to the problem of service life.

Problem

The degradation of the concrete infrastructure,

worth on the order of 6 trillion dollars, is a huge

national problem. The basic physical and chemical

mechanisms of degradation processes in concrete

need to be understood before scientifically sound,

nonempirical service life predictions can be

developed. Most degradation processes that

affect cement-based materials involve microstructure-property relationships for properties like diffusivity, permeability, and elastic moduli.

Fundamental computer-based models are necessary to quantitatively relate such properties to the

complex microstructure of cement-based materials. Such quantitative relationships will serve to put existing and future standard test measure- ments of transport and other properties on a firm

theoretical foundation.

Approach

BFRL, using its 3-D digital-image-based model, is simulating the microstructure of cement paste

(bulk paste or interfacial zone paste). Once a microstructure is created, algorithms are applied to compute desired transport properties. Improvements are pursued in microstructural simulation,

and in development of new physical properties

that can be computed on the model. Comparison

of computed properties with experimental measurements is the driving force for improvements in microstructural simulation. A desire to tackle the

complex problem of service life prediction is the

driving force for new physical property simulations

to be developed.

18
Recent Results

Bentz, Dale P., Stutzmann, Paul A., and Garboczi,

Edward J., "Computer Modeling of the Interfacial Zone in Concrete," Interfaces in Cementitious

Composites, E & FN Spoon, London, pp 107-1 16,

1993.

Bentz, Dale P. and Garboczi, Edward J., Guide to Using HYDRA3D: A Three Dimensional DigitalImage-Based Cement Microstructural Model,

NISTIR 4746, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1992.

Martys, Nicos and Garboczi, Edward J., "Length

Scales Relating Fluid Permeability and Electrical Conductivity in Random 2-D Porous Media," Phys. Rev. B:, 46, pp 6080-6090, 1992.

Computer Simulation of the Transport Properties of Cement-Based

Materials

Principal Investigator.

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor.

Northwestern University

National Science Foundation Center for Advanced

Cement-Based Materials

Objective

To develop and apply models for predicting the

transport properties of cement-based materials.

Problem

The durability of cement-based materials depends

in a large part on the rate at which deleterious

agents can pass through their pore structure. Examples include chloride and sulfate ions, which

can attack concrete constituents. The models

being developed in this project, in collaboration

with Northwestern University, are, for the first time, enabling quantitative relationships to be

made between microstructure and transport

properties. Knowledge of these relationships is the basis for being able to make soundly based

theoretical predictions of service life.

Approach

This work depends on the digital-image-based

microstructural model developed by BFRL. This

model gives a three-dimensional representation of cement-based material phases, which has been

shown to be quantitatively accurate. Since the

model is in the form of a digital image, with an

underlying lattice, finite-difference and other

lattice-based algorithms can be applied to exactly

compute, within computer round-off error, various

transport properties. Since the model requires at

least 1003 pixels to give reasonable accuracy.

This work is performed using NIST's Cray-YMP

and Convex 3820 computers and BFRL's Convex

C1 20 and SUN Galaxy computers. A microstructure is built up using the growth rules of the model

and a transport algorithm is applied to calculate a

quantity that can be compared with experimental

measurements.

19
Recent Results

Coverdale, R.T., Garboczi, Edward J., Jennings,

Hamlin M., Christensen, B.J., and Mason, T.O.,

"Computer Simulation of Impedance Spectroscopy

in Two Dimensions: Application to Cement Paste,"

J. Amer. Ceram. Soc, (in press).

Bentz, Dale P., Stutzman, Paul A., and Garboczi,

Edward J., "Experimental and Simulation Studies

of the Interfacial Zone in Concrete," American

Concrete Research, 22, pp 891-902, 1992.

Christensen, B.J., Mason, T.O., Jennings, Hamlin

M., Bentz, Dale P., and Garboczi, Edward J., "Experimental and Computer Simulation Results

for the Electrical Conductivity of Portland Cement

Paste," Advanced Cementatious Systems: Mechanisms and Properties, Materials Research Society,

Pittsburgh, PA, pp 259-264, 1992.

Development of Microstructure and

Permeability in Mortar and Concrete

Principal Investigator.

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor.

Northwestern University

National Science Foundation Center for Advanced

Cement-Based Materials

Objective

To study interphase regions in polymer-modified

cement-based materials and develop rheological

simulations for processing of cement-based

composite materials.

Problem

The durability of polymer-modified cement-based

materials like macrc-defect-free (MDF) materials is limited by their sensitivity to moisture. Experimentally, the interphase region, a region where

polymer and hydration products are intimately

mingled that surrounds the unhydrated grains, has

been shown to play a primary role in this moisture

sensitivity. The percolation aspects of the inter- phase region will determine if the moisture sensitivity is localized and limited, or widespread and

pervasive. The rheological properties of MDF

materials and ordinary cement-based materials

determine their processability. Their rheology is complicated, as their microstructure is complex

and time-dependent.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will study the moisture

sensitivity problem in MDF, a transport property

problem, using the interfacial zone percolation

model developed in FY 1 992. The percolation

aspects of the interphase regions can be computed for any experimentally determined particle size

distribution. The finite-element-based digital image

elastic code will be generalized to allow for complex moduli and displacements, so timedependent bulk complex moduli of complex

suspensions, like those found in the processing of

cement-based materials, can be computed.

Recent Results

Snyder, Kenneth A., Winslow, D.N., Bentz, Dale

P., and Garboczi, Edward J., "Interfacial Percolation in Cement-Aggregate Composites," Interfaces

20
in Cementitious Composites, E & FN Spoon,

London, pp 259-268, 1993.

Cementitious Materials Modeling

Laboratory (CMML)

Principal Investigator.

Lawrence Kaetzel

Building Materials Division

301-975-5912

Sponsor.

Northwestern University

National Science Foundation Center for Advanced

Based Materials

Objective

To advance the science of Cementitious Materials

Research through developing, archiving, and

distributing computer based models, standard

formats, and other forms of knowledge (databases, image bases), computerized systems and

networks.

Problem

Advances in the ability to process, store and

retrieve knowledge are being realized through the

application of state-of-the-art methods in computer

programming, the visualization of scientific

results, and world-wide network connectivity.

Knowledge of concrete properties, performance,

materials, etc., stored in computers will take on new importance as society's collective memory of

concrete science and technology grows into a more integrated body of knowledge than it has

previously been possible to assemble. The

development of integrated knowledge systems

draws attention to gaps in knowledge and leads to

collaboration between cementitious materials

researchers in planning research to fill the gaps.

Knowledge systems are being developed using

protocols for developing and interfacing subsystems. The Cementitious Materials Modeling

Laboratory is advancing computational materials

science and technology of concrete by providing

the infrastructure for bringing the necessary

researchers and resources together within the

Advanced Cement Based Materials Center and by

links to outside activities.

Approach

The objective of the CMML is accomplished by

maintaining an infrastructure of computing re- sources (computers, staff, networks), and developing and publishing protocols and guidelines for models and experimental data. BFRL is performing four tasks:

21
1 . Developing protocols for documenting and

testing new models, and model design to facilitate the interfacing of models to databases and

reasoning

2. Developing strategies for the establishment of

scientific databases, and methods for querying

distributed knowledge systems.

3. Interacting with other research groups to

facilitate the modeling of experimental data.

4. Disseminating knowledge gained through

cementitious materials research through electronic

information exchange, computer modeling workshops, publication of guidelines, and a quarterly

newsletter.

The CMML is working closely with ACI Committees 1 26 on Databases, 225-2 on Computer

Modeling, and 225-3 on Expert Systems, and

ASTM E-49 on Computerization of Materials

Property Data, RILEM 123 on Modeling of Cement-Hydration and Expert Systems, and with

ACBM Faculty and private industry.

The CMML, through its computer based modeling

activities, will provide insight into materials

performance, reliability as related to durability, and

service life. Also, knowledge pertaining to re- search on cementitious materials will be disseminated and preserved. This will enhance the

research activities of ACBM investigators as well as other cementitious materials investigators.

Recent Results

Published two issues of the Cementitious Materials Modeling Laboratory (CMML) newsletter,

CMML Newsletter, Center for ACBM, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, Fall 1991 and

Summer 1992.

Conducted the fourth annual computer modeling

workshop, July 1 992 with participation from

academia and industry.

22

Whole-Pattern Fitting Methods for

Quantitative X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis of Clinker and Cement

Principal Investigator.

Paul Stutzman

Building Materials Division

301-975-6715

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To apply and test whole-pattern fitting routines to determine phase abundance of clinker and cement

by x-ray powder diffraction and evaluate the

technique to develop a standard test method or recommended practice.

Problem

Improved methods of characterization of clinker

and cement are necessary for advances in cement

and concrete technology and to aid in the prediction of the performance of concrete-making

materials and concrete. X-ray powder diffraction

is commonly used for phase analysis and is the

only method for quantitative phase abundance

analysis of fine-grained materials. While numerous schemes exist, there is no standard method for quantitative analysis by x-ray powder diffraction. Current techniques require decomposition of any

peak overlaps, measurement of peak intensities,

and calibration curves relating peak area ratios to concentration. Clinker and cement diffraction

patterns are difficult to process because of severe

overlapping of most of the intense diffraction

peaks, leaving a few very low intensity peaks

which are subject to particle orientation, counting

and measurement errors.

Approach

This project involves four phases:

1 . Obtain source code for the whole-pattern fitting

procedure from The Pennsylvania State University,

install the code, and, if necessary, modify the

code to suit requirements.

2. Identify and procure phases and their polymorphs for calibrations.

3. Establish calibrations for each of the standard

phases.
4. Test the method and calibrations with synthetic

mixtures of known phase abundance composition

and samples of the NIST Reference Material

Clinkers to establish accuracy, precision, and

detection limits.

The results will be presented to ASTM Task Group

C01 .23.01 on quantitative x-ray powder diffrac- tion methods as a potential test method or recommended practice for phase abundance

analysis of clinker and cement.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Performance Criteria for Long Lived

Concrete for Radioactive Waste

Storage

Principal Investigator.

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Waste Management Branch

Objective

To develop performance criteria for selecting

concretes to be used in constructing structures with 500 year safe lives for storing low-level

radioactive wastes.

Problem

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

has the responsibility for developing a strategy for storing low-level radioactive wastes. According to one approach, the radioactive wastes would be

disposed of in concrete vaults which are either

buried in the earth or constructed above ground

and covered with earth. A safe service life of 500

years is required for the storage vaults which may

be left unattended for most of their life. The

present basis for selecting concretes and their constituents needs to be further advanced to increase the likelihood that concretes could

achieve safe lives of 500 years.

Approach

In this multi-year project, the development of

performance criteria involves many of the steps

included in ASTM E 632, "Standard Practice for Developing Accelerated Tests to Aid Predictions of the Service Life of Building Components and

Materials." Accelerated testing along with mathematical modeling of the rate of deterioration of

concrete is being used in developing a basis for making service life predictions.

BFRL's work performed during FY 1 988 through

FY 1 992 included:

1 . Identification of likely degradation processes

and analyses of their mechanisms and potential

rates.

23
2. Development of mathematical models of

transport processes in concrete involving moisture,

chloride ions, sulfate ions, and acids.

3. Experimental studies of chloride ion diffusion in cement pastes.

4. Evaluation of a new test method for determining the potential alkali-reactivity of siliceous

aggregates.

5. Evaluation of the reliability of existing test for predicting the sulfate resistance of concrete

exposed to ground water, and the development of a new cyclic wet-dry sulfate test.

BFRL's work in FY 1 993 consists of completing

the development of models for predicting the

performance of concrete exposed to sulfate- containing ground waters. The models will consider the tricalcium aluminate contents of the

cement and the concentration of sulfate in the

ground water, and predict the rate of expansion.

Simulation modeling will be undertaken to develop

a basis for predicting the diffusivity of sulfate ions

in concrete and the stresses developed by the

formation of ettringite. Also, the effects of the pH

of soil/groundwater on the rate of expansion will be determined by controlled pH studies. These

activities will contribute to the development of an

improved basis for predicting the service life of

concrete exposed to sulfate-containing soils and

groundwaters.

Also, BFRL will investigate the effects of

microcracks on the transport properties of concrete. Both experimental studies and simulation

modeling will be performed. Also, the possibility

of the microcracks being sealed, e.g., by the

hydration of unreacted cement will be investi- gated. The study on cracks will extend through

FY 1 994.

Recent Results

Philip, Jacob and Clifton, James R., "Nuclear

Waste: An Overview," Proceesings of Fly Ash,

Silica Fume, Slag, and Pozzolans in Concrete, 4th

Intermational Conference, Istanbul, Turkey, pp

713-730, May 1992.

Concrete Degradation Computer

Code for LLW Performance Assessments

Principal Investigator.

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Waste Management Branch

Objective

To develop computer models of concrete degradation to assess the performance of underground

reinforced concrete structures used for disposing

low-level radioactive wastes (LLW).

Problem

Reinforced concrete has been proposed by many

states and compacts of states for the construction

of engineered barriers for the disposal of low-level

radioactive wastes (LLW). To meet the requirements of the Federal regulations for LLW disposal,

10 CFR 61 , the concrete structures must demonstrate specific durability and performance attrib- utes for periods of 300 to 500 years. The Nuclear

Regulatory Commission (NRC) will be responsible

for determining if proposed disposal facilities meet

the requirements set forth in 10 CFR 61 . To

provide guidance to state and compact LLW

personnel in designing LLW disposal concrete

structures, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is developing a Branch Technical Position/Regulatory

Guide for LLW performance assessments. The

assessment will include the use of models for predicting the effect of degradation processes on

the properties of the concrete used in constructing

LLW disposal vaults. The models need to be able to predict changes in the hydraulic properties of

the concrete during 300 to 500 years of service.

Approach

BFRL is developing computer models for predicting

the life of concrete used in the construction of

underground vaults. The vaults are designed to contain low-level radioactive waste. BFRL is performing a companion project on Performance

Criteria for Long Lived Concrete for Radioactive

Waste Storage which will complement this work

through development of prediction models.

24
The degradation processes which will be addressed by the models include corrosion of

reinforcement, frost attack (possible before a vault

is covered with earth) leaching, and sulfate attack.

Effects of concrete degradation on its hydraulic

properties will be predicted by linking the degradation models with Darcy's equation for hydraulic

flow. Existing degradation models will be analyzed to determine if they are adequately reliable or can be satisfactorily modified. If necessary,

new models will be developed. The models will be deterministic. The potential effects of intrinsic cracking such as plastic shrinkage, plastic settle- ment, early thermal cracking, and drying shrinkage on hydraulic properties will be considered. A user

friendly, interactive computer code of the concrete

degradation models for LLW performance assess- ment will be developed. The compiled code will be capable of being run on a micro-computer by

the NRC staff. A manual will be prepared and

training exercises will be conducted to assist NRC

staff and state and compact personnel in using the

computer models. The final report is expected in September 1 994; it will provide recommendations

on further model developments and their validation.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Cracking in Parking Garage MLP-7A

at NIH

Principal Investigator.

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor.

National Institutes of Health

Public Health Service

Objective

To verify the processes responsible for cracking in NIH parking garage MLP-7A and recommend

actions for preventing further deterioration.

Problem

Significant map cracking has developed in the NIH

parking garage MLP-7A, which appears to be

caused by alkali-silica reactions (ASR). If the

cracks are caused by ASR, it is likely that they will continue to develop and grow, possibly eventually

affecting the structural integrity of the parking

garage. NIH has requested BFRL's technical assistance to verify the occurrence of ASR and assessing the potential for further cracking. If there is a

potential for further cracking, BFRL will advise as

to whether there are ways of preventing it.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Perform petrographic examination of distressed

concrete to verify the occurrence of ASR and

determine if other degradation processes are

occurring.

2. Evaluate the potential for further expansion and

investigate the possible use of surface treatments

to prevent the movement of moisture into the

concrete.

3. Assess the condition of garage's concrete

structural elements using non-destructive techniques.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

25
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

COATINGS

26
Modeling the Degradation of HighPerformance Organic Protective

Coating Systems

Principal Investigator.

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide scientific and technical basis for standards on high-performance coatings for steel used in buildings and other construction.

Problem

Corrosion-related problems in the United States

are estimated to cost 4.2% of the gross national

product, or about $220 billion in 1 992. The use

of polymeric coatings is one of the most effective,

economical, and widely-used means to prolong the

life of corrosion-prone construction materials.

However, coated metals are susceptible to degradation under in-service environments.

Research is needed to better understand the

degradation mechanisms, including transport of

aggressive species through the coating and along

the coating/metal interface, and support the

development of mathematical models for predicting the service life of coating systems. The

models will provide the basis for improved stan- dards for high-performance coatings used to protect steel structures.

Approach

BFRL is developing and validating models to

predict service life and other aspects of perfor- mance. This work consists of six tasks:

1 . Develop conceptual models.

2. Verify degradation mechanisms.

3. Quantify the transport properties of environmental elements through the coatings and along

the coating/metal interface.

4. Develop improved methods to characterize

coating, its properties and reactions that control

the degradation.

5. Develop and validate mathematical models for predicting service life using laboratory and field data.

6. Implement new knowledge developed in the

above tasks through incorporation into new

standards and through other appropriate means.

BFRL's research in FY 1993 will include:

1 . Developing a mathematical model that describes the formation and growth of blisters formed due to corrosion reactions.

2. Developing a technique to measure the trans- port of water through a high-performance coating on a metal substrate.

3. Initiate research on characterizing microstructure and defects in a high-performance coating

and at the coating/metal interface.

Defects in coatings and at the coating/metal

interface are probably the sites of corrosion and

blistering initiation. BFRL will continue implementing its research findings into practice through

ASTM D-1 and other means of technology

transfer.

Recent Results

Nguyen, Tinh, Byrd, Eric, and Bentz, Dale, "Quantifying Water at the Polymer/Substrate Interface," Proc. Am. Chem. Soc, Vol. 66, 414, August

1992.

Nguyen, Tinh, Hubbard, J., and Pommersheim,

James, "Mathematical Models for the Degradation

of Intact Coatings on Steel in Electrolyte Solutions," Proc. Am. Chem. Soc. Meeting, Polymeric

Materials Science and Engineering Division,

Washington, D.C, August 24, 1992.

Nguyen Tinh, "Thermal-Wave Microscopy in Corrosion Studies," Materials Characterization, 28,

1044, June 1992.

Lin, C. and Nguyen, Tinh, Relation between AC

Impedance Data and Degradation of Coated Steel.

1 . Effects of Surface Roughness and Contamination on the Corrosion Behaviors of Epoxy Coated

Steel, Progress in Organic Coatings, 20, 1 69,

June 1992.

Pommersheim, James, Nguyen, Tinh, Hubbard, J., and Lin, C, A Mathematical Model of Cathodic

27
Delamination and Blistering Processes in Paint

Films on Steel, Technical Note 1 293, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, May 1 992.

Hubbard, Joseph B. and Nguyen Tinh, "A Model

of Defect-Mediated Transport through Amorphous

Membranes," J. Chem. Physics, 96, 3177,

February 1992.

Developed a mathematical model for the transport

of cations along the coating/metal interface from a defect in the absence of an applied potential. This

model describes the delamination and blistering near a defect at the very early stage. Experiments

carried out to test the models showed good

agreement with model results.

Developed a novel spectroscopic technique for measuring cation in-situ at the coating/metal inter- face.

Coating Technology Consortium

Principal Investigator.

Geoffrey Frohnsdorff

Building Materials Division

301-975-6706

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To advance coating technology by developing

technologies, methodologies, and procedures for: characterizing, measuring, modeling, and controlling incoming materials and the painting process,

and defining, measuring, standardizing appearance, and other quality attributes of the finished

product.

Problem

The manufacturing processes of many U.S.

industries include application of organic coatings. For coatings, as for other processes, international

competition and the national agenda require that

industry improve quality, reduce costs, reduce

environmental effects, and reduce the time

required to transfer new technology to practice.

To help insure the competitiveness of U.S.

industries that use coating technology, an industry/government consortium needs to be created to leverage national resources in advancing the

technology.

Approach

The Coating Technology Consortium, under

formation, will begin with five projects to be

carried out over a four-year period at an estimated

cost of $2.8 million. BFRL and four other NIST

Laboratories will partner with about five industrial participants including Ford Motor Corporation,

General Motors Corporation, and PreFinish Metals.

These projects will focus on measurement technology that will enhance customer satisfaction and

reduce manufacturing costs. This work includes

the following:

1 . Development of definitions of visual appearance

attributes which are measures of the quality of the

end product; the project focuses on the basic

question of what defects a person can see when

looking at a coated surface and will develop a psychophysical scale for the quantification of

visible defects. The project also will establish

28
correlations between the psychophysical scale and

an objective physical scale.

2. Wet-film thickness measurement of single- and

multi-layered coating systems on metallic substrates; the project will provide a new measure- ment method for use in control of the coating

process. This work addresses the development of a non-contact method for determining wet-film

thickness.

3. Detection and quantification of defects in metallic substrates; this project concerns improvement in inspection of metal parts entering the

coating operation through the development of a method for detecting defects in the metal.

4. Determination of the degree of curve of a

coating; this project will provide a method for online determination of the degree of curve.

5. Survey of new developments in instrumentation

and measurement technology with potential use in control of coating processes; this project will provide information to guide future research and

development activities of the Consortium.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Method for Measuring Water Stripping Resistance of Asphalt/Siliceous

Aggregate Mixtures

Principal Investigator:

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor.

National Academy of Sciences

National Research Council

Transportation Research Board

Objective

To develop a method for measuring water stripping resistance of asphalt/aggregate mixtures.

Problem

The debonding of asphalt from mineral aggregates

in the presence of water (commonly known as

stripping) has been a problem since asphalt paving

came into existence. Many studies have sought a

solution to the problem, but it continues to occur.

In recent years, there are more frequent premature

failures of pavements due to stripping. When

asphaltic concretes fail, they require large replacement costs. These costs could be reduced if there were effective methods for evaluating stripping

resistance of asphalt/aggregate mixtures prior to

use.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform this work in two parts:

Part 1 involves the development of a test method

for measuring the bond strength of an asphalt on

an aggregate exposed to water. Two tasks will be performed:

1 . Optimize film thickness for testing the bond

strength of asphalt on an aggregate in water.

2. Test the stripping characteristics of four

Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)

asphalts on glass and granite substrates by using

the optimum thickness obtained in Task 1

Part 2 is the development of a nondestructive

method for screening the stripping resistance of

asphalts on a siliceous aggregate. Three tasks

make up this work:

29
1 . Study the in-situ measurement and

quantification of water at the asphalt/aggregate

interface of four SHRP asphalts, but for a thicker

asphalt film than previously studied. This study

utilizes FTIR-multiple internal reflection spectroscopy.

2. Determine the relationship between the results of Task 2 of Part 1 and Task 1 of Part 2. This

relationship will be the framework for predicting

the water stripping resistance of asphalt/siliceous

aggregate mixtures.

3. Evaluate the relative effectiveness of five

commercial anti-stripping agents using a model

aggregate and FTIR-multiple internal reflection

spectroscopy.

It is expected the results of this research will provide designers and contractors with an ability to assess and evaluate the water susceptibility of

asphalts, anti-stripping agents, aggregates,

aggregate/asphalt mixtures, mixing temperatures,

and deicing agents.

Recent Results

Nguyen, Tinh, Byrd, Eric, Bentz, Dale, and Seiler,

James, Development of a Technique for In Situ

Measurement of Water at the Asphalt/Model

Aggregate Interface, NISTIR 4783, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, March 1 992.

Organic Coatings

Principal Investigator.

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor.

Department of the Air Force

Civil Engineering Support Agency (AFCESA)

Objective

To develop improved procedures for selecting,

using, and specifying coating systems for use by

DoD coating maintenance divisions.

Problem

Military facilities have an estimated $300 billion real property value and the annual cost of coating

maintenance is about $400 million. Improved and

updated criteria for the selection, specification,

and use of protective coatings is needed to take

advantage of new technologies and meet environmental regulations, e.g., those relating to volatile organic compound content and abatement of

hazards associated with lead in existing paint

films.

Approach

BFRL is working with the Tri-Service Protective

Coatings Committees to review and revise the Tri- Service Painting Manual. Three chapters will be

revised and a chapter on environmental concerns,

including those relating to lead paint abatement,

will be developed. Documents developed by the

Civil Engineering Support Agency on guidance for detection and abatement of lead-based paint will be reviewed. BFRL chairs the SSPC Committee

on coatings and will assist in the development of a low VOC alkyd coating specification and a surface

tolerant coating specification.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

30
Long-Term Performance of PolymerBased Encapsulants for Lead-Based

Paint on Interior Walls of Air Force

Buildings

Principal Investigator.

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor.

Department of the Air Force

Civil Engineering Support Agency (AFCESA)

Objective

To determine changes in physical, chemical, and

mechanical properties of coatings as a function of

accelerated weathering exposure.

Problem

The U.S. Air Force uses approximately 1 40,000

family housing units built prior to 1978. Assume

that the fraction of these units containing lead- based paint is the same (0.75) as was identified

by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development in the survey of the Nation's private

housing. Then the initial abatement cost of walls

and baseboards using encapsulants is estimated at about $500 million less than using replacement or removal procedures. Long-term performances of

encapsulants are unknown. Before encapsulants

are widely used on Air Force Facilities, it is essential that information about their long-term

performance be available, since premature failure would be very costly.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop a generally

applicable method for predicting long-term performance of an encapsulant. The method would

serve as the basis for performance-based selection

criteria and life-cycle cost analyses. BFRL will estimate life-time performance from the results of

short-term, statistically-designed accelerated tests using reliability theory. The steps involved in developing the model are: 1 . conducting an

experimental study that addresses manufacturer's

claims, and 2. developing a methodology for

service-life prediction and performance-based

selection criteria, that serves as the basis for material specifications. In the experimental study,

three generic types of commercial, polymer-based

encapsulants, and a latex paint will be subjected

to three temperatures 10, 25, and 50 °C at 50

percent relative humidity. Performance data on

properties which are important to performance as an encapsulant, such as cracking and peeling

(adhesion) resistances upon impact, abrasion

resistance, glass transition temperature, weight

loss (thermogravimetric analysis), modulus, and

chemical stability (spectroscopy) will be obtained.

The experimental study will determine relation- ships between changes in physical, chemical and

mechanical properties of encapsulant coatings and

time of exposure in controlled environments. The

results of these screening-type experiments will be

used in testing the validity of manufacturer's

claims and in preparing the comprehensive plan.

A report will describe results of experimental work

and provide a comprehensive research plan and

method serving as the basis for selection criteria for predicting long-term performance of lead-based

paint encapsulants on interior walls.

Recent Results

New Project 1 993.

31
Long-Term Performance of PolymerBased Encapsulants for Lead-Based

Paint on Interior Walls of Army

Buildings

Principal Investigator.

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor.

Department of the Army

Engineering Housing and Service Center

Objective

To develop selection criteria for predicting longterm performance of lead-based paint

encapsulants on interior wails.

This research complements and extends the Air

Force sponsored research on this subject previously described.

Problem

The Department of Defense (DoD) uses approximately 500,000 family housing units that were

built prior to 1 978; many are likely to have

surfaces coated with lead-based paint. Based on

a recent U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development report, the DoD should obtain

significant cost savings if encapsulants can be

used to abate surfaces with lead-based paint as compared with removal. However, before

encapsulants are widely used on DoD Facilities, it

is essential that information about their long-term

performance be available, since premature failure would be very costly.

Approach

BFRL is developing a method for predicting longterm performance of lead-based paint

encapsulants by estimating life-time performance

from the results of short-term, statistically designed accelerated tests using reliability theory.

This approach has been used successfully in the

electronic and aerospace industries, and has

recently been applied to protective coatings.

The experimental study will determine relation- ships between changes in physical, chemical, and

mechanical properties of encapsulant coatings and

time of exposure in controlled environments. The

results of these experiments will be used to

develop methods for service-life prediction. The

information also will be useful in developing selection criteria. In the experimental study, three

generic types of commercial, polymer-based

encapsulants, and a latex paint, will be subjected

to five environmental conditions, selected from a combination of three temperatures, 10, 25, and

50 °C, and three relative humidities. Performance

data on properties, which are important to performance as an encapsulant, such as resistances to cracking, peeling (adhesion), damage upon impact,

and abrasion; glass transition temperature; weight

stability (thermogravimetric analysis), modulus,

and chemical stability (spectroscopy) will be

obtained.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

32
Coatings Suitable for Application to

Damp Steel Surfaces

Principal Investigator.

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor.

Department of the Army

Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

Objective

To identify coatings for application to damp

surfaces and evaluate early system properties.

Problem

The U.S. Army uses steel structures in environments in which the steel surfaces are nearly

always damp. It is expensive and difficult to changing the local environment of surfaces of

large structures by erecting containment struc- tures and using heaters, driers, etc. Therefore, for coating maintenance operations, it is desirable to apply coatings to damp surfaces that will provide

acceptable performance.

Approach

BFRL is performing five tasks:

1 . Survey the coatings industry for coatings found

acceptable.

2. In consultation with CERL, select a representative set of these coatings and obtain samples.

3. Develop an environmental chamber to control

application conditions.

4. Brush apply coatings to steel panels which are damp.

5. Perform Crosshatch or pull-off adhesion tests and solvent rub tests upon completion of coating

cure as a screen of initial properties.

Recent Results

New project late 1992.
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

QUALITY ASSURANCE
Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator.

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor.

American Society for Testing and Materials and

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Waterways Experiment Station

Objective

To inspect cement and concrete testing laboratories, distribute proficiency test samples, and

support the voluntary standards development

process.

Problem

The infrastructure represents a substantial portion

of the nation's wealth. Construction of such

facilities is one of the nation's largest industries

amounting in 1 992 to over seven percent of the

nation's GDP. Over $4 billion of hydraulic cement

is produced in the United States each year with

the value of the concrete construction estimated

to be in the order of $20 billion. Standardization

of testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is a major concern. The

productivity of the testing community in the

cement and concrete fields can be increased by

the use of correct procedures and apparatus

which reduce testing errors and provide a sound

basis for the acceptance of cement on mill certifi- cate. More efficient use of long-established

construction materials are facilitated by dependable quality assurance programs.

Approach

With the support of ASTM Research Associates

working under BFRL supervision, services are provided to public and private cement and concrete testing laboratories on a voluntary basis.

These services include the inspection of the

laboratory and the distribution of proficiency test samples. Equipment and procedures used in performing conventional quality assurance tests

are evaluated for conformance to applicable

national standards. Related test apparatus is checked with inspection equipment calibrated by

NIST personnel. Proficiency test samples of

Portland cement, pozzolan, concrete, blended

cement and masonry cement are distributed at

regular intervals to obtain information on laboratory performance. Additionally, technical studies are conducted in areas related to these programs.

Specific products of this work include: 1 . detailed

inspection reports; 2. report on each round of

proficiency sample testing; 3. input to the work of

standards committees such as draft standards and

precision data; and 4. reports on results of technical studies. BFRL technical reports, papers in outside journals, and oral presentations are used

as appropriate.

Recent Results

Kolos, Ray M., "Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cements Produced in the United States,"

Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGDP, Vol

14, No 2, pp 127-130, Winter 1992.

Inspected over 265 cement and concrete testing

laboratories in FY 1992.

Distributed over 3000 proficiency samples in FY

1 992 and issued reports of results.

35
AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory

Principal Investigator.

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor.

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Objective

To inspect soil and bituminous testing laboratories,

distribute proficiency test samples, and support

the voluntary standards development process.

Problem

The quality of testing in construction materials

laboratories is an important concern when considering the overall question of quality construction.

The importance of the testing function is demonstrated by The Strategic Highway Research

Program (SHRP) which was initiated in 1 987 as a

five-year, $150-million highway and bridge

research program. Standardization of testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is of paramount concern. The productivity of the testing community can be increased

by the use of correct procedures and apparatus

which reduce testing errors and provide a sound

basis for the acceptance of materials on certifi- cate. More efficient use of long-established

construction materials and broader use of new

materials are facilitated by dependable quality assurance programs.

Approach

With the support of AASHTO Research Associates working under NIST supervision, services are provided to public and private laboratories on a

voluntary basis. These services include the on-site

inspection of the laboratory and the distribution of

proficiency test samples. The current scope of

the laboratory inspection services includes the

testing of soils, bituminous materials and plastic

pipe, and the measurement of roughness and

frictional properties of highways. Equipment and

procedures used in performing conventional quality assurance tests are evaluated for conformance to

applicable national standards. Proficiency test samples of asphalt, soils, paint, aggregates, and

bituminous concrete are distributed at regular

intervals. Additionally, technical studies are

conducted in areas related to these programs,

often in conjunction with other NIST units.

Specific products of this work include: 1 . detailed

inspection reports; 2. report on each round of

proficiency sample testing; 3. input to the work of

standards committees such as draft standards and

precision data; and 4. reports on the results of

technical studies. The AMRL programs provide

the following benefits to construction materials

testing laboratories and others involved with the

nation's transportation systems: 1 . improves the

quality of laboratory testing; 2. provides data to quantify standard measurement techniques; and

3. provides direct communications between

testing laboratories and standards-writing committees.

Recent Results

During FY 1992, inspected 100 bituminous and

80 soil testing laboratories, distributed over 4000

proficiency test samples and issued test reports,

and implemented the AMRL Metals Laboratory

Inspection Program for AASHTO sponsored

laboratories.

36
Construction of Addition to BFRL'S

Concreting Materials Building

Quantification of External Weathering Stresses

Principal Investigator.

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor.

American Society for Testing and Materials and

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

Objective

To expand the CMRL Proficiency Sample Facility

(NIST's Building 206) to support the increasing

laboratory participation in the Proficiency Sample

Programs of BFRL's Cement and Concrete Refer- ence Laboratory (CCRL) and its AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory (AMRL).

Problem

Laboratory participation in the CCRL and AMRL

Proficiency Sample Programs has increased

significantly in recent years to a current level of

almost 800 laboratories that receive 7000 samples annually. This increase is a reflection of the

importance of the programs in promoting the

quality of testing of construction materials in the

United States. NIST's Building 206, where the

proficiency samples are prepared, is fully used in meeting current commitments leaving little room

for growth in existing programs or the addition of

new programs.

Approach

Funding has been provided by the CMRL Sponsors

(ASTM and AASHTO) to construct a 175 m

2 (1870 ft2

) addition to NIST's Building 206; the

BFRL Proficiency Sample Facility. Construction

will begin in the Winter of FY 1 993 and be

completed in about 1 year. CCRL and AMRL will be better able to provide services to the increasing

number of laboratories using their proficiency

sample program.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

Principal Investigator.

Jonathan W. Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To propose and demonstrate a method to characterize the expected service environment to which

a building material will be exposed and characterize service environments to demonstrate how f ield and laboratory exposures are related.

Problem

Solar UV-radiation causes large economic losses to the nation and the world as a result of its detrimental effects on materials (cracking of bridge

and house paints, degradation of road asphalt and

embrittlement of roofing materials), humans

(cataracts and skin cancer), and plants. These

losses are likely to increase as a result of a reduction in the stratospheric ozone concentration,

caused by the release of chloro-f luorocarbons and

sulfuric acid aerosols, leading to an increase in the

UV-radiation flux.

At present, there are no national or international

standards for measuring, collecting, or modeling

UV-irradiance data. Also, unlike Europe, Japan,

and Australia, the United States does not have a network of UV-radiation monitors for measuring

and detecting changes in UV-irradiance. Standardized measurements and data collection, analysis,

and dissemination protocols are necessary for predicting reductions in material, human, and plant

performance and for predicting corresponding

economic losses resulting from an increase in UVirradiance.

Approach

In FY 1 992, BFRL developed the mathematical

and experimental basis for relating field and laboratory UV measurements and initiated the development of consensus standards for measuring UV

radiation. In FY 1 993, BFRL will focus its efforts to quantify ultraviolet radiation (UV) by providing

technical support to ASTM G03, Durability of

Nonmetallic Materials' Subcommittee on Service

Life Prediction and to the RILEM/CIB Committee

37
on Service Life Prediction's Task Group on Environmental Characterization. Both activities were

established in FY 1 992 based on BFRL's recommendations.

Recent Results

Martin, Jon, "Quantitative Characterization of

Spectral Ultraviolet Radiation-induced

Photodegegration in Coating Systems Exposed in the laboratory and The Field," Progress in Organic

Coatings, (accepted for publication).

Martin, Jon, Lechner, James A., and Varner, R.N.,

"Quantitative Characterization of Exterior

Weathering Environments: UV-Radiation," Accelerated and Outdoor Durability Testing of Organic

Materials, ASTM STP 1 202, American Society for Testing and Materials, PA, 1 993.

Performance Criteria for Single-Ply

Roofing Membranes

Principal Investigator.

Walter J. Rossiter

Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Sponsor.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop performance criteria for single-ply

roofing membranes to assist in the selection,

evaluation, and maintenance of single-ply membrane materials.

Problem

Single-ply roofing membrane materials account for about two-thirds of the low-sloped membrane

systems installed annually in the United States. Ease of installation, performance, cost, and

architectural considerations have influenced the

rapid acceptance of the materials. Nevertheless,

survey information from the National Roofing

Contractors Association (NRCA) indicates more

performance problems with single-ply systems

than with built-up systems. Defective laps and seams are the most frequent problems reported.

The 1987 NIST/NRCA Round Table on Roofing

Research cited that the roofing industry "lacks a

significant database of field performance on which

service life may be predicted," and that "the

factors affecting roofing performance must be more fully understood to assure success with new

materials and systems."

In 1989, BFRL published Building Science Series

1 67, Interim Criteria for Polymer-Modified Bitumi- nous Roofing Membrane Materials. This report

represented a significant step toward the development of criteria for modified bituminous membranes. Information was not available on criteria and test methods for seam performance and

weathering resistance. Data from the field and

laboratory are needed to support development of

the needed criteria.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will continue to provide

leadership to ASTM Committee D08 on Roofing,

Waterproofing, and Bituminous Materials, and to the RILEM/CIB Committee on Membrane Roofing

Systems. These committees are developing stan38
dards or prestandards for single-ply and polymermodified bitumen roofing membranes. Strong

links will be maintained with the National Roofing

Contractors Association in organizing the 1 993

NIST7NRCA Roofing Conference.

Recent Results

Rossiter, Walter J. and Denchfield, Randy D., Observations from a Field Study of the Performance of the of Polymer-Modified Bitumen

Roofing, NISTIR 4972, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

January 1 993.

Materials and Processes for Durable

Relocatable Rigid Wall Structures

Principal Investigator.

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor.

Department of the Army

NATICK Research, Development, and Engineering

Center

Objective

To provide scientific and technical support to the

DoD Joint Committee on Tactical Shelters in developing new material and processing standards

and updating existing standards.

Problem

DoD requires standards for durable rigid

relocatable structures to ensure desired perfor- mance. In addition to strength, durability, and

environmental requirements, new requirements are being imposed by changes in military threat

scenarios. With changing military requirements,

many existing standards will need to be revised

and new standards developed.

Approach

BFRL will address the technical needs of the DoD

Joint Committee on Tactical Shelters in the

development and revisions of standards through

the voluntary standards generating process. BFRL

provides scientific, technical, and administrative

leadership to ASTM Subcommittee E06.53,

"Materials and Processes for Durable Rigid Wall

Structures." Subcommittee meetings will be

organized and conducted and coordination provided between the Subcommittee and ASTM.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

39
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

REFRIGERATION and

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with Refrigerant 1 23 and Horizontal Two-Phase

Flow of R32/R134A

Principal Investigator:

Mark A. Kedzierski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5282

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division, and

Electric Power Research Institute Customer Systems Division

Objective

To measure the pool boiling heat transfer of R1 23

on several commercial enhanced surfaces and measure the local horizontal flow boiling heat

transfer coefficient of a new R22 replacement: a 30% mass R32/70% mass R134a mixture.

Problem

Alternative refrigerants have solved one problem

(ozone destruction in the stratosphere by chlorine)

and created another (lack of thermal design

information for the new refrigerants). Within the

next few years, most new refrigeration equipment

will be required by law to operate with ozone-safe

refrigerants. Industry does not have an ozonesafe, drop-in refrigerant for their equipment. What

they do have are alternative refrigerants that are not compatible with the existing equipment.

Consequently, the refrigeration industry needs

information to redesign their equipment to operate

with the new refrigerants. Material compatibility

tests must be performed to find gaskets which

will not deteriorate in the presence of the alternative refrigerants. Also, new oils are being developed which are miscible with the new refrigerants

which are necessary for reliable compressor

operation. Just as importantly, heat transfer data

is required to redesign the evaporators and the

condensers to ensure the efficient and reliable operation of the entire refrigeration system.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will advance alternative

heat transfer research for the direct-expansion and

flooded evaporator industries. The tube-side flow

boiling study of the R32/R134a mixture will be

conducted in an existing test apparatus and will aid the direct-expansion heat exchanger industry.

The R123/enhancement study will be conducted

in a new test apparatus currently under construction and will assist the evaporator industry. In both cases, high speed films will be taken of the

boiling process simultaneously with the heat

transfer measurements. The films will be used to obtain a physical description of the boiling pro- cess.

The R123/enhancement study will investigate

nucleate boiling of three of the leading commercial

enhanced surfaces which are applicable to shell- side (external) boiling: (1) the TURBO-B of Wolverine Tube Inc., (2) the High-Flux of UOP, and (3) the GEWA-T of Wieland. The unique aspect of

the research is all three surfaces will be adapted to a flat surface. The inherent boiling characteristics

of the surfaces will be examined without the

complicating circumferential effects that are encountered when testing tubes. Interpretation of the high-speed films is improved when the image

is reduced from three to two-dimensions. Also,

the accuracy of the heat transfer coefficient

measurement on a thick, flat copper specimen is much greater than on round thin-walled tubes.

The R32/R134a mixture study will investigate

horizontal flow boiling of both a 30% mass R32/70% mass R134a mixture and R22. The

mixture has been chosen for study by the R22

Alternative Refrigerants Evaluation Program

(AREP). This program was organized by the Air- Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute "to investi- gate and evaluate alternative refrigerants to

replace HCFC-22 in major air-conditioning and

refrigeration applications." This work will generate

valuable heat transfer information for the design of new R32/R134a evaporators and condensers.

Recent Results

Kedzierski, Mark A., and Kaul, Michael P., "Horizontal Nucleate Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient Measurements and Visual Observations for R12, R134a, and R134a/Ester Lubricant Mixtures," 6th International Symposium on Transport

Phenomena in Thermal Engineering (submitted),

Seoul, Korea, May 1 993.

41
Kedzierski, Mark A., Kim, J.H., and Didion, David

A., "Causes of the Apparent Heat Transfer

Degradation for Refrigerant Mixtures," ASME

HTD-Vol. 197, Two-Phase Flow and Heat

Transfer, pp. 149-158, 1992.

Kedzierski, Mark A., Simultaneous Visual and

Calorimetric Measurements of R11, R123, and

R123/Alkylbenzene Nucleate Flow Boiling, NISTIR

4948, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1992.

Kedzierski, Mark A., and Worthington, J.L., "Design and Machining of Copper Specimens with

Micro Holes for Accurate Heat Transfer Measurements," Experimental Heat Transfer, submitted for publication August 1 992.

Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology,

and

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division

Objective

To evaluate the thermodynamic and oil transport

performance of different refrigeration systems

using alternative refrigerants and/or refrigerant

mixtures.

Problem

The R1 2 alternative R1 34a refrigerant has a

potential for significant improvement in ther- modynamic performance of refrigeration systems

if the system hardware is altered. The decrease in the slope of the liquid saturation line with R134a

causes a less-effective expansion process. This is important for residential refrigerator/freezers which

are subjected to ever increasing energy standards

by law.

Most supermarkets have a walk-in freezer in the

stock room area for the back-up storage of frozen

food. The refrigeration system for walk-in freezers are usually a bank of two or three reciprocating

compressors in parallel and utilizing R502 as the

working fluid. Since R502 is an azeotropic

mixture containing R1 1 5, it will not be available

after 1997. Several substitutes, all mixtures, have

been developed and are under study by the

chemical manufacturers (e.g., DuPont, Allied Chemical). Low temperature refrigeration applications (-40 °C) offer unique problems, particularly

related to lubrication. Therefore, monitoring the

lubricant performance (e.g., solubility) in actual

systems is of equal importance as thermodynamic

performance.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will fabricate several

expansion systems for a residential refrigerator/freezer and evaluate them in a newly-con42
structed experimental rig. These systems will incorporate a "new" constant area short tube

expansion device in series and/or parallel in a breadboard refrigeration system. Also, system

alterations, such as use of the economizer cycle

will be considered. This work is being done in conjunction with Embraco, one of the world's

largest compressor manufacturers. A guest

researcher from Embraco will perform this work at BFRL during a two-year assignment.

A freezer system will be removed from a Giant

Food Store and placed in BFRL's laboratory for study. The system will be instrumented for performance measurements and for monitoring

the lubricant flow throughout the system. Ports

for refrigerant and lubricant sampling also will be

installed for composition and stability monitoring.

Evaluations will be made of three alternatives as R502 substitutes. They are (1 ) R1 25/R32 azeotrope (Allied), (2) R125/R270/R22 near-azeotrope

(DuPont), and (3) R218/R270/R22 near-azeotrope.

Since the latter two contain the R22, they can at best be a temporary solution. The performance

tests will include careful determination of system

capacity, system efficiency, and compressor

discharge temperature under conditions and load

cycles specified by Giant. The laboratory data for lubricant flow will be taken from samples, in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 41.4-84.

This evaluation should be of great interest to the

refrigeration equipment industry because of the

variety of new lubricants becoming available for the chlorine-free refrigerants.

Recent Results

Pannock, Jurgen, Didion, David, Radermacher,

Reinhard, "Performance Evaluation of Chlorine Free Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures in Heat Pumps

- Computer Study and Tests," International

Institute of Refrigeration Conference, Purdue

University, July 14-17, 1992.

Domanski, Piotr, Didion, David, Doyle, J., Evaluation of Suction Line-Liquid Line Heat Exchange in the Refrigeration Cycle, International Institute of

Refrigeration Conference, Purdue University, July

14-17, 1992.

Pannock, Jurgen, and Didion, David, The Performance of Chlorine-Free Binary Zeotropic Refrig- erant Mixtures in a Heat Pump, NISTIR 4748,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, December 1991.

Mixtures of Fluorocarbons on Alternatives for R11 f R12, R22, and

R502

Principal Investigator:

William J. Mulroy

Building Environment Division

301-975-5878

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

Electric Power Research Institute Customer Systems Division

Objective

To determine whether there exist environmentally

acceptable binary and ternary mixtures of partially

halogenated fluorocarbons that will act as an azeotrope or near-azeotrope alternative for R1 1 , R1 2,

R22, and R502.

Problem

Research performed in both industry and the

public sector over the past 4 years have nearly

exhausted pure fluid candidates as potential

alternatives for new systems. These efforts have

not identified drop-in candidates for existing

systems. The number of alternatives is significantly expanded by including mixtures as possibilities. With mixing different fluids, there is the

option of tailoring a material by modifying composition, the option not available with a pure material. Already, a couple of mixtures have been

identified as drop-in candidates for existing

systems.

Approach

A methodology recently developed by BFRL will be used to predict azeotropes and the degree of near azeotropy, that a given set of components

may demonstrate. Once candidate mixtures are

identified, based on relevant thermodynamic

properties, their thermodynamic performance will be predicted using different versions of NIST cycle

model, CYCLE- 1 1 . Both ideal and non-ideal cycle

analysis will be used. In addition, the benefit of

liquid-suction line heat exchange will be quantified

for those candidates whose heat capacity appears

favorable.

43
Recent Results

Identified two refrigerant mixtures suitable as

alternatives and patent disclosures were prepared.

Alternative Refrigerants in Heat

Pumps

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

William J. Mulroy

Building Environment Division

301-975-5878

Sponsor:

Trane Company

Objective

To determine the technical and economic feasibili- ty of a residential heat pump using environmentally acceptable refrigerants.

Problem

The refrigerant used in current residential heat

pumps, HCFC-22, is scheduled to be banned as

environmentally unacceptable. The design of heat

pumps has matured around use of this particular

refrigerant. Replacement refrigerants or refrigerant

mixtures must be identified. New refrigerant

choices will affect system hardware design. For example, liquid-suction line heat exchange, which

has no benefit for HCFC-22, is of benefit for most

large molecule refrigerants and, if mixtures are employed, can be used for partial recovery of the lost work of expansion.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop software to

select alternative refrigerants and will verify these

predictions with laboratory tests. Laboratory tests

will be performed on a three-ton heat pump. The

heat pump is compatible with Trane's compressor

calorimeter, allowing detailed data analysis. The

performance variation possible from two-phase

temperature glide with conventionally designed

coils will be evaluated using a reversible indoor coil capable of being installed for either cross-counter

or cross-parallel flow.

Recent Results

Completed new heat pump design and construct- ed and installed it in BFRL's laboratory.

44
Evaluation of a Modified Residential

Heat Pump Using a Zeotropic Mixture

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Peter Rothfleisch

Building Environment Division

301-975-5868

Sponsor:

Environmental Protection Agency

Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory

Global Emissions and Control Division

Objective

To experimentally evaluate, in the laboratory, the

thermodynamic and operational behavior of an

innovative, commercially produced, residential heat pump equipped with a multi-plate distillation apparatus for composition shifting of its zeotropic

mixed-refrigerant operating fluid.

Problem

Two advantages resulting from the use of

zeotropic refrigerant mixtures in heat pumps are:

1 . thermodynamic cycle improvement by matching refrigerant temperature glides to the heat source and sink; and 2. load matching by composition shifting to a higher capacity refrigerant at low operating temperatures which primarily saves

energy by the reduction of the need for electric resistance heating. The heat pump to be examined, manufactured by the National Division of the

Matsushita Corporation, is commercially available on the Japanese home market but is not available on the U.S. market.

Approach

Ongoing BFRL projects are evaluating benefits

from glide matching. A previous NIST project has

evaluated the potential for composition shifting via

single-stage flash distillation. During FY 1 990,

1991 , and 1 992, tests were performed at the

steady-state rating points of the DOE/NIST rating

procedure for variable speed heat pumps. In addition to the data required by the DOE/NIST

rating procedures, measurements were made of

compressor suction and discharge pressures, evaporator return bend temperatures, and mixture

composition. This data evaluated the extent of

composition shift attained and helped evaluate the

zeotropic mixture effects on the cycle efficiency.

The results of the testing of this unit were disappointing. The controls of the unit did not permit

composition shifting. The sponsor requested

BFRL to disassemble the control system and

separately operate the distillation system for composition shifting and compressor speed. In this configuration, they each can meet load

demand independently and the respective perfor- mances determined. In addition, the mixture

R22/R13B1 is slated for elimination from the

marketplace due to the ozone problem and will be

replaced by a mixture of R32/R134a. Results

should give a measure of reduction in resistance

heat demand that can be extrapolated across the

United States.

Recent Results

Rothfleisch, Peter !., and David A. Didion, A

Performance Evaluation of a Variable Speed,

Mixed Refrigerant Heat Pump, NISTIR 4597,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, June 1991.

45
Zeotropic Water Cooled Chiller

Principal Investigator:

Piotr A. Domanski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

Trane Company

Objective

To determine the technical and economic feasibili- ty of a water cooled water chiller using environmentally acceptable zeotropic refrigerants.

Problem

Zeotropic mixtures offer the potential for achieving

higher heating and cooling coefficients of performance (COPs) than can be obtained with conventional refrigerants. The technology offers the

most potential benefit in situations where counter- flow heat exchange is employed. These situations occur with refrigerant-to-water evaporators and

condensers of water cooled chillers, as well as in heat recovery heat pumps. Zeotropic mixtures are

attractive alternatives to R22 in water chillers because of their potential for efficiency improvement due to their basic refrigerant properties.

However, a number of technical issues have to be

resolved before the potentials of zeotropic mixtures can realized be in a field application.

Approach

This project combines the design, manufacturing,

and marketing capabilities of the Trane Company

as prime contractor with BFRL's technical expertise in zeotropic refrigerants. BFRL will provide

assistance in modeling and data analysis to Trane

who will perform proof-of-concept tests on

conventional and innovative water chillers. BFRL

also will perform flammability tests of candidate

alternatives.

Recent Results

Screened many environmentally acceptable

refrigerants for the water-chiller application using

CYCLE- 1 1 and recommended ones for further

investigation by TRANE.

Completed flammability tests on R32/R134a

mixture.

Evaluation of Maintenance Practices

of Large Centrifugal Chillers

Principal Investigator:

James Y. Kao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Development

Objective

To improve the reliability and performance by

improved maintenance practices and reduce the

loss of ozone-depleting refrigerants of large

centrifugal chillers.

Problem

The majority of GSA managed buildings and

building complexes use centrifugal chillers to provide cooling for comfort and process load. Good maintenance practices of these major pieces

of mechanical equipment can improve their

reliability, equipment life, load responses, and

energy performance. Costly breakdowns of

chillers in terms of machine repair expenses and

interruptions to building usage can be avoided. In addition, GSA's Refrigerant Management Plan

needs to be comprehensively reviewed along with

the applicable requirements of the Clean Air Act

and EPA regulations that were recently put into effect.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will review GSA's mainte- nance practices and manufacturers' recommended

maintenance procedures of large centrifugal

chillers. Included are inspection and preventive

maintenance requirements for chiller components

(i.e., compressor and associated equipment,

motor, gear transmission, evaporator and con- denser heat transfer surfaces, lubrication system,

purge system, capacity and temperature resetting

controls, safety controls, automatic tube-cleaning

system, water treatment, associated chilled and

condenser water piping accessories, etc.), inspection and preventive maintenance schedules (i.e., daily, weekly, quarterly, semi-annually, and

annually), and instrumentation calibration procedures and schedules. Also included will be

predictive maintenance requirements based on

preventive maintenance records. Currently

46
available nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods

which may be applied to chiller maintenance will be examined. BFRL also will review GSA's

Refrigerant Management Plan, applicable parts of

the Clean Air Act, and EPA regulations regarding

the management of ozone-depleting refrigerants.

Recommendations will be developed aimed at improving reliability and performance of centrifugal

chillers through the use of nondestructive evaluation techniques and operational inspections and/or

changes in existing maintenance practices. Also,

recommendations will be focused at reducing the

loss and/or risk of loss of ozone-depleting refrigerants through changes in current operational and

maintenance practices and equipment modifications.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Communication Protocols for Building Controls

Principal Investigator:

Steven T. Bushby

Building Environment Division

301-975-5873

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology,

and

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Federal Energy Management Program

Objective

To evaluate and perform conformance testing of

Communication Protocol Standards for the open

exchange of information between equipment from

different control vendors and between different

levels of control in both hierarchal and distributed

building management systems (BMS).

Problem

Today's direct digital control (DDC) systems

employ proprietary communication protocols

which prevent systems supplied by different

manufacturers from communicating with each

other. This has resulted in "captive customers"

who, upon buying a control system, are unable to upgrade or expand it without going back to the

same manufacturer. This lack of communication

capability between control systems made by

different manufacturers also prevents the building owner from obtaining the most capable building

service by not allowing him to choose, regardless

of the manufacturer, the best EMCS system, the

best digital controllers, the best security system,

the best fire detection system, or the best tele- communications system.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will:

1 . Revise/Refine BACnet standard as a result of

public review process.

2. Refine BACnet Reference Implementation to

reflect changes in the draft standard.

3. Develop Conformance Test System - a combination of hardware and software that can execute

tests on vendor's products and evaluate the

47
results of each test (pass, fail, inconclusive)

automatically or semiautomatically.

BFRL will commence work on developing a Conformance and Interoperability Testing Program

in conjunction with industry, ASHRAE, and other

government agencies. This may require BFRL to assume the role of a Conformance Testing

Laboratory for a limited period of time. Work will be performed on expanding BACnet to include

integrated building services, including life safety,

security, and transportation.

Recent Results

Bushby, Steven T., A Forma/ Analysis of the

BACnet MS/TP Medium Access Control Protocol,

NISTIR 4777, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, April 1992.

Real Time Fault Detection and Diagnostics

Principal Investigator:

George E. Kelly

Building Environment Division

301-975-5870

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

and

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

To develop methods for performing fault detection

and diagnostics on mechanical equipment and

systems in real time and participate in the International Energy Agency (IEA) Annex 25 Committee

on Real Time Simulation of HVAC - Systems For

Building Optimization, Fault Detection and Diagnostics (BOFD).

Problem

The operation of buildings and building systems is a complex procedure. With more and more

emphasis on a combination of different and often

conflicting performance measures, the processes/systems/equipment being used in commercial

and residential buildings are becoming more and more complex. New, on-line analysis methods

that detect problems (faults) as they occur are needed. These methods also must determine

what component or system is failing or has failed and recommend maintenance or repair procedures.

These methods can then be incorporated by the

building controls industry into either the building

energy management system (BEMS), "smart"

building equipment, or into stand alone systems

dedicated to fault detection and diagnostics.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will perform the following

tasks:

1 . Conduct research in conjunction with IEA

Annex, 25 participants, including Purdue University and Johnson Controls, on determining the most

appropriate static and dynamic models to be used

in detecting and locating faults in air-conditioning sensors, valve and actuators, and evaluate

alternative identification algorithms for identifying

model parameters in real time.

48
2. Use the newly developed BFRL Fault Detection

and Diagnostic (FDD) Laboratory to develop

standard data sets of a VAV air-handling system

with and without faults for use by Annex 25

participants and U.S. industry in developing BOFD

systems.

3. Develop an HVACSIM + dynamic simulation

model of the VAV air-handling system in the NIST

FDD Laboratory to expedite future research on BOFD concepts by Annex 25 members. These

research findings will assist the building control

industry in development of more "intelligent"

Building Automation Systems (BAS) for saving

energy and reducing operating costs through

proper adjustment, repair, and modifications of

building control strategies, equipment, and HVAC

systems.

Recent Results

Kelly, G.E. et.al., Guidelines for Using Emulators to Evaluate the Performance of Energy Management

and Control Systems, NISTIR 4991, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, November 1992.
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

HEAT AND MOISTURE

TRANSFER
Experimental Validation of BFRL

Moisture Transfer Model

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To experimentally verify BFRL's Moisture Transfer

Model for a wide range of different wall constructions to quantify the effect of accumulated

moisture on the heat transmission under both

steady and dynamic conditions.

Problem

BFRL has developed a distributed-moisture-capacity, one-dimensional, transient finite-difference

model, called MOIST, that predicts the coupled

transfer of heat and moisture within multilayer

construction under nonisothermal conditions. The

model can predict moisture transfer in the diffu- sion and capillary flow regimes. It has a provision to account for convective moisture transfer by

including embedded cavities which may be

coupled to indoor and outdoor air. This model

uses hourly Weather-Year-for-Energy-Calculation

(WYEC) weather data, and predicts the average

moisture content of the layers of a wall as a

function of time of year.

This model requires experimental verification.

After MOIST is experimentally verified, it may be

used with confidence by building designers and

engineers to conduct moisture sensitivity analysis

to develop recommended practices for controlling

moisture accumulation in building construction.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will:

1 . Complete moisture accumulation and heat

transfer tests on 1 2 wall specimens using NIST's

calibrated hot box.

2. Initiate wet-cup tests to determine the watervapor permeance of materials used in the construction of the 12 wall specimens.

4. Verify the program MOIST with the above test data.

This research will assist the building community in developing recommended practices for controlling

moisture in buildings.

Recent Results

Burch, Douglas M. and Thomas, William C, "An

Analysis of Moisture Accumulation in a Wood

Frame Wall Subjected to Winter Climate," Pro- ceedings of the Thermal Performance of the

Exterior Envelopes of Buildings V, Clearwater,

Florida, December 1 992.

Burch, Douglas M., and TenWolde, Anton,

Controlling Moisture in the Walls of Manufactured

Housing, NISTIR 4981, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

December 1992.

Burch, Douglas M., Controlling Moisture in the

Poof Cavities of Manufactured Housing, NISTIR

491 6, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, November 1 992.

Burch, Douglas M., Thomas, William C, and

Fanney, A. Hunter, "Water Vapor Permeability

Measurement of Common Building Materials,"

ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 98, Part 2, 1992.

Richards, R. F., Burch, Douglas M., and Thomas,

William C, "Water Vapor Sorption Measurements

of Common Building Materials," ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 98, Part 2, 1992.

Burch, Douglas M. and Thomas, William C, An

Analysis of Moisture Accumulation in a Wood

Frame Wall Subjected to Winter Climate, NISTIR

4674, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1991.

Fanney, A. Hunter., Thomas, William C, Burch,

Douglas M., and Mathena, L.R., "Measurements

of Moisture Diffusion for Building Materials,"

ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 97, Part 2, 1991.

3. Analyze data collected from the calibrated hot

box during the three-month test period.

51
most promising measurement technique(s). An

experimental design for full-scale testing will be

developed. This experimental design will be used

in FY 1 994 to test full-scale advanced insulation

systems.

Recent Results

New Project 1 993.

Objective

To evaluate thermal measurement techniques

applicable to advanced insulation systems.

Problem

Advanced insulation products are being developed

and introduced into the U.S. market. Examples of

these products are aerogels, powder filled panels,

and evacuated panels. These products offer extremely high insulating capabilities. For example, theoretical calculations reveal that an R-value

approaching 100 may be achieved in a 25.4 mm

thick evacuated panel.

Current test procedures for measuring thermal

conductivity are only applicable to materials which

are homogenous, have planar surfaces, and have,

compared to advanced insulation products,

relatively poor insulating capabilities. Appropriate

measurement techniques are needed which will allow an accurate determination of the overall thermal conductance of advanced insulation

systems.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will conduct a literature search to document the types of advanced

insulation products being developed. A finite difference model will be implemented to permit

the prediction of heat flux levels and temperature

distributions for a selected advanced insulation

system. The potential of alternate measurement

techniques will be assessed using the finite difference model. Measurement techniques which

will be explored include the use of liquid crystals

with an appropriate color imaging system, infrared

thermography, heat flux transducers, and calori- metric techniques. The resolution, accuracy, and

ease of use of each measurement method will determined.

Based upon this assessment, small-scale preliminary experiments will be conducted using the

Advanced Thermal insulation Products

Principal Investigator:

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

52
Moisture Control Guidelines for

Attics, Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl

Spaces, and Walls

Principal Investigator:

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6433

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division

Objective

To develop a user-friendly PC computer program

for generating moisture control guidelines for

attics, cathedral ceilings, and crawl spaces;

determine moisture properties for 1 0 roofing

materials; and investigate the viability of recom- mended construction practices for walls in DoE's

Moisture Handbook.

Problem

A need exists to develop a PC computer program

for building designers and engineers that accurately predicts the combined transfer and storage of

heat and moisture in attics, cathedral ceilings, and

crawl spaces. This PC computer program could

subsequently be used to investigate which construction practices minimize moisture accumulation as it relates to climate and the type of construction.

Appropriate moisture control guidelines for attics,

cathedral ceilings, and crawl spaces are still debated by experts in the building community.

For example, DOE recently issued a Moisture

Handbook. The Technical Oversight Committee

for this Handbook sometimes could not reach a consensus on certain moisture control guidelines.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop a sophisticated

computer program that performs a moisture

balance on a ventilated space (e.g., an attic,

cathedral ceiling, or a crawl space) of a building.

The BFRL MOIST Program (predicts moisture in walls) will be converted into a subprogram that

predicts heat and moisture transfer within each of

the bounding building components of the ventilat- ed space. This program will predict and display

the moisture content and temperature of each of

the construction layers comprising the construction as a function of the time of year. The

ventilated space will be convectively coupled to both the indoor and outdoor environments. The

program will be converted into a user-friendly PC

program that uses hourly weather data provided on floppy disks. It will be used to investigate the

viability of the recommended construction practic- es for attics and crawl spaces found in the DOE

Moisture Handbook. As part of this effort,

computer simulations will be carried out for five

recommended attic and five recommended crawl

space constructions subjected to hourly weather

data for Madison, Wl (a cold climate), Washington, DC (a mixed climate), and a Lake Charles, LA

(a cooling climate). One of the attic constructions

will include a cathedral ceiling.

For each of the above cases, separate computer

simulations will be carried out for an indoor

relative humidity of 35% and 50%. The moisture

content or surface relative humidity at locations

having high moisture content will be plotted as a

function of time of year. In winter climates, the

construction will be deemed to be not viable,

when the monthly mean moisture content of exterior layers of the construction are above fiber saturation. In hot humid climates, the construction will be deemed to be not viable, when the

monthly mean surface relative humidity of interior surfaces exceed 80%. If a construction practice

is found to be not viable, then additional computer

simulations will be carried out to find alternative

viable constructions. The results of the research

will be made available to DOE's Technical Oversight Committee for inclusion in a revised edition

of DOE's Moisture Handbook.

Newly developed BFRL measurement methods will be used to measure the water vapor permeability

and moisture storage capacity of ten roofing

materials supplied by the Oak Ridge National

Laboratory (ORNL). ORNL will use these property

values in computer simulation that predict drying

times for built-up roof systems.

Recent Results

Burch, Douglas M., "An Analysis of Moisture

Accumulation in Walls Subjected to Hot and

Humid Climates," ASHRAE Symposium on Combined Heat and Moisture Transport in Building

Envelopes, 1993.

Burch, Douglas M., Thomas, William C, Fanney,

A. Hunter, "Water Vapor Permeability Measure-
merits of Common Building Materials," ASHRAE

Transactions 1992, V. 98, Pt. 2.

Richards, R.F., Burch, Douglas M., and Thomas,

William C. "Water Vapor Sorption Measurements

of Common Building Materials," ASHRAE Transactions 1992, V. 98, Pt. 2.

Richards, R.F., "Measurements of Moisture

Diffusivity for Porous Building Materials," Proceedings of the ASHRAE/DOE/BTECC Conference on

Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of

Buildings V; Clearwater Beach, FL; Dec. 7-10,

1992.

Burch, Douglas M., Controlling Moisture in the

Walls of Manufactured Housing, NISTIR 4981

,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, December 1 992.

Burch, Douglas M., Controlling Moisture in the

Roof Cavities of Manufactured Housing, NISTIR

4916, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, November 1992.

Burch, Douglas M. and Thomas, William W., An

Analysis of Moisture Accumulation in a Wood

Frame Wall Subjected to Winter Climate, NISTIR

4674, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1991.

Thermal Resistance Measurements

on Foam Insulation and PowderPanel Insulation

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Office of Building Technology

Building Systems Division

Objective

To determine the thermal resistance of foam

insulation and powder-filled evacuated panel

insulation using the guarded hot plate (ASTM C

1 77) and heat-flow-meter apparatus (ASTM C

518).

Problem

Manufacturers of refrigerator appliances are examining alternative insulations to foam insulation

for insulating refrigerators. One alternative under

consideration is evacuated panels of micro-porous

powder that can obtain a foam insulation resistivi- ty of 70 to 1 40 m • K per W. While providing a

high resistance, these panels pose a difficult measurement problem because of increased

potential of lateral heat flow from the meter area. Assessing the accuracy of the measurement for these evacuated panels is important to design the

future generation of refrigerator appliances.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will continue to conduct

measurements on foams and powder-filled

evacuation panels. These measurements will be

made after consultation with staff at the Oak

Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and may require

ORNL to supply additional specimens to BFRL.

BFRL will assess the accuracy in measuring the

thermal resistance of the power-filled evacuation

panels using the heat flow meter apparatus,

ASTM Test Method C 518. BFRL has developed

a technique to assess its accuracy by intra-laboratory comparison with its 1 -meter guarded hot

plate, ASTM Test Method C 1 77. Intra-laboratory

comparison with BFRL will assist ORNL assess the

accuracy of measurements of powder-filled

evacuation panels.

54
Recent Results

BFRL provided ORNL staff with measurement data on specimens of expanded polystyrene and of

powder-filled evacuated panels.
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

RESIDENTIAL EQUIPMENT

ENERGY USE
Monitoring an Advanced Variable

Speed Integrated Heat Pump/Water

Heating Appliance

Principal Investigator:

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor:

Allegheny Power and

Potomac Edison Company

Objective

To instrument and monitor a field installation of a

Carrier variable-speed integrated heat pump/water

heating appliance.

Problem

The Carrier HydroTech 2000 variable-speed,

integrated heat pump/water heating appliance

incorporates several innovations. For example, it has a low noise compressor; the variable-speed

components, indoor humidistat, and smart controller permit enhanced temperature and humidity

control for improved comfort; the cold blow

associated with conventional air-source heat

pumps is largely avoided. For an electric utility, the Carrier HydroTech 2000 provides multiple

benefits. Improved comfort and high operating

efficiencies make the appliance more competitive

with fossil fuel heating systems.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform an elaborate

testing and rating procedure for this type heat

pump in a project conducted in parallel for the

Department of Energy (DOE) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). The procedure

involves approximately 20 laboratory tests and a

calculation procedure using a modified bin technique. This field experiment will provide unique

data for BFRL to validate the proposed testing and

rating procedure. The thermal performance and

the electrical energy usage of the system is being

monitored over a 24-month period. The influence

of the appliance on peak demand loads of the

Potomac Edison Company will be determined.

The data will be compared with data from laboratory tests at BFRL on a similar unit and the results used to validate a proposed testing and rating

procedure developed in a companion project being

conducted for DOE and EPRI.

Recent Results

Completed analysis to document the average

hourly energy demand of the heat pump/water

heating appliance as function of outdoor temperature.
Test Methods for Heat Pumps and

Air Conditioners Integrating Thermal

Energy Storage and Water Heating

Principal Investigators:

Brian Dougherty

Building Environment Division

301-975-6396

George Kelly

Building Environment Division

301-975-5870

Sponsor:

Electric Power Research Institute Customer Systems Division

Objective

To test a thermal storage heat pump and use the

results to refine and validate a NIST-developed

computer model.

Problem

Electric power utilities want to delay building

additional power generating facilities and shift the

time when some power is used to periods where

relatively low use now occurs (e.g., overnight).

Thermal storage heat pumps provide the desired

load shifting and also can save energy, thus

helping the utilities in both areas. The acceptance

of such appliances to the home builder and/or the

homeowner and the willingness of utilities to offer rebates and favorable time-of-use schedules will be improved if a standard procedure for testing

and rating thermal storage heat pumps exists.

Approach

During FY 1991, BFRL developed a detailed

computer program which models the transient

operation of a heat pump that integrates thermal

storage and domestic water heating. During FY

1 992, BFRL installed a commercially available

thermal storage heat pump in two environmental

chambers located in its laboratory. During FY

1 992 and 1 993, a series of tests were conducted

to determine steady-state and transient performance characteristics for each of the eight

different operating modes. The test results were

used to evaluate and refine the computer model.

BFRL completed a partial validation of the computer model. Component models (e.g., compressor,

water-on-coil evaporator, refrigerant-to-domestic

water heat exchanger, etc.) were verified separately. The full model gives a reasonable predic58

tion of performance for the thermal storage heat

pump when operating in a cool storage mode of

steady conditions. An interim report is being

developed that describes progress and a work plan

before initiating work on a proposed method for testing and rating.

Recent Results

Installed a thermal storage heat pump incorporating domestic water heating in BFRL's environmental chambers and conducted 50 laboratory

tests.
Test Procedures for Heat Pumps

and Air Conditioners

Principal Investigator:

Brian Dougherty

Building Environment Division

301-975-6396

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of heat

pumps and air conditioners.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL 94-

163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe test and rating

procedures and minimum performance standards

for various residential appliances. In addition, the

1 987 amendments to EPCA require analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine their effect on minimum efficiency standards. Since

1975, DOE has relied on BFRL to assist in the

development of the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will:

1 . Modify DOE's heat pump test procedure to accommodate variable-speed heat pumps that

limit the maximum compressor speed at low

outdoor temperatures.

2. Evaluate the existing heat pump test procedure

to ensure that all engineering design options

proposed in the air conditioning standards

rulemaking can be tested using this procedure

with results that are comparable across all heat

pumps.

3. Evaluate DOE-recommended changes to the

proposed test procedure for combined HP/WH

appliances. BFRL will evaluate the equipment

measurement tolerances specified within the

proposed standard and develop multiple flow

charts that detail those parts of the test procedure

that are applicable for a given appliance type (e.g.,

two-capacity full condensing combined appliance

that is a Double Mode COOL&WH unit, a Mode 2

HEAT&WH unit that uses an air-source defrost,

etc.).

4. Following public review of test procedures for conventional heat pump and combined HP/WH

appliances, BFRL will provide DOE the technical

assistance needed to resolve the issues raised by

commentors.

5. Develop the text needed to complete ASHRAE

Standard 137P.

Recent Results

Provided DOE with proposed test procedures for rating combined heat pump/water heating appli- ances.

Completed a series of laboratory tests on a thermal storage heat pump.

59
Test Procedures for Furnaces, Boilers, and Integrated Appliances

Principal Investigator:

Stanley T. Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of furnaces,

boilers, and integrated appliances.

Problem

The ASHRAE Standard 1 24-1 991 , Method of

Testing for Rating Combination Space Heating/Water Heating Appliances, was recently

approved by ASHRAE. The Standard requires the

testing of space heating function of the appliance as a boiler in accordance with the ANSI/ASHRAE

Standard 103-1988, and testing the water heating

function as a water heater in accordance with a procedure similar to the DoE test procedure for water heaters. The ASHRAE Standard does not,

however, address the problem that different sized

boilers are combined with different sized tankless

coils or storage water tanks. If all combinations

had to be tested, it would place a significant

testing burden on boiler manufacturers. An

interpolation scheme and/or sampling technique

must be developed.

In FY 1 992, BFRL developed and delivered to DoE

a recommended draft test procedure for furnaces

and boilers that references ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 103-1988. The new procedure was pre- pared for publication in the Federal Register by

DoE as a Proposed Rule Making in early FY 1993.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform the following

tasks:

tankless coils and storage tanks to determine an

interpolating methodology.

3. Procure and conduct laboratory tests on a

selected family of boilers tankless coils and

storage tanks to validate interpolating scheme.

4. Develop a recommended test procedure for evaluating the annual performance and cost of

operation of Type I and Type II combined

space/water heating appliances and assist DoE in preparing a Proposed Rule Making on this product

in FY 1993 or early FY 1994.

5. Continue evaluation of input/output method as

a possible future alternative for the current fur- nace/boiler test procedure by conducting laboratory tests on furnaces and/or boilers and comparing

results with those obtained using the current DOE/NIST furnace/boiler test procedure.

6. Assist DOE prepare responses to Requests for Waivers and draft Federal Register Notices of

Proposed Rule Making.

Recent Results

Liu, Stanley T, Kelly, George E., and Terlizzi,

Charles P., Evaluating the Off-Cycle Losses of a

Gas-Fired, Power Vented Furnace Employing Post

Purge, NISTIR 4908, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, August

1992.

Liu, Stanley T., Kelly, George E., and Terlizzi,

Charles P., Testing and Rating of an Atmospheric,

Gas-Fired Furnace Equipped with a Burner Air Inlet Damper, NISTIR 4717, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

November 1991

1 . Review comments received on the Proposed

Rule Making for furnaces/boilers and assist DoE

publish the Final Rule for this product.

2. Complete simulation studies on the performance of a family of boilers in combination with

60
Revised Test Procedures for Refrig

erator-Freezers

Principal Investigator:

James Kao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To develop revised test procedures for refrigeratorfreezers in the DOE Energy Conservation Program

for Consumer Products.

Problem

The current DOE test procedure was developed

nearly 1 0 years ago. The test procedure includes

certain test conditions and assumptions which are not realistic operating conditions (e.g., two

ambient temperature conditions are required

during the test: 32.2 +1 °C and 26.7 _+ 1 °C dry

bulb/19.4 °C wet bulb; and the door-opening during test is required only for the variable defrost

control optional test, not for other tests.) More

advanced materials (cabinet and door insulation,

door gaskets, etc.), manufacturing techniques

(lower anti-sweat heater energy, etc.) and operational features (e.g., electronic defrost operation,

through-the-door ice service, etc.) now are used

extensively. A thorough review of the entire test procedure is needed.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will review DOE's test procedures for refrigerator-freezers and Standard

HRF-1 of the Association of Home Appliance

Manufacturers (AHAM). In its environment

chambers, BFRL will conduct simulated tests on

several representative units to determine their cooling, defrosting, and energy characteristics.

Refrigerator-freezers types include single door,

double door with top freezer, double door with

bottom freezer, and side-by-side units. Different

defrost operations (e.g., manual, partial automatic,

and automatic) and through-the-door ice service

will be considered. Usage factors will include door

opening and ice consumption. The values for these two parameters will be determined by

consulting previously published literature and/or

industry sources. BFRL also will consult other

61

organizations involved in refrigerator-freezer work,

such as Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Using this data, BFRL will revise the DOE test procedure for refrigerator-freezers based on data obtained from

the tests.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.
Revised Test Procedures for Pool

and Spa Heaters

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Principal Investigator:

Stan Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To develop test procedures for pool and spa

heaters for inclusion in the DOE Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products (Uniform

Test Method for Measuring the Energy Consumption of Pool Heaters, Appendix P to Subpart

B of Part 430).

Problem

DOE's test procedures cover only gas- and oil-fired pool heaters. The test procedure for gas-fired

heaters references ANSI Standard Z21 .56 (Standard for Gas-fired Pool Heaters). The test procedure for oil-fired heaters is limited - it calls for measurements and calculations to be performed in a manner similar to those required for gas-fired

heaters. The DOE test procedures do not include

resistance type electric heaters or heat pumps for heating pools and spas. These test procedures

should be revised and expanded to include detailed

measurement requirements, accuracy statements,

calculation procedures, and test methods for evaluating the performance of both resistance

type and heat pump pool/spa heaters.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will review DOE test procedures and existing and proposed industry

standards for pool and spa heaters, including the

proposed ASHRAE Standard 1 46P. Heaters

included are fossil-fuel type, resistance electric type, and air-source heat pump. Other related

standards, such as those covering heat pumps

and air conditioners, also will be evaluated to determine the applicability.

BFRL will use this data to revise DOE's test procedures for gas-fired pool heaters and oil-fired pool heaters, and develop new test procedures for resistance electric heater and heat pump pool/spa

heaters.

62
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality Models

Principal Investigator:

Jin B. Fang

Building Environment Division

301-975-6417

George Walton

Building Environment Division

301-975-6421

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop refinements to CONTAM88, BFRL's

multizone airflow and contaminant dispersal model

and develop standardized building test cases for the application of this model to study indoor air quality.

Problem

Multizone airflow and contaminant models have

been developed at BFRL, including AIRNET and

CONTAM86 through CONTAM88. These models

have been useful for studying contaminant

dispersal problems in multizone building systems.

Since the development of the most recently

released model, CONTAM88, there is a need to improve this model in areas of ventilation system

performance and contaminant sources and sinks.

There is a need for greater analyses of indoor air quality in multi-zone building systems, including

improved understanding of the important interactions with building equipment and energy use.

Interest in indoor air quality analysis is expanding

in many areas, including pollution exposure

estimates and civilian emergency management.

The recent initiation of the revision of ASHRAE

Standard 62 makes the need for improved modeling tools even more pressing. Finally, improvements in the input/output features of these

programs are needed to expand their accessibility to others than indoor air quality researchers.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will improve the ability of

CONTAM88 to model contaminant dispersal and

develop standardized building cases for use in indoor air quality analysis. This work will be

performed in two parts.

In the first part, the ventilation system and the source and sink models within CONTAM88 will be

improved. A ventilation system description

module will be developed to allow users to select

and configure system components to construct

realistic models of building ventilation systems.

Contaminant source and sink terms will be added

to the model based on the latest research in these

areas, including adsorption models and source dependencies. Advanced graphical input/output

approaches and interfaces with building equipment

and energy models will be developed. Based on

these modifications, a new version of CONTAM88

will be developed and documented.

In the second, work will address the application of

CONTAM88 to indoor air quality analyses in buildings. A series of "standard" building descriptions will be developed to study indoor air quality

control options, exposure assessment and the

results of field surveys. These building descriptions will be based on the latest research results in the areas of building airtightness, contaminant

source strengths, and building systems perfor- mance. A variety of building descriptions will be

developed, including office, school, retail, institu- tional, and multi-family residential buildings. These

building descriptions will be formatted as CONTAM88 input files, enabling straightforward

analyses and modifications based on the objectives of the user. Analyses will be conducted to support the activities of the ASHRAE committee

responsible for the revision of ASHRAE Standard

62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air

Quality. These analyses will include modeling the

effects of filters and air cleaners, zone controls,

heat recovery devices, and source control technologies on indoor contaminant levels.

Recent Results

Fang, J. B. and Persily, Andrew K., "Numerical

Prediction of Airflow Patterns and Ventilation

Effectiveness in an Open Office Space," ASHRAE

Transactions, Vol. 99, Part 2, 1993.

Fang, J. B. and Persily, Andrew K., "Numerical

Prediction of Ventilation System Performance in an Open Office Space," ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 99, Part 2, 1993.

Persily, Andrew K., "Modeling Radon Transport in Multi-Story Residential Buildings" Modeling Air

Change Rate and Airtightness in Buildings, ASTM

STP 1205, 1992.

64
Ventilation Assessment in Commercial Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

W. Stuart Dols

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Bonneville Power Administration

Objective

To assess and compare different methods of

evaluating ventilation performance in mechanically

ventilated commercial buildings and develop a guidance document on ventilation performance

assessment in commercial buildings.

Problem

Ventilation standards that specify minimum levels of ventilation for occupant health and comfort

have existed for many years. These have tradi- tionally been design standards, requiring that the

building design specifications comply with the

provisions of the standard. It has become increasingly apparent that design values for ventilation rates are not always realized in practice when the

building is constructed and after the building has

been in operation for some time. The realization

that design objectives and the requirements of

ventilation standards are not always achieved in practice, along with increased concerns about

indoor air quality, has led to the need for on-site

verification that building ventilation rates are in compliance with design values and/or ventilation

standards. The requirement for on-site verification

or commissioning has led to a need for practical

and accurate procedures for making field measure- ments of building ventilation rates.

Approach

Under previous research for Bonneville Power

Administration (BPA), whole building ventilation

assessment techniques were compared in the BPA

Building in Portland. Measurement techniques were not developed that addressed ventilation

performance on other than the whole building.

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Evaluate methods to assess ventilation performance of individual floors and work stations.

2. Study ventilation performance assessment

methods in small commercial buildings.

3. Develop a guidance document to assess

ventilation performance in mechanically ventilated

commercial buildings.

The research involves performing an investigation

of procedures to assess ventilation of individual floors and work stations. Local ventilation performance will be conducted in the BPA Building and

will involve a variety of techniques. The ventila- tion of individual floors and such mid-scale zones

will be studied with traverses of individual supply

air ducts, tracer gas measurements in zone

returns, and carbon dioxide concentration measurements in zone returns. The ventilation

assessment of individual work stations will include

the use of traverses of individual supply air ducts,

flowhood measurements at supply air diffusers, tracer gas measurements of ventilation effective- ness and carbon dioxide concentration measurements. In the individual floor and the work station

measurements, the various techniques will be

compared for their practicability, associated effort,

and accuracy.

The comparison of ventilation performance

assessment techniques in small commercial build- ings will be conducted in three mechanically

ventilated buildings in the Portland area. In each

of these buildings, automated tracer gas decay

and carbon dioxide concentration measurement

systems will be installed for a period of several

weeks. Building ventilation will be assessed with

direct measurements of airflow rates in the

ventilation system ductwork using traditional air- flow rate measurement devices.

This work also includes development of a guid- ance document on ventilation system performance

assessment in mechanically ventilated commercial

buildings. This effort is being cosponsored by the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The

guidance document will provide necessary infor- mation to evaluate ventilation in these buildings to compare actual ventilation performance with

design intentions and to determine compliance

with ventilation standards and guidelines. The

document will describe the various methods

available, including a detailed description of when

and how to use them, a description of the equip65
ment and technical skill required, an estimate of

the associated level of effort, and a discussion of

the accuracy and interpretation of the results.

Recent Results

Dols, William S and Persily, Andrew K., A Study

of Ventilation Measurement in an Office Bui/ding,

NISTIR 4905, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1 992.

Development of a System for Ventilation Assessment in Commercial

Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Steven J. Nabinger

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor:

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Research and Development

Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory

Objective

To develop equipment and procedures for assessing ventilation in public and commercial buildings.

Problem

Indoor air quality complaints have become more common in recent years. Although there has been

insufficient research to establish the causes of

many indoor air quality complaints, several have

been suggested including poor ventilation system

performance and the reduction of building air change rates. Air change rates and other ventilation system performance parameters have not

been well characterized in commercial buildings.

Many indoor air quality investigations have not

included adequate assessments of ventilation,

making connections between ventilation performance and indoor air quality even more difficult to

establish. There lacks reliable means to assess

ventilation system performance at a practical level of effort and expertise. Most research in ventilation system performance has involved sophisticated tracer gas analysis techniques that are not

consistent with the resources and technical skills of most indoor air quality investigators. Standard

engineering approaches to ventilation assessment

such as duct traverses exist, but their application to real-world system evaluations is complicated by

practical issues of system configuration and

equipment operating schedules.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will document and validate

procedures for fabricating an automated ventilation monitoring system. This system is based on

real-time monitoring of key ventilation system

performance parameters. It consists of two

66
separate systems, one for monitoring local conditions and the other for monitoring air handler

performance, both of which consist of various sensors and a data recording device. The local system employs a datalogger combined with

temperature and relative humidity sensors, carbon

dioxide monitors and hot-wire anemometers to monitor local ventilation operation for periods from

several days to several weeks. The air handler

monitoring system employs similar sensing

equipment and a personal computer based data

collection system. Both systems are designed to provide real-time information on system operation

and performance. The system will be deployed in the field and the measurement results compared

to other, more accurate, measurement systems.

The field deployment will provide an opportunity

to evaluate the system design and performance so

it can be modified. In addition, the real-time data on ventilation systems operation and performance

will further the understanding of how the monitoring systems perform and will assist in the development of evaluation protocols that capture the key

aspects of ventilation performance.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

Fluid Mechanics of Airflow Measurement in Ventilation Systems

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To employ recent developments in fluid flow

measurement research to improve standard

procedures for measuring airflow rates in ventilation systems.

Problem

Standardized procedures exist for measuring

airflow rates in mechanical ventilation systems in the field. These procedures are typically pitot tube

traverses in ducts, with estimated accuracies in the field from 5 to 10% under ideal conditions.

However, it is acknowledged that common HVAC

system configurations can lead to much larger errors or even preclude making the measurements.

These procedures are based on results conducted

during the 1 960s and earlier. Since that time,

fundamental research has been conducted into the

fluid mechanics of fluid flow rate measurement.

Based on the use of laser doppler velocimetry,

velocity profiles in ducts have been studied, with

specific attention given to the effects of elbows,

constrictions and other obstructions. Based on

the practical limitations of current airflow rate measurement procedures, their basis on dated

research results and the existence of state-of-theart approaches to airflow rate measurement, the

opportunity exists for improvements in standardized approaches to airflow rate measurement in ventilation systems.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will review the technical

basis of current industry practice for airflow rate measurement and the latest research results in the area of fluid flow measurement. Given the results of recent research, technical shortcomings in current industry practice and areas where improvements are possible will be identified. These

improvements will focus on the accuracy and

reliability of the measurement results and on how

the procedures address problems of system

configuration that result in nonuniform velocity
profiles within the system ductwork. Based on

these findings, recommendations will be developed for improvements in current practice. These

recommendations will be transferred to industry

through interactions with the Air Movement

Control Association, the American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engi- neers, the National Environmental Balancing

Bureau and the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning

National Contractors Association. This effort will be performed in cooperation with NIST's Chemical

Science and Technology Laboratory.

Recent Results

Persily, Andrew K., Building and HVAC Characterization for Commercial Building Indoor Air Quality

Investigations, NISTIR 4979, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

February 1993.

Large Building Ventilation Guide

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Environmental Protection Agency

Indoor Air Quality Division

Office of Radiation and Indoor Air

Objective

To develop a guide to assess ventilation in mechanically ventilated commercial buildings for use

in determining their compliance with design

objectives and ventilation standards and in indoor

air quality evaluations.

Problem

Current investigations into the causes of air quality

problems in commercial buildings include ventilation evaluation efforts ranging from no consideration of ventilation, to evaluations of design values

for ventilation rates with no actual measurement,

to unreliable or ill-advised measurement procedures. These circumstances exist in part because

many investigators lack an adequate understanding of ventilation systems and building characteristics, a lack of familiarity with existing techniques

for ventilation evaluation and their applicability in commercial buildings, and a perception that the

only option for ventilation assessment is expensive, long-term tracer gas monitoring. The rela- tionship between ventilation and air quality

problems in buildings is poorly understood. There

is no straightforward method to reliably determine

whether a building is operated in compliance with

its design goals or a particular ventilation standard,

e.g., ASHRAE 62-1989. Given the upcoming

revision of the ASHRAE standard, reliable and

practical methods for determining compliance are needed. Ventilation assessment tools are needed

for indoor air quality research efforts being con- ducted by a wide variety of federal and state agencies.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop a ventilation

assessment guide that describes procedures for evaluating the performance of mechanical ventilation systems in public and commercial buildings.

The focus of the guide will be the reliable determination of outdoor air intake and supply airflow

68
rates. The effort will be developed based on BFRL

expertise, input from other experts, and guidance

already developed by organizations such as AABC

(Associated Air Balancing Council), ADC (Air

Diffusion Council), AMCA (Air Movement and

Control Association), ASHRAE, NEBB (National

Environmental Balancing Bureau) and SMACNA

(Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors'

National Association). The project will schedule a

ventilation measurement workshop at NI ST to

obtain input from national experts in ventilation

measurement and other interested parties.

The ventilation assessment guide will be directed to an audience of building engineers and other IAQ

diagnosticians having basic knowledge of mechanical engineering and airflow measurement. The

procedures described in the guide will employ

standard airflow measurement techniques such as

pitot and hot-wire traverses, flowhoods, temperature measurement and carbon dioxide measurement. The guide will describe all measurement

procedures, equipment requirements, data analysis

techniques and reporting formats.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

Radon Entry and Mitigation in Large

Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Radiation Programs

Objective

To evaluate radon entry and air movement in a

large, non-industrial building.

Problem

There has been much research conducted on the

subject of radon in buildings. This research has

focused on problem identification, mitigation, and

source modeling in single-family residential build- ings. Recently, attention has turned towards large

buildings such as schools, commercial buildings,

and multi-family residential buildings. While the

fundamental issues about the relationship between

radon, ventilation, and building features in small

buildings has not been resolved, radon in large

buildings is a more complex problem due to the

multi-zone nature of airflow and contaminant

dispersal in large, mechanically ventilated build- ings. The technical issues that must be studied to understand radon transport in large buildings

include the impacts of mechanical ventilation

system operation, air movement through vertical shafts within tall buildings, and pressure differenc- es at ground contact zones.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will be monitoring ventila- tion parameters in a large, non-industrial building to evaluate radon entry and transport. This work

employs using existing instrumentation systems

and in-house expertise to study ventilation and air movement in conjunction with radon monitoring

conducted by an EPA contractor. These simultaneous measurements will be used to develop an

understanding of radon entry and transport within

the building and to develop recommendations for reduction of radon levels through modifications of the ventilation system operation and other mitigation strategies.

The monitoring effort includes installation of an automated tracer gas monitoring system to

69
measure building air change rates and an automated carbon dioxide measurement system to obtain

information on general indoor air quality within the

building. One week of intensive, on-site measure- ments will be conducted to obtain detailed infor- mation on ventilation system performance. The

mechanisms of radon entry and transport will be

diagnosed and recommendations will be developed

for mitigation approaches. After a mitigation

approach is selected and implemented in the

building, the automated systems will be employed

to determine the effect on building ventilation rates and carbon dioxide levels.

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

70
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

71
Building Industry Framework for

Developing Step Application Protocols

Principal Investigator:

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop the planning structure, methods, and

tools for defining and testing the Standard for the

Exchange of Product model data (STEP) application protocols for the building industry.

Problem

National and international standards making

organizations have adopted the application protocol (AP) methodology for developing information

exchange standards. The IGES/PDES Organization, DoD CALS Office, Navy, Air Force, NASA,

and ISO TC184/SC4, which is developing STEP,

are proponents of this new method.

BFRL initially developed the AP methodology as a

solution for ensuring reliable information exchange

using the Initial Graphics Exchange Standard

(IGES). With industry and other government

agencies, BFRL developed the 3D Piping IGES

Application Protocol to prove the methodology

and to meet a high-priority data exchange requirement of industry and government. This is the first AP to be included in a DoD standard for digital

product data and in a DoD procurement specification for CAD/CAE systems. With the commercialization of the 3D Piping IGES AP and the development of STEP APs by the ISO community, the

basic AP methodology is being rigorously tested

and refined. Industry and the standards making

community require AP development tools and a

quality management system for the cost-effective

and timely delivery of quality APs.

To assure the rational development of the APs

required by the building industry, standards writers

and building industry representatives require a framework and a plan for defining, planning, and

managing AP projects. This framework must

provide a structure with which to classify APs,

define AP scopes, and identify overlaps between

application protocols.

Approach

A prototype AP framework was developed by

BFRL in FY 1 992 to provide a structure with

which to classify APs and to begin planning the

work of the ISO STEP community. In conjunction

with the National PDES Testbed, the National

Initiative for Product Data Exchange, and the DoD

CALS Office, the framework will be tested against

the requirements of the manufacturing industry.

Concurrently, BFRL will extend the framework to accommodate the requirements of the building

industry.

In order to deliver high-quality STEP APs, an

effective AP development environment and a

quality management system must be specified and

implemented. With the National PDES Testbed,

BFRL will develop the functional specifications for an AP development environment. BFRL will use

the ISO 9000 standards and the lessons from the

Malcolm Baldridge Award to develop an AP quality

management (QM) structure. This QM structure

will be delivered to the DoD CALS Office and the

ISO STEP project for their implementations of AP

QM systems.

Recent Results

Palmer, M.E., Gilbert, M.E., and Anderson, J.M.,

Guidelines for the Development and Approval of

STEP Application Protocols, NISTIR 5110, National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, February 1 993.

Palmer, Mark E. and Reed, Kent A., 3D Piping

IGES Application Protocol, Version 1.1, NISTIR

4797, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1992.

Kramer, Thomas R., Palmer, Mark E., and Feeney

Allison Barnard, Issues and Recommendations for a STEP Application Protocol Framework, NISTIR

4755, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, January 1992.

72
Computer-Based Building Regulations and Standards

Principal Investigator:

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a framework for integrating different

development and application representations of

building regulations and standards into one unified

model.

Problem

Building regulations assure health, life safety, and

welfare in buildings and building construction, and

establish minimum levels of performance for build- ings and building systems. Building regulations

and their supporting engineering standards,

hereafter collectively referred to as standards,

have been the natural subject of computer auto- mation efforts because of their number, size, and

complexity. Standards development tools range

from text editing systems to detailed content and

arrangement analyzers; standards dissemination

tools, for local and remote database access systems to CD-ROM; and standard usage tools,

from keyword-in-context systems to hypermediabased expert systems. Each computer automation effort has developed its own representation of

standards. Interchange of representations between computer applications is difficult and

interoperability is impossible. A common framework is needed to integrate different representations into one unified model.

Approach

In FY 1992, the Standardized General Markup

Language—SGML (ISO 8879)—was used to define a framework for the prototype unified

model that incorporated elements of document

publishing markup and of the Standards Analysis,

Synthesis, and Expression (SASE) methodology

developed previously at BFRL. A primitive SGML

Document Type Definition (DTD) defined the

unified model. Recent work in the international

standardization effort, known colloquially as HyTime, will be applied this year to formalize the

identification of informational links in standards.

The International Council of Building Research,

Studies, and Documentation (CIB) Board of

Directors agreed in January 1 992 to create a new

CIB Task Group that will study computers and

building regulations and standards. Various

approaches are being taken that are difficult to compare and contrast through the available

descriptions. Several programs will be exchanged

among the Task Group participants and exercised.

Several participants are planning an

intercomparison of approaches by applying them

to a common text. This international effort will be

led and coordinated by BFRL.

This research will assist standards writing organizations develop and deliver electronic representations of their standards.

Recent Results

Developed an encoding model for standards using

standardized general markup language.

73
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY
Field Measurement and Modeling of

Lighting Distributions

Principal Investigator:

Belinda L. Collins

Building Environment Division

301-975-6455

George Walton

Building Environment Division

301-975-6421

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop and evaluate computer routines for modeling and assessing the distribution of

illuminances and luminances in office spaces.

Problem

Evaluating and predicting the performance of

lighting systems in actual office spaces is a complicated measurement and modeling problem

requiring physical and user reaction assessments.

Accurate measurement and prediction procedures

for determining lighting system performance in real spaces are urgently needed, along with metrics for evaluating and predicting lighting quality related to luminance distributions. Recent research suggests

the perception of lighting quality is determined in part by the balance between horizontal and

vertical illumination.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will assess occupant

response to the lighting output of five different

lighting configurations in real offices including two

with interior obstructions. The subjective assess- ment of the effects of several different luminance

patterns in typical office spaces will be evaluated.

The hypothesis that lighting quality can be related to luminance patterns, particularly the ratio of

vertical to horizontal luminance, will be assessed

for offices selected to represent extremes in luminance distribution. These measures will be

correlated with the detailed measurements of room luminances and surface reflectances made

using the luminance mapper. Variations in color,

specular (and matte) reflections, glare, contrast,

task visibility, and variations in luminance distribu- tions will also be measured. These data will be

used as input in the development and evaluation

of accurate computer algorithms for calculating

surface luminances and reflectances in actual

rooms. The accuracy of the ray tracing and view

factor approaches will be assessed relative to the

photometric measurements made with the lumi- nance mapping device and the subjective assess- ments. Currently available lighting calculation

programs such as Radiance and Lumen Micro will be evaluated in conjunction with researchers in NIST's Computing and Applied Mathematics Laboratory.

This research will expand the analysis of lighting

system performance and lighting quality metrics to

real rooms with different lighting systems, surface

reflectances, and interior obstructions using a luminance mapping device. Data obtained with

the mapper will be used to develop and verify the

accuracy of computer algorithms for computing

both surface luminances and reflectances in real rooms, including those with obstructions.

Results are expected to yield data which validate

procedures for measuring and modeling luminance

distributions in spaces with different interior configurations. It also will provide data on user response to these spaces and test the hypothesis

that variations in the ratio of vertical to horizontal

luminances are critical to impressions of lighting

quality.

Recent Results

Collins, Belinda, L, Ouellette, M.J., Perry, M.J.,

Tiller, D.K. Treado, Stephen J., and Sanders, P.A.,

"Initial Procedure for Evaluation of a CCD Photometer," Proceedings Lux Europa, April 1993.

Collins, Belinda L, Evaluation of Subjective Response to Lighting Distributions: A Literature Review, NISTIR 5119, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February 1993.

Collins, Belinda, L., Treado, Stephen, J., Ouellette,

M.J. Evaluation of Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Performance at Different Ambient Temperatures,

NISTIR 4935, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, December 1992.

75
Lighting and HVAC Interactions

Principal Investigator:

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

To develop improved evaluation methods and

design tools for designing and operating efficient

lighting and HVAC systems in commercial build- ings to control peak cooling loads.

Problem

Lighting constitutes a substantial portion of

commercial building electrical energy usage,

typically ranging from 25 to 50%. Most of the

energy dissipated to the building space eventually

contributes to building cooling load. Due to the

temperature dependence of fluorescent lighting

power consumption and light output, there are

significant interactions between the lighting and

HVAC systems. As a result, lighting system light levels and efficiency, and cooling loads due to

lighting, can vary substantially due to lighting and

HVAC system design and operation. Previous

results have indicated performance variations of

up to 20% are possible. These effects influence

the number of luminaries required to provide the

design illumination levels and the size of HVAC

equipment to meet the cooling loads contributed

by the lighting system. This, in turn, influences

the first cost of the lighting and HVAC systems,

and the operating costs for energy, including

demand charges for electrical power usage during

peak periods. Such peak period power usage puts

added pressure on electrical utilities to meet

system-wide power demand by increasing generating capacity.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will be investigating the

interactions between lighting and HVAC systems

in commercial buildings. This work is being

performed through a combination of full-scale measurements and computer simulations. The

results are being analyzed to provide the technical

basis for design procedures and methods with

assistance from Ross and Baruzzini under contract

to EPRI. Full-scale measurements are being

conducted at the BFRL Lighting Interaction Test

Facility for various lighting systems, HVAC system

and room configurations, and operating conditions.

Lighting system performance, thermal loads, and

energy transfers are monitored to enable determination of optimum operating conditions and

strategies. A detailed computer model is being

developed and verified using the measurement

results. The model will be used to extend the

results to a wide range of configurations so that

the design guidelines will be more general and

comprehensive. The computer model will serve as a stand-alone design tool. It also will be the

basis of a sub-routine of larger building energy

analysis computer programs such as BLAST and

DoE-2. This will provide such programs with the

capability of evaluating the interactions between

the lighting and HVAC systems, a capability which

they currently lack.

Recent Results

The Interaction of Lighting, Heating and Cooling

Systems in Buildings, NISTIR 4701 , National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, March 1992.

Revised section on thermal considerations of

lighting for new IES Handbook.

76
Test Procedures for Lighting Fixtures and Systems

Principal Investigator:

Stephen Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of lighting

fixtures and systems.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL 94-

163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the Department of Energy (DOE) to prescribe test and rating

procedures and minimum performance standards

for various residential appliances. In addition, the

1 987 amendments to EPCA require analysis of

any test procedure amendments to determine their effect on minimum efficiency standards. Since

1975, DOE has relied on BFRL to assist in the

development of the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will be developing draft test procedures for multi-lamp fixtures based on

reviews of the existing test procedures and

preliminary experimental testing in BFRL's Lighting

System Evaluation Laboratory. Proposed procedures will be prepared for individual components,

including lamps as T-12's, T-10's, and T-8's;

conventional and premium ballasts; and fixtures

including deep cell parabolic and acrylic lens; and

for systems comprised of these components.

Lighting component and system performance

characteristics will be measured and evaluated

using reference standard and actual components.

The performance characteristics determined for individual components will be used to predict the

performance of complete systems of those

components and then compared to experimental

system performance for assemblies of the components configured as entire lighting systems.

Experiments of proposed test procedures on three

lighting system/fixture combinations will be

validated in BFRL's Lighting System Evaluation

Laboratory. Lighting system efficiency will be

used to determine energy usage for equivalent

illuminance levels for three test cases. Feedback

from the testing will be used to refine and improve

the proposed test procedures. It is expected the

findings of this research will result in lighting

component test procedures and an associated

calculation procedure to obtain system perfor- mance. This method will account for electrical,

thermal, and photometric interactions between

components.

Recent Results

Completed experimental validation of test procedures for multi-lamp luminaires.

Developed test procedure for lamp performance

evaluation.

77
Evaluation of Occupant Response to

Lighting Retrofits

Principal Investigator:

Belinda L. Collins

Building Environment Division

301-975-6455

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To evaluate occupant response to lighting in offices at DOE Headquarters in Washington, D.C.

Problem

The Department of Energy is undertaking a major

renovation of its lighting system in its Headquarters as part of the Federal Relighting Initiative. The initiative is intended to reduce power con- sumption dramatically without compromising

existing lighting quality. Determining the impact

of the relighting on the occupants and on the

lighting in their offices is a major part of the

evaluation of the effectiveness of the relighting

initiative. Recent reports by Collins, Fisher,

Gillette, and Marans (1990), Collins and Rubin

(1988), Collins, Gillette, Dahir and Goodin (1989)

present data from post-occupancy evaluations of

about 1 5 facilities in government and private

industry. These assessments provided information on physical conditions, especially lighting, and the

occupant reaction to it in the various buildings

studied. They also found noticeable dissatisfaction with some lighting systems, particularly

where fixed task lighting was combined with an

indirect ambient lighting system. This system was

associated with higher energy use (in terms of

lighting power density), and higher illuminances,

but lower ratings of lighting satisfaction than a comparable situation in which direct ambient

lighting provided the primary illumination.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will identify representative

samples of offices and occupants including interior and exterior offices. Occupants will include

professional, administrative, and support personnel. A two-part procedure is planned in which

physical measures of the lighting in the offices are assessed, including measures of task illuminance,

surround luminances, and typical task contrasts;

and occupant reaction will be determined using

questionnaire techniques developed in previous

BFRL post-occupancy assessments. The number

of measures required to characterize and describe

the space will be determined using a conventional

photometer and a luminance mapping device in conjunction with a statistical analysis procedure.

After the photometric measures have been

obtained, the spaces will be evaluated by human

subjects using post-occupancy procedures similar to those described in Collins et al (1 989). During

the course of this work, a comprehensive procedure for measuring luminances in an office space

will be implemented, along with a protocol for assessing occupant response. These procedures

will be documented and validated during the

assessment of the Forrestal Building for future use

in other Federal Relighting Projects. Development

of repeatable, valid procedures for measuring the

effectiveness of relamped facilities will enable DOE

to provide critical feedback information to building

managers.

Recent Results

Collins, Belinda L, "Evaluation of the Role of

Luminance Distributions in Occupant Response to

Lighting," CIBSE Proceedings, National Lighting

Conference, pp 1-10, April 1990.

78
Requirements for High Technology

Workstations

4801, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1992.

Principal Investigator:

Belinda L. Collins

Building Environment Division

301-975-6455

Sponsor:

Department of Transportation

Office of the Secretary

Headquarters Building Acquisition Project Office

Objective

To evaluate the requirements for workstation

design for use in designing the new Department of

Transportation Headquarters facility.

Problem

The Department of Transportation (DOT) is planning a major new headquarters building and

requires technical assistance to develop a design

approach to meet its requirements. The building

cost is estimated at $450 million, it will accommodate 8000 employees, and its floor area exceeds

3.3 million m

2

. It will be the second largest

federal building in the Washington, D.C. area - surpassed only by the Pentagon. DOT wants to apply the latest knowledge of building technology

and workstation design in their proposed facility.

Approach

In the first phase of the project, a workshop with

selected experts was conducted as a means of

determining the state of the art in intelligent

building design. Participants presented papers and

discussed issues related to new design technologies, experiences with high technology designs in the public and private sectors, workstation

designs, ergonomic and human resource issues,

and forecasts of office design trends.

During FY 1993, BFRL is preparing a series of

"white papers" for DOT on issues such as lighting,

security, and workstation design.

Recent Results

Rubin, Arthur, Office Workspace for Tomorrow

DoT Workshop, NISTIR 4802, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

July 1992.

Rubin, Arthur, Office Workspace for Tomorrow

DoT Workshop, Contributing Papers, NISTIR

79
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

LARGE FIRE RESEARCH
Simulation of Turbulent Combustion

and Transport in Fires

Office Building Fire Research Program

Principal Investigator:

Howard R. Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms which control the gas phase combustion and transport processes in fires and develop a

predictive capability which allows the computer

simulation of these processes to be based on

mathematical expressions of underlying physical

principles.

Problem

Information is needed to understand the interaction of a fire with its environment. Such fires range from individual room fires to the large

outdoor fires which affect the atmosphere. The

transport and deposition of smoke generated in crude oil fires is of interest to MMS, the U.S. Coast Guard, the Defense Nuclear Agency, and

the American Petroleum Institute. The interaction

of fires with a room environment has been a major

research topic for BFRL (and equivalent organizations in other countries) since its inception. Small

scale combustion processes are the study of

diffusion flames in a turbulent flow environment

and are of interest to the general combustion

research community.

Approach

Theoretical and computational techniques applied to the study of transport, mixing, diffusion,

radiation, and reaction processes occurring at widely differing length and time scales. Detailed

studies of individual phenomena are carried out in a manner that permits them to be assessed

individually and later combined into overall simulations of problems of interest.

Recent Results

Developed three-dimensional windblown smoke

plume model that predicts rise and settling pro- cesses in idealized atmosphere.

Developed thermal element model for realistic combustion simulations.

Principal Investigator:

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Objective

To quantify the impact of large fires on buildings

and their occupants and investigate the use of current technology/resources for mitigating the

hazards.

Problem

Systems furniture or "work stations" have been

identified as a source of large HRR fires in office

buildings. Because of the wide spread use of

systems furniture, the potential fire hazard in an open plan office environment needs to be quantified. The conditions in a long corridor (means of egress) adjoining the fire compartment need to be

determined. While the impact of sprinklers has

been demonstrated in experiments at BFRL, this has not been included in the corridor flow model,

because the existing data base and zone modeling

techniques are not sufficient to continue development of the corridor flow model including sprinkler effects.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will investigate the extent

that materials or geometry effect the fire performance of systems furniture. A combination of

laboratory scale and full scale tests will be used to quantify the fire development and address means

of mitigating the potential fire hazard. Multiple

work station fire tests will be conducted in a large

compartment. The compartment will have one

wall open to simulate the effects of a typical open

plan office space.

The USCG's corridor fire test facility will be used

to measure smoke flows down a corridor with and

without sprinkler intervention. Results from these

tests will be compared with predictions from the

existing corridor model in FPEtool (BFRL software

to evaluate hazard and fire protection strategies in GSA office buildings) and from the FLOW 3D field

81
model (a commercial computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer using a

finite difference approach).

The results of these studies will provide a technical basis for assessing the hazards associated with

work stations in an open plan office environment

and smoke flow in corridors.

Recent Results

New Project 1 993.

In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

Principal Investigator:

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6897

Sponsor:

Minerals Management Service

Technology Assessment and Research Branch

Objective

To characterize the emissions and dispersion of

products from weathering and in-situ burning of oil spills.

Problem

BFRL has established leadership in characterizing

the combustion of large pool fires. In support of other agency objectives to implement burning as a response method to oil spills, information on the

emissions and trajectory of the particulate material

is needed to support its use. Information is also

needed about the emissions from evaporation of

spills that are not burned to examine the benefits

of burning.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will be analyzing data from

previous laboratory and mesoscale experiments to support permit applications for offshore experiments in the Gulf of Mexico. Basic measurement

methods used in the mesoscale tests have been

scaled-up for at sea use. These instruments are being tested in mesoscale experiments in Mobile,

Alabama. New ground level measurements of

emissions from evaporating spill (pre-ignition) and

during burning will be used to help assess relative

air quality issues. The capabilities of Fourier

transform infrared (FTIR) technology for this purpose will be evaluated. The analysis of plume

flow from oil spill burns will continue with modeling of additional data collected in experiments.

Recent Results

Evans, David D., Walton, William D., Baum,

Howard R., Notarianni, Kathy A., Lawson, James

R., et al, "In-situ Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale

Experiments," Proceedings of the Fifteenth Arctic

and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar,

June 10-12, 1992, Edmonton, Alberta, Ministry of

Supply and Services Canada, Ontario, 1992.

82
Characterization of Large Fires

Principal Investigator:

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6897

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop measurement and analytical methods

for characterizing large fires capable of threatening

the environment or integrity of urban building

complexes, industrial and commercial facilities, and transportation systems.

Problem

Even with the benefits of modern fire protection

strategies and technologies, uncontrolled fires remain a constant threat. Fires such as those in the First Interstate Bank building in 1988, the

Phillips Chemical plant in 1 989, the Oakland Hills residential developments in 1991 , and the oil fields of Kuwait in 1991 have potential for wide spread

direct and indirect economic impacts. Yet, our knowledge of the near and far field characteristics

of these fires, the threat they present to the

structural integrity of buildings, facilities, and

lifelines and means to mitigate the fire effects are meager. This lack of data is due substantially to the lack of measurement and analytical methods

to characterize fires and their impact on the sur- rounds.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will assess this national

issue to determine priorities for research. This will be accomplished by conducting meetings with

NIST staff and representatives of industry, government agencies, and other organizations performing

fire research. The measurement and prediction of

wind-blown smoke plume dispersion and particulate deposition are an important feature and

generally a concern in all large fire events. To

understand the dynamics of the wind-blown fire plume, near field measurement and predictions are needed. Measurements can be performed in wind

tunnel facilities. Predictive methods can be

developed based on the technology from BFRL's

research, Simulation of Turbulent Combustion and

Transport in Fires Project.

It is expected this work will result in a new

initiative in fire research dealing with fires that

grow beyond the single-room fire, which has been

the focal point of research over the past 2 decades.

Recent Results

Ghonseim, A.F., Zhang, K., Knio, 0., Baum,

Howard, and Rehm, Ronald, "Dispersion and

Deposition of Smoke Plumes Generated in Massive Fires," J. Hazardous Materials, (in press).

Madrzykowski, Daniel, Evans, David D., "Large

Fires: Kuwait," Proceedings of the Twelfth Joint

Panel Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research

and Safety, October 1992, Tsukuba, Japan (in press).

The corridor fire test section of BFRL's Large Scale

Test Facility is being modified for use as a wind

tunnel.

83
Large Scale Test Facility

Principal Investigator:

Emil Braun

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6665

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To perform large scale fire tests and provide data

in support of other fire research projects; apply,

refine, and develop methods and equipment that

contribute to the successful conduct of large scale

fire tests; and develop plans for the expansion and

modernization of the facility.

Problem

Use of BFRL's Large Scale Test Facility (Building

205) must be scheduled for timely performance of

tests, for upgrading aging equipment, and developing plans for an expanded facility.

Approach

In addition to the daily management of the facility,

such as scheduling tests and their timely execution, plans will be developed for modernization for the test facility. These plans will encompass short

term needs, i.e., improvement in utilization of

existing facility and instrumentation, and long term

needs, i.e., expansion of facility, introduction of

new measurement techniques, etc. Short term

and long term plans will be developed in conjunction with researchers to assure that new and

updated instruments fit the needs of the fire program.

Recent Results

Numerous tests have been performed including

2/5 model, pool burns, smoke tunnel.

84
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

FIRE MODELING
Ceiling Fires

Principal Investigator:

Henri E. Mitler

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6886

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an understanding of the effects of the

presence of a ceiling on the evolution of a wall fire in a room, followed by the spread of the fire across the ceiling.

Problem

The effects of the ceiling on room fires is un- known. This lack of data limits our ability to

predict the development of room fires. BFRL's

wall-fire project (and others) have yielded reasonably successful models which predict wall fires. Most of these studies, however, neglect the effect

of the ceiling.

Approach

BFRL will perform this study in three phases; one

phase per year. In the first year, a literature survey of fires impinging on ceilings, including

axisymmetric fires, wall fires, and corner fires, will be performed. Flame extensions, fluxes and their position dependence, entrainment rates, effect on

combustion rates, and ignition of flammable

ceilings will be analyzed. A preliminary algorithm

will be developed that links the theoretical understanding of flows and combustion under ceilings

with empirical observations. A detailed work plan

for years two and three will be developed.

In the second year, a preliminary plan for writing a

stand-alone ceiling fire computer program will be

formulated; this will include the interaction with

the wall-fire computer program SPREAD (which

predicts the upward fire spread on walls) and

plans for its insertion into BFRL's building fire model, CFAST. Numerical investigation of the

fluid flows, using FLOW3D (a commercial computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat

transfer using a finite difference approach), might

supplement experiments to yield a quantitative

understanding of this behavior. Scaling laws can

be examined and/or established. Based on the

new data, devise a much better algorithm, and

publish a report on the work.

In the third year, calculate effects of ceiling

ignition when ceiling is flammable, program the

algorithm, merge it with SPREAD, and harmonize

it with CFAST. Finally, validate the new program,

write documentation, and incorporate the program

into CFAST.

It is expected that a preliminary engineering-level

algorithm will be developed by September 1 993

and a superior one by September 1 994 for incorporation into HAZARD.N by September

1995.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

86
Large Scale Smoke Movement

Principal Investigator:

John H. Klote

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6890

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop and verify algorithms for modeling

large scale smoke movement in buildings.

Problem

The simulation of smoke movement in HAZARD

(BFRL's model that predicts the hazard to a

building and occupants anywhere within a building) has limited applicability to large spaces such

as corridors, atria, and shafts. There is a need to

realistically simulate smoke transport in these

spaces.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will address four building

elements:

Shaft: The approach to determining smoke flow in elevator shafts will consist of developing a zero

order model and a first order model. The zero

order model will neglect buoyancy of smoke in the

shaft. Example calculations will be made to gain

understanding of the impact of natural building

flows in shafts on smoke transport and to determine if the zero order model is appropriate for some fire engineering applications. Based on FLOW3D (a commercial package computer model

that simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer

using a finite difference approach) visualization and

ongoing grants to California Institute of Technology and to Rutgers University, work will start on a conceptual first order shaft model. Smoke flow in stairwells will be addressed later in this project.

Corridor: Experiments and field modeling for corridor model validation will be performed contingent on funding.

Atrium: The experiments in atrium vent flow at the Fire Research Institute (FRI) in Japan will be

completed, and a generalized mathematical model

of atrium vent flow will be developed.

Radiation: Radiation between walls and gases can have a significant effect on gas temperature and

flow, and a simplified N wall radiation model will be developed for FLOW3D. While this model will be specifically for field model simulation of room

fires, it will be based on Forney's N wall radiation

models in BFRL's building-fire model, CFAST.

The algorithms developed by this project will allow

realistic simulation of smoke transport in these

spaces. The applicability of the HAZARD methodology will be extended to large scale smoke flow

including office buildings, apartment buildings,

homes for the elderly, and Navy and merchant

ships.

Recent Results

Matsushita, T, and Klote, John H., Smoke

Movement in a Corridor-Hybrid Model, Simplified

Model and Comparison with Experiments, NISTIR

4982, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Cooper, Leonard Y. and Yamada, T, "Experimental Study of the Exchange Flow Through a Horizontal Ceiling Vent in Atrium Fires," 12th UJNR

Joint Panel Meeting on Fire Research and Safety,

Tokyo, 1992 (in press).

87
Hazard Development

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Peacock

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6664

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

and

The U.S. Department of Navy

Naval Research Laboratory

Objective

To plan and implement the next generation hazard

methodology (HAZARD 1 .2).

Problem

Traditional approaches to product design, product

evaluation, and codes and standards development

address fire safety in a piecemeal fashion such as

evaluating heat release without considering

product use, toxicity, or ignition propensity.

Quantitative hazard analysis techniques have the

potential of providing significant cost savings. In addition, measures are evaluated as an interacting

system, including the impact of both structure and

contents. Alternative protection strategies can be

studied within the hazard analysis framework to

give the benefit-cost relation for each. Providing

these alternatives promotes the design flexibility

which reduces redundancies and cost without

sacrificing safety.

Approach

This research is composed of two categories: 1

)

advancing the physics in the model and 2) improving the numerics and structure of the models

comprising HAZARD. Single-surface pyrolysis and

fire suppression algorithms will be incorporated in the fire model. BFRL will continue the unification

of the user interface with new-generation input

editor and hazard shell including a new unified

input data file. The internal structure of the model

will continue to be addressed by refining the

internal data structures to be consistent with the

streamlining of the solver routines completed last year. Customers include manufacturers, purchasers, architects, FPE's, code officials, and practitioners who evaluate safety performance, code

equivalency, and code change proposal issues.

The HAZARD 1 .2 model is expected to be completed by August 1 994.

The benefits of this research are: pyrolysis and fire suppression algorithms will allow the user to study

fire scenarios without costly full-scale testing to develop input data for the model and improving

the internal structure will allow easier inclusion of

future algorithms and allow more researchers to

contribute to development of the model.

Recent Results

Peacock, Richard D., Forney, Glenn P., Reneke,

Paul A., Portier, Rebecca W., and Jones, Walter,

W., CFAST, The Consolidated Model of Fire Growth and Smoke Transport, NIST Technical

Note 1 299, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993.

Portier, R., Reneke, Paul A., Jones, Walter W.,

and Peacock, Richard D., A User's Guide for

CFAST, Version 1.6, NISTIR 4985, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Moss, W. F. and Forney, Glenn P., Implicitly

Coupling Heat Conduction into a Zone Fire Model,

NISTIR 4886, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Forney, Glenn P. and Moss, W.F., Analyzing and

Exploiting Numerical Characteristics of Zone Fire Models, NISTIR 4763, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

1992.

Bukowski, Richard W., "Analysis of Happyland

Social Club Fire with HAZARD I," Fire and Arson

Investigator, 42 (3), 1992.

Braun, Emil, Lowe, Darren, L., Jones, Walter W.,

Tatem, P., Bailey, J., and Carey, R., Comparison

of Full Scale Fire Tests and a Computer Fire Model

of Several Smoke Ejection Experiments, NISTIR

4961, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1 992.

Peacock, Richard D., Jones, Walter W., and

Bukowski, Richard W., "Verification of a Model of

Fire and Smoke Transport," Fire Safety Journal,

(accepted for publication).

88
Development of the Fire Data Management System (FDMS) Database

System for Fire Related Data

Principal Investigator:

Rebecca W. Portier

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6757

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a second generation database which

can accommodate all fire related data for use by

those professionals collecting and using data on

building fires.

Problem

A unified method of accessing data is crucial to both experimental and modeling efforts in the

development of the science of fire. The Fire Data

Management System (FDMS) concept is well

founded and important to experimentalists acquiring data, and to modelers and others using data

related to fires and material properties. On-going

work to develop the concept into a working

program has had limited success. It lacks some of

the functions, is not portable across computer

platforms, and the software libraries are no longer

supported.

Approach

This research will be performed over three years. During the first year, BFRL will examine the

functionality as required by the FDMS specification

and define additional fields needed for the export

format to make this work compatible with the

programs under development. An important

aspect of this research is insuring that all data can

be moved from previous versions of the FDMS

databases, including the export format currently in use.

The second year effort will involve writing all functions including the query and report writing.

The third year addresses writing interface modules

for models and for general use, in particular, for data importing for round robin testing. BFRL's

work is expected to include in its database the

Cone, Lateral Ignition and Flame Spread Test

Apparatus (LIFT), Eurefic corner tests, and furni- ture calorimeter data.

Recent Results

Portier, Rebecca W., A Programmer's Reference

Guide to FDMS File Formats (in review).
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

FIRE PROTECTION APPLICATION
Furniture Flammability

Principal Investigator:

Vytenis Babrauskas

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6681

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop performance criteria leading to more

fire-resistive upholstered furniture.

Problem

During the recent past, manufacturing technologies have emerged that allow modest-cost, fire- improved upholstered furniture designs to be

realized. Systematic performance knowledge on

these systems is not available; especially lacking are predictive methods which would allow some

measure of performance to be gauged prior to conducting full-scale fire tests.

Approach

During last year's work, BFRL established the

commercial viability of modest-cost systems for achieving fire-improved upholstered furniture

designs. During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform

bench scale HRR tests on composites; evaluate

techniques not requiring actual-use composite

testing; evaluate possible successful matches

between the various materials comprising this system; identify the geometric and construction

factors leading to propagating versus non-propagating fires; and predict full-scale performance

based on small-scale, lower cost tests.

This work includes:

1 . Predicting an initial quantitative assessment of

fire improved upholstery systems that use barriers as the protective mechanism. Barrier utilizing

systems will be tested in mockup scale and in bench scale, with an objective of allowing performance predictions from Cone Calorimeter measurements.

2. Exploring the physical mechanism of failure associated with the seat cushion/side-arm juncture

will be explored through mockup testing.

3. Studying one of the California Bureau of Home

Furnishings (BHF) round robin materials which

showed good performance in the mockup tests,

yet high HRR in the Cone Calorimeter, will be

studied further in the mockup scale to determine

the reasons for the discrepancy.

Recent Results

Cleary, T.G., Ohlemiller, T.J. and Villa, K.M., The

Influence of Ignition Source on the Flaming Fire Hazard of Upholstered Furniture, NISTIR 4847,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Babrauskas, Vytenis, "Toxicity, Fire Hazard, and

Upholstered Furniture," Third European Conference on Furniture Flammability, Brussels,

Interscience Communication Ltd, London, pp 125-

133, 1992.

91
Merger of FPETOOL and HAZARD I Cone/Lift/Toxicity Support

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To use FPEtool (BFRL software to evaluate

hazards and fire protection strategies in GSA

Office Buildings) as a front end to HAZARD I (BFRL's model that predicts the hazard to a

building and occupants anywhere within a building) for making initial estimates with shared data

inputs.

Problem

Users such as FPEs, product manufacturers,

regulators, and product specifiers of both these

computer programs have requested that they be

merged together to provide a more powerful and

broader fire hazard prediction program.

Approach

The FPEtool code will be incorporated into the

HAZARD I package as a "front end," to produce

initial estimates before performing detailed calculations. FPEtool outputs will be displayed through

the HAZARD I plotting routines and both will be

able to share databases for "objects." Hooks to SURVIVAL (the integrated evacuation and tenabili- ty routine for future versions of HAZARD) will be

established to allow for person impact determinations to be made from FPEtool. FPEtool also will be part of HAZARD to multiple computing platforms. In addition to unifying the BFRL modeling

effort, the combined software will provide users with access to both models and eliminates the

requirement to incorporate interface techniques.

Recent Results

This activity was discussed at the Hazard

l/FPEtool Users Conference, fall 1 992. User

training will begin during summer, 1 993.

Principal Investigator:

Andrew J. Fowell

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6865

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide technical support for standards activi- ties associated with BFRL's Cone Calorimeter,

Lateral Ignition and Flame Spread Test Apparatus

(LIFT), and BFRL's development of the NIBS

Toxicity Test.

Problem

As originator of the Cone, LIFT, and NIBS toxicity

protocol, and promoter of bench-scale measure- ments to provide input to predictive fire models,

BFRL needs to continue providing answers to

technical inquiries by new users of the tests at ASTM and ISO standards meetings, and at technical meetings addressing material flammability measurement. Each protocol is undergoing a round robin series of tests in which BFRL agreed

to be a participant or provide technical assistance.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL will:

1 . Attend ASTM E.5 and ISO TC 92 committee

meetings to propose appropriate changes to the

protocols and ensure that any changes made are

technically correct.

2. Question material manufacturers and testing

labs (customers for these protocols) to identify

problems.

3. Make presentations at meetings addressing

subjects such as, rate of heat release and material

flammability.

4. Complete data analysis and report for the LIFT round robin testing program.

It is expected the European Community will adopt

the Cone and the LIFT protocols as European

standards to replace the variety of tests currently

used by the individual EC countries.

92
Recent Results

ASTM, 1 992a, "Test Method for Heat and Visible

Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products

Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter,"

ASTM Standard E1 354-92, ASTM, Philadelphia,

PA, 1992.

ISO, 1992, "Fire Test-Reaction to Fire-Rate of

Heat Release from Building Products," ISO Standard 5660, 1992.

The Heat Release Institute was formed as a result of information and data developed by this project.

Comprehensive Fire Risk Assessment Method

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an internationally accepted fire risk calculation method that serves as the basis for a performance fire code.

Problem

Most worldwide fire research organizations are involved in developing comprehensive fire risk assessment methods for establishing compliance

with provisions of performance based codes. For example, the Japanese have developed a prototype method which demonstrates equivalence to

their code. Their method is being extensively

revised. Australia is developing a similar system

and has published the framework for public

review. England, Norway, Sweden, New Zealand,

and Finland are actively pursuing risk methodology

development. Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, and Singapore have interest in pursuing this subject area. Researchers from most of these

countries' fire research laboratories have met

under the auspices of the International Council for Building Research, Studies, and Documentation

(CIB) Working Commission on Fire Research

(W14); International Organization for Standardization TC92/SC4; or the FORUM for international

cooperation on fire research. They agreed that a

collaboration resulting in a single, harmonized

method should be undertaken.

BFRL, in a 4 year project funded by the NFPA

Research Foundation, developed a product fire risk evaluation method which also can be used for building risk assessment.

Approach

BFRL will contribute to a newly established

international cooperative effort. A working group

will be established to review the literature generated on this subject and identify elements to form

the final method. BFRL will quantify the input and

output needs of each step so alternative methods

can be applied in a consistent and uniform man-
ner. BFRL also will prepare a paper on the application of Bayesian statistics to the fire risk assess- ment problem and will provide access to its software for performing risk calculations.

Recent Results

Bukowski, Richard and Tanaka (BRI, Japan),

"Performance Fire Codes," Fire and Materials, 1 5,

pp 175-180, 1991.

Bukowski, Richard, "Review of International Risk

Prediction Methods," Proceedings of International

Fire Safety Engineering Conference, The Concepts

and the Tools, Sydney, Australia, 1991.

Heat and Smoke Movement Influence on Detector and Sprinkler

Response in Enclosed Spaces with

Complex Ceiling Geometries

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Fire Protection Research Foundation

Objective

To examine the effect of complex ceiling geometry and obstructions to distribution of heat and

smoke for optimizing requirements for automatic

fire detector location found in NFPA 72E and for automatic sprinklers in NFPA 1 3, 1 3D, and 1 3R.

Problem

Recommendations for placing automatic fire detectors (NFPA Standard on Detection Devices

[72E]) are based on engineering judgement or on

experiments done by Heskestad and Delichatsios on flat, unobstructed ceilings. In the implementation of these data, tables and curves were developed from calculations with a zone model which

are applicable for flat, unobstructed ceilings. Since

72E includes recommendations for placing of fire detectors in spaces with sloping or peaked

ceilings, or with open beams and joists, some

validation of these recommendations is necessary.

Further, detector sighting problems associated

with stratification and high air movement from

HVAC systems are mentioned in the standards

but limited installation guidance is provided.

Approach

During FY 1993 and FY 1994, BFRL will examine

the effects of fire size, fire location, ceiling height,

ceiling slope, typical ceiling beam or joist configurations, and the effect of stratification on the

distribution of heat and smoke from the fire. During FY 1995 and FY 1996, BFRL will evaluate

the effects of HVAC systems on fire detectors

and sprinkler activation.

Specific geometries to be examined have been

selected to coincide with experimental studies

identified in the literature review being performed

during FY 1993.

94
This project's approach is designed to be applicable over a wide range of detector types and

installation characteristics. Detector types include

those that respond to heat, smoke, and gas. The

studies will be carried out numerically, using a field model, Flow3D (a commercial package computer

model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat

transfer using a finite difference approach), to simulate the room geometries and fire growth;

selected experimental verification will be included as needed.

Contour plots will be developed of temperature,

velocity, and smoke concentration near the ceiling at the level of the sensing components of typical

detectors and sprinklers. These detailed distribu- tions will be used to develop engineering guidelines for detector/sprinkler placement, resulting in recommendations for changes to the appropriate

NFPA standards.

Recent Results

Forney, Glen P., Davis, William D., and Klote,

John H., Simulating the Effects of Beamed Ceiling on Smoke Flow, Part I Comparison of Numerical

and Experimental Results, NISTIR 4994, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1 992.

Technical Assistance for Evaluating

Fire Barrier Performance

Principal Investigator:

Vytenis Babrauskas

Fire Safely Engineering Division

301-975-6681

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Reactor Regulation

Objective

To provide specialized BFRL expertise to NRC in reviewing and evaluating technical issues related to fire barrier systems.

Problem

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission questions the

efficacy of certain fire barrier systems installed in nuclear power plants and requires information to assess the performance of the existing barrier systems and possibly to recommend remedies.

Approach

BFRL's work involves:

1 . Review NRC's requirements and guidance

documents.

2. Review technical documentation.

3. Perform chemical analysis of fire barrier materials.

4. Perform technical input to testing options.

5. Design test program.

6. Examine in-plant conditions.

7. Identify independent testing laboratory candidates.

8. Provide instruction and training to NRC staff and to testing laboratory staff.

9. Perform toxicity tests on the gaseous products

of barrier materials exposed to a fire.

Recent Results

Prepared summaries of results from pilot scale fire endurance testing.
Effects of Fire Suppressants on

Safety Related Equipment

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research

Objective

To evaluate the effects of fire suppressants on

safety equipment important in nuclear power

plants.

Problem

Nuclear power plants have many installed fire protection systems. When inadvertent operation

occurs, the suppressant (water, C0 2

, or Halon are used) may damage operating equipment and/or

interfere with safety circuits or create spurious sig- nals.

It was observed, when sea water was not used

onboard ships to fight fires, the incidence of

damaging effects was much less on ships than

that experienced by shore facility experience. The

fresh water used on ships comes from a closely

controlled pure potable water main. It is postulated that the reason for many of the deleterious

effects in Nuclear Power Plants is impure (high

electrical conductivity) water. This may be largely

due to rust buildup in water residing in sprinkler

systems. When sea water is used to extinguish

fires, there is a very large probability that electrical equipment exposed to it will be damaged.

Approach

BFRL has reviewed data provided by the Navy

Safety Center to address the variety of operating

system incidents on ship and shore facilities to gain insight into effects that might occur and to enrich the limited statistical data from nuclear

power plant experience.

Recent Results

Identified that the population of inadvertent events

in shore facilities paralleled Nuclear Power Plant

experience, yielding about 100 cases per year for the 10 years analyzed. This data allowed the

Sandia analyst to derive a calculated unreliability

about one-fifth that calculated from Nuclear Power

Plant experience alone. NRC determined that the

problem of inadvertent operation of fire protection

systems was not severe enough to require

changes to existing power plants systems.

96
Fire and Thermal Characteristics of

Navy Fire Fighter Trainers

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Department of Navy

Naval Training Systems Center

Objective

To support the development and implementation

of prototype fire fighter trainers.

Problem

There is need to improve the reliability of fire trainers - do not cause injuries to trainees and at the same time provide trainees with realistic training experiences.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will continue to measure

air and wall temperatures, atmospheric composition, radiant fluxes, vent flows, and other

pertinent characteristics of prototype trainers to evaluate realism and to delineate possible training

safety hazards. Prototype trainers are located at Mayport Naval Station, Florida; Groton, Connecticut, submarine station; Great Lakes Naval Station

(recruit trainer); Treasure Island (San Francisco);

and San Diego. Measurements are made with the

BFRL instrument van and/or portable equipment,

and the results are reported to the sponsors.

Special analyses are being performed by BFRL and

other NIST personnel to obtain information for solving developmental problems. For example,

BFRL is performing metallurgical analysis of slag

from a failed smoke generator; examining by

electron microscope, ceramic insulation to determine the cause of failure; and modifying field equation modeling of possible solutions to problems caused by wind affecting the flames on a

carrier deck fire trainer.

Recent Results

BFRL obtained and analyzed data on prototype

trainers. These results are presented to the Naval

Training Systems Center and to the Naval Project

Team meetings on the various trainers.

Live Fire Testing

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Office of the Secretary of Defense

Office of Live Fire Testing

Objective

To support critical review of live fire test plans and

analysis.

Problem

There is a need to confirm adequacy of instrumentation and analysis methods to discern effects of

resulting fire and toxic gases on personnel, and

the effects of fire on the operational capability of

equipment under test, and structural degradation

due to fire.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will provide consultation

services on aspects of the test plans and the

analysis. Subjects for study will be assigned by

the Office of Live Fire Testing through the Institute of Defense Analyses (IDA). On some technical

problems, BFRL personnel will work closely with

IDA personnel.

Emphasis will be placed on providing technical

assistance for tests related to the SSN-21

(SEAWOLF) Sea Control Submarine and the DDG5 1 Frigate. Here, effects of fire will be predicted as functions of time and suppression action.

Recent Results

FIRST 30 (Harvard single room fire combustion

model) and LAVENT (Link Actuated VENTS user

friendly computer code) programs have been

modified to calculate "hot spot" bulkhead temperatures (in addition to average temperatures). The

modified programs will be validated against Navy

(China Lake) Hull Vulnerability Program (HULVUL)

data and Ex-SHADWELL (Mobile Bay) test data to calculate time required for Class A Fire Growth

under battle damage scenarios.

97
Public Education Booklet on Household Fire Warning Equipment

Escape Planning for Board and Care

Facility Residents

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop a booklet describing household fire protection methods, rationale for using the methods, and the relationship between these methods

and fire requirements in national standards.

Problem

There is a lack of information about the fundamental reasons for making decisions about household

fire protection because code provisions are arbitrary.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will develop a report that

addresses home fire hazards and fire prevention,

self-contained smoke (and heat) detectors, resi- dential fire alarm systems (including remote

monitoring services), and residential sprinkler

systems. The interface between residential

sprinklers and alarms will be covered. The

material will draw on published materials from the

USFA, NFPA, and others. The report will be

drafted in a way to show sensitivity to concepts

which will motivate both english-speaking and

hispanic audiences.

Recent Results

Developed an illustrated booklet, Protecting Your

Family From Fires, written in English and Spanish

for publication by the U.S. Fire Administration who

will distribute the booklet free of charge through

their resource catalog.

Principal Investigator:

Scot Deal

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6891

Sponsor:

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop an occupant evacuation plan in the

event of a fire in a board and care (B&C) facility.

Problem

Formal guidelines for development of effective

escape plans for board and care facilities do not

exist. Plans must include staff actions and

procedures to ensure the safety of residents

including those with unusual or special needs.

Training guidelines also are needed for the facility staff.

Approach

The work will build upon research funded by the

Department of Health and Human Services. It addresses five tasks:

1 . Identify representative sample of B&C facilities that meet different editions of the life safety code.

2. Characterize staff and occupant evacuation

capabilities using FSES E-score system.

3. Identify representative fires in B&C facilities from existing review articles:

a. historical fires significant for reasons of life loss

b. historical fires significant for reasons of frequency

c. plausible fires significant for reasons of hazard

4. Evaluate egress conditions with an engineering

analysis using the following tools:

a. computer models which simulate the fire environment

b. models predicting people movement

c. models predicting human debilitation from heat

and chemical loading

98
5. Identify strategies and tactics which might

improve occupant and staff ability to safely evacuate.

This research will provide regulatory officials with

a checklist to determine if board and care facilities comply with the fire safety code for evacuation

training.

Recent Results

Levin, Bernard M., Groner, N., E., Paulsen, R., Affordable Fire Safety in Board and Care Homes:

A Regulatory Challenge, NIST-GCR-92-61 1,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, May 1 992.

Sprinkler Standard for Board and

Care Facilities

Principal Investigator:

Scot Deal

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6891

Sponsor:

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop an analytical method for evaluating

installation requirements for sprinkler systems for inclusion in a fire protection standard for board

and care (B&C) facilities.

Problem

The current Life Safety Code contains requirements for sprinkler protection of new and substantially renovated B&C facilities according to NFPA 1 3D. For existing facilities, a strong

compartmentation option is provided. In all cases, smoke detection is required in limited areas. Information is needed to understand the potential

impact of fires beginning in spaces not required to be sprinklered under 1 3D, especially in light of the

limited capacity of many B&C home residents to

react properly and quickly.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform an engineering

analysis of the fire protective systems required in the Life Safety Code to assess its potential to address the needs of residents and staff in an

emergency. The analysis will draw on results of

experimental studies in the literature and on computer modeling in situations where test data

are not available or appropriate. Fire scenarios

representative of those occurring in B&C homes

will be drawn from a review of actual fire inci- dents in this occupancy. This work will evaluate

the efficiency of sprinkler protection (compared to

alternate approved approaches) in maintaining a safe environment for board and care occupant

survival and evacuation during fire emergencies.

National Fire Code committees will have a re- source to evaluate their choices when developing

new regulations.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

99
Fire Research Computer Bulletin

Board System (FRBBS)

Principal Investigator:

Scot Deal

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6891

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To improve and operate the FRBBS as an effective

means of technology transfer for the BFRL fire program.

Problem

The FRBBS serves as the primary means for distribution of much of the software developed by

the fire program. The system logs 2300 users per year making 2500 file downloads. Without this system for automatic access, staff would spend

much time performing this task.

Approach

In the 4 years that FRBBS has been in operation,

the hardware and software has become obsolete.

The system will be upgraded to a faster computer

with the capability of multiple line access. The

computer will be equipped with a new modem

capable of 9600 baud (V.32bis/V.42bis compliant). New software with a similar but simple user

interface will be procured.

Once the FRBBS capabilities have been upgraded,

several new methods to enhance system use will be tried such as:

1 . Posting of new BFRL publications (with abstract).

2. Posting of fire program project summaries.

3. Establishing two way information exchange for

fire reconstructors using models. This method will allow persons to solicit advice from BFRL and

from other users.

Recent Results

The FRBBS received significant acclaim from the

fire community; the labor savings from allowing users to download software has paid for the

system.

Fire Research Information Service

Principal Investigator:

Nora H. Jason

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6862

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To maintain BFRL's Fire Research Information

System (FRIS) as the world's preeminent fire research library and to expand its role to provide access to resources needed to apply fire science

findings.

Problem

FRIS is a crucial resource to BFRL's fire program

and is growing in importance to the international

community. FRIS needs to take the lead in defining and implementing the transition of fire libraries into technical information and dissemination resources in support of the application of fire science.

Approach

During FY 1 993, this work will continue its thrust

of inputing BFRL documents into FIREDOC. The

FIREDOC system will greatly expand its international access through connection into the

INTERNET system by migrating to a UNIX platform. In combination with the UNIX platform and

improvements to the BBS hardware, an increased

outside utilization of these resources is expected.

FRIS will take the lead in developing data resourc- es in support of calculational procedures by

implementing FDMS and HAZARD I databases for access through INTERNET and telephone. Once

implemented, inFIRE members will be recruited to both collect data in their own areas for addition to the system and to implement databases of their own for support of local needs.

FRIS also will complete the needed expansion of

facilities to reduce the current overcrowding.

Recent Results

Nora H. Jason, Ed, Summaries of BFRL Fire Research In-House Projects and Grants 1992,

NISTIR 4918, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, September

1992.

100
Nora H. Jason, Building and Fire Research Laboratory Publications, 1991, NISTIR 4827, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD 20899, April 1992.
FIRE SCIENCE

DIVISION

SMOKE DYNAMICS

RESEARCH
Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

Principal Investigator:

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop procedures for engineers and material

designers to make accurate predictions of the

quantity of CO produced under specified conditions.

Problem

CO generated by fires in enclosures is responsible

for roughly two-thirds of fire deaths. The conditions necessary and the mechanisms responsible

for the generation of high concentrations of CO

are poorly characterized. As a result, it is currently impossible to predict CO generated by fires. A

predictive capability is required similar to fire models as HAZARD (BFRL's software that pre- dicts the hazard to a building and occupants

anywhere in the building).

Approach

BFRL is performing engineering and fundamental

investigations to predict CO production in fires. The engineering studies are developing appropriate

correlations for CO formation for fires in enclo- sures and provide knowledge to incorporate the

findings into existing BFRL fire models. The

fundamental investigations are identifying the

principal chemical and physical mechanisms

responsible for the formation of high CO concentrations in fires and theoretically justifying the use

of the engineering correlations. These findings will be incorporated into a simple physical model for CO production in enclosed fires.

Recent Results

Pitts, William M., "Reactivity of Product Gases

Generated in Idealized Enclosure Fire Environments," Twenty-Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pitts- burgh, PA, pp1 737-1 746, 1992.

Bryner, Nelson, Johnsson, Erik L, and Pitts,

William, Carbon Monoxide Production in Compartment Fires-Reduced-Scale Enclosure Test

Facility, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993, in press.

Pitts, William, M., The Global Equivalence Ratio

Concept and the Prediction of Carbon Monoxide

Formation in Enclosure Fires, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

1 993, in press.

Davis, William D., Analysis of a Reduced Scale

Enclosure Using a Field Model, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

1 993, in press.

Grants

"Fundamental Mechanisms for CO and Soot

Formation in Diffusion Flames," R. J. Santoro,

Pennsylvania State University.

"Radiation From Turbulent Luminous Fires," G. M.

Faeth, University of Michigan.

"Compartment Fire Combustion Dynamics," U. Vandsburger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University and R. J. Roby, Hughes Associates.

"Simplification of Diffusion Flame Chemistry: A

Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Structure of Laminar Diffusion Flames," J. H. Miller,

George Washington University.

103
Soot Formation and Evolution

Principal Investigator:

Kermit C. Smyth

Fire Science Division

301-975-6490

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a prediction method of the formation

of soot in flames and the evolution of smoke

components from flames.

Problem

There is inadequate information available to make

accurate predictions of within flame soot production and smoke yield from flames and its optical

properties to assess radiation properties of fires and their production of toxic gases.

Approach

During FY 1993, BFRL is:

1 . Performing optical and mass spectrometric

measurements to obtain accurate and quantitative

species profile data, particularly for radicals such

as OH, in hydrocarbon diffusion flames.

2. Comparing experimental results to detailed

computations of Smooke when soot is not present

and with Kennedy when soot is included.

3. Making accurate measurements of the optical

properties of soot particles emitted from hydrocarbon diffusion flames.

Flame," Combustion Science and Technology, 90,

pp 1, 1993.

Puri, R. ( Moser, M., Santoro, R.J., and Smyth,

K.C., "Laser-Induced Fluorescence Measurements

of OH Concentrations in the Oxidation Region of Laminar, Hydrocarbon Diffusion Flames," TwentyFourth Symposium (International) on Combustion,

pp 1015, 1992.

Harrington, J.E. and Smyth, K.C., "Laser-Induced

Fluorescence Measurements of Formaldehyde in a Methane/Air Diffusion Flame," Chemical Physics

Letters, (in press).

Smyth, K.C., Harrington, J.E., Johnsson, E.L., and

Pitts, W.M., "Greatly Enhanced Soot Production in Flickering CH4

/Air Diffusion Flames," submitted to Combustion and Flame.

Grants

"Soot Morphology in Buoyancy Dominated

Flames," Richard A. Dobbins, Brown University.

"Modeling of Soot Formation in Diffusion Flames,"

Ian Kennedy, University of California at Davis.

"Experimental and Modeling Studies of Soot and

Carbon Monoxide in an Ethylene/Air Diffusion

Flame," J. Houston Miller, George Washington

University.

"Fundamental Mechanisms for CO and Soot

Formation in Diffusion Flames," Robert J. Santoro,

Pennsylvania State University.

4. Making new measurements of soot and radical

concentrations in time-varying diffusion flames to explore the influence of a wide range of residence

time, temperature, strain rate, and local stoichimetry upon soot production processes.

The results of this research will help formulate a

global model of soot formation and oxidation

processes and improve strategies for incorporating

chemistry into turbulent flow fields.

Recent Results

Norton, T.S., Smyth, K.C., Miller, J.H., and

Smooke, M.D., "Comparison of Experimental and

Computed Species Concentration and Temperature Profiles in a Laminar, Methane/Air Diffusion

104
Study of Smoke Agglomerates

Principal Investigator:

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Exobiology Flight Experiments Program

Objective

To test the validity and utility of fractal concepts

in describing the growth and properties of large

smoke agglomerates.

Problem

Provide NASA with the general hardware design

and data analysis method for studying smoke

agglomerates in an orbiter facility.

Approach

Make use of Transmission Cell-Reciprocal Nephelometer recently developed by BFRL to monitor

the extinction cross section and total scattering cross section as the agglomerates grow. The

angle dependent scattering will be used to monitor

the fractal dimension and average radius of

gyration as the agglomerates grow. The results

will be compared with light scattering calculations

for a computer simulation of smoke agglomeration. The results of this research provide an assessment method of the accuracy and utility of

fractal optics for large agglomerates and to provide optical property information needed for estimating the climatic impact of massive fires.

Recent Results

Mulholland, George W, and Bryner, Nelson P., "Radiometric Model of the Transmission-Cell

Reciprocal Nephelometer," Atmospheric Environment (submitted for publication).

Smoke Sampling Techniques Training Course and Smoke Sampling in

Saudi Arabia

Principal Investigator:

Nelson Bryner

Fire Science Division

301-975-6868

Sponsor:

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Defence and Aviation

Objective

To train three Saudi professionals in smoke

sampling techniques, collect samples in Saudi

Arabia, and jointly analyze smoke samples.

Problem

Health and safety problems result from acute

exposure to unhealthy environmental conditions,

such as smoke from oil well fires.

Approach

This work includes training three Saudi professionals at BFRL, during a two-week period, on techniques for sampling smoke. Two NIST personnel

(BFRL and Chemical Science and Technology

Laboratory) will perform follow-up discussions and

smoke and gas sampling in Saudi Arabia. Splitsample analysis will be conducted with some of the samples being analyzed by the Saudis and

others by BFRL for more specialized analysis such

as laser microprobe analysis.

Recent Results

Transferred smoke sampling techniques to three

Saudi professionals and collected ambient smoke

and gas samples in Saudi Arabia.

105
FIRE SCIENCE

DIVISION

MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH
Polymer Flammability Modeling

Principal Investigator:

Marc R. Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop the technical basis for designing a new

generation of fire resistant materials which, while

retaining their intended-use properties, will be low

in combustion toxicity and safe for the environment.

Problem

Flammability is a major concern when polymeric

materials are used in buildings, aircraft, ships, and

clothing. The need for a more rational approach

to designing fire resistant materials has become

more pressing as standards for acceptable cost,

performance, and safety become more demanding.

Approach

There is a strong correlation between char residue

and fire resistance since char is always formed at the expense of volatile fuel. Surface char also

insulates unburnt material from the heat generated

in gas phase combustion reactions and obstructs

the outward flow of combustible gases generated

in the degradation of the interior. The thermal

degradation chemistry of some polymers can be

altered to favor the formation of a char with

chemical additives and/or by direct modification of

the structure of the polymer. The challenge is to achieve significant levels of fire resistance without

adversely affecting intended-use properties, cost,

and the toxicity of these materials.

BFRL's approach is based on using its molecular

dynamics model of the thermal degradation of

polymers. The dynamic trajectories of the poly- mers are calculated from Hamilton's equations of

motion. Macromolecular systems, which are too

costly or too complex to synthesize on a routine

basis, can be modeled and systematically varied,

all the while examining their tendency to form high

molecular weight crosslinked structures.

This research will benefit the chemical industry

and consumers using their products by establishing a technical basis for designing a new generation of fire resistant materials.

Recent Results

Nyden, Marc R. and Brown, James E., "Computer-Aided Molecular Design of Fire Resistant

Aircraft Materials," International Conference for the Promotion of Advanced Fire Resistant Aircraft

Interior Materials, Atlantic City, NJ, February

1993.

Nyden, Marc R., and Brown, James E., "A New

Generation of Fire Resistant Polymers: Part I Computer-Aided Molecular Design," Proceedings

of the 1 2th Joint Panel Meeting, UJNR Panel on

Fire Research and Safety, Tsukuba, Japan, 1992

(in press).

107
Burning Rate of Materials ted to Combustion Science and Technology,

1992.

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop burning rate models (global and field equation) of polymeric materials (including char

formers) for simple horizontal configurations.

Problem

Models have not yet been developed that can

calculate the burning rate (heat release rate) of

building contents. Therefore, a fire source is prescribed or estimated from bench scale tests for HAZARD I (BFRL's software that predicts the

hazard to a building and occupants anywhere

within a building). To improve fire hazard predictions, accurate description of a fire source is urgently needed.

Approach

BFRL is performing this work as two parts:

1 . Determining energy feedback rates from a pool

flame for various fuels and sizes.

Hamins, A., Yang, J.C., and Kashiwagi, T., "An

Experimental Investigation of the Pulsation Fre- quency of Flames," Twenty-Fourth Symposium

(International) on Combustion, The Combustion

Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, pp 1695-1702, 1992.

Klassen, M., Gore, J., Hamins, A., and Kashiwagi,

T., "Radiative Heat Feedback in a Toluene Pool

Fire," Twenty-Fourth Symposium (International) on

Combustion, The Combustion Institute, (in press),

1992.

Grants

"A Study of Structure and Radiation Properties of

Pool Fires," J. P. Gore, Purdue University.

"The Behavior of Charring Materials in Simulated

Fire Environments," E. Suuberg, Brown University.

2. Determining the gasification rate of various

polymers.

Gas phase combustion characteristics are being

measured for a variety of fuels with pool diameters up to 1 m. Global and field equation energy

feedback models are developed as a function of

fuel type and size. In the condensed phase, a

well-defined thermal radiation source is being used

to simulate energy feedback from a flame to a polymer surface. The gasification rate, temperature, and density distributions in the polymer are measured under non-flaming conditions for various

radiant fluxes. Gasification models for thermoplastics and char forming polymers are under

development.

Recent Results

Yang, J.C., Hamins, A., and Kashiwagi, T., "Estimate of the Effect of Scale on Radiative Heat

Loss Fraction and Combustion Efficiency," submit108
Flame Retardant Study on Engineering Plastics

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

General Electric Company

Chemical Research Center

Corporate Research and Development

Objective

To establish and understand the effects of poly- mer structure and certain flame retardant treat- ments on flammability characteristics of specific

engineering thermoplastics.

Problem

GE is interested in nonhalogenated flame retardant

treatment for use in improving fire resistance

performance of its engineering thermoplastics.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL is:

1 . Conducting a systematic study of pyrolysis/gasification of selected samples in nitrogen

under various external radiant fluxes comparable

to fire conditions.

2. Measuring heat transfer to substrate, degradation products and analyze residual char layers

slicing from the top surface to the inside to obtain

history in char structure by measurements of C/H

ratio, aliphatic/aromatic components using an

elemental analysis and NMR.

3. Measuring flammability properties of grafted

PPO samples and also composite samples to determine the effects of the flame retardant

treatments of these samples. The results of this collaborative project are expected to produce

better flame retardant treatments by understanding the chemical and physical nature of char and

flammability properties.

Recent Results

Kashiwagi, Takashi and Cleary, Thomas, "Effects

of Sample Mounting on Flammability Properties of

Intumescent Polymers," Fire Safety J. (accepted

for publication).

Kashiwagi, Takashi and Cleary, Thomas, "A Nonhalogenated Flame Retarded Polycarbonate,"

International Conference for the Promotion of

Advanced Fire Resistant Aircraft Interior Materials,

Atlantic City, NJ, February 1993.

109
Fire Resistant Aircraft Materials

Principal Investigator:

Marc R. Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Sponsor:

Federal Aviation Administration

Aviation Safety Division

Objective

To assess the viability of using high energy

irradiation to reduce the f lammability of materials

suitable for use in the interiors of commercial

aircraft.

Problem

Synthetic polymers comprise a significant fraction

of the fire load borne by commercial aircraft

interiors. The flammability, smoke, and toxicity

characteristics of these materials may impact

passenger survivability in the event of an in-flight

fire or a postcrash fire.

Approach

There is a strong correlation between char residue

and fire resistance since char is always formed at the expense of volatile fuel. Surface char also

insulates unburnt material from the heat generated

in gas phase combustion reactions and obstructs

the outward flow of combustible gases generated

in the degradation of the interior. The thermal

degradation chemistry of some polymers can be

altered to favor the formation of a char with

chemical additives and/or by direct modification of

the structure of the polymer. The challenge is to achieve significant levels of fire resistance without

adversely affecting intended-use properties, cost,

and the toxicity of these materials.

BFRL will use its molecular dynamics model to determine the thermal degradation of polymers.

The dynamic trajectories of the polymers are

calculated from Hamilton's equations of motion.

Macromolecular systems, which are too costly or too complex to synthesize on a routine basis, can

be modeled and systematically varied, all the while

examining their tendency to form high molecular

weight crosslinked structures.

The results from this work are expected to increase the fire resistance of existing aircraft materials and develop the technical basis for the

design of a new generation of ultra-fire resistant

polymer grafts and composites used in commercial

aircraft interiors.

Recent Results

Nyden, Marc R., Forney, Glenn P., and Brown,

James E., "Molecular Modeling of Polymer Flammability: Application to the Design of Flame

Resistant Polyethylene," Macromolecules, 25,

1658, 1992.

"Molecular Dynamics Modeling of Polymer Flammability," Proceedings of the Spring Meeting of

the Materials Research Society, 1 992.

Nyden, Marc R. and Noid, Donald W., "Molecular

Dynamics of Initial Events in the Thermal Degradation of Polymers," J. Phys. Chem., 95, 940,

1991.

Lomakin, S.M., Brown, James E., Breese, Robin

S., and Nyden, Marc R., "An Investigation of the

Thermal Stability and Char Forming Tendency of

Cross-linked Poly(methyl methacrylate)," Polym.

Deg. and Stab. Journal (in press).

110
Radiative Ignition and Flame Spread

Over Cellulosic Materials

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Howard R. Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

in a Microgravity Environment," J. Heat Transfer,

114, pp 494-502, 1992.

Yamashita, H., Baum, Howard R., Kushida, G.,

Nakabe, K., and Kashiwagi, Takashi, "Heat

Transfer from Radiatively Heated Thick Material in a Low Reynolds Number Microgravity Environment," J. Heat Transfer (accepted for publication).

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

Microgravity Science Program

Objective

To develop theoretical models of ignition and

subsequent flame spread over a cellulosic material

in a microgravity environment and calculate

ignition and flame spread behavior using material

characteristics determined in normal gravity.

Problem

This project is one of NASA's Microgravity

Science projects to enhance understanding of

combustion science by taking unique advantage of a microgravity environment.

Approach

BFRL is developing multi-dimensional (2D

axisymmetric and 3D) time-dependent theoretical

models of ignition and solving the subsequent

transition to flame spread in a microgravity

environment. Two environmental conditions are being studied: one in a quiescent environment and

the other in slow forced flows. Validation experiments are planned for USML-2 flight in 1995.

The conceptional experimental design, fabrication,

experimental parameters and procedures will be

developed working jointly with NASA Lewis Re- search Center. Exploratory experiments with a

similar hardware will be conducted using drop

towers and KC-130 flight.

Recent Results

Kashiwagi, Takashi and Nambu, H., "Global

Kinetic Constants for Thermal Oxidative Degradation of a Cellulosic Paper," Combustion and Flame,

88, pp 345-368, 1992.

Kushida, G., Baum, Howard, R., Kashiwagi,

Takashi, and Blase, C, "Heat and Mass Transport

from Thermally Degrading Thin Cellulosic Materials

111
Kevlar Barrier Effectiveness in CB

133

Principal Investigator:

Thomas J. Ohlemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Sponsor:

DuPont Company

Fibers Division

Objective

To develop simple bench-scale measures on

upholstery material mock-ups that predict the

effectiveness of Dupont's Kevlar barrier material in the California Bulletin (CB) 1 33 test of furniture

flammability.

Problem

Dupont makes a fire barrier material for upholstered furniture that could be used with thousands

of fabric and cushioning combinations in attempting to pass CB 1 33 requirements for public

occupancy furniture. Dupont seeks simple

predictors of the likelihood of success with this

barrier with classes of materials. This same

approach may be applied to residential furniture in the foreseeable future.

Approach

BFRL is performing work on 1 5 fabrics in its Cone

Calorimeter and its Lateral Ignition and Flame

Spread Test Apparatus (LIFT) to characterize the

impact of this barrier material on heat release rate and flame spread behavior. A subset of these

fabrics will be made into chairs and subjected to the CB 1 33 heat source. The results will be

analyzed for bench-scale/full-scale correlations.

These findings will help manufacturers meet the

requirements as specified in CB 1 33.

Recent Results

Completed bench-scale tests of the 1 5 fabrics.

112
FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

113
Advanced Fire Detection Systems

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an intelligent, low false alarm-rate fire detection system, determine the limitations of

acoustic emission detection for room fires, and

identify the specific difficulties of interpreting

open-path fourier transform infrered (FTIR) spectra

for sensing and monitoring fires.

Problem

A properly designed detection system must be

able to identify, in a matter of seconds, a fire event; the identification must lead to an action

which is appropriate to the space being protected.

This disparity in time scale and the variability in geometry, content, and occupancy of the space

impose great demands on the system. False

alarms, maintenance problems, incomplete or inaccurate information, and inappropriate suppression responses are problems which can plague

current fire detection systems, especially when

cost is an overriding constraint. The phase out of

halons and the increased capital investment in modern industrial processes make early sensing

and suppression even more imperative.

Approach

BFRL is collecting and analyzing information on advances in temperature sensing species concentrations, particulates, and acoustic and electro- magnetic radiation to determine their applicability to fire detection. Of current interest are infrared

sensing of hydrocarbons and acid gases, and

super-acoustic sensors. Software will be developed to recognize unique acoustic and infrared

signatures of various events, and to intelligently

interpret the response of multiple temperature

sensors to fire and non-fire situations.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, William L. and Jackson, M., Acoustic Emission of Structural Materials Exposed to an Open Flame, NISTIR 4984, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

December 1 992.

Grosshandler, William L, "An Assessment of

Technologies for Advanced Fire Detection," ASME

Winter Annual Meeting, December 1 992.

Grants

"Smart Fire Detection Using Nural Networks,"

Milke, James A. and McAuog, Thomas J., University of Maryland.

"Development of an Economical Video-based Fire Detection and Locating System," Plumb, O.A. and

Richards, R.F., Washington State University.

114
Detecting and Monitoring Fires with

Open-Path FTIR Spectroscopy

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To determine if the Open-Path Fourier Transform

Infrared (OP-FTIR) Spectroscopy apparatus shows

promise for monitoring the products formed during

the overheating of materials or smoldering prior to

ignition and for measuring the concentration of

noxious combustion products created in a flaming

fire and during active suppression.

Problem

FTIR spectroscopy is a well-established and

powerful means for measuring molecular species

which have infrared activity. Traditionally, gases

are extracted and placed in a sample cell through

which an infrared beam is passed. Recently, a new version of the FTIR spectrometer has become

available which circumvents the need to physically remove the gas sample from the volume of

interest. Line-of-sight measurements along paths

extending over a kilometer have been demonstrated. The problem is to learn how to adapt the FTIR

to open path monitoring of the products formed

during pyrolysis, flaming combustion, and fire suppression. Sensitivity, time response and

interpretation of complex spectra in a background

of particulate radiation need to be established

before the OP-FTIR can be integrated into an early

warning fire detection system or used to assist the

fire suppression process.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will perform three tasks

using its OP-FTIR:

In the first, the transmission spectra of a 0.6 m

diameter oil pool fire will be examined to identify

the range of organic and other infrared active

compounds present within, above and adjacent to the fire. This will be compared to spectra taken

during a large scale oil fire. Methanol also will be

burned to eliminate the soot and reduce the

number of organic compounds present, making

interpretation of the spectra more straight forward. The instrument will be operated in the

emission and absorption modes.

The second application involves measuring the

products of pyrolysis and early stages of combustion of solid fuels within the ASTM standard room

in BFRL's large burn facility. Emission and absorption spectra will be taken as a function of time

and space within the room to determine when the

fire can be detected unambiguously. Spatial measurements will be facilitated through a special

scanning mirror system which will be designed

and constructed for this purpose. The OP-FTIR

will be used to detect a suite of important combustion products (e.g., C0 2 , H20, CO, HCI, HCN,

NO, and unburned hydrocarbons) at a single

instant («=2 s), and will be compared to continu- ous analyzer measurements of CO, C02

, and total unburned hydrocarbons using an extractive

sampling systems.

For the third application, the same ASTM room

will be used to measure the dispersal of halogenated firefighting agents with and without a fire present. In the first case, the instrument will yield

the concentration of pure agent; in the second,

there are likely to be a number of decomposition

products which are critical to quantify, including

HF, HCI, and COF2.

Difficulties in interpretation of the results stem

from overlapping spectra of multiple species,

strong temperature and concentration gradients

along the line of sight, fluctuations in concentrations during the sampling period, and obscuration

by smoke. BFRL's understanding of radiative heat

transfer in nonisothermal environments with and

without soot will be applied to the FTIR spectrum

to develop narrow-band models of the important

chemical species. Carbon monoxide will be

targeted first because it is a simple diatomic

molecule with a known vibrational-rotational structure and because it is critical to fire science.

Recent Results

New Project.

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Dynamics of Fire Suppression

Principal Investigator:

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms of flame extinction to enable next

generation agent technologies and increase

knowledge of fire suppression capabilities of water

mist systems.

Problem

Fire suppressants and their application methods

should be effective, fast-acting, economical, have

low toxicity, permit a habitable environment during

suppression, leave no residue, and cause no damage to the protected space. Existing suppressants, however, are non-ideal: water can cause

excessive damage, metal-based suppressants

leave a residue, and the currently favored suppressants, the halons, may leave a corrosive residue

after passing through a flame. Also, because of

their suspected destruction of stratospheric ozone,

the most effective halons are being phased out. There exists a continuing need for better suppressants and suppression methods.

Although great advances have been made in combustion science in the past eighty years,

existing suppressants are based on scientific knowledge of a century ago. Modern methods of

combustion science have not been applied, per se, to the study of fire suppression. The modes of

action of the more effective suppressants are still not fully understood. A detailed examination of

the behavior of existing fire suppressants will provide a basis for development of advanced

suppressants.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL will be studying the

chemical and physical mechanisms of existing

suppressants using a laboratory scale burner to

establish the relationship between the characteristic times of the chemistry and fluid dynamics.

To understand the simultaneous thermodynamic,

fluid mechanic, and chemical kinetic behavior of

the inhibitors, the experimental results will be

interpreted through limited numerical calculations

of the flame structure using existing well developed codes. These experimental and modeling

results should lead to a unified method of describing, and an improved fundamental understanding

of the mechanisms of flame inhibition, extinction,

and stabilization relevant to the advanced suppression of fires.

Parallel to this effort will be a shorter term of

study of fire suppression by water mist. This

work will identify the technical direction through a workshop which focuses on the technological

barriers restricting commercialization of these

systems. A BFRL research plan that addresses

this technology need will result.

Recent Results

New project 1993.

Grants

"Experimental Studies on the Extinction of Diffu- sion Flames Using Halon Substitutes," Seshadri,

K., University of California-San Diego.

"Evaluation of Fire Suppression Effectiveness,"

Atrega, A., University of Michigan.

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Agent Screening for Halon 1301

Aviation Replacement

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

U.S. Air Force

Wright Laboratory

Objective

To establish a comprehensive experimental

program for screening specified gaseous agents

and chemicals for identifying the best candidates

for an aircraft fire extinguishment evaluation pro- gram.

Problem

The search for chemicals to replace halon fire extinguishing agents is proceeding too slowly for the implementation of alternatives before current

supplies of halons become depleted. There are few organizations participating in the search, the

market is small, and technology availability is limited. None of the proposed alternatives have

both a low ozone depletion potential (ODP) and a

high fire suppression efficiency. The federal

government uses halon 1301 in a multitude of

aircraft applications, including engine nacelle and

dry bay protection, with little understanding of

phenomena which control extinguishment in these

situations. The Air Force has imposed a deadline

for the installation of replacement in-flight fire extinguishing systems, with full-scale testing to be

done in FY 1 994, and has requested that NIST

identify the best three agents for their test pro- gram.

Approach

The effectiveness of a fire suppression agent is related to its thermodynamic properties, its behavior during two-phase flow, its interaction

with flame chemistry, the timing of its release,

and the nature of the fire. During FY 1 993, BFRL

is performing a series of experiments to examine

each of these factors, singly, and in combination.

Theoretical models will be used to interpret the

results, to increase understanding of the suppression process, and to predict behavior over an expanded range of operating conditions. In particular, control of those phenomena which

dominate the actual suppression process is

sought, be they the chemical reactivity of the

agent, the thermal quench or dilution provided by

the agent, or the properties associated with the

physical mixing of the agent into the fire.

BFRL is performing five tasks:

1 . Determine the thermal properties and dynamics

of the agents as they exit the containment vessel.

A pressure vessel with a rupture disc will be used

to discharge the agent (initially at 4 MPa) into the

atmosphere. The equilibrium pressure will be

measured over the range of temperatures the

vessel is likely to experience in flight, and the

thermodynamic state during the expected 50 ms

discharge will be monitored. Nine pure fluorocarbons, two mono-chlorinated fluorocarbons, a fluorocarbon azeotrope, and sodium bicarbonate

powder are to be tested mixed with nitrogen or CHF3

.

2. Investigate agent dispersion and fluid mechanics outside the vessel. The objective of this task

is to predict the concentration of the agent in the

jet which is formed. The flow will be measured

with high speed photography of the exiting spray

illuminated by a laser sheet, schlieren photography

of the spray and high density plume, Mie scattering from the droplets, and point sampling with hot

wire probes in the gaseous plume.

3. Develop flame extinction measurements. The

major issue is to determine the minimum concentration of agent required to suppress the deflagration in each apparatus. Four different facilities will be involved: a. a cup burner, b. an opposed flow

diffusion flame burner, c. a turbulent jet spray

flame, and d. a detonation tube.

4. Investigate flame/agent chemistry. The work

centers on using chemical kinetic modeling and

the results of diffusion flame measurements to determine whether the dominant mechanism of

suppression is chemical or physical.

5. Identify additional agent screening. This task

will identify additional agents with high flame

suppression efficiency and low ODP.

Recent Results

Presentations were made to Air Force sponsors

and at BFRL's Annual Fire Conference which

described preliminary results of the fluid mechanics, flame extinguishment and agent screening

tasks.

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Agent/System Compatibility for

Halon 1301 Aviation Replacement

Recent Results

New project late 1 992.

Principal Investigator:

Richard G. Gann

Fire Science Division

301-975-6866

Sponsor:

U.S. Air Force

Wright Patterson AFB

Survivability Enhancement Branch, and

U.S. Army Tank Automotive Command

Objective

To provide data for appraising twelve USAFspecified candidate halon 1301 replacements for compatibility with flight systems, people, and the

environment; recommend three candidates for further examination; and perform longer-term

testing to increase confidence in the preliminary

results.

Problem

The current suppressant for in-flight fires, halon

1 301 , is rapidly being phased out. The Air Force

has begun a program to implement an alternative to halon 1301 by the end of FY 1995. Screening

of potential alternatives is needed to narrow the

number of chemicals for full-scale testing.

Approach

BFRL, working with researchers from NIST's

Material Science and Engineering Laboratory, are involved in five tasks:

1 . Performing bench-scale determinations of nonvolatile residue.

2. Evaluating stability during long-term storage.

3. Determining compatibility with eight metals,

five elastomers, and three lubricants.

4. Developing prediction method for HF formation

during suppression.

5. Determining potential human exposure levels and summarize environmental regulations.

The results of this project will establish methods

for evaluating future candidate suppressents,

while providing the best possible assessment of current candidates.

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Risk Analysis for the Fire Safety of

Airline Passengers

Principal Investigator:

Richard L. Smith

Fire Science Division

301-975-6870

Sponsor:

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Objective

To develop the initial version of a generic method

and computer program to compute the fire risk for

airline passengers.

Problem

Airline fire safety is important for the airline passengers and the potential flying public to be as- sured of fire safety. The public has demonstrated

a willingness to pay for flight safety when it is cost effective. FAA's fire safety regulations needs

to provide demonstrable safety improvement at an

acceptable cost.

Injuries or death from an airplane fire is a rare event. There is not a large body of relevant

statistical data that can be used to determine the

impact of various fire safety strategies. In the last decade considerable progress have been made in developing and/or improving risk analysis. The

major motivators were the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor disaster and the NASA Challenger

space shuttle disaster.

Similarly, there has been major advances in Artificial Intelligence in dealing with reasoning with

uncertainty or vague knowledge. Some advances

have used such approaches as Bayesian Probability Theory, Dempster-Shafer's rule for combining

evidence, and expert systems. Also, probability

theory has been impacted significantly by developments in Bayesian Probability Theory and new

applications of the Maximum Entropy theory.

Approach

During FY 1 933, BFRL will apply the advances in these three fields to the risk analysis for the fire safety of airline passengers. A generic method

and a computer program will be developed to

calculate airline passengers fire risk. The program

will be capable of using the state-of-the-art safety

analysis technology, the historical data on fire

losses in airplanes, the results of experiments and

tests, the predictions of physical science models,

and experts opinions. However, the user will control exactly what knowledge is used and what

assumptions are made. The program will be

capable of recording an individual analysis so it can be reviewed by others.

Recent Results

New Project.

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Cigarette Ignition Metrology Completed a user-friendly computer model of

ignition of an upholstered surface.

Principal Investigator:

Richard G. Gann

Fire Science Division

301-975-6866

Sponsor:

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

Objective

To develop a standard test method that determines cigarette ignition propensity; compile

performance data for current cigarettes using the

standard test method; and conduct laboratory

studies on and computer modeling of ignition

physics to develop a predictive capability.

Problem

Cigarette-initiated fires continue to be the largest

single cause of fire fatalities. P.L. 101-352, the

Fire-Safe Cigarette Act of 1 990, directs NIST to perform research to help reduce losses from cigarette induced fires.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL is:

1 . Pursuing furniture ignition and secondary

cigarette extinguishment test methods.

2. Comparing results to established performance

of prior set of experimental cigarettes.

3. Conducting round-robin(s) of the new test methods.

4. Generating performance data on current market

cigarettes.

5. Performing laboratory experiments, measuring

the thermal behavior of the cigarettes and substrates.

6. Upgrading prior first-cut models of cigarette

smoldering and substrate ignition.

The results will enable the cigarette industry and

the public safety officials to measure progress

toward less fire-prone cigarettes.

Recent Results

Conducted inter-laboratory evaluation of two

candidate test methods.

120
Smoke Movement and Smoke

Layer Development in High Bay

Areas

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Goddard Space Flight Center

Objective

To develop data on smoke movement and layer

development in high bay areas.

Problem

There is a special need to address fire protection

issues for high ceiling height large spaces such as

in atriums, aircraft hangers, and warehouses. Can

the current fire zone models accurately predict

detection and activation in these spaces? How

large a fire is needed to activate a detector or sprinkler at the ceiling? Do the smoke and

products of combustion stratify prior to reaching

the ceiling?

Approach

BFRL will verify a field model for a 30.4 m high

space using BFRL measurements of fire gas temperatures and disk temperatures along the ceiling

of a 30.4 m aircraft hanger during live fire tests. Measurements will be compared to prediction of a

field model. NASA specifications for high bay

storage will be reviewed with NASA to collect appropriate inputs for field modeling. Field modeling will be used to model a high bay space to

predict smoke movement and smoke layer development in a NASA high bay area.

Recent Results

New project late 1992.

Evaluation of Metal Versus Plastic

Piping in Fire Sprinkler Systems

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To compare and evaluate performance of metal versus plastic piping for use in fire sprinkler

systems.

Problem

Plastic pipe is used mainly in residential occupancies. Information on the performance characteristics of metal vs. plastic piping is needed to make

informed decisions about the use of plastic piping

for various occupancy classifications.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL is comparing and evaluating the following variables:

• corrosive conditions • materials degradation during a fire • maintenance • economics

• occupancy classif ication limitations • system modification limitations • materials limitations with types of systems • system design (hydraulic calculations) • hanger and bracing considerations • high water pressure

Recent Results

New project 1 993.

•eu.S. Government Printing Office : 1993 - 358-083/37141

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