Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

FONSI-i 

FINDING OF NO SIGNIFICANT IMPACT 

Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Unincorporated U.S. Territory, Central Pacific Ocean 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) has completed the Comprehensive Conservation 

Plan (CCP) and Environmental Assessment (EA) for Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge 

(Refuge). The CCP will guide management of the Refuge for the next 15 years. The CCP and 

EA describe the Service’s preferred alternative for managing the Refuge and its effects on the 

human environment. 

Decision 

Following comprehensive review and analysis, the Service selected Alternative B in the draft EA 

for implementation because it is the alternative that best meets the following criteria: 

 Achieves the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System. 

 Achieves the purposes of the Refuge. 

 Will be able to achieve the vision and goals for the Refuge. 

 Maintains and restores the ecological integrity of the habitats and plant and animal populations 

at the Refuge. 

 Addresses the important issues identified during the scoping process. 

 Addresses the legal mandates of the Service and the Refuge. 

 Is consistent with the scientific principles of sound wildlife management. 

 Can be implemented within the projected fiscal and logistical management constraints 

associated with the Refuge’s remote location. 

As described in detail in the CCP and EA, implementing the selected alternative will have no 

significant impacts on any of the natural or cultural resources identified in the CCP and EA. 

Public Review 

The planning process incorporated a variety of public involvement techniques in developing and 

reviewing the CCP. This included three planning updates, meetings with partners, and public 

review and comment on the planning documents. The details of the Service’s public 

involvement program are described in the CCP. 

Conclusions 

Based on review and evaluation of the information contained in the supporting references, I have 

determined that implementing Alternative B as the CCP for management of Jarvis Island 

National Wildlife Refuge is not a major Federal action that would significantly affect the quality 

of the human environment within the meaning of section 102(2) (C) of the National 

Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Accordingly, the Service is not required to prepare an 

environmental impact statement. 

Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

ToC-i 

Table of Contents 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 

Introduction..................................................................................................................................1-1 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................................................................1-1 

National Wildlife Refuge System ................................................................................................1-1 

National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific .....................................................................................1-4 

Refuge Establishment, Purpose and Boundary............................................................................1-6 

Regional and Ecosystem Conservation Plans..............................................................................1-9 

Refuge Vision Statement ...........................................................................................................1-10 

Refuge Goals..............................................................................................................................1-11 

CHAPTER 2: PLANNING, PURPOSE, NEED, AND ISSUES 

Planning Process .........................................................................................................................2-1 

Purpose and Need .......................................................................................................................2-1 

Planning Issues and Opportunities .............................................................................................. 2-2 

CHAPTER 3: MANAGEMENT DIRECTION 

Overview .....................................................................................................................................3-1 

Goals, Objectives, Strategies, and Rationale ...............................................................................3-4 

CHAPTER 4: REFUGE AND RESOURCE DESCRIPTION 

Geographic/Ecosystem Setting .................................................................................................... 4-1 

Climate.........................................................................................................................................4-1 

Global Climate Change................................................................................................................4-3 

Geology and Soils........................................................................................................................4-7 

Hydrology ....................................................................................................................................4-9 

Air and Water Quality..................................................................................................................4-9 

Environmental Contaminants.......................................................................................................4-9 

Terrestrial Vegetation and Habitats ........................................................................................... 4-10 

Terrestrial Wildlife.....................................................................................................................4-10 

Marine Habitats, Fish and Wildlife............................................................................................ 4-12 

Threatened and Endangered Species ......................................................................................... 4-18 

Invasive Species ........................................................................................................................4-18 

Wilderness Resources ................................................................................................................4-18 

Archaeology and Paleontology.................................................................................................. 4-18 

Recent Cultural History .............................................................................................................4-19 

Socio-economics........................................................................................................................4-21 

 

APPENDICES 

Appendix A. Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 

Appendix B. Species Lists 

Appendix C. References 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

ToC-ii 

Appendix D. Planning Team Members 

Appendix E. Quarantine Protocol 

Appendix F. Wilderness Review 

Appendix G. Statement of Compliance 

Appendix H. Plan Implementation and Costs 

Appendix I. Consultation and Coordination 

Appendix J. Responses to Comments 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1.1 National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific................................................1-5

Figure 1.2 Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge: Geographic Location and Boundary.....1-8 

Figure 4.1 Percentages of coral genera reported during March 2006 surveys, 

 Jarvis Island NWR ........................................................................4-14 

Figure 4.2 Size class distributions of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR...............4-15 

Figure 4.3 Changes in the number of corals per age class between 2000 and 2006 

 at site 4P, Jarvis Island NWR ............................................................4-15 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-1 

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 

 

Introduction 

This document is a Comprehensive Conservation Plan for Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge 

(Jarvis). The CCP guides management of refuge operations, site visitation, and habitat 

restoration for the 15-year life of the plan. Guidance within the CCP is in the form of goals, 

objectives, strategies (Chapter 3), and wilderness study findings (Appendix F). The CCP was 

revised as appropriate based upon public comments. The refuge manager of the Pacific Remote 

Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex (Remotes Complex) in Honolulu, Hawaii, is 

responsible for implementing the CCP. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Jarvis is managed by the Service, within the U.S. Department of the Interior. The Service is the 

primary Federal entity responsible for conserving and enhancing the Nation’s fish and wildlife 

populations and their habitats. Although the Service shares this responsibility with other 

Federal, State, tribal, local, and private entities, the Service has specific trust resource 

responsibilities for migratory birds, threatened and endangered species, certain anadromous fish, 

certain marine mammals, coral reef ecosystems, wetlands, and other special aquatic habitats. 

The Service also has similar trust responsibilities for the lands and waters it administers to 

support the conservation and enhancement of all fish and wildlife and their associated habitats. 

National Wildlife Refuge System 

President Theodore Roosevelt established Pelican Island, Florida as the first national wildlife 

refuge in 1903. Since that time, the number of refuges has expanded to include 548, totaling 

approximately100 million acres. These refuges, found in every state and several U.S. Territories, 

are administered collectively as a national system of lands with the specific mandate of 

managing for “wildlife first.” This System is the largest collection of lands specifically managed 

for fish and wildlife conservation in the Nation and perhaps the world. The “wildlife first” 

mandate of the System means the needs of wildlife and their habitats take priority on refuges, in 

contrast to other public lands that are managed for multiple uses. The following is a description 

of some of the most relevant acts and policies that guide the management of the System. 

National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended 

The NWRS Administration Act defines a unifying mission for all refuges, including a process 

for determining compatible uses on refuges, and requiring that each refuge be managed 

according to a CCP. The NWRS Administration Act expressly states that wildlife conservation 

is the priority of System lands and that the Secretary shall ensure that the biological integrity, 
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1-2 Chapter 1 - Introduction

diversity, and environmental health of refuge lands are maintained. Each refuge must be 

managed to fulfill the specific purposes for which the refuge was established and the System 

mission. The first priority of each refuge is to conserve, manage, and if needed, restore fish and 

wildlife populations and habitats according to its purpose. The Service has statutory authority 

under the NWRS Administration Act to regulate activities that occur on water bodies “within” a 

refuge. The NWRS Administration Act requires a CCP be completed for each refuge and that 

the public has an opportunity for active involvement in plan development and revision. It is 

Service policy that each CCP is developed in an open public process. 

National Wildlife Refuge System Mission and Goals and Purposes (601 FW1) 

In July 2006, the Service issued a policy (601 FW 1) which included the NWRS mission 

statement and NWRS goals, and described how refuge purposes are determined. 

 

The NWRS Administration Act established the following statutory mission for the System: 

“The mission of the System is to administer a national network of lands and waters for 

the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, 

and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present 

and future generations of Americans.” 

The administration, management, and growth of the System are guided by the following goals 

(601 FW 1, July 2006)... 

• Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats, including species that 

are endangered or threatened with becoming endangered. 

• Develop and maintain a network of habitats for migratory birds, anadromous and 

interjurisdictional fish, and marine mammal populations that are strategically distributed 

and carefully managed to meet important life history needs of these species across their 

ranges. 

• Conserve those ecosystems, plant communities, wetlands of national or international 

significance, and landscapes and seascapes that are unique, rare, declining, or 

underrepresented in existing protection efforts. 

• Provide and enhance opportunities to participate in compatible wildlife-dependent 

recreation (hunting, fishing, wildlife observation and photography, and environmental 

education and interpretation). 

• Foster understanding and instill appreciation of the diversity and interconnectedness of 

fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats. 

Lastly, the NWRS Administration Act describes refuge purposes, and how these guiding 

principals for the refuge are located and documented. 

Appropriate Refuge Uses (603 FW1) 

This policy (603 FW 1), published in July 2006, provides a national framework for determining 

appropriate refuge uses. Serving as a “prescreening” for proposed uses of a national wildlife 
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-3 

refuge prior to a compatibility determination (see below); this policy requires—for most uses—a 

written finding of appropriateness by the refuge manager based on 11 criteria. Findings of 

appropriateness require concurrence by the State for refuges located within state boundaries. 

These criteria include: 

• Promotes safety of participants, other visitors, and facilities. 

• Promotes compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and responsible behavior. 

• Minimizes or eliminates conflicts with fish and wildlife populations or habitat goals or 

objectives in a plan approved after 1997. 

• Minimizes or eliminates conflicts with other compatible wildlife-dependent recreation. 

• Minimizes conflicts with neighboring landowners. 

• Promotes accessibility and availability to a broad spectrum of the American people. 

• Promotes resource stewardship and conservation. 

• Promotes public understanding and increases public appreciation of America’s natural 

resources and our role in managing and protecting these resources. 

• Provides reliable/reasonable opportunities to experience wildlife. 

• Uses facilities that are accessible and blend into the natural setting. 

• Uses visitor satisfaction to help define and evaluate programs. 

Compatibility (603 FW2) 

Lands within the System are different from other, multiple-use public lands in that, with few 

exceptions, they are closed to all public access and use unless specifically and legally opened 

(603 FW 2). No refuge use may be allowed unless it is determined to be compatible. A 

compatible use is one that, in the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager, would not 

materially interfere with or detract from the fulfillment of the mission of the Service or the 

purpose of the refuge. The NWRS Administration Act identifies six wildlife-dependent 

recreational uses: hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, environmental education, 

and interpretation. When compatible, these six uses become priority uses of the System. As 

priority public uses, they receive special consideration over other general public uses in refuge 

planning and management. 

Biological Integrity, Diversity, and Environmental Health (601 FW3) 

The NWRS Administration Act directs the Service to “ensure that the biological integrity, 

diversity, and environmental health of the System are maintained for the benefit of present and 

future generations of Americans...” This policy (601 FW 3) is an additional directive for refuge 

managers to follow while achieving refuge purpose(s) and System mission. It provides for the 

consideration and protection of the broad spectrum of fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitat 

resources found on refuges and associated ecosystems. When evaluating the appropriate 

management direction for refuges, refuge managers would use sound professional judgment to 

determine their refuges’ contribution to maintenance and, where possible, restoration of 

biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health (BIDEH) at multiple landscape scales. 

Sound professional judgment incorporates field experience, knowledge of refuge resources, 

refuge functions within an ecosystem, applicable laws, and best available science, including 

consultation with others both inside and outside the Service. 

 
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1-4 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Wilderness (602 FW 3) 

Service planning policy (602 FW 3) requires the conduct of a wilderness review in association 

with the development of a refuge CCP. The wilderness review process has three phases: 

inventory, study, and recommendation. After first identifying lands and waters that meet the 

minimum criteria for wilderness during the inventory phase, the resulting wilderness study areas 

are further evaluated to determine if they merit recommendation from the Service to the 

Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation 

System. A more complete discussion of wilderness inventory, study, and recommendation is 

included in Appendix F. 

General Guidelines for Wildlife-Dependent Recreation (605 FW1)

This set of policies (605 FW 1-7), published in July 2006, defines the System’s wildlifedependent recreation policy, provides guidelines used to manage wildlife-dependent recreation 

on refuge lands and identifies visitor service standards. 

National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific 

Nineteen individual NWRs are scattered across the central and western Pacific Ocean, with 

several refuges located on the main Hawaiian Islands and others found from Guam to American 

Samoa (Figure 1.1). The Hawaiian and Pacific Islands NWR Complex, which provides 

administrative guidance and oversight for these 19 refuges, is located in Honolulu, Hawaii. This 

Complex also co-manages the newly established Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument, along with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the State of 

Hawaii. 

Within this administrative structure is a subset of seven refuges known as the Remotes Complex. 

The Remotes Complex straddles the Equator near the center of the Pacific Ocean. They are 

farther from human population centers than any other U.S. area and represent one of the last 

frontiers and havens for fish and wildlife in the World. These remote refuges are the most 

widespread collection of coral reef and seabird/shorebird protected areas on the planet under a 

single country’s jurisdiction. Only one of these seven refuges, Palmyra Atoll NWR, has onisland dedicated staff members. Remotes Complex staff, located within the complex office in 

Honolulu, manage all the remaining refuges, including Jarvis. Staff, funding, and logistical 

support are often shared among these remote refuges to help defray operational costs. 

The Jarvis CCP identifies several management strategies that are dependent upon activities and 

staff support from the Remotes Complex office, ship transportation support from other Federal 

agencies, or the establishment of partnerships with other organizations. Because of the great 

distances involved in traveling to these remote refuges, most management activities, including 

the simple act of visiting a refuge, are sometimes planned to occur concurrently during the same 

voyage. For this reason, cost estimates for management activities at Jarvis are pro-rated amongst 

the seven Remotes Complex refuges. 
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-5 

Figure 1.1 Map of National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific. 
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Refuge Establishment, Purpose, and Boundary 

Refuge Establishment 

Jarvis Island is an unincorporated territory under the sovereignty of the United States. The 

Secretary of the Interior has broad authority over the territories of the United States by virtue of 

the Act of March 1, 1873, (43 U.S.C. 1458) which transferred general authority “...to perform all 

duties in relation to the Territories of the United States...” from the Secretary of State to the 

Secretary of the Interior. In addition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 

7368 on May 13, 1936, also placing control and jurisdiction of Howland Island with the 

Secretary of the Interior. Further, pursuant to the provisions of the Reorganization Act of 1949, 

the Secretary of the Interior is authorized under Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1950 to re-delegate 

to any officer or agency within the Department of the Interior any of the functions legally under 

his jurisdiction. 

Under the authority of Reorganization Plan No. 3, the Secretary of the Interior, on June 27, 1974, 

designated Jarvis Island and its territorial sea extending to the 3 nautical mile (nmi) limit as a 

unit of the National Wildlife Refuge System to be “administered under the general regulations 

for the National Wildlife Refuge System published in Title 50, Code of Federal Regulations” (39 

FR 27930). Section 25.21 of these regulations state that “...all areas included in the National 

Wildlife Refuge System are closed to public access until and unless we open the area for a use or 

uses in accordance with the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 

U.S.C. 668dd-668ee), the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4) and this 

subchapter C.” Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge remains closed to public access. 

 

Refuge Purpose

Refuge purposes are oftentimes are based upon land acquisition documents and authorities. 

These statements give indications for the biological reason or justification for the acquisition or 

land transfer. Purposes listed in acquisition authorities, or legislative acts, are often general in 

scope. For Jarvis, this general purpose is: 

“...for the development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and 

wildlife resources...” (16 U.S.C. 742f (a) (4)), and “...for the benefit of the United States Fish 

and Wildlife Service, in performing its activities and services. Such acceptance may be 

subject to the terms of any restrictive or affirmative covenant, or condition of servitude...” 

(16 U.S.C. 742f (b)(1)) (Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956). 

Acquisition documents often contain more specific purpose statements. The specific purpose 

statement for establishment of Jarvis identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time 

of transfer to the Service is (USFWS 1973): 

“...the preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial as well as marine. Special 

emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies.” 
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-7 

Refuge Boundary 

Jarvis is located in the central equatorial Pacific Ocean (Figure 1.2). The boundary for Jarvis 

includes: 

“all of said island...together with its territorial sea extending outward to the three-mile limit.” 

(39 Federal Register 27930). 

The emergent land area for Jarvis encompasses 1,273 acres and submerged lands and waters 

within the 3-mile limit encompass 36,214 acres for a total of 37,487 acres. 

 
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1-8 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Figure 1.2 Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge: Geographic Location and Boundary.
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Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-9 

Regional and Ecosystem Conservation Plans

 

Regional and ecosystem conservation plans and initiatives are also important to evaluate and 

incorporate into developing each CCP. These plans typically address issues or concerns that are 

site specific or of regional concern, and address needs more current than when the refuge was 

established. 

Remote Islands Ecosystem Plan: Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National 

Wildlife Refuge 

The ecosystem plan for Howland, Baker, and Jarvis identifies Jarvis as “...an important site for 

the study of long term global climate change and periodic phenomena such as El Niño Southern 

Oscillation” (USFWS 1998b). The plan further describes the fringing reef as a healthy coral 

community resulting from its remoteness and lack of anthropogenic effects, and having 14 

species of breeding seabirds and the only fully protected seabird island in the Line Islands. 

Coral Reef Initiative in the Pacific: Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island 

National Wildlife Refuges 

 

The Coral Reef Initiative for Howland, Baker, and Jarvis restates the wildlife and ecological 

values identified in the ecosystem plan (USFWS 1998a). This document identifies three 

important components of the three ecosystems: “They provide a breeding platform for pelagic 

birds using large areas of ocean surface, offer a migratory stopover for long distance migrating 

shorebirds, and furnish reef habitat for shallow water organisms.” 

Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys 

imbricate)

Although theoretically within the range for hawksbill turtle, little is known about their biology, 

foraging and nesting behavior, threats, and distribution surrounding Jarvis Island. Both the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine Fishery Service (NMFS) 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service share responsibility at the Federal level for the research, 

management, and recovery of Pacific marine turtle populations under U.S. jurisdiction (NMFS 

and USFWS 1998). 

Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) 

Few green turtles are known to forage in the waters surrounding Jarvis Island and nesting was 

recorded in low densities along the west coast of Jarvis in the 1930’s. However, data from the 

area is limited and use of Jarvis may be greater than currently documented. Both the NMFS and 

the Service share responsibility at the Federal level for the research, management, and recovery 

of Pacific marine turtle populations under U.S. jurisdiction (NMFS and USFWS 1998). 
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1-10 Chapter 1 - Introduction

U.S. Pacific Island Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan 

 

This regional shorebird plan identifies Jarvis as being within the Central Pacific Islands 

Subregion. No natural wetlands are known from this subregion; however, beaches on 

uninhabited islands are important for shorebirds. Population and habitat goals for this subregion 

state that determining population size and trends for bristle-thighed curlews and other shorebirds, 

and their habitats is a management priority (Engilis and Naughton 2004). 

United States Shorebird Conservation Plan 

This nationwide shorebird plan identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands being of “critical importance 

for two species of Holarctic breeders, bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover.” 

Further, this plan notes that these islands provide wintering habitat essential to the maintenance 

of these species as well as several other migratory shorebird species (Brown et al. 2000). 

Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region 

This plan provides an overarching review, discussion, and identification of conservation 

priorities for seabirds in the U.S Pacific Islands; ranks seabirds for conservation priority; and 

includes specific species accounts including their conservation needs (USFWS 2005). 

Central Pacific World Heritage Project 

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) organized and 

convened meetings in Honolulu in June 2003, and Kiritimati Atoll in October 2004, to seek input 

for a proposed multi-national World Heritage project now referred to as the Central Pacific 

World Heritage Project (CPWHP) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2003; 2004). Additional 

meetings and evaluations in the U.S. and Republic of Kiribati resulted in a total of 29 atolls, 

islands, and reefs belonging to four nations (United States, Cook Islands, Republic of Kiribati, 

and French Polynesia) being proposed for the multi-site, multi-jurisdictional CPWHP. To date, 

the Service has not acted on this proposal, but intends to do so in the future. However, the 

Republic of Kiribati is planning to nominate all eight of its Phoenix Islands for World Heritage 

in 2009, and that would constitute the first major action among the four involved nations to 

implement the CPWHP. 

Refuge Vision Statement 

The refuge vision statement is a broad general statement that describes what the refuge staff 

perceives as Jarvis’s fundamental attributes and contributions to a healthy world environment. 

This statement will guide management activities for the lifespan of this plan, as well into the near 

future. The draft vision statement for Jarvis is as follows. 

 

Jarvis is one of the last places in the world where the terrestrial and marine tropical 

island ecosystems are still intact and relatively free of human impact, offering the 

opportunity to serve as a living laboratory for measuring current and future human 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1-11 

impacts to island, coral reef, and deep marine habitats. Natural, physical and ecological 

processes unfold with limited human interference and support a diverse community of 

native marine organisms including seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, fish, plants, 

corals, and other invertebrates. Nesting and foraging seabirds dominate the landscape 

and seascape while sheer isolation and solitude help us see our place in the natural 

world. 

Refuge Goals 

Goal statements are succinct statements of a desired future condition of refuge resources. Goals 

comprise the whole of a refuge’s effort in pursuit of its vision and lay the foundation from which 

all refuge activities arise. The goals for Jarvis are as follows, and will again be presented along 

with objectives and strategies in Chapter 3. 

1. Conserve, manage, and protect native terrestrial habitats that are representative of remote 

tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of seabirds. 

2. Conserve, manage, and protect native marine communities that are representative of 

remote tropical Pacific Islands. 

3. Contribute to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with 

special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and 

endangered species, and species of management concern. 

4. Protect, maintain, enhance, and preserve the wilderness character of Jarvis’s terrestrial 

and marine communities. 

5. Jarvis’s biological, cultural and historic resources are preserved. 

6. An informed, interested, and educated public appreciates remote Pacific Island NWRs 

wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and their ecosystems, with special 

emphasis on seabirds. 
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1-12 Chapter 1 - Introduction

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 2-1 

Chapter 2: PLANNING, PURPOSE, NEED, AND ISSUES 

 

Planning Process 

The CCP development process follows applicable policies contained within the Service’s Fish 

and Wildlife Manual (Part 602 FW2.1, November 1996; Part 601 FW1, Part 603 FW1, and Part 

605 FW1, June 2006), and the Wilderness Act of 1964 with respect to wilderness study and 

review. This CCP was completed in association with an EA and is intended to meet the dual 

requirements of compliance with the NWRS Administration Act and the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA). Both the NWRS Administration Act and NEPA require the Service to 

actively seek public involvement in the preparation and adoption of environmental and 

conservation documents and policies. Furthermore, NEPA also requires the Service to consider a 

reasonable range of alternatives including its Preferred Alternative and the “No Action” 

alternative; the latter defined as continuation of current management practices. 

Purpose and Need 

Overall, all refuges must comply with the System mission, goals, and policies, as described in or 

promulgated by the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (NWRS 

Administration Act), as amended (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee). The National Wildlife Refuge 

System Improvement Act of 1997 amended the NWRS Administration Act. According to the 

NWRS Administration Act, a CCP is required to identify and describe refuge purpose(s), 

habitats and wildlife, archaeological and cultural values, administrative and visitor facilities, 

management challenges and their solutions, and opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent 

recreation. The recreational activities referenced in the NWRS Administration Act as receiving 

special consideration during planning efforts include hunting, recreational fishing, wildlife 

observation, interpretation, environmental education, and photography. 

The purpose of this CCP is to develop a vision, goals, and objectives for Jarvis, which in turn 

provide guidance to identify and implement management activities, or strategies, during the next 

15 years. Specifically, the CCP: 

• sets a long term vision; 

• establishes wildlife and habitat management goals and objectives; 

• establishes goals and objectives for compatible wildlife-dependent recreational and 

educational uses; 

• identifies strategies for habitat enhancement and restoration projects; 

• describes the highest monitoring and research priorities; and 

• describes and evaluates wilderness values. 

Jarvis and its management and administrative activities are managed as part of the NWRS or 

System within a framework provided by legal and policy guidelines. The refuge is guided by the 
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2-2 Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 

mission and goals of the NWRS, the purpose of the refuge as described in its acquisition 

authority, Service policy, Federal laws and executive orders, and international treaties. 

Supplemental guidance documents (e.g., resource plans) are also included in making 

management decisions but cannot replace or be in conflict with the purposes for which the refuge 

was established or the mission of the System 

Planning Issues and Opportunities 

Issues, concerns, and opportunities were identified through discussions with key contacts, 

workshop participants, core team members, other refuge staff, and through the public scoping 

process. The following section summarizes issues, concerns, and opportunities from all public 

input received throughout the planning efforts. Six issues were identified and are described 

below. 

Issue 1: Operational Limitations 

Jarvis is located approximately 1,263 nmi from the management staff located in Honolulu, 

Hawaii. On average, it takes 6-7 days to reach Jarvis by ship, the only method of visiting the 

island. The key issues and concerns affecting planning and management implementation are: 

• distance from refuge headquarters; 

• lack of affordable and reliable transportation; 

• lack of infrastructure to support field operations; 

• extreme environmental conditions; and 

• safety concerns and logistical capacity to land people and equipment on-island from 

small boats during limited time windows associated with low surf conditions. 

Issue 2: Biological and Ecological Resources 

Biological and ecological information sufficient for management or conservation purposes is 

lacking. Due to the infrequency and limited staff time spent on Jarvis, biological and ecological 

information is not of sufficient frequency to allow for a detailed assessment of resources. The 

collection of baseline and long-term monitoring information should be a primary concern and the 

focus of management objectives. 

Issue 3: External Forces 

The threat of the introduction of invasive species from unauthorized visits, marine debris 

washing ashore and onto coral reefs, and vessel groundings are beyond current management 

control. Distance, lack of funds and staff, and the inability to have a more consistent presence on 

this island opens the opportunity for invasive species introductions, limits the ability to remove 

marine debris, and delays in the response to vessel groundings. 

Global climate change (see Chapter 4) may also affect refuge resources, but is beyond control of 

refuge management staff. It is anticipated that changes in the chemical composition of the 
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Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 2-3 

atmosphere and oceans; surface temperatures of air, land, and sea; intensity and frequency of 

rainfall and storm waves; and changes in sea level would have impacts on refuge resources. 

However, the extent and nature of these impacts, if any, is unclear and the subject of 

considerable academic debate. Continued upwelling of ocean waters caused by the Equatorial 

Undercurrent impinging upon the western flanks of Jarvis Island will generate cooler surface 

waters that may mollify some of the adverse effects of climate change that include sea surface 

temperature rise and coral bleaching. 

Issue 4: Public Use Resources 

The key issues related to public use are: 

• adverse ecological impacts (invasive species introductions, sewage pollution, fuel spills, 

trash disposal, harassment of wildlife, damage to sensitive habitats such as coral reefs); 

• whether any on-site public use should be allowed; 

• to what extent the use should occur; and 

• how the use should be managed. 

Jarvis Island Refuge has never been formally opened to public access and use. In the past, 

several recreational user groups such as amateur radio operators, bird watchers, history 

enthusiasts, destination tourists, and commercial cruise vessels have expressed interest in visiting 

various remote Pacific island refuges. Public access to Jarvis Island would be managed through 

use of refuge-issued Special Use Permits (SUP). However, before a SUP could be issued, a 

request for public access would need to be evaluated for appropriateness and compatibility. 

Issue 5: Education and Outreach 

In general, Pacific Island refuges are poorly recognized by the public and our partner agencies. 

There are few entrance signs, no boundary signs, and little published information in popular 

literature. Refuge boundaries are rarely portrayed on nautical charts and other maps. 

The remote location and isolation of Jarvis and other Pacific island refuges make it difficult to 

conduct on-site visits for educational or interpretative purposes. Thus, most educational and 

interpretative opportunities are necessarily delivered remotely through various media. 

In addition, general interest by the public and requests to visit remote Pacific Island refuges by a 

growing recreational yachting community has increased recently. This interest requires the 

public to be better informed regarding sensitive refuge habitats, species, and regulations. 

Issue 6: Communication and Cooperation 

 

Jarvis’s remoteness compels a growing list of partners and cooperators to be kept informed of 

and included in planning and management activities at Jarvis. Activities that staff and partner 

agencies/organizations share include: 

• expedition planning; 

• collaborative research projects; and 

• jurisdictions of trust resources. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

2-4 Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 

Most access for refuge staff to Jarvis has only been possible through the cooperation and 

participation with partner agencies such as NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard. Many research 

interests are shared between Service and NOAA scientists, and collaborative research projects 

have been conducted in the past. Additionally, NOAA and the Service share trust resource 

responsibilities for marine turtles. 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-1 

Chapter 3: MANAGEMENT DIRECTION 

 

Overview 

The Service reviewed and considered a variety of resource, logistic, social, and economic aspects 

important for managing the refuge when developing this long-term management plan. As is 

appropriate for a National Wildlife Refuge, resource conditions were fundamental in designing 

the CCP. Marine and terrestrial resources are equally important to the management of Jarvis, 

and are described more fully in Chapter 4. However, the logistics of reaching the island and 

associated coral reefs is the primary constraint on increasing or modifying the level of 

management and monitoring activity that has or currently occurs. To more fully understand this 

constraint, a description of the logistical requirements and refuge management activities follows. 

Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity 

for transportation to Jarvis. In the recent years, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, and private 

charter vessels have all provided transportation. A typical voyage originating from Honolulu, 

Hawaii will take approximately 6 to 7 days to arrive at Jarvis with intermediate stops at Palmyra 

Atoll or Johnston Atoll NWRs. Once on-site, if wind and wave conditions warrant the launch of 

a landing vessel (typically a small outboard type inflatable boat), the marine vessel will anchor or 

remain stationary during the deployment of the field camp, only venturing away from the island 

to complete marine surveys. The field camp itself generally consists of two individuals, typically 

biologists to carry out biological surveys and other duties, and camping gear consisting of tents, 

sleeping equipment, food, water, and needed survey equipment. Cooking gear is rarely deployed 

since staff is only on-island for 1 to 2 days with most of that time being engaged in work 

activities. 

While on-island, the biologists document all bird species present, count individuals, determine if 

any and the extent of nesting, casually observe vegetation and record species presence or 

absence, or the presence of any invasive species. Observations regarding the condition of 

cultural sites are also made. The only active management that occurs during these site visits is 

the collection and on-island stockpile of marine debris that washes ashore and poses a threat to 

seabirds and other wildlife that utilize Jarvis. Any evidence of illegal activity such as 

unauthorized access is documented. Photographs record general habitat conditions; however, 

further habitat assessment does not occur. Although no specific activities occur with respect to 

wilderness values, the simple fact that a 1 to 2 day field camp consisting of temporary lodging 

arrangements and minimal activity is consistent with maintaining the wilderness values of the 

area. 

During the period that the biologists are on Jarvis, marine scientists from NOAA, the Service, 

and other partner organizations such as the University of Hawaii conduct surveys and monitoring 

activities of the marine environment. Some monitoring activities occur on-board the vessel, 

while others require the use of SCUBA equipment. All of the marine scientists, however, are 

based on the vessel awaiting the conclusion of terrestrial surveys and thus do not come ashore. 

Marine scientists typically collect information on currents, weather, temperature, chemical 

composition of the water, and the abundance and distribution of coral and fish species. Specific 

marine-based surveys known as Rapid Ecological Assessments (REA) are conducted and collect 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-2 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 

ecological data such as fish species, abundance, and predator prey relationships. Data are also 

collected from permanently marked coral and macro-invertebrate transects which document coral 

species richness, size/age classes, density, mean size, and percent coral cover. These data are 

collected over a 2-day period (six 1-hour dives). Following the voyage, data from marine 

scientists is provided to the Service and includes a full range of oceanographic, bathymetric, and 

marine biological data. 

Specific details of the management program are categorized below: 

• Baseline Monitoring of Wildlife Populations and Habitats. Staff visits to Jarvis provide 

baseline monitoring efforts, documenting species presence or absence, abundance, habitat 

condition, presence of invasive species and various other physical variables such as 

temperature, precipitation, wind, etc. 

• Voyage Preparation. The logistics of providing adequate field camp supplies such as 

water, food, first aid, and communications occurs for each voyage. 

• Use of extraneous unnatural lighting. Limiting and shading the lighting on vessels, 

camp, and nighttime operations minimizes the threat of collision and disorientation of 

wildlife that can be caused by light hazards.

• Quarantine protocols and use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Visitors to Jarvis 

are required to wear new and frozen clothing and other quarantine precautions as outlined 

in quarantine protocols (Appendix E). The hand pulling of weeds occurs as time 

becomes available. Selective hand spray application of herbicides or pesticides, where 

appropriate, may occur. 

• Scientific Information Exchange. Refuge staff currently attends various professional 

meetings and conferences related to Pacific island and marine resources. Additionally, a 

minimal amount of staff time is devoted to the development of peer reviewed journal 

articles and contributing to NOAA and Service-sponsored Web sites and periodic state of 

the reefs reports. 

• Preservation of Wilderness Values. Since its establishment, Jarvis has been managed to 

preserve its wilderness values and characteristics even though it has never been proposed 

for wilderness designation. These values are intrinsic at this remote, uninhabited island 

and coral reef ecosystem. Management activities do not impinge on these values.

• Public Access. Since establishment, Jarvis has never been formally opened to public 

access and use. Access and public use remains closed. All individual opportunities for 

compatible use such as specific research projects are administered using individual SUPs. 

• Interpretation, Education, and Outreach. Current opportunities for off-site education 

exist at the Maritime Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. A hands-on exhibit representing a 

Pacific island refuge is maintained to educate school-aged students about seabirds, 

invasive species, marine debris, and the National Wildlife Refuge System (System). 

Interpretative displays are also used periodically at conventions and professional 

meetings. 

• Protection and Preservation of Cultural Resources. Cultural resources remain intact and 

in situ. Field camps are situated to avoid impacts to cultural resource sites. 

Archaeological reconnaissance to avoid impacts to cultural resources is required prior to 

management activity that would potentially disturb surface or subsurface resources. 

• Waste Disposal at Sea. Disposal of waste in refuge waters is prohibited. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-3 

• Waste Disposal on Island. All waste from food products, equipment, and containers that 

is brought onto the island is removed during demobilization. Depending upon the 

duration of the site visit, human excrement will be either bagged, stored in a chemical 

toilet, or decomposed using portable biodegradable toilets, all of which are subsequently 

removed during field camp demobilization. 

• Refuge Boundary. There are no changes to the refuge boundary.

• Cultural Resources Inventory. Presence and condition of cultural resources on Jarvis is 

re-evaluated. 

• Wilderness Study Area. A recommendation for Wilderness Study Area (WSA) 

designation is postponed until a Legislative Environmental Impact Statement (LEIS) and 

wilderness proposal are developed for all other remote Pacific island national wildlife 

refuges (NWRs) as part of their CCP processes. 

• Marine ecosystem monitoring. Funding requests are required for additional exploration 

of deep slope resources by a ship equipped with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) 

operating at depths between 150 and 300 feet, or submersible operating at depths between 

60 and 3,000 feet. 

• Seabird Nesting Restoration. Electronic callers are deployed and used as seabird nesting 

attraction devices designed to attract Phoenix petrels (Pterodroma alba) and Polynesian 

storm petrels (Nesofregetta fuliginosa). These electronic calling devices consist of solar 

powered speakers broadcasting calls of both species in suitable areas of the island. Both 

of these small ground-nesting Procellariforms are severely depleted or extirpated 

throughout much of their range. The mammal-free status of Jarvis Island makes it an 

ideal site within the species’ original range to restore a breeding population of each 

species.

Once field operations are complete, or the weather becomes increasingly inclement, the field 

camp is demobilized and all equipment and personnel are transported back to the research vessel. 

Typically, the other two other equatorial refuges (Baker and Howland) are also visited in this 

same manner. Travel time between Howland and Baker is 5 hours, and between Baker and 

Jarvis is 2 days. Once the three surveys are completed, or at least attempted, the voyage 

continues with approximately 6 to 7 days to travel back to Honolulu, again with intermediate 

stops at Palmyra Atoll or Johnston Atoll NWRs, or continuing on for 4 days to Rose Atoll NWR 

and Pago Pago American Samoa where voyage scientists and biologists can be exchanged and 

then fly back to Honolulu. In total, it is expected that in order to visit Howland, Baker, and 

Jarvis for 1 to 2 days per refuge, a biologist or marine scientist needs to devote 20 to 26 days 

total travel. Trip reports are completed, distributed, and filed once field staff returns to the 

Honolulu office. 

The only difference between the management condition prior to the completion of the CCP, and 

the actions described in this CCP is an increase in the frequency of staff visits from once every 

two years to once every year. In order to meet the increase in the number of site visits, refuge 

staff in Honolulu is administratively burdened to seek additional funding sources and develop 

partnerships for additional visits. This may take the form of producing internal project proposals 

(RONS), or seeking funding support through grants or partnerships with other agencies, research 

institutions, and non-government organizations. Overall, wildlife and habitat management 

activities remain consistent. The only additional terrestrial management activity is promoting 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-4 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 

nesting use by two seabird species with the use of solar powered electronic calling devices. 

Phoenix petrel calls would be placed near areas with sufficient vegetation for cover and the 

Polynesian storm-petrels calls would be placed near the coral slab habitat on the north beach 

crest. Increased monitoring in the marine environment depends upon partnership opportunities 

developed with NOAA, the University of Hawaii, or other partners. At a minimum, marine 

scientists would resurvey REAs and other transects. Transportation to and from the island relies 

upon NOAA or other partners. Public use and access remains closed. 

 

The ability of the Service to meet the mission of the System, “...to administer a national network 

of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the 

fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of 

present and future generations of Americans.”; and the refuge purpose of “...the restoration and 

preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Special consideration must be 

given to the protection of nesting seabird populations.” is limited. A one to two day visit to the 

island once every year does not provide the opportunity for refuge staff to complete anything 

other than basic biological surveys of species presence or absence. Restoration, preservation, or 

protection of terrestrial and marine ecosystems, or nesting seabirds is not possible. However, 

lack of projected budget and staffing preclude management staff from increasing management 

activity beyond what is described in this CCP. If, during the lifetime of this plan, budget and 

staffing become available to pursue an increased level of management activity then the CCP will 

be reevaluated. 

Goals, Objectives, Strategies, and Rationale 

Goals and objectives are the unifying elements of successful refuge management. They identify 

and focus management priorities, resolve issues, and link to refuge purposes, Service policy, and 

the Refuge System Mission. 

A CCP describes management actions that help bring a refuge closer to its vision. A vision 

broadly reflects the refuge purposes, the Refuge System mission and goals, other statutory 

requirements, and larger-scale plans as appropriate. Goals then define general targets in support 

of the vision, followed by objectives that direct effort into incremental and measurable steps 

toward achieving those goals. Finally, strategies identify specific tools and actions to 

accomplish objectives. 

 

The goals for Jarvis over the next fifteen years under the CCP are presented on the following 

pages. Each goal is followed by the objectives that pertain to that goal. The goal order does not 

imply any priority in this CCP. Some objectives pertain to multiple goals and have simply been 

placed in the most reasonable spot. Similarly, some strategies pertain to multiple objectives. 

Following the goals, objectives, and strategies is a brief rationale intended to provide further 

background information pertaining to importance of an objective relative to legal mandates for 

managing units of the NWRS including refuge purpose, trust resource responsibilities (federally 

listed Threatened and Endangered species and migratory birds), and maintaining/restoring 

biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-5 

Goal 1: Conserve, manage, and protect native terrestrial habitats that are 

representative of remote tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of 

seabirds. 

Objective 1a: Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds. 

Upon CCP approval and throughout the life of the CCP, conserve, manage, and protect a 

mosaic of approximately 1,273 acres of terrestrial habitat consisting of 73 acres of beach and 

beach strand, 500 acres as short grass and forbs, 200 acres as scrub shrub, and 500 acres as 

bare ground on Jarvis Island as nesting habitat for 15 seabird species. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Conduct and record incidental observations of invasive species. 

Adhere to strict quarantine protocols for all island visitors (see Appendix D). 

Collect and stockpile marine and other human debris not considered to be historically 

important. 

Rationale: 

The 15 nesting seabird species on Jarvis use all island habitats (see Chapter 4 and Appendix 

B). Masked and brown boobies prefer to nest on bare open ground. Gray-backed, and sooty 

terns, and brown and blue-grey noddies also nest on the surface, but are tolerant of vegetated 

areas. Lesser frigatebirds, typically known as a tree-nesting species in some parts of their 

range, are found exclusively on the ground at Jarvis. Red-tailed tropicbirds prefer shaded 

areas and can be found nesting on the surface, under coral slabs, or in shrubs. Red-footed 

booby and great frigatebird are the only two exclusive shrub nesting species. 

The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing 

important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Jarvis as being important for ground nesting 

species. Additionally, the plan recognizes that near-shore waters provide areas of upwelling 

currents with important food resources for seabirds. 

Maintaining the island free of mammalian predators, invasive insects, and invasive plants is 

critical for seabird survival (USFWS 2005). Strict quarantine protocols have been previously 

established for all island visitors in order to eliminate the threat of introducing invasive plants, 

insects, and animals (see Appendix D). 

Marine and other human generated debris poses an entanglement threat for multiple wildlife 

species. Stockpiling debris can reduce the overall area affected, thereby reducing the 

entanglement threat. 

 

Objective 1b: Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat. 

Within 15 years of the CCP approval, conduct monitoring to determine vegetation species 

presence/absence and distribution on Jarvis Island. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Document presence/absence of island vegetation. 

Coordinate with Regional Office GIS staff to assess and/or develop remote sensing capability 

to map and monitor island habitats. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-6 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 

Rationale: 

In general, insufficient time has been spent on Jarvis to adequately quantify habitat on Jarvis, 

and how this habitat relates to seabird biology. Collection of baseline biological information is 

essential to adequately understand and manage the refuge. Although it is known that the 15 

nesting seabird species use all habitats on Jarvis, this information has only been obtained from 

the short duration, infrequent visits (1 to 2 days every 2 years) to the island. There has been no 

quantitative assessment of breeding species habitat associations. The distribution and 

delineation of habitats itself has been estimated, but never been quantified. Remotely 

collected data may provide an option for data collection in the absence of being capable of 

visiting Jarvis. 

Goal 2: Conserve, manage, and protect native marine communities that are 

representative of remote tropical Pacific islands. 

Objective 2a: Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat. 

Upon CCP approval, conserve, manage, and protect approximately 36,214 acres of submerged 

lands consisting of an estimated 3,000 acres coral reef and 33,214 acres of deep water/pelagic 

habitat on Jarvis. 

Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective 

Continue and expand partnership with NOAA and others to manage coral reef ecosystems. 

Rationale: 

The conservation and protection of the Nation’s coral reefs is becoming increasingly important 

for agencies with responsibility to manage and conserve those (Executive Orders 13089 and 

13158). Because the refuge boundary for Jarvis extends to 3 nmi from the island shoreline, all 

coral reefs are contained within the refuge boundary. Threats to the coral reef system include 

invasive species such as crown-of-thorns starfish and marine debris (e.g. abandoned fishing 

gear) that collects on corals, smothering or breaking them. The responsibility for protecting, 

managing, and conserving coral reef ecosystems is shared with NOAA. The Service and 

NOAA often participate in joint management activities throughout the Pacific; however, no 

active management activities have occurred at Jarvis. 

 

Objective 2b: Increase baseline information on marine community. 

Within 15 years of CCP approval, monitor: coral species density, diversity, size/age structure, 

and distribution; fish species presence/absence and habitat associations; sea turtle species 

presence/absence; deep coral beds, and marine mammal species presence/absence; and 

oceanographic conditions in relation to climate change effects.. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Conduct and record incidental observations of corals, other invertebrates, fish, sea turtles, 

algae, marine mammals, and their habitats. 

Accompany NOAA or other scientific partners on marine surveys. 

Conduct REA (Rapid Ecological Assessments) on all existing survey routes to document coral, 

fish and turtle density, diversity, distribution, and habitat associations. 

Develop proposals and conduct deep slope marine surveys by ROV (remotely operated vessel) 

to document presence/absence and distribution of deep slope coral and fish species. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-7 

Rationale: 

Responsibility for investigating marine species is shared with NOAA, and has led to many 

cooperative studies. Unlike the logistic constraints of completing terrestrial surveys, marine 

surveys are conducted throughout the entire time that the marine transport vessel is at Jarvis. 

Additionally, since most site visits to Jarvis are aboard NOAA research vessels, the purpose of 

these voyages is to conduct marine surveys and studies. Consequently, a full compliment of 

up to 20 marine researchers and 40 support staff contribute to conducting marine surveys 

across all alternatives. As a result, marine surveys are now more comprehensive than 

terrestrial surveys on Jarvis. 

REAs constitute baseline monitoring of the marine ecosystem, and are one component of 

several alternative strategies. Further expansion of REA’s could be accomplished only as a 

component of Alternative D. 

Additional surveys (marine mammals, deep slope), as described beginning with Alternative B 

can be achieved as components of cooperative efforts with other agencies or research 

organizations. As an example, little is known of marine mammal use surrounding Jarvis, 

although it is known that some species are found in the vicinity and that fish populations are 

very large near the submarine slopes of Jarvis. 

The Marine Mammal Commission has encouraged the Service to generate partnerships with 

NOAA to help document baseline information. Developing additional partnerships with 

NOAA or other organizations may also assist in meeting terrestrial objectives by providing the 

opportunity for additional trips to Jarvis. 

Goal 3: Contribute to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all 

native species with special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, 

federally listed threatened and endangered species, and species of 

management concern. 

Objective 3a: Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information. 

Within 10 years of CCP approval, conduct monitoring (in rank order) to determine: seabird 

species composition, relative abundance, breeding chronology, distribution, and habitat use; 

inventory of shorebird species; species presence and distribution of sea turtles; and inventory 

of terrestrial invertebrates on Jarvis Island. The desired conditions by which this will be met is 

understanding of the complete annual chronology for 5 of 15 nesting seabird species; 

population trend data over the 10-year period for all 15 nesting seabird species; and the 

presence/absence and distribution of shorebirds, turtles and other terrestrial invertebrates. 

Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective 

Record incidental observations of all species , relative abundance, and distribution. 

Rationale: 

The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) repeatedly recognizes the importance of the U.S. 

Pacific Islands in providing predator-free seabird nesting and roosting environments. Their 

protected status, in concert with nearby marine forage resources contribute to their importance. 

The Seabird Plan further identifies population monitoring inventories are insufficient to 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-8 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 

accurately detect or monitor population change, suggesting instead that a rigorous collection of 

population data is needed. 

In addition to Jarvis being recognized as important habitat for seabirds, the U.S. Pacific Islands 

Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan (2004) lists determining baseline information for 

bristle-thighed curlews, and other species, as the goal of the Central Pacific Islands Subregion. 

The endangered species recovery plans for both species of sea turtles indicate that little is 

known about their biology in the central Pacific. Data on other terrestrial wildlife species 

found on Jarvis Island is lacking. 

 

Objective 3b: Restore breeding populations for 2 seabird species. 

Within 10 years of CCP approval, establish up to 5 nesting pairs each of Phoenix petrel 

(Pterodroma alba) and Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa) during a minimum of 

three consecutive years on Jarvis Island. 

Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective 

Implement and maintain electronic calling devices to promote nesting 

Rationale: 

The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes the Polynesian storm-petrel may now be 

able to flourish on Jarvis, as well as Baker and Howland, due to the removal of predators from 

the islands. The Phoenix petrel (Pterodroma alba) is known from the Phoenix Islands and 

Kiritimati Island in the Line Islands, but does not currently inhabit Jarvis, though it is thought 

that they did historically. A recommendation of the Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) is 

expand efforts to assess habitat suitability and restore populations through translocation to 

predator-free U.S. islands such as Jarvis. While the physical translocation of species to Jarvis 

is not being suggested, solar-powered electronic calling devices are available and have been 

successful, in attracting and establishing nesting seabird colonies to other islands. 

 

Objective 3c: Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use of Jarvis. 

Upon CCP approval, monitor hawksbill and green sea turtles to document any nesting sites, all 

adjacent coral reef and nearshore water foraging sites, and overall population density and 

distributions.

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Record incidental observations of nearshore turtle use. 

Develop partnership with NOAA for study of turtles at Jarvis. 

Rationale: 

There is currently little information related to use of Jarvis resources by sea turtles, though it is 

known that they do use refuge habitats. Sea turtles have been photographed in the water 

during joint Service/NOAA expeditions since 2000. Data collected over the life of this plan 

would help to establish a baseline understanding of sea turtle populations in the central Pacific. 

Sea turtles were harvested in the past on nearby Flint Island at the south end of the Line 

Islands and perhaps other islands during the guano mining era of the late 18th century, and 

perhaps sea turtle nesting could increase in the absence of human threats. 

Objective 3d: Expand baseline information on marine community. 

Upon CCP approval, monitor populations of globally depleted marine species such as giant 

clams (Tridacna sp.), pearl oysters (Pinctada margaritifera) bumphead parrotfish 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-9 

(Bolbometapon muricatum), Napoleon wrasses (Cheilinus undulatus), large groupers 

(Cephalopholis sp., Epinephelus spp., Variola spp., etc.), sharks (Carcharhinus spp., 

Triaenodon spp., Negaprion spp., Galeocerdo spp., etc.), and corals (Anthozoa, Hydrozoa) to 

document their presence/absence and relative abundance on Jarvis. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Conduct marine surveys such as REA and permanent transect surveys 

Solicit partnership for survey of deep slope habitat 

Rationale: 

Many marine species of commercial importance have been globally depleted. Protected areas 

such as Jarvis still provide sanctuary areas. However, illegal fishing activity has been noted 

surrounding several Remotes refuges. Jarvis, as well as other remote island refuges provide 

the opportunity to study and protect marine ecosystems far from human populations. 

 

Objective 3e: Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use of Jarvis. 

Within 10 years of CCP approval, increase scientific understanding of marine mammal 

presence and use of Jarvis marine waters. The desired conditions by which this will be met 

will be to document all marine mammal use of nearshore waters. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Incidental observations of marine mammal 

Solicit partnership for study of marine mammals at Jarvis 

Rationale: 

NOAA, the Service, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Oceanic Institute, University of 

Hawaii, and Bishop Museum marine biologists have collected data on marine species of 

concern since 2000. Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters 

surrounding Jarvis Island. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters 

surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals, and all 

of the northern Line Islands appear to support resident populations of Mel on-headed whales. 

It is also important to understand the threats human activity may pose to these important 

species (Marine Mammal Commission. pers. comm.). 

Goal 4: Protect, maintain, enhance, and preserve the wilderness character of 

Jarvis’s terrestrial and marine communities.

Objective 4a: Protect and maintain wilderness values. 

Upon CCP approval, continue to preserve the wilderness values (e.g. size, naturalness, 

solitude, supplemental values) of Jarvis. Achievement of this objective will be evaluated by 

assessing loss or degradation of values that qualified it for potential designation (see Appendix 

F). 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Use minimum tools necessary to manage refuge resources 

Continue to manage Jarvis as wilderness 

Monitor values of naturalness and solitude. 

Rationale: 

Jarvis has been and is currently managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location, 

historic lack of human impact, and limited human presence. Areas of Jarvis have been 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-10 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 

identified as meeting the criteria for a Wilderness Study Area (Appendix F). Completion of 

the wilderness review process and as appropriate development of a Legislative EIS will be 

pursued for all Pacific Remote Island Refuges once their CCP’s have been completed. 

Some human generated debris remains from past occupations. Additionally, debris such as 

discarded fishing nets continuously washes ashore. This debris impinges upon wilderness 

values. 

In the interim, all areas identified as suitable WSAs would continue to be managed as 

wilderness. All management activities would be conducted in such a manner as not to detract 

from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory. 

Goal 5: Jarvis’s biological, cultural and historic resources are preserved. 

Objective 5a: Protect cultural resources. 

Upon CCP approval, continue to protect existing cultural resources. The desired conditions by 

which this will be met will be to document any change in condition of the Jarvis Light day 

beacon, or other recognized cultural/historical resource. 

Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective 

Record incidental observations of condition of cultural resources 

Rationale: 

Rationale: Restricting human use of Jarvis would maintain cultural resources by limiting the 

opportunity for invasive species establishment, and reducing the opportunity for unauthorized 

collection or disturbance. In order to keep cultural resource sites protected, the locations and 

descriptions of fragile cultural resources would not be made available to the public. 

 

Objective 5b: Enhance Law Enforcement Capabilities 

Upon CCP approval, seek to improve partnerships with the NOAA Office of Law 

Enforcement to increase enforcement capacity. The desired conditions by which this will be 

met will be to formalize interagency agreements and develop remote surveillance techniques to 

document unauthorized access to the refuge. 

Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective 

Establish joint enforcement operational protocols with NOAA Office of Law enforcement. 

Evaluate the effectiveness of deploying acoustical devices to detect ship traffic in the vicinity 

of the refuge. 

Rationale: 

Rationale: Enhancing law enforcement capability to detect and prosecute unauthorized access 

would preserve biological and cultural resources by limiting the opportunity for invasive 

species establishment and deterring unauthorized collection or disturbance. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-11 

Goal 6: An informed, interested, and educated public appreciates remote 

Pacific Island NWRs wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and 

their ecosystems, with special emphasis on seabirds. 

Objective 6a: Provide off-site education and interpretation opportunities. 

Within three years of CCP approval, develop an off-site educational opportunity for the public 

to learn about Pacific Island refuge wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, 

tropical island ecosystems, seabirds, and coral reefs. The desired conditions by which this will 

be met will be through publications, educational programs, displays, or other media. 

Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective 

Develop, with External Affairs office, Honolulu, an interpretative brochure for all remote 

Pacific Island refuges. 

Rationale: 

While it is important for the public to understand and appreciate the resource values associated 

with remote island refuges, it is logistically difficult to do this on-site at Jarvis and still protect 

the island’s wildlife, habitats, wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and visitor’s 

safety. For these reasons, interpretative or educational opportunities for the public to learn and 

appreciate the values of remote Pacific Island refuges and resources will be provided primarily 

as off-site programs and interpretative brochures. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

3-12 Chapter 3 – Management Direction 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-1 

Chapter 4: REFUGE AND RESOURCE DESCRIPTION 

 

Geographic/Ecosystem Setting 

Jarvis Island, located at approximately lat. 0o23’ S. and long. 160o01’ W is the sixth island and 

considered to be a western outlier of the 11 Line Islands that stretch from 6oN latitude to 11oS 

latitude. The Line Islands trend from north to south between longitudes 162o and 150oW. 

Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge anchors the northern end of the archipelago and Flint 

Island anchors the southern end, about 390 nmi north of Tahiti in French Polynesia. It is 

included in the Central Pacific subregion of the Polynesian Region of the Pacific Basin. This 

subregion, the largest of four in the Polynesian Region, is the most remote part of the tropical 

Pacific and includes only low-lying reef islands, atolls, and submerged reefs. Vegetation 

patterns are determined by the highly variable but normally low rainfall levels found along the 

Equator in the central Pacific. In turn, the arid weather and ocean circulation patterns impose 

limits on floating seed plant dispersal strategies. 

Jarvis falls in the central Pacific dry zone with rainfall less than 40 inches per year, and thus 

“cannot support any forest or closed woody vegetation” (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998). 

The nearest landmass is Kiritimati atoll (Christmas), 184 nmi to the north. Three of the Line 

Islands are possessions of the United States (U.S.), all being administered as units of the NWRS. 

Jarvis and Kingman Reef are both unincorporated U.S. territories, while Palmyra Atoll is the 

only U.S. possession considered an incorporated U.S. Territory, meaning that the U.S. 

Constitution applies in its entirety to that area. The remaining eight Line Islands are under the 

jurisdiction of the Republic of Kiribati; their capital is Tarawa, located in the Gilbert Islands 

1,621 nmi to the West. Although Johnston Atoll NWR anchors the northern end of the 

submerged Line Island ridge, its biological characteristics are much closer aligned to those of 

Hawai‘i and is not normally considered a part of the Line Islands (Maragos et al. 2008). 

Climate 

 

General climate and related oceanographic conditions in the central Equatorial Pacific 

The climate associated with Jarvis Island can be generalized as being arid, warm, and tropical 

with moderate breezes and light to moderate rainfall. Although differences in climate exist 

among the islands, climate-monitoring stations are not readily available in the equatorial Pacific. 

Consequently, current site-specific data is lacking for most central Pacific locations, or has only 

been collected for a short period of time. Vitousek, et al. (1980), recorded meteorological 

observations at Jarvis Island from 1974 to 1980 and these data will serve as the basis for this 

summary. 

There are several climatic factors that influence weather on Jarvis: trade winds, rainfall, and 

oceanic currents. Trade winds are surface winds that typically dominate airflow in tropical 

regions and predominate from the East at Jarvis between 13 to16 miles per hour. Atmospheric 

pressure gradients range from high pressure areas located near lat. 30o N. and lat. 30o S., to the 
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4-2 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

low pressure band located near lat. 5o N., driving both the northeast and southeast trade winds. 

This area of low pressure located just north of the Equator is referred to as the ‘doldrums’ or the 

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and lacks these prevailing trade winds because they 

converge and rise upward. 

Solar heating also allows the moist air mass of the ITCZ to rise, thus cooling the air mass and 

producing a band of heavy precipitation several degrees to either side of the ITCZ (Wallace and 

Hobbs 1977). Jarvis’s position near the Equator places it outside this band of heavy 

precipitation. Changes in these typical patterns occur seasonally and during periodic events 

known as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During an ENSO event, the ITCZ shifts 

south and east toward unusually warmer waters. At other equatorial islands, this shift typically 

leads to lighter wind speeds and more rainfall (USFWS 2001, USFWS 1998a) but Jarvis did not 

have an increase the in rainfall during the ENSO events of 1974 to 1976 that Kiritimati and 

Tabuaeran (Fanning) Islands experienced (Vitousek et al. 1980). 

Prevailing ocean currents surrounding Jarvis Island also influence weather patterns on the island 

by moderating the surrounding surface air temperatures. These currents, except the Equatorial 

Undercurrent (EUC), and North Equatorial Countercurrent (NECC), also roughly mimic the 

direction of the trade winds. The eastward-flowing NECC is a relatively narrow surface current 

that seasonally meanders between 5o and 10o North latitude, flows counter to the major 

westward-flowing currents of the northern and southern hemispheres, and is situated just below 

the ITCZ (USFWS 2001). In a sense, the NECC is a return flow of surface seawater running 

down-slope back towards the eastern Pacific because of the lack of trade winds that would 

otherwise drag surface waters in the opposite direction. Jarvis lays 400 nm south of the most 

southerly approach of the NECC and is rarely directly influenced by the current (Gove in 

Maragos et al. 2008). 

The westward-flowing current lying north of the NECC is known as the North Equatorial 

Current (NEC) and is not known to influence current and weather patterns near Jarvis. Just south 

of the NECC is the westward-flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC). Jarvis is most always 

within the flow regime of the SEC. 

Jarvis Island also lies in the path of the subsurface easterly flowing Equatorial Undercurrent 

(EUC) also referred to as the Cromwell Current. As the EUC strikes the submerged western 

slopes of Jarvis Island, nutrient rich waters are deflected upward, enriching the primary 

productivity of the surface waters surrounding Jarvis. These upwelling waters from the EUC are 

slightly cooler than adjacent sea surface waters and may moderate the effects of localized and 

periodic sea surface warming events. Variations in the upwelling that cause it to be strongest 

during boreal spring are caused by variations in wind levels over various time scales (Gove et al., 

2006; Gove in Maragos et al. 2008). 

Jarvis Island climate data 

The nearest currently operating weather station to Jarvis is the Kiritimati weather station, located 

at lat. 1o 52’ N., long. 157o20’ W., or roughly 184 nmi north of Jarvis (USFWS 1998a). This 

station reports average total monthly rainfall of approximately 3 inches ranging from 0 to 20 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-3 

inches per month with precipitation consistent throughout the year (NOAA 1991) except for 

increases during ENSO events. 

Global Climate Change 

A continuously growing body of unequivocal scientific evidence has emerged supporting the 

anthropogenic nature of current global climate change. During the 20th century, the global 

environment experienced variations in average worldwide temperatures, sea levels, and chemical 

concentrations. Global air temperatures on the earth’s surface have increased by 1.3°F since the 

mid 19th century (IPCC. 2007a). Eleven of 12 years from 1995 to 2006 are the warmest on record 

since 1850 (IPCC 2007b). Global water temperatures have increased by 0.31o on average in the 

upper 300 m during the past 60 years since 1948 and changes in ocean heat content have 

penetrated as deep as 3000 meters (Levitus et al. 2005). Subsequently, sea levels rose 

approximately 1.7 mm (0.07 in) ± 0.5 mm/yr during the 20th century (IPCC. 2007a); this rate 

rose dramatically to 3.1 mm (0.122 in) ± 0.7mm/yr since 1993 (IPCC 2007b). 

While the concept of climate change is widely accepted, the extent and impact of future changes 

as well as the exact source (natural or human induced) remains a debate (OPIC 2000). Emerging 

consensus contends that increasing quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, 

especially carbon dioxide (CO2), are beginning to affect climate and may be the dominant force 

driving recent warming trends. The amount of GHGs globally has grown due to human activities 

since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004 (IPCC 2007b). 

Carbon dioxide has increased by about 80% in the same time period. The atmospheric 

concentrations of CO2 and methane in 2005 were 379 ppm3 and 1774 ppb, respectively. These 

amounts greatly exceed concentrations recorded in the global environment over the last 650,000 

years (IPCC, 2007a). Other emissions and GHGs from human activity have enhanced the heat 

trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere, causing warmer temperatures. Although the 

increase in carbon dioxide is largely attributed to fossil fuel use, land use changes have also 

increased the amount of cleared land surfaces, thereby reflecting more solar radiation (IPCC 

2001, IPCC 2007a, IPCC, 2007b). 

Global forecasting models offer a variety of predictions based on different emission scenarios. 

OPIC (2000) suggests that a further increase in GHG emissions could double atmospheric 

concentrations of CO2 by 2060 and subsequently increase temperatures by as much as 2 to 6.5°F 

over the next century. Recent model experiments by the IPCC (2007a) show that if GHGs and 

other emissions remain at 2000 levels, a further global average temperature warming of about 

0.18°F per decade is expected. Sea-level rise is expected to accelerate by two to five times the 

current rates due to both ocean thermal expansion and the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps. 

Consequently, patterns of precipitation and evaporation may be altered. These changes may lead 

to more severe weather, shifts in ocean circulation (currents, upwelling), as well as adverse 

impacts to economies and human health (OPIC 2000, IPCC 2001, Buddemeier et al. 2004, IPCC 

2007a). Hansen, et al. (2008) propose that current models may underestimate the slower 

feedback processes such as ice sheet disintegration, vegetation migration, and greenhouse gas 

release from soils and that these factors may come into play in this century. These changes will 

have a significant effect on the National Wildlife Refuges in the tropical Pacific. The changing 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-4 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

global environment and the implications this may have for ecological and geological processes in 

the Central Tropical Pacific are important considerations for future management of trust 

resources there. The four areas of impact linked to global climate change that may have the 

greatest potential effect on Jarvis Island NWR and its wildlife are sea level rise, weather and 

ocean circulation changes, ecological disruptions and coral bleaching due to increased ocean 

temperature, and oceanic chemical composition change. 

Vitousek (1994) reported, “Changes in both climate and biological diversity are known with less 

certainty than are changes in C02 concentrations, global biogeochemistry or land use.” Because 

temperature is more variable both spatially and temporally than C02 concentration, it is difficult 

to separate human-caused vs. natural background variation. However, it is certain that increasing 

concentrations of C02 and other greenhouse gasses will cause increasing climate change 

(Vitousek, 1994). 

The equatorial locale for Jarvis places it near the path of anomalous water current and surface 

wind conditions during ENSO events, but the paucity of weather and oceanographic data at 

Jarvis renders it difficult to assess the impacts and trends of global climate change at the island. 

The upward deflection of cool subsurface waters into shallow water by the upwelling effects of 

the EUC further complicates an assessment of climate change effects, because this phenomenon 

has been rarely reported outside of the three equatorial refuges (Howland, Baker, Jarvis). 

The insular nature of both the terrestrial and coral reef habitats of Jarvis will result in the same 

high vulnerability of resident organisms that is seen in range restricted or mountaintop species 

elsewhere (Parmesan, 2006). 

Sea Level Rise 

 

While global temperature is projected to rise by 3.6 to 9oF and sea level to rise by more than 31.5 

inches during the next two centuries, sea levels have fluctuated by an order of 328 feet over the 

past 18,000 years as natural background variation and thawing out from the last ice age 

(Michener et al. 1997). Contributions to sea level rise by climate change are ice-sheet melting, 

alpine glacier melting and thermal expansion of the sea. Sea levels have risen by 4-8 inches 

during the past century (Michener et al. 1997). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

(IPCC 2001) predicted a sea level rise of 3.5 inches to 34.6 inches by the year 2100 unless 

greenhouse gas emissions were reduced substantially. They also suggested that continuing 

greenhouse gas emissions could trigger polar ice-cap melting after 2100 accompanied by sea 

level rise greater than 16 feet. More recent modeling indicates that melting could occur faster 

than the IPCC predicted (Overpeck, et al. 2006). 

Evidence also suggests that the world’s oceans are regionally divisible with regard to historic 

fluctuations in sea level. Localized variations in subsidence and emergence of the sea floor and 

plate-tectonics activity prevent extrapolations in sea level fluctuations and trends between 

different regions. While researchers in IPCC (2007a) state that water levels in the equatorial 

Pacific are rising at a rate of 1.2 to 2 mm per year, it may not be possible to discuss uniform 

changes in sea level on a global scale, or the magnitude of greenhouse gas-forced changes, as 

these changes may vary regionally (Michener et al. 1997). As an example, tide gauge records on 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-5 

the Atlantic coast indicate a sea level rise of .06 to .16 in/year over the past century, whereas, 

they have indicated a .35 to .39 in/year increase along the Gulf coast of the United States 

(Michener et al. 1997). 

Increases in sea level and associated increases in storm surges and storm intensity will affect 

Jarvis Island. Shoreline erosion and salt water intrusion into subsurface freshwater aquifers have 

been noted throughout the Pacific (Shea et al. 2001). Due to the deep marine slopes directly 

adjacent to Jarvis Island, increases in sea level could significantly erode shorelines and overall 

island surface area since opportunities for accretion of lands do not exist. Loss of breeding 

habitat for seabirds, wintering grounds for migratory shorebirds, and habitat for native plants, 

and land crabs are predicted at current rates of sea level rise. 

Ocean temperature increases 

Most climate projections suggest that more intense wind speeds and precipitation amounts will 

accompany more frequent tropical typhoon/cyclones and increased tropical-sea surface 

temperatures in the next 50 years (Walther et al. 2002, IPCC, 2007). The third IPCC (2001) has 

concluded, with “moderate confidence” that the intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to increase 

by 10 to 20 percent in the Pacific region when atmospheric levels of CO2 reach double preindustrial levels (IPCC 2001). One model projects a doubling of the frequency of 4 inches per 

day rainfall events and a 15–18 percent increase in rainfall intensity over large areas of the 

Pacific (IPCC 2001). The IPCCl (2007) states that it is “more likely than not” that the rise in 

intense tropical cyclones is due to anthropogenic activity. 

Above normal mean sea surface temperatures have been shown to cause bleaching and mortality 

in corals both in nature and in the laboratory with bleaching generally occurring in shallower 

waters (Floros et al. 2004). Coral bleaching, the expulsion of symbiotic zooxanthellae from 

coral polyps and subsequent loss of photosynthetic pigments is the result of both natural and 

anthropogenic stresses. Although corals may pale in response to seasonal increases in sea 

surface temperature, there has been a higher frequency of large scale bleaching events since the 

1980s (Nicholls et al. 2007). The most severe global bleaching event ever recorded occurred in 

1997-98 when over 50 countries showed signs of bleaching (Grimsditch and Salm 2005). Many 

species of coral currently exist in the upper limits of their specific temperature range; thus, an 

increase in average sea surface temperatures (even by 1.8 or 3.6oF) over a sustained period has 

been shown to cause mass bleaching, especially in shallow waters habitats (Grimsditch and Salm 

2005). Other variables have also been implicated in bleaching and mortality events, including, 

extended periods of high temperatures, low wind velocity, clear skies, calm seas, low rainfall, 

high rainfall, salinity changes, high turbidity or acute pollution. Floros et al. (2004) goes on to 

note that, “The causes of coral bleaching are debatable, but widely thought to be the result of a 

variety of stresses, both natural and human-induced, that cause the degeneration and the loss of 

the colored zooxanthellae from the coral tissues.” 

Bleaching episodes in equatorial islands appear to be linked to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation 

(ENSO). Widespread bleaching events occurred during the El Niños of 1982-83, 1987-88, and 

1997-98 (Buddemeier et al. 2004). During the warm phase of ENSO, or El Niño, sea-surface 

temperatures are usually warm, trade winds weak, and sea level decreases in the western Pacific 
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4-6 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

(IPCC 2001, Buddemeier et al. 2004). These combined factors result in a dramatic increase in 

coral bleaching (Buddemeier et al. 2004). While El Niño events have increased in intensity and 

frequency over the past decades, some longer-term records have not found a direct link to global 

warming (Cobb et al. 2003) and do not predict significant changes in El Niño; however, they do 

suggest an evolution toward more “El Niño-like” patterns (Buddemeier et al. 2004). Most 

climate projections reveal that this trend is likely to increase rapidly in the next 50 years 

(Walther et al. 2002). 

If coral reef ecosystems do not acclimate to projected thermal stresses, more frequent bleaching 

events and widespread mortality will occur. The ability of coral reef ecosystems to withstand 

these impacts will depend on the extent of degradation from other anthropogenic pressures and 

the frequency of future bleaching events (Nicholls et al. 2007). 

Field observation of corals at Baker, Howland, and Jarvis during five separate expeditions from 

2000-2006 indicate that corals may be recovering from a bleaching event that took place during 

the previous few years (1997-1998). Corals continued to increase in cover and sizes, based upon 

observations during all subsequent (post 2000) visits, including those at permanent transect sites 

(Maragos 2008; Maragos et al. 2008a & 2008b, Miller et al. 2008). Although coral bleaching 

was predicted to occur at Jarvis in 2003 based upon NOAA satellite based temperature and wind 

data, no evidence of bleaching was reported there during the early 2004 and 2006 visits 

(Maragos 2000-2006, unpublished data). One possible explanation is that the cool upwelling 

waters of the EUC are buffering the effects of the otherwise warmer seawater temperatures at the 

island. 

Tudhope (2000) sampled 6 cores obtained from 2 large, 3-4 meter Porites coral heads at Jarvis in 

1999 to track sea surface temperature and coral growth rates over several or more decades using 

stable oxygen isotope as a measure of Sea Surface Temperature. He found a good correlation 

between this measure and the NINO3.4 Index, which is one of the most widely used and reliable 

indicators of the status of ENSO. The results of their work at Jarvis and at four other tropical 

sites in the Line and Cook Islands contributed to demonstrating linkages between the tropics and 

the North Pacific over hundreds of years (D’arrigo et al 2005). Hawaii Undersea Research 

Laboratory (HURL) submersible dives at Jarvis in July 2005 revealed many deep-water corals, 

and samples of some were taken for climate change and paleo-climate analyses (Rob Dunbar et 

al. 2005). The results of these analyses are not yet available. 

Oceanic acidification and atmospheric chemistry 

Glacial and interglacial periods in the Earth’s history, as measured from deep Antarctic ice cores, 

reveal cyclical fluctuations in the concentration of global CO2. However, recent increases fall 

outside the range of peak prehistoric CO2 levels. Current atmospheric CO2 concentrations are at 

their highest levels in more than 160,000 years, with humans emitting 25 billion tons of CO2

annually (Buddemeier et al. 2004). The rate of increase is also five to ten times more rapid than 

any of the sustained changes in the ice-core record (Vitousek 1994). The higher the 

concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, the greater the amount of CO2 dissolved in the surface 

ocean. When CO2 dissolves in seawater it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), a weak acid that 

releases additional hydrogen ions and increases the acidity of the ocean. In order to buffer this 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-7 

acidity, the hydrogen ions react with carbonate (CO3

2-) ions and convert them to bicarbonate ions 

(HCO3

-

). However, this buffering ability has diminished due to the rapid rising CO2

concentrations and the global seawater pH has decreased by 0.1 units since 1750, with regional 

variations (Royal Society 2005, IPCC 2007). Models predict that over the 21st century average 

surface ocean pH will continue to fall between 0.14 and 0.35 units (IPCC 2007a). 

Increased atmospheric CO2 and ocean acidification affect marine organisms. As the 

concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions rises, the concentration of carbonate ions 

decreases. Many corals and marine organisms use calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate ions from 

seawater to secrete CaCO3 skeletons (Buddemeier et al. 2004, IPCC 2007). Change in carbon 

dioxide levels will increase the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in seawater, thus reducing the 

over-saturation of aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate that is the major building block for 

coral reefs (Vitousek, 1994). On a transect in the Pacific Ocean that ran very near Jarvis, Feeley 

et al. (2004) show that the aragonite saturation horizon is shallow and is shoaling compared to 

the pre-industrial aragonite saturation horizon. This reduces the width of the zone in which 

marine organisms have optimum aragonite concentrations for shell-building. The result of this is 

uncertain but is thought to reduce the rate at which corals can deposit calcium carbonate, thus 

reducing the rate at which coral reefs will be able to keep up with any increases in sea level. A 

lowered calcification rate means calcifying organisms (corals) may grow skeletons at a slower 

rate, lower density, and/or decreasing strength. Thus, changes in global seawater chemistry 

reduce the ability of corals to successfully compete for space and increase susceptibility to 

breakage (Grimsditch and Salm 2005). In addition to changes in the carbonate system, changes 

in ocean chemistry may affect the availability of nutrients and toxins to marine organisms. 

It should also be noted that chemical composition changes in the atmosphere may also affect 

terrestrial ecosystems. For instance, the quantity of nitrogen available to organisms affects 

species composition and productivity. Increase in nitrogen can alter species composition by 

favoring those plant species that respond to nitrogen increases (Vitousek, 1994). Increased 

carbon dioxide can also affect photosynthetic rates in plants, change levels and characteristics of 

secondary compounds in plant tissues, change plant species composition, lower nutrient levels, 

and lower weight gain by herbivores. 

Geology and Soils 

Jarvis Island is a low-lying, nearly level island with a slightly depressed central area surrounded 

by a narrow shallow fringing reef. The submarine slopes descend steeply to great depths beyond 

the fringing reefs. Surface deposits on the island consist of calcareous sands and coral rock. The 

central depression is probably the remnants of an ancient lagoon and the result of the combined 

effects of guano mining more than a century ago and wave action depositing sand rocks and 

boulders around the island’s fringe to an elevation of 10-23 feet above sea level (Keating, 1992). 

The island was likely formed as a result of submarine volcanic activity and changes in the earth’s 

crust caused by continental tectonic plate movement, including emergence of a high volcanic 

island, its later subsidence, reef accretion, and its gradual northwesterly drift away from the East 

Pacific Rise over the past 50-80 million years. Although scientists since Darwin (1842) have 

been pondering seamount, island, and atoll formation in the Pacific since the mid-1800s, the 
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4-8 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

specifics of how Jarvis Island was formed have not been specifically investigated, although they 

would likely follow the general sequence first postulated by Darwin. 

The dominant theory of atoll formation states that islands form in deep tropical oceans as a result 

of underwater volcanoes that grow to the surface to form high volcanic islands, giving coral 

polyps a foundation to grow upon and form reefs fringing the island. In time, the volcano 

becomes dormant, and its mass pushes down on the earth’s crust causing it and its island to 

subside and shrink in size, while its fringing reefs continue to grow upward and maintain 

proximity to the sea surface. Coral reefs, originally fringing the edges of a large island, become 

a barrier reef around larger islands outlining the contour of the original coastline, with a lagoon 

occupying the space vacated by the shrinking island. Eventually, further subsidence causes the 

island to disappear completely from the lagoon leaving behind an atoll. However, for small 

islands such as Jarvis, lagoons may not have formed at latter stages, and continued subsidence 

has left only a small low reef island in its wake. Based upon deep drilling through the atolls in 

the Marshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950s, it is believed that these processes occurred well 

before the beginning of the last ice age (approximately 115,000 years ago) and encompassed 

more than 50-60 million years and up to several thousand feet of reef growth equal to the degree 

of subsidence over that time span. In addition, it is hypothesized that changes in sea level 

associated with the end of the last ice age and the deposition of highly permeable coralline 

limestone (calcium carbonate) derived from the remains of marine organisms likely contributed 

to the carbonate platform that characterizes the contemporary geologic structure of Jarvis Island. 

The entire western or leeward beach of the island is sandy and low, while the eastern side, 

constantly pounded by waves generated by the trade winds, is higher, more abrupt, and covered 

with coral rubble and sandstone slabs. There is no pronounced beach crest or central basin (dried 

up lagoon) typically found on some larger low-lying reef islands. Soils of low-lying atolls in the 

Pacific frequently consist of accumulated organic matter, guano, pumice or other transported 

material on top of a calcareous sand or limestone substratum (Morrison 1990). The soil of Jarvis 

Island is composed of coral fragments and light brown coral sand with a low percentage of 

organic matter. 

Hutchinson (1950) concluded that phosphates accumulate preferentially on islands, such as 

Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands, that are situated in climatic dry belts used by large 

populations of seabirds. Deposits of phosphate-rich soils have formed over time from guano 

deposited on the island by fish-eating seabirds. Mild acids formed from the decomposition of 

organic matter carry the guano downward in the soil to limestone soil layers were acids are 

neutralized and calcium phosphate accumulated from the chemical changes. In addition, when 

guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents are removed and the insoluble matter is 

left behind. The soluble phosphates washed out of the guano may also become fixed to the coral 

sand and limestone by the process described above. The calcium phosphate rocks and soil occur 

among the sedimentary strata and were the principal sources of phosphate targeted for 

commercial fertilizer and military use during the guano mining period between 1861 and 

1891(see Chapter 3.15). Even after the guano mining era, the soil profile still contained heavy 

guano deposits (Christophersen 1927). 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-9 

Hydrology 

No information is available on the subsurface hydrology of Jarvis Island. However, its small 

size and prevailing arid rainfall conditions would not likely result in the formation of a drinkable 

groundwater lens. During staff visits to Jarvis, potable water is carried in containers to the island 

for short visits, and could be produced on-site via reverse osmosis technology for prolonged 

visits, just as it is now produced for permanent field stations at other remote Pacific Island 

NWRs. 

Air and Water Quality 

Due to the lack of human presence, oceanic and air quality are expected to be good and lacking 

in pollutants. The acoustic environment at Jarvis is completely natural without any 

anthropogenic noise except during periodic visits. On the island, dominant natural sounds 

include the wind, calls of seabird and shorebirds, and seawater lapping on the shoreline with 

wave action crashing further offshore on the outer reef margin. Underwater the dominant sounds 

are wave action and surge striking the reef slopes and the sounds of thousands of feeding and 

moving invertebrates and fish. 

Environmental Contaminants 

The most recent human activity at Jarvis Island that resulted in possible environmental 

contamination occurred between 1974 and 1980. The NORPAX Line Islands Monitoring 

Experiment included an automated weather station at Jarvis that consisted of a various 

meteorological and oceanographic sensors, a small hut housing the electronics box, a 100 watt 

FSK radio transmitter, radio and sensor towers, wind generators, solar panels, primary and 

secondary batteries, and power control circuits. Power for the station was stored in 18-volt leadacid batteries and radio transmission powered by 12 volt batteries (Vitousek et al., 1980). At 

least some of these batteries and some of the other metallic objects were left behind on Jarvis at 

the end of this research. 

Other periods of human occupation at Jarvis include an 18 month occupation of Jarvis from 1 

July 1957 to 31 Dec 1958 by a party of oceanographers from Scripps Institution of 

Oceanography during the International Geophysical Year. They left a house in 1958, which is 

no longer standing. Panalā’au colonists occupied the island from 1935 to 1942 and as many as 

80 guano miners at any given time worked there from 1858 to 1879. The guano mining process 

itself does not result in harmful tailings so only substances that may have been left by the miners 

or subsequently by the colonists might qualify as environmental contamination on the refuge. 

The east end of Jarvis was shelled by a Japanese submarine in 1942. A large storm from the 

north in 1958 washed away practically all evidence of the guano miners and the Panalā’au 

colonists from the Millersville landing area. 
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4-10 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

Terrestrial Vegetation and Habitats 

Jarvis Island is vegetated with grasses, herbaceous plants, and shrubs. Only strand species able 

to survive long periods of drought and irregular opportunities to reproduce during the infrequent 

wet years of the ENSO persist here. By 1924 when Christophersen (1927) did the first thorough 

survey of Jarvis Island’s vegetation, there had already been approximately a century of visits by 

Europeans and guano miners. Despite this traffic and the potential for introductions, 

Christophersen found a very depauperate flora consisting of 6 native species (Lepturus repens, 

Eragrostis whitneyi, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Boerhavia tetrandra, Portulaca lutea, Tribulus 

cistoides. Other plants currently surviving such as Abutifolium indicum, and Sida fallax were 

most likely accidentally introduced by the guano miners. Still other plants were purposefully 

introduced through the years, perhaps even repeatedly, but do not persist. (see Appendix B). On 

a short visit in 2004, only 7 species of plants were located (Rauzon and Wegmann 2004). It is 

likely that seeds of additional species are regularly washing up on the beach and then dying back 

as conditions become too dry or high surf washes the plant away. Table B-3, Appendix B, lists 

all the plant species of Jarvis Island, and the most recent information about current presence or 

absence.

The structure of the plant community is grassland and low herbaceous cover. The Sida and 

Abutilon in the interior serve as important nesting and roosting habitat for the red-footed booby 

and cover for wintering bristle-thighed curlews. Great frigatebirds and white terns also prefer to 

nest above the ground on the few shrubs available, but all the other species nest directly on the 

ground. Shrubs and rock piles also provide shade and daytime cover for the numerous land 

hermit crabs, Coenobita perlatus that inhabit Jarvis Island. 

Terrestrial Wildlife 

 

Seabirds, shorebirds, lizards, vegetation, insects, crabs, and invasive rats and feral cats were 

observed and studied at Jarvis Island during the current century. The Service subsequently 

eradicated cats from the island that enabled several nesting seabird species to re-colonize the 

island. 

Seabirds and Land Mammals 

There are no native land mammals at Jarvis Island. Numerically dominant vertebrates are 

seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Earliest ornithological surveys at Jarvis Island took place 

long after the introduction of the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, so the composition of the avian 

community prior to human contact can only be surmised by looking at other islands in the 

Phoenix and Line Archipelagos that did not suffer the invasion of rats. The findings of the 

ornithologist on the Whippoorwill Expedition of 1924 have never been published. The only 

ornithological records prior to 1963, when scientists from the Smithsonian Institution visited 

eight times between 1963 and 1965, are those of Harold Kirby (1925) who visited in 1924 and 

mentions only 6 species of the large Pelecaniform birds breeding. Table B-4 in Appendix B lists 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-11 

species and estimates of numbers for seabird species on all visits since 1973. Jarvis Island falls 

into Bird Conservation Region (BCR) 68 along with all the other island territories of the U.S. 

Cats were introduced to Jarvis sometime during period between 1935–1942. The scientists of 

the POBSP found nine species of seabirds breeding at Jarvis in 1963 (Clapp, R.B, 1967). Cats 

were finally removed in 1990 (Rauzon, 1990) and since then there has been a remarkable 

recovery of almost the entire seabird community. Most spectacular has been the rapid 

resurgence of blue noddies. There were none found breeding until 1982 when one nest was 

located. By 2004 Rauzon and Wegmann (2004) observed 650 birds making Jarvis now one of 

the largest blue noddy colonies in the world. The recovery of this species as well as the recolonization of 3 shearwater species at Jarvis coincides with the continuing destruction of the 

formerly enormous seabird colony at Kiritimati as more and more citizens of Kiribati are settled 

there. Jarvis has consequently become the largest seabird colony in the Central Pacific. The 

three most numerous breeding species at Jarvis are the sooty tern (Onychoprion fuscatus), brown 

noddy (Anous stolidus), and masked booby (Sula dactylatra). 

Several species of concern exist or have the potential to exist on Jarvis. The Phoenix petrel 

(Pterodroma alba) is considered a bird of National Conservation Concern by the Service and is 

listed by the IUCN as Vulnerable. The Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa) and 

blue noddy (Procelsterna cerulea) are Birds of Conservation Concern at the regional level 

(USFWS 2005). Both the Phoenix petrel and the Polynesian storm-petrel probably occurred at 

Jarvis Island prior to the introduction of rats. 

Shorebirds 

Species occurrence and counts of the four migratory shorebird species recorded from Jarvis 

Island are displayed in Table B-4, Appendix B. The most common migrants wintering at Jarvis 

are the Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva) and bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis). 

All four shorebird species are considered species of High Concern in the national conservation 

priority scheme for shorebirds (Engilis and Naughton 2004). All of the species are also labeled 

as high concern in the Birds of Conservation Concern in BCR 68 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 2002). These islands provide crucial wintering habitat and may serve as rest-stops for 

arctic-breeding shorebirds wintering farther south in the Pacific Islands. 

Reptiles 

Only one species of terrestrial reptile has been reported from Jarvis Island, a gecko, most likely 

the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris). This species was documented in the stomach of 

a cat at Jarvis (Kirkpatrick and Rauzon, 1986) and may have served as alternate prey for cats 

when they were present on Jarvis Island. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-12 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

Invertebrates (crabs and insects) 

Jarvis Island is home to a large number of the land crab, Coenobita perlatus. Their large 

biomass plays a dominant role in terrestrial food webs on the island where they consume a wide 

variety of organic matter of all types. Other terrestrial arthropods and mollusks are very poorly 

known. Recent observations, but not collections, during visits by Service biologists include 

house flies, small ants, moths and millers, butterflies, and spiders. Kirkpatrick and Rauzon 

(1986) compared food habits of feral cats at Howland and Jarvis Islands and while there were 

crickets, cockroaches and Tenebrionid beetles in the stomach of Jarvis cats (n=73), no insect 

remains were found in a smaller sample (n=5) of Howland Island cats. 

Marine Habitats, Fish, and Wildlife 

Previous surveys 

Before regular marine assessment and monitoring efforts began in 2000, marine scientists visited 

Jarvis to collect fish, corals, and perhaps other reef life, but there were no systematic surveys of 

the reefs accomplished or reported in the literature. Six sets of recent surveys through early 2008 

have been accomplished in cooperation with the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center 

(PIFSC) and their research vessels (Townsend Cromwell, Oscar Elton Sette, and Hi‛ialakai), 

primarily through the sponsorship of the Center’s Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED)(R. 

Brainard, per. comm.). The surveys since 2000 are of several types including: oceanographic 

data collection, towed diver surveys, rapid ecological assessments (REA) at stationary sites, and 

collections of marine animals and plants for identification and description in the lab. The 

Service with assistance from CRED established three permanently-marked transects to document 

trends in corals and some macro-invertebrates over time between 2000 and 2006. In addition, 

the University of Hawaii/NOAA sponsored HURL program accomplished several deep 

submersible dives at Jarvis in July 2005 to depths of 3,000 feet, and reported large populations of 

fish and deep corals off the west side of the island where the EUC impinges on the submarine 

slopes of the island 

Despite these intense efforts, several important habitats at Jarvis have not been adequately 

surveyed. Windward (north and east facing) reefs were inaccessible during most visits because 

of tradewind generated waves close to the reef and onshore winds that would push the dive skiffs 

too close to the reefs. Moreover, due to safety concerns, dives have generally been limited to 

depths of 60 feet and one hour duration. Because of these limitations, some important habitats 

are still poorly sampled and deep slope habitats (164 to 3,000 feet) within the refuge remain 

mostly unexplored, except for the 2005 HURL dives and 2006 acquisition of high resolution 

bathymetry of Jarvis Island NWR from Multi-BeamTM surveys (Miller in Maragos et al. 2008) 

and substantial oceanographic data (Gove et al. 2006; Gove in Maragos et al. 2008). 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-13 

Submergent Habitats 

Jarvis Island’s shallow marine benthic habitats consist of fringing reef crests, shallow back reefs, 

steep fore reefs, spurs-and-grooves, and small reef terraces, the last two habitats are restricted to 

the windward (east side) of the island. In addition, shallow short channels may have been 

blasted through the narrow fringing reef during the pre-World War II era to facilitate small boat 

access between the shoreline and ocean off the south and west sides of the island. The deep 

slope habitats below depths of 60 feet have not been surveyed by divers, although remotely 

operated vehicles (ROVs) have been launched to collect video and camera based data. Pelagic 

habitats occur further offshore beyond the influence of upwelling and nearshore oceanographic 

processes. Nearshore habitats include distinct upwelling zones off the west side of the island and 

oligotrophic waters off the windward reefs. The PIFSC has conducted oceanographic research 

off the island to contrast the difference between nutrient rich upwelling zones and the ambient 

nutrient poor ocean conditions outside areas of upwelling currents. 

Reef Life 

The dominant reef life that has been studied during post 1997 expeditions include, benthic algae 

(Peter Vroom, Kim Paige, per. comm.) corals, anemones, and coral disease (John Schmerfeld, 

Jim Maragos, Bernardo Vargas, and Jean Kenyon, per. comm.), other reef invertebrates (Scott 

Godwin, Dwayne Minton, and Robin Newbold, per. comm.), and reef fishes (Mundy et al 2002., 

Ed DeMartini, Bruce Mundy, Brian Zgliczynski, Brian Green, Richard Wass, Alan Friedlander, 

Stephanie Holzwarth, and others, per. comm.). Summary data on coral, other invertebrates, 

algae, and fish surveys data for Jarvis are reported in Maragos et al. 2008. 

The giant clam (Tridacna maxima) is abundant Jarvis Island and is listed under the Convention 

on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Also found on 

Jarvis, the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulates) is also listed under CITES and designated as 

Endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 

Corals 

Coral diversity at Jarvis Island 

Five coral surveys completed at Jarvis from 2000-2006 have documented 50 species and 20 

genera of coral, all but 2 of which are stony coral species (see Appendix B, Table B-1). Calm sea 

conditions allowed the March 2006 REA team to survey several sites off the north and east sides, 

providing more complete coverage than has been accomplished during any prior visit to Jarvis. 

Nine 2006 transect surveys accounted for 14 of the 22 genera reported from Jarvis, although 5 

genera (Montipora, Pocillopora, Pavona, Distichopora, and Millepora) accounted for more than 

95% of the corals (Figure 3.1). No new genera and species of corals were reported during the 

2006 visit. The normally dominant coral genera of Acropora and Porites were low in numbers 

although many of the Porites colonies were large. The coral fauna at Jarvis is unusual in being 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-14 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

low in diversity compared to that of the neighboring Line Islands surveyed during the past 

several decades. Jarvis’s geographic isolation, lack of protected lagoon habitats and small size 

compared to the other islands may be responsible for this anomaly. Mean generic richness was 

low at all REA sites ranging from 5 to 9 genera per 50m2 transect area. The eastern and northern 

(windward) reef sites showed slightly higher generic richness but lower overall abundance. 

Figure 4.1 Percentages of coral genera reported during March 2006 surveys, Jarvis Island 

NWR (after Maragos 2006). 

Coral populations 

Figures 3.2 and 3.3 summarize the characteristics of the coral populations at the nine 2006 Jarvis 

sites. A total of 3,237 corals were counted on the transect sites, but there were differences among 

the sites. The frequency of corals (mean number per m2) was lowest at windward sites varying 

from 2 to 4 corals per m2. Coral frequency values were highest on the south and west sides of 

the island with frequencies there ranging from 8 to 13 corals per m2

. These sites along with a 

northwest corner site also supported the largest coral colonies and the same sites and showed 

higher mean diameter levels for corals. Jarvis is exposed to large northwest swells due to its 

more westerly position relative to its northern Line Island neighbors, which may impede coral 

development. The REA sites protected from both these swells and the southeasterly trade winds 

appear to support larger and more numerous corals, although windward coral communities 

appear to be more diverse. 

Percent of Coral Genus Reported 

During March 2006 Surveys, 

Jarvis Island NWR

Distichopora 

3%

Fungia

 2%

Pavona

 4%

Montipora, 

50%

Other

 5%

Pocillopora 

36%
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-15 

Changes in coral populations over time 

 

Data from the 2004 REA surveys were available for 3 sites to offer comparisons to 2006 surveys 

at the same sites. In all cases coral populations were more abundant and diverse in 2006 

compared to 2004. Many more corals and higher frequencies were reported at all sites in 2006. 

For example, 2004 frequency values ranged from 1 to 2.5 corals per m2, but ranged from 2 to 7 

corals per m2 in 2006. Many smaller size classes were more numerous in 2006, although one 

larger size class (41 to 80 cm in diameter) was more abundant at the sites in 2004. Generic 

diversity increased from 3 to 4 genera in 2004 to 5 to 8 genera in 2006. Preliminary results from 

the analysis of permanent quadrat data at site JAR-4P off the south side of Jarvis reveal dramatic 

increases in corals from 2000 to 2006. Overall, corals appear healthy and growing at Jarvis sites 

based upon diversity and population parameters. The corals of Jarvis may be rebounding from a 

global warming and bleaching event of the late 1990s. 

Figure 4.2 Size class distributions of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR 2006 

Figure 4.3 Changes in the number of corals per age class between 2000 & 2006 at site 4P, 

Jarvis Island NWR. 

Changes in the number of Corals per Age Class 

between 2000 & 2006 at Site 4P, Jarvis Island NWR

0

50

100

150

200

250

All Corals Montipora Pocillopora

1-5 cm

6-10 cm

11-20 cm

21-40 cm

41-80 cm

81-160 cm

> 160 cm

 2000 2006 2000 2006 2000 2006

Size 

Class 

Size class distribution of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR 2006

0

100

300

500

700

900

1-5 cm 6-10 cm 11-20 cm 21-40 cm 41-80 cm 81-160 cm >160 cm

size classes

Number 

of 

Corals

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-16 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

Nearshore Fish 

 

There are approximately 277 species of reef fish known from Jarvis Island reefs (Mundy et al 

2002; Table B-2). This compares with 247 species from Baker Island and 342 species from 

Howland Island by the same investigators. There were disparities among the fish faunas of each 

of the islands, with some fish families and genera common at one island and other fish families 

and genera at the two other islands. Possible explanations for these differences may be that 

sampling and survey intensities may be insufficient and different between the three islands, or 

that geographic isolation may result in differential recruitment rates between the three islands. 

Fish well represented at Jarvis included sharks, groupers, damselfish, wrasses, blennies, and 

surgeon fishes. Also common were rays, eels, soldierfish, scorpionfish, cardinalfish, snappers, 

goatfish, butterflyfish, angelfish, hawkfish, parrotfish, and triggerfish were common. 

Reef fish populations at Jarvis appeared very abundant, healthy, and diverse with little indication 

of unauthorized harvest (Maragos, per. comm.). The upwelling phenomenon off the west side of 

Jarvis seemed especially strong during the six visits there since 2000, and fish populations may 

be benefiting from nutrient-subsidized productivity from the upwelling currents, resulting in 

large diverse populations of many families of fish. 

The fact that the disparities for the coral genera did not track in the same direction as for the fish 

families (fewer coral genera vs. more fish abundance and variety at Jarvis), reinforces the 

hypothesis that geographic isolation may lead to biodiversity heterogeneity based on chance and 

differential recruitment success. Geographic isolation would require both corals and reef fish to 

rely more on local recruitment vis-à-vis external recruitment. The latter would likely play a 

much larger role where reefs and islands are larger and closer together and result in similar 

biodiversity characteristics. 

Marine Mammals 

 

Very little information is available on marine mammal populations in the vicinity of Jarvis. 

However, on most visits to Jarvis Island, a group of approximately 40 bottle-nosed dolphins 

(Tursiops truncatus) appears as the ship approaches the island. Formal quantitative surveys of 

marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at Jarvis. 

Pelagic Wildlife 

Oceanic pelagic fish including skipjack, yellowfin tuna, and blue marlin prefer warm surface 

layers, where the water is well mixed by surface winds and is relatively uniform in temperature 

and salinity. Other pelagic species—albacore, bigeye tuna, striped marlin, and swordfish―

prefer cooler, more temperate waters, often meaning higher latitudes or greater depths. In fact, 

the largest proportion of the tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean originates from the warm pool, even 

though paradoxically this is a region of low primary productivity. Tuna movement to upwelling 

zones at the fringe of the warm pool may be key in resolving this apparent discrepancy between 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-17 

algal and tuna production. Preferred water temperature often varies with the size and maturity of 

pelagic fish, and adults usually have a wider temperature tolerance than subadults. Thus, during 

spawning, adults of many pelagic species usually move to warmer waters, the preferred habitat 

of their larval and juvenile stages. 

Large-scale oceanographic events (such as El Niño) change the characteristics of water 

temperature and productivity across the Pacific, and these events have a significant effect on the 

habitat range and movements of pelagic species. Tuna are commonly most concentrated near 

islands and seamounts that create divergences and convergences, which concentrate forage 

species, and also near upwelling zones along ocean current boundaries and along gradients in 

temperature, oxygen, and salinity. Swordfish and numerous other pelagic species tend to 

concentrate along food-rich temperature fronts between cold upwelled water and warmer oceanic 

water masses. These frontal zones also function as migratory pathways across the Pacific for 

loggerhead turtles (Polovina et al. 2000). Loggerhead turtles are opportunistic omnivores that 

feed on floating prey such as the pelagic cnidarian, Vellela vellela (“by the wind sailor”) and the 

pelagic gastropod Janthina spp., both of which are likely to be concentrated by the weak 

downwelling associated with frontal zones (Polovina et al. 2000). 

The estimated millions of seabirds breeding at Jarvis are primarily pelagic feeders that obtain the 

fish and squid they consume by associating with schools of large predatory fish such as tuna and 

billfish (Fefer et al. 1984, Au and Pitman 1986). These fish―yellowfin tuna (Thunnus 

albacares), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), mahimahi (Coryphaena hippurus), wahoo 

(Acanthocybium solandri), rainbow runner (Elagatis bipinnulatus), broadbilled swordfish 

(Xiphias gladius), and blue marlin (Makaira indica)―are apex predators of a food web existing 

primarily in the epipelagic zone. While both the predatory fish and the birds are capable of 

foraging throughout their pelagic ranges, the birds are most successful at feeding their young 

when they can find schools of predatory fish within easy commuting range of the breeding 

colonies (Ashmole 1963, Feare 1976, Flint 1991). Recently fledged birds, inexperienced in this 

complex and demanding style of foraging, rely on abundant and local food resources to survive 

while they learn to locate and capture prey. Some evidence from tagging studies done by Itano 

and Holland (2000) suggests both yellowfin and bigeye tuna aggregate around island reef ledges, 

seamounts, and fish aggregating devices and are caught at a higher rate here than in open water 

areas. Yellowfin tuna in Hawai‘i exhibit a summer island-related inshore-spawning run (Itano 

2001). 

Ashmole and Ashmole (1967) and Boehlert (1993) suggest that the circulation cells and wake 

eddies found downstream of oceanic islands may concentrate plankton and therefore enhance 

productivity near islands. Higher productivity, in turn, results in greater abundance of baitfish, 

thus allowing higher tuna populations locally. Johannes (1981) describes the daily migrations of 

skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna to and from the waters near islands and banks. The presence of 

natural densities of these tunas within the foraging radius of seabird colonies enhances the ability 

of birds to provide adequate food for their offspring (Ashmole and Ashmole 1967; Au and 

Pitman 1986, Diamond 1978, Fefer et al. 1984.) Wake eddies also concentrate the larvae of 

many reef fishes and other reef organisms and serve to keep them close to reefs, enhancing 

survivorship of larvae and recruitment of juveniles and adults back to the reefs. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-18 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

For at least 3 seabird species breeding at Jarvis (brown noddies, white terns, and brown boobies), 

high proportions (33–56 percent) of their diet originates from the surrounding coral reef 

ecosystem when compared to other areas where their diet has been studied (Ashmole and 

Ashmole 1967; Harrison et al. 1983; King 1970; Diamond 1978). Large numbers of blue 

noddies may also be taking advantage of cold productive upwelling currents near Jarvis to forage 

close to the nesting colony (Rauzon and Wegmann, 2004). 

Threatened and Endangered Species 

Species listed under the Endangered Species Act documented to use Jarvis include the threatened 

green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and endangered hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). 

Very little information is available on sea turtle populations at Jarvis. However, both species 

have been observed and photographed foraging in the shallow water near the island. 

Invasive Species 

Human activities at Jarvis Island have resulted in various non-native species being introduced 

including the house cat (Felis catus), the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), the House mouse (Mus 

musculus), various ant and cockroach species, and plants such as pandanus (Pandanus sp), 

coconut (Cocos nucifera), ilima (Sida fallax), and Indian mallow (Abutilon indicum). Cats 

introduced in 1937 were eliminated in 1990. The rats were documented as early as 1854 and in 

many accounts were described as extremely abundant. Sometime after 1938, they disappeared 

and have not been recorded since. House mice are abundant during wetter years. Of the plants 

introduced by humans, only Ilima and Indian mallow have persisted. 

Wilderness Resources 

Jarvis remains in a wilderness state in terms of its biota, seascape, and landscape except the 

Jarvis Light day beacon aid to navigation, some discarded batteries from the International 

Geophysical Year camp, excavations and pits left behind from the guano mining era, and a small 

section of the reef blasted for a boat passage during the guano mining era. Abandoned anchors 

and chain may occur near the western boat passage. However, the collective contribution of 

these detractions is minor compared to the otherwise overwhelming wilderness character of the 

island and surrounding reefs. Additional wilderness information and evaluation are covered in 

greater detail in Appendix F. 

Archaeology and Paleontology 

Environmental conditions at Jarvis are inhospitable to lengthy human occupation. A lack of a 

constant supply of fresh water is the primary limiting factor for habitation by humans. It is 

conceivable that early prehistoric people could have used Jarvis Island as a stopping, resting, or 

gathering place during their voyages across the Pacific Ocean, including capture of nesting sea 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-19 

turtles kept alive for extended food supply during long ocean voyages and the collection of 

seabirds. However, it is doubtful that voyagers would have willingly settled on this island. 

Landings in any vessel would have been difficult, although access gained by small canoe is 

possible. Due to Jarvis Island’s remoteness and lack of a sustainable freshwater supply, it is 

likely that Jarvis Island played a minimal role, if any, in the colonizing efforts of prehistoric 

people across the Pacific. Although evidence exists of Polynesian occupancy in the Phoenix and 

Line Islands, data specific to Jarvis is lacking (Emory. 1939, Brown, et al. 2002). 

No records were found of paleontological surveys, although paleontological resources could 

exist in the form of fossilized coral or algae and other invertebrates. The chances of prehistoric 

indigenous terrestrial mammals inhabiting Jarvis Island are non-existent due to the geological 

forces that formed the island, and its remoteness and dry climate. 

Recent Cultural History 

The occupation and use of Jarvis Island after post-European contact, approximately AD 1800, 

can be divided into four distinctive time periods or eras based upon alternating periods of 

occupation, use, and abandonment. The eras are categorized as whaling, guano mining, 

colonizing, and post military. 

Whaling era 1800-1850 

Use of the island by whaling ship crews is speculative. Lacking an adequate harbor or sheltered 

bay, landings on the island are difficult to this day. However, whaling vessels may have stopped 

at Jarvis Island to acquire birds, eggs, and turtles. 

Jarvis Island was initially discovered and named by Captain Brown for the owner of the vessel 

Eliza Francis when he mapped it in 1821. The island has also been called Bunker, Volunteer, 

Brook, and Brock. Captain Michael Baker of the ship Braganza landed in 1835 and documented 

the rich guano deposits leading to the island later being claimed in 1857 by Alfred Benson and 

Charles Judd for the American Guano Company as authorized by the Guano Act of 1856. 

Guano Mining Era: 1850-1891 

On February 5, 1857, Alfred G. Benson and Charles H. Judd on board the Hawaiian schooner 

Liholiho officially claimed the island under the “Guano Act” of 1856 for the American Guano 

Company (Bryan 1974). Guano mining on Jarvis Island was started in 1858 and continued 

except for a cessation during the Civil War until little quality guano remained in 1879. At the 

termination of the lease approximately 300,000 tons of guano had been removed making it one 

of the richest deposits in the Central Pacific Ocean (Hutchinson, 1950). Evidence of this era of 

exploitation still remains as large basins from mining excavations and mounds of low-grade 

guano mark the island landscape. 

In 1913 the barkentine Amaranth coming with a cargo of coal from New South Wales and 

heading for San Francisco hit the Southeast side of Jarvis Island. The Captain and crew took to 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-20 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

their boats and landed the next morning. The vessel broke up. The crew had salvaged 

provisions and water from the Amaranth and managed to reach Samoa in the two boats 3 weeks 

later. The Whippoorwill Expedition sponsored by Bishop Museum paid a scientific visit in 

1924. A memorial cairn and plaque commemorates the grounding and is still present on the 

island. 

Colonizing Era: 1935-1942 

The establishment of trans-Pacific air routes; territorial ownership disputes over several islands 

in the Pacific between the United States and the United Kingdom in the early 1900s; and the 

threat of a second world war led to colonizing efforts by the United States on several Pacific 

Islands including Jarvis Island. Colonizing efforts began in March 1935. Several military 

personnel and graduates of Kamehameha Schools, Hawaii established a colony on Jarvis Island 

(Brown et al. 2002). After initial establishment, the colonists were comprised of Kamehameha 

graduates and were supplied with enough food, water and other necessities to sustain them “for a 

period of from six weeks to several months” (Bryan 1974). Water and bulk food were supplied 

from Hawaii. During this colonizing era, at least 26 trips were made to Jarvis Island by various 

United States Coast Guard (USCG) cutters. During the colonizing era, Jarvis Island was visited 

frequently and was often the scene of busy activity.

Structures for water, food storage, radio equipment, and walls around the main settlement were 

constructed in part using lumber remaining from the wreck of the Amaranth. Attempts to grow 

trees, flowers, and vegetables were made, but the climate was unfavorable for cultivated crops. 

 

Jarvis Island was evacuated at the beginning of World War II and remained unoccupied during 

the remainder of the war. 

Post War Era: 1944 to present 

No attempt was made to re-colonize Jarvis Island after the war, although the Department of the 

Interior thought of doing so. In 1948, the U.S. decided that the claim to Jarvis Island could be 

effectively maintained by annual USCG visits. Thus, a USCG vessel apparently first visited the 

island after the war. USCG vessels that visited Howland Island included the Kettle, Basswood, 

Buttonwood, Kukui, the Planetree, Blackhaw and Ironwood. Most visits to Jarvis usually 

occurred in the first 4 months of the year with the ships’ crews completing repairs to the day 

beacon and taking photographs to establish their presence on the island. 

In March 1963, and for the following 2 years, Smithsonian Institution employees made a number 

of visits to Jarvis Island as part of the POBSP (Clapp, 1967). 

 

In recent years, sporadic visits have been made by Refuge Staff aboard USCG and NOAA 

vessels. The island and its territorial seas were transferred to the Service in 1974 from the 

Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs. This area is now managed as a unit of the 

National Wildlife Refuge System. Refuge staff members continue to participate in scientific 

expeditions, typically aboard NOAA vessels and occurring once every 2 years since 2000. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-21 

Socio-economics 

Historical Developments 

Since whaling days, Jarvis Island has been used for a variety of commercial enterprises. During 

the whaling era, Jarvis may have served as a gathering site for provisions by harvesting seabirds, 

sea turtles, and their eggs. Fishing for tuna and other species may also have occurred. The 

guano-mining era provided the world with a nutrient-rich fertilizer. Jarvis and other central 

Pacific islands were exploited for their rich guano deposits. 

After the guano-mining period, Jarvis Island was retained by the U.S. Government, to aid in 

transportation and commerce during the mid-1930s. A colony was established on Jarvis Island 

to assert U.S. possession by placing 4 to 5 men on Jarvis Island from 1935 to 1942 (Bryan 1974, 

Brown et al. 2002). After 1945, USCG vessels performed annual patrols to protect U.S. 

economic interests in the central Pacific. 

In 1974, Jarvis Island and its territorial sea was transferred to the Service as a unit of the System 

to preserve and restore ecosystem values, focusing on nesting seabird populations 

During the past decade, the government of Kiribati requested permission to allow their fishing 

fleets within Howland Island’s 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Department of 

the Interior relayed their concerns about this request to the appropriate offices of the Bureau of 

East Asian and Pacific Affairs in the Department of State. As a result, the Department of State 

informed the Government of Kiribati that the U.S. Government would decline that request. 

There are no current economic uses of Jarvis, and the island remains unpopulated. 

Land Use 

Jarvis Island has been uninhabited since the World War II era and will remain so except for 

occupation during periodic field camps. As such, the future “land use” for Jarvis Island will 

likely include designation of a preferred field campsite that will not conflict with important 

wildlife functions, habitat restoration, cultural sites, or wilderness values. Site planning will also 

identify corridors for small boat access, footpaths for regular island patrols, study sites, areas 

designated for solar power and potable water production generation, waste and trash disposal 

areas, work areas, and other needs. 

Public Access 

Jarvis Island NWR is closed to public access. There has never been, nor are there plans to 

formally open the refuge to recreational activities by publishing public notice in the Federal 

Register. However, limited public access at Jarvis has been authorized in the past. Refuge 

access is managed through the issuance of a SUP when the activity is deemed compatible and 

appropriate with the purposes of refuge establishment. 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

4-22 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 

Commercial Fishing 

Only one longline vessel attempted to catch fish in the Jarvis Island U.S. Exclusive Economic 

Zone (EEZs 0-200 nmi) between 1991 and 2000 (Hamm and Dowdell, 2008). The relative 

importance of the Hawaii-based longline fishing activity within the Jarvis Island U.S. Exclusive 

Economic Zone (EEZs 0-200 nmi) has declined annually since 2002; with 2007 Jarvis EEZ 

catches amounting to less than 1% of the fish caught within the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas EEZs 

(Hamm and Dowdell, 2008). There has been no longline or purse commercial fishing with the 

Jarvis National Wildlife Refuge boundary and very limited purse seine and longline fishing 

activity from 3–12 nmi between 1988 and 2007 (Hamm and Dowdell, 2008; NMFS SWFSC 

2008). Over the years, foreign commercial fishing vessels may have targeted uninhabited Jarvis 

and for unauthorized and illegal fishing because of the lack of on-site surveillance and 

enforcement capacity. The economic pressure to pursue this option would likely increase in the 

future as commercial fishing stocks in Asia and the Pacific become more heavily fished and 

depleted. Jarvis is habitat to many commercially valuable fishery species including sharks, 

lobsters, groupers, giant clams, tuna, wahoo, swordfish, deepwater snappers, bumphead 

parrotfish, humphead wrasses, various aquarium fish, pearl oysters, sea cucumbers, and other 

species. The no-take mandate and establishment of the refuge predated the applicability of the 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1996 as amended (16 USC 

1361 et seq.) to Jarvis. The deep slope area outside the refuge is likely too small to support 

commercial bottomfish harvest especially in light of the long commuting distances between 

Jarvis and the home ports of the fishing vessels. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

APPENDICES 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix A – Glossary A-1 

Appendix A 

Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 

ACHP. President’s Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. 

Alien species. Non-native species intentionally or accidentally introduced into habitats of the 

refuge. 

Atoll. A tropical reef formation with a lagoon, surrounding shallower perimeter reef, and at least 

one emergent reef islet. 

Baker. Refers to the Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge. 

CCP. Comprehensive Conservation Plan. 

CCP/EA. A document that combines a Comprehensive Conservation Plan and an 

Environmental Assessment. 

CFR. Code of Federal Regulations. A comprehensive directory of all Federal regulations. 

CITES. Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan. A document that describes the desired future conditions of 

the refuge, and provides long-range guidance and management direction for the refuge manager 

to accomplish the purposes of the refuge, contribute to the mission of the System, and to meet 

other relevant mandates (Service Manual 602 FW 1.5). 

CPWHP. Central Pacific World Heritage Project. 

CRED. The Coral Reef Ecosystem Division of NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science 

Center. 

DLNR. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. 

DMA. Defense Mapping Agency.

EEZ. Exclusive Economic Zone. 

EIS. Environmental Impact Statement. NEPA documentation that assesses the impacts of major 

Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment. 

Environmental Assessment. A concise public document, prepared in compliance with the 

National Environmental Policy Act, that briefly discusses the purpose and need for an action, 

alternatives to such action, and provides sufficient evidence and analysis of impacts to determine 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

A-2 Appendix A – Glossary 

whether to prepare an environmental impact statement or finding of no significant impact (40 

CFR 1508.9). 

ENSO. El Niño Southern Oscillation; a periodic ocean warming anomaly in the tropics. 

EUC. Equatorial Undercurrent; a subsurface ocean current flowing east at the Equator and 

sometimes called the Cromwell Current after its discoverer. 

Federal Register (FR). Official bulletin publicizing notices of Federal actions. 

FMPS. Fishery Management Plans for commercial fisheries in Federal waters. 

FONSI. Finding of No Significant Impact; an official federal agency notice and preliminary 

decision that its proposed action would not require preparation of an EIS. 

GIS. Geographic information system; a database integrating tabular and geographic data. 

GPS. Global Positioning System; satellite-based for accurate geographic/site positioning. 

Howland. Refers to the Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge. 

Hydrophone. Underwater microphone or listening device. 

Improvement Act. The National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 

amendment to the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966. 

Insular Area. The current generic term used to refer to a United States possession, territory, 

Territory, freely associated state, or commonwealth under United States sovereignty. 

Invasive Species. Either an alien or native species that spreads, or achieves dominance quickly, 

resulting in undesirable effects on native species and their habitats 

ITCZ. Inter-tropical Convergence Zone; approximately along 5o N Latitude where the northeast 

and southeast tradewinds collide, rise, and create a zone of heavy rainfall and low winds; also 

known as the doldrums. 

IUCN. International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 

Jarvis. Refers to the Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge. 

LEIS. Legislative Environmental Impact Statement. See EIS. 

MBTA. Migratory Bird Treaty Act. 

Mesoscale Eddy. A circular flow of water near an island or reef, roughly 10 to 100 nm in 

diameter caused by the wake of currents passing the reef or island. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix A – Glossary A-3 

μ L. Micro liter, or one-millionth of a liter. 

NEC. North Equatorial Current, west-flowing surface current between 5-30oN Latitude. 

NECC. North Equatorial Countercurrent; east-flowing surface current across the Pacific Ocean 

under the ITCZ and located at approximately 5° N latitude and shifting seasonally north and 

south with the ITCZ. 

NEPA. National Environmental Policy Act; establishes procedures requiring all Federal 

agencies to assess the environmental consequences of their actions. 

NMI. Nautical mile; the equivalent of 1.15 statute (land) mile. 

NMFS. The National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA. 

NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

NPS. National Park Service. 

NWR. National Wildlife Refuge. 

NWRS. National Wildlife Refuge System. 

Oligotrophic. Waters having low levels of the mineral nutrients required for photosynthesis. At 

Jarvis, this refers to the transparent zone of nutrient-poor surface waters bounded by a 

thermocline serving as a barrier against exchange with deeper nutrient-rich waters. 

Phenology. The study of periodic biological phenomena, such as breeding, flowering, and 

migrations, especially as related to climate. 

Preferred Alternative. This is the alternative determined [by the decision maker] to best 

achieve the refuge purpose(s), vision, and goals; contributes to the Refuge System mission, 

addresses the issues; and is consistent with principles of sound fish and wildlife management. 

Proposed Action. Preferred Alternative among several evaluated to comply with NEPA. 

Quadrat. A rigid frame used by ecologists to facilitate unit area estimates of the size and 

density of surface-dwelling plants and animals; a Photo-quadrat is a photograph of the area 

inside the quadrat to allow office data analysis after field staff visits. 

PIFSC. NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center. 

POBSP. Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program 

REA. Rapid ecological assessments. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

A-4 Appendix A – Glossary 

Reef Island. An isolated low tropical islet resting on a coral reef and consisting of reef rock and 

sand. 

RONS. Refuge Operating Needs System; Service program for NWR operating funds. 

ROV. Remotely operated vehicle; mobile un-manned device for collecting deep-sea data. 

SAMMS. Service Asset Maintenance Management System; Service program to provide funds 

to maintain refuge property. 

SEC. South Equatorial Current; westward-flowing ocean current driven by the southeast 

tradewinds between Latitudes 5o N and 30o S, and within which Jarvis is situated 

Secretary. The Secretary of the Interior. 

Service. Used alone in this report, it refers to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

SIPOBS. Smithsonian Institution Pacific Ocean Biological Survey. 

SUP. Special Use Permit; written Service approval and conditions for conducting an activity in 

a refuge. 

System. Used alone in this report, it refers to the National Wildlife Refuge System. 

Thermocline. In oceans, it is a depth zone of rapid density and temperature change serving as a 

barrier between mixing of shallow warmer surface and deeper subsurface waters. 

Transect. A linear scientific field survey sampling design or area to facilitate repeatability, 

standard units of measurement, and future site relocation and resurvey. 

UNESCO. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 

USCG. United States Coast Guard. 

U.S. Possession. Equivalent to U.S. territory. It is no longer current colloquial usage. 

U.S. Territory. An incorporated, sovereign and normally inhabited United States insular area in 

which the United States Congress has applied the full body of the United States Constitution. 

U.S. territory. A United States insular area, generally uninhabited in which the United States 

Congress has determined that only selected parts of the United States Constitution apply.

WESPAC. Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council. 

WSA. Wilderness Study Area. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix A – Glossary A-5 

World Heritage Property. A protected and inscribed natural and/or cultural site with 

“outstanding universal value” and meeting one or more of the eligibility criteria of the 

International Convention on World Heritage. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

A-6 Appendix A – Glossary 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-1 

Appendix B 

Species Lists 

Table B-1: Coral species and genera reported at Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge during 

surveys in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004 and 2006. Asterisks (*) identify soft corals (Order 

Alcyonaria), and two asterisks (**) identify Class Hydrozoa stony corals. All others are stony 

corals from the Order Scleractinia. (After Maragos unpublished) 

 

Scientific Name Scientific Name 

CLASS HYDROZOA AGARICIIDAE 

 Stylaster sp.** Pachyseris sp.

 Distichopora violacea** Leptoseris mycetoseroides 

MILLEPORIDAE Pavona maldivensis. 

 Millepora platyphylla Pavona explanulata 

POCILLOPORIDAE Pavona minuta 

 Pocillopora eydouxi Pavona varians 

 Pocillopora meandrina Pavona clavus 

 Pocillopora verrucosa FUNGIIDAE 

 Pocillopora brevicornis Fungia scutaria 

 Pocillopora zelli Fungia granulosa 

ACROPORIDAE MERULINIDAE 

 Montipora caliculata Hydnophora microconos 

 Montipora tuberculosa FAVIIDAE 

 Montipora aequituberculata Favites pentagona 

 Montipora efflorescens Goniastrea retiformis 

 Montipora informis Favia rotumana 

 Montipora monasteriata Favia matthaii 

 Montipora verrilli Favia stelligera 

 Acropora abrotanoides SIDERASTREIDAE 

 Acropora tutuilensis Psammocora nierstraszi 

 Acropora cytherea Psammocora cf. verrilli 

 Acropora nana Psammocora haimeana 

 Acropora spicifera Coscinaraea sp 

 Acropora subulata DENDROPHYIIDAE

 Acropora verweyi Cladopsammia sp. 

PORITIDAE Tubastraea coccinea

 Porites australiensis PECTINIIDAE 

 Porites lobata Echinophyllia aspera 

 Porites vaughani ORDER ALCYONARIA 

 Porites solida Lobophytum sp.* 

 Sinularia sp.*
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-2 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Table B-2: Fish species and genera reported at Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge, after 

unpublished records compiled by Bruce C. Mundy, Richard Wass, Edward DeMartini, Brian 

Greene, Brian Zgliczynski, and Robert E. Schroeder (2002). 

 

Scientific Name Common Name 

CARCHARHINIDAE Requiem Sharks 

 Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856) grey reef shark 

 Carcharhinus melanopterus 

 (Quoy &Gaimard, 1824) 

 reef black-tip shark 

 Carcharhinus albimarginatus 

 (Rüppell, 1837) 

 silvertip shark 

HEMIGALEIDAE Weasel Sharks, White-tip Reef Sharks 

 Triaenodon obesus (Rüppell, 1837) white-tip reef shark 

SPHYRNIDAE Hammerhead Sharks 

 Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) scalloped hammerhead shark 

 Sphyrna mokarran (Rüppell, 1837) great hammerhead shark 

 Sphyrna sp. unidentified Sphyrna species 

DASYATIDAE Sand Rays 

 Taeniura meyeni (Müller & Henle, 1841) giant sand ray 

MYLIOBATIDAE Eagle Rays 

 Manta sp. unidentified Manta species 

MURAENIDAE Moray Eels 

 Echidna nebulosa (Ahl, 1789) snowflake moray 

 Echidna sp. unidentified Echidna species 

 Enchelynassa canina 

 (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 

 viper moray 

 Enchelycore pardalis 

 (Temminck & Schlegel,1846)

 moray eel 

 Gymnomuraena zebra 

 (Shaw in Shaw & Nodder, 1797) 

 zebra moray 

 Gymnothorax breedini 

 (McCosker & Randall, 1977) 

 Breeden’s moray 

 Gymnothorax javanicus (Bleeker, 1859) giant moray 

 Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1830) yellow-margined moray 

 Gymnothorax meleagris 

 (Shaw in Shaw & Nodder, 1795)

 white-mouth moray 

 Gymnothorax monostigmus (Regan, 1909) one-spot moray 

 Gymnothorax picta (Ahl, 1789) peppered moray 

 Gymnothorax rueppelliae (McClelland, 1844) yellow-headed moray 

 Gymnothorax sp. unidentified Gymnothorax species 

 Uropterygius concolor (Rüppell, 1838) unicolor snake moray 

 Uropterygius xanthopterus (Bleeker, 1859) yellow-fin snake moray 

 Uropterygius sp. unidentified Uropterygius species 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-3 

Scientific Name Common Name 

SYNODONTIDAE Lizardfishes 

 Synodus sp. unidentified Synodus species 

HOLOCENTRIDAE Squirrelfishes and Soldierfishes 

 Myripristis berndti 

 (Jordan & Evermann, 1903) 

 bigscale soldierfish 

 Myripristis murdjan (Forsskål, 1775) soldierfish 

 Sargocentron caudimaculatum 

 (Rüppell, 1838) 

 tailspot squirrelfish 

 Sargocentron spiniferum (Forsskål, 1775) long-jawed squirrelfish 

 Sargocentrum tiere 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) 

 blue-lined squirrelfish 

SCORPAENIDAE Scorpionfishes 

 Scorpaenidae sp. unidentified Scorpaenidae species 

 (recorded by James Maragos) 

 Dendrochirus biocellatus (Fowler, 1938) oscillated lionfish 

 Scorpaenopsis sp. unidentified Scorpaenopsis species 

 [perhaps S. papuensis 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829)] 

 Scorpaenopsis diabolis (Cuvier, 1829) devil scorpionfish 

 Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Bleeker, 1856) yellow-spotted scorpionfish 

 Sebastapistes mauritiana 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes1829) 

 Mauritius scorpionfish 

CARACANTHIDAE Orbicular Velvetfishes 

 Caracanthus maculates (Gray, 1831) spotted coral croucher 

SERRANIDAE Sea Basses, Fairy Basslets & Groupers 

 Cephalopholis argus 

 (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 peacock grouper 

 Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacepède, 1801) leopard grouper 

 Cephalopholis miniatatus (Forsskål, 1775) coral grouper 

 Cephalopholis urodeta 

 (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 flagtail grouper 

 Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskål, 1775) black-tipped grouper 

 Epinephelus hexagonatus 

 (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 hexagon grouper 

 Epinephelus howlandi (Günther, 1873) Howland Island grouper 

 Epinephelus macrospilos (Bleeker, 1855) black-spotted grouper 

 Epinephelus melanostigmus 

 (Schultz in Schultz et al., 1953) 

 blackspot honeycomb grouper 

 Epinephelus merra (Bloch, 1793) honeycomb grouper 

 Epinephelus retouti (Bleeker, 1868) grouper 

 Epinephelus socialis (Günther, 1873) tidepool grouper 

 Epinephelus spilotoceps four-saddle grouper 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-4 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 (Schultz in Schultz et al., 1953) 

 Epinephelus tauvina (Forsskal, 1775) greasy grouper 

 Gracila albomarginata 

 (Fowler & Bean, 1930) 

 white-margined grouper 

 Luzonichthys whitleyi (Smith, 1955) Whitley’s slender basslet 

 Pogonoperca punctata (Valenciennes in

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830) 

 spotted soapfish 

 Pseudanthias bartlettorum 

 (Randall & Lubbock, 1981) 

 Bartlett’s fairy basslet 

 Pseudanthias bartlettorum var. “red spot” 

 (Randall & Lubbock, 1981) 

 Bartlett’s “red spot” basslet 

 Pseudanthias olivaceus 

 (Randall & McCosker, 1982) 

 fairy basslet 

 Pseudantias sp. unknown Pseudantias sp. 

 Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) lyretail grouper 

PSEUDOCHROMIDAE Dottybacks 

 Pseudochromidae sp. unidentified Pseudochromidae species 

BELONIDAE Needlefishes 

 Tylosurus crocodilus 

 (Peron & Lesueur in Lesueur, 1821) 

 crocodile needlefish 

EXOCOETIDAE Flying Fish 

 Cheilopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) flying fish 

 Hirundichthys sp. unidentified Hirundichthys species 

HEMIRAMPHIDAE Halfbeaks 

 Hyporamphus acutus acutus (Günther, 1871) Pacific halfbeak 

APOGONIDAE Cardinalfishes 

 Apogon angustatus 

 (Smith & Radcliffe in Radcliffe, 1911) 

 broad-striped cardinalfish 

 Apogon apogonides (Bleeker, 1856) cardinalfish 

 Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier &Valenciennes, 1828) 

 five-lined cardinalfish 

 Apogon susanae (Greenfield, 2001) cardinalfish 

 Apogon taeniophorus (Regan, 1908) cardinalfish 

CARANGIDAE Jacks and Trevallys 

 Alectis ciliaris (Bloch, 1787) threadfin pompano 

 Carangoides ferdau (Forsskal, 1775) bar jack 

 Carangoides orthogrammus 

 (Jordan & Gilbert 1882) 

 yellow-spotted trevally 

 Caranx ignobilis (Forsskål, 1775) giant trevally 

 Caranx lugubris (Poey, 1860) black jack 

 Carnax melampygus 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1833) 

 bluefin trevally 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-5 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) bigeye trevally 

 Elegatis bipinnulata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) rainbow runner 

 Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758) jack 

 Scomberoides lysan (Forsskal, 1775) leatherback 

LUTJANIDAE Snappers 

 Aphareus furca (Lacepede, 1801) blue small-tooth jobfish 

 Lutjanus bohar (Forsskal, 1775) twinspot snapper, redspot snapper 

 Lutjanus fulvus 

 (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 flametail snapper 

 Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskal, 1775) humpback snapper 

 Lutjanus kasmira (Forsskal, 1775) blue-lined snapper 

 Lutjanus monostigma 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828) 

 one-spot snapper 

CAESIONIDAE Fusiliers 

 Caesio teres (Seale, 1906) yellow-back fusilier 

LETHRINIDAE Emperors 

 Gnathodentex aureolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) yellowspot emperor 

 Lethrinus olivaceus (Valenciennes in Cuvier 

 & Valenciennes, 1830) 

 olive emperor 

 Monotaxis grandoculis (Forsskal, 1775) bigeye emperor 

MULLIDAE Goatfishes 

 Mulloides mimicus (Randall & Gueze, 1980) mimic goatfish 

 Parupeneus bifasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) two-barred goatfish 

 Parupeneus cyclostomus (Lacepede, 1801) yellowsaddle goatfish 

 Parupeneus trifasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) three-barred goatfish 

PEMPHERIDAE Sweepers 

 Pempheris oualensis 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1831) 

 bronze sweeper 

KYPHOSIDAE Rudderfishes & Sea Chubs 

 Kyphosus cinerascens (Forsskal, 1775) highfin rudderfish, snubnose rudderfish 

 Kyphosus vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) lowfin rudderfish, brassy chub 

 Kyphosus sp. unidentified Kyphosus species 

CHAETODONTIDAE Butterflyfishes 

 Chaetodon auriga (Forsskal, 1775) threadfin butterflyfish 

 Chaetodon lineolatus (Cuvier (ex Quoy & 

 Gaimard) in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1831) 

 lined butterflyfish 

 Chaetodon lunula (Lacepede, 1802) racoon butterflyfish 

 Chaetodon meyeri (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Meyer’s butterflyfish 

 Chaedodon ornatissimus (Cuvier (ex 

 Solander) in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1831) 

 ornate butterflyfish 

 Chaetodon quadrimaculatus (Gray, 1831) fourspot butterflyfish 

 Chaetodon unimaculatus (Bloch, 1787) teardrop butterflyfish 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-6 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Forcipiger flavissimus (Jordan & McGregor 

 in Jordan & Evermann, 1898) 

 long-nosed butterflyfish 

 Hemitaurichthys thompsoni (Fowler, 1923) Thompson’s butterflyfish 

POMACANTHIDAE Angelfishes 

 Apolemichthys griffisi 

 (Carlson & Taylor, 1981) 

 Griffith’s angelfish 

 Apolemichthys xanthopunctatus 

 (Burgess, 1973) 

 golden-spotted angelfish 

 Centropyge flavissima 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1831) 

 lemon-peel angelfish 

 Centropyge loricula (Günther, 1874) flame angelfish 

 Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch, 1787) emporer angelfish 

POMACENTRIDAE Damselfishes 

 Abudefduf septemfasciatus 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830) 

 banded sergeant 

 Abudefduf sordidus (Forsskal, 1775) black-spot sergeant 

 Chromis acares (Randall & Swerdloff, 1973) midget chromis 

 Chromis agilis (Smith, 1960) bronze reef chromis 

 Chromis margaritifer (Fowler, 1946) bicolor chromis 

 Chromis vanderbilti (Fowler, 1941) Vanderbilt’s chromis 

 Chromis xanthura (Bleeker, 1854) black chromis 

 Chrysiptera cyanea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) blue devil 

 Chrysiptera glauca 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830) 

 gray demoiselle 

 Lepidozygus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1856) fusilier damsel 

 Plectroglyphidodon dickii (Lienard, 1839) Dick’s damsel 

 Plectroglyphidodon imparipennis 

 (Vaillant & Sauvage, 1875) 

 bright-eye damsel 

 Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus 

 (Fowler & Ball, 1924) 

 Johnston Island damsel 

 Plectroglyphid. phoenixensis (Schultz, 1943) Phoenix Islands damsel 

 Pomacentrus bankanensis (Bleeker, 1853) speckled damsel 

 Pomacentrus coelestis (Jordan & Starks 1901) neon damsel 

 Stegastes sp. or Pomacentrus sp. unidentified damselfish (brown head and 

 anterior body, pale caudal area) 

 Stegastes sp. unidentified Stegastes species, gregory 

 Stegastes aureus (Fowler, 1927) golden gregory 

 Stegastes fasciolatus (Ogilby, 1889) Pacific gregory 

 Stegastes nigricans (Lacepede, 1802) dusky farmfish 

KUHLIIDAE Flagtails 

 Kuhlia petiti (Schultz, 1943) flagtail 

 Kuhlia sandvicensis (Steindachner, 1876) Hawaiian flagtail 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-7 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Kuhlia sp. unidentified Kuhlia species 

CIRRHITIDAE Hawkfishes 

 Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) pixy hawkfish 

 Neocirrhites armatus (Castelnau, 1873) flame hawkfish 

 Paracirrhites arcatus 

 (Cuvier in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) 

 arc-eye hawkfish 

 Paracirrhites forsteri 

 (Schneider in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 freckled hawkfish, blackside hawkfish 

 Paracirrhites hemistictus (Günther, 1874) whitespot hawkfish 

 Paracirrhites xanthus (Randall, 1963) yellow hawkfish 

SPHYRAENIDAE Barracudas 

 Sphyraena sp. unidentified Sphyraena species 

 Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792) great barracuda 

 Sphyraena qenie (Klunziger, 1870) blackfin barracuda 

LABRIDAE Wrasses 

 Anampses caeruleopunctatus (Rüppell, 1829) blue-spotted wrasse 

 Anampses melanurus (Bleeker, 1857) wrasse 

 Anampses meleagrides (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) 

 yellowtail wrasse 

 Bodianus axillaries (Bennett, 1832) axilspot hogfish 

 Bodianus loxozonus (Snyder, 1908) blackfin hogfish 

 Bodianus prognathus (Lobel, 1981) hogfish 

 Cheilinus trilobatus (Lacepede, 1801) tripletail wrasse 

 Cheilinus undulatus (Rüppell, 1835) humphead wrasse, Napoleonfish, 

 Napoleon wrasse 

 Cirrhilabrus exquisitus (Smith, 1957) exquisite wrasse 

 Coris aygula (Lacepede, 1801) clown coris 

 Coris centralis (Randall, 1999) coris 

 Coris gaimard (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) yellowtail coris 

 Epibulus insidiator (Pallas, 1770) slingjaw wrasse 

 Gomphosus varius (Lacepede, 1801) bird wrasse 

 Halichoeres hortulanus (Lacepede, 1801) checkerboard wrasse 

 Halichoeres melasmopomus (Randall, 1981) black-ear wrasse 

 Halichoeres ornatissinus (Garrett, 1863) ornate wrasse fish 

 Halichoeres pallidus (Kuiter & Randall 1995) wrasse 

 Halichoeres trimaculatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 

 1834) 

 three-spot wrasse 

 Hemigymnus fasciatus (Bloch, 1792) barred thicklip wrasse 

 Hologymnosus annulatus (Lacepede, 1801) ring wrasse 

 Labroides bicolor (Fowler & Bean, 1928) bicolor cleaner wrasse 

 Labroides dimidiatus (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1839) 

 bluestreak cleaner wrasse 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-8 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Labroides rubrolabiatus (Randall, 1958) cleaner wrasse 

 Labropsis xanthonota (Randall, 1981) wedge-tailed wrasse 

 Macropharyngodon meleagris (Valenciennes 

 in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1839) 

 leopard wrasse 

 Oxycheilinus unifasciatus (Streets, 1877) wrasse 

 Pseudocheilinus hexataenia (Bleeker, 1857) sixline wrasse 

 Pseudocheilinus octotaenia (Jenkins, 1901) eightline wrasse 

 Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia (Schultz in 

 Schultz et al., 1960) 

 fourline wrasse 

 Pseudocoris heteroptera (Bleeker, 1857) wrasse 

 Pseudodax mollucanus (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) 

 Wrasse 

 Pseudojuloides cerasinus (Snyder, 1904) smalltail wrasse 

 Stethojulis bandanensis (Bleeker, 1851) redshoulder wrasse 

 Thalassoma amblycephalum (Bleeker, 1856) twotone wrasse 

 Thalassoma lutescens (Lay & Bennett (ex 

 Solander), 1839) 

 sunset wrasse 

 Thalassoma purpureum (Forsskal, 1775) surge wrasse 

 Thalassoma quinquevittatum (Lay & Bennett, 

 1839) 

 fivestripe surge wrasse 

 Thalassoma trilobatum (Lacepede, 1801) Christmas wrasse 

SCARIDAE Parrotfishes 

 Bolbometopon muricatum (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) 

 humphead parrotfish, bumphead 

 parrotfish 

 Calatomus carolinus (Valenciennes, 1840) bucktooth parrotfish, stareye parrotfish 

 Chlorurus frontalis (Valenciennes in Cuvier 

 & Valenciennes, 1840) 

 tan-faced parrotfish 

 Chlorurus microrhinus (Bleeker, 1854) parrotfish 

 Chlorurus sordidus (Forsskal, 1775) bullethead parrotfish 

 Scarus altipinnis (Steindachner, 1879) filament-finned parrotfish 

 Scarus frenatus (Lacepede, 1802) vermiculate parrotfish 

 Scarus ghobban (Forsskal, 1775) blue-barred parrotfish 

 Scarus globiceps (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1840) 

 roundhead parrotfish 

 Scarus oviceps (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1840) 

 dark-capped parrotfish 

 Scarus rubroviolaceus (Bleeker, 1847) red and violet parrotfish, redlip parrotfish 

 Scarus tricolor (Bleeker, 1847) tricolor parrotfish 

CREEDIIDAE Sand Burrowers 

 Crystallodytes cookei enderburyensis 

 (Schultz, 1943) 

 sand burrower 

TRIPTERYGIIDAE Triplefins 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-9 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Enneapterygius nigricada (Fricke, 1997) triplefin 

BLENNIIDAE Blennies 

 Blenniidae sp. unidentified blenny species 

 Aspidontus taeniatus (Quoy & Gaimard 1834) cleaner mimic 

 Blenniella gibbifrons 

 (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 

 blenny 

 Blenniella paula (Bryan & Herre, 1903) blenny 

 Cirripectes quagga (Fowler & Ball, 1924) squiggly blenny 

 Cirripectes variolosus (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) 

 red-speckled blenny 

 Cirripectes sp. Unidentified Cirripectes species 

 Ecsenius midas (Starck, 1969) blenny 

 Entomacrodus cymatobiotus (Schultz & 

 Chapman, 1960) 

 blenny 

 Entomacrodus sealei (Bryan & Herre, 1903) Seale’s rockskipper 

 Entomacrodus striatus (Quoy & Gaimard 

 1836) 

 pearly rockskipper 

 Entomacrodus thalassinus thalassinus 

 (Jordan & Seale, 1906) 

 reef margin blenny 

 Istiblennius edentulous (Schneider in Bloch & 

 Schneider, 1801) 

 rippled rockskipper 

 Plagiotremus rhynorhynchus (Bleeker, 1852) blue-striped blenny 

 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1857) piano blenny, scale-eating blenny 

 Rhabdoblennius sp. unidentified Rhabdoblennius species 

CALLIONYMIDAE Dragonets 

 Callionymidae sp. unidentified dragonet species (probably 

 Synchiropus sp.) 

GOBIIDAE Gobies 

 Gobiidae sp. unidentified goby species (reported 2001) 

 Amblygobius phalaena (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) 

 brown-barred goby 

 Eviota zonura (Jordan & Seale, 1906) zoned pygmy goby 

 Priolepis squamogena 

 (Winterbottom & Burridge, 1989) 

 goby 

 Valenciennea strigata (Broussonet, 1782) blue-streak goby 

ACANTHURIDAE Surgeonfishes & Unicornfishes 

 Acanthurus achilles (Shaw, 1803) Achilles tang 

 Acanthurus blochii (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1835) 

 ringtail surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus guttatus 

 (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 spotted surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus leucochilus (Herre, 1927) pale-lipped surgeonfish 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-10 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Acanthurus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) blue-banded surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus mata (Cuvier, 1829) elongate surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus nigricans (Linnaeus, 1758) whitecheek surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus nigricauda (Duncker & Mohr 

 1929)

 epaulette surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forsskal, 1775) brown surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus nigroris (Valenciennes in Cuvier 

 & Valenciennes 1835) 

 blue-lined surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus olivaceus 

 (Bloch & Schneider (ex Forster), 1801) 

 orangeband surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus rackliffei 

 (A. achilles x A. nigricans)(Schultz, 1943) 

 hybrid surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus, 1758) convict tang 

 Acanthurus thompsoni (Fowler, 1923) Thompson’s surgeonfish 

 Acanthurus xanthopterus (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1835) 

 yellow-finned surgeonfish 

 Ctenochaetus sp. unidentified Ctenochaetus species 

 Ctenochaetus cyanocheilus (Randall & 

 Clements, 2001) 

 Surgeonfish 

 Ctenochaetus flavicaudis (Fowler, 1938) surgeonfish 

 Ctenochaetus hawaiiensis (Randall, 1955) chevron tang, black surgeonfish 

 Ctenochaetus marginatus (Valenciennes in 

 Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1835) 

 blue-spotted bristletooth 

 Ctenochaetus striatus (Quoy & Gaimard 

 1825) 

 striped bristletooth 

 Naso brevirostris (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1835) 

 spotted unicornfish 

 Naso hexacanthus (Bleeker, 1855) black-tongue unicornfish, sleek 

 unicornfish 

 Naso lituratus (Forster in Bloch & Schneider, 

 1801) 

 liturate surgeonfish 

 Naso vlamingii (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1835) 

 bignose unicornfish 

 Zebrasoma rostratum (Günther, 1873) tang 

 Zebrasoma scopas (Cuvier, 1829) brown tang 

EPHIPPIDAE Batfishes 

 Platax sp. unidentified Platax species 

 Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) longfin spadefish 

ZANCLIDAE Moorish Idol 

 Zanclus cornutus (Linnaeus, 1758) moorish idol 

SCOMBRIDAE Tunas 

 Euthynnus affinis (Cantor, 1849) kawakawa, bonito 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-11 

Scientific Name Common Name 

 Gymnosarda unicolor (Rüppell, 1836) dogtooth tuna 

NOMEIDAE Driftfishes, Man-of-war Fishes, and 

Shepherdfishes 

 Nomeidae sp. unidentified Nomeidae species 

 Psenes cyanophrys (Valenciennes in Cuvier & 

 Valenciennes, 1833) 

 freckled driftfish 

BOTHIDAE Left-hand Flounders 

 Bothus mancus (Broussonet, 1782) peacock flounder 

BALISTIDAE Triggerfishes 

 Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) orangestriped triggerfish 

 Balistoides viridescens (Bloch & Schneider 

 1801) 

 mustache triggerfish, titan triggerfish 

 Melichtys niger (Bloch, 1786) black triggerfish 

 Melichtys vidua (Richardson (ex Solander) 

 1845) 

 pinktail triggerfish 

 Odonus niger (Rüppell, 1836) redtooth triggerfish 

 Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Rüppell1829) yellowmargin triggerfish 

 Rhinecanthus rectangulus 

 (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 wedge picassofish, humunukunukuapua‘a 

 Sufflamen bursa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) scythe triggerfish, boomerang triggerfish 

 Sufflamen chrysopterus 

 (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 

 halfmoon triggerfish 

 Xanthichthys caeruleolineatus 

 (Randall, Matsuura, & Zama, 1978) 

 bluelined triggerfish 

MONACANTHIDAE Filefishes & Leatherjackets 

 Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck 1765) scribbled filefish 

 Amanses scopas (Cuvier, 1829) broom filefish 

 Cantherhines dumerilii (Hollard, 1854) barred filefish 

 Cantherhines pardalis (Rüppell, 1837) wire-net filefish 

 Pervagor marginalis (Hutchins, 1986) blackbar filefish 

OSTRACIIDAE Trunkfishes 

 Ostracion meleagris meleagris 

 (Shaw in Shaw & Nodder, 1796) 

 spotted trunkfish 

TETRAODONTIDAE Puffers 

 Arothron meleagris 

 (Lacepède (ex Commerson), 1798) 

 guineafowl puffer 

 Canthigaster amboinensis (Bleeker, 1865) Ambon sharpnose puffer 

 Canthigaster janthinoptera (Bleeker, 1855) puffer 

 Canthigaster solandri 

 (Richardson (ex Solander), 1845) 

 spotted sharpnose puffer 

DIODONTIDAE Porcupinefishes 

 Diodon hystrix (Linnaeus, 1758) porcupinefish 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-12 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Table B-3. Plant species of Jarvis Island NWR. Compiled from unpublished USFWS trip 

reports. 

Scientific Name Common Name, 

(Hawaiian Name) 

Source* Observed in 2004 

Cocos nucifera coconut, (niu) I no 

Pandanus sp. Pandanus, (hala) I no 

Eragristus whitneyi native lovegrass N yes 

Lepturus repens Pacific Island thintail, 

wiry bunchgrass 

N yes 

Fimbristylis cymosa buttonsedge N no 

Boerhavia tetranda (alena) N yes 

Portulaca lutea Portulaca, (‘ihi) N yes 

 Sesuvium portulacastrum sea purslane N yes 

Tribulus cistoides puncturevine, (nohu) N yes 

Abutilon indicum Indian mallow A yes 

Sida fallax (‘ilima) A yes 

*Source: N = native, I = introduced, A = accidentally introduced 

 

Note: Various cultivated crop plants including cabbage, onion, radish, celery, peanut, lettuce, 

zinnia, phlox, marigold, white bean, avocado, plum and date plum were planted during 

occupation periods. None of these plants were observed in 2004. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix B – Species Lists B-13 

Table B-4. Birds of Jarvis Island NWR. Numbers are counts of adult birds only and 

compiled from unpublished USFWS trip reports. Note: No bird species found on Jarvis are 

listed according to the Endangered Species Act. 

Scientific 

Name 

Common 

Name 

Highest 

count 

since 1973

Birds of 

Conservation 

Concern 

Statusb

National 

Shorebird 

Prioritization 

Categorya

Regional 

Seabird 

Conservation 

Categoryc

Nesofregetta 

fuliginosa 

Polynesian 

storm-petrel 

3 BCC 68 Highly Imperiled 

Puffinus 

nativitatis 

Christmas 

Shearwater* 

20 BCC 68 High Concern 

Puffinus 

lhermineri 

Audubon’s 

Shearwater* 

20 High Concern 

Puffinus 

pacificus 

wedgetailed 

shearwater* 

41 Low 

Phaethon 

rubricauda 

red-tailed 

tropicbird* 

2,500 Moderate 

Sula 

dactylatra

masked 

booby* 

7,000 Moderate 

Sula 

leucogaster 

brown 

booby* 

2,000 Moderate 

Sula sula red-footed 

booby* 

1,000 Currently not at 

Risk 

Fregata 

minor 

great 

frigatebird* 

2,400 Moderate 

Fregata 

ariel 

lesser 

frigatebird* 

4,000 BCC 68 High Concern 

Onychoprion 

lunatus 

gray-backed 

tern* 

1,100 Moderate 

Onychoprion 

fuscatus 

sooty tern* 1,000,000+ Moderate 

Anous 

stolidus 

brown 

noddy* 

10,000 Currently not at 

Risk 

Procelsterna 

cerulea 

blue noddy* 650 BCC 68 High Concern 

Gygis 

alba 

white tern* 11 Moderate 

Pluvialis 

fulva 

Pacific 

goldenplover 

117 BCC 68 High Concern 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

B-14 Appendix B – Species Lists 

Scientific 

Name 

Common 

Name 

Highest 

count 

since 1973 

Birds of 

Conservation 

Concern 

Statusb

National 

Shorebird 

Prioritization 

Categorya

Regional 

Seabird 

Conservation 

Categoryc

Numenius 

tahitiensis 

bristlethighed 

curlew 

51 BCC 68 High Concern 

Arenaria 

interpres 

ruddy 

turnstone 

20 High Concern 

Calidris 

alba 

sanderling 2 High Concern 

Anas acuta northern 

pintail 

1 

*indicates documented breeding species on Jarvis 

a

Species prioritization categories according to United States Shorebird Conservation Plan 

(Brown et al. 2000) 

b

Birds of Conservation Concern status according to Birds of Conservation Concern 2002 (U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service 2002). 

c

Conservation classification according to Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region (Englis and 

Naughton 2004) 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

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Porter, V., T. Leberer, M. Gawel, J. Gutierrez, D. Burdick, V. Torres, and E. Lujan. 2005. The 

state of coral reef ecosystems of Guam. Pages.442- 487 in The state of coral reef ecosystems of 

the United States and Pacific freely associated states: 2005. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA). 

Prasad, U.K. and H.I. Manner. 1994. Climate change and sea level rise issues in Guam. Report 

on a preliminary mission. Apia, Western Samoa: South Pacific Regional Environmental 

Programme. SPREP Reports and Studies Series No. 82. 

Rauzon, M. J. 1990. Expedition Report: Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge. Administrative 

Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu, HI. 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix C – References C-7 

Rauzon, M.J. and A.S. Wegmann. 2004. Expedition to the Line Islands. Jarvis Island, Palmyra 

Atoll, Kingman Reef terrestrial surveys. Administrative Report. U.S. Fish and Wildife Service, 

Honolulu, HI. 

Rauzon, M.J. and D.H. Woodside. 1998. Howland Island Trip Report26 4-9 March 1998. 

Administrative Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Honolulu, HI. 

Royal Society. 2005. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon 

dioxide. The Royal Society, London, UK. 

Shea, E.L., G. Dolcemascolo, C.L. Anderson, A. Barnston, C.P. Guard, M.P. Hamnett, S.T. 

Kubota, N. Lewis, J. Loschnigg, and G. Meehl. 2001. Preparing for a Changing Climate: The 

potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. Published Report, East-West Center, 

Honolulu, HI. 100 pp. 

Shun, Kanalei. 1987. Archaeological Reconnaissance Site Survey and Limited Subsurface of 

Baker and Howland Islands Final Report: Prepared for U.S. Army Engineer, District, Honolulu 

Corps of Engineers, Fort Shafter, HI. 

Shea, E.L., G. Dolcemascolo, C.L. Anderson, A. Barnston, C.P. Guard, M.P. Hamnett, S.T. 

Kubota, N. Lewis, J. Loschnigg, and G. Meehl. 2001. Preparing for a Changing Climate: The 

potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. Published Report. East-West Center, 

Honolulu, HI. 100 pp. 

Sibley, F.C., R.B. Clapp, and C.R. Long. 1965. Biological Survey of Howland Island, March 

1963-May 1965. Unpublished Report of Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, Division of 

Birds Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. 

Skaggs, J.M. 1994. The Great Guano Rush. Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion. 

St. Martin’s Griffin, New York, NY. 

Smith, S.V. and R.M. Buddemeier. 1992. Global Change and Coral Reef Ecosystems. Annual 

Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:89-118. 

Starbuck, A. 1878. History of the American whale fishery from its earliest inception to the year 

1876. In Report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1875-1876. Washington, 

Government Printing Office. Pp. 1-779. 

Townsend, C.H. 1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records of 

American whaleships. Zoolologica 19:3-50. 

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2003. Central Pacific World Heritage Project International 

Workshop Report, 2-6 June 2003, Honolulu, HI. Paris, France. 44pp. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

C-8 Appendix C – References 

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2004. Central Pacific World Heritage Project, National 

Workshop Report, 5-11 October 2004, Kiritimati Island, the Republic of Kiribati. Paris, France. 

11pp. 

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC). 1963. Reconnaissance Survey Report. Howland, 

Baker & Canton Islands. October, 1963. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Nevada Operations 

Office. Prepared by: Holmes & Narver Inc. Logistics Planning Group. Las Vegas, NV. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1973. Baker Island, Howland Island, and Jarvis Island National 

Wildlife Refuges, Biological Ascertainment Reports. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1975. Baker Island, Howland Island, and Jarvis Island National 

Wildlife Refuges, Narrative Report, FY 1975. Kailua, HI 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1981. Refuge Manual. Wash., D.C. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1998a. Coral Reef Initiative in the Pacific: Howland Island, 

Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges. Honolulu, HI. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1998b. Remote islands ecosystem plan: Howland Island, Baker 

Island, and Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuges. Honolulu, HI. 16 pp. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000. Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

Complex Special Conditions & Rules for Moving Between Islands and Atolls and Packing for 

Field Camps, Honolulu, HI. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Environmental Assessment: Proposed Palmyra Atoll 

National Wildlife Refuge, Line Islands, Central Pacific Ocean, Portland, OR. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2002. Birds of Conservation Concern. Arlington, VA. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Regional Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Birds and Habitat Programs, Pacific Region, Portland, 

OR. 

Vitousek, P.M. 1994. Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology 75:1861-

1876. 

Vitousek, M.J., Kilonsky, B. and W.G. Leslie. 1980. Meteorological Observations in the Line 

Islands, 1972-1980, Honolulu, HI. 74 pp. 

Walther G.R., E. Post, P. Convey P, A. Menzel, C. Parmesank, T.J.C. Beebee, J. Fromentin, O. 

Hoegh-GuldbergI, and F. Bairlein. 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 

416: 389–395. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix D – Planning Team Members D-1 

Appendix D 

Planning Team Members 

The following individuals were instrumental in the development of this CCP. 

Name Position Degree(s) 

Years of 

Exp. 

Charles Pelizza* Planning Team Leader BA, Enviro. Science 

MS, Biology 

26 

Don Palawski* Refuge Manager BS, Fisheries Biology 

MS, Entomology 

31 

Bob Dieli* Outdoor Recreation Planner BS, Environmental 

Education 

29 

Barbara Maxfield External Affairs Chief BA, Business 

Admin/Marketing 

27 

Barry Stieglitz Project Leader BS, Forestry and Wildlife 

MPA, Public Admin. 

18 

Michael Molina Environmental Review Coor. BS, Biology 

MS, Marine Biology 

30 

Beth Flint* Wildlife Biologist BS, Wildlife Biology 

PhD, Biology 

21 

LeeAnn 

Woodward* 

Contaminant Biologist BS, Biology 

MS, Ecology 

PhD, Ecology 

30 

Jim Maragos* Coral Reef Biologist BA, Zoology, 

PhD, Oceanography 

38 

* indicates planning team member 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

D-2 Appendix D – Planning Team Members 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix E – Quarantine Protocol E-1 

Appendix E 

Quarantine Protocol 

The following protocol was developed to maintain consistency in quarantine procedures for all 

NWRs in the Pacific. Thus, these provisions apply to all of the remote island national wildlife 

refuges. Some refuges, including Howland, may have additional restrictions and requirements.

Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex 

Special Conditions and Rules for 

Moving Between Islands and Atolls and 

Packing for Field Camps 

The islands and atolls of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex are 

special places providing habitat for many rare, endemic plants and animals. Many of these 

species are formally listed as federally Threatened or Endangered under the Endangered Species 

Act of 1973. Endemic plants and insects, and the predators they support, are especially 

vulnerable to the introduction of competing or consuming, non-native species. Such 

introductions may cause the extinction of island endemics, or even the destruction of entire 

island ecological communities. Notable local examples include: the introduction of rabbits to 

Laysan Island in 1902 which caused the extinction of numerous plant and insect species and 3 

endemic landbird species; the introduction of rats to many Pacific Islands causing the elimination 

of many burrowing seabird colonies; the introduction of the annual grass, sandbur, to Laysan 

Island where it has out competed native bunch grass and eliminated nesting habitat for the 

Endangered Laysan finch; and the introduction and proliferation of numerous ant species 

throughout the Pacific Islands to the widespread detriment of endemic plant and insect species 

(refuge files). 

Several of the islands within the Refuge Complex are especially pristine, and, as a result, are 

diverse in terms of rare and special declining native plants and animals. Nihoa Island has 13 

potential candidate Endangered insect species, numerous Endangered plants, and 2 Endangered 

birds. Necker Island has Endangered plants and 7 endemic insects that are candidates for the 

Endangered Species List. Laysan Island has endangered plants, five potential candidate 

endangered insect species and the Endangered Laysan finch and Laysan duck. Other islands in 

the Refuge Complex such as Lisianski, Howland, Baker, and Jarvis and islets in Atolls such as 

Rose, Pearl and Hermes Reef and French Frigate Shoals are inhabited by a variety of endemic 

and/or endangered species and require special protection from invasive species. 

Other Pacific Island such as Kure and the “high islands” (Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, Kauai, etc.) as 

well as, certain islands within Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Reef and French Frigate Shoals 

have native plants and/or animals that are at high risk from introduction to the relatively pristine 

islands discussed above. Of special concerns are introductions of non-native snakes, rats, ants 

and a variety of other insect and plant species. Invasive plants of highest concern are Verbesina 

encelioides, Cenchrus echinatus, and Setaria verticillata.
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

E-2 Appendix E – Quarantine Protocol 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for the management and protection of the fish, 

wildlife, plants, and their habitats associated with islands of the Pacific Remote Islands NWR 

Complex. No one is permitted to access any of the Refuge's islands without the express written 

permission of the Refuge Manager in the form of a Special Use Permit. Because of the above 

concerns, the following restrictions on the movement of personnel and materials to the islands of 

the Refuge Complex exist. Note: Kure Island and Midway Atoll are not part of this Refuge 

Complex. 

With the exception of Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals, the following rules apply: 

Clothing and Soft Gear: 

• Any personnel landing boats at any island should have clean clothes and shoes, meaning 

that they are free of dirt and seeds. 

• Any personnel going ashore at any island and moving inshore from the immediate area in 

which waves are breaking at the time of landing must have new footwear, new or islandspecific clothes and new or island-specific soft gear that have been frozen (<4 C) for at 

least 48 hours. 

• At the discretion of the local USFWS representative, personnel from a NOAA ship or any 

other vessel servicing the Refuge may be allowed on shore to visit predesignated areas 

for guided tours. All stipulations for clean and frozen clothes apply. 

• Otherwise, any personnel entering any vegetated area, regardless of how sparse the 

vegetation, must have new footwear, new clothes and new soft gear all frozen for at least 

48 hours. 

Definitions: 

• “new” means off the shelf and never used anywhere but the island in question. 

• “clothing” is all apparel , shoes, socks, over and under garments. 

• “soft gear” is all gear such as daypacks, fanny packs, camera bags, camera/binocular 

straps, microphone covers, nets, holding or weighing bags, bedding, tents, luggage, or 

any fabric or material capable of harboring seeds or insects. 

Clothing or gear coming off Kure and Midway should never be moved to any of the other refuge 

islands. 

During transit, clothing and gear coming off Kure and Midway must be carefully sequestered to 

avoid contamination of gear bound for other remote islands. Special care must be taken to avoid 

contaminating gear storage areas and quarters aboard transporting vessels with seeds or insects 

from these islands. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix E – Quarantine Protocol E-3 

General Rules: 

• Regardless of origin or destination, inspect and clean all equipment, supplies, 

immediately prior to any trip to the Refuge. Carefully clean all clothing, footwear and 

soft gear following use to minimize risk of cross contamination of materials between 

islands. 

 

• Pack supplies in plastic buckets with fitted lids or other sealable metal or plastic 

containers so they can be thoroughly cleaned inside and out. Cardboard is not 

permitted on islands. Cardboard boxes disintegrate in a short time and harbor seeds, 

animals, etc., which cannot be easily found or removed. Wood is not permitted unless 

sealed on all surfaces. 

Wooden boxes can also harbor insects and seeds and, therefore, are only allowed if well 

constructed (tight fitting seams are required). All wood must be treated, and inside and 

outside surfaces must be painted or varnished to provide a smooth, cleanable finish that 

seals all holes. 

• Freeze or tarp and fumigate then seal all equipment (clothes, books, tents) immediately 

prior to departure. Food and cooking items need not be fumigated but should be cleaned 

and frozen, if freezable. Cameras, binoculars, radios, and other electronic equipment 

must be thoroughly cleaned, including internal inspection whenever possible, but they do 

not need to be frozen or fumigated. Such equipment can only be packed in wooden 

crates if treated as in #2 above. Any containers must contain new, clean packing 

materials and be frozen or fumigated. 

• At present, Tern Island is the singular exception to the above rule having less stringent 

rules due to the large number of previously established invasive species. Careful 

inspection of all materials and containers is still required. However, it is acceptable to 

use wooden and cardboard containers for transporting supplies to Tem Island. In 

addition, there is no requirement for freezing or fumigating items disembarked at Tem. 

Although requirements for Tem Island are more lax, the Refuge is still concerned about 

the possibilities of new introductions. 

Additional Special Conditions for Restricted Access to Nihoa Island: 

Nihoa is one of the most pristine locations in the Refuge Complex. It is also inhabited by the 

highest number of federally listed endangered species. It is a small rugged island with many 

inaccessible areas. Introduction of any invasive species could have immediate, disastrous effects 

to natural resources. It would be almost impossible to mount any kind of control or eradication 

program on this island should an invasive species become established. Because of these reasons, 

access to Nihoa is strictly limited and rules governing entry are more stringent. 

• Access to Nihoa by permittees would only be allowed under the direct supervision of a 

Refuge representative. The person, who shall be appointed by the Refuge Manager, 

would work with permittees to assure careful adherence with all rules for inspection, 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

E-4 Appendix E – Quarantine Protocol 

handling, and preparation of equipment. The Refuge Representative would have the 

authority to control and limit access to various parts of the island to protect animals, 

plants (especially endangered species), and archaeological sites. The Refuge 

Representative would have the authority to revoke access to the island or order an 

immediate departure from the island if conditions for working on the island are not fully 

met or are violated in some way. 

• All field equipment made out of fabric material or wood must be new and never 

previously used in the Northwestern or main Hawaiian Islands. Equipment previously 

purchased or made for use on Nihoa that has been carefully sealed and stored while away 

from Nihoa, and not used elsewhere, may also be brought onto the island. Rules for 

freezing and/or fumigating are as described for other sites in the Refuge (see above). 

• Clothing and personal effects must be cleaned and thoroughly inspected. All footwear 

(shoes, slippers, socks, etc.) must be new, unused, or previously only used on Nihoa and 

carefully sealed and stored while off of the island. 

Rules Regarding Food: 

Fresh foods that are typically transported to island field camps (potatoes, onions, cabbage, 

apples, oranges, etc.) are not likely to become established and flourish on the Refuge Complex 

and are allowed. However, other food items such as tomatoes could easily become established. 

Soil can contain many seeds, eggs, larvae, etc., and cannot be transported to or among islands. 

Other food species such as alfalfa, mustard and cress, commonly used for sprouted greens, could 

potentially become established and cannot be brought to the islands. Other species such as mung 

beans, soybeans, and radishes would not likely survive on the islands and can be used for fresh 

greens. A list of fresh foods and seeds that are prohibited is provided below. Permittees should 

contact the Refuge Manager for more information or for questions about items not included on 

this list. 

Strictly Prohibited: 

Tomatoes (any variety), ray sunflower seeds, alfalfa seeds, mustard seeds. 

Bulk dried fruits are allowed but should be frozen solid for at least one day to kill any insects. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-1 

Appendix F 

Wilderness Review 

Wilderness Review for Jarvis Island NWR 

I. General Information on Wilderness Reviews 

Wilderness review is the process used to determine whether or not to recommend lands or waters 

in the National Wildlife Refuge System (System) to the United States Congress (Congress) for 

designation as wilderness. Planning policy for the System (602 FW 3) mandates conducting 

wilderness reviews every 15 years through the Comprehensive Conservation Planning (CCP) 

process. 

The wilderness review process has three phases: inventory, study, and recommendation. After 

first identifying lands and waters that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness, the resulting 

wilderness study areas (WSA) are further evaluated to determine if they merit recommendation 

from the Service to the Secretary of Interior for inclusion in the National Wilderness 

Preservation System (NWPS). Areas recommended for designation are managed to maintain 

wilderness character in accordance with management goals, objectives, and strategies outlined in 

the final CCP until Congress makes a decision or the CCP is amended to modify or remove the 

wilderness proposal. A brief discussion of wilderness inventory, study, and recommendation 

follows. 

Wilderness Inventory

The wilderness inventory consists of identifying areas that minimally meet the requirements for 

of wilderness as defined in the Wilderness Act of 1964 (Wilderness Act). Wilderness is defined 

as an area which: 

• Has at least five thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its 

preservation and use in an unimpaired condition, or be capable of restoration to 

wilderness character through appropriate management at the time of review, or be a 

roadless island; 

• Generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the 

imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable; 

• Has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of 

recreation; and 

• May also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, 

scenic, or historical value. These features and values, though desirable, are not 

necessary for an area to qualify as a wilderness. 

Wilderness Study

During the study phase, lands and waters qualifying for wilderness as a result of the inventory 

are studied to analyze values (ecological, recreational, cultural, spiritual), resources (e.g.,
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-2 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

wildlife, water, vegetation, minerals, soils), and uses (habitat management, public use) within the 

area. The findings of the study help determine whether to recommend the area for designation as 

wilderness. 

Wilderness Recommendation

Once a wilderness study determines that a WSA meets the requirements for inclusion in the 

NWPS, a wilderness study report that presents the results of the wilderness review, accompanied 

by a Legislative Environmental Impact Statement (LEIS), is prepared. The wilderness study 

report and LEIS that support wilderness designation are then transmitted through the Secretary of 

Interior to the President of United States, and ultimately to the United States Congress for 

approval. 

The following sections summarize the inventory and study phases of the wilderness review for 

Jarvis. 

II. Wilderness Inventory 

The wilderness inventory is a broad look at the planning area to identify WSAs. These WSAs 

are roadless areas within refuge boundaries, including submerged lands and their associated 

water column, that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness identified in Sect. 2(c) of the 

Wilderness Act. A WSA must meet the minimum size criteria (or be a roadless island), appear 

natural, and provide outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive recreation. Other 

supplemental values are evaluated, but not required. In order to identify WSAs, Jarvis was 

divided into two inventory units based upon the differences between the terrestrial and marine 

ecological resources. Inventory Unit A is the 648-acre roadless island known as Jarvis Island, 

and Inventory Unit B is composed of the 34,319 combined acres of coral reefs, submergent lands 

and their associated water column lying within 3 nmi from the shoreline at the mean high water 

mark of Jarvis Island. The inventory of roadless areas, submerged lands, and associated water 

column of Jarvis and application of the wilderness criteria is described in the following sections 

and summarized in Table F-1. 

Evaluation of Size Criteria for Roadless Areas, Roadless Islands, and Submergent Lands and 

Associated Water Column

Identification of roadless areas, roadless islands, and submerged lands and associated water 

column, required gathering land status maps, land use and road inventory data, satellite imagery, 

aerial photographs, and personal observations of areas within refuge boundaries. “Roadless” 

refers to the absence of improved roads suitable and maintained for public travel by means of 

motorized vehicles primarily intended for highway use. Wilderness inventory units currently 

owned by the Service in fee title were evaluated. These units include Jarvis Island and the 

submergent lands and waters lying within 3 nmi of shore. 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-3 

Inventory units meet the size criteria for a WSA if any one of the following standards applies. 

• An area with over 5,000 contiguous acres. State and private lands are not included in 

making this acreage determination. 

• A roadless island of any size. A roadless island is defined as an area surrounded by 

permanent waters or that is markedly distinguished from the surrounding lands by 

topographical or ecological features. 

• An area of less than 5,000 contiguous Federal acres that is of sufficient size as to make 

practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition, and of a size suitable for 

wilderness management. 

• An area of less than 5,000 contiguous Federal acres that is contiguous with a designated 

wilderness, recommended wilderness, or area under wilderness review by another Federal 

wilderness managing agency such as the Forest Service, National Park Service, or Bureau 

of Land Management. 

There are no roads on Jarvis Island, and the submerged lands and associated water column meet 

the minimum acreage criteria, thus both inventory units within the refuge boundary meet one or 

more of the size criteria for wilderness study areas. The physical features of these units are 

described in detail in the Draft Jarvis CCP/EA, Chapter 3. 

Evaluation of the Naturalness Criteria

A WSA must meet the naturalness criteria. Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act defines 

wilderness as an area that “...generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of 

nature with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” The area must appear natural 

to the average visitor rather than “pristine.” The presence of ecologically accurate, historic 

landscape conditions is not required. An area may include some man-made features and human 

impacts provided they are substantially unnoticeable in the unit as a whole. Human-caused 

hazards, such as the presence of unexploded ordnance from military activity, and the physical 

impacts of refuge management facilities and activities are also considered in the evaluation of the 

naturalness criteria. An area may not be considered unnatural in appearance solely on the basis 

of “sights and sounds” of human impacts and activities outside the boundary of the unit. The 

cumulative effects of these factors were considered in the evaluation of naturalness for each 

wilderness inventory unit. 

In the wilderness inventory, specific man-made features and other human impacts need to be 

identified that affect the overall apparent naturalness of the tract. Based upon the Preferred 

Alternative contained in the draft CCP/EA, the following factors were primary considerations in 

evaluating the naturalness of the inventory units: 

Historical 

• abandoned crushed coral roadways; 

• Jarvis Light daybeacon (aid to navigation); 

• Colonizing era ruins 

• Shipwreck remains of Amaranth 

• Amaranth memorial cairn

• abandoned guano mine tailing piles. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-4 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

Little can be seen of the historical artifacts found on Jarvis. Wind erosion, past storms and 

vegetative growth have muted any visual impact of these cultural sites. Consequently, they are 

indistinguishable from adjacent habitats on the island. Most other artifacts equally blend into the 

environment. The Jarvis Light daybeacon, some rock walls, and the cairn are the only visual 

intrusions into an otherwise natural setting. 

Management Activities: 

• refuge boundary sign; 

• field camp; 

• generators; 

• invasive species control; 

• collect and stockpile marine debris; 

• migratory bird surveys; 

• marine surveys (including SCUBA); and 

• boat transportation. 

A 4’ x 8’ boundary sign announcing the name and ownership of the island is maintained on 

Jarvis. The sign is informational in nature, identifying the sanctuary status the island enjoys. 

The primary management intrusion to the naturalness of Jarvis is during the deployment and 

demobilization of field camps. Transportation from Honolulu, Hawaii across 1,263 nmi of open 

ocean to Jarvis is only safely and reliably possible with motorized ocean-going marine vessels. 

Once the marine transport vessel arrives at Jarvis, small boats with outboard motors are deployed 

to transport two biologists and their field camp gear to the island. Once on the island, biologists 

set up tents, sleeping gear, food, and other supplies. Walking surveys occur across the island to 

document bird species presence, potentially hand pull or hand spray invasive plant species, 

inventory cultural sites, and collect and stockpile marine debris. Marine surveys also occur. 

They are based from the marine vessel primarily using SCUBA. Field camps are planned to last 

for 2 days and typically occur once every two years. Occasional field camps with 5-8 

individuals staying for up to 2 weeks have occurred in the past. During these extended field 

camps, diesel-powered generators have been used to operate communication equipment. All 

other mechanical equipment such as air compressors for SCUBA equipment remain on the 

marine transport vessel. Upon demobilization of the field camp, all equipment and debris are 

removed. An indirect human impact to the naturalness of Jarvis is the presence of marine debris 

that washes onto coral reefs and beaches. Attempts to remove and stockpile this debris for 

eventual removal occur during field camps. Otherwise, Jarvis is an isolated, uninhabited island 

in the middle of the Pacific Ocean for the vast majority of time. 

Both Jarvis inventory units meet the naturalness criteria. Overall, the forces of nature sculpt the 

island’s resources. Wave action erodes and accretes shorelines and rearranges underwater coral 

features. Rainfall patterns either suppress or encourage vegetative growth with brown and barren 

ground during drought and lush grasses and forbs during wet periods. Bird life is the dominant 

feature with nesting seabirds common throughout the year. Occasional field camps infrequently 

intrude on this isolation. 

Although historic markers, monuments, and other signs of past human occupation exist, they do 

not detract from Howland meeting the naturalness criteria since they are a minor component of 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-5 

the landscape and are substantially unnoticeable in the area as a whole. The submerged lands, 

with the exception of scattered marine debris also meet the naturalness criteria. 

Evaluation of Outstanding Opportunities for Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation

In addition to meeting the size and naturalness criteria, a WSA must provide outstanding 

opportunities for solitude or primitive recreation. The area does not have to possess outstanding 

opportunities for both solitude and primitive and unconfined recreation, and does not need to 

have outstanding opportunities on every acre. Further, an area does not have to be open to public 

use and access to qualify under these criteria. Congress has designated a number of wilderness 

areas in the NWPS that are closed to public access to protect ecological resource values. 

Opportunities for solitude refers to the ability of a visitor to be alone and secluded from other 

visitors in the area. Primitive and unconfined recreation means non-motorized, dispersed 

outdoor recreation activities that do not require developed facilities or mechanical transport. 

These primitive recreation activities may provide opportunities to experience challenge and risk, 

self reliance, and adventure. 

These two opportunity “elements” are not well defined by the Wilderness Act but in most cases 

can be expected to occur together. However, an outstanding opportunity for solitude may be 

present in an area offering only limited primitive recreation potential. Conversely, an area may 

be so attractive for recreation use that experiencing solitude is not an option. 

 

The following factors and their cumulative effects were the primary considerations in evaluating 

the availability of outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive unconfined recreation at 

Jarvis: 

• island size, vegetation, and terrain; 

• distance to habitation, whether mainland or an inhabited island; 

• presence of operating lighthouse or aid to navigation and associated structures; and 

• view shed within and from refuge boundary. 

Solitude is the overwhelming force that visitors experience on Jarvis. The island is separated by 

over 1,263 nautical miles from Hawaii, and approximately 184 nmi from Kiritimatai Island 

Atoll, the nearest inhabited island. Expanses of open ocean with no other landform are visible 

from every angle. The island itself, with the exception of a few historical features, is a mixture 

of short grass and shrubs, bare ground, and shoreline beaches and cobble. In the past, field 

camps have been temporary, with only 2 individuals spending 2 days every 2 years. However, 

the Preferred Alternative in the Draft Jarvis CCP/EA proposes to visit the refuge every year with 

the same number of individuals for the same duration. Underwater, coral reefs are pristine and 

the open-water depths are devoid of human presence. 

Since establishment, Jarvis has been and will remain closed to general public access in order to 

protect the valuable seabird and marine resource values. Thus, there are no outdoor recreational 

opportunities. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-6 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

Both Jarvis inventory units meet the solitude criteria, but do not meet the primitive unconfined 

recreation criteria. 

Evaluation of Supplemental Values

Supplemental values are defined by the Wilderness Act as “ecological, geological, or other 

features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historic value.” Jarvis Island and its surrounding 

coral reefs and deep water areas compose a complete and functioning ecosystem. Isolated, 

predator-free islands are valuable and often required for successful seabird nesting. Nearshore 

waters, coral reefs, and associated currents combine and provide food resources for foraging 

seabirds and coral reef communities. The position and underwater gradient of Jarvis in deep 

ocean currents allows these currents to reach the surface, thereby increasing rates of productivity 

for plants, corals and vertebrate species. These rich ecological resources in a relatively pristine 

and unaltered environment provide unique opportunities for scientific study and environmental 

education. There are no known archaeological resources on Jarvis. Historically, Jarvis Island 

was important to early colonization efforts during the guano mining era. Historical artifacts such 

as isolated building ruins, a memorial cairn and plaque commemorating the Amaranth

grounding, and guano mining excavations are present but eroded, covered by vegetation, and 

otherwise assimilated into the environment and indistinguishable from the natural environment. 

One landmark, the Jarvis Light day beacon, contrasts vividly with the overall expansive vistas of 

open ocean and island habitats. These values are not required for wilderness but their presence 

compliments the requirements for wilderness designation. Please see Chapter 3 of the Draft 

CCP/EA for a more complete description of these supplemental values. 

Inventory Findings and Wilderness Study Areas

Both inventory units meet the minimum criteria for consideration as WSAs (Figure F-1). These 

two units are either roadless islands or meet minimum size requirements, are primarily natural, 

and meet the solitude or unconfined recreation criteria. The units are identified as: 

• WSA-A: Jarvis Island WSA, and 

• WSA-B: Coral reefs, submergent lands, and associated water column of the Jarvis Island 

WSA. 

 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-7 

Figure F-1. Wilderness Study Areas
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-8 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

Table F-1. Wilderness Inventory Summary

Inventory Unit A: 

Jarvis Island (1,273 acres) 

Inventory Unit B: 

Submerged lands and waters 

to 3 nmi (36,214 acres) 

Required Components 

(1) Has at least 5000 acres of 

land or is of sufficient size to 

make practicable its 

preservation and use in an 

unconfined condition, or is a 

roadless island. 

Yes. Is a roadless island. Yes. Approximately 36,214 

acres contained within the 

territorial sea from mean high 

tide to 3 nmi. 

(2) Generally appears to have 

been affected primarily by the 

forces of nature, with the 

imprint of man’s work 

substantially unnoticeable. 

Yes. Not diminished by day 

beacon and other artifacts. 

Yes. Coral reefs and other 

underwater features untouched 

by humans. 

(3a) Has outstanding 

opportunities for solitude. 

Yes. Uninhabited island 

1000 nmi from Hawaii. 

Yes. Isolation from habitation 

both on surface and below. 

(3b) Has outstanding 

opportunities for a primitive 

and unconfined type of 

recreation. 

No. Refuge is closed to all 

recreational activities. 

No. Refuge is closed to all 

recreational activities. 

Other Components 

(4) Contains ecological, 

geological or other features of 

scientific, educational, scenic, 

or historical value. 

Jarvis Light day beacon, 

Amaranth memorial, guano 

mining, colonization ruins, 

historic shipwreck, and 

nesting seabirds. 

Pristine coral reefs and 

associated marine fish, 

mammals, and turtles abound. 

Summary 

Parcel qualifies as a wilderness 

study area (meets criteria 1, 2 

& 3a or 3b). 

Yes Yes 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-9 

III. Wilderness Study 

The two WSAs identified in the Wilderness Inventory were further evaluated to determine 

suitability for designation, management, and preservation as wilderness. Considerations in this 

evaluation included: 

• quality of wilderness values; and, 

• capability for management of refuge as wilderness (or manageability) and minimum 

requirements/tools analysis. 

This information provides a basis to compare the impacts of a range of management alternatives 

and determine the most appropriate management direction for each WSA. 

Evaluation of Wilderness Values

The following information considers the quality of the WSAs’ mandatory and supplemental 

wilderness characteristics. 

Size

Both WSA-A and WSA-B meet the minimum size criteria being a 1,273-acre roadless island and 

a 36,214-acre marine ecosystem respectively. 

Naturalness

Both of the WSAs generally appear to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with 

the imprint of human uses and activities substantially unnoticeable. Except for the footprint of 

the long-abandoned airstrip and the few small features mentioned in the Wilderness Inventory, 

all emergent and submerged features were entirely created by the natural processes of volcanism; 

wind erosion; wave erosion; water erosion; seabird deposits; vegetation deposits; geological 

subsidence; and reef growth and consolidation from coral, coralline algae, and giant clam 

calcification during the past 50 to 80 million years. No substantial features were constructed or 

modified by humans during the island’s entire geological history. The impacts of past human 

presence are small in terms of constructed features (beacons), and are barely apparent (groundlevel views of mining pits and a boat channel), or transitory (marine debris that washes up or 

blows in from the surrounding sea and air). A few remnant, rusty fuel drums is the only trash 

feature that is not transient, but its overall impact to naturalness is minimal. See Chapter 3 of the 

Draft Jarvis CCP/EA for a more detailed description of natural and cultural features. 

Management activities will temporarily disturb the naturalness of the area. Field camps lasting 

for 2 days will be visible across the island. Occasional use of generators will produce noise. 

However, modern generators produce decibel levels lower than speaking voice levels. 

Transportation by motorized marine vessel, the only safe, practical and reliable means available 

to arrive on the island, is equally temporary. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-10 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

Outstanding Opportunities for Solitude and Primitive Recreation

Both of the WSAs offer outstanding opportunities for solitude. 

Solitude overwhelms the human spirit at Jarvis. The only noise on the island is from pounding 

surf, winds, buzzing insects, and the calls of birds. Underwater, all that is heard is one’s own 

breath, the surf, and the sound of fish feeding on coral. The blue of the sky and sea and the 

brightness of the stark landscape saturate the visual character; and birds, winds, and surf saturate 

the acoustic character of the refuge. It is hard to image a more remote, isolated, and truly more 

wilderness experience in the entire equatorial Pacific than when standing on the island or diving 

on adjacent reefs. 

There are no permanent improvements of any kind to accommodate visitors reaching the island. 

The capacity to reach Jarvis without substantial investment, preplanning, and permission is 

considerable and further restricts the capability of individuals from reaching the island and 

intruding on the opportunity for solitude. The island itself is inaccessible except by small craft 

lightered from a transport ship during calm seas. There are no human inhabitants on Jarvis. The 

nearest humans live 330 nmi to the southeast where less than 5,000 Kiribati people inhabit 

Kiritimatai Atoll. There are no other inhabitants elsewhere in the Line Islands. These logistical 

constraints contribute to the maintenance of solitude. 

Supplemental Values

Both of the WSAs offer outstanding ecological values with features of scientific, educational, 

scenic interest, and historical value. Pristine coral reefs, reef fish, giant clams, beaches, native 

terrestrial vegetation, unexplored deep slopes, localized upwelling currents, migratory 

shorebirds, and large populations and variety of seabirds are among the strong ecological values. 

The lack of historic and current human impact provides a rare opportunity to study unaltered 

marine ecosystems, and the impact that global climate change may have on these systems. The 

sheer vastness of the ocean landscape, punctuated by a small dot of land, and the multitude of 

bird and marine life attracted to it, provide a sense of awe and spectacular beauty to the 

landscape. The remaining features of early colonization efforts stand testament to the bravery of 

those early pioneers, and the ability of nature to endure. 

Evaluation of Manageability and Minimum Requirements/Tools Analysis 

 

Originally administered by the U.S. Department of Interior’s Office of Territorial Affairs, the 

Secretary of the Interior (Secretary), on June 27, 1974, designated Jarvis Island and its territorial 

sea extending to the 3 nautical mile (nmi) limit as a unit of the System (39 FR 27930). The U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service administers all units of the system pursuant to the Administration Act. 

The acquisition authority for establishing the refuge is found in the Fish and Wildlife Act of 

1956 (16 U.S.C. 742f(b)(1)). It states the general purpose for establishing the refuge is “...for the 

development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and wildlife 

resources...” and “...for the benefit of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, in performing 

its activities and services” (16 U.S.C. 742f (a)(4)). The specific purpose for establishing Jarvis is 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-11 

(USFWS 1973) “...the preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial as well as marine. 

Special emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies.” 

There are no valid existing private rights, including mineral rights, associated with any of these 

WSAs. 

Several management activities are required for the Service to meet responsibilities for managing 

Jarvis Island and its associated marine waters as a national wildlife refuge as specified in 

relevant legislation and policies. A complete description of management activities can be found 

in Chapter 2 of the Draft Jarvis CCP/EA. The following is a brief description of management 

activities as they relate to minimum requirement determinations of activities occurring within 

designated wilderness. 

Section 4(c) of the Wilderness Act of 1964 lists several generally prohibited uses including no 

temporary roads, no use of motor vehicles, no motorized equipment or motorboats, no aircraft 

landings, no other forms of mechanical transport, and no structure or installation. However, 

Section 4(c) also states an exception to these general prohibitions: “...as necessary to meet 

minimum requirements for the administration of the area for the purpose of this Act...” 

Examples of actions that may satisfy this exception include recreational developments such as 

trails, bridges, and signs. 

 

Each WSA on Jarvis can be managed to preserve its wilderness character in perpetuity, 

recognizing that using a “minimum requirements” approach would be required for all activities. 

Existing refuge management activities within the WSAs are consistent with management 

direction in the Wilderness Act and current Service wilderness stewardship policy in the Refuge 

Manual (6 RM 8). These management activities include: motorized marine vessel transportation 

to and from Jarvis; establishing temporary field camps (typically 2 days every other year); small 

motorboat operations used in deployment and demobilization of field camp operations; survey 

and monitoring of habitat, seabird and other wildlife monitoring activities; control of invasive 

species using hand pulling or hand spraying; use of solar powered electronic calling devices to 

encourage nesting by extirpated seabird species; use of portable generators and solar power to 

operate communications and other equipment; and monitoring the marine ecosystem with the use 

of SCUBA equipment. None of the current or expected refuge management activities would 

permanently diminish the wilderness character of Jarvis. Additionally, there are no plans to 

construct permanent facilities or structures to accommodate these uses or activities. 

Located in the central Pacific Ocean, transportation to Jarvis can only occur with the use of 

ocean-going marine vessels. The only practical and safe mode of vessel propulsion is gas or 

diesel powered engine. While it is possible to use sail power to navigate to the island, the 

reliability of mechanical engines provides a margin of safety to escape extreme weather hazards, 

or proceed on course and on time in the absence of wind. For the same reasons of safety and 

practicality, small motorized vessels are used to transport equipment and personnel from the 

transport vessel to the island to establish field camps and conduct biological survey and 

monitoring activities. Rough surf, shallow coral reefs, and strong winds and ocean currents 

preclude the use of non-motorized craft to safely navigate these hazards. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-12 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 

Field camps themselves are temporary, consisting of tents, portable tables, chairs, cooking gear, 

and scientific equipment. Most field camps are set up for a period of 1 to 2 days. No permanent 

structures are established, and no motorized equipment is used to transport equipment around the 

island. Field camp activities consist of monitoring habitat and nesting seabird populations, 

inventorying the condition of known historic resources, and collecting and stockpiling of marine 

debris. Portable diesel powered generators are components of field camp equipment and are 

typically used to operate two-way radio communication equipment. 

Wildlife managers often use electronic calling devices to attract nesting seabird species to 

suitable nesting locations. Powered by small solar panels, these devices can be placed in 

inconspicuous locations and produce only sounds that occur naturally on the island. Once a 

species is attracted to the island, the calling device can then be removed. Monitoring of the 

marine ecosystem occurs from scientists based aboard the marine transportation vessel. Small 

motorboats often provide safe transportation to specific research sites near Howland. SCUBA 

equipment is often used to complete marine surveys and is the only safe and practical method of 

conducting underwater marine surveys. 

In summary, safety, practicality, and effectiveness require the occasional use of management 

programs and associated tools (some of which are generally prohibited by the Wilderness Act) to 

pursue achievement of refuge purposes, goals and objectives. Current and proposed refuge 

management would be consistent with wilderness designation and management of both WSAs. 

Although occasionally diminished, none of the resource values identified above would be 

permanently impacted because of wilderness designation and the management described herein. 

IV. Development of Alternatives 

 

After evaluating the quality of wilderness values, manageability, minimum management 

requirements, the following alternatives were developed and analyzed for wilderness 

designation. 

Alternative A (No Action). 

Under this alternative, no WSAs would be recommended as suitable for wilderness 

designation. The refuge lands and waters would be managed as they have been in the past 

to accomplish refuge purposes in accordance with legal and policy guidance for the 

System. 

Alternative B 

Only the emergent lands, WSA-A, would be recommended for inclusion in the National 

Wilderness Preservation System. 

Alternative C

Both WSA-A and WSA-B, which includes the emergent lands and the submerged lands 

and associated water column would be immediately recommended for inclusion in the 

National Wilderness Preservation System (NWPS). Selection of this alternative would 

require the completion of an EIS. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix F – Wilderness Review F-13 

 Alternative D (Preferred Alternative)

Both WSA-A and WSA-B, which includes the emergent lands and the submerged lands 

and associated water column of Jarvis would be recommended for inclusion in the NWPS. 

Both wilderness study areas would be managed to ensure their wilderness character was 

not adversely impacted. However, the recommendation to include these areas in the 

NWPS would be postponed until such time that CCPs and their associated wilderness 

inventories and studies for remote Pacific Island NWRs were completed. At such a time, a 

wilderness study report and associated Legislative Environmental Impact Statement that 

encompasses remote Pacific Island refuges would be prepared. Alternative D is identified 

here as the Preferred Alternative for the Wilderness Review of Jarvis, and is a component 

of the Preferred Alternative in the Draft Jarvis CCP/EA. 

 

Alternatives considered but eliminated from detailed study

Federal agencies are required by NEPA to rigorously explore and objectively evaluate all 

reasonable alternatives and to briefly discuss the reasons for eliminating any alternatives 

that were not developed in detail (40 CFR 1502.14). It was determined that there was no 

benefit in analyzing partial wilderness alternatives. There are no feasible or practical 

boundary adjustments that would improve the manageability of an individual WSA. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

F-14 Appendix F – Wilderness Review 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix G – Statement of Compliance G-1 

Appendix G 

Statement of Compliance 

 

STATEMENT OF COMPLIANCE 

for Implementation of the 

Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge

Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

The following executive orders and legislative acts have been reviewed as they apply to 

implementation of the Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP) for the Jarvis Island National 

Wildlife Refuge (Jarvis). 

National Environmental Policy Act (1969) (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). The CCP planning 

process has been conducted in accordance with National Environmental Policy Act 

implementing procedures, Department of Interior and Service procedures, and is performed 

in coordination with the affected public. Procedures used to reach this decision meet the 

requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and its implementing regulations in 

40 CFR Parts 1500-1508. These procedures include: the development of a range of 

alternatives for the Jarvis CCP; analysis of the likely effects of each alternative; and public 

involvement throughout the planning process. 

The CCP management objectives and alternatives have been integrated into an environmental 

assessment document and process, including the release of a draft CCP/EA for a 30-day 

public comment period. Public notices of availability of the draft CCP/EA include a Federal 

Register notice, news releases to local media outlets, the Service’s refuge planning website, 

and planning updates. Copies of the CCP/EA and planning updates were distributed to an 

extensive mailing list. In addition, the Service met with staff from the Hawaii Department of 

Land and Natural Resources and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

Revisions to the Final CCP are based on public comments received from the draft CCP/EA. 

Comment letters and Service response to comments can be found as an Appendix in the final 

CCP. 

National Historic Preservation Act (1966) (16 U.S. C.470 et seq.). This act requires 

Federal agencies to consult with the President’s Advisory Council on Historic Preservation 

(ACHP), State or Territorial Historic Preservation Officers, and the National Park Service 

(NPS) for any proposed actions that may affect cultural resources eligible for the National 

Register of Historic Places. Consultation has occurred with the ACHP and NPS for their 

input. Consultation with a State Historic Preservation Officer is not required for this 

proposal because Jarvis lies outside any state jurisdiction. No Territorial Historic 

Preservation Officer is assigned to Jarvis. Rather territories/possessions lie in the jurisdiction 

of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP). 

The management of archaeological and cultural resources of Jarvis complies with the 

regulations of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. No historic properties 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

G-2 Appendix G – Statement of Compliance 

listed in or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places have been identified 

on Jarvis. No historic properties are known to be affected by the proposed action based on 

the criteria of an effect or adverse effect as an undertaking defined in 36 CFR 800.9 and 

Service Manual 614 FW 2. Determining whether a particular action has a potential to affect 

cultural resources is an ongoing process that occurs as step-down and site-specific project 

plans are developed. Should historic properties be identified in the future, the Service will 

comply with the National Historic Preservation Act if any management actions have the 

potential to affect any these properties. 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 

Secretarial Order 3127, and Section 211 of the Superfund Amendments and 

Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 (10 U.S.C. 2701-2706, 2810-2811). Contamination 

resulting from military occupation is required to be mitigated as a Formerly Used Defense 

Site (FUDS). Any FUDS is part of the Defense Environmental Restoration Program 

(DERP), administered by the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE). The DERP is responsible 

for the identification, investigation, research and development, and cleanup of contamination 

from hazardous substances, and pollutants and contaminants; correction of environmental 

damage such as detection and disposal of unexploded ordnance; and demolition and removal 

of unsafe buildings and structures at former Department of Defense sites. In 1986, the ACOE 

completed their responsibilities under DERP. No contaminant or hazardous waste materials 

are currently known to exist on Jarvis. 

 

Executive Order 13175. Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal 

Governments. As required under Secretary of the Interior Order 3206 American Indian 

Tribal Rights, Federal-Tribal Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act, the Refuge 

Manager determined that there are no tribal governments associated with Jarvis. Thus, there 

was no coordination with any American Indian tribe. 

Executive Order 12372. Intergovernmental Review. Coordination and consultation with 

other affected Federal agencies has been completed through personal contact by Service 

planners, refuge managers, and supervisors. In addition, the refuge manager determined 

there are no local, state or tribal governments associated with Jarvis. 

Executive Order 12898. Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority 

and Low-Income Populations. All Federal actions must address and identify, as 

appropriate, disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of its 

programs, policies, and activities on minority populations, low-income populations, and 

Indian Tribes in the United States. The CCP was evaluated and no adverse human health or 

environmental effects were identified for minority or low-income populations, Indian Tribes, 

or anyone else. 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA)(16 U.S.C. 703-712). Jarvis is an important site for 

migratory shorebirds and nesting seabirds. Protecting nesting seabird habitat is the major 

purpose of the refuge, and is consistent with the provisions of MBTA. All of the proposed 

alternatives would be consistent with the refuge purpose and the MBTA in protecting of 

these birds, although the proposed action would afford more benefits. This planning effort is 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix G – Statement of Compliance G-3 

being coordinated with other offices of the Service and Interior that have responsibilities 

pertaining to the MBTA. 

Executive Order 13186. Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory 

Birds. This Order directs departments and agencies to take certain actions to further 

implement the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. A provision of the Order directs Federal agencies 

to consider the impacts of their activities, especially in reference to birds on the Fish and 

Wildlife Service’s list of Birds of Conservation (Management) Concern (BCC). It also 

directs agencies to incorporate conservation recommendations and objectives found within 

the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan and bird conservation plans developed by 

Partners in Flight (PIF) into agency planning. Species selected as focal conservation targets 

in the CCP were identified from multiple sources including pertinent BCC lists, applicable 

Flyway Management Plans, and regional seabird and shorebird conservation plans. The 

effects of all alternatives on focal conservation targets were assessed during this planning 

process. 

Endangered Species Act (ESA)(16 U.S.C. 1531-1544). The ESA provides for the 

conservation of threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants by Federal 

action and by encouraging the establishment of state programs. It provides for the 

determination and listing of endangered and threatened species and the designation of critical 

habitats. Section 7 of the ESA requires refuge managers to perform consultation before 

initiating projects that affect or may affect endangered species. 

Jarvis provides feeding and potential nesting habitat for two species of endangered sea turtle: 

the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata and the green turtle Chelonia mydas. In 

accordance with section 7 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (16 U.S.C. 

1531 et. Seq.), the Service, as a component of this CCP/EA, evaluated potential impacts to 

the two listed turtle species. It was determined that undertaking any action as part of any 

alternative in this CCP will have no affect on either of the two turtle species. Therefore, 

formal consultation with NOAA-NMFS is not required and will not be initiated. 

National Wildlife Administration Act of 1966, as amended by The National Wildlife 

Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee). The National 

Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act requires the Service to develop and implement a 

comprehensive conservation plan for each refuge. These conservation plans identify and 

describe a refuge purpose; refuge vision and goals; fish, wildlife, and plant populations and 

related habitats; archaeological and cultural values of the refuge; issues that may affect 

populations and habitats of fish, wildlife, and plants; actions necessary to restore and 

improve biological diversity of the refuge; and opportunities for wildlife-dependent 

recreation. 

Wilderness Preservation Act of 1964 (Wilderness Act). The Wilderness Act requires the 

Service to evaluate the suitability of Jarvis for wilderness designation (Appendix F) and has 

found that both wilderness study areas meet wilderness criteria. Recommendation for Jarvis 

to be included in the Wilderness Preservation System is deferred until such time that other 

remote Pacific island refuges are evaluated for wilderness designation and a combined 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

G-4 Appendix G – Statement of Compliance 

proposal as part of a larger comprehensive Legislative Environmental Impact Statement is 

prepared. 

Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Management and Conservation Act (16 U.S.C. 1801-1882).

This act provides the guidance for sustainable management of commercial fisheries in 

Federal waters by NOAA in consultation with Regional Fisheries Management Councils that 

develop fisheries management plans (FMPS) subject to NOAA approval, monitoring and 

implementation. The Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council (WESPAC) 

and NOAA have implemented and approved several FMPS that apply to U.S. insular Pacific 

island waters. The FMPS were all implemented after Howland was established in 1974 and 

include plans for: 1) pelagic fish; 2) bottom fish including some reef species; 3) crustaceans 

including lobsters; 4) precious corals and; 5) coral reef ecosystem species. Commercial 

activities including commercial fishing are prohibited in surrounding marine water and 

benthic habitat out to the 3 nmi limit because Jarvis Island is established as a National 

Wildlife Refuge that is closed to public uses. Moreover, the Service retains jurisdiction and 

management for any fisheries within the refuge. Available information indicates commercial 

fishing under the auspices of any of the FMPS is not and cannot be pursued within the 3 nmi 

boundary of the refuge. In addition, the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Management and 

Conservation Act jurisdiction is subject to other applicable laws and does not apply in Jarvis 

Island National Wildlife Refuge because this area is closed to public access and commercial 

fishing under the existing National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, as amended 

(16 U.S.C.668dd -6688ee). 

Executive Order 13089, Coral Reef Protection (June 11, 1998). The purpose of this 

Executive order is “...to preserve and protect the biodiversity, health, heritage, and social and 

economic value of U.S. coral reef ecosystems and the marine environment....” It directs all 

Federal agencies to identify actions that may affect U.S. coral reefs; utilize their programs 

and authorities to protect and enhance coral reef ecosystems; and assure their actions would 

not degrade those ecosystems. Federal agencies whose actions affect U.S. coral reef 

ecosystems are further directed to implement measures needed to research, monitor, manage, 

and restore affected ecosystems, including, but not limited to, measures reducing impacts 

from pollution, sedimentation, and fishing. This Executive Order also initially established 

the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, co-chaired by the Secretaries of the Interior and Commerce, 

through the Administrator of NOAA. The Task Force has oversight responsibility for 

implementation of policy and Federal agency responsibilities found in this order, and support 

activities under the U.S. Coral Reef Initiative. In addition, this order directs the Task Force 

to work cooperatively with State, territory, commonwealth, and local government partners to 

map, monitor, conserve, mitigate, and restore coral reef ecosystems. 

The Proposed Action and other alternatives are fully consistent with the spirit and intent of 

the Executive order. Copies of the Draft CCP/EA would be provided to the Directorate of 

the Coral Reef Task Force for coordination. 

Coral Reef Conservation Act and Executive Order 13158, Marine Protected Areas (16 

U.S.C. 6401-6409)(May 26, 2000). These statutes collectively direct Federal agencies to 

coordinate among themselves and State and Territorial governments via the Coral Reef Task 

Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

G-6 Appendix G – Statement of Compliance 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix H – Plan Implementation and Costs H-1 

Appendix H 

Plan Implementation and Costs 

Introduction 

Following public review and comment on the Draft EA, public notification of the Service’s 

decision, and CCP approval, Refuge staff would begin to implement the CCP. This appendix 

describes the various partnerships, management plans, staffing and projects required to 

implement the plan over the next 15 years. 

Staffing 

The proportion of current staffing and proposed staffing within the Pacific Remote Islands NWR 

Complex dedicated to Jarvis are shown in the following tables. The proposed staffing indicates a 

0.16 full-time-equivalent increase over current levels. This represents the difference in staffing 

needs from visiting Jarvis once every other year to once every year. 

Current Staffing for Jarvis Island NWR 

Staff Employment Status and 

Proportion of Time1 

Salary Rating

Project Leader PFT (0.01 FTE) GS 13 

Supervisory Wildlife 

Biologist 

PFT (0.07 FTE) GS 12 

Coral Reef Biologist PFT (0.07 FTE) GS 12 

Administrative Officer PFT (0.01 FTE) GS 9 

1 PFT = Permanent Full Time; FTE = Full Time Equivalent where 1.0 equals one staff year. 

Proposed Staffing for Jarvis Island NWR 

Staff Employment Status and 

Proportion of Time1 

Salary Rating

Project Leader PFT (0.02 FTE) GS 13 

Supervisory Wildlife 

Biologist 

PFT (0.14 FTE) GS 12 

Coral Reef Biologist PFT (0.14 FTE) GS 12 

Administrative Officer PFT (0.02 FTE) GS 9 

1 PFT = Permanent Full Time; FTE = Full Time Equivalent where 1.0 equals one staff year.
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

H-2 Appendix H – Plan Implementation and Costs 

Funding 

The following table describes the estimated annual cost to implement the CCP. 

Field Camp Budget 

for Jarvis 

Cost 

Staff $34,000 (0.3 FTE per year) 

Supplies $7,000 

Remote Sensing equipment N/A 

Remote Sensing operations N/A 

Deep sea exploration $25,000 per submersible vessel dive 

Seabird recolonization initiative $10,000 

Vessel Charter N/A 

Vessel Purchase (one time cost) N/A 

Vessel operation N/A 

Adjusted annual personnel and operating costs $76,000/yr 

Projects 

The table below contains projects developed as part of the Refuge Operating Needs System 

(RONS) and Service Asset Maintenance Management System (SAMMS). Brief project 

descriptions and their associated costs are provided. Funding of these projects would assist 

refuge staff in achieving the goals, objectives, and strategies of the CCP for Jarvis Island NWR. 

Projects: RONS and SAMMS List 

Project 

No. 

Title and Description Cost 

Estimate 

(Thousands) 

Station

Rank 

97003 Inventory and Monitor Terrestrial Resources:

Provide a wildlife biologist to inventory and monitor 

terrestrial plants, invertebrates and nesting seabirds. 

Remote Pacific Islands provide the only secure habitat 

for nesting seabirds, sea turtles and marine life within 

thousands of square miles of ocean. 

325.25 9 

00001 Eliminate Exotic Rodent Species on Remote Pacific 

Islands: Provide biological technicians and 

transportation expenses to restore habitat for pelagic 

seabirds and terrestrial plant and animal species on 

Baker and Jarvis NWRs. 

194.0 10 

980002 Eliminate Exotic Rodent Species on Remote Pacific 

Islands: Provide Wildlife Refuge Specialist to 

supervise biological technicians and transportation 

174.75 10 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix H – Plan Implementation and Costs H-3 

Project 

No. 

Title and Description Cost 

Estimate 

(Thousands) 

Station

Rank 

expenses to restore habitat for pelagic seabirds and 

terrestrial plant and animal species on Baker and Jarvis 

NWRs. 

00002 Develop interpretative program, Remote Island 

NWRs: Develop a brochure for Howland, Baker, and 

Jarvis Island NWRs and host 3 special outreach events 

every year in Hawaii. 

23.9 999 

00006 Staff and maintain a new vessel to accomplish basic 

refuge operations: This vessel would provide basic 

logistical support for 16 islands and remote field stations 

on nine different national wildlife refuges across the 

Pacific Ocean. The vessel would be similar in size and 

capability to the M/V Tiglax at the Alaska Maritime 

NWR 

204.8 3 

00018 Inventory and monitor coral reef resources: Remote 

refuges contain some of the most valuable and 

spectacular marine and coralline resources in the 

National Wildlife Refuge System. Jarvis Island NWR is 

so remote that basic knowledge of marine resources is 

lacking. There is a need to perform biennial monitoring 

of the marine resources at this refuge. 

137.0 4 

98004 Install remote surveillance system: Acquire camera 

equipment and service contract with a satellite 

communications provider to detect incursion by 

unauthorized visitors, such as poachers and commercial 

fishing vessels to assist the Coast Guard and Refuge 

Law Enforcement Officers in investigating illegal 

activities within the Refuge. 

241.2 14 

90100411 Replace broken, rotten, and vandalized signs: 

Replace degraded entrance signs to deter trespass and 

prevent introduction of invasive species. 

190.0 6 

Partnerships

Partnerships are an important component of implementation of the Jarvis Island NWR CCP. 

Refuge staff would strengthen existing partnerships with the U.S. Coast Guard, the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the University of Hawaii Undersea Research 

Laboratory to implement enhanced law enforcement coverage at this remote location and 

facilitate inventory and monitoring of marine resources. In addition, the refuge staff would seek 

to enhance its volunteer program. Volunteers are critically important in providing the logistical 

support in the Honolulu office and field support required to effectively manage and operate yearround field camps at remote locations. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

H-4 Appendix H – Plan Implementation and Costs 

Step-Down Management Plans

The CCP is one of several plans necessary for refuge management. The CCP provides guidance 

in the form of goals, objectives, and strategies for several refuge program areas but may lack 

some of the specifics need for implementation. Given the abbreviated and qualitative once-ayear management activities identified in the preferred alternative, step-down plans would not be 

developed for individual program areas after CCP completion. The Draft Seabird Monitoring 

Assessment for Hawaii and the Pacific Islands (Citta and Reynolds, 2006), U.S. Pacific Islands 

Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan, Seabird Conservation Plan for the Pacific Region, and 

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force planning efforts would be applied to refuge operations described in 

the preferred alternative. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix I – Consultation and Coordination I-1 

Appendix I 

 

Consultation and Coordination 

This section describes consultation and coordination efforts with the public, interested groups, 

and other agencies through the draft CCP/EA phase. Public involvement was sought throughout 

the planning process using meetings, newsletters, and other communication tools. All comments 

and responses to comments from the draft CCP may be found in Appendix K. 

Planning Updates

The first Planning Update was mailed to 249 private individuals; nongovernmental 

organizations; local, state, Federal and international governments; and members of the media 

throughout the Pacific on October 12, 2005. The comment period identified in the Planning 

Update closed on November 14, 2005. This update announced the intent of the Service to 

produce a CCP for Jarvis Island, and invited comments on issues and concerns and interest in 

attending public meetings. A total of five responses were received. 

A second planning update was mailed on May 17, 2006. This update announced the 

development of a list of alternatives and solicited comments on the draft alternatives. This 

update was mailed to 253 private individuals; non-governmental organizations; local, state, 

Federal and international governments; and members of the media throughout the Pacific. 

A third Planning Update was mailed with the Draft Jarvis Island Comprehensive Conservation 

Plan and Environmental Assessment in September 2007. This Planning Update and the draft 

CCP/EA was distributed to about 190 individuals and organizations, and posted on Region 1’s 

website. Nine review comments were received during the 45-day comment period. 

Agency and Interest Group Consultation/Coordination

Members of the planning team met with NOAA staff and the Hawaii Department of Land and 

Natural Resources (DLNR) on May 31, 2005. Refuge staff also met with members of The 

Nature Conservancy on June 2, 2005. Both NOAA and DLNR informally indicated that they 

were interested in the process, wished to be kept informed of planning progress and would 

review the draft plan when it became available. 

A second meeting between State, NOAA, and Service staff was held on May 19, 2006, to discuss 

issues of mutual interest, which included their potential involvement in the Service’s CCP 

process. A follow-up formal request was sent to the agencies on June 7, 2006. 

Jarvis Island is uninhabited and an unincorporated U.S. territory far removed and beyond the 

jurisdiction of any State, insular area, or foreign nation. Other parties involved in 

correspondence related to this document included multiple nongovernmental organizations, U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency; National Park Service; U.S. Geological Survey; U.S. 

Department of Defense; President’s Advisory Council on Historic Preservation; National 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

I-2 Appendix I – Consultation and Coordination 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); Western Pacific Regional Fishery 

Management Council; Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources; Hawaii Office of 

Hawaiian Affairs; Governor of Hawaii; the Honorary Consulate-General of the Republic of 

Kiribati; and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 

Federal Register Notices

The Notice of Intent to prepare a CCP for these refuges was published in the Federal Register on 

September 14, 2005. Public involvement was sought throughout the planning process using 

meetings, newsletters, and other communication tools. 

The Notice of Availability of the Draft Jarvis Island Comprehensive Conservation Plan and 

Environmental Assessment was published in the Federal Register on September 18, 2007. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix J – Response to Comments J-1 

Appendix J

Response to Comments 

 

The Refuge received four letters and five emails in response to the Draft CCP/EA. Comments 

are summarized below by topic. The comment is either quoted directly or paraphrased based 

upon the comment received. 

1. Wildlife Management 

Comment: We encourage the Service to maintain its “wildlife first” philosophy and to prescribe 

the best and most thorough protection for plants and animals. (The Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: By implementing the preferred alternative Jarvis Island NWR will continue 

to be managed as a wild, natural area. This management regime will contribute to the recovery, 

protection, and management efforts for all native species with special consideration for seabirds, 

migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and endangered species, and coral reef species. 

Comment: We recommend that an effort to inventory, monitor, protect and enhance habitat for 

refuge species is outlined in the CCP. (The Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: The CCP contains specific objectives and strategies to inventory, monitor, 

protect, and enhance native terrestrial habitats and marine communities that are representative of 

remote tropical Pacific Islands. 

Comment: It is not clear what the scientific basis is for the statement linking seabird health to 

pelagic fisheries in the equatorial waters surrounding the three islands. NMFS requests the FWS 

to provide NMFS and the Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council more 

information, including scientific support for that statement. (National Marine Fisheries Service) 

Service Response: Information and scientific citations have been added to the plan to document 

the linkage between pelagic fish activity and its importance to seabird foraging activity. 

Comment: The CCP should include a method to inventory the impact of human activities on 

species populations. (The Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: Refuge management will be limited to monitoring terrestrial and marine 

plants and animals and removal of non-native species. The Refuges will also remain closed to 

public use to protect the extensive seabird nesting colonies, reduce the threat of introduction of 

invasive species, and conserve the pristine coral reef ecosystems. So the low level of human 

activities will have non-detectable impacts species populations. 

Comment: The Final CCPs should include monitoring and enforcement provisions. (Marine 

Conservation Biology Institute) 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

J-2 Appendix J – Response to Comments 

Service Response: We agree. Goal 5 of the CCP has been expanded to include biological 

resource preservation. An objective and associated strategy has been added to encompass 

enforcement provisions to accomplish the preservation goal. 

Comment: I highly recommend consultation with NMFS and our partners before any proposal 

for fisheries enforcement activities. (National Marine Fisheries Service) 

Service Response: We agree with this recommendation and look forward to continuing the 

existing collaborative relationship that exists among our respective agency’s law enforcement 

personnel. 

Comment: We request that the Service analyze and disclose all wildlife and fisheries 

management and conservation plans in the CCP. (The Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: Regional and Ecosystem Conservation Plans important for developing the 

CCP are summarized in Section 1.4.5 of the plan. 

Comment: The CCP and preferred alternative B do not meet the mission of the National 

Wildlife Refuge System. (Center for Biological Diversity) 

Service Response: We respectfully disagree. The goals and their respective strategies and 

activities in the CCP are designed to manage for “wildlife first” at Jarvis Island NWR and 

contributes to the System’s national network of lands and waters administered for “the 

conservation, management and where appropriate, restoration of fish, wildlife, and plant 

resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future 

generations of Americans.” 

Comment: Alternative D should be the preferred alternative. (Marine Conservation Biology 

Institute) 

Service Response: While alternative D may be preferable from a conservation standpoint, it is 

not practical either logistically or financially to implement this management regime within the 

15-year lifespan of this plan.

Comment: Hopefully more funds could make options 3 or 4 possible but at the very least option 

2 is good. (K. Stender) 

Service Response: We will use an adaptive management approach over the life of this plan. If 

additional funds unexpectedly become available, strategies and activities identified in 

alternatives C and D could be implemented. 

Comment: I support Alternative B with the addition that management responsibilities should 

extend from the shoreline seaward to 100 fathoms to cover all coral associated with each island. 

These three islands should be no-take marine protected areas. (B. Carmen) 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix J – Response to Comments J-3 

Service Response: We appreciate your support and the CCP does implement a no-take marine 

protected area management regime. In addition, the seaward boundary of the refuge is beyond 

the 100 fathom depth contour around the island. Therefore, all of the coral reefs at Jarvis Island 

are fully protected in accordance with the provisions of the National Wildlife Refuge System 

Administration Act of 1966, as amended. 

Comment: The Final CCPs should include a more specific provision for reevaluation. (Marine 

Conservation Biology Institute) 

Service Response: The Department of the Interior and the Service support the use of adaptive 

management to address uncertainty associated with implementing conservation activities. The 

“learning by doing” inherent in implementing activities in this CCP is central to re-evaluating the 

effectiveness of these activities and determining the need for management interventions to 

achieve the six goals identified in this plan. 

2. Wilderness Review 

Comment: We request that the Service analyze the wilderness resources in the CCP. (The 

Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: The Service completed a Wilderness Review for Jarvis Island NWR and it is 

found in Appendix F of the CCP. 

Comment: The CCP must also address management of both potential and designated 

wilderness lands in the CCP. (The Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: The wilderness study area for Jarvis Island NWR identified in the CCP will 

be managed to ensure its wilderness character is not adversely impacted by implementing the 

management activities in the CCP. 

Comment: The CCP should examine and outline a plan for off-road vehicle use. (The 

Wilderness Society) 

Service Response: Off-road vehicle use has not been determined to be a compatible use on the 

refuge and is currently prohibited. 

Comment: NMFS recommends that any wilderness-related management action requiring 

consideration and collaboration between our two agencies by fully described at the earliest 

opportunity. 

Service Response: The Service will notify NMFS at such time that we decide to move forward 

in preparing a wilderness study report and associated Legislative Environmental Impact 

Statement for Jarvis Island NWR. 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

J-4 Appendix J – Response to Comments 

3. Climate Change 

Comment: We believe that the Service should take a proactive approach and identify specific 

climate change concerns and formulate appropriate management strategies. (The Wilderness 

Society) 

Service Response: We have included an objective in the CCP to increase understanding of 

impacts of global climate change by working with other agencies or institutions to conduct 

baseline global climate change investigations at this refuge. 

Comment: The impacts of climate change were not adequately considered in the CCP. (Center 

for Biological Diversity) 

Service Response: New information that has recently emerged on this issue has been added to the 

CCP.

Comment: Looks like the refuges would be an ideal but remote location to study climate 

change on reefs as a control. (K. Stender) 

Service Response: We agree. 

4. Commercial Fishing and Jurisdictional Issues 

Comment: The treatment of commercial fishing and jurisdictional issues in these draft CCPs is 

incomplete. Each CCP should explain the processes and coordination necessary to achieve any 

management regime applicable to federal fisheries. (National Marine Fisheries Service) 

Service Response: The “Refuge Establishment” section of the CCP has been revised to clearly 

indicate that the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended 

requires that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service maintain sole and exclusive management 

authority over all national wildlife refuge areas. At Jarvis Island NWR, the refuge includes the 

island and the surrounding waters out to the 3-nautical mile boundary depicted in Figure 1.2. 

The CCP clearly indicates that the refuge will remain closed to all public uses, including 

commercial fishing. The information in Appendix G pertaining to the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fisheries Management and Conservation Act has been revised to clearly identify the jurisdiction 

of the NMFS to regulate commercial fishing outside of the refuge boundary and the requirement 

the that this Act must conform to other applicable laws, including the National Wildlife Refuge 

System Administration Act of 1966, as amended. 

Comment: NMFS would like a more detailed description of FWS activities to assist the 

Department of State in negotiating a United States position on managing commercial fishing in 

the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zones adjacent to the Pacific Remote Insular Areas. (National 

Marine Fisheries Service) 

Service Response: We have clarified language and provided more detail in the document that it 

was the Department of the Interior who notified the Department of State about a request from the 
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 

Appendix J – Response to Comments J-5 

Republic of Kiribati to conduct commercial fishing in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone 

surrounding Baker Island, Howland Island, and Jarvis Island. 

Comment: We have no record of a personal communication between Kitty Simonds and Jim 

Maragos regarding informal consultation that WESPAC continues to honor Service jurisdiction 

and authorities within the 3nmi offshore boundary of the refuge. Please provide that to us for our 

records. (Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council) 

Service Response: Dr. Maragos continues to maintain that such a discussion took place with 

Ms. Kitty Simonds although a “record of a personal communication” was not prepared or filed. 

We have removed this reference from the document and clarified the legal basis for U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service jurisdiction to mange the 3-nautical mile territorial seas surrounding 

Howland Island in conjunction with the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 

1966, as amended. 

Comment: The Council’s Coral Reef Fisheries Management Plan needs to be included in your 

list of FMPs so as to provide complete information to readers and decision-makers. (Western 

Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council) 

Service Response: In Appendix G, we have included the plan for coral reef species in the list of 

commercial fisheries plans developed in accordance with the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries 

Conservation and Management Act. 

Comment: The statement that “commercial fishing under the auspices of any of the FMPs is not 

being pursued outside the 3 nmi boundary of the refuge” is erroneous and needs to be corrected. 

Service Response: This was a typographical error. The statement has been revised to read that 

“Available information indicates commercial fishing under the auspices of any of the FMPS is 

not and cannot be pursued within the 3 nmi boundary of the refuge.” 

Written Comments Received on the Draft CCP/EA 

Comment Signatory Organization 

Letter William L. Robinson National Marine Fisheries Service 

Letter Shaye Wolf Center for Biological Diversity 

Letter Keiko Bonk Marine Conservation Biology Institute 

Letter Maribeth Oakes The Wilderness Society 

Email Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management 

Council 

Email Brent Carmen 

Email pandora2@earthlink.net

Email Keoki Stender 

Email b.s achau