Career and Technical 

Education in the United States: 

1990 to 2005

Statistical Analysis Report

NCES 2008-035

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
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NCES 2008-035 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

Career and Technical 

Education in the United States: 

1990 to 2005 

Statistical Analysis Report 

JULY 2008 

Karen Levesque 

Jennifer Laird 

Elisabeth Hensley 

Susan P. Choy 

Emily Forrest Cataldi 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

Lisa Hudson 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Lisa Hudson 

Project Officer 

National Center for Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider 

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and reporting 

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July 2008 

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Suggested Citation 

Levesque, K., Laird, J., Hensley, E., Choy, S.P., Cataldi, E.F., and Hudson, L. (2008). Career and Technical Education in the 

United States: 1990 to 2005 (NCES 2008-035). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. 

Department of Education. Washington, DC.

For ordering information on this report, write to 

 U.S. Department of Education 

 ED Pubs 

 P.O. Box 1398 

 Jessup, MD 20794-1398 

or call toll free 1-877-4ED-Pubs or order online at http://www.edpubs.org. 

Content Contact 

Lisa Hudson 

(202) 502-7358 

lisa.hudson@ed.gov 
iii 

Executive Summary 

Career and technical education (CTE) spans 

secondary, postsecondary, and adult education 

levels. In high schools, CTE encompasses family 

and consumer sciences education, general labor 

market preparation, and occupational education, 

and may form part of a course of study leading to 

college, employment, or both. At the postsecondary level, career education is linked to preparation 

for employment in specific occupations or careers, 

although postsecondary credentials in career fields 

may also lead to further education. Adults may 

participate in formal education and training to acquire, maintain, and upgrade their workforce 

skills. 

The publication represents the fourth volume 

of Vocational Education in the United States, 

which is produced about every 5 years by NCES 

to describe the condition of “vocational education” in the nation. This report uses the current 

term, career and technical education, and updates 

the previous reports, presenting the most recent 

data available on trends in the field. 

In addition to introduction and summary chapters, the report is organized into three main substantive chapters addressing, where possible, the 

following key questions at the secondary, postsecondary, and adult levels: 

• What institutions provide career and technical education? 

• What is offered? 

• Who participates and what courses and majors do they select? 

• Who teaches career and technical education? 

• What are the outcomes associated with participation in career and technical education, 

including academic attainment, postsecondary education, and employment and 

earnings? 

This report seeks to describe the full range of 

career and technical education during the period 

from 1990 through 2005. To capture this diverse 

enterprise, the report analyzed data from 11 different National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES) surveys.1 The report presents mainly simple bivariate comparisons of estimates among different groups. These comparisons of estimates 

were tested using Student’s t statistic, at the .05 

level of significance. Adjustments were not made 

for multiple comparisons. Significance test results 

are reported when determined to be both statistically different and substantively different, the latter defined as a difference of at least 3 percentage 

points or the equivalent. Statistically significant 

differences of a magnitude smaller than 3 percentage points or the equivalent are generally not reported. Some comparisons are based on data from 

 

1 The Common Core of Data (CCD), the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), the High School Transcript 

Study (HSTS:1990, HSTS:2000, HSTS:2005), the National 

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), the 

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01), the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), the 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90, 

NPSAS:2000, NPSAS:04), the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, NSOPF:04), and the 

National Household Education Survey program’s 2003 Adult 

Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey (AEWRNHES:2003) and 2005 Adult Education Survey (AENHES:2005). 
Executive Summary 

iv 

universe surveys (i.e., surveys of the full population of interest rather than a sample); in those 

cases significance testing was not conducted. 

A Note on Terminology 

In this report, CTE at the high school level and 

career education at the postsecondary level encompass the fields of study shown in exhibits 1.1 

and 1.2, respectively. Although the fields are very 

similar, the high school occupational programs 

differ somewhat in both terminology and scope 

from the postsecondary career fields. For example, 

the “business services,” “business management,” 

and “marketing” programs at the high school level 

are classified as “business and marketing” at the 

postsecondary level. In addition, while the relevant program at the high school level is “communications technology,” the corresponding field at 

the postsecondary level is “communications,” 

which includes but is not limited to related technologies. Differences in the high school and postsecondary classifications reflect differences in 

survey categories and in the size and nature of the 

various fields at the two education levels. Generally, these differences are only relevant when 

comparing findings across the education levels. 

Highlights From the Report 

This section highlights selected findings from 

across the three education levels described in the 

report, focusing on common and consistent patterns, but also indicating where these patterns differ. The measures that were available for 

describing career and technical education at the 

different education levels varied somewhat. Participation in high school was generally measured 

in terms of credits earned in occupational education, for example, while participation at the postsecondary level was measured in terms of students 

majoring in career fields. While these measures 

are not directly comparable, they both indicate the 

prevalence of participation in career-related education versus other curricula and majors, as well 

as indicate changes in the extent of this participation over time. In addition, the available data 

sometimes described different years. For example, 

trends in high school student participation covered 

the period from 1990 to 2005, while trends in 

postsecondary student participation covered the 

period from 1990 to 2004, and trends for postsecondary faculty covered the period from 1992 to 

2003. Differences in the timing or content of datasets used for the different analyses in the report 

are noted in the text and tables. 

A Note on Collinearity and Causality 

The report describes various characteristics of 

career and technical education participants, including sex, race/ethnicity, and prior academic 

achievement, among others. It should be remembered that, while each of these characteristics is 

examined separately, there may be collinearity 

among them. For example, participation patterns 

for the different racial/ethnic groups may be related to their differing prior academic achievement. The report does not attempt to determine 

which characteristics are most strongly related to 

participation in career and technical education or 

to isolate the independent contribution of different 

characteristics to participation patterns. 

It is important when reading NCES reports to 

remember that they are descriptive in nature. That 

is, they are limited to describing some aspect of 

the condition of education and may suggest ideas 

to be further examined. Readers are cautioned 

against making unwarranted causal inferences 

from simple cross tabulations. It is never the case 

that a simple cross tabulation of any variable with 

a measure of educational achievement is proof 
Executive Summary 

v 

that differences in the variable are a cause of differential educational achievement or any other 

outcome. 

Institutional Providers 

The majority of public high schools in 2002 

and undergraduate postsecondary institutions in 

2005 offered career and technical education (88 

and 90 percent, respectively) (tables 2.2 and 3.1). 

At the high school level, CTE was provided in 

three main settings, including approximately 

17,000 comprehensive high schools that offered 

occupational programs either on or off site (8,200 

comprehensive high schools served by an area 

CTE school and 8,900 not served by an area CTE 

school), 900 full-time CTE high schools, and 

1,200 area CTE schools (tables 2.1 and 2.5).2

High school students may also have taken CTE at 

postsecondary institutions or other locations. At 

the postsecondary education level, about 5,700 

institutions offered career education to undergraduates in 2005, with public 4-year institutions 

followed by public 2-year institutions awarding 

the largest numbers of undergraduate credentials 

in career fields in this year (587,000 and 562,000 

credentials, respectively) (tables 3.1 and 3.4). 

Postsecondary institutions also figured in the provision of adult work-related coursetaking, with 

about 16 percent of adult participants in 2004–05 

reporting a postsecondary institution as the instructional provider for at least one of their workrelated learning courses, although employers were 

the most common provider for these activities (45 

percent), followed by business or industry (25 

percent) (table 4.6). 

 

2 Comprehensive high schools typically have an academic 

focus, but also offer CTE either on or off site, the latter often 

at an area CTE school. Full-time CTE high schools emphasize 

CTE, but also offer academic coursework; students typically 

spend their entire school day at the school. Area CTE schools 

provide CTE part time to students who receive all or most of 

their academic instruction at their home high school. 

The Scope of Participation 

Student participation in career and technical 

education was relatively common at all three education levels: secondary, postsecondary, and adult. 

Just over 90 percent of public high school graduates from the class of 2005 took at least one occupational course during high school (table 2.16) 

and these graduates earned more credits on average in occupational education than they earned in 

fine arts and foreign language (3.0 vs. 2.0–2.1 

credits) (table 2.17). In addition, about one in five 

of the 2005 graduates concentrated in occupational education (21 percent) (table 2.18), earning 

3.0 or more credits in at least one of the 18 high 

school occupational programs examined in the 

report. At the postsecondary level, a higher proportion of undergraduates in 2004 majored in career fields than in academic areas at each 

credential level (certificate, associate’s degree, 

and bachelor’s degree) (60–81 percent vs. 6–30 

percent) (table 3.8). With regard to adult education, 37 percent of labor force members participated in work-related courses in 2004–05 (table 

4.1). 

Trends in student participation at the secondary 

level showed no measurable changes over the period studied in overall participation in occupational education. For example, no measurable 

changes were detected between 1990 and 2005 in 

the average numbers of total CTE credits and occupational credits that public high school graduates earned (4.0–4.2 total CTE credits and 2.9–3.0 

occupational credits) (table 2.17). In contrast, between 1990 and 2004, the number of credentialseeking undergraduates majoring in career fields 

increased by about one-half million students, although proportionately they made up a smaller 

portion of the overall credential-seeking undergraduate population in 2004 compared with 1990 

(63 vs. 67 percent) (table 3.8). At both education 

levels, participation in academic education in-
Executive Summary 

vi 

creased. Both the average numbers of total academic credits and core academic credits earned by 

public high school graduates increased between 

1990 and 2005 (increases of 2.8 and 1.8 credits, 

respectively) (table 2.17), as did the number of 

undergraduates majoring in academic fields between 1990 and 2004 (an increase of 449,000 students) (table 3.8). 

Common Occupational Programs 

Business, heath care, and computer science 

were among the most common occupational programs. Specifically, business and computer technology were the most common occupational 

programs offered by public high schools in 2002 

(94–97 vs. 26–82 percent) (table 2.9), and the 

2005 public high school graduates earned more 

credits in business services and in computer technology than in any other occupational program 

area (0.4–0.5 vs. 0.0–0.2 credit) (table 2.17). At 

the postsecondary level, more credential-seeking 

undergraduates majored in business and marketing 

and in health care than in any other career field in 

2004 (22–28 vs. 1–12 percent) (table 3.10). In addition, a larger proportion of undergraduate credentials were awarded in health care and in 

business and marketing than in other career fields 

in 2005 (24–26 vs. 1–9 percent) (table 3.35). At 

the adult education level, business, health, and 

computer science were the topics studied most 

frequently by work-related coursetakers in 2004–

05 (15–35 percent vs. 6–10 percent studying other 

topics) (table 4.5). 

Between 1990 and the mid-2000s, shifts in participation were detected among the different occupational program areas. At both the secondary and 

postsecondary education levels, student participation (including coursetaking at the high school 

level and majors at the postsecondary level) increased in health care (by 0.1 credit on average 

and 639,000 majors) and computer science (by 0.2 

credits on average and 265,000 majors) and decreased in business (by 0.3 credits in business services on average and 484,000 majors) (tables 2.17 

and 3.10). However, despite a net increase in participation at the postsecondary level over the entire timespan, the number of computer science 

majors was lower in 2004 than in 2000 (by 

338,000 majors). 

Characteristics of Participants 

This summary presents selected comparisons 

between participants and nonparticipants in career 

and technical education overall, while the body of 

the report also compares participants in different 

occupational and career programs. At the high 

school level, a greater percentage of students with 

a CTE focus than their peers without this focus 

were male. Specifically, among public high school 

graduates in 2005, the majority of occupational 

concentrators were male (59 percent), while the 

majority of nonconcentrators were female (54 percent) (table 2.21). At the postsecondary level, the 

majority of both credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors and those with academic 

majors were female in 2004 (58 percent each) (table 3.12). Higher rates of participation in workrelated coursetaking were also observed for female than for male adult labor force members in 

2004–05 (44 vs. 31 percent) (table 4.1). 

At both the high school and postsecondary levels, career and technical education participants 

had less advantaged educational backgrounds than 

nonparticipants. For example, among the public 

high school class of 2005, a greater percentage of 

occupational concentrators took lower levels of 

9th-grade mathematics courses compared with 

nonconcentrators (15 vs. 11 percent) (table 2.21). 

At the postsecondary level in 2004, a smaller percentage of undergraduate career majors had par-
Executive Summary 

vii 

ents with a bachelor’s or higher degree compared 

with academic majors (37 vs. 48 percent) (table 

3.13). In contrast, adults with higher educational 

levels participated in work-related courses in 

2004–05 more often than those with lower educational levels (table 4.1). 

Among bachelor’s degree seekers in 2004, a 

larger percentage of career majors than academic 

majors worked full time while enrolled (28 vs. 18 

percent) and considered themselves to be an employee who studies (21 vs. 10 percent) rather than 

a student who works (table 3.15). A work-study 

linkage was also found among adult learners, 

where higher rates of participation in work-related 

coursetaking were observed for employed than for 

unemployed labor force members in 2004–05 (39 

vs. 14 percent) (table 4.1). 

Between 1990 and the mid-2000s, changes in 

the characteristics of students with a career and 

technical education focus were found at both the 

high school and postsecondary levels. Specifically, a larger percentage of the 2005 public high 

school graduates who took high-level 9th-grade 

mathematics courses completed an occupational 

concentration compared with their 1990 peers (an 

increase of 8 percentage points), while a smaller 

percentage of 2005 graduates who took low-level 

9th-grade mathematics courses completed an occupational concentration compared with their 

1990 peers (a decrease of 9 percentage points) 

(table 2.22). At the postsecondary level, undergraduate career majors in 2004 appeared to have 

better educated parents than their counterparts 

who were enrolled earlier (for example, 37 percent 

in 2004 vs. 23–34 percent in 1990 and 2000 had at 

least one parent with a bachelor’s degree) (table 

3.13), and the percentage of career majors who 

had themselves previously earned a bachelor’s 

degree increased (by 3 percentage points) (table 

3.14). 

Faculty 

Data on career education faculty were available 

at the postsecondary level.3 Just over one-half million faculty members taught in career fields at 2- 

and 4-year not-for-profit degree-granting postsecondary institutions in fall 2003 (table 3.22). 

Teaching faculty were classified as career, academic, or “other” based on their principal teaching 

field (as indicated in exhibit 1.2). The largest 

group of career education faculty taught in public 

4-year institutions (39 percent), followed by public 2-year institutions (34 percent) and private notfor-profit 4-year institutions (26 percent), and 

trailed by private not-for-profit 2-year institutions 

(1 percent) (table 3.23). 

The majority of postsecondary teaching faculty 

in career fields in fall 2003 held a graduate degree, although the percentage who held a graduate 

degree was lower than that among academic 

teaching faculty (81 vs. 92 percent) (table 3.28). 

Larger percentages of career education teaching 

faculty than their academic colleagues possessed a 

bachelor’s degree as their highest degree (12 vs. 7 

percent) or had less than a bachelor’s degree as 

their highest degree (7 vs. 1 percent). Career education faculty with less than a bachelor’s degree 

were concentrated in the trade and industry (58 

percent) and protective services (29 percent) 

teaching fields. 

Between fall 1992 and fall 2003, the number of 

postsecondary faculty who taught in career fields 

increased by about 125,000 members (table 3.22). 

This change generally coincided with an increase 

in the number of undergraduates seeking credentials in career fields, as noted above (an increase 

of 534,000 majors) (table 3.8). 

 

3 These data exclude faculty at for-profit and less-than-2-year 

institutions. 
Executive Summary 

viii 

Changes between the early 1990s and mid2000s in the size of the postsecondary student 

body and teaching force varied by career field. 

Increases in the number of both student majors 

and teaching faculty occurred in the fields of 

health care, education, communications, computer 

science, and protective services (increases of 

172,000–639,000 majors and 5,000–37,000 faculty) (tables 3.10 and 3.22). In contrast, while the 

number of student majors declined in business, 

engineering and architectural sciences, and personal and consumer services (decreases of 

182,000–484,000 majors), the number of faculty 

increased measurably in these fields (increases of 

8,000–75,000 faculty). 

Academic Attainment 

Between 1990 and 2005, the core academic 

coursetaking (including English, mathematics, 

science, and social studies coursework) of public 

high school graduates who participated in the occupational curriculum increased (increases of 1.4–

2.6 credits for graduates earning any occupational 

credits) (table 2.23). There were also increases in 

the percentage of CTE participants who met the 

New Basics core academic standards4 (increases 

of 17–42 percentage points) and who completed 4-

year college-preparatory coursework5 (increases 

of 14–27 percentage points) (table 2.25). Moreover, the more occupational credits graduates 

earned in high school, the greater their academic 

coursetaking gains between 1990 and 2005. 

 

4 New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of 

English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social 

studies. 

5 Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined in this 

report as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more 

credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or 

more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more 

credits in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or 

world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. 

At the postsecondary level, a larger percentage 

of undergraduate career majors in 2004 reported 

earning high postsecondary grade point averages 

(GPAs of 3.5 or higher) compared with their counterparts 14 years earlier (an increase of 5 percentage points), and this pattern was detectable at all 

three credential levels (certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree) (increases of 3–9 

percentage points) (table 3.14). 

Postsecondary Education Outcomes 

The more occupational credits that the 1992 

public high school graduates earned in high 

school, the more often they were in general to 

have subbaccalaureate postsecondary plans (including no college, a postsecondary certificate, or 

an associate’s degree) (table 2.27). Consistent 

with these aspirations, the more occupational 

credits that graduates earned in high school, the 

less often they were to enroll in postsecondary 

education within 8 years of graduating (table 

2.29). Among those who enrolled, the more occupational credits high school graduates earned, the 

more often they attained a subbaccalaureate credential (in particular an associate’s degree) and 

the less often they attained a bachelor’s or higher 

degree by 2000 (table 2.32). Nevertheless, among 

high school occupational coursetakers taking the 

most occupational credits (4.00 or more credits), 

more graduates aspired to a bachelor’s degree than 

any other postsecondary goal (36 vs. 14–18 percent) (table 2.27); 70 percent of these occupational coursetakers enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2000 (table 2.29); and among those 

who enrolled, more graduates attained a bachelor’s or higher degree than either an associate’s 

degree or postsecondary certificate (25 vs. 7–15 

percent) (table 2.32). 

Turning to a cohort of students who began their 

postsecondary education in 1995–96, the majority 
Executive Summary 

ix 

of this cohort who were credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors had attained a degree 

or were still enrolled 6 years later (table 3.42). 

Specifically, by 2001, 82 percent of career majors 

seeking a bachelor’s degree and 60 percent of 

those seeking a subbaccalaureate credential had 

attained a degree or were still enrolled. A greater 

percentage of career majors seeking certificates 

than those seeking subbaccalaureate degrees possessed characteristics shown in research to be associated with lower rates of postsecondary 

persistence and attainment, such as having parents 

who do not have a college degree (70 vs. 50 percent) and having themselves earned a GED rather 

than a regular high school diploma (18 vs. 9 percent) (table 3.41) (Horn and Berger 2004; Hoachlander, Sikora, and Horn 2003; Horn 1996; 

Berkner, Cuccaro-Alamin, and McCormick 1996). 

Nevertheless, a larger percentage of career majors 

seeking certificates attained a postsecondary credential within 6 years compared with career majors seeking subbaccalaureate degrees (62 vs. 42 

percent) (table 3.42). 

Employment and Earnings Outcomes 

The more occupational credits that male graduates of the class of 1992 earned in high school, the 

more often they worked full time in 2000 (table 

2.38). No systematic relationship was detected, 

however, between the occupational credits that 

male graduates earned in high school and their 

full-time earnings in 1999 (table 2.39). Male 

graduates who were employed full time earned 

about $31,000–$33,000 in this year, regardless of 

their occupational coursetaking in high school. In 

contrast, the more occupational credits that male 

graduates earned in high school, the higher their 

part-time earnings were in 1999. 

The employment and earnings experiences of 

female graduates who took occupational coursework in high school were somewhat different: no 

systematic relationship was detected between the 

occupational credits that female graduates earned 

in high school and their rate of working full time 

in 2000 (table 2.38). In addition, the more occupational credits that female graduates earned in high 

school, the lower their full-time earnings were in 

1999, with female graduates who accumulated 

4.00 or more occupational credits in high school 

earning about $5,000 less in 1999 than their female classmates who took no occupational 

coursework in high school (table 2.39). In contrast, no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female 

graduates earned in high school and their part-time 

earnings as of this year. 

Thus, the only measurable associations between 1999 earnings and occupational coursetaking in high school were among part-time male 

employees (a positive association) and full-time 

female employees (a negative association). It was 

not possible to determine from the available data 

whether these differences in earnings were due to 

differing hourly wages or to differing amounts of 

time that full- or part-time graduates worked during 1999. 

Among beginning postsecondary students in 

1995–96, most subbaccalaureate career completers were employed full time by 2001 (86 percent) 

(table 3.46). Those who completed certificates in 

career fields were more often employed compared 

with those who attempted but did not complete 

career certificates (87 vs. 74 percent) (figure 3.3 

and table 3.45). 
x 

Foreword 

In 1987, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) instituted a new approach to 

collecting and reporting data on career and technical education (CTE) (then called “vocational” 

education). Under the new approach, CTE data are collected primarily through general-purpose 

surveys rather than separate questionnaires or studies on CTE. Separate reports on CTE issues 

are also produced. This data collection and reporting system constitutes the NCES Career/Technical Education Statistics (CTES) program. 

The 2006 Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act mandates that 

“as a regular part of its assessments, the National Center for Education Statistics shall collect and 

report information on career and technical education for a nationally representative sample of 

students.” To meet this requirement, NCES uses the CTES program. The CTES provides data on 

career/technical education from students, faculty, and schools at the secondary and postsecondary 

levels, as well as on adults seeking work-related education and training. 

This report is the fourth in a series published by NCES. The first three reports, Vocational 

Education in the United States: 1969–1990 (Hoachlander, Kaufman, and Levesque 1992), Vocational Education in the United States: The Early 1990s (Levesque et al. 1995), and Vocational 

Education in the United States: Toward the Year 2000 (Levesque et al. 2000), were published in 

1992, 1995, and 2000, respectively. Each report describes CTE in America, updating key trends 

based on available data and focusing on selected issues relevant to current policy discussions. 

Information on the NCES CTES program and publications may be found at the following 

website: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes. Your comments about CTES publications are welcome 

and may be sent to Lisa Hudson, NCES, 1990 K Street, NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20006 

or lisa.hudson@ed.gov. 
xi 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank many people who contributed to this publication. Members 

of NCES’s Career/Technical Education Statistics (CTES) Technical Review Panel provided 

helpful ideas and input as the report progressed. A number of current and former MPR Associates staff also contributed research and production assistance, including Kathleen Mullen, Sarah 

Calderon, Rajika Bhandari, Robert Fitzgerald, Anna Sikora, Xianglei Chen, Joanna Wu, Stephen 

Lew, Milie Sheth, Jolene Wun, Barbara Kridl, Alicia Broadway, Annabelle Yang, Andrea 

Livingston, and Patti Gildersleeve. Finally, the report was improved by constructive reviews 

from Jim Griffith, Jeff Owings, Janis Brown, and Chris Chapman of NCES; as well as Jay Noell 

from the Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development; Sharon Miller from the Office 

of Vocational and Adult Education; and several anonymous reviewers. 
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xiii 

Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... iii

Foreword..................................................................................................................................... x

Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. xv

List of Exhibits......................................................................................................................... xxiv

List of Figures........................................................................................................................... xxv

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................ 1

2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level............................................... 7

A. What Institutions Provide CTE? ....................................................................................... 8 

B. What Programs Are Offered?............................................................................................ 15 

C. Who Participates and What Courses Do They Take? ....................................................... 25 

D. What Is Accomplished? .................................................................................................... 43

E. Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................ 71 

3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level .................................................................... 75

A. What Institutions Provide Career Education?................................................................... 76 

B. What Programs and Credentials Are Offered?.................................................................. 86 

C. Who Participates and in Which Fields Do They Major?................................................... 90 

D. Who Teaches Career Education? ......................................................................................133 

E. What Is Accomplished?.....................................................................................................161 

F. Summary of Findings.........................................................................................................189 

4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking ......................................................................................191

A. Who Participates in Work-Related Courses and What Do They Study? ..........................197 

B. Who Are the Providers of Work-Related Courses for Adults?.........................................204 

C. To What Extent Do Work-Related Courses Involve Employer Requirements or 

Educational or Occupational Credentialing? ...................................................................206 

D. To What Extent Is Work-Related Coursetaking Supported by Employers? .....................207 

E. What Are the Outcomes of Participation in Work-Related Courses? ..............................208 

F. Summary of Findings.........................................................................................................214 

5. Summary.................................................................................................................................217
Contents 

xiv 

Page 

References...................................................................................................................................225

Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology...................................................................A-1 

Appendix B—Glossary .............................................................................................................. B-1
xv 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Chapter 2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

2.1 Number and percentage distribution of public and private schools with a 10th grade, 

by school type and sector: 2002 ...................................................................................... 9 

2.2 Percentage of public and private schools with a 10th grade offering occupational 

programs, by program location, school sector, and type: 2002 ....................................... 9 

2.3 Percentage distribution of each type of public school with a 10th grade, by selected 

school characteristics: 2002 ............................................................................................. 11 

2.4 Percentage distribution of public school 10th-graders, by school type: 2002.................. 12 

2.5 Number of area career and technical education (CTE) schools, by state: 2002............... 13 

2.6 Percentage distribution of area career and technical education (CTE) schools, public 

schools with a 10th grade, and public 10th-grade students, by region: 2002 .................. 14 

2.7 Average number of occupational programs offered in public high schools, by program 

location, school sector, and type: 2002 ............................................................................ 16 

2.8 Percentage of public and private schools with a 10th grade that offered occupational 

programs, by program type offered and school sector: 2002 ........................................... 17 

2.9 Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade that offered occupational programs, by 

program type offered, school type, and program location: 2002 ..................................... 18 

2.10 Percentage of 10th-graders in public schools offering occupational programs and the 

average number of occupational programs offered to public school 10th-graders, by 

program location and school type: 2002 .......................................................................... 19 

2.11 Percentage of 10th-graders in public schools that offered occupational programs, by 

program type offered and school type: 2002.................................................................... 21

2.12 Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade offering occupational programs and 

the average number of occupational programs offered, by program location and 

selected school characteristics: 2002 .............................................................................. 22 
List of Tables 

xvi 

Table Page 

2.13 Percentage distribution of public schools with a 10th grade offering selected careerrelated activities, by extent of activity and school type: 2002 ........................................ 24 

2.14 Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade offering selected work-based learning 

experiences to their 10th-graders, by school type: 2002 ................................................. 24 

2.15 Percentage and number of public schools with a 12th grade that offered career 

academies, by selected school characteristics: 2004 ....................................................... 25 

2.16 Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of career and 

technical education (CTE) coursework and average credits earned in CTE curricula 

during high school: 2005 ................................................................................................. 27 

2.17 Average credits earned during high school by public high school graduates, by 

curricular area: 1990, 2000, and 2005.............................................................................. 28

2.18 Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of career and 

technical education (CTE) coursework and concentrating in various occupational 

programs during high school: 1990, 2000, and 2005....................................................... 29 

2.19 Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of occupational 

coursework and average credits earned in occupational education by public high 

school graduates, by selected student characteristics: 2005............................................. 31 

2.20 Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school 

graduates, by selected student characteristics: 1990, 2000, and 2005 ............................. 33 

2.21 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates who were occupational 

concentrators and nonconcentrators, by selected student characteristics: 2005............... 41 

2.22 Average credits earned in occupational education by public high school graduates and 

percentage of graduates completing an occupational concentration in high school, by 

selected student characteristics: 1990, 2000, and 2005 ................................................... 42 

2.23 Average credits earned by public high school graduates in core academic subjects, by 

number of occupational education credits earned in high school: 1990, 2000, and 

2005.................................................................................................................................. 45 

2.24 Gap in average credits earned in core academic subjects between public high school 

graduates who took no occupational coursework and those who accumulated 4.00 or 

more occupational credits in high school, by core academic subject: 1990, 2000, and 

2005.................................................................................................................................. 46 

2.25 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting selected academic coursetaking 

benchmarks, by occupational credits earned in high school: 1990, 2000, and 2005 ....... 49 
List of Tables 

xvii 

Table Page 

2.26 Percentage of public high school graduates completing 4-year college-preparatory 

coursework, by subject and occupational credits earned in high school: 2005................ 50 

2.27 Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates, by highest 

postsecondary attainment planned as of their senior year in high school and 

occupational credits earned in high school ...................................................................... 51 

2.28 Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary 

education within 12 months of graduating from high school, and average number of 

months until graduates enrolled, by occupational credits earned in high school............. 52 

2.29 Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2000 and percentage distribution of these enrollees, by first 

postsecondary institution type and occupational credits earned in high school............... 54 

2.30 Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in 

postsecondary education by 2000 with each number of occupational credits, 

occupational concentrator status, and program concentration, by their undergraduate 

major ................................................................................................................................ 55 

2.31 Average number of postsecondary remedial courses taken by 1992 public high school 

graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 and percentage 

distribution of these graduates according to their 8th-grade composite test quartile, by 

occupational credits earned in high school ...................................................................... 57 

2.32 Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in 

postsecondary education, according to their highest postsecondary credential attained 

as of 2000, by occupational credits earned in high school and aspirations as of their 

senior year of high school ................................................................................................ 58 

2.33 Percentage of male and female 1992 public high school graduates enrolling in 

postsecondary education by 2000, and among these enrollees, the percentage who 

attained a postsecondary credential by 2000, by their highest postsecondary credential 

attained and occupational credits earned in high school.................................................. 61 

2.34 Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who worked without also enrolling 

in postsecondary education during the first 12 months after graduating from high 

school and the percentage of these workers who enrolled in postsecondary education 

by 2000, by occupational credits earned in high school .................................................. 62 

2.35 Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who earned a professional license 

between 1994 and 2000, by field of license, occupational credits earned in high 

school, occupational concentrator status, and program of concentration ........................ 64 
List of Tables 

xviii 

Table Page 

2.36 Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who were employed 

during 2000 with each number of occupational credits earned in high school, by 

occupation of current or most recent job ......................................................................... 66 

2.37 Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who were employed and average

hours worked per week among those employed during 2000, by occupational credits 

earned in high school ....................................................................................................... 67

2.38 Percentage of male and female 1992 public high school graduates who worked for pay 

during 2000, by employment status and occupational credits earned in high school ...... 68 

2.39 Average 1999 earnings for male and female 1992 public high school graduates who 

were employed in 1999, by employment status and occupational credits earned in high 

school ............................................................................................................................... 69 

2.40 Average 1999 earnings of male and female 1992 public high school graduates who 

enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 and were employed during 1999, by 

their postsecondary attainment in 2000, employment status in 1999, and occupational 

credits earned in high school............................................................................................ 70 

Chapter 3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

3.1 Number and percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career 

education and percentage distribution of institutions that offer career education, by 

level of institution and sector: 2004–05........................................................................... 77 

3.2 Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education 

programs, by level of institution, sector, and state: 2004–05........................................... 79 

3.3 Percentage distribution of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each state 

that offer career education programs, by level of institution and sector: 2004–05 ......... 82 

3.4 Number and percentage distribution of institutions offering career education and 

credentials awarded by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions and percentage 

distribution of credentials in career fields, by level of institution and sector: 2004–05 .. 85 

3.5 Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education, by 

level of institution, sector, and field of study: 2004–05................................................... 87 

3.6 Percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education, 

by level of institution, sector, and field of study: 2004–05.............................................. 88 

3.7 Number and percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions conferring 

career education awards, by award level: 2004–05.......................................................... 89 
List of Tables 

xix 

Table Page 

3.8 Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates, by major 

field and credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004 .......................................................... 90 

3.9 Percentage distribution of undergraduates, by current credential goal: 2004 .................. 91 

3.10 Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates, by career 

education major and credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004........................................ 92 

3.11 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in each major field and 

career major, by level of credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004 ................................. 95 

3.12 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field 

and level of credential sought, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age: 1990, 2000, and 2004 ... 96 

3.13 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field 

and level of credential sought, by disability status, parents’ highest education level, 

and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004 ........................................................................ 99 

3.14 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field 

and level of credential sought, by dependency status, financial aid status, previous 

bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004 ...............................103 

3.15 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field 

and level of credential sought, by work experience while enrolled, work orientation, 

and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004...................................................................106 

3.16 Summary of selected comparisons between credential-seeking undergraduates with 

career and academic majors, by level of credential sought: 2004....................................110 

3.17 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each 

career major, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age: 1990, 2000, and 2004...............................112 

3.18 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each 

career major, by disability status, parents’ highest education level, and marital status: 

1990, 2000, and 2004.......................................................................................................115 

3.19 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each 

career major, by dependency status, financial aid status, previous bachelor’s degree, 

and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004 .............................................................119 

3.20 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each 

career major, by work experience while enrolled, work orientation, and attendance 

status: 1990, 2000, and 2004............................................................................................123 
List of Tables 

xx 

Table Page 

3.21 Summary of selected characteristics of credential-seeking undergraduates with 

specific career majors: 2004 ............................................................................................127 

3.22 Number of teaching faculty, by level of institution and sector, principal teaching field, 

and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003 .......................................................135 

3.23 Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in each principal teaching field and 

specific career field, by level of institution and sector: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003.........137 

3.24 Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and 

institution types, by employment status, and among part-time faculty, by reason for 

part-time employment: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003..........................................................139 

3.25 Percentage of teaching faculty with selected employment characteristics, by principal 

teaching field, type of institution, career teaching faculty, and specific career field: 

Fall 1998 and 2003...........................................................................................................142 

3.26 Percentage of teaching faculty who were either somewhat or very satisfied with 

selected aspects of their jobs, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by 

type of institution, and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003.........................144 

3.27 Average age of teaching faculty and their average number of years teaching in higher 

education and employed in current job, by principal teaching field, career teaching 

faculty by type of institution, and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003 ........147 

3.28 Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and 

institution types, by highest degree earned: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003 ..........................150 

3.29 Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and 

institution types, by sex: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003........................................................153 

3.30 Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and 

institution types, by race/ethnicity: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003 .......................................154 

3.31 Summary of selected comparisons of teaching faculty, by principal teaching field and 

institution type: Fall 2003 ................................................................................................157 

3.32 Summary of selected characteristics of teaching faculty in specific career fields: Fall 

2003..................................................................................................................................158 

3.33 Number of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible 

postsecondary institutions, by career field and type of credential: 2004–05 ...................162 

3.34 Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded by Title IV eligible 

postsecondary institutions in each career field, by type of credential: 2004–05..............163 
List of Tables 

xxi 

Table Page 

3.35 Number and percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career 

fields by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions at each level and sector, by type 

of credential: 2004–05 .....................................................................................................164 

3.36 Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title 

IV eligible postsecondary institutions for each type of credential, by career field: 

2004–05............................................................................................................................167 

3.37 Number of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible 

postsecondary institutions, by career field, level of institution, and sector: 2004–05 .....169 

3.38 Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded by Title IV eligible 

postsecondary institutions in each career field, by level of institution and sector: 

2004–05............................................................................................................................170 

3.39 Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title 

IV eligible postsecondary institutions at each institution level and sector, by career 

field: 2004–05 ..................................................................................................................171 

3.40 Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking beginning postsecondary 

students, by initial credential goal and major field: 1995–96 ..........................................173 

3.41 Average age and percentage of beginning postsecondary students with various 

demographic and enrollment characteristics and summary of comparisons, by initial 

credential goal and major field: 1995–96 ........................................................................175 

3.42 Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who 

attained a credential or were still enrolled by June 2001, and percentage distribution 

of these students in terms of their attainment and enrollment status in 2001, by initial 

credential goal and major field.........................................................................................178 

3.43 Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who had 

left and had not returned to postsecondary education by 2001, by reason for leaving 

and initial credential goal and major field .......................................................................181 

3.44 Percentage distribution of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary 

students who had, by 2001, obtained each credential as their highest credential, by 

credential type and major field: 2001...............................................................................182 

3.45 Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary 

students with selected labor force participation characteristics as of 2001, by 

attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major 

field ..................................................................................................................................184 
List of Tables 

xxii 

Table Page 

3.46 Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary 

students with part- and full-time employment status during 2001, by attainment status, 

type of subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major field..........................186 

3.47 Annual salary of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning 

postsecondary students, by employment status, attainment status, type of 

subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major field: 2001 ...........................187 

3.48 Percentage of working subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning 

postsecondary students whose employment was related to their credential program, by 

attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major 

field ..................................................................................................................................188 

Chapter 4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

4.1 Number of adults and labor force members, and percentage of adults and labor force 

members who participated in work-related courses, by selected adult characteristics: 

2004–05............................................................................................................................195 

4.2 Average and median number of work-related courses taken by participants in the past 

12 months and percentage distribution of the number of such courses: 2004–05 ...........197 

4.3 Average and median number of hours participants spent in work-related courses in the 

past 12 months and percentage distribution of the number of hours: 2004–05 ...............197 

4.4 Average number of work-related courses taken by participants in the past 12 months 

and percentage distribution of the number of such courses, by selected adult 

characteristics: 2004–05...................................................................................................200 

4.5 Percentage of participants in work-related courses who studied each topic of 

instruction, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05....................................................203 

4.6 Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each type of 

instructional provider, by selected adult and course characteristics: 2004–05 ................205 

4.7 Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each inducement for 

participation, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05.................................................207 

4.8 Percentage of employed participants in work-related courses who reported each type 

of employer financial support for their participation, by selected adult and course 

characteristics: 2004–05...................................................................................................209 

4.9 Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each level of 

usefulness of the skills and knowledge learned for their job, by selected adult and 

course characteristics: 2004–05 .......................................................................................211 
List of Tables 

xxiii 

Table Page 

4.10 Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each result from their 

participation, by selected adult characteristics: 2002–03.................................................212 

4.11 Percentage of adults who reported having each view about participation in workrelated training or courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2002–03 ...........................213 

Appendix A 

A-1 Classification of majors as academic, career, or other: 1990, 2000, and 2004................A-7

A-2 Classification of teaching fields as academic, career, or other: 1993, 1999, and 

2004 ...............................................................................................................................A-12 
xxiv 

List of Exhibits 

Exhibit Page 

1.1 Classification of secondary education curricula used in the report.................................. 4 

1.2 Classification of postsecondary programs, majors, and teaching fields used in the 

report................................................................................................................................ 5 
 

xxv 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

2.1 Average credits earned in each high school curriculum by 2005 public high school 

graduates, by occupational credits earned in high school ................................................ 48 

3.1 Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary 

students with various levels of attainment as of 2001, by initial credential goal.............179 

3.2 Percentage distribution of 1995–96 credential-seeking beginning postsecondary 

students who had attained a credential by 2001, by type of credential ............................183 

3.3 Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who 

were employed in 2001, by attainment status and type of major.....................................185 
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1 

1. Introduction 

Career and technical education (CTE) provides technical knowledge and skills aligned with 

academic standards that are needed to prepare for further education and careers in current or 

emerging professions (2006 Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, 

P.L. 109-270). CTE spans secondary, postsecondary, and adult education levels. In high schools, 

CTE encompasses family and consumer sciences education, general labor market preparation, 

and occupational education, and may form part of a course of study leading to college, employment, or both. At the postsecondary level, CTE is linked to preparation for employment in specific occupations or careers. Postsecondary credentials in career fields may also lead to further 

education. In turn, adults participate in formal education and training to acquire, maintain, and 

upgrade their workforce skills. 

This report seeks to describe the full range of CTE during the period from 1990 through 

2005. To capture this diverse enterprise, the report analyzed data from 11 different National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) surveys.1 The publication represents the fourth edition of Vocational Education in the United States, which is produced about every 5 years by NCES to 

describe the condition of “vocational education”—now widely called CTE2—in the nation. This 

report presents the most recent data available on CTE trends and updates findings on many of the 

analyses performed in previous editions. Although this report uses the term “career and technical 

education” rather than “vocational education,” with one exception, what is included in the term 

has not changed from the previous editions of Vocational Education in the United States. For 

example, the taxonomies used to classify courses have always identified accounting and business 

management courses as CTE, along with traditional business support courses (such as bookkeeping and word processing). The one exception is the inclusion here of career programs leading to a 

 

1 The Common Core of Data (CCD), the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), the High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS:1990, HSTS:2000, HSTS:2005), the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS:2003–04), the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01), the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:2000, NPSAS:04), the 

National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, NSOPF:04), and the National Household Education Survey 

program’s 2003 Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey (AEWR-NHES:2003) and 2005 Adult Education Survey 

(AE-NHES:2005). 

2 The 2006 reauthorization of the Carl D. Perkins Act switched from the term “Vocational Education” to “Career and Technical 

Education” (2006 Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, P.L. 109-270). Additionally, several leading organizations in the field have changed their names to include some form of the term “career/technical education,” including, 

for example, the National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium (see 

http://www.careertech.org), the Association for Career and Technical Education (see http://www.acteonline.org), and the National Centers for Career and Technical Education (see http://www.nccte.org). 
1. Introduction

2 

bachelor’s degree. These programs were included to reflect the evolution of CTE to include 

preparation for 4-year programs in career fields; this shift is reflected in the 2006 Perkins Act, 

which allows for at least some funds to be spent on baccalaureate programs.3 Baccalaureate programs were also included, because a substantial purpose of higher education—including bachelor’s degree programs—is now occupational preparation (Grubb and Lazerson 2004; Grubb 

2006; National Science Foundation 2008). 

Organization of the Report 

The report is organized into three main chapters addressing, where possible, the following 

key questions related to CTE at the secondary, postsecondary, and adult levels: 

• What institutions provide CTE? 

• What is offered? 

• Who participates and what courses and majors do they select? 

• Who teaches CTE? 

• What are the outcomes associated with CTE participation, including academic attainment, postsecondary education, and employment and earnings? 

A summary chapter provides selected findings from the report, and compares key characteristics 

across the three education levels. Finally, appendix A describes the datasets and statistical procedures used in the report, and appendix B contains a glossary. 

Two types of statistical procedures were used in this report: testing differences between 

means (or percentages) and testing linear trends. Differences between means (or percentages) 

were tested using Student’s t statistic, at the .05 level of significance. Adjustments were not made 

for multiple comparisons. Comparisons across categories of an ordered independent variable 

used a test for a linear trend across all categories, rather than a series of tests between pairs of 

categories. In this report, when differences among percentages of a dependent variable were examined relative to an ordered independent variable, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used 

to test for a linear relationship between the two variables (also at the .05 level of significance). 

Some of the data presented are from universe surveys4 and in those cases significance testing was 

not conducted. Significance test results are reported when determined to be both statistically dif-

 

3 Section 203 of the 2006 Perkins Act, for example, allows Tech-Prep programs to include 2-year or 4-year postsecondary components. However, the Act’s definition of CTE (Section 3) does not explicitly include programs leading to a bachelor’s degree. 

To maintain flexibility on this issue, the postsecondary education tables in this report typically list subbaccalaurate and baccalaureate institutions, credentials, and students separately, so that readers can examine career fields with baccalaureate programs included or excluded, as they prefer. Additional detail is also provided on the Career/Technical Education Statistics (CTES) web 

site (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/). 

4 Universe surveys contain data on the full population of interest, as opposed to a sample of the population. 
1. Introduction 

3 

ferent and substantively different, the latter defined as a difference of at least 3 percentage points 

or the equivalent. Statistically significant differences of a magnitude smaller than 3 percentage 

points or the equivalent are generally not reported. Appendix A contains more detail about the 

statistical procedures used in this report. Standard error tables for the estimates in this report can 

be found on the NCES website at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

CTE at the High School Level 

At the high school level, CTE encompasses the fields of study shown in exhibit 1.1. Chapter 2 focuses primarily, although not exclusively, on occupational education in public high 

schools.5 It describes the types of schools that delivered occupational education to high school 

students in 2002, and the occupational programs and other related offerings these schools provided. In addition, data are presented on the occupational coursetaking patterns of high school 

graduates from the class of 2005, as well as changes between 1990 and 2005 in these patterns, 

and compares the characteristics of graduates who took different amounts of occupational 

coursework in both years. It also describes the academic coursetaking and achievement of high 

school graduates who took varying amounts of occupational coursework from 1990 through 

2005, as well as on the postsecondary education and labor market outcomes of graduates from 

the class of 1992 some 8 years later in 2000. 

Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

Chapter 3 is more inclusive than previous editions of Vocational Education in the United 

States (Hoachlander, Kaufman, and Levesque 1992; Levesque et al. 1995; Levesque et al. 2000), 

describing career-related programs at the certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree 

levels, which this chapter refers to as “career education.” Earlier publications focused on careerrelated programs at the subbaccalaureate level, which constitutes traditional “career and technical 

education (CTE).” Bachelor’s degree programs are included here, because of the evolution of 

CTE to include preparation for 4-year programs in career fields (2006 Carl D. Perkins Career and 

Technical Education Improvement Act, P.L. 109-270), and because a substantial purpose of 

bachelor’s degree programs is now occupational preparation (Grubb and Lazerson 2004; Grubb 

2006; National Science Foundation 2008). For purposes of this report, career education at the 

postsecondary level consists of the fields of study listed in exhibit 1.2. 

 

5 CTE at the secondary level encompasses family and consumer sciences education, general labor market preparation, and occupational education. The latter teaches skills required in specific occupations or occupational clusters and is the primary focus of 

chapter 2. 
1. Introduction

4 

The chapter describes the number and types of postsecondary institutions that provided career education in 2005 and the types of career programs and credentials that these institutions offered. Data are also presented on undergraduates majoring in career education in 2004, on 

changes in the characteristics of these students and their majors between 1990 and 2004, and 

comparisons between career majors and academic majors on a number of characteristics. The 

chapter describes postsecondary faculty who taught in career fields in fall 1992, fall 1998, and 

fall 2003 and compares them with their academic colleagues. Data are also presented on the 

number and types of postsecondary credentials awarded in career fields in 2005 and examines the 

educational and labor market outcomes for students 6 years after they began their postsecondary 

education in 1995–96, including their rates of persistence and credential attainment, employment 

rates, and salaries. 
1. Introduction 

5 

Adult Work-Related Education 

Chapter 4 examines all courses (including postsecondary courses taken independently of a 

postsecondary credential program) taken for work-related reasons by adults age 16 or older who 

are no longer in high school. It describes adult participants in work-related courses in 2005, what 

they studied, and the providers of this work-related education. The chapter also presents data on 

the extent to which work-related courses involve employer requirements or educational or occupational credentialing, and how participants’ employers supported their work-related coursetaking. Finally, chapter 4 describes the outcomes of participation in work-related courses. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
7 

2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

At the high school level, career and technical education (CTE) encompasses the fields of 

study shown in exhibit 1.1. Family and consumer sciences education prepares students for roles 

outside the paid labor market. General labor market preparation teaches general employment 

skills such as word processing and introductory technology skills, among others. The occupational programs teach skills required in specific occupations or occupational clusters. This chapter focuses primarily on the occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1.6 

The chapter describes the types of institutions that offer CTE at the high school level, the 

types of CTE programs offered to high school students, the CTE courses that secondary students 

take, and academic coursetaking and achievement of high school CTE participants. This report 

does not present information on those who teach CTE to high school students. It was determined 

during preparation of this report that the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), which is a primary 

source of national data on K–12 teachers and schools, undercounted area CTE schools serving 

high school students. The 1999–2000 SASS described only 43 percent of the universe of area 

CTE schools, while the 2003–04 SASS described only 64 percent of this universe. The magnitude of the undercount of high school CTE teachers—due to the undercount of area CTE 

schools—is not known. Because of the undercount, the Technical Review Panel for Career/Technical Education Statistics recommended in 2006 that NCES not present data on high 

school CTE teachers based on existing SASS surveys. Steps are being taken to improve the coverage of area CTE schools—and thus high school CTE teachers—in the 2007–08 SASS survey. 

This chapter presents findings on differences between relevant groups that were statistically 

significant (sometimes referred to as measurably different)7 and also substantively different, the 

latter defined as a difference of at least 3 percentage points or the equivalent.8 Statistically significant differences of a magnitude smaller than 3 percentage points or the equivalent are generally not reported. Some of the data presented about institutions that provide CTE come from the 

 

6 More detail on the classification system in exhibit 1.1 is provided in appendix A. 

7 The statistical significance of a difference was determined using a Student’s t test and an alpha level of .05, as described in 

appendix A. Adjustments were not made for multiple comparisons. 

8 On a scale that ranged from 0 to 10 credits, for example, the equivalent substantive difference would be 0.3 credits. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

8 

Common Core of Data (CCD), which is a universe survey;9 significance testing was not conducted on these data. 

A. WHAT INSTITUTIONS PROVIDE CTE? 

At the high school level, CTE is provided in three main settings: comprehensive high 

schools, full-time CTE high schools, and area or regional CTE schools serving multiple high 

schools (Silverberg et al. 2004).10 Comprehensive high schools typically have an academic focus, 

but also offer CTE either on or off site, the latter often at an area CTE school. Full-time CTE 

high schools emphasize CTE, but also offer academic coursework; students typically spend their 

entire school day at the school. Area CTE schools provide CTE part time to students who receive 

all or most of their academic instruction at their home high school. These schools may also serve 

postsecondary and adult students. 

Information on this diverse set of institutions providing CTE was obtained from several 

sources. The Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) described U.S. schools serving 

10th-graders full time in 2002, including comprehensive high schools and full-time CTE high 

schools. ELS:2002 also indicated whether these full-time high schools were served by area CTE 

schools. An independent tally of area CTE schools for 2001–02 was obtained from the CCD and 

the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), including a review of these 

schools by the state directors of career and technical education. For consistency, all of these data 

collections are referred to as describing the year 2002. Additional information on these datasets 

can be found in appendix A. 

High School Providers of CTE 

There were approximately 18,000 public high schools in the United States in 2002 (table 

2.1).11 Of these, 5 percent were full-time CTE high schools (about 900 such schools). An additional 46 percent were comprehensive high schools served by area CTE schools (about 8,000 

schools), and the remaining 49 percent were comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE 

schools (about 9,000 schools). The majority (88 percent) of public high schools offered at least 

one occupational program in 2002, either on or off site (table 2.2). In addition to all full-time 

CTE high schools offering such programs, 91 percent of comprehensive high schools served by 

 

9 Universe surveys contain data on the full population of interest, as opposed to a sample of the population. 

10 Silverberg et al. (2004) used the term “vocational” instead of CTE. 

11 The sample included all schools with a 10th grade, referred to in this report as high schools. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

9 

area CTE schools and 84 percent of comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE schools 

reported offering occupational programs either on or off site in 2002. 

Table 2.1.—Number and percentage distribution of public and private schools with a 10th grade, by school type

Table 2.1.—and sector: 2002 

Comprehensive Comprehensive

high school served high school

Full-time CTE by an area not served by

School sector Total high school CTE school an area CTE school

Public

Number 18,000 900 8,200 8,900

Percentage 100.0 5.2 45.6 49.2

Private

Number 6,300 ‡ ‡ 6,000

Percentage 100.0 0.2 ! 4.1 ! 95.7

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

School type

Table 2.2.—Percentage of public and private schools with a 10th grade offering occupational programs, by

Table 2.2.—program location, school sector, and type: 2002 

School sector and type Total On site Off site1

 All public schools 88.1 82.9 53.1

Full-time CTE high school 100.0 100.0 44.1

Comprehensive high school served by an area CTE school1 90.8 86.4 77.0

Comprehensive high school not served by an area CTE school 84.2 77.7 31.3

 All private schools 29.2 25.4 10.9 !

Full-time CTE high school ‡ ‡ ‡

Comprehensive high school served by an area CTE school ‡ ‡ ‡

Comprehensive high school not served by an area CTE school 29.3 25.6 10.2 !

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1

 Off-site locations may include area CTE schools, postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, and other locations.

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

10 

There were approximately 6,000 private high schools in the United States in 2002, the vast 

majority (96 percent) of which were private comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE 

schools (table 2.1). About 29 percent of these latter private comprehensive high schools offered 

at least one occupational program either on or off site (table 2.2). Because of the lower incidence 

of CTE in private high schools and the federal interest in CTE in public schools, the rest of this 

section focuses on CTE in public high schools.12

It should be noted that because of the relatively small number of public full-time CTE high 

schools in the ELS:2002 sample (47 such schools), some apparent differences between full-time 

CTE schools and other schools are not measurably different. 

Public High School Characteristics 

In comparison with comprehensive high schools, full-time CTE high schools were larger. 

Specifically, a larger percentage of full-time CTE high schools than of both types of comprehensive high schools enrolled 600 or more students (82 vs. 41–45 percent) (table 2.3). Because fulltime CTE high schools tended to be larger than comprehensive high schools, they represented a 

larger percentage of students than of schools. That is, while full-time CTE high schools represented 5 percent of all public high schools in 2002 (table 2.1), they enrolled 9 percent of all public 10th-graders in this year (table 2.4). In 2002, comprehensive high schools served by area CTE 

schools enrolled 42 percent of 10th-graders, and stand-alone comprehensive high schools enrolled 49 percent of 10th-graders. 

In addition, a larger percentage of full-time CTE high schools than comprehensive high 

schools reported moderately high levels of poverty (defined as having between 31 and 50 percent 

of students eligible for the National School Lunch Program [NSLP]) (table 2.3). Specifically, 

about half of full-time CTE high schools (52 percent) had this level of student poverty, while 19–

21 percent of comprehensive high schools did. 

A larger percentage of full-time CTE high schools than comprehensive high schools served 

by area CTE schools (51 vs. 27 percent) reported that between 1 and 10 percent of their students 

were limited English proficient (LEP), while a larger percentage of comprehensive high schools 

served by area CTE schools than full-time CTE high schools enrolled no limited-Englishproficient students (69 vs. 41 percent) (table 2.3). Comprehensive high schools not served by 

area CTE schools were more often located in the West than both other types of high schools (31 

 

12 At the secondary education level, the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006 provides 

annual grants to local educational agencies to support their CTE programs; funds are generally not provided to private secondary 

schools (P.L. 109-270, section 131). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

11 

Table 2.3.—Percentage distribution of each type of public school with a 10th grade, by selected school

Table 2.3.—characteristics: 2002

Comprehensive Comprehensive

high school high school

Full-time CTE served by an not served by an

School characteristic Total high school area CTE school area CTE school

School size

1–599 students 55.2 18.1 ! 55.3 59.1

600–1,199 students 25.6 51.0 28.3 20.4

1,200–1,999 students 13.3 24.7 11.9 13.5

2,000 or more students 5.8 6.2 ! 4.5 7.0

Served by an area CTE school

Yes 48.0 43.3 100.0 †

No 52.0 56.7 † 100.0

District type

Multiple high school district 45.4 52.3 46.2 44.0

Single high school district 54.6 47.7 53.8 56.0

Locale

Urban 15.1 18.9 7.1 22.1

Suburban 41.4 57.8 46.2 35.3

Rural 43.5 23.2 ! 46.7 42.6

Region

Northeast 14.7 28.5 15.9 12.3

Midwest 28.4 28.5 35.9 21.5

South 36.1 33.6 37.3 35.4

West 20.7 9.4 ! 11.0 30.9

School Title I status

All students eligible 16.1 20.0 ! 17.5 14.4

Some students eligible 16.3 9.4 ! 24.4 9.6

Not a Title I school 67.6 70.6 58.1 76.0

Percent of students eligible for NSLP

0–10 percent 20.2 15.9 ! 25.4 16.2

11–30 percent 38.8 22.6 38.5 40.8

31–50 percent 21.6 52.1 18.6 20.9

More than 50 percent 19.4 9.4 ! 17.5 22.1

See notes at end of table.

School type
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

12 

Table 2.3.—Percentage distribution of each type of public school with a 10th grade, by selected school

Table 2.3.—characteristics: 2002—Continued

Comprehensive Comprehensive

high school high school

Full-time CTE served by an not served by an

School characteristic Total high school area CTE school area CTE school

Percent of students with an IEP

0–5 percent 28.4 15.9 ! 29.5 28.8

6–10 percent 29.8 36.2 29.8 29.1

11–15 percent 23.2 30.7 24.4 21.2

More than 15 percent 18.5 17.3 ! 16.3 20.8

Percent of students who were LEP

0 percent 60.4 41.2 69.5 53.8

1–10 percent 33.8 51.2 26.8 38.6

More than 10 percent 5.8 7.6 ! 3.7 7.6

High school exit exam status

Required 56.1 78.1 50.6 59.0

Not required 43.9 21.9 ! 49.4 41.0

† Not applicable.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Title I provides federal dollars to help supplement educational opportunities for 

children who live in high poverty areas. A school is eligible to become a schoolwide program when the poverty level, (determined 

by free and reduced lunch counts, AFDC, census or Medicaid) is at or above 40 percent of students. NSLP is the National School 

Lunch Program. IEP is an Individualized Education Plan. LEP is limited English proficient. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

School type

Table 2.4.—Percentage distribution of public school 10th-graders, by school type: 2002

School type Percent

Full-time CTE high school 8.6

Comprehensive high school served by an area CTE school 42.0

Comprehensive high school not served by an area CTE school 49.4

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Student Questionnaire Base Year: 10th Grade.”
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

13 

vs. 9–11 percent). Compared with stand-alone comprehensive high schools, comprehensive high 

schools served by area CTE schools were more often located in the Midwest (36 vs. 22 percent) 

and less often in urban areas (7 vs. 22 percent). 

Area CTE Schools and Other Providers 

While the ELS:2002 survey provided a count of high schools served by area CTE schools, 

it did not provide an accounting of the area CTE schools themselves. Data compiled from the 

Common Core of Data (CCD), the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 

and a review by the state directors of career and technical education indicated that there were approximately 1,200 area CTE schools in 41 states as of 2002 (table 2.5). The largest concentration 

Table 2.5.—Number of area career and technical education (CTE) schools, by state: 2002

State Total State Total

 All states 1,191

Alabama 61 Montana 0

Alaska 2 Nebraska 0

Arizona 11 Nevada 0

Arkansas 23 New Hampshire 27

California 59 New Jersey 55

Colorado 11 New Mexico 5

Connecticut 0 New York 38

Delaware 0 North Carolina 9

District of Columbia 0 North Dakota 7

Florida 37 Ohio 59

Georgia 0 Oklahoma 54

Hawaii 0 Oregon 2

Idaho 10 Pennsylvania 81

Illinois 26 Rhode Island 11

Indiana 29 South Carolina 40

Iowa 0 South Dakota 5

Kansas 1 Tennessee 24

Kentucky 68 Texas 14

Louisiana 11 Utah 10

Maine 27 Vermont 17

Maryland 15 Virginia 49

Massachusetts 1 Washington 10

Michigan 62 West Virginia 31

Minnesota 29 Wisconsin 14

Mississippi 90 Wyoming 0

Missouri 56

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 2001–02 and 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 2001–02; and a review by the state directors of career and technical

education.
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

14 

of area CTE schools was in the South (with 44 percent of these schools), followed by the Midwest (24 percent), Northeast (22 percent), and West (10 percent) (table 2.6). Compared with the 

distributions of public high schools and public high school students by region of the country, area 

CTE schools were more often located in the South and Northeast and less often located in the 

West. That is, relative to the number of high schools and students in these regions, area CTE 

schools were overrepresented in the South and Northeast and underrepresented in the West (44 

percent of area CTE schools vs. 34–36 percent of public schools and students in the South; 22 

percent vs. 15–18 percent in the Northeast; and 10 percent vs. 21–23 percent in the West). 

Table 2.6.—Percentage distribution of area career and technical education (CTE) schools, public schools with a 10th

Table 2.6.—grade, and public 10th-grade students, by region: 2002

Schools and students Total Northeast Midwest South West

Area CTE schools 100.0 21.6 24.2 44.2 10.1

Public schools with a 10th grade 100.0 14.7 28.4 36.1 20.7

Public 10th-grade students 100.0 17.8 24.5 34.2 23.4

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), 2001–02; Integrated 

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 2001–02; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “School 

Administrator Questionnaire Base Year” and “Student Questionnaire Base Year: 10th Grade”; and a review by the state directors of

career and technical education.

While the primary providers of CTE at the secondary education level include full-time CTE 

high schools, comprehensive high schools, and area CTE schools, high school students may also 

take CTE coursework at postsecondary institutions or other locations (Karp et al. 2007). For example, Waits, Setzer, and Lewis (2005) found that 46 percent of public high schools in 2003 offered dual-credit CTE courses that were taught on a postsecondary institution campus. 

Additionally, in some states (such as Michigan) students enrolled at one comprehensive high 

school may take CTE courses at another comprehensive high school, and in other states, private 

school students may take CTE coursework at public schools.13 These variations in institutions 

providing CTE may be captured in the “off site” column in table 2.2. Thus, the 31 percent of 

public comprehensive high schools and 10 percent of private comprehensive high schools not

served by area CTE schools that reported offering occupational programs off site may have offered these programs at postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, or other locations. 

 

13 Information was obtained from the state directors of career and technical education during their review of the tally of area 

CTE schools obtained from the Common Core of Data (CCD) and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 

as described earlier in this chapter. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

15 

B. WHAT PROGRAMS ARE OFFERED? 

Information on high school CTE offerings was obtained from the Education Longitudinal 

Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), which surveyed U.S. schools enrolling 10th-graders in 2002. 

ELS:2002 also provided information on the career-related activities and work-based learning experiences offered by these schools. Information on high schools offering career academies14 was 

obtained from the 2003–04 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS:2004), which described U.S. 

schools enrolling 12th-graders in 2004.15 For simplicity’s sake, these schools serving 10th- or 

12th-graders are referred to in this report as high schools. Additional information on these datasets can be found in appendix A. 

Occupational Program Offerings 

As noted previously, the majority (88 percent) of public high schools offered occupational 

programs either on or off site in 2002 (table 2.2). On average, public high schools offered nine 

such programs16 (table 2.7), the most common of which were business and computer technology, 

with 97 and 94 percent of public high schools with occupational programs offering these two 

programs, respectively (table 2.8). 

In contrast, a minority (29 percent) of private high schools offered occupational programs 

in 2002 (table 2.2), and private high schools offered two such programs on average (table 2.7). 

The two most common private school programs were the same as those in public schools: computer technology and business, with 80 and 67 percent of private high schools with occupational 

programs offering these two programs, respectively (table 2.8).17 Because of the lower incidence 

of occupational program offerings in private high schools and the federal interest in CTE in public schools, the rest of this section focuses on public high schools. 

As noted in the previous section, the relatively small number of public full-time CTE high 

schools in the ELS:2002 sample (47 such schools) may contribute to some apparent differences 

between public full-time CTE high schools and other schools not being measurable. 

 

14 A career academy is a multiyear high school program in which the curriculum integrates academic and CTE courses, organized around one or more broad career themes. 

15 A recent study (Stone, Kowske, and Alfeld 2004) used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to examine 

CTE program offerings during the 1990s, concluding that CTE programs were strengthened and new programs created during 

this decade.

16 The average number of programs is based on all schools, including those that offered no programs. 

17 Possibly due to the small number of private high schools offering occupational programs in ELS:2002 (39 such schools), the 

percentage of private high schools offering business was only measurably larger than the percentage offering protective services, 

trade and industry/transportation, and other technology, and the percentage of private high schools offering computer technology 

was only measurably larger than the percentage offering these same three programs as well as agriculture and miscellaneous other 

occupational programs. Other apparent differences were not statistically significant. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

16 

Table 2.7.—Average number of occupational programs offered in public high schools, by program location, school 

Table 2.7.—sector, and type: 2002

School sector and type Total On site Off site1

 All public schools 8.57 5.00 3.57

Full-time CTE high school 10.11 7.75 2.35

Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 9.83 4.11 5.72

Comprehensive high school not served 

 by an area CTE school 7.20 5.57 1.64 !

 All private schools 2.26 ! 1.49 ! 0.77 !

Full-time CTE high school ‡ ‡ ‡

Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school ‡ ‡ ‡

Comprehensive high school not served 

 by an area CTE school 2.20 ! 1.50 ! 0.70 !

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1

 Off-site locations may include area CTE schools, postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, and other locations.

NOTE: The average number of programs is based on all public schools, including those that offered no programs. CTE is career 

and technical education. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

Location of Program Offerings 

The majority (83 percent) of public high schools offered occupational programs on site, 

while about half (53 percent) offered programs off site, as described in the previous section on 

institutions that provide high school CTE (table 2.2). On average, public high schools offered 

five on-site occupational programs and four off-site ones (table 2.7). In keeping with the overall 

pattern for offerings, the most common on-site occupational programs were business and computer technology, with 81 and 77 percent of occupational program providers offering these two 

programs, respectively, on site (table 2.9). In contrast, the most common off-site programs included mechanics and repair (45 percent), construction (41 percent), health care (40 percent), and 

personal and other services (35 percent).18

Full-time CTE high schools and comprehensive high schools served by area CTE schools 

offered a larger number of occupational programs on average than did comprehensive high 

schools not served by area CTE schools (10 programs each vs. 7 programs) (table 2.7). Full-time 

 

18 Differences between these four programs and the category “other occupational” programs were generally not measurable. 
Table 2.8.—Percentage of public and private schools with a 10th grade that offered occupational programs, by program type offered a

Com- 

muni- Com- Trade and Child 

cations puter Other Mechan- industry/ Precision care and Pro- 

School Agricul- Busi- Mar- tech- tech- tech- Construc- ics and transpor- pro- Health edu- tective sector ture ness keting nology nology nology tion repair tation duction care cation services All public 

 schools 62.4 96.5 57.9 53.6 94.4 58.3 73.5 81.9 28.8 78.9 64.9 68.3 25.8 

All private 

 schools 28.7 ! 67.1 40.6 ! 42.4 80.0 12.5 ! 55.8 51.2 13.4 ! 48.0 52.5 58.5 1.9 ! 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “School Administrator 

_______

17
Table 2.9.—Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade that offered occupational programs, by program type offered, school type, 

Table 2.9.—2002

Trade and

Com- indus- Child 

muni- Com- Me- try/ Pre- care Pro- 

cations puter Other Con- chanics trans- cision and tective 

School type Agricul- Busi- Mar- tech- tech- tech- struc- and por- produc- Health edu- ser- and program location ture ness keting nology nology nology tion repair tation tion care cation vices 

 All schools 62.4 96.5 57.9 53.6 94.4 58.3 73.5 81.9 28.8 78.9 64.9 68.3 25.8 

Full-time CTE high school 60.7 91.0 68.5 56.1 100.0 57.8 84.6 81.9 33.5 89.5 62.7 73.4 40.0 Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 70.0 98.1 60.5 56.5 96.0 61.7 86.9 89.4 32.9 88.1 81.3 74.7 30.6 

Comprehensive high school not 

 served by an area CTE school 54.8 95.6 54.0 50.2 92.1 54.9 58.3 74.3 23.9 68.4 48.2 61.1 19.0  All schools offering on-site 

 program 49.9 80.8 43.4 38.6 77.5 33.5 32.5 36.9 11.3 51.5 25.1 45.0 6.2 

Full-time CTE high school 50.5 86.0 63.1 48.3 88.3 40.9 53.3 53.3 23.8 ! 80.3 44.4 58.6 20.1 Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 54.9 76.9 38.1 33.2 66.8 23.1 23.4 17.7 5.9 37.8 14.9 39.5 1.4 

Comprehensive high school not 

 served by an area CTE school 44.6 84.1 46.5 42.9 86.5 43.4 39.4 54.3 15.5 61.8 33.1 48.9 9.6  All schools offering off-site 

 program

1 12.5 15.7 14.5 15.0 16.9 24.9 41.0 45.1 17.5 27.4 39.8 23.3 19.6 

Full-time CTE high school 10.2 ! 5.0 ! 5.3 ! 7.8 ! 11.7 ! 16.9 ! 31.2 28.6 9.7 ! 9.2 ! 18.3 14.8 ! 20.0 Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 15.1 21.2 22.3 23.3 29.2 38.6 63.4 71.7 27.0 50.3 66.5 35.2 29.2 

Comprehensive high school not 

 served by an area CTE school 10.1 ! 11.5 ! 7.5 ! 7.3 ! 5.6 ! 11.5 19.0 20.0 8.4 ! 6.6 ! 15.0 12.2 9.4 

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Off-site locations may include area CTE schools, postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, and other locations.

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “School Administrator 

_______

18
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

19 

CTE high schools offered the largest number of on-site occupational programs (8 vs. 4–6 programs), while comprehensive high schools served by area CTE schools offered the largest number of off-site programs (6 vs. 2 programs each). 

Among those schools that offered occupational programs, a smaller percentage of comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE schools than both other school types offered programs in construction (58 vs. 85–87 percent), precision production (68 vs. 88–89 percent), and 

personal and other services (35 vs. 59 percent each) (table 2.9). 

Occupational Programs Available to Students 

Because students were distributed unevenly among schools (as seen in the previous section 

on the institutions that deliver high school CTE), the pattern of students with occupational programs available to them differed somewhat from the pattern of schools offering these programs. 

For example, while public high schools offered on average 9 occupational programs (table 2.7), 

public high school students had on average 10 such programs available to them in 2002 (table 

2.10). Students in full-time CTE high schools and in comprehensive high schools served by area 

CTE schools had a larger number of occupational programs available to them than did their peers 

in comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE schools (10–11 vs. 9 programs). 

Table 2.10.—Percentage of 10th-graders in public schools offering occupational programs and the average number

Table 2.10.—of occupational programs offered to public school 10th-graders, by program location and school type:

Table 2.10.—2002

All All

School type locations On site Off site1 locations On site Off site1

 All schools 92.6 90.2 58.4 9.9 6.3 3.6

Full-time CTE high school 100.0 100.0 47.3 11.0 8.5 2.5

Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 91.8 89.0 74.6 10.3 5.1 5.2

Comprehensive high school not served 

 by an area CTE school 92.0 89.6 44.9 9.2 7.0 2.2

1

 Off-site locations may include area CTE schools, postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, and other locations.

NOTE: The average number of programs is based on all public schools, including those that offered no programs. CTE is career 

and technical education. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Student Questionnaire Base Year: 10th Grade” and “School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

Percent of students in schools Average number of 

offering program programs offered
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

20 

Similar to the pattern of school offerings described above, a larger percentage of students in 

schools offering occupational programs had business and computer technology programs available to them than any other occupational program (96–97 vs. 87 percent or less) (table 2.11). A 

smaller percentage of students in comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE schools 

than their peers in the two other high school types were offered programs in construction (65 vs. 

83–93 percent) and agriculture (44 vs. 59–62 percent). 

Characteristics of Schools Offering Occupational Programs 

The largest public high schools (those enrolling 2,000 or more students) offered occupational programs more often than smaller public high schools (99 vs. 86–91 percent), and the largest schools offered the greatest number of occupational programs (11 vs. 8–10 programs) in 2002 

(table 2.12). A higher percentage of rural high schools than either urban or suburban high schools 

offered occupational programs (95 vs. 71–86 percent), although suburban schools offered a larger 

number of such programs than did urban schools (9 vs. 7 programs). A higher percentage of public high schools located in the Midwest than those in the Northeast offered occupational programs (95 vs. 71 percent), and the schools in the Midwest offered more such programs than 

schools in either the Northeast or West (10 vs. 7–8 programs). A higher percentage of high 

schools in which more than 10 percent of students were limited English proficient than schools 

with fewer or no limited-English-proficient students offered occupational programs (100 vs. 86–

90 percent); schools with no limited-English-proficient students offered fewer programs than 

schools with at least some limited-English-proficient students (8 vs. 10 programs each). No 

measurable differences were found in the percentage of high schools offering occupational programs or in the average number of such programs offered by high schools based on their Title I 

status, percentage of students who participated in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP), 

percentage of students with an individualized education program (IEP), district type, or whether 

the school had a high school exit exam. 

Other Related Offerings 

Career Plans, Career Majors, Work-Based Learning, and Career Academies 

As of 2002, most public high schools reported that at least some of their students had developed a career plan19 (90 percent) or had selected a career major or pathway20 (86 percent) dur- 

 

19 A career plan is a written plan of study based on the student’s career interests. 

20 A career major or pathway specifies the academic and CTE courses to be taken by a student. 
Table 2.11.—Percentage of 10th-graders in public schools that offered occupational programs, by program type offered and school typ

Trade and

Com- indus- Child 

muni- Com- Me- try/ Pre- care Pr

cations puter Other Con- chanics trans- cision and tectiv

Agricul- Busi- Mar- tech- tech- tech- struc- and por- produc- Health edu- se

School type ture ness keting nology nology nology tion repair tation tion care cation vic

 All schools 52.6 96.2 73.9 67.3 97.1 66.0 75.6 80.6 34.6 86.8 75.0 78.2 31

Full-time CTE high school 62.1 94.5 85.8 71.5 100.0 63.7 93.4 78.8 35.7 89.2 79.3 83.6 44Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 59.5 97.8 75.8 68.5 96.7 67.6 83.0 87.3 36.2 89.7 81.5 77.3 32

Comprehensive high school not 

 served by an area CTE school 44.0 94.9 69.8 65.4 96.8 64.8 65.1 74.5 32.7 83.7 67.9 77.9 28

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Student Questionnairand “School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

_______

21
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

22 

Table 2.12.—Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade offering occupational programs and the average

Table 2.12.—number of occupational programs offered, by program location and selected school characteristics:

Table 2.12.—2002 

School characteristic Total On site Off site1 Total On site Off site1

 All schools 88.1 82.9 53.1 8.57 5.00 3.57

School size

1–599 students 86.3 80.5 50.0 7.60 4.24 3.36

600–1,199 students 86.8 80.3 54.6 9.26 5.34 3.91

1,200–1,999 students 90.8 89.8 53.7 9.72 6.42 3.30

2,000 or more students 99.4 98.0 68.7 11.41 7.35 4.06

Locale

Urban 71.5 70.2 43.2 6.86 4.16 2.70

Suburban 86.1 81.2 55.3 9.39 5.65 3.74

Rural 95.1 88.4 54.3 8.36 4.68 3.68

Region

Northeast 70.6 68.1 53.0 7.04 3.26 3.79

Midwest 94.6 90.8 61.9 10.02 5.58 4.43

South 88.8 84.3 50.5 8.53 4.86 3.67

West 89.6 79.4 45.7 7.67 5.66 2.00

Title I status

All students eligible 81.3 70.9 48.9 7.43 3.14 4.29

Some students eligible 93.0 91.5 61.3 8.50 4.86 3.65

Not a Title I school 87.1 82.8 52.4 8.66 5.39 3.27

Percent of students eligible for NSLP

0–10 percent 81.2 80.5 62.1 9.00 4.50 4.50

11–30 percent 90.9 87.0 47.2 8.98 5.98 3.00

31–50 percent 93.9 83.3 56.4 7.89 4.38 3.51

More than 50 percent 83.1 81.6 39.2 7.16 4.73 2.42

Percent of students with an IEP

0–5 percent 87.2 81.4 51.8 8.38 4.28 4.10

6–10 percent 86.2 84.6 49.9 8.94 5.79 3.14

11–15 percent 96.0 82.9 60.9 8.65 4.92 3.73

More than 15 percent 87.3 86.0 54.2 8.60 5.00 3.60

Percent of students who were LEP

0 percent 85.9 78.3 52.3 7.74 4.23 3.51

1–10 percent 90.1 88.4 54.8 9.98 6.10 3.88

More than 10 percent 100.0 99.0 57.2 9.77 6.95 2.82

See notes at end of table.

Percent offering programs Average number of programs
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

23 

Table 2.12.—Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade offering occupational programs and the average

Table 2.12.—number of occupational programs offered, by program location and selected school characteristics:

Table 2.12.—2002—Continued

School characteristic Total On site Off site1 Total On site Off site1

District type

Multiple high schools 87.6 83.6 58.8 9.24 5.28 3.97

Single high school 88.4 82.4 48.7 8.05 4.79 3.26

Exit exam

Required 85.7 81.2 51.0 8.31 5.06 3.25

Not required 91.0 84.9 56.0 8.88 4.90 3.98

1

 Off-site locations may include area CTE schools, postsecondary institutions, other full-time high schools, and other locations.

NOTE: The average number of programs is based on all public schools, including those that offered no programs. CTE is career 

and technical education. Title I provides federal dollars to help supplement educational opportunities for children who live in 

high poverty areas. A school is eligible to become a schoolwide program when the poverty level, (determined by free and 

reduced lunch counts, AFDC, census or Medicaid) is at or above 40 percent of students. NSLP is the National School Lunch 

Program. IEP is an Individualized Education Program designed for students with disabilities. LEP is limited English proficient.

Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

Percent offering programs Average number of programs

ing high school (table 2.13). A larger percentage of full-time CTE high schools than comprehensive high schools not served by area CTE schools reported that at least some of their students had 

selected a career major or pathway (95 vs. 82 percent). In the same year, most public high 

schools (85 percent) offered some type of work-based learning21 to 10th-graders (table 2.14), 

most commonly job shadowing22 and community service (52–57 vs. 25–27 percent for all other 

learning experiences). A higher percentage of full-time CTE high schools than comprehensive 

high schools served by area CTE schools offered internships to 10th-graders (44 vs. 22 percent), 

while a higher percentage of comprehensive high schools served by area CTE schools than standalone comprehensive high schools offered job shadowing to these students (65 vs. 49 percent). 

As of 2004, 21 percent of public schools with a 12th grade offered career academies23 (table 2.15). The percentage offering career academies increased as school size increased and as the 

percentage of minority students in a school increased. Career academies were more common in 

urban public high schools than in rural public high schools (29 vs. 15 percent). 

 

21 Work-based learning provides supervised learning activities for students that occur in paid or unpaid workplace assignments, 

and for which course credit is awarded. 

22 Job shadowing teaches students about a job by having students follow the schedule of a person who holds that job. 

23 A career academy is a multiyear high school program in which the curriculum integrates academic and CTE courses, organized around one or more broad career themes. These data on offerings in public schools with a 12th grade were obtained from 

SASS:04. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

24 

Table 2.13.—Percentage distribution of public schools with a 10th grade offering selected career-related activities,

Table 2.13.—by extent of activity and school type: 2002 

No Some All No Some All

students students students students students students

School type develop develop develop select select select

 All schools 9.8 33.2 57.0 14.5 44.7 40.9

Full-time CTE high school 8.5 ! 26.5 ! 65.0 4.5 ! 43.7 51.8

Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 11.7 26.0 62.3 11.6 48.0 40.5

Comprehensive high school not served 

 by an area CTE school 8.2 ! 40.8 51.0 18.3 41.6 40.1

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. A career plan is a written plan of study based on the student’s career interests. A 

career major or pathway specifies the academic and career and technical education courses to be taken by a student. Detail may 

not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”

Career plan Career major or pathway

Table 2.14.—Percentage of public schools with a 10th grade offering selected work-based learning experiences to

Table 2.14.—their 10th-graders, by school type: 2002 

Any Coop- Schoolwork- Job Com- erative based

based shadow- munity edu- enter- Intern- MenSchool type learning ing service cation prise ship toring

 All schools 85.3 56.8 52.1 26.9 25.5 25.2 25.0

Full-time CTE high school 76.9 60.5 52.1 40.4 28.8 43.6 41.9

Comprehensive high school served 

 by an area CTE school 86.7 64.5 45.0 23.9 22.1 21.6 23.2

Comprehensive high school not served 

 by an area CTE school 84.8 49.0 58.9 28.4 28.5 26.7 25.1

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Job shadowing teaches students about a job by having students follow the schedule 

of a person who holds that job. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“School Administrator Questionnaire Base Year.”
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

25 

Table 2.15.—Percentage and number of public schools with a 12th grade that offered career academies, by 

Table 2.15.—selected school characteristics: 2004 

 

School characteristic Percent Number

 All schools 21.5 4,800

School size

1–599 students 13.7 1,800

600–1,199 students 25.5 1,200

1,200–1,999 students 39.5 1,200

2,000 or more students 45.4 600

Locale

Urban 29.2 1,300

Suburban 23.8 2,200

Rural 15.2 1,300

Percent minority students

1–10 percent 17.1 —

11–30 percent 21.2 —

31–50 percent 28.2 —

More than 50 percent 26.6 —

— Not available due to some schools having missing data for the percentage of minority students. 

NOTE: Area CTE schools were not fully included in the data collection and thus are not included in this table. Career academy is a 

multi-year high school program in which the curriculum integrates academic and career and technical education courses, 

organized around one or more broad career themes. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), “Public School 

Questionnaire,” 2003–04.

C. WHO PARTICIPATES AND WHAT COURSES DO THEY TAKE? 

Information on the coursetaking patterns of high school students was obtained from the 

High School Transcript Studies (HSTS) of 1990, 2000, and 2005, which collected transcripts for 

a nationally representative sample of high school graduates from the classes of 1990, 2000, and 

2005.24 The sample was further restricted for this analysis to graduates with complete transcripts 

who earned either a regular or honors high school diploma.25 The transcripts contained information on the courses students took during high school and the credits they earned in those courses. 

Analysts translated the various credits reported on transcripts into standard Carnegie units, where 

one Carnegie unit is awarded for a class that meets one period per day for the entire school year, 

 

24 A recent study (Stone and Aliaga 2003) used student interview data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to 

examine high school student participation in CTE programs during the late 1990s.

25 The diploma restriction excluded students who completed high school with either a certificate of attendance or general educational development (GED) credential. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

26 

or the equivalent instructional time.26 For simplicity’s sake, the term “credits” is used in this report in place of “Carnegie units.” Courses were classified as academic, career and technical education (CTE), or enrichment/other (as shown in exhibit 1.1) based on the Secondary School 

Taxonomy (SST) developed by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (Bradby and 

Hoachlander 1999).27 CTE courses were then subdivided into the three areas of family and consumer sciences education, general labor market preparation, and occupational programs. This 

section focuses primarily on occupational coursetaking as of 2005 and on changes in this coursetaking between 1990 and 2005. Coursetaking in 2000 is only discussed when it was substantially 

different from the overall trend between 1990 and 2005. Additional information on these datasets 

and the classification used in this section can be found in appendix A. 

Occupational Coursetaking as of 2005 

Most public high school graduates took occupational coursework: about 92 percent of public high school graduates from the class of 2005 took at least one occupational course (table 

2.16). Approximately 1 in 5 public high school graduates (21 percent) completed an occupational 

concentration, defined as earning 3.0 or more credits within one of the occupational programs 

shown in exhibit 1.1.28 On average, the 2005 public high school graduates took the equivalent of 

three year-long occupational courses during high school (3.0 credits) (table 2.17). These graduates earned more credits on average in occupational courses than they earned in either fine arts or 

foreign languages (3.0 vs. 2.0 credits each). 

Consistent with findings presented in the previous section on occupational program offerings, the 2005 public high school graduates earned more credits in computer technology and in 

business services than in any other occupational program area (0.6 and 0.4 credits, respectively, 

vs. 0.2 or fewer credits) (table 2.17). Higher percentages of 2005 public high school graduates 

concentrated (earning 3.0 or more credits) in the areas of computer technology and agriculture 

than in any other occupational program area (3 vs. 2 percent or less of graduates) (table 2.18). 

Thus, while graduates earned fewer credits on average in agriculture than in computer technology 

 

26 In each HSTS, analysts translate the various credits reported on transcripts into standard Carnegie units. See Roey et al. (2001) 

for a description of the procedures used to collect and summarize the 1998 HSTS, procedures that were similar to those used in 

1990, 2000, and 2005. 

27 The Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) was first developed in 1987, and revised in 1998. It was revised again in 2007 

(Bradby 2007), although not in time for the analysis stage of this report. Thus, this report relies on the 1998 version of the SST. 

The 2007 revision reassigned some occupational courses into different occupational categories, but did not move CTE courses 

out of the CTE curriculum, nor move non-CTE courses into the CTE curriculum. Therefore, applying the 2007 SST to the data 

presented in this report would not alter the overall participation rate in CTE (as measured by percentage of students taking a CTE 

course) nor the average credits earned in CTE. 

28 The 1990 estimate for public high school graduates is lower than the estimate previously published in Levesque (2003b) because an occupational concentration was defined in earlier reports as completing 3.0 or more credits within one of 10 broad occupational program areas, rather than the 18 occupational program areas shown in exhibit 1.1. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

27 

(0.2 vs. 0.6 credits), there was no measurable difference in the percentage of concentrators in 

these two areas (3 percent each) (tables 2.17 and 2.18). 

Table 2.16.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of career and technical education 

Table 2.16.—(CTE) coursework and average credits earned in CTE curricula during high school: 2005

CTE coursework Public school students

Percentage who

Took any CTE courses 96.6

Took any occupational courses 92.0

Completed an occupational concentration 20.8

Average credits earned in

CTE total 4.01

Family and consumer sciences education 0.51

General labor market preparation 0.46

Occupational education, total 3.03

Agriculture 0.23

Business management 0.16

Business services 0.44

Marketing 0.15

Communications technology 0.19

Computer technology 0.55

Other technology credits 0.04

Construction 0.10

Mechanics and repair 0.17

Transportation 0.01

Materials production 0.16

Print production 0.24

Other precision production 0.03

Health care 0.15

Child care and education 0.10

Protective services 0.04

Food service and hospitality 0.09

Personal and other services 0.08

Other1 0.11

1

 Other includes unspecified occupational education coursework.

NOTE: High school graduates include students who completed high school with regular or honors diploma. The diploma 

restriction excluded students who completed high school with either a certificate of attendance or general educational 

development (GED) credential. Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any of the 

occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 2005 High School Transcript Study (HSTS).
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

28 

Table 2.17.—Average credits earned during high school by public high school graduates, by curricular area: 

Table 2.17.—1990, 2000, and 2005

Curricular area 1990 2000 2005

 All curricular areas 23.53 25.93 26.67

Academic total 16.66 18.83 19.44

Core academics total 13.57 14.89 15.42

English 4.19 4.38 4.42

Mathematics 3.15 3.50 3.67

Social studies 3.47 3.82 3.98

Science 2.75 3.20 3.34

Fine arts 1.55 2.03 2.05

Foreign languages 1.54 1.91 1.97

Enrichment/other 2.68 2.89 3.23

CTE total 4.19 4.20 4.01

Family and consumer sciences education 0.57 0.49 0.51

General labor market preparation, total 0.73 0.69 0.46

Career preparation/general work experience 0.17 0.28 0.23

Technology education 0.01 0.07 0.08

Miscellaneous other 0.01 0.01 0.02

Industrial arts 0.10 0.08 0.04

Basic keyboarding/typewriting 0.45 0.26 0.09

Occupational education, total 2.89 3.03 3.03

Agriculture 0.20 0.25 0.23

Business management 0.16 0.16 0.16

Business services 0.72 0.58 0.44

Marketing 0.16 0.16 0.15

Communications technology 0.09 0.15 0.19

Computer technology 0.30 0.42 0.55

Other technology credits 0.01 0.05 0.04

Construction 0.10 0.11 0.10

Mechanics and repair 0.20 0.19 0.17

Transportation 0.01 0.01 0.01

Materials production 0.23 0.16 0.16

Print production 0.25 0.27 0.24

Other precision production 0.09 0.06 0.03

Health care 0.04 0.13 0.15

Child care and education 0.06 0.09 0.10

Protective services # 0.03 0.04

Food service and hospitality 0.04 0.05 0.09

Personal and other services 0.10 0.08 0.08

Other1 0.13 0.08 0.11

# Rounds to zero.

1

 Other includes unspecified occupational education coursework.

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Change calculations were based on unrounded numbers. Detail may not sum to totals 

because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

29 

Table 2.18.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of career and technical education 

Table 2.18.—(CTE) coursework and concentrating in various occupational programs during high school: 1990, 

Table 2.18.—2000, and 2005

CTE coursework 1990 2000 2005

Took any CTE courses 98.0 96.6 96.6

Took any occupational courses 90.6 90.9 92.0

Completed an occupational concentration, total 22.8 21.8 20.8

Agriculture 2.9 3.3 3.0

Business management 0.2 ! 0.7 ! 0.7

Business services 6.7 3.8 1.9

Marketing 2.4 2.0 1.5

Communications technology 0.3 0.6 1.2

Computer technology 0.3 1.6 2.7

Other technology credits # 0.2 ! 0.2

Construction 1.3 1.2 1.1

Mechanics and repair 2.5 2.2 2.1

Transportation 0.1 ! 0.1 ! #

Materials production 2.1 1.3 1.5

Print production 2.0 2.0 1.5

Other precision production 0.9 0.4 0.2

Health care 0.6 1.9 2.1

Child care and education 0.3 0.6 0.7

Protective services # 0.2 0.4

Food service and hospitality 0.5 0.6 0.8

Personal and other services 1.4 0.8 0.7

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any of the occupational programs 

shown in exhibit 1.1. Change calculations were based on unrounded numbers. Detail on occupational concentrations sums to

greater than the total because some graduates completed more than one concentration. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).

Trends in Occupational Coursetaking 

Between 1990 and 2005, no measurable changes were detected in the overall occupational 

coursetaking patterns of public high school graduates. About 91–92 percent of students in both 

graduating classes took at least some occupational coursework during high school (table 2.18), 

and graduates from both classes earned on average 2.9–3.0 occupational credits, the equivalent of 

about three year-long courses (table 2.17). About 21–23 percent of graduates in each class completed an occupational concentration (table 2.18), earning 3.0 or more credits in at least one of 

the occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1. 

Some coursetaking shifts were detected, however, among the occupational program areas. 

In 2005, public high school graduates earned more credits on average and concentrated more of-
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

30 

ten in five occupational program areas than in 1990: computer technology, health care, communications technology, child care and education, and protective services (0.04–0.25 more credits 

and 0.4–2.4 increase in percentage of concentrators) (tables 2.17 and 2.18).29 In contrast, 2005 

graduates earned fewer credits on average and concentrated less often than 1990 graduates in 

three occupational program areas: business services, materials production, and other precision 

production (0.1–0.3 fewer credits and 1–5 decrease in percentage of concentrators).30 

Characteristics of Students Who Took Occupational Courses: 2005 

This section examines the occupational coursetaking patterns of public high school graduates based on their race/ethnicity, sex, disability status in grade 12, limited English proficiency in 

grade 12, mathematics coursetaking in grade 9, and the size of the school they attended in grade 

12.31 

Occupational Coursetaking Overall 

Occupational coursetaking was common among public high school graduates, regardless of 

the student characteristics examined.32 As of 2005, 87 percent or more of each student group 

shown in table 2.19 took some occupational coursework in high school, and about 12 percent or 

more of each student group concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in at least one of the occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1 (table 2.19). In addition, each student group earned at 

least 2.0 occupational credits on average. 

Some coursetaking differences among student groups were evident, however. Graduates 

who were male, were disabled as of grade 12, or graduated from smaller schools generally participated more in the occupational curriculum than their classmates who were female, not disabled, or graduated from larger schools, respectively. Specifically, a larger percentage of male 

graduates than female graduates of the class of 2005 took any occupational coursework in high 

school (94 vs. 90 percent) and completed an occupational concentration (25 vs. 17 percent). Male 

graduates also earned more occupational credits on average (3.5 vs. 2.6 credits) (table 2.19). 

 

29 Graduates also earned more credits on average in food service and hospitality and in other technology areas between 1990 and 

2005, and a larger percentage of graduates completed concentrations in business management by 2005. 

30 There was also a smaller percentage of graduates completing an occupational concentration in marketing and in personal and 

other services by 2005 than 1990. 

31 Grade 9 mathematics is used as a measure of academic achievement prior to most of the occupational courses that students 

take in high school. For a more detailed explanation of how this measure is used, see Levesque (2003a). Grade 9 mathematics is 

classified into three categories: geometry or higher-level mathematics, algebra or pre-algebra, and low-level or no mathematics

(low-level mathematics includes general, consumer, or functional mathematics). 

32 A recent study (DeLuca, Plank, and Estacion 2006) using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 also found that the 

majority of high school students participate in CTE courses. This finding held across demographic subgroups. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

31 

Table 2.19.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking different types of occupational coursework and 

Table 2.19.—average credits earned in occupational education by public high school graduates, by selected 

Table 2.19.—student characteristics: 2005

Average credits

Took any Completed earned in

occupational an occupational occupational

Student characteristic coursework concentration education

 All graduates 92.0 20.8 3.03

Race/ethnicity1

White 92.0 21.8 3.13

Black 93.6 21.2 3.02

Hispanic 93.0 18.2 2.80

Asian/Pacific Islander 87.0 12.6 2.26

American Indian 89.3 19.2 2.91

Other 89.3 15.2 2.30

Sex

Male 94.4 25.3 3.49

Female 89.8 16.5 2.59

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 92.2 25.6 3.47

No reported disability 92.3 20.5 2.99

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 91.3 11.8 2.32

No reported limited English proficiency 92.3 21.3 3.05

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 89.9 16.2 2.62

Prealgebra or algebra 92.6 21.7 3.10

Low-level or no mathematics 93.4 25.0 3.47

Size of 12th-grade school

1–499 students 96.3 28.4 3.91

500–999 students 94.5 23.8 3.39

1,000–1,499 students 90.8 21.6 3.04

1,500–1,999 students 91.6 19.3 2.84

2,000 or more students 91.0 16.2 2.63

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes 

Alaska Native. Other includes multiple races. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any one of the occupational 

programs shown in exhibit 1.1. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 2005 High School Transcript Study (HSTS).

Percent of graduates who
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

32 

Graduates with disabilities as of grade 12 earned more occupational credits on average (3.5 vs. 

3.0 credits) and concentrated in an occupational program area more often (26 vs. 21 percent) than 

their classmates without disabilities. Additionally, the percentage of graduates taking any occupational coursework or completing an occupational concentration, and the average number of occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, generally increased as school size 

decreased. 

In contrast, graduates who were Asian, had limited English proficiency (LEP) as of grade 

12, or took high-level mathematics coursework in grade 9 generally participated less in the occupational curriculum than their classmates who were from other racial/ethnic groups, were nonLEP, or took mid- or low-level grade 9 mathematics, respectively. Specifically, the 2005 public 

high school graduates who were Asian earned fewer occupational credits on average (2.3 vs. 2.8–

3.1 credits) and completed an occupational concentration less often (13 vs. 18–22 percent) than 

their classmates from other racial/ethnic groups (table 2.19).33 Additionally, a smaller percentage 

of Asian graduates took any occupational coursework than Black, White, or Hispanic graduates 

(87 vs. 92–94 percent). Graduates with LEP as of grade 12 earned fewer occupational credits on 

average (2.3 vs. 3.1 credits) and completed an occupational concentration less often (12 vs. 21 

percent) than their classmates who were non-LEP. Finally, comparing graduates who took geometry or higher-level mathematics in grade 9 with those who took algebra or lower-level 

mathematics in grade 9, a lower percentage of graduates in the “geometry or higher” group took 

any occupational coursework (90 vs. 93 percent each) and completed an occupational concentration (16 vs. 22–25 percent), and they earned fewer occupational credits on average during high 

school (2.6 vs. 3.1–3.5 credits). 

Participation by Occupational Program Area 

Student participation patterns also varied among the different occupational program areas. 

With regard to race/ethnicity, Asian graduates earned below-average numbers of credits in comparison with the 2005 graduating class as a whole in seven occupational program areas: business 

services, agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, communications technology, 

construction, and child care (table 2.20). Black graduates earned below-average numbers of credits in four areas: agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, and print production. 

Hispanic graduates earned below-average numbers of credits in agriculture, business management, and communications technology. In only two instances did a student group earn numbers 

of credits that were measurably above the average for all 2005 graduates, with Black graduates 

 

33 There was no measurable difference in occupational concentration rates between Asian graduates and graduates of “other” 

race/ethnicity. 
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005

Business Communi- Other

manage- Business cations Computer technology 

Student characteristic Agriculture ment services Marketing technology technology credits 

1990

 All graduates 0.20 0.16 0.72 0.16 0.09 0.30 0.01 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.24 0.16 0.69 0.16 0.10 0.30 0.01 Black 0.06 0.16 0.89 0.17 0.06 0.33 # Hispanic 0.15 0.12 0.81 0.19 0.10 0.30 0.02 ! Asian/Pacific Islander 0.04 ! 0.13 0.52 0.05 0.08 0.38 0.03 ! American Indian 0.36 0.18 0.77 0.15 ! 0.14 0.31 # 

Other 0.14 ! 0.29 0.50 0.02 ! 0.10 ! 0.41 ! 0.02 ! 

Sex

Male 0.31 0.14 0.43 0.14 0.08 0.33 0.02 Female 0.09 0.17 0.99 0.18 0.11 0.28 # 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.53 0.09 0.27 0.15 0.02 0.13 # 

No reported disability 0.19 0.16 0.73 0.16 0.09 0.31 0.01 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 0.08 ! 0.08 ! 0.57 ! 0.09 ! 0.04 ! 0.23 # 

No reported limited English proficiency 0.20 0.16 0.72 0.16 0.09 0.30 0.01 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 0.05 0.09 0.49 0.07 0.12 0.44 # Prealgebra or algebra 0.17 0.16 0.77 0.16 0.10 0.32 0.01 Low-level or no mathematics 0.33 0.17 0.70 0.19 0.07 0.22 0.01 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.48 0.12 0.72 0.04 0.06 0.40 # 

500–999 students 0.28 0.17 0.78 0.17 0.09 0.29 0.02 1,000–1,499 students 0.11 0.20 0.76 0.20 0.11 0.27 # 

1,500–1,999 students 0.12 0.13 0.63 0.16 0.09 0.28 0.01 ! 2,000 or more students 0.04 0.12 0.65 0.19 0.10 0.31 0.01 

See notes at end of table. 

_______

33
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005—Continued

Other Child care 

Trans- Materials Print precision Health and Protective 

Student characteristic portation production production production care education services 

1990

 All graduates 0.01 0.23 0.25 0.09 0.04 0.06 # 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.02 0.25 0.23 0.09 0.04 0.06 # 

Black # 0.16 0.16 0.09 0.04 ! 0.07 # Hispanic # 0.20 0.05 ! 0.07 0.02 ! 0.05 # 

Asian/Pacific Islander 0.01 ! 0.14 0.28 0.08 ! 0.01 ! 0.02 ! # American Indian # 0.26 0.30 ! 0.11 ! 0.02 ! 0.02 ! # Other 0.03 ! 0.03 ! 0.27 0.05 ! 0.33 ! 0.19 ! # 

Sex

Male 0.03 0.44 0.41 0.12 0.02 0.03 # 

Female # 0.03 0.11 0.05 ! 0.06 0.09 # 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.04 ! 0.48 0.22 0.15 ! 0.09 ! 0.12 ! # No reported disability 0.01 0.22 0.25 0.08 0.04 0.06 # 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient # 0.12 ! 0.14 ! 0.03 ! # 0.02 ! # No reported limited English proficiency 0.01 0.23 0.25 0.09 0.04 0.06 # 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 0.01 ! 0.09 0.22 0.05 0.02 ! 0.03 # 

Prealgebra or algebra 0.01 0.18 0.26 0.08 0.04 0.05 # 

Low-level or no mathematics 0.02 0.38 0.24 0.12 0.05 0.09 # 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.03 ! 0.26 0.19 0.03 ! 0.04 ! 0.06 # 

500–999 students 0.01 ! 0.30 0.30 0.09 ! 0.06 0.08 # 1,000–1,499 students # 0.22 0.26 0.09 0.03 0.04 # 

1,500–1,999 students 0.01 ! 0.14 0.26 0.13 0.05 ! 0.07 # 

2,000 or more students 0.01 ! 0.18 0.23 0.09 0.03 0.05 0.01 ! 

See notes at end of table. 

_______

34
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005—Continued

Business Communi- Other

manage- Business cations Computer technology 

Student characteristic Agriculture ment services Marketing technology technology credits 

2000

 All graduates 0.25 ! 0.16 ! 0.58 ! 0.16 ! 0.15 ! 0.42 ! 0.05 ! 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.31 ! 0.18 ! 0.55 ! 0.14 ! 0.16 ! 0.42 ! 0.05 ! Black 0.12 ! 0.16 ! 0.71 ! 0.22 ! 0.12 ! 0.34 ! 0.06 ! Hispanic 0.14 ! 0.12 ! 0.62 ! 0.18 ! 0.12 ! 0.40 ! 0.02 ! Asian/Pacific Islander 0.06 ! 0.07 ! 0.43 ! 0.10 ! 0.13 ! 0.58 ! 0.02 ! American Indian 0.37 ! 0.15 ! 0.57 ! 0.14 ! 0.12 ! 0.52 ! 0.04 ! Other # 0.16 ! 0.77 ! 0.02 ! 0.10 ! 0.46 ! 0.07 ! 

Sex

Male 0.34 ! 0.16 ! 0.49 ! 0.14 ! 0.13 ! 0.50 ! 0.08 ! Female 0.16 ! 0.16 ! 0.67 ! 0.17 ! 0.16 ! 0.34 ! 0.02 ! 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.50 ! 0.11 ! 0.40 ! 0.16 ! 0.11 ! 0.37 ! 0.05 ! No reported disability 0.24 ! 0.16 ! 0.59 ! 0.16 ! 0.15 ! 0.42 ! 0.05 ! 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 0.12 ! 0.03 ! 0.40 ! 0.19 ! 0.05 ! 0.44 ! 0.01 ! No reported limited English proficiency 0.25 ! 0.16 ! 0.58 ! 0.16 ! 0.15 ! 0.42 ! 0.05 ! 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 0.13 ! 0.15 ! 0.52 ! 0.12 ! 0.18 ! 0.48 ! 0.05 ! Prealgebra or algebra 0.28 ! 0.17 ! 0.62 ! 0.17 ! 0.14 ! 0.42 ! 0.05 ! Low-level or no mathematics 0.30 ! 0.14 ! 0.52 ! 0.16 ! 0.12 ! 0.31 ! 0.05 ! 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.70 0.19 0.75 0.03 ! 0.19 0.46 0.08 ! 500–999 students 0.38 0.17 0.75 0.18 0.12 0.50 0.04 ! 1,000–1,499 students 0.18 0.19 ! 0.60 0.18 0.16 0.42 0.06 1,500–1,999 students 0.10 0.15 0.41 0.17 0.13 0.37 0.04 ! 2,000 or more students 0.07 0.12 0.47 0.17 0.15 0.36 0.03 ! 

See notes at end of table. 

_______

35
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005—Continued

Other Child care 

Trans- Materials Print precision Health and Protective 

Student characteristic portation production production production care education services 

2000

 All graduates 0.01 ! 0.16 ! 0.27 ! 0.06 ! 0.13 ! 0.09 ! 0.03 ! 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.01 ! 0.19 ! 0.29 ! 0.06 ! 0.12 ! 0.10 ! 0.03 ! Black 0.01 ! 0.08 ! 0.20 ! 0.04 ! 0.15 ! 0.07 ! 0.02 ! Hispanic 0.01 ! 0.10 ! 0.25 ! 0.07 ! 0.23 ! 0.10 ! 0.04 ! Asian/Pacific Islander # 0.05 ! 0.23 ! 0.03 ! 0.14 ! 0.04 ! 0.02 ! American Indian # 0.43 ! 0.26 ! 0.03 ! 0.07 ! 0.09 ! 0.01 ! Other # 0.14 ! 0.47 ! 0.05 ! 0.12 ! 0.19 ! 0.06 ! 

Sex

Male 0.01 ! 0.30 ! 0.41 ! 0.09 ! 0.06 ! 0.04 ! 0.04 ! Female # 0.03 ! 0.14 ! 0.03 ! 0.20 ! 0.14 ! 0.02 ! 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.01 ! 0.33 ! 0.21 ! 0.07 ! 0.11 ! 0.11 ! 0.05 ! No reported disability 0.01 ! 0.15 ! 0.27 ! 0.05 ! 0.14 ! 0.09 ! 0.03 ! 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 0.01 ! 0.17 ! 0.21 ! 0.07 ! 0.07 ! 0.09 ! 0.03 ! No reported limited English proficiency 0.01 ! 0.16 ! 0.27 ! 0.06 ! 0.14 ! 0.09 ! 0.03 ! 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher # 0.06 ! 0.22 ! 0.05 ! 0.14 ! 0.07 ! 0.02 ! Prealgebra or algebra 0.01 ! 0.16 ! 0.29 ! 0.06 ! 0.13 ! 0.10 ! 0.03 ! Low-level or no mathematics 0.01 ! 0.30 ! 0.28 ! 0.07 ! 0.17 ! 0.11 ! 0.03 ! 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.01 ! 0.35 0.33 0.03 ! 0.06 ! 0.06 0.03 ! 500–999 students 0.01 ! 0.14 0.30 0.06 ! 0.18 ! 0.09 0.03 ! 1,000–1,499 students # 0.16 0.28 0.07 0.17 0.09 0.01 ! 1,500–1,999 students 0.01 ! 0.13 0.27 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.04 ! 2,000 or more students 0.02 ! 0.10 0.19 0.07 0.14 0.11 0.03 

See notes at end of table. 

_______

36
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005—Continued

Business Communi- Other

manage- Business cations Computer technology 

Student characteristic Agriculture ment services Marketing technology technology credits 

2005

 All graduates 0.23 0.16 0.44 0.15 0.19 0.55 0.04 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.29 0.16 0.42 0.15 0.21 0.54 0.04 Black 0.10 0.20 0.56 0.18 0.16 0.59 0.05 Hispanic 0.14 0.10 0.51 0.13 0.12 0.53 0.02 Asian/Pacific Islander 0.06 0.14 0.29 0.13 0.12 0.65 0.03 American Indian 0.45 0.10 0.36 0.08 ! 0.20 0.56 0.01 ! Other 0.13 ! 0.17 0.31 0.21 0.26 0.51 0.03 ! 

Sex

Male 0.32 0.16 0.42 0.15 0.17 0.65 0.06 Female 0.15 0.16 0.46 0.15 0.20 0.45 0.01 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.37 0.09 0.36 0.11 0.11 0.47 0.06 No reported disability 0.22 0.17 0.46 0.15 0.20 0.56 0.03 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 0.12 0.07 0.36 0.09 0.06 0.54 0.03 ! No reported limited English proficiency 0.24 0.16 0.45 0.15 0.19 0.55 0.04 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 0.15 0.13 0.42 0.13 0.21 0.60 0.03 Prealgebra or algebra 0.25 0.17 0.45 0.16 0.20 0.54 0.04 Low-level or no mathematics 0.32 0.15 0.43 0.15 0.12 0.48 0.04 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.60 0.16 0.68 0.06 0.20 0.71 0.01 ! 500–999 students 0.42 0.17 0.43 0.13 0.19 0.60 0.03 ! 1,000–1,499 students 0.16 0.15 0.43 0.18 0.20 0.52 0.05 1,500–1,999 students 0.10 0.21 0.39 0.18 0.17 0.53 0.03 2,000 or more students 0.10 0.13 0.40 0.16 0.19 0.51 0.04 

See notes at end of table.

_______

37
Table 2.20.—Average credits earned in each occupational program area by public high school graduates, by selected student characte

Table 2.20.—2005—Continued

Other Child care 

Trans- Materials Print precision Health and Protective 

Student characteristic portation production production production care education services 

2005

 All graduates 0.01 0.16 0.24 0.03 0.15 0.10 0.04 

Race/ethnicity1

White 0.01 0.19 0.26 0.03 0.13 0.10 0.04 Black 0.01 ! 0.05 0.16 0.02 0.24 0.11 0.05 ! Hispanic 0.01 0.11 0.22 0.04 0.15 0.11 0.07 Asian/Pacific Islander # 0.06 0.26 0.05 ! 0.10 0.06 0.04 American Indian # 0.20 0.11 0.01 ! 0.10 0.14 0.05 ! Other 0.02 ! 0.07 ! 0.14 0.03 ! 0.05 ! 0.16 ! 0.04 ! 

Sex

Male 0.02 0.29 0.34 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.04 Female # 0.03 0.14 0.02 0.23 0.16 0.04 

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 0.02 ! 0.27 0.22 0.04 0.12 0.09 0.04 No reported disability 0.01 0.15 0.24 0.03 0.15 0.10 0.04 

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 0.01 ! 0.11 0.21 0.03 0.12 0.09 0.04 No reported limited English proficiency 0.01 0.16 0.24 0.03 0.15 0.10 0.04 

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 0.01 ! 0.08 0.26 0.03 0.12 0.08 0.03 Prealgebra or algebra 0.01 0.17 0.24 0.03 0.16 0.10 0.04 Low-level or no mathematics 0.01 0.25 0.19 0.04 0.15 0.12 0.05 

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 0.01 0.27 0.17 0.03 ! 0.15 0.11 ! 0.07 ! 500–999 students 0.01 ! 0.24 0.24 0.03 ! 0.15 0.09 0.02 ! 1,000–1,499 students 0.02 ! 0.15 0.25 0.02 0.16 0.10 0.02 1,500–1,999 students 0.01 ! 0.13 0.24 0.05 0.16 0.10 0.05 2,000 or more students 0.01 0.08 0.26 0.03 0.13 0.11 0.05 

# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.

1 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. Other 

categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript Studies (HSTS).

_______

38
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

39 

earning above-average numbers of credits in business services (0.6 vs. an overall average of 0.4 

credits) and health care (0.2 vs. an overall average of 0.1 credits).34 

As of 2005, male graduates earned more credits on average than their female classmates in 

computer technology, print production, agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, 

construction, and other technology (0.05–0.30 more credits). In contrast, female graduates earned 

more credits on average than their male classmates in business services, health care, child care 

and education, and personal and other services (0.04–0.17 more credits). 

Graduates from the class of 2005 who were disabled as of grade 12 earned more credits on 

average than their nondisabled classmates in agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, construction, and food services and hospitality (0.1–0.2 more credits). They earned fewer 

credits on average in business services, business management, marketing, computer technology, 

and communications technology (0.05–0.10 fewer credits). Graduates with limited English proficiency in grade 12 earned fewer credits on average than their English-proficient peers in 8 of the 

18 occupational program areas: business services, agriculture, business management, materials 

production, marketing, communications technology, construction, and food service and hospitality (0.04–0.14 fewer credits). 

As the level of difficulty of the mathematics course they took in grade 9 decreased, graduates earned on average more occupational credits: this pattern was found in agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, construction, food service and hospitality, and personal 

services. In contrast, the average number of credits that graduates earned in computer technology 

and in communications technology increased as the level of mathematics they took in grade 9 

increased. 

The number of credits that graduates earned in several occupational program areas tended 

to increase as their school size decreased. Specifically, the smaller the school that students attended in 2005, the more credits they earned on average in business services, computer technology, agriculture, mechanics and repair, materials production, and construction. In contrast, 

students who attended smaller schools generally earned fewer marketing credits on average than 

their classmates who attended larger schools. 

 

34 These estimates are the equivalent of 60 percent of Black graduates vs. 40 percent of all graduates taking a 1-year course in 

business services and 20 percent of Black graduates vs. 10 percent of all graduates taking a 1-year course in health care. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

40 

Comparison of Occupational Concentrators and Nonconcentrators 

Among the 2005 graduates, the majority of both occupational concentrators35 and their 

nonconcentrating classmates were White (67–71 percent), did not have any disabilities as of 

grade 12 (89–92 percent), were English proficient as of grade 12 (96–98 percent), and had taken 

mid-level mathematics in grade 9 (63–67 percent) (table 2.21). Nevertheless, some differences 

between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators were evident as of 2005. In particular, 

the majority of occupational concentrators were male (59 percent), while the majority of nonconcentrators were female (54 percent). In addition, larger percentages of occupational concentrators 

than nonconcentrators were White (71 vs. 67 percent), took low-level mathematics in grade 9 (15 

vs. 11 percent), and attended the smallest schools (enrolling fewer than 500 students) (16 vs. 11 

percent). Smaller percentages of occupational concentrators than nonconcentrators took geometry 

or higher-level mathematics in grade 9 (19 vs. 26 percent) and attended the largest schools (enrolling 2,000 or more students) (19 vs. 26 percent). 

Trends in the Characteristics of Occupational Coursetakers 

As noted earlier, no measurable changes were detected between 1990 and 2005 in the overall occupational coursetaking patterns of public high school graduates. However, coursetaking 

changes were detected among some of the student groups examined. 

In particular, public high school graduates who attended the smallest schools and those who 

took high-level mathematics in grade 9 participated to a greater extent in the occupational curriculum by the end of the 15 years studied. Specifically, the 2005 graduates who attended the 

smallest schools (enrolling fewer than 500 students) earned more occupational credits on average 

than their 1990 peers (3.9 vs. 3.0 credits) (table 2.22). Compared with those who had graduated 

in 1990, graduates from the class of 2005 who took geometry or higher in grade 9 earned more 

occupational credits on average (2.6 vs. 1.8 credits) and concentrated in occupational education 

at a higher rate (16 vs. 8 percent). Graduates who took pre-algebra or algebra courses in grade 9 

also earned more occupational credits on average in 2005 than in 1990 (3.1 vs. 2.7 credits). Declines in the percentage of students completing occupational concentrations between 1990 and 

2005 occurred among four groups of graduates: American Indians (31 vs. 19 percent), females 

(21 vs. 17 percent), disabled students (38 vs. 26 percent), and those who took low-level or no 

mathematics courses in grade 9 (34 vs. 25 percent). 

 

35 Occupational concentrators are defined as students who earned at least 3.0 credits in one of the occupational program areas 

shown in exhibit 1.1. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

41 

Table 2.21.—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates who were occupational concentrators and 

Table 2.21.—nonconcentrators, by selected student characteristics: 2005

Occupational

Student characteristic concentrators Nonconcentrators

 All graduates 100.0 100.0

Race/ethnicity1

White 71.3 67.2

Black 13.9 13.6

Hispanic 10.8 12.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 2.7 5.0

American Indian 0.8 0.9

Other 0.4 0.6 !

Sex

Male 59.2 45.9

Female 40.8 54.1

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 10.6 8.1

No reported disability 89.4 91.9

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 1.9 3.7

No reported limited English proficiency 98.1 96.3

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 18.9 25.6

Prealgebra or algebra 66.6 63.0

Low-level or no mathematics 14.5 11.4

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 15.9 10.6

500–999 students 19.4 16.5

1,000–1,499 students 26.2 25.2

1,500–1,999 students 19.5 21.7

2,000 or more students 19.0 26.1

! Interpret data with caution.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes 

Alaska Native. Other includes multiple races. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any one of the occupational

programs shown in exhibit 1.1. Nonconcentrators include all graduates who did not complete an occupational concentration. 

Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 2005 High School Transcript Study (HSTS).
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

42 

Table 2.22.—Average credits earned in occupational education by public high school graduates and percentage of

Table 2.22.—graduates completing an occupational concentration in high school, by selected student 

Table 2.22.—characteristics: 1990, 2000, and 2005

 

Student characteristic 1990 2000 2005 1990 2000 2005

 All graduates 2.89 3.03 3.03 22.8 21.8 20.8

Race/ethnicity1

White 2.97 3.16 3.13 23.7 22.2 21.8

Black 2.79 2.85 3.02 23.0 22.0 21.2

Hispanic 2.85 2.79 2.80 22.3 21.6 18.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 2.07 2.11 2.26 10.7 13.4 12.6

American Indian 3.16 3.36 2.91 31.4 26.7 19.2

Other 2.42 2.96 2.30 20.3 ! 22.7 ! 15.2

Sex

Male 3.28 3.51 3.49 25.0 25.4 25.3

Female 2.53 2.57 2.59 20.9 18.3 16.5

Disability status in grade 12

Disabled 3.88 3.59 3.47 37.7 30.3 25.6

No reported disability 2.86 3.01 2.99 22.4 21.4 20.5

Limited English proficiency in grade 12

Limited English proficient 1.82 2.31 2.32 12.4 ! 15.3 11.8

No reported limited English proficiency 2.89 3.04 3.05 22.9 21.8 21.3

Grade 9 mathematics

Geometry or higher 1.85 2.38 2.62 8.0 14.6 16.2

Prealgebra or algebra 2.74 3.16 3.10 20.6 22.8 21.7

Low-level or no mathematics 3.63 3.49 3.47 33.6 28.1 25.0

Size of 12th-grade school

0–499 students 2.98 4.14 3.91 22.6 29.5 28.4

500–999 students 3.28 3.51 3.39 28.9 26.9 23.8

1,000–1,499 students 2.80 3.12 3.04 22.0 22.2 21.6

1,500–1,999 students 2.66 2.43 2.84 21.5 16.3 19.3

2,000 or more students 2.54 2.42 2.63 16.5 17.4 16.2

! Interpret data with caution.

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes 

Alaska Native. Other includes multiple races. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any one of the occupational 

programs shown in exhibit 1.1. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).

in occupational education occupational concentration

Average credits earned Percent completing an 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

43 

As also noted earlier, the 2005 public high school graduates earned more credits on average 

than their 1990 peers in computer technology, health care, communications technology, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and protective services (0.04–0.25 more credits), 

while they earned fewer credits in business services, materials production, and other precision 

production (0.1–0.3 fewer credits) (table 2.17). All of the coursetaking changes that were detected between 1990 and 2005 among the student groups examined in table 2.20 were consistent 

with these overall findings. 

D. WHAT IS ACCOMPLISHED? 

This section describes the academic coursetaking and achievement of public high school 

graduates who took various amounts of occupational coursework in high school, focusing on 

changes in these measures between 1990 and 2005. The section also describes the postsecondary 

education and labor market outcomes of 1992 public high school graduates 8 years later in 2000, 

also based on their level of occupational coursework in high school. The occupational curriculum 

described in this section encompasses the programs shown in exhibit 1.1. 

While this section describes outcomes associated with different amounts of occupational 

coursework in high school, it does not provide causal evidence that occupational education affects these outcomes. Readers are cautioned against drawing the conclusion that participation in 

the occupational curriculum caused the various outcomes examined. As shown in section C of 

this chapter, participation in occupational education varied by student characteristics. For example, public high school graduates from the class of 2005 who were male, were disabled as of 

grade 12, or graduated from smaller schools generally participated more in the occupational curriculum than their classmates who were female, not disabled, or graduated from larger schools, 

respectively (table 2.19). Moreover, sex, race/ethnicity, disability status, English proficiency, 

prior academic achievement, and school size were associated with different patterns of participation in specific occupational programs (table 2.20). Thus, the associations (or lack thereof) between occupational education and educational or labor market outcomes are confounded by the 

independent associations between these outcomes and the characteristics of participants in occupational education. For example, a lower postsecondary enrollment rate for occupational CTE 

participants (more of whom were male than female compared with nonparticipants) may be due, 

at least in part, to the tendency of male graduates to enroll in postsecondary education at lower 

rates than their female classmates (Peter and Horn 2005). This report did not attempt to isolate 

the independent contribution of occupational education to the various outcomes examined. 

This section presents data showing that changes in the academic coursetaking and 

achievement of public high school graduates were consistent with school reform efforts during 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

44 

the period studied, which sought to increase the academic rigor and achievement of high school 

students in general and CTE participants in particular.36 At the same time gaps persist between 

CTE participants and nonparticipants in their academic coursetaking and achievement. 

Academic Coursetaking Gains 

The analysis of changes in academic coursetaking presented in this section used the High 

School Transcript Studies (HSTS) of 1990, 2000, and 2005, which were also used in section C to 

describe occupational coursetaking patterns. The analysis focuses on public high school graduates of the classes of 1990 and 2005 and on changes over time in their coursetaking in the core 

academic subjects (English, mathematics, science, and social studies). The analysis also examines the extent to which graduates met selected academic coursetaking standards over the period. 

The section compares the academic coursetaking patterns of graduates who earned 0.00 credits, 

0.01–1.99 credits, 2.00–3.99 credits, and 4.00 or more credits in occupational coursework in high 

school. Additional information on the HSTS can be found in appendix A. 

Core Academic Coursetaking 

In 1990, public high school graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits 

in high school earned about 2.4 fewer credits in core academic courses than their classmates who 

took no occupational coursework in high school (table 2.23). Between 1990 and 2005, the 

amount of core academic coursework that public high school graduates took increased by about 

1.8 credits on average. Core academic coursetaking increased regardless of graduates’ level of 

occupational coursetaking in high school. In fact, the magnitude of the gains in core academic 

credits earned between 1990 and 2005 increased as the number of occupational credits that 

graduates earned in high school increased. For example, graduates from the class of 2005 who 

accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school earned 2.6 more core academic 

credits on average than their 1990 peers, while the 2005 graduates who took no occupational 

coursework in high school earned 1.3 more core academic credits on average than their 1990 

peers. 

Despite the greater gains associated with occupational coursetaking, the 2005 graduates 

who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school still earned 1.2 fewer core 

academic credits on average than their classmates who took no occupational coursework (14.8 

vs. 16.0 credits) (table 2.23). This gap between the coursetakers with 4.00 or more occupational 

 

36 These school reform efforts included, among others, state efforts to increase high school graduation requirements and efforts 

under the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act Amendments of 1990 and 1998 to improve the academic 

achievement of CTE participants (Levesque 2003b). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

45 

credits and those who took no occupational coursework in high school had narrowed, however, 

from the gap in 1990 (table 2.24). 

Table 2.23.—Average credits earned by public high school graduates in core academic subjects, by number of 

Table 2.36.—occupational education credits earned in high school: 1990, 2000, and 2005

Core academic subject

and number of occupational credits 1990 2000 2005

Core academics, all graduates 13.57 14.89 15.42

Occupational credits

None 14.68 15.56 16.00

0.01–1.99 credits 14.42 15.35 15.82

2.00–3.99 credits 13.69 15.01 15.53

4.00 or more credits 12.24 14.13 14.80

English, all graduates 4.19 4.38 4.42

Occupational credits

None 4.32 4.43 4.48

0.01–1.99 credits 4.31 4.45 4.49

2.00–3.99 credits 4.22 4.42 4.45

4.00 or more credits 4.01 4.25 4.33

Mathematics, all graduates 3.15 3.50 3.67

Occupational credits

None 3.45 3.71 3.84

0.01–1.99 credits 3.38 3.61 3.76

2.00–3.99 credits 3.19 3.52 3.70

4.00 or more credits 2.79 3.30 3.53

Science, all graduates 2.75 3.20 3.34

Occupational credits

None 3.21 3.51 3.64

0.01–1.99 credits 3.06 3.38 3.53

2.00–3.99 credits 2.79 3.22 3.36

4.00 or more credits 2.26 2.92 3.07

Social studies, all graduates 3.47 3.82 3.98

Occupational credits

None 3.69 3.91 4.04

0.01–1.99 credits 3.67 3.91 4.04

2.00–3.99 credits 3.50 3.85 4.02

4.00 or more credits 3.18 3.67 3.86

Note: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

46 

Table 2.24.—Gap in average credits earned in core academic subjects between public high school graduates who

Table 2.37.—took no occupational coursework and those who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in

Table 2.37.—high school, by core academic subject: 1990, 2000, and 2005

Core academic subject 1990 gap 2000 gap 2005 gap

 Core academics, total 2.44 1.43 1.21

English, total 0.31 0.18 ! 0.15 !

Mathematics, total 0.67 0.41 0.31

Science, total 0.95 0.59 0.57

Social studies, total 0.51 0.24 ! 0.18

! Interpret data with caution.

Note: Gaps in average credits earned in core academic subjects was calculated by subtracting the average core academic credits 

earned by graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits from the averaged core academic credits earned by 

graduates who took no occupational coursework. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).

In 1990, public high school graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits 

in high school earned 0.5–1.0 fewer credits in each of the core academic subjects of mathematics, 

science, and social studies than their classmates who took no occupational coursework in high 

school (table 2.23). Between 1990 and 2005, the amount of coursework that public high school 

graduates completed overall increased in all four core academic subjects by 0.2–0.6 credits on 

average. As with overall core academic coursetaking patterns, the magnitude of the gains that 

graduates made in mathematics, science, and social studies between 1990 and 2005 generally increased as the number of occupational credits that graduates earned in high school increased. 

Nevertheless, the 2005 graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high 

school still earned fewer mathematics and science credits than their classmates who took no occupational coursework (the gaps ranged from 0.3–0.6 credits). In contrast, no measurable differences between the graduates who took the most occupational coursework and those who took no 

occupational coursework in high school were detected in the average number of credits earned in 

English and social studies as of 2005. The gap between graduates who took the most occupational coursework and those who took no occupational coursework in high school declined between 1990 and 2005 in mathematics, science, and social studies (by 0.4 credits in mathematics 

and science and by 0.3 credits in social studies) (table 2.24). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

47 

Coursetaking Trade-Offs 

The findings above suggest that there is a trade-off between the number of occupational 

credits and the number of academic credits that students earn in high school.37 Figure 2.1 shows 

these coursetaking trade-offs for the 2005 graduates who earned different amounts of occupational credits in high school. As depicted in the figure, the 2005 public high school graduates 

who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school earned more total credits than 

their classmates who took no occupational coursework (27.6 vs. 26.3 total credits), including 6.0 

credits on average in occupational courses. In comparison with graduates who took no occupational coursework, those who took 4.00 or more occupational credits earned 1.2 fewer core academic credits (primarily in mathematics and science), 2.1 fewer fine arts credits, 1.0 fewer 

foreign language credits, and 0.4 fewer enrichment/other credits. 

Meeting Academic Coursetaking Benchmarks 

From 1990 to 2005, the percentages of public high school graduates meeting the New Basics core academic standards and completing 4-year college-preparatory coursework in high 

school increased.38 About two out of three graduates from the class of 2005 (66 percent) met the 

New Basics standards in comparison with 38 percent of their 1990 peers (table 2.25). Similarly, 

48 percent of the 2005 graduates completed 4-year college-preparatory coursework in comparison with 29 percent of their 1990 peers. 

In 1990, a lower percentage of public high school graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more 

occupational credits in high school than their classmates who took no occupational coursework 

met the New Basics core academic standards (18 vs. 55 percent) and completed 4-year collegepreparatory coursework (10 vs. 45 percent) (table 2.25). The percentage of graduates meeting 

these two coursetaking benchmarks increased between 1990 and 2005 regardless of graduates’ 

level of occupational coursetaking in high school. In fact, the magnitude of the gains in the percentage of graduates meeting these benchmarks over the decade increased as the number of occupational credits earned in high school increased. For example, graduates who accumulated 4.00 

or more occupational credits in high school exhibited a 42-percentage-point gain between 1990 

and 2005 in meeting the New Basics core academic standards, compared with a gain of 17 per- 

 

37 Recent studies using national longitudinal surveys have examined the relationship between the ratio of CTE to academic 

coursework students take in high school and various student outcomes, including academic achievement, dropping out, and college attendance (Plank 2001; Plank, DeLuca, and Estacion 2005; DeLuca, Plank, and Estacion 2006). 

38 The New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies (National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983). Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 

or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, 

chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits 

in a single foreign language. These criteria were based on a review of entrance requirements at public 4-year postsecondary institutions in Flanagan (1992) and were first used in Levesque et al. (2000). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

48 

Figure 2.1.—Average credits earned in each high school curriculum by 2005 public high school graduates, by

Figure 2.3.—occupational credits earned in high school

NOTE: CTE is career and technical education. Core academics are English, mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 2005 High School Transcript Study (HSTS).

16.0 15.8 15.5 14.8

5.9

4.9

4.0

2.8

3.3

3.3

3.0

0.9

1.0

1.0

1.0 2.6 6.0

3.4

0.9

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

 0.00 0.01–1.99 2.00–3.99 4.00 or more

Occupational credits earned in high school

Credits

Occupational education

Other CTE

Enrichment/other 

Fine arts/foreign languages 

Core academics 

26.3 26.0 26.5

27.6

0.0

High school curriculum

centage points among graduates who took no occupational coursework in high school. Similarly, 

graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school exhibited a 27-

percentage-point gain between 1990 and 2005 in completing 4-year college-preparatory coursework, compared with a gain of 17 percentage points among graduates who took no occupational 

coursework in high school. 

Despite their greater gains, a lower percentage of 2005 graduates who accumulated 4.00 or 

more occupational credits in high school than their classmates who took no occupational coursework met the New Basics standards (60 vs. 72 percent) and completed 4-year college-preparatory 

coursework (37 vs. 62 percent) (table 2.25). Nevertheless, more than half of the 2005 graduates 

who completed 4.00 or more occupational credits met the New Basics standards, and more than 

one-third of these graduates had completed 4-year college-preparatory coursework in high 

school. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

49 

Table 2.25.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting selected academic coursetaking benchmarks, by 

Table 2.39.—occupational credits earned in high school: 1990, 2000, and 2005

Occupational credits 1990 2000 2005 1990 2000 2005

 All graduates 38.1 57.9 65.9 28.7 41.8 48.1

None 54.6 66.1 71.9 45.4 53.5 62.2

0.01–1.99 credits 52.2 62.5 69.1 41.7 49.8 55.6

2.00–3.99 credits 38.7 59.0 67.3 29.5 43.6 49.4

4.00 or more credits 18.1 50.1 60.2 9.5 29.0 36.6

NOTE: New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies. 

Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics 

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at least 

1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 1990, 2000, and 2005 High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS).

New Basics core academic standards 4-year college-preparatory coursework

As of 2005, the largest percentage of public high school graduates completed 4-year college-preparatory coursework in social studies (96 percent), followed by English (89 percent) and 

mathematics and science (74–75 percent), while the lowest percentage completed 4-year collegepreparatory coursework in foreign languages (67 percent) (table 2.26). Rates of completing 4-

year college-preparatory coursework in science, mathematics, and foreign languages decreased as 

the average number of credits earned in occupational education increased. This pattern was not 

evident with regard to completing 4-year college-preparatory coursework in English and social 

studies, however. Thus, while a smaller percentage of the 2005 graduates who accumulated 4.00 

or more occupational credits in high school than their classmates who took no occupational 

coursework completed 4-year college-preparatory coursework in science (66 vs. 82 percent), 

mathematics (67 vs. 82 percent), and foreign languages (53 vs. 81 percent), there were no measurable differences in the percentages of these two groups completing 4-year college-preparatory 

coursework in English (87–90 percent each) and social studies (94–96 percent each). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

50 

Table 2.26.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing 4-year college-preparatory coursework, by 

Table 2.40.—subject and occupational credits earned in high school: 2005

All 4-year

collegepreparatory Social Mathe- Foreign

Occupational credits coursework studies English Science matics languages

 All graduates 48.1 95.6 88.6 74.6 73.8 66.9

None 62.2 94.5 89.8 81.9 82.1 80.8

0.01–1.99 credits 55.6 95.8 89.5 80.5 78.3 76.0

2.00–3.99 credits 49.4 96.2 88.8 76.4 74.5 69.7

4.00 or more credits 36.6 94.9 87.2 65.6 67.0 52.5

NOTE: Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in 

mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social 

studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. Standard error tables 

are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, the 2005 High School Transcript Study (HSTS).

Experiences After High School 

This section describes the postsecondary education and labor market experiences of 1992 

public high school graduates 2 years later in 1994 and again 8 years later in 2000. The analysis 

used the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS), which first surveyed 8th-graders in 

1987–88 and then conducted follow-ups with these students in spring 1990, 1992, 1994, and 

2000. This analysis used data from the NELS High School Transcript Study (HSTS)39 and the 

NELS Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS),40 as well as data from the base-year 

and all follow-up surveys. The second follow-up in 1992 “freshened” the sample so it was representative of all 12th-graders in that year and collected transcripts for these students. The analysis 

focuses on public high school graduates from this 1992 class, examining post-high school outcomes based on their level of participation in occupational education in high school. Specifically, 

the section compares outcomes for graduates who earned 0.00 credits, 0.01–1.99 credits, 2.00–

3.99 credits, and 4.00 or more credits in occupational coursework during high school. Data are 

first presented on postsecondary education and then on labor market experiences, beginning in 

each section with graduates’ early experiences through spring 1994 and then examining their 

later experiences through spring 2000. Additional information on these datasets can be found in 

appendix A. 

 

39 High school transcripts were collected for NELS sampled students in 1992. 

40 Postsecondary transcripts for NELS sampled students were collected in 2000, some 8 years after NELS students were scheduled to graduate from high school. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

51 

Postsecondary Education Experiences and Outcomes 

Postsecondary Aspirations and Plans 

Before examining postsecondary outcomes, it is important to consider students’ plans for 

their postsecondary education. Among the public high school class of 1992, more graduates aspired to a bachelor’s degree than any other type of postsecondary goal (48 vs. 24 percent or less) 

(table 2.27). The second most common postsecondary aspiration included an advanced degree 

(24 vs. 12 percent or less). Postsecondary aspirations were related to graduates’ occupational 

coursetaking, however. The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the 

more often they were in general to plan (1) not to pursue any postsecondary education; (2) to attend a vocational, technical, or business school; or (3) to complete some college (which may include a postsecondary certificate or associate’s degree). In contrast, the more occupational credits 

that graduates earned in high school, the less often they were in general to plan to attain an advanced degree. With regard to bachelor’s degree aspirations, no measurable differences were detected in the percentage of graduates with this goal among those who earned 0.00 credits (50 

percent), 0.01–1.99 credits (52 percent), or 2.00–3.99 credits (53 percent) in occupational education during high school. However, it was more common for these three groups of graduates than 

their classmates earning 4.00 or more occupational credits to aspire to a bachelor’s degree as 

their highest level (50–53 vs. 36 percent). Nevertheless, among graduates who completed 4.00 or 

more occupational credits, more aspired to a bachelor’s degree than any other postsecondary goal 

(36 vs. 18 percent or less). 

Table 2.27.—Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates, by highest postsecondary attainment 

Table 2.42.—planned as of their senior year in high school and occupational credits earned in high school

Vocational,

High trade, or

Occupational credits school business Some Bachelor’s Advanced

earned in high school Total or less school college degree degree

 All graduates 100.0 7.9 8.2 12.1 47.9 23.9

None 100.0 2.0 1.8 6.9 49.5 39.8

0.01–1.99 credits 100.0 2.8 3.8 9.3 51.9 32.2

2.00–3.99 credits 100.0 7.2 8.5 11.3 53.3 19.7

4.00 or more credits 100.0 16.9 15.1 18.1 35.9 14.1

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

52 

Postsecondary Enrollment Immediately Following High School 

Among the public high school class of 1992, 70 percent of graduates enrolled in postsecondary education within 12 months of graduating from high school (table 2.28). On average, 

graduates enrolled about 7 months after graduation. As with postsecondary aspirations, these enrollment patterns were related to graduates’ occupational coursetaking. The more occupational 

credits that graduates earned in high school, the less often they were to enroll in postsecondary 

education within 12 months of graduating and the longer they waited to enroll.41 For example, 53 

percent of graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school enrolled in 

postsecondary education within 12 months of graduating, compared with 84 percent of graduates 

who took no occupational coursework in high school. Similarly, graduates who earned 4.00 or 

more occupational credits waited 10 months on average to enroll, compared with 5 months for 

graduates who took no occupational coursework. Nevertheless, about half (53 percent) of graduates who completed 4.00 or more occupational credits from the class of 1992 enrolled in postsecondary education within 1 year of graduating from high school. 

Table 2.28.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education within 12 

Table 2.43.—months of graduating from high school, and average number of months until graduates enrolled, by

Table 2.43.—occupational credits earned in high school

Occupational credits Percent enrolled Average number of 

earned in high school within 12 months months until enrollment

 All high school graduates 70.2 7.3

None 84.0 5.1

0.01–1.99 credits 78.5 5.9

2.00–3.99 credits 72.4 7.6

4.00 or more credits 53.0 10.0

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

 

41 A 2006 study by DeLuca, Plank, and Estacion, using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, found that higher ratios of CTE-to-academic courses in high school were associated with lower rates of college attendance, even after adjusting for 

selection characteristics associated with course trajectories. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

53 

Long-Term Postsecondary Enrollment and First Institution Types 

Among the public high school class of 1992, some 83 percent of graduates enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 (table 2.29). Repeating earlier patterns, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the lower were their enrollment rates over this 8-year 

period. Nevertheless, 70 percent of graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in 

high school enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000. 

Among those graduates who enrolled by 2000, the more occupational credits they earned in 

high school, the higher were their rates of enrolling first in a less-than-4-year institution and the 

less common it was to enroll first in a 4-year institution (table 2.29). For example, among enrollees, rates of enrolling first in less-than-4-year institutions were more than twice as large for 

graduates earning 4.00 or more occupational credits as for their classmates taking no occupational coursework in high school (62 vs. 24 percent). In contrast, rates of enrolling first in 4-year 

institutions were half as large for graduates earning 4.00 or more occupational credits as for their 

classmates taking no occupational coursework in high school (38 vs. 76 percent). These findings 

are consistent with the data presented earlier on postsecondary aspirations, where the percentage 

of graduates reporting postsecondary education plans involving less than a bachelor’s degree increased as the number of occupational credits graduates earned in high school increased. Nevertheless, 38 percent of graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school and 

later enrolled in postsecondary education enrolled first in a 4-year institution. 

Postsecondary Majors 

Among those public high school graduates from the class of 1992 who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000, the most common reported majors (other than undeclared majors) 

were business (13 percent) and education or library science (13 percent) (table 2.30). The more 

occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the more often they majored in business, engineering or architecture, or other career major or reported no postsecondary major. In 

contrast, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the less often they 

majored in social sciences, science, arts or applied arts, humanities, communications or journalism, or mathematics. No systematic relationship was detected between occupational credits 

earned in high school and the extent to which graduates had postsecondary majors in education 

or library science; health sciences; social work, human services, or protective services; computerrelated majors; or other unspecified majors. 

Examining the relatedness of occupational concentrators’ fields of study in high school to 

their postsecondary majors was complicated by small sample sizes for some occupational program areas and lack of relevant postsecondary major categories. However, table 2.30 presents 
Table 2.29.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 and percentage distri

Table 2.44.—by first postsecondary institution type and occupational credits earned in high school

 

Private 

Private not-for- For- Public 

Occupational credits Enrolled not-for- For- Public profit profit less-than- earned in high school by 2000 Total Public profit profit Total 2-year 2-year 2-year 2-year 

 All high school graduates 83.2 57.2 38.9 17.0 1.3 ! 42.8 38.4 0.9 1.7 0.4 

None 92.0 76.0 44.4 31.4 0.2 ! 24.0 22.7 0.4 ! 0.5 ! 0.2 0.01–1.99 credits 89.5 67.8 44.7 21.3 1.8 ! 32.2 30.0 0.6 ! 0.7 0.1 2.00–3.99 credits 85.5 53.0 37.5 14.3 1.1 ! 47.0 42.1 1.2 ! 2.1 ! 0.2 4.00 or more credits 70.3 37.8 28.9 8.0 0.9 62.2 53.6 1.4 3.3 1.2 

# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

4-year institution Less-than-4-year institution

_______

54
Table 2.30.—Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 with each 

Table 2.45.—credits, occupational concentrator status, and program concentration, by their undergraduate major

Social

work, ComEdu- Engi- Other human munication neering Arts or career/ services, cations Com- 

Occupational credits earned in or Social Health or ap- Hu- tech- or pro- or puter high school, occupational Busi- library sci- sci- Sci- archi- plied mani- nical tective jour- re- concentrator status, and program ness science ences ences ence tecture arts ties major services nalism lated 

 All high school graduates 13.5 13.0 10.2 7.3 6.1 4.7 4.1 3.8 3.7 3.4 2.8 2.6 

Occupational credits

None 7.6 16.3 15.3 4.4 6.7 2.5 ! 10.4 ! 10.0 0.4 ! 2.8 4.2 1.9 

0.01–1.99 credits 12.0 12.5 12.7 10.1 7.5 3.8 5.6 4.7 1.4 3.3 3.2 2.9 

2.00–3.99 credits 14.5 13.5 9.8 6.8 6.1 5.8 2.5 3.0 4.6 ! 3.0 2.8 2.7 4.00 or more credits 17.0 11.7 4.7 4.7 3.6 5.5 1.3 0.9 7.6 4.3 1.3 2.1 

Occupational concentrator status

Nonconcentrator 12.9 13.2 11.1 7.8 6.7 4.5 4.6 4.2 3.2 3.3 3.0 2.7 Occupational concentrator, total 17.1 12.0 5.2 4.5 3.0 6.3 1.1 1.7 ! 6.5 3.6 1.6 1.8 

Agriculture 19.4 10.9 ! 8.3 ! 4.1 ! 11.9 1.3 ! # # 13.2 11.1 ! 2.1 ! 2.3 

Business 30.3 15.0 8.3 5.6 5.0 ! 2.1 0.2 ! 2.1 ! 0.8 ! 3.0 1.2 ! 1.4 

Child care and education ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Food service and hospitality ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Health care ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ ‡‡‡Marketing and distribution 10.1 ! 10.2 ! 1.9 ! 1.2 ! 1.3 ! 1.9 ! 0.3 ! 1.0 ! 3.4 ! 6.4 ! 1.3 ! 1.5 Personal and other services 20.5 ! 1.5 ! 8.5 ! 1.9 ! 1.2 ! # # # 3.0 ! 3.0 ! # 0.8 Public and protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Technology and 

 communications 22.0 ! 10.3 ! 5.9 ! 3.9 ! 2.3 ! 12.7 ! 1.9 ! 2.5 ! 1.9 ! 1.9 ! 8.9 ! 9.4 

Trade and industry 6.1 11.6 1.7 ! 2.2 ! 2.2 ! 11.2 2.6 1.1 ! 14.8 2.8 ! 0.9 ! 1.6 

# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any one of the occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1. more than one program row if they completed 3.0 or more credits in more than one program area. Nonconcentrators include all graduates who did not cconcentration. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

_______

55
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

56 

data on the postsecondary majors for some high school occupational concentrator groups.42 The 

1992 public high school graduates who completed an occupational concentration in business majored in business at the postsecondary level at a higher than average rate for their class overall 

(30 vs. 13 percent), and graduates who completed an occupational concentration in trade and industry majored in engineering or architecture at a higher than average rate as well (11 vs. 5 percent). Agriculture concentrators and trade and industry concentrators majored in other 

unspecified career fields, which may include agriculture and various trade and industry majors, at 

higher rates than the average for their class (13–15 vs. 4 percent). 

Remedial Coursework 

The 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 

took on average 1.0 remedial course at their postsecondary institutions (table 2.31). As the number of occupational credits that graduates earned in high school increased, the average number of 

remedial courses they took also increased. For example, graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school took about twice as many remedial courses on average as their 

classmates who earned no occupational credits (1.4 vs. 0.7 courses). 

As discussed earlier in this chapter, however, students with lower prior academic achievement took more occupational coursework in high school than their higher achieving peers. Thus, 

the finding that greater postsecondary remedial coursework was associated with more occupational coursetaking in high school may be due in part to these differences in prior academic 

achievement. The bottom half of table 2.31 shows, for example, that among the 1992 public high 

school graduates who later enrolled in postsecondary education, about twice as many of those 

who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school as their classmates who took no occupational coursework scored in the lowest 8th-grade composite test quartile (22 vs. 10 percent). 

In the top half of table 2.31 these differences in initial achievement are controlled for by presenting the number of postsecondary remedial courses taken by graduates according to their 8thgrade composite test quartile. When controlling for 8th-grade test quartile in this way, no systematic relationship was detected for graduates in the bottom two test quartiles between the number 

of occupational credits they earned in high school and the number of postsecondary remedial 

courses they took. However, among graduates who scored in the top two 8th-grade test quartiles, 

the number of remedial courses they took at their postsecondary institutions was still positively 

related to the number of occupational credits they earned in high school. 

 

42 Due to small sample sizes, occupational concentrators were defined for this analysis as graduates who earned 3.0 or more 

credits in at least one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology and communications, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and 

personal and other services. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

57 

Table 2.31.—Average number of postsecondary remedial courses taken by 1992 public high school graduates who

Table 2.46.—enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 and percentage distribution of these graduates

Table 2.46.—according to their 8th-grade composite test quartile, by occupational credits earned in high school

Occupational credits 

earned in high school Total Lowest Third Second Highest

Number of postsecondary remedial courses taken

All high school graduates 1.01 2.70 1.58 0.85 0.23

Occupational credits

None 0.68 ‡ 1.74 0.61 0.16

0.01–1.99 credits 0.82 2.66 1.61 0.76 0.17

2.00–3.99 credits 1.05 2.60 1.70 0.77 0.29

4.00 or more credits 1.39 3.07 1.37 1.15 0.35

Percentage distribution of students

All high school graduates 100.0 14.7 23.1 28.4 33.7

Occupational CTE credits

None 100.0 10.2 15.6 23.2 51.0

0.01–1.99 credits 100.0 10.4 19.0 27.4 43.2

2.00–3.99 credits 100.0 13.9 24.8 28.3 33.0

4.00 or more credits 100.0 22.5 28.4 31.4 17.8

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

8th-grade composite test quartile

Postsecondary Attainment 

Among the 83 percent of public high school graduates from the class of 1992 who enrolled 

in postsecondary education by 2000 (table 2.29), some 61 percent attained a postsecondary credential as of that year (table 2.32).43 The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high 

school, the lower was their rate of attaining a postsecondary credential. For example, 47 percent 

of graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school and later attended a 

postsecondary institution attained a credential by 2000, compared with 73 percent of their peers 

who earned no occupational credits in high school. 

As presented earlier in this section, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in 

high school, the more often they were to have subbaccalaureate postsecondary goals and the less 

often they were to aspire to an advanced degree. In addition, graduates who earned 4.00 or more 

 

43 The attainment of a postsecondary credential was determined only for those graduates for whom complete postsecondary transcripts were collected. The PETS did not provide a sample weight that made it possible to determine postsecondary attainment 

rates for the entire 1992 high school graduating class. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

58 

Table 2.32.—Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary 

Table 2.47.—education, according to their highest postsecondary credential attained as of 2000, by occupational 

Table 2.47.—credits earned in high school and aspirations as of their senior year of high school

No post- Bachelor’s

secondary degree

Occupational credits earned in high credential Cer- Associate’s or

school and postsecondary aspirations earned Total Total tificate degree higher

All high school graduates 39.3 60.7 15.0 5.7 9.3 45.7

Occupational credits

None 27.1 72.9 6.7 2.0 ! 4.7 66.1

0.01–1.99 credits 34.9 65.1 11.0 5.2 ! 5.8 54.1

2.00–3.99 credits 38.8 61.2 17.0 6.2 10.8 44.2

4.00 or more credits 52.6 47.4 22.0 7.4 14.6 25.4

Graduates aspiring to high school or less, total 58.7 41.3 30.6 11.2 19.4 10.7

Occupational credits

None ‡‡‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

0.01–1.99 credits ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

2.00–3.99 credits 57.3 42.7 23.0 ! 10.0 ! 12.9 ! 19.7

4.00 or more credits 61.6 38.4 33.6 10.3 ! 23.3 4.8 !

Graduates aspiring to vocational, trade, 

 or business school, total 44.7 55.3 39.5 19.0 20.5 15.8

Occupational credits

None ‡‡‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

0.01–1.99 credits 46.2 53.8 27.3 12.6 14.6 26.5

2.00–3.99 credits 31.7 68.3 49.4 29.5 ! 19.8 ! 18.9

4.00 or more credits 52.5 47.5 38.9 14.8 24.1 8.7

Graduates aspiring to some college, total 58.9 41.1 17.9 6.0 11.9 ! 23.3

Occupational credits

None 42.4 57.6 17.9 ! 7.6 ! 10.3 ! 39.7

0.01–1.99 credits 58.3 41.7 11.3 ! 3.6 ! 7.7 ! 30.4

2.00–3.99 credits 49.9 50.1 22.1 ! 5.5 ! 16.6 ! 28.0 !

4.00 or more credits 70.3 29.7 19.6 8.2 11.4 10.1

See notes at end of table.

Postsecondary credential earned

Subbaccalaureate credential
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

59 

Table 2.32.—Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary 

Table 2.47.—education, according to their highest postsecondary credential attained as of 2000, by occupational 

Table 2.47.—credits earned in high school and aspirations as of their senior year of high school—Continued

No post- Bachelor’s

secondary degree

Occupational credits earned in high credential Associate’s or

school and postsecondary aspirations earned Total Total Certificate degree higher

All high school graduates aspiring to 

 a bachelor’s degree 38.8 61.2 12.0 3.8 8.2 49.2

Occupational credits

None 32.6 67.4 7.4 2.3 ! 5.1 ! 60.0

0.01–1.99 credits 37.1 62.9 10.0 3.2 6.8 52.9

2.00–3.99 credits 39.5 60.5 11.8 3.6 8.2 48.7

4.00 or more credits 44.1 55.9 19.5 6.7 12.9 36.4

All high school graduates aspiring to 

an advanced degree 28.6 71.4 11.1 4.7 ! 6.4 60.3

Occupational credits

None 19.6 80.4 6.4 1.6 ! 4.9 ! 73.9

0.01–1.99 credits 23.7 76.3 10.9 ! 7.4 ! 3.5 65.4

2.00–3.99 credits 33.4 66.6 13.2 2.5 10.6 53.4

4.00 or more credits 44.3 55.7 12.4 3.3 ! 9.1 43.3

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

Postsecondary credential earned

Subbaccalaureate credential

occupational credits in high school planned to attain a bachelor’s degree less often than their 

classmates who earned fewer or no occupational credits. Among those graduates who enrolled in 

postsecondary education, credential attainment was generally consistent with these postsecondary 

aspirations. The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the higher was 

their rate of attaining an associate’s degree and the lower their rate of attaining a bachelor’s or 

higher degree by 2000 (table 2.32). 

Among the 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 

2000 and who aspired to less than a bachelor’s degree, no systematic relationships were detected 

between their occupational coursetaking in high school and their attainment of subbaccalaureate 

credentials (table 2.32). Small sample sizes and large standard errors for these groups (those aspiring to high school or less; vocational, trade, or business school; or some college) may have 

contributed to these differences not being measurable. In contrast, among those aspiring to a 

bachelor’s or advanced degree, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

60 

school, the lower was their rate of attaining a bachelor’s or higher degree. Among bachelor’s degree aspirants, however, the more occupational credits they earned in high school, the higher was 

their rate of attaining a subbaccalaureate credential by 2000. 

Comparisons of Male and Female Graduates 

Before turning to labor market outcomes, it is important to examine the postsecondary education experiences of males and females separately. Labor market outcomes depend in part on 

postsecondary attainment, and males and females differed in this area. Among the 1992 public 

high school graduates, a higher percentage of females than males enrolled in postsecondary education by the year 2000 (87 vs. 79 percent) (table 2.33). For both male and female graduates, the 

more occupational credits that they earned in high school, the lower were their postsecondary enrollment rates. 

Among the 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 

2000, a higher percentage of females than males attained a postsecondary credential (68 vs. 53 

percent) (table 2.33). While occupational coursetaking in high school was measurably related to 

overall attainment of a postsecondary credential for females, this was not the case for males. 

Among female graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education, the more occupational credits 

that they earned in high school, the lower was their rate of attaining a postsecondary credential by 

2000. For male graduates who enrolled, however, no systematic relationship was detected between occupational credits earned in high school and their rate of attaining a postsecondary credential by 2000. 

The relationship between occupational coursetaking in high school and postsecondary attainment for males and females varied somewhat by type of postsecondary credential, however. 

For both male and female graduates of the class of 1992 who later enrolled in postsecondary education, the more occupational credits that they earned in high school, the lower were their rates of 

attaining a bachelor’s degree (table 2.33) by 2000. The more occupational credits that male 

graduates earned in high school, the higher was their rate of attaining a postsecondary certificate, 

while the more occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school, the higher was 

their rate of attaining an associate’s degree. 
Table 2.33.—Percentage of male and female 1992 public high school graduates enrolling in postsecondary education by 2000, and am

Table 2.48.—percentage who attained a postsecondary credential by 2000, by their highest postsecondary credential attained and occ

Table 2.48.—in high school

Enrolled in Enrolled in

post- postsecondary Bachelor’s secondary 

Occupational credits education Associate’s degree education earned in high school by 2000 Any Certificate degree or higher by 2000 Any Certificate 

 All high school graduates 79.2 52.8 4.2 8.9 39.7 87.3 67.5 7.0 

None 90.7 61.3 0.9 ! 5.7 ! 54.7 92.8 79.7 2.6 ! 0.01–1.99 credits 87.1 51.1 2.1 5.0 44.0 91.3 74.7 7.4 ! 

2.00–3.99 credits 83.6 58.7 4.6 11.2 43.0 87.4 63.8 7.9 4.00 or more credits 64.7 43.6 7.3 11.4 24.9 78.1 51.6 7.4 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

Males Females

postsecondary credential attained postsecondary 

Among enrollees, highest Among en

_______

61
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

62 

Labor Market Experiences and Outcomes 

Working Immediately After High School 

About 23 percent of the public high school class of 1992 worked during the year after high 

school without also enrolling in postsecondary education (table 2.34). The more occupational 

credits that graduates earned in high school, the higher was their rate of going directly to work. 

For example, the percentage of public high school graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school and went to work without also enrolling during the year after high 

school graduation was about three and a half times as large as the percentage for their classmates 

who took no occupational coursework in high school (39 vs. 11 percent). 

About 37 percent of the 1992 public high school graduates who worked without also enrolling in postsecondary education during the year after high school graduation eventually enrolled in 

postsecondary education by 2000 (table 2.34). No systematic relationship was detected between 

the occupational credits that these graduates earned in high school and their rates of eventual enrollment. 

Table 2.34.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who worked without also enrolling in postsecondary

Table 2.49.—education during the first 12 months after graduating from high school and the percentage of these

Table 2.49.—workers who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000, by occupational credits earned in high

Table 2.49.—school

Worked without also Workers who enrolled

Occupational credits enrolling in postsecondary in postsecondary

earned in high school education within 12 months education by 2000

 All high school graduates 23.4 37.2

None 11.3 54.2

0.01–1.99 credits 16.1 39.3

2.00–3.99 credits 21.2 42.3

4.00 or more credits 39.1 31.2

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

63 

Occupational Licenses 

Between 1994 and 2000, 29 percent of the 1992 public high school graduates earned at 

least one professional license (table 2.35).44 No systematic relationship was detected between the 

occupational credits that graduates earned in high school and their rates of earning a professional 

license by 2000. 

The most common types of licenses were earned in the fields of education (including 

teacher and principal licenses) (17 percent), medical or dental technology or therapy (13 percent), 

business (including broker, CPA, and realtor licenses) (12 percent), and other unspecified fields 

(18 percent) (table 2.35). The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the 

higher was their rate of earning a license in the fields of commercial operation and transportation, 

crafts (including electrician, carpenter, and mason licenses), cosmetology, and automotive mechanics and repair. In contrast, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high 

school, the lower was their rate of earning a license in the fields of education and in communications or broadcasting. No systematic relationships were detected between the occupational credits 

that graduates earned in high school and their rates of earning a professional license in any other 

field between 1994 and 2000. 

Occupations 

Among the 90 percent of public high school graduates from the class of 1992 who worked 

during 2000,45 the most common self-reported occupations included professional occupations (30 

percent), managerial and administrative occupations in construction and other nonsales and nonretail fields (20 percent), and managerial and administrative occupations in sales and retail fields 

(15 percent) (table 2.36). The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the 

more often they reported working in managerial, administrative, or owner occupations (regardless of industry) and in farm occupations. In contrast, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the less often they reported working in professional, protective 

services, or technical occupations. No systematic relationships were detected between the occupational credits that graduates earned in high school and their rates of working in other occupations in 2000. 

 

44 The survey question about professional licenses covered only the period from 1994 to 2000. 

45 Employment status is summarized in table 2.37. The employment status of public high school graduates is discussed further in 

the next subsection. This subsection examines graduates’ current or most recent occupation as of 2000. 
Table 2.35.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who earned a professional license between 1994 and 2000, by field of lic

Table 2.50.—credits earned in high school, occupational concentrator status, and program of concentration

Earned a Medical Comlicense or dental Public mercial 

Occupational credits earned in high between tech- safety or operation school, occupational concentrator 1994 and Edu- nology or hazardous or trans- Personal 

status, and program 2000 cation therapy Business Nursing materials portation services Cra

 All high school graduates 29.1 17.3 13.0 12.3 5.9 5.6 5.1 4.6 3

Occupational credits

None 28.8 31.1 10.0 11.4 7.2 1.1 ! 4.4 ! 3.6 ! 0.01–1.99 credits 31.9 20.0 13.2 16.9 8.1 ! 4.9 ! 2.0 4.0 2.00–3.99 credits 27.2 19.0 14.3 9.9 5.9 5.3 5.8 6.5 ! 44.00 or more credits 28.1 7.4 12.1 9.2 2.6 8.4 8.8 3.4 ! 7

Occupational concentrator status

Nonconcentrator 29.3 19.0 13.6 12.7 6.5 4.5 3.7 4.7 2Occupational concentrator, total 28.3 9.3 10.2 10.6 3.2 11.0 11.9 3.9 ! 8

Agriculture 34.9 16.4 ! 6.5 ! 5.1 ! # 8.4 ! 25.0 1.1 ! 13Business 24.1 17.1 15.0 16.5 5.8 ! 2.5 ! 4.0 ! 5.3 ! 0Child care and education 34.1 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Food service and hospitality ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Health care 43.4 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Marketing and distribution 34.5 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Personal and other services 21.3 ! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Public and protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Technology and communications 30.9 ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡Trade and industry 29.1 1.6 ! 4.3 ! 4.6 ! # 16.1 ! 14.5 4.7 ! 12

See notes at end of table.

Field of license

_______

64
Table 2.35.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who earned a professional license between 1994 and 2000, by field of lic

Table 2.50.—credits earned in high school, occupational concentrator status, and program of concentration—Continued

Computer,

Com- elecputer tronics, or Profesprogram- Auto- communi- sional, Comming or Counsel- Child motive cations engi- munica- 

Occupational credits earned in systems ing or care or me- tech- neering tions or 

high school, occupational tech- psychol- Law or teacher chanics Food nology or archi- broad- concentrator status, and program nology ogy legal aide or repair services repair tecture casting Me

 All high school graduates 3.4 2.8 ! 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.2 1.5 1.1 

Occupational credits

None 2.8 ! 1.8 ! 2.2 ! 1.3 ! # 1.6 ! 0.4 ! 1.9 ! 2.9 ! 0.01–1.99 credits 2.5 5.6 ! 2.7 1.4 0.9 ! 1.7 ! 1.1 ! 1.0 ! 1.5 ! 2.00–3.99 credits 3.4 1.3 ! 2.3 ! 4.3 ! 3.1 3.1 0.8 ! 2.3 1.0 ! 4.00 or more credits 4.9 0.9 ! 2.2 1.1 ! 3.7 1.6 ! 2.1 ! 0.9 ! 0.2 ! 

Occupational concentrator status

Nonconcentrator 3.0 3.2 ! 2.4 2.3 2.0 2.4 1.2 ! 1.6 1.3 Occupational concentrator, total 5.5 0.9 ! 2.5 ! 1.8 ! 3.3 ! 0.9 ! 1.2 ! 0.7 ! 0.3 ! 

Agriculture 1.4 ! 1.1 ! 4.7 ! # 4.0 ! # 1.5 ! # # Business 2.3 ! 3.9 ! 3.6 ! 2.4 ! # 0.5 ! 0.9 ! 1.5 ! # Child care and education ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Food service and hospitality ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Health care ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡Marketing and distribution ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Personal and other services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Public and protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ Technology and communications ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡

Trade and industry 7.3 ! 0.4 ! 0.9 ! 0.3 ! 6.8 ! 1.9 ! 4.4 ! 2.1 ! 0.6 ! 

# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)NOTE: Completing an occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in any one of the occupational programs shown in exhibit 1.1. in more than one program row if they completed 3.0 or more credits in more than one program area. Nonconcentrators include all graduates who did noconcentration. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

_______

65
Table 2.36.—Percentage distribution of 1992 public high school graduates who were employed during 2000 with each number of occu

Table 2.51.—in high school, by occupation of current or most recent job

ConOccupational struction Sales Pro- Farm

credits earned Profes- or other and tective Crafts- Tech- or fa

in high school sional field retail Clerical service Sales Military Service man nical mana

 All high school graduates 29.6 20.5 14.9 9.1 5.5 4.9 3.6 3.2 3.0 2.3 

None 37.2 12.8 9.8 10.0 9.8 7.1 2.8 ! 2.7 1.5 ! 2.8 0.01–1.99 credits 35.4 19.7 9.4 7.5 7.4 5.5 2.1 3.9 3.0 3.4 2.00–3.99 credits 27.2 19.3 16.3 10.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 3.5 3.5 2.1 4.00 or more credits 23.5 25.1 21.1 8.3 2.5 3.5 4.2 2.1 2.8 1.0 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

Manager, administrator, or owner

_______

66
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

67 

Employment Status 

Among the public high school graduates of the class of 1992, about 90 percent worked, and 

about 80 percent worked full time in 2000 (table 2.37). Employed graduates worked on average 

42 hours per week during this year. The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high 

school, the more often they were to both work in general and work full time. For example, 85 

percent of the graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits in high school worked full 

time in 2000, compared with 76 percent of their classmates who took no occupational coursework in high school. In addition, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high 

school, the more hours they worked per week on average. 

Table 2.37.—Percentage of 1992 public high school graduates who were employed and average hours worked per 

Table 2.52.—week among those employed during 2000, by occupational credits earned in high school

Average hours

worked per week

Occupational credits among those

earned in high school Total Any full time Any part time employed

 All high school graduates 90.2 80.4 17.6 42.2

None 85.9 76.4 17.2 41.0

0.01–1.99 credits 89.7 77.9 19.6 41.0

2.00–3.99 credits 91.1 80.3 18.6 42.1

4.00 or more credits 91.1 84.8 13.9 44.0

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

Percent employed

Higher percentages of male graduates from the public high school class of 1992 than their 

female classmates worked in 2000 (94 vs. 87 percent) and worked full time (87 vs. 74 percent) 

(table 2.38). In contrast, the percentage of male graduates working part time during this year was 

lower than the corresponding percentage for their female classmates (15 vs. 20 percent). The 

more occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school, the higher was their rate of 

working full time in 2000. For example, 92 percent of male graduates who earned 4.00 or more 

occupational credits in high school worked full time in 2000, compared with 77 percent of their 

peers who took no occupational coursework in high school. In contrast, no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school 

and their rate of working full time in 2000. About three-quarters of female graduates worked full 

time in 2000, regardless of their occupational coursetaking in high school (72–76 percent). 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

68 

Table 2.38.—Percentage of male and female 1992 public high school graduates who worked for pay during 2000,

Table 2.53.—by employment status and occupational credits earned in high school

Occupational credits Employed, Any full Any part Employed, Any full Any part

earned in high school total time time total time time

 All high school graduates 94.0 86.9 15.1 86.6 74.1 20.0

None 87.0 76.7 21.2 85.1 76.2 14.5

0.01–1.99 credits 93.8 85.9 16.8 86.6 71.8 21.8

2.00–3.99 credits 93.8 85.1 14.6 88.2 75.4 22.8

4.00 or more credits 95.7 91.8 12.9 84.7 75.2 15.4

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

Males Females

Earnings 

Earnings data were available for the full 1999 calendar year. As of this year, male graduates 

from the public high school class of 1992 reported higher annual earnings on average than their 

female classmates ($29,500 vs. $21,000) (table 2.39). Moreover, among both full- and part-time 

employed graduates in 1999, males earned more than females ($21,700–$31,800 vs. $17,700–

$24,900). The relationship between occupational coursetaking in high school and earnings in 

1999 differed for males and females, however. No systematic relationship was detected between 

the occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school and their full-time earnings in 

1999. Male graduates who were employed full time earned about $31,000–$33,000 in this year. 

In contrast, the more occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school, the lower 

their full-time earnings were in 1999. For example, female graduates who earned 4.00 or more 

occupational credits and worked full time in 1999 earned about $22,000, while their female 

classmates who took no occupational coursework in high school and worked full time in 1999 

earned about $27,000 that year. Patterns were different for part-time employees. No systematic 

relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates earned in high 

school and their part-time earnings in 1999. Female graduates who were employed part time 

earned about $17,000–$19,000 in this year. In contrast, the more occupational credits that male 

graduates earned in high school, the higher their part-time earnings were in 1999. For example, 

male graduates who earned 4.00 or more occupational credits and worked part time in 1999 

earned about $27,000, while their male classmates who took no occupational coursework in high 

school and worked part time earned about $17,000 that year. It was not possible to determine 

from the available data whether these earnings differences were due to differing hourly wages or 

to differing amounts of time that full- or part-time graduates worked during 1999. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

69 

Table 2.39.—Average 1999 earnings for male and female 1992 public high school graduates who were employed

Table 2.54.—in 1999, by employment status and occupational credits earned in high school

Occupational credits Employed, Employed Employed Employed, Employed Employed

earned in high school total full time part time total full time part time

 All high school graduates $29,500 $31,800 $21,700 $21,000 $24,900 $17,700

None 29,200 32,400 16,700 22,800 27,000 18,100

0.01–1.99 credits 28,400 30,700 19,300 21,900 26,000 18,700

2.00–3.99 credits 28,400 31,500 20,900 21,000 25,000 16,600

4.00 or more credits 31,800 33,000 27,200 18,900 22,100 17,600

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fourth Follow-up, 2000.”

Males Females

These average findings may be due to postsecondary attainment differences between the 

different groups of high school occupational participants because earnings depend in part on 

postsecondary attainment (U.S. Department of Education 2007, table 378). For example, male 

and female graduates with bachelor’s or higher degrees as of 2000 earned more during 1999 than 

their classmates with lower or no postsecondary credentials ($34,000 vs. $28,000–$29,000 for 

employed males, and $27,000 vs. $17,000–$22,000 for employed females) (table 2.40).46 Examining earnings among graduates at the same education level removes the effect of educational 

attainment on earnings. Among male graduates from the public high school class of 1992 who 

enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 but earned no postsecondary credential as of that 

year,47 the more occupational credits they earned in high school, the larger their earnings were in 

1999. Similarly, among male graduates who earned an associate’s degree by 2000, the more occupational credits they earned in high school, the larger their earnings were in 1999. Among male 

bachelor’s degree (or higher) holders, no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that graduates earned in high school and their 1999 earnings. There were too few 

male graduates with postsecondary certificates to perform a similar analysis. Among female 

graduates from the public high school class of 1992 who enrolled in postsecondary education by 

2000, no systematic relationship was detected at any postsecondary credential level between the 

occupational credits they earned in high school and their 1999 earnings. Thus, when accounting 

for postsecondary attainment, the only measurable associations between occupational coursetak- 

 

46 Highest degree attainment was available as of 2000, while annual earnings were available for the 1999 calendar year. Thus, 

some graduates who earned postsecondary credentials by 2000 may not yet have earned these credentials in 1999. To the extent 

this occurred, these data may understate the relationship between postsecondary attainment and earnings. 

47 As noted earlier, attainment of a postsecondary credential was only available for those graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000, not for the entire 1992 graduating class. 
Table 2.40.—Average 1999 earnings of male and female 1992 public high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education b

Table 2.55.—employed during 1999, by their postsecondary attainment in 2000, employment status in 1999, and occupational credits 

Bachelor’s 

Employment status and Asso- degree 

occupational credits Certif- ciate’s or Cearned in high school Total None Any icate degree higher Total None Any All employed high 

 school graduates $30,900 $29,500 $32,200 $28,400 $27,800 $33,700 $24,300 $20,900 $25,800 $1Occupational credits

None 31,200 23,200 37,300 ‡ ‡ 38,500 25,700 20,900 26,900 

0.01–1.99 credits 29,300 27,800 31,100 ‡ 24,500 32,300 25,000 22,800 25,600 12.00–3.99 credits 30,700 29,500 31,300 ‡ 26,200 33,300 24,100 20,000 26,300 14.00 or more credits 33,100 32,800 33,700 31,100 32,200 35,100 22,300 19,900 24,100 1

All high school graduates 

 employed full time 32,600 30,800 34,300 28,700 30,500 35,900 26,000 22,300 27,600 2Occupational credits

None 32,800 24,700 39,100 ‡ ‡ 40,200 26,900 22,200 27,900 0.01–1.99 credits 31,100 29,200 33,400 ‡ 26,700 34,700 26,800 24,200 27,700 22.00–3.99 credits 33,000 31,500 33,900 ‡ 29,800 35,800 26,400 21,800 28,700 24.00 or more credits 33,900 33,500 34,600 31,300 33,900 35,900 23,300 20,900 25,100 1

All high school graduates 

 employed part time 20,300 20,500 20,100 ‡ 18,500 19,700 18,300 16,400 19,000 Occupational credits

None 16,500 ! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 18,800 ‡ 19,700 0.01–1.99 credits 18,400 16,200 20,800 ‡ ‡ 20,900 18,800 18,800 18,700 2.00–3.99 credits 19,300 21,400 16,900 ‡ ‡ 17,400 17,500 15,200 18,500 4.00 or more credits 26,100 26,800 27,100 ‡ ‡ ‡ 18,500 14,600 20,700 

! Interpret data with caution.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88/2000), “Fou

Highest postsecondary credential Highest postsec

Males Females

_______

70
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

71 

ing in high school and earnings as of 1999 were for male graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education but did not attain a postsecondary credential and for male graduates who earned an 

associate’s degree, and these associations were positive: as the number of occupational courses 

they took in high school increased, their earnings also increased. 

E. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

This section compares selected findings on CTE at the high school level from across the 

different sections in this chapter, focusing on common and consistent patterns. 

Size and Scope of the High School CTE Enterprise 

Occupational education was common in public high schools during the period covered in 

this chapter. Most public high schools (88 percent) offered occupational programs either on or 

off site in 2002 (table 2.2), and most public high school graduates from the class of 2005 (92 percent) took at least one occupational course during high school (table 2.16). The 2005 graduates 

on average took the equivalent of three year-long occupational education courses during high 

school (3.0 credits), earning more credits in occupational courses on average than they earned in 

either fine arts or foreign languages (3.0 vs. 2.0–2.1 credits) (table 2.17). 

Between 1990 and 2005, no measurable changes were detected in the overall occupational 

coursetaking patterns of public high school graduates. About 91–92 percent of students in both 

graduating classes took at least some occupational coursework during high school (table 2.18), 

and graduates from both classes earned on average 2.9–3.0 occupational credits (table 2.17). 

Occupational Program Areas 

Business and computer technology were the most common high school occupational programs with regard to school offerings and student coursetaking. Specifically, these two programs 

were the most common occupational programs offered by public high schools in 2002 (94–97 

percent) (table 2.8). In addition, the 2005 public high school graduates earned more credits in 

business services and in computer technology than in any other occupational program area (0.4–

0.5 credits vs. 0.0–0.2 credits) (table 2.17).48 Although no measurable changes were detected between 1990 and 2005 in the overall occupational coursetaking of public high school graduates, 

some coursetaking shifts were detected among the different occupational program areas. Between 

 

48 The occupational program of business includes business services as well as business management. The ELS:2002 asked about 

“business” programs only, while student coursetaking was examined separately for business services and business management. 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

72 

1990 and 2005, public high school graduates earned more credits on average in computer technology, health care, communications technology, other technology, child care and education, protective services, and food services and hospitality (0.04–0.25 more credits), and they earned 

fewer credits in business services, materials production, and other precision production (0.1–0.3 

fewer credits) (table 2.17). 

Characteristics of Students and Schools 

Occupational coursetaking was common among public high school graduates, regardless of 

their background characteristics, although there were some coursetaking differences among student groups. Public high school graduates from the class of 2005 who were male, were disabled 

as of grade 12, or graduated from smaller schools generally participated more in the occupational 

curriculum than their classmates who were female, not disabled, or graduated from larger 

schools, respectively (table 2.19). In contrast, graduates who were Asian, were limited English 

proficient as of grade 12, or took high-level mathematics coursework in grade 9 generally participated less in the occupational curriculum than their classmates who were from other racial/ethnic groups, were English proficient, or took mid- or low-level grade 9 mathematics, 

respectively. 

These coursetaking patterns were somewhat contrary to some of the findings on program 

offerings in this chapter. In particular, while graduates from smaller schools in 2005 took more 

occupational courses than their classmates from larger schools, it was more common for the largest public high schools than for smaller schools to offer occupational programs. For example, the 

largest schools offered more such programs on average in 2002 (table 2.12). In addition, while 

the 2005 graduates who had limited English proficiency as of grade 12 generally participated less 

in the occupational curriculum than their classmates who were English proficient, it was more 

common for public high schools with larger limited-English-proficient populations to offer occupational programs than for those with smaller populations of these students. The implication is 

that the greater availability of occupational programs in certain schools did not necessarily translate into greater occupational coursetaking among the students in those schools. 

Looking at trends over time, the 2005 public high school graduates who took high- or midlevel mathematics in grade 9 and those who attended the smallest schools participated to a 

greater extent in the occupational curriculum than their 1990 peers (increases of 0.8 and 0.9 occupational credits earned, respectively) (table 2.22). In contrast, graduates who took low-level or 

no mathematics courses in grade 9 participated less in the occupational curriculum by the end of 

the 15-year period (a decline of 9 percentage points in the percentage who concentrated in occu-
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

73 

pational education). No measurable differences between 1990 and 2005 were detected in the occupational coursetaking of graduates from larger schools. 

Academic Coursetaking and Achievement Gains 

Between 1990 and 2005, the core academic coursetaking of public high school graduates 

who participated in the occupational curriculum increased (increases of 1.4–2.6 core academic 

credits) (table 2.23). There were also increases in the percentages of these students meeting the 

New Basics core academic standards and completing 4-year college-preparatory coursework (increases of 17–42 percentage points and 14–27 percentage points, respectively) (table 2.25). 

Moreover, the more occupational credits graduates earned in high school, the greater were their 

academic coursetaking gains between 1990 and 2005. The higher prior achievement (as measured by 9th-grade mathematics) of participants in the occupational curriculum at the end of the 

15 years studied may have contributed to the increased academic coursetaking of occupational 

participants over this period. 

Experiences After High School 

The more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the more common it 

was for them to have subbaccalaureate postsecondary plans (including no postsecondary education; vocational, technical, or business school; or some college) (table 2.27). Consistent with 

these aspirations, the more occupational credits that graduates earned in high school, the lower 

were their postsecondary enrollment rates within 8 years of graduating (table 2.29), and among 

those who enrolled, the higher were their rates of attaining a subbaccalaureate credential (in particular an associate’s degree) and the lower their rates of attaining a bachelor’s or higher degree 

by 2000 (table 2.32). Nevertheless, among graduates earning 4.00 or more occupational credits, 

more aspired to a bachelor’s degree than any other type of postsecondary goal (36 vs. 18 percent 

or less) (table 2.27). Among the 70 percent of these coursetakers who enrolled in postsecondary 

education by 2000 (table 2.29), more attained a bachelor’s or higher degree than either an associate’s degree or postsecondary certificate (25 vs. 7–15 percent) (table 2.32). 

The more occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school, the higher were 

their rates of working full time in 2000 (table 2.38). No systematic relationship was detected, 

however, between the occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school and their 

full-time earnings in 1999 (table 2.39). Male graduates who were employed full time earned 

about $31,000–$33,000 in this year, regardless of their occupational coursetaking in high school. 

In contrast, the more occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school, the higher 
2. Career and Technical Education at the High School Level

74 

their part-time earnings were in 1999. The employment and earnings experiences of female 

graduates who took occupational coursework in high school were somewhat different: no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates earned 

in high school and their rates of working full time in 2000 (table 2.38). In addition, the more occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school, the lower their full-time earnings 

were in 1999, with female graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high 

school earning about $5,000 less in 1999 than their female classmates who took no occupational 

coursework in high school (table 2.39). In contrast, no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school and their part-time 

earnings as of this year. Thus, the only measurable associations between 1999 earnings and occupational coursetaking in high school were among part-time male employees (a positive association) and full-time female employees (a negative association). It was not possible to determine 

from the available data whether these differences in earnings were due to differing hourly wages 

or to differing amounts of time that full- or part-time graduates worked during 1999. 
75 

3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

This report casts a wider net than previous editions of Vocational Education in the United 

States (Hoachlander, Kaufman, and Levesque 1992; Levesque et al. 1995; Levesque et al. 2000) 

to describe career-related postsecondary programs at the certificate, associate’s degree, and 

bachelor’s degree levels, which this chapter refers to as “career education.”49 Earlier publications 

focused on career-related programs at the subbaccalaureate level, which constitutes traditional 

“career and technical education (CTE).”50 Bachelor’s degree programs are included here to reflect the evolution of CTE to include preparation for 4-year programs in career fields; this shift is 

reflected in the 2006 Perkins Act, which allows for at least some funds to be spent on baccalaureate programs.51 In addition, recent academic literature has described the “vocationalizing” of 

higher education, including bachelor’s degree programs, whose substantial purpose is now occupational preparation (Grubb and Lazerson 2004; Grubb 2006). Baccalaureate programs produce 

the majority of degrees in career fields, although community colleges play an important role by 

both preparing needed technicians as well as providing a bridge to career majors at 4-year institutions (Grubb and Lazerson 2004; Grubb 2006; National Science Foundation 2008). This chapter 

describes undergraduate education in career fields, spanning the subbaccalaureate and baccalaureate levels. 

Career education at the postsecondary level consists of the fields of study listed in exhibit 

1.2 and is defined, for purposes of this report, as formal undergraduate programs designed to impart relevant knowledge and skills that relate to the requirements of specific occupations or careers. In contrast, academic education is defined as formal undergraduate programs designed to 

impart knowledge and skills that represent the accumulated knowledge base in a subject area. 

Career education instruction typically involves more application and less theory than what is 

taught in academic programs, while academic instruction is typically designed to be theoretical 

and independent of specific labor market requirements. More detail on the classification shown 

in exhibit 1.2 is provided in appendix A. 

 

49 The 2005 Issue Brief, Trends in Undergraduate Career Education (Hudson and Carey 2005), also used the term “career education” when examining career fields at both the subbaccalaureate and baccalaureate levels. 

50 Postsecondary CTE is often referred to as “occupational education” (Hudson, Kienzl, and Diehl 2007; Alfonso, Bailey, and 

Scott 2004). 

51 Section 203 of the 2006 Perkins Act, for example, allows Tech-Prep programs to include 2-year or 4-year postsecondary components. However, the Act’s definition of CTE (Section 3) does not explicitly include programs leading to a bachelor’s degree. 

To maintain flexibility on this issue, the postsecondary education tables in this chapter typically list subbaccalaurate and baccalaureate institutions, credentials, and students separately, so that readers can examine career fields with baccalaureate programs 

included or excluded, as they prefer. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

76 

This chapter describes postsecondary institutions that provide career education, the career 

programs and credentials offered, who participates in career education at the postsecondary level 

and what they major in, who teaches career education at the postsecondary level, and what is accomplished by career majors (for example, their persistence, attainment, and labor market outcomes). The chapter generally presents findings on differences between relevant groups that were 

statistically significant (sometimes referred to as measurably different) and also substantively different, the latter defined as a difference of at least 3 percentage points or the equivalent.52 Statistically significant differences of a magnitude smaller than 3 percentage points or the equivalent 

are generally not reported. Exceptions are noted. Some of the data presented in this chapter come 

from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), for which significance testing was not conducted because IPEDS is a universe survey rather than a sample survey. 

A. WHAT INSTITUTIONS PROVIDE CAREER EDUCATION? 

Career programs are offered at undergraduate institutions across all levels and sectors—i.e., 

at 4-year, 2-year, and less-than-2-year institutions in the public, private not-for-profit, and private 

for-profit sectors. Information on these different types of undergraduate institutions was obtained 

primarily from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), a universe survey

that collects data annually from postsecondary institutions nationwide on program completions in 

various fields, among other types of information. Career education providers were defined as any 

institution awarding at least one undergraduate credential in a career field during academic year 

2004–05, referred to as 2005.53 IPEDS:2005 was restricted to Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions.54 Additional information on IPEDS can be found in appendix A. 

Postsecondary Career Education Providers 

Overall, about 5,700 postsecondary institutions—90 percent of all Title IV eligible 

postsecondary institutions nationwide—offered career education in 2005 (table 3.1), including 

programs that led to postsecondary certificates, associate’s degrees, and bachelor’s degrees in 

 

52 On a scale that ranged from 0 to 10 million students, for example, the equivalent substantive difference would be 300,000 

students. 

53 This definition may produce a slight undercount of career education providers because some institutions may not award credentials in career fields every academic year. This definition was used, however, because self-reported data on whether an institution offered “occupational education” produced a severe undercount of career education providers. 

54 The IPEDS universe includes 4-year, 2-year, and less-than-2-year institutions in the public, private not-for-profit, and private 

for-profit sectors that offer postsecondary education, including formal instructional programs for students beyond the compulsory 

age for high school and excluding avocational and adult basic education programs. The Higher Education Act of 1992 mandated 

an IPEDS data collection for all institutions that apply for participation in a federal student financial assistance program under 

Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended (20 U.S.C. § 1094(a)(17)). 
Table 3.1.—Number and percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education and percentage distribut

Table 3.1.—offer career education, by level of institution and sector: 2004–05

Private Private 

not-for- Private not-for- Private 

Educational offering Total Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total 

Total number of 

 postsecondary institutions 6,383 2,553 640 1,543 370 2,161 1,143 225 793 1,669 

Number of institutions 

 offering career education 5,730 2,045 604 1,119 322 2,064 1,121 194 749 1,621 

Percentage of institutions 

 of each type that offer  career education 89.8 80.1 94.4 72.5 87.0 95.5 98.1 86.2 94.5 97.1 

Percentage distribution of

 institutions that offer  career education 100.0 35.7 10.5 19.5 5.6 36.0 19.6 3.4 13.1 28.3 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded a postsecondary credentiastudy. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

77
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

78 

career fields. Less-than-2-year private for-profit institutions were the most common providers 

(about 1,300 institutions), followed by 2-year public institutions and 4-year private not-for-profit 

institutions (with about 1,100 institutions each). Combining the public and private sectors, 2-year 

and 4-year postsecondary institutions represented the largest percentage of career education 

providers (36 percent each), followed by less-than-2-year institutions (28 percent). 

The number of postsecondary institutions offering career education in 2005 varied widely 

by state (table 3.2). The states with the largest number of such institutions included California 

(about 550 institutions), followed by Pennsylvania, Texas, and New York (about 350 institutions 

each). Three of these states (California, New York, and Texas) also had the largest populations in 

the country as of April 1, 2005 (U.S. Department of Education 2006, table 17). 

Most states delivered career education through a fairly balanced mix of 4-year, 2-year, and 

less-than-2-year postsecondary institutions, with 36 out of the 50 states and the District of Columbia tallying less than 50 percent of career education providers at any one of these institution 

types (table 3.3). In five states (Vermont, Alaska, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Wisconsin) and 

the District of Columbia, however, the majority (between 53 and 74 percent) of career education 

providers were 4-year postsecondary institutions. In nine states (Wyoming, Kentucky, Montana, 

Idaho, Iowa, Oregon, Washington, West Virginia, and North Dakota), half or more (between 50 

and 82 percent) of career education providers were 2-year postsecondary institutions. 

The Distribution of Career Education Students Among Providers 

Because institutions vary in the size of their student populations, institution and credential 

counts provide different pictures of the way career education is delivered at the postsecondary 

education level. Table 3.4 compares selected institutional data from table 3.1 to data on the number and distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded by these institutions. As shown in table 

3.4, while less-than-2-year private for-profit institutions represented 22 percent of the postsecondary institutions offering career education in 2005, these institutions awarded 10 percent of 

undergraduate credentials conferred in career fields. In contrast, while 4-year public institutions 

represented 11 percent of the postsecondary institutions offering career education in 2005, these 

institutions awarded 31 percent of the undergraduate credentials conferred in career fields. In addition, while 2-year public institutions represented 20 percent of the postsecondary institutions 

offering career education in 2005, they awarded 29 percent of the undergraduate credentials conferred in career fields that year. 
Table 3.2.—Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education programs, by level of institution, sector, a

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total 

 All states 5,730 2,045 604 1,119 322 2,064 1,121 194 749 1,621 

Alabama 69 33 14 13 6 29 25 1 3 7 Alaska 10 6 3 2 1 2 2 0 0 2 Arizona 101 32 5 12 15 39 20 1 18 30 Arkansas 77 23 11 10 2 26 22 3 1 28 California 536 149 33 73 43 181 112 12 57 206 Colorado 94 39 13 9 17 36 15 1 20 19 Connecticut 70 23 7 14 2 18 12 5 1 29 Delaware 16 6 2 4 0 5 3 2 0 5 District of Columbia 17 12 1 9 2 0 0 0 0 5 Florida 268 96 14 43 39 94 53 2 39 78 Georgia 161 58 21 24 13 66 54 2 10 37 Hawaii 23 8 3 3 2 10 7 1 2 5 Idaho 24 9 4 3 2 13 3 0 10 2 Illinois 228 85 12 60 13 68 48 8 12 75 Indiana 119 53 14 33 6 42 16 3 23 24 Iowa 87 42 3 32 7 45 16 4 25 0 Kansas 82 30 9 20 1 33 28 1 4 19 Kentucky 98 32 8 21 3 61 23 0 38 5 Louisiana 138 27 16 8 3 68 47 2 19 43 Maine 36 17 890 13 7 3 3 6 

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year 

_______

79
Table 3.2.—Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education programs, by level of institution, sector, a

Table 3.2.——Continued

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total Maryland 75 30 14 14 2 22 16 0 6 23 Massachusetts 153 75 14 58 3 29 16 6 7 49 Michigan 152 55 15 38 2 42 31 3 8 55 Minnesota 112 52 12 23 17 41 30 2 9 19 Mississippi 53 17 9 8 0 24 15 0 9 12 Missouri 158 61 13 34 14 51 23 4 24 46 Montana 31 10 6 4 0 17 12 2 3 4 Nebraska 46 26 7 15 4 19 8 4 7 1 Nevada 27 11 5 1 5 11 2 0 9 5 New Hampshire 34 16 5 10 1 6 4 1 1 12 New Jersey 139 33 14 16 3 33 20 7 6 73 New Mexico 41 15 7 4 4 19 18 0 1 7 New York 343 138 42 87 9 99 36 29 34 106 North Carolina 151 56 15 39 2 69 60 3 6 26 North Dakota 26 12 7 5 0 13 7 1 5 1 Ohio 292 83 22 55 6 131 37 12 82 78 Oklahoma 128 33 15 15 3 38 32 0 6 57 Oregon 76 30 9 16 5 39 16 1 22 7 Pennsylvania 353 123 41 75 7 128 17 36 75 102 Rhode Island 22 10 2 8 0 4 1 2 1 8 South Carolina 74 35 13 20 2 22 17 2 3 17 South Dakota 29 17 7 6 4 12 5 4 3 0 Tennessee 138 51 9 34 8 36 14 4 18 51 Texas 349 87 41 39 7 113 67 4 42 149 Utah 49 16 7 3 6 23 7 1 15 10 

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year 

_______

80
Table 3.2.—Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education programs, by level of institution, sector, a

Table 3.2.——Continued

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total Vermont 27 20 5 14 1 4 1 2 1 3 Virginia 137 59 15 29 15 43 24 5 14 35 Washington 104 31 7 15 9 53 35 3 15 20 West Virginia 67 20 11 9 0 34 13 1 20 13 

Wisconsin 79 42 13 23 6 31 17 4 10 6 Wyoming 11 1 1 0 0 9 7 0 2 1 

NOTE: An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded an undergraduate credential in a career-related field of study.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

81
Table 3.3.—Percentage distribution of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each state that offer career education programs, b

Table 3.3.—and sector: 2004–05 

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total 

 All states 100.0 35.7 10.5 19.5 5.6 36.0 19.6 3.4 13.1 28.3 

Alabama 100.0 47.8 20.3 18.8 8.7 42.0 36.2 1.4 4.3 10.1 Alaska 100.0 60.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 Arizona 100.0 31.7 5.0 11.9 14.9 38.6 19.8 1.0 17.8 29.7 Arkansas 100.0 29.9 14.3 13.0 2.6 33.8 28.6 3.9 1.3 36.4 California 100.0 27.8 6.2 13.6 8.0 33.8 20.9 2.2 10.6 38.4 Colorado 100.0 41.5 13.8 9.6 18.1 38.3 16.0 1.1 21.3 20.2 Connecticut 100.0 32.9 10.0 20.0 2.9 25.7 17.1 7.1 1.4 41.4 Delaware 100.0 37.5 12.5 25.0 0.0 31.3 18.8 12.5 0.0 31.3 District of Columbia 100.0 70.6 5.9 52.9 11.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.4 Florida 100.0 35.8 5.2 16.0 14.6 35.1 19.8 0.7 14.6 29.1 Georgia 100.0 36.0 13.0 14.9 8.1 41.0 33.5 1.2 6.2 23.0 Hawaii 100.0 34.8 13.0 13.0 8.7 43.5 30.4 4.3 8.7 21.7 Idaho 100.0 37.5 16.7 12.5 8.3 54.2 12.5 0.0 41.7 8.3 Illinois 100.0 37.3 5.3 26.3 5.7 29.8 21.1 3.5 5.3 32.9 Indiana 100.0 44.5 11.8 27.7 5.0 35.3 13.4 2.5 19.3 20.2 Iowa 100.0 48.3 3.4 36.8 8.0 51.7 18.4 4.6 28.7 0.0 Kansas 100.0 36.6 11.0 24.4 1.2 40.2 34.1 1.2 4.9 23.2 Kentucky 100.0 32.7 8.2 21.4 3.1 62.2 23.5 0.0 38.8 5.1 Louisiana 100.0 19.6 11.6 5.8 2.2 49.3 34.1 1.4 13.8 31.2 Maine 100.0 47.2 22.2 25.0 0.0 36.1 19.4 8.3 8.3 16.7 

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year 

_______

82
Table 3.3.—Percentage distribution of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each state that offer career education programs, b

Table 3.3.—and sector: 2004–05—Continued 

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total Maryland 100.0 40.0 18.7 18.7 2.7 29.3 21.3 0.0 8.0 30.7 Massachusetts 100.0 49.0 9.2 37.9 2.0 19.0 10.5 3.9 4.6 32.0 Michigan 100.0 36.2 9.9 25.0 1.3 27.6 20.4 2.0 5.3 36.2 Minnesota 100.0 46.4 10.7 20.5 15.2 36.6 26.8 1.8 8.0 17.0 Mississippi 100.0 32.1 17.0 15.1 0.0 45.3 28.3 0.0 17.0 22.6 Missouri 100.0 38.6 8.2 21.5 8.9 32.3 14.6 2.5 15.2 29.1 Montana 100.0 32.3 19.4 12.9 0.0 54.8 38.7 6.5 9.7 12.9 Nebraska 100.0 56.5 15.2 32.6 8.7 41.3 17.4 8.7 15.2 2.2 Nevada 100.0 40.7 18.5 3.7 18.5 40.7 7.4 0.0 33.3 18.5 New Hampshire 100.0 47.1 14.7 29.4 2.9 17.6 11.8 2.9 2.9 35.3 New Jersey 100.0 23.7 10.1 11.5 2.2 23.7 14.4 5.0 4.3 52.5 New Mexico 100.0 36.6 17.1 9.8 9.8 46.3 43.9 0.0 2.4 17.1 New York 100.0 40.2 12.2 25.4 2.6 28.9 10.5 8.5 9.9 30.9 North Carolina 100.0 37.1 9.9 25.8 1.3 45.7 39.7 2.0 4.0 17.2 North Dakota 100.0 46.2 26.9 19.2 0.0 50.0 26.9 3.8 19.2 3.8 Ohio 100.0 28.4 7.5 18.8 2.1 44.9 12.7 4.1 28.1 26.7 Oklahoma 100.0 25.8 11.7 11.7 2.3 29.7 25.0 0.0 4.7 44.5 Oregon 100.0 39.5 11.8 21.1 6.6 51.3 21.1 1.3 28.9 9.2 Pennsylvania 100.0 34.8 11.6 21.2 2.0 36.3 4.8 10.2 21.2 28.9 Rhode Island 100.0 45.5 9.1 36.4 0.0 18.2 4.5 9.1 4.5 36.4 South Carolina 100.0 47.3 17.6 27.0 2.7 29.7 23.0 2.7 4.1 23.0 South Dakota 100.0 58.6 24.1 20.7 13.8 41.4 17.2 13.8 10.3 0.0 Tennessee 100.0 37.0 6.5 24.6 5.8 26.1 10.1 2.9 13.0 37.0 Texas 100.0 24.9 11.7 11.2 2.0 32.4 19.2 1.1 12.0 42.7 Utah 100.0 32.7 14.3 6.1 12.2 46.9 14.3 2.0 30.6 20.4 

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year 

_______

83
Table 3.3.—Percentage distribution of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each state that offer career education programs, b

Table 3.3.—and sector: 2004–05—Continued 

Total

institutions Private Private 

offering career not-for- Private not-for- Private 

State education Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total Vermont 100.0 74.1 18.5 51.9 3.7 14.8 3.7 7.4 3.7 11.1 Virginia 100.0 43.1 10.9 21.2 10.9 31.4 17.5 3.6 10.2 25.5 Washington 100.0 29.8 6.7 14.4 8.7 51.0 33.7 2.9 14.4 19.2 West Virginia 100.0 29.9 16.4 13.4 0.0 50.7 19.4 1.5 29.9 19.4 Wisconsin 100.0 53.2 16.5 29.1 7.6 39.2 21.5 5.1 12.7 7.6 Wyoming 100.0 9.1 9.1 0.0 0.0 81.8 63.6 0.0 18.2 9.1 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded an undergraduate credentstudy.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

84
Table 3.4.—Number and percentage distribution of institutions offering career education and credentials awarded by Title IV eligible p

Table 3.4.—institutions and percentage distribution of credentials in career fields, by level of institution and sector: 2004–05

Private Private Private Private 

not-for- for- not-for- for- 

Educational offering Total Total Public profit profit Total Public profit profit Total 

Number of institutions 

 offering career education 5,730 2,045 604 1,119 322 2,064 1,121 194 749 1,621 

Number of credentials awarded

 in career fields 1,923,400 952,952 586,908 286,915 79,129 728,110 561,863 19,001 147,246 242,338 

Percentage distribution of

 institutions that offer  career education 100.0 35.7 10.5 19.5 5.6 36.0 19.6 3.4 13.1 28.3 

Percentage distribution of

 credentials in career fields 100.0 49.5 30.5 14.9 4.1 37.9 29.2 1.0 7.7 12.6 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded a postsecondary credentiastudy. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

85
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

86 

B. WHAT PROGRAMS AND CREDENTIALS ARE OFFERED? 

Information on postsecondary career education offerings was also obtained from 2005 

IPEDS data, again restricted to Title IV eligible institutions. 

Postsecondary Offerings in Career Fields 

In 2005, more postsecondary institutions offered programs in health care than in any other 

career program area: about 3,700 institutions, or 58 percent of all Title IV eligible postsecondary 

institutions, offered programs in this area (tables 3.5 and 3.6). Business and marketing was the 

second-most-common field, with 3,500 institutions, or 55 percent of all Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions, offering programs in this area. Business and marketing was the most common career program area at 4-year institutions, with 69 percent of these institutions offering 

programs in this area (table 3.6). Health care was the most common career program area at 2-year 

institutions (76 percent offered these programs). At less-than-2-year institutions, personal and 

consumer services programs were the most prevalent (with 52 percent offering these programs). 

More postsecondary institutions offered certificates that took at least 1 year but less than 2 

years to complete (1-year certificates)55 than offered any other type of postsecondary credential in 

a career field in 2005 (table 3.7). In that year, about 3,200 postsecondary institutions—56 percent 

of all postsecondary career education providers—awarded career certificates that lasted this long. 

Associate’s degrees and less-than-1-year certificates were the next most widely available credentials, with about 2,500–2,600 institutions (44–46 percent of career education providers) awarding 

each of these credential types in career fields in 2005. 

The types of credentials awarded in career fields varied by type of institution, with most 

institutions offering a mix of credentials. Almost all 4-year institutions that offered career 

education awarded bachelor’s degrees in career fields in 2005 (98 percent) (table 3.7).56 In 

addition, 44 percent of 4-year career education providers awarded associate’s degrees in career 

fields in this year. The majority of 2-year career education providers awarded associate’s degrees 

in career fields (78 percent), as well as 1-year certificates (79 percent) and less-than-1-year 

certificates (58 percent). The majority of less-than-2-year career education providers awarded 1-

year career certificates (79 percent) as well as less-than-1-year career certificates (73 percent). 

 

55 For convenience, the term “1-year certificate” will hereafter be used to refer to certificates that took at least 1 year but less 

than 2 years to complete. 

56 Some 4-year institutions may not award bachelor’s degrees in career fields every academic year. Some 4-year institutions may 

also award only subbaccalaureate credentials in career fields. 
Table 3.5.—Number of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education, by level of institution, sector, and field o

Private Private 

not-for- Private not-for- Private 

Career field of study Total Total Public profit for-profit Total Public profit for-profit Total 

 All fields of study 5,730 2,045 604 1,119 322 2,064 1,121 194 749 1,621 

Agricultural and natural 

 resources 1,207 655 296 359 0 522 513 7 2 30 

Business and marketing 3,540 1,761 564 926 271 1,438 1,093 52 293 341 Communications 1,773 1,181 439 660 82 540 507 11 22 52 Computer sciences 3,081 1,562 525 766 271 1,277 948 47 282 242 Education 1,982 1,244 446 792 6 633 598 19 16 105 Engineering and 

 architectural sciences 2,156 832 403 292 137 1,155 963 37 155 169 

Health care 3,715 1,323 513 684 126 1,639 1,074 155 410 753 Legal services 1,075 307 87 162 58 698 490 20 188 70 Personal and consumer 

 services 2,924 923 399 492 32 1,138 883 20 235 863 

Protective services 1,755 785 328 335 122 937 819 14 104 33 Public, social, and human 

 services 1,102 770 329 422 19 331 322 8 1 1 

Trade and industry 1,490 201 110 60 31 1,023 911 19 93 266 

NOTE: An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded a postsecondary credential in a career-related field of study. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

87
Table 3.6.—Percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions that offer career education, by level of institution, sector, and fiel

Private Private Private Private 

not-for- for- not-for- for- 

Career field of study Total Total Public profit profit Total Public profit profit Total 

 All fields of study 89.8 80.1 94.4 72.5 87.0 95.5 98.1 86.2 94.5 97.1 

Agricultural and natural 

 resources 18.9 25.7 46.3 23.3 0.0 24.2 44.9 3.1 0.3 1.8 

Business and marketing 55.5 69.0 88.1 60.0 73.2 66.5 95.6 23.1 36.9 20.4 Communications 27.8 46.3 68.6 42.8 22.2 25.0 44.4 4.9 2.8 3.1 Computer sciences 48.3 61.2 82.0 49.6 73.2 59.1 82.9 20.9 35.6 14.5 Education 31.1 48.7 69.7 51.3 1.6 29.3 52.3 8.4 2.0 6.3 Engineering and 

 architectural sciences 33.8 32.6 63.0 18.9 37.0 53.4 84.3 16.4 19.5 10.1 

Health care 58.2 51.8 80.2 44.3 34.1 75.8 94.0 68.9 51.7 45.1 Legal services 16.8 12.0 13.6 10.5 15.7 32.3 42.9 8.9 23.7 4.2 Personal and consumer 

 services 45.8 36.2 62.3 31.9 8.6 52.7 77.3 8.9 29.6 51.7 

Protective services 27.5 30.7 51.3 21.7 33.0 43.4 71.7 6.2 13.1 2.0 Public, social, and human 

 services 17.3 30.2 51.4 27.3 5.1 15.3 28.2 3.6 0.1 0.1 

Trade and industry 23.3 7.9 17.2 3.9 8.4 47.3 79.7 8.4 11.7 15.9 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. An institution was counted as offering career education if it awarded a postsecondary credentiastudy. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

4-year 2-year 

_______

88
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

89 

Table 3.7.—Number and percentage of Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions conferring career education 

Table 3.7.—awards, by award level: 2004–05

Total institutions that

award cre- At least 1 Bachelor’s

Level and sector dentials in Less than but less 2 or Associate’s degree

of institution career fields 1 year than 2 years more years degree and above

Number of institutions that

nnawarded credentials in career fields

 Total 5,730 2,613 3,236 639 2,517 2,009

4-year total 2,045 224 332 58 896 1,995

Public 604 60 109 25 230 596

Private not-for-profit 1,119 93 137 28 412 1,100

Private for-profit 322 71 86 5 254 299

2-year total 2,064 1,201 1,626 568 1,607 14

Public 1,121 780 1,056 239 1,044 5

Private not-for-profit 194 37 69 101 94 0

Private for-profit 749 384 501 228 469 9

Less-than-2-year total 1,621 1,188 1,278 13 14 0

Public 241 121 218 7 0 0

Private not-for-profit 95 62 66 0 3 0

Private for-profit 1,285 1,005 994 6 11 0

Percentage of institutions that 

nnawarded credentials in career fields

 Total 100.0 45.6 56.5 11.2 43.9 35.1

4-year total 100.0 11.0 16.2 2.8 43.8 97.6

Public 100.0 9.9 18.0 4.1 38.1 98.7

Private not-for-profit 100.0 8.3 12.2 2.5 36.8 98.3

Private for-profit 100.0 22.0 26.7 1.6 78.9 92.9

2-year total 100.0 58.2 78.8 27.5 77.9 0.7

Public 100.0 69.6 94.2 21.3 93.1 0.4

Private not-for-profit 100.0 19.1 35.6 52.1 48.5 0.0

Private for-profit 100.0 51.3 66.9 30.4 62.6 1.2

Less-than-2-year total 100.0 73.3 78.8 0.8 0.9 0.0

Public 100.0 50.2 90.5 2.9 0.0 0.0

Private not-for-profit 100.0 65.3 69.5 0.0 3.2 0.0

Private for-profit 100.0 78.2 77.4 0.5 0.9 0.0

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Completions and Institutional Characteristics data file, 2004–05.

Certificate Degrees
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

90 

While 4-year institutions were the most common providers of bachelor’s degrees in career fields 

in 2005, a larger number of 2-year institutions than either 4-year or less-than-2-year institutions 

awarded each type of subbaccalaureate career credential in this year. 

C. WHO PARTICIPATES AND IN WHICH FIELDS DO THEY MAJOR? 

About 17 million undergraduates were working toward postsecondary credentials during 

academic year 2003–04 (table 3.8). This section describes the extent to which these students 

participated in career education as well as changes in participation patterns over time—focusing 

on changes between the 1989–90 and 2003–04 academic years—and compares the characteristics 

of career and academic majors as well as majors in various career fields. Interim data from 

academic year 1999–2000 are also included. For simplicity’s sake, these academic years are 

referred to here as 1990, 2000, and 2004. Information for this section was obtained from the 

Table 3.8.—Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates, by major field and

Table 3.8.—credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004 

Major field and credential sought 1990 2000 2004 1990 2000 2004

 All undergraduates, total 15,076,000 15,814,000 16,821,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Career education 10,115,000 10,193,000 10,649,000 67.1 64.5 63.3

Academic 3,560,000 4,285,000 4,009,000 23.6 27.1 23.8

Other 1,401,000 1,337,000 2,163,000 9.3 8.5 12.9

Bachelor’s degree, total 7,198,000 7,289,000 8,756,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Career education 4,250,000 4,257,000 5,251,000 59.0 58.4 60.0

Academic 2,203,000 2,470,000 2,634,000 30.6 33.9 30.1

Other 745,000 562,000 871,000 10.4 7.7 10.0

Associate’s degree, total 5,487,000 6,197,000 6,835,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Career education 3,793,000 3,995,000 4,401,000 69.1 64.5 64.4

Academic 1,161,000 1,602,000 1,305,000 21.2 25.9 19.1

Other 533,000 599,000 1,128,000 9.7 9.7 16.5

Certificate total 2,391,000 2,329,000 1,231,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Career education 2,072,000 1,940,000 998,000 86.7 83.3 81.1

Academic 196,000 213,000 70,000 8.2 9.1 5.7

Other 123,000 176,000 163,000 5.1 7.6 13.3

NOTE: “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other unspecified majors, and undeclared majors. See 

appendix A for detail on how majors were classified. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may

not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Number Percentage distribution
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

91 

1990, 2000, and 2004 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), a nationally 

representative survey of all postsecondary students in the United States who attended less-than-2-

year, 2-year, or 4-year Title IV eligible institutions. The analysis focuses on credential-seeking 

undergraduates—those students seeking a postsecondary certificate, associate’s degree, or 

bachelor’s degree. In 2004, credential-seeking undergraduates represented 90 percent of all 

undergraduate students (table 3.9).57 Additional information on NPSAS and the classification 

used in this section can be found in appendix A. 

Undergraduates Majoring in Career Education: 2004 

Prevalence of Career Majors 

Most undergraduates seeking a credential majored in career fields in 2004: 81 percent of 

students in certificate programs, 64 percent of students in associate’s degree programs, and 60 

percent of students seeking bachelor’s degrees reported having career majors in this year (table 

3.8). This translates into about 1.0 million certificate seekers, 4.4 million associate’s degree 

seekers, and 5.3 million bachelor’s degree seekers with career majors. Undergraduates who chose 

academic or other majors were in the minority at each credential level (6–30 percent).58 

Overall, business and marketing was the most common career field in which students majored in 2004, with 28 percent of credential-seeking undergraduates reporting a major in this field 

(table 3.10). Another 22 percent majored in health care fields and 12 percent majored in education. 

 

57 Information on noncredential-seeking postsecondary students can be found in chapter 4 on adult participation in work-related 

courses. 

58 “Other” includes interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other unspecified majors, and undeclared majors. 

Table 3.9.—Percentage distribution of undergraduates, by current credential goal: 2004

Current credential goal Percent

 Total 100.0

Certificate 6.6

Associate’s 36.6

Bachelor’s 46.6

No credential 10.3

NOTE: See appendix A for detail on how majors were classified. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico.

Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid 

Study (NPSAS:04).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

92 

Table 3.10.—Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates, by career education 

Table 3.10.—major and credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004

Career major and 

credential sought 1990 2000 2004 1990 2000 2004

 All undergraduates in career fields 10,115,000 10,193,000 10,649,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture and natural resources 85,000 122,000 134,000 0.8 1.2 1.3

Business and marketing 3,432,000 2,792,000 2,948,000 33.9 27.4 27.7

Communications 230,000 461,000 509,000 2.3 4.5 4.8

Computer sciences 656,000 1,260,000 921,000 6.5 12.4 8.6

Education 938,000 1,211,000 1,259,000 9.3 11.9 11.8

Engineering and architectural sciences 1,183,000 838,000 911,000 11.7 8.2 8.6

Health care 1,682,000 1,837,000 2,321,000 16.6 18.0 21.8

Legal services 257,000 131,000 119,000 2.5 1.3 1.1

Personal and consumer services 660,000 357,000 478,000 6.5 3.5 4.5

Protective services 342,000 436,000 514,000 3.4 4.3 4.8

Public, social, and human services 103,000 208,000 192,000 1.0 2.0 1.8

Trade and industry 547,000 540,000 344,000 5.4 5.3 3.2

Bachelor’s degree total 4,250,000 4,257,000 5,251,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture and natural resources 53,000 76,000 86,000 1.2 1.8 1.6

Business and marketing 1,561,000 1,387,000 1,753,000 36.7 32.6 33.4

Communications 139,000 313,000 391,000 3.3 7.4 7.4

Computer sciences 235,000 383,000 450,000 5.5 9.0 8.6

Education 570,000 644,000 777,000 13.4 15.1 14.8

Engineering and architectural sciences 603,000 476,000 573,000 14.2 11.2 10.9

Health care 613,000 570,000 609,000 14.4 13.4 11.6

Legal services 33,000 32,000 32,000 0.8 0.8 0.6

Personal and consumer services 217,000 98,000 166,000 5.1 2.3 3.2

Protective services 101,000 133,000 234,000 2.4 3.1 4.5

Public, social, and human services 76,000 100,000 125,000 1.8 2.3 2.4

Trade and industry 48,000 46,000 54,000 1.1 1.1 1.0

Associate’s degree total 3,793,000 3,995,000 4,401,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture and natural resources 28,000 39,000 42,000 0.7 1.0 1.0

Business and marketing 1,356,000 1,114,000 1,080,000 35.8 27.9 24.5

Communications 54,000 123,000 108,000 1.4 3.1 2.5

Computer sciences 262,000 559,000 416,000 6.9 14.0 9.5

Education 255,000 405,000 449,000 6.7 10.1 10.2

Engineering and architectural sciences 463,000 272,000 300,000 12.2 6.8 6.8

Health care 717,000 816,000 1,311,000 18.9 20.4 29.8

Legal services 147,000 79,000 77,000 3.9 2.0 1.8

Personal and consumer services 173,000 84,000 153,000 4.5 2.1 3.5

Protective services 159,000 235,000 245,000 4.2 5.9 5.6

Public, social, and human services ‡ 90,000 62,000 0.5 2.2 1.4

Trade and industry 159,000 180,000 157,000 4.2 4.5 3.6

See notes at end of table.

Number Percentage distribution
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

93 

The most common career major fields in 2004 varied somewhat depending on the credential students sought. Among bachelor’s degree seekers, business and marketing was the most 

common major field (33 percent), followed by education, health care, and engineering and architectural sciences (11–15 percent) (table 3.10). In contrast, health care was the most common major field among students in associate’s degree programs (30 percent), followed by business and 

marketing (25 percent), education (10 percent), and computer sciences (9 percent). Health care 

was also the most common field (40 percent) among certificate seekers, followed by personal and 

consumer services (16 percent), trade and industry (13 percent), and business and marketing (11 

percent). 

Characteristics of Career and Academic Majors 

What are the characteristics of students majoring in career education? This section focuses 

on comparisons of credential-seeking undergraduates with career and academic majors in 2004. 

The section first provides a comparison of students’ demographic and background characteristics 

(sex, race/ethnicity, disability status, age, marital status, financial independence, and parents’ 

education levels), and then a comparison in terms of their postsecondary enrollment characteristics (prior degrees, grade point average (GPA), and employment and enrollment status). Although 

Table 3.10.—Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates, by career education 

Table 3.10.—major and credential sought: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Career major and 

credential sought 1990 2000 2004 1990 2000 2004

Certificate total 2,072,000 1,940,000 998,000 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture and natural resources ‡ ‡ ‡ 0.2 0.4 ! 0.5 !

Business and marketing 514,000 291,000 115,000 24.8 15.0 11.5

Communications 37,000 25,000 10,000 1.8 1.3 1.0

Computer sciences 158,000 318,000 55,000 7.6 16.4 5.5

Education 113,000 162,000 33,000 5.5 8.3 3.3

Engineering and architectural sciences 117,000 90,000 38,000 5.6 4.7 3.8

Health care 352,000 450,000 401,000 17.0 23.2 40.2

Legal services 77,000 ‡ 9,000 3.7 1.0 0.9

Personal and consumer services 270,000 175,000 158,000 13.0 9.0 15.9

Protective services 82,000 68,000 35,000 4.0 3.5 3.5

Public, social, and human services ‡ ‡ 4,000 ! 0.4 1.0 ! 0.4 !

Trade and industry 340,000 314,000 134,000 16.4 16.2 13.4

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Studies (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Number Percentage distribution
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

94 

the majority of credential-seeking undergraduates at each credential level were majoring in career 

fields in 2004 (60–81 percent) (table 3.8), the percentage of career majors seeking a bachelor’s 

degree was smaller than the percentage of academic majors seeking a bachelor’s degree (49 vs. 

66 percent) (table 3.11). In contrast, the percentage of career majors seeking an associate’s degree was larger than the percentage of academic majors seeking an associate’s degree (41 vs. 33 

percent), as was the percentage of career majors seeking a postsecondary certificate (9 vs. 2 percent). Overall, 49 percent of career majors sought a bachelor’s degree, 41 percent sought an associate’s degree, and 9 percent sought a certificate in 2004. 

Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Disability Status 

In 2004, the percentage of credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors who were 

male was not measurably different than the percentage of academic majors who were male (42 

percent each) (table 3.12). However, a larger percentage of bachelor’s degree-seeking career majors than academic majors were male (47 vs. 42 percent), while a smaller percentage of associate’s degree-seeking career majors than academic majors were male (38 vs. 41 percent). The 

reverse was true for females: a smaller percentage of bachelor’s degree-seeking career majors 

than academic majors were female (53 vs. 58 percent), while a larger percentage of associate’s 

degree-seeking career majors than academic majors were female (62 vs. 59 percent). The percentage of career majors who were Black was larger than that of academic majors (17 vs. 11 percent). This difference held at the bachelor’s and associate’s degree levels (14 vs. 9 percent and 19 

vs. 15 percent, respectively). Overall, the percentage of career majors who were White was 

smaller than the corresponding percentage of academic majors (63 vs. 67 percent), although this 

overall difference was not measurable at the three credential levels. There were no measurable 

differences in the percentages of career and academic majors who were disabled (table 3.13). 

Age, Marital Status, and Financial Independence 

Undergraduates with career majors tended to be older and a greater percentage of them 

were married and financially independent than their peers who were pursuing academic majors in 

2004. Forty-two percent of career majors were age 25 or older compared with 27 percent of academic majors (table 3.12), and 23 percent of career majors were married compared with 14 percent of academic majors (table 3.13). Differences in marital status held at the bachelor’s and 

associate’s degree levels (18 vs. 11 percent and 28 vs. 19 percent, respectively), and age differences held at all three credential levels (22 vs. 15 percent among bachelor’s seekers, 37 vs. 25 

percent among associate’s seekers, and 41 vs. 31 percent among certificate seekers). In addition, 

54 percent of career majors were financially independent compared with 37 percent of academic 
Table 3.11.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in each major field and career major, by level of credential 

Table 3.11.—and 2004

Certif- Associate’s Bachelor’s Certif- Associate’s Bachelor’s Certif- 

Major field and specific career major icate degree degree icate degree degree icate 

 All undergraduates 15.9 36.4 47.7 14.7 39.2 46.1 7.3 

Career education 20.5 37.5 42.0 19.0 39.2 41.8 9.4 Academic 5.5 32.6 61.9 5.0 37.4 57.6 1.7 Other 8.8 38.0 53.2 13.2 44.8 42.0 7.5 Career major

Agriculture and natural resources 4.5 33.5 62.0 6.2 ! 31.7 62.1 3.7 ! Business and marketing 15.0 39.5 45.5 10.4 39.9 49.7 3.9 Communications 16.0 23.5 60.5 5.4 26.6 67.9 2.0 Computer sciences 24.1 40.0 35.9 25.2 44.4 30.4 6.0 Education 12.1 27.2 60.8 13.3 33.5 53.2 2.7 Engineering and architectural sciences 9.9 39.1 51.0 10.8 32.4 56.8 4.2 Health care 20.9 42.6 36.4 24.5 44.4 31.1 17.3 Legal services 29.9 57.3 12.8 15.3 60.4 24.3 8.0 Personal and consumer services 40.9 26.2 32.9 49.1 23.5 27.5 33.1 Protective services 24.0 46.4 29.6 15.6 54.0 30.5 6.7 Public, social, and human services 7.6 18.6 73.8 8.9 43.1 48.0 2.2 ! Trade and industry 62.1 29.1 8.8 58.1 33.4 8.5 38.8 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other miscellaneous majors, and unreported majors. See appendix A for detail on Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

1990 2000 

_______

95
Table 3.12.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by sex

Table 3.12.—1990, 2000, and 2004

Major field Asian/

and level of Pacific American Young

credential sought Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other than 

1990

 All undergraduates 44.6 55.4 76.2 10.2 8.3 4.5 0.8 † 63

Career education 44.1 55.9 74.8 11.6 8.5 4.3 0.8 † 59Academic 44.9 55.1 80.4 7.4 7.1 4.5 0.7 † 72Other 47.5 52.5 75.6 7.8 9.9 5.5 1.1 † 70Bachelor’s degree total 47.2 52.8 80.1 8.1 6.4 4.9 0.5 † 77

Career education 47.2 52.8 79.3 8.8 6.5 4.9 0.5 † 74Academic 46.0 54.0 82.6 6.7 5.8 4.4 0.4 † 80Other 51.0 49.0 77.7 7.8 7.4 6.3 0.9 † 84

Associate’s degree total 42.0 58.0 75.1 10.8 8.7 4.5 1.0 † 54

Career education 41.8 58.2 74.3 11.9 8.3 4.4 1.0 † 51Academic 43.1 56.9 78.1 8.4 8.4 4.3 0.9 † 60Other 41.2 58.8 73.6 8.0 12.0 4.9 1.5 † 58

Certificate total 42.6 57.4 66.7 15.5 13.5 3.3 0.9 † 41

Career education 41.7 58.3 66.2 16.7 13.2 3.1 0.8 † 41

Academic 44.3 55.7 69.0 8.6 14.5 5.7 2.2 † 45Other 54.0 46.0 71.8 6.6 16.8 3.5 1.3 † 40

See notes at end of table.

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

96
Table 3.12.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by sex

Table 3.12.—1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Major field Asian/

and level of Pacific American Young

credential sought Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other than 

2000

 All undergraduates 43.6 56.4 67.2 12.3 12.1 5.7 0.9 1.8 62

Career education 44.5 55.5 65.2 14.4 12.4 5.4 0.9 1.7 58Academic 41.4 58.6 71.1 8.7 11.2 6.2 0.9 1.9 72Other 43.9 56.1 69.9 7.7 13.3 5.7 1.2 2.2 66Bachelor’s degree total 44.4 55.6 71.1 10.4 9.9 6.4 0.6 1.7 75

Career education 46.3 53.7 69.9 11.8 9.9 6.4 0.5 1.5 71Academic 41.2 58.8 73.3 8.4 8.9 6.9 0.7 1.7 81Other 43.5 56.5 70.1 8.4 13.4 4.6 1.1 2.4 79

Associate’s degree total 42.2 57.8 65.9 12.9 13.1 4.9 1.2 2.0 56

Career education 42.5 57.5 64.2 15.3 12.8 4.5 1.3 1.9 52Academic 41.0 59.0 68.4 9.5 14.1 5.0 1.1 2.0 62Other 44.1 55.9 71.1 5.8 12.3 7.1 1.3 2.4 ! 64

Certificate total 44.7 55.3 58.4 16.8 16.5 5.5 1.2 1.6 38

Career education 44.6 55.4 57.0 18.4 16.7 5.2 1.2 1.5 38Academic 46.0 54.0 66.6 6.2 15.4 8.2 1.1 ! 2.5 42Other 44.3 55.7 64.8 11.9 16.2 4.8 ! 1.2 ! 1.0 ! 34

See notes at end of table.

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

97
Table 3.12.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by sex

Table 3.12.—1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Major field Asian/

and level of Pacific American Young

credential sought Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other than 

2004

 All undergraduates 42.4 57.6 63.7 14.7 11.5 5.2 0.9 3.9 63

Career education 42.0 58.0 62.9 16.6 11.1 4.9 0.9 3.7 58Academic 41.7 58.3 66.7 11.4 11.1 5.6 0.8 4.4 73Other 46.7 53.3 62.0 11.5 14.5 6.4 1.2 4.4 69Bachelor’s degree total 45.3 54.7 69.0 12.0 8.8 5.7 0.8 3.8 81

Career education 46.7 53.3 68.5 13.8 8.2 5.4 0.8 3.3 77Academic 42.1 57.9 70.5 9.4 9.0 5.9 0.7 4.5 84Other 47.4 52.6 67.5 8.6 11.2 7.0 1.3 4.4 89

Associate’s degree total 39.9 60.1 59.3 16.8 13.8 4.8 1.0 4.2 67

Career education 38.1 61.9 58.9 18.5 12.9 4.5 1.1 4.2 63Academic 41.2 58.8 59.9 15.1 15.1 4.9 0.9 4.2 75Other 47.0 53.0 60.0 12.3 16.3 5.9 1.1 4.4 74

Certificate total 35.0 65.0 50.6 22.4 18.3 4.3 1.1 3.3 59

Career education 34.2 65.8 51.1 22.9 18.1 3.8 1.0 3.1 58Academic 36.7 63.3 52.9 18.3 18.4 6.5 ! 0.7 ! 3.2 ! 69Other 41.2 58.8 46.8 21.0 20.2 6.5 1.3 ! 4.3 58

† Not applicable.! Interpret data with caution.

1 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. “Other

students. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other miscellaneous majors, and unreported majors. See appendix A for detail on 

Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

98
Table 3.13.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by dis

Table 3.13.—highest education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004

Some

college,

Major field Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

and level of have Has high school career degree orcredential sought disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Marrie

1990

 All undergraduates † † 6.9 23.4 16.9 26.6 26.2 73.9 24

Career education † † 7.9 25.3 17.0 23.1 26.8 70.4 27Academic † † 4.9 20.9 17.3 35.7 21.2 81.4 17Other † † 5.4 16.5 14.9 28.5 34.7 80.7 18Bachelor’s degree total † † 3.9 20.5 17.2 36.6 21.8 83.9 15

Career education † † 4.5 23.2 18.0 33.6 20.7 81.1 18Academic † † 3.0 17.7 16.3 42.9 20.0 87.2 12Other † † 3.1 13.5 14.8 35.2 33.5 90.7 9

Associate’s degree total † † 9.3 27.0 18.4 20.3 25.0 67.4 30

Career education † † 10.0 28.0 18.4 18.6 25.0 65.2 31Academic † † 7.9 26.6 19.8 24.8 20.9 73.3 24Other † † 7.3 21.0 15.3 22.8 33.6 70.7 28

Certificate total † † 10.7 23.9 12.5 10.7 42.2 58.5 37

Career education † † 11.0 24.5 12.4 9.8 42.4 57.6 38Academic † † 7.7 23.3 13.6 18.9 36.6 63.6 32Other † † 11.3 15.0 14.0 13.0 46.8 64.4 34

See notes at end of table.

Disability status Parents’ highest education level Ma

_______

99
Table 3.13.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by dis

Table 3.13.—highest education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Some

college,

Major field Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

and level of have Has high school career degree orcredential sought disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Marrie

2000

 All undergraduates 90.8 9.2 7.2 27.5 21.5 37.7 6.1 68.8 22

Career education 90.9 9.1 8.3 30.1 22.1 34.1 5.4 67.1 25Academic 90.1 9.9 5.2 22.0 21.3 47.0 4.6 75.9 16Other 91.8 8.2 5.7 24.8 17.7 35.9 15.8 59.1 15Bachelor’s degree total 92.5 7.5 4.1 22.2 20.4 49.2 4.1 75.8 16

Career education 93.3 6.7 4.7 24.4 21.4 45.5 3.9 73.4 19Academic 90.8 9.2 2.9 18.5 19.6 56.2 2.8 81.7 12Other 93.3 6.7 4.8 21.3 16.6 45.7 11.7 67.4 8

Associate’s degree total 89.7 10.3 8.3 31.2 24.1 30.1 6.3 65.4 26

Career education 89.4 10.6 9.1 33.2 24.4 27.8 5.5 65.0 28Academic 89.4 10.6 7.6 27.1 24.5 34.7 6.1 69.3 22Other 92.5 7.5 5.3 28.7 21.3 32.5 12.2 58.2 21

Certificate total 88.4 11.6 13.9 34.1 18.1 22.4 11.5 55.7 32

Career education 88.8 11.2 14.3 36.3 19.0 21.9 8.5 57.3 34Academic 88.2 11.8 13.1 23.9 17.1 31.9 14.0 58.2 29Other 84.5 15.5 10.5 23.0 9.3 16.2 41.1 35.3 17

See notes at end of table.

Disability status Parents’ highest education level Ma

_______

100
Table 3.13.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by dis

Table 3.13.—highest education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Some

college,

Major field Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

and level of have Has high school career degree orcredential sought disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Marrie

2004

 All undergraduates 88.8 11.2 6.2 27.1 23.8 40.1 2.8 77.9 20

Career education 88.8 11.2 6.6 28.7 24.3 37.5 3.0 74.7 22Academic 88.7 11.3 4.6 23.0 22.3 47.8 2.3 85.4 13Other 88.9 11.1 7.3 27.1 23.5 39.2 2.9 79.8 18Bachelor’s degree total 89.9 10.1 4.1 22.6 21.9 49.6 1.9 83.7 ! 15

Career education 90.1 9.9 4.4 24.3 22.9 46.4 1.9 80.6 18Academic 89.3 10.7 3.4 19.8 20.4 54.8 1.7 88.6 10Other 90.2 9.8 4.4 21.8 19.6 52.4 1.8 88.0 10

Associate’s degree total 87.9 12.1 8.2 31.4 26.7 30.4 3.3 72.4 24

Career education 87.8 12.2 8.4 32.5 26.6 29.1 3.4 69.3 27Academic 88.0 12.0 6.8 29.0 26.0 34.8 3.4 79.8 18Other 88.1 11.9 8.8 30.0 27.2 31.0 3.0 75.8 22

Certificate total 86.8 13.2 10.4 34.9 20.7 27.2 6.8 67.3 28

Career education 87.0 13.0 10.1 35.0 20.7 27.6 6.6 68.2 27Academic 81.3 18.7 9.4 32.7 24.5 26.7 6.7 68.7 28Other 87.4 12.6 12.7 35.3 19.1 25.4 7.6 62.6 33

† Not applicable.! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other miscellaneous majors, and unreported majors. See appendix A for detail on Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Disability status Parents’ highest education level Ma

_______

101
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

102 

majors, and this difference in financial independence held at all three credential levels (42 vs. 30 

percent among bachelor’s seekers, 65 vs. 50 percent among associate’s seekers, and 73 vs. 63 

percent among certificate seekers) (table 3.14). Fifty-nine percent of students seeking associate’s 

degrees in career fields received financial aid in 2004 compared with 51 percent of their peers 

with academic majors (table 3.14). 

Parental Education 

Overall, a higher percentage of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in career fields 

had parents with lower levels of education than their peers who were pursuing academic majors 

in 2004. Twenty-nine percent of career majors had parents whose highest degree was a high 

school diploma compared with 23 percent of academic majors (table 3.13). In contrast, 37 percent of undergraduates majoring in career fields had parents whose highest degree was a bachelor’s degree compared with 48 percent of academic majors. This lower level of parental 

education among career majors held at the bachelor’s and associate’s degree levels (46 vs. 55 

percent and 29 vs. 35 percent, respectively). 

Prior Degrees and Postsecondary GPA 

The vast majority of both career and academic majors in 2004 had not previously earned a 

bachelor’s degree (94–96 percent) (table 3.14). There were also few measurable differences in 

the postsecondary GPAs of career and academic majors, although a larger percentage of associate’s degree-seeking career majors had GPAs of 3.5 or higher than their peers pursuing an academic major (29 vs. 25 percent). 

Employment and Enrollment Status 

Differences were evident in the employment and enrollment status of career and academic 

majors at the bachelor’s degree level in 2004. Not only did a greater percentage of career majors 

than academic majors seeking bachelor’s degrees work while enrolled (73 vs. 69 percent) but a 

greater percentage also worked full time (28 vs. 18 percent), and a larger percentage identified 

themselves as employees who were enrolled in school (as opposed to students who were working) (21 vs. 10 percent) (table 3.15). Additionally, a smaller percentage of bachelor’s degreeseeking career majors were enrolled full time throughout the academic year than were bachelor’s 

degree-seeking academic majors (58 vs. 63 percent). Among associate’s degree seekers, a larger 

percentage of career majors than academic majors worked full time (41 vs. 35 percent), and a 
Table 3.14.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by de

Table 3.14.—aid status, previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004 

Major fieldand level of Independent, Independent, No credential without with Financial financial 

sought Dependent Independent dependents dependents aid aid Yes No 

1990

 All undergraduates 50.6 50.2 25.1 24.3 43.1 56.9 2.4 97.6 

Career education 45.2 55.5 26.5 28.3 44.9 55.1 2.4 97.6 Academic 61.2 39.5 23.5 15.4 40.0 60.0 2.3 97.7 Other 62.6 38.9 19.1 18.3 37.2 62.8 2.7 97.3 Bachelor’s degree total 66.6 33.9 20.6 12.8 48.6 51.4 1.4 98.6 

Career education 62.6 37.9 22.3 15.2 48.9 51.1 1.3 98.7 

Academic 70.8 29.6 19.5 9.7 49.0 51.0 1.4 98.6 

Other 77.5 24.2 13.8 8.7 45.5 54.5 1.3 98.7 

Associate’s degree total 40.1 60.6 28.6 31.3 32.3 67.7 2.0 98.0 

Career education 37.0 63.6 28.9 34.1 35.4 64.6 2.0 98.0 

Academic 46.7 53.9 29.5 23.8 24.6 75.4 2.0 98.0 Other 48.1 53.2 24.0 27.8 26.5 73.5 2.2 97.8 

Certificate total 25.5 75.3 30.9 43.6 51.2 48.8 6.9 93.1 

Career education 23.8 76.9 30.7 45.5 54.2 45.8 5.7 94.3 

Academic 37.4 64.1 32.7 29.9 30.5 69.5 14.6 85.4 Other 34.9 65.6 30.3 34.8 33.3 66.7 13.0 87.0 

See notes at end of table.

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree

_______

103
Table 3.14.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by de

Table 3.14.—aid status, previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

Major fieldand level of Independent, Independent, No credential without with Financial financial 

sought Dependent Independent dependents dependents aid aid Yes No 

2000

 All undergraduates 51.9 48.1 21.1 27.0 59.3 40.7 4.8 95.2 

Career education 46.2 53.8 21.9 31.8 60.6 39.4 5.1 94.9 Academic 63.1 36.9 19.4 17.5 60.0 40.0 3.8 96.2 Other 59.6 40.4 20.1 20.3 47.8 52.2 6.6 93.4 Bachelor’s degree total 66.9 33.1 17.4 15.7 70.4 29.6 2.8 97.2 

Career education 62.4 37.6 18.6 19.0 70.5 29.5 3.0 97.0 

Academic 73.2 26.8 16.1 10.7 71.5 28.5 2.3 97.7 Other 73.6 26.4 14.2 12.2 64.1 35.9 3.1 96.9 

Associate’s degree total 44.6 55.4 22.1 33.3 49.3 50.7 4.5 95.5 

Career education 40.3 59.7 21.9 37.8 53.4 46.6 4.0 96.0 

Academic 51.1 48.9 23.0 25.9 45.0 55.0 4.3 95.7 Other 56.1 43.9 20.9 23.0 34.0 66.0 8.5 91.5 

Certificate total 24.5 75.5 29.9 45.6 51.4 48.6 12.3 87.7 

Career education 23.0 77.0 29.3 47.7 53.5 46.5 11.8 88.2 

Academic 36.1 63.9 30.5 33.4 39.7 60.3 17.8 82.2 Other 26.9 73.1 36.2 36.9 42.6 57.4 12.3 ! 87.7 

See notes at end of table.

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree

_______

104
Table 3.14.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by de

Table 3.14.—aid status, previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

Major fieldand level of Independent, Independent, No credential without with Financial financial 

sought Dependent Independent dependents dependents aid aid Yes No 

2004

 All undergraduates 51.6 48.4 22.1 26.2 66.3 33.7 4.8 95.2 

Career education 46.0 54.0 23.4 30.6 67.8 32.2 5.5 94.5 Academic 63.2 36.8 20.7 16.0 66.2 33.8 4.0 96.0 Other 57.6 42.4 18.9 23.4 59.1 40.9 3.0 97.0 Bachelor’s degree total 63.5 36.5 19.5 16.9 74.2 25.8 3.7 96.3 

Career education 58.5 41.5 20.9 20.7 75.2 24.8 4.5 ! 95.5 ! 

Academic 70.3 29.7 19.0 10.7 74.0 26.0 3.0 ! 97.0 ! Other 73.4 26.6 13.6 13.1 68.6 31.4 1.8 ! 98.2 ! 

Associate’s degree total 40.7 59.3 24.6 34.7 56.1 43.9 5.7 94.3 

Career education 35.4 64.6 25.6 39.1 58.8 41.2 6.3 93.7 

Academic 50.5 49.5 23.9 25.6 50.7 49.3 5.9 94.1 Other 49.9 50.1 21.8 28.3 51.3 48.7 3.3 96.7 

Certificate total 27.8 72.2 27.1 45.1 67.2 32.8 7.7 92.3 

Career education 27.4 72.6 27.2 45.4 68.4 31.6 7.6 92.4 

Academic 37.5 62.5 25.5 37.1 60.4 39.6 10.7 89.3 Other 27.0 73.0 28.1 45.0 62.8 37.2 7.6 92.4 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Dependency status categorizes students based on whether they are dependent from their parents and whether the student had one or more depDependency status from parents is determined from the student’s federal financial aid application; if not available, it was determined according to the feof age 24 or older on December 31, 2003; a veteran of the U.S. Armed Forces; enrolled in a graduate or professional program beyond a bachelor’s degreethe court; or have legal dependents other than a spouse. “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other miscellaneous majors, anappendix A for detail on how majors were classified. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals becStandard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree

_______

105
Table 3.15.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by wo

Table 3.15.—enrolled, work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004

Major field Student Employee Does

and level of Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-timcredential sought work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-ye

1990

 All undergraduates 22.6 77.4 38.4 39.0 † † † † 

Career education 22.7 77.3 35.6 41.7 † † † † Academic 22.5 77.5 45.2 32.3 † † † † 

Other 22.4 77.6 40.7 37.0 † † † † Bachelor’s degree total 20.8 79.2 47.3 31.9 † † † † 

Career education 19.6 80.4 46.0 34.4 † † † † Academic 22.3 77.7 50.2 27.6 † † † † Other 23.3 76.7 46.6 30.0 † † † † 

Associate’s degree total 21.4 78.6 32.7 45.9 † † † † 

Career education 21.3 78.7 30.3 48.4 † † † † Academic 21.8 78.2 38.2 40.0 † † † † Other 21.3 78.7 37.6 41.1 † † † † 

Certificate total 32.5 67.5 23.1 44.4 † † † † 

Career education 33.4 66.6 22.5 44.1 † † † † Academic 30.8 69.2 30.9 38.3 † † † † Other 21.8 78.2 20.3 58.0 † † † † 

See notes at end of table.

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Attend

_______

106
Table 3.15.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by wo

Table 3.15.—enrolled, work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

Major field Student Employee Does

and level of Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-timcredential sought work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-ye

2000

 All undergraduates 20.1 79.9 41.7 38.2 49.8 30.0 20.2 42.0 13

Career education 19.4 80.6 39.3 41.3 47.5 33.0 19.5 39.4 14

Academic 20.6 79.4 48.4 31.0 57.1 22.2 20.7 49.2 11Other 23.2 76.8 38.7 38.1 44.0 32.7 23.3 38.3 11Bachelor’s degree total 23.4 76.6 52.7 23.9 61.0 15.5 23.5 61.7 11

Career education 22.2 77.8 50.1 27.8 58.7 19.0 22.3 58.7 11Academic 24.0 76.0 58.2 17.8 66.3 9.5 24.1 66.6 10Other 29.8 70.2 48.8 21.4 54.1 16.0 29.9 62.2 11

Associate’s degree total 15.8 84.2 33.9 50.3 44.2 39.8 15.9 27.8 13

Career education 15.7 84.3 33.2 51.1 44.1 40.1 15.8 28.9 13Academic 15.6 84.4 35.6 48.9 45.7 38.7 15.7 26.3 13Other 17.0 83.0 34.5 48.6 41.4 41.5 17.0 24.4 11

Certificate total 21.0 79.0 27.9 51.1 29.4 49.4 21.2 18.1 22

Career education 20.8 79.2 28.1 51.0 29.5 49.4 21.1 18.7 24Academic 19.9 80.1 31.3 48.8 36.4 43.6 20.0 19.5 11Other 23.7 76.3 21.1 55.2 20.5 55.7 23.7 9.6 12

See notes at end of table.

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Attend

_______

107
Table 3.15.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates with each major field and level of credential sought, by wo

Table 3.15.—enrolled, work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

Major field Student Employee Does

and level of Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-timcredential sought work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-ye

2004

 All undergraduates 26.1 73.9 42.5 31.4 49.5 24.3 26.1 43.5 14

Career education 24.8 75.2 41.1 34.1 48.0 27.2 24.8 41.9 14

Academic 28.2 71.8 48.1 23.7 55.6 16.2 28.2 50.7 12Other 28.8 71.2 38.8 32.4 45.6 25.6 28.8 37.9 14Bachelor’s degree total 29.3 70.7 46.4 24.3 53.5 17.2 29.3 59.3 12

Career education 26.9 73.1 45.1 28.0 52.3 20.8 26.9 57.6 12Academic 31.3 68.7 50.7 17.9 58.2 10.5 31.3 63.3 11Other 36.9 63.1 41.6 21.5 46.8 16.3 36.9 57.8 14

Associate’s degree total 21.5 78.5 39.3 39.2 46.7 31.8 21.5 26.9 13

Career education 21.2 78.8 38.2 40.6 45.3 33.4 21.2 27.4 13Academic 21.8 78.2 43.5 34.7 50.9 27.3 21.8 26.3 13Other 22.2 77.8 38.3 39.5 46.6 31.1 22.2 24.7 12

Certificate total 29.5 70.5 32.4 38.1 36.9 33.6 29.5 23.5 33

Career education 29.0 71.0 32.9 38.1 37.3 33.7 29.0 22.8 34Academic 30.2 69.8 35.1 34.8 42.5 27.3 30.2 31.3 27Other 31.5 68.5 27.4 41.1 32.0 36.5 31.5 22.6 31

† Not applicable.NOTE: “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other miscellaneous majors, and unreported majors. See appendix A for detail on Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Attend

_______

108
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

109 

larger percentage identified themselves as employees enrolled in school (33 vs. 27 percent). No 

differences in employment or enrollment patterns were observed between career and academic 

majors pursuing certificates. 

Table 3.16 presents a summary of selected comparisons between credential-seeking undergraduates with career and academic majors, overall and according to their credential level. The 

only characteristics for which a difference was found between career and academic majors at all 

three credential levels were age and financial independence. However, several differences were 

found among both bachelor’s and associate’s degree seekers, including differences related to sex, 

race/ethnicity, parents’ education, marital status, and employment, although differences in the 

majority sex of career and academic majors were opposite at the two degree levels. Finally, differences in the postsecondary full-time enrollment status of career and academic majors were observed only at the baccalaureate level. 

Student Characteristics by Career Major Field 

As mentioned above, 49 percent of credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors 

sought a bachelor’s degree, 41 percent sought an associate’s degree, and 9 percent sought a certificate in 2004 (table 3.11). The level of credential that career majors sought varied by major 

field, however. A majority of career majors in the fields of communications (77 percent), public, 

social, and human services (65 percent), agriculture (65 percent), engineering and architectural 

sciences (63 percent), education (62 percent), and business and marketing (59 percent) were 

seeking a bachelor’s degree in 2004, as well as about half of computer sciences majors (49 percent). About half or more of career students in the fields of legal services (65 percent), health 

care (56 percent), protective services (48 percent), and trade and industry (46 percent) were seeking an associate’s degree. In none of the career fields were half or more of majors seeking a certificate in 2004. 

The following sections describe the characteristics of all undergraduates majoring in the 

different career fields. Detail on the characteristics of bachelor’s degree, associate’s degree, and 

certificate students majoring in the different career fields can be found on the Career/Technical 

Education Statistics (CTES) website (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/).59

 

59 Characteristics of undergraduates enrolled in selected majors as of 2004 can also be found on the National Science Foundation 

website for Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering (http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/) 

(National Science Foundation 2007). Some tables provide detail at different degree levels. 
Table 3.16.—Summary of selected comparisons between credential-seeking undergraduates with career and academic majors, by leve

Table 3.17.—2004

Parent has a

bachelor’s Worked full 

or higher Financially time while 

Credential sought Male Black degree Age Married independent enrolled 

 All undergraduates 0+ -++++

Bachelor’s degree ++ -++++

Associate’s degree -+ -++++

Certificate 000+0+0

NOTE: Plus sign means that students with career majors were more likely to have this characteristic or had a higher value on this characteristic than studeminus sign means that students with career majors were less likely to have this characteristic or had a lower value on this characteristic than students witmeans that no measurable difference was found between the two student groups.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:04).

Career versus academic majors

_______

110
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

111 

Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Disability Status 

Among undergraduates, the majority of career majors were female (58 percent) and were 

White (63 percent) in 2004 (table 3.17). Student demographics varied by career major field, 

however. The fields in which a majority of career majors were female included health care (83 

percent), public, social, and human services (80 percent), education (80 percent), legal services 

(74 percent), personal and consumer services (70 percent), communications (59 percent), and 

business and marketing (55 percent). Male undergraduates constituted the majority in the career 

fields of trade and industry (92 percent), engineering and architectural sciences (81 percent), 

computer sciences (73 percent), and protective services (55 percent).60 Students’ race/ethnicity 

varied somewhat by career field of study. The largest concentrations of White undergraduates 

were found among agriculture and natural resources majors and education majors (83 and 71 percent, respectively, vs. 50–66 percent in other career fields), while the largest concentration of 

Black undergraduates was found in public, social, and human services (30 percent vs. 4–19 percent in other career fields). One of the largest concentrations of Hispanic undergraduates was 

found among legal services majors (16 vs. 9–14 percent),61 while some of the largest concentrations of Asian/Pacific Islander undergraduates were found among students majoring in computer 

sciences and engineering and architectural sciences (8 and 7 percent, respectively, vs. 1–6 percent 

in other career fields).62 Most career majors (89 percent) reported no disabilities in 2004 (table 

3.18). Students with majors in public, social, and human services and in trade and industry had 

higher disability rates, however, than their peers with majors in most other career fields (15–16 

vs. 10–14 percent).63 

Age, Marital Status, and Financial Independence 

Overall, the majority of credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors (58 percent) 

were younger than age 25 in 2004, and about one-quarter (23 percent) were married (tables 3.17 

and 3.18). As above, however, age and marital status sometimes varied by career field of study. 

About one-third of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in public, social, and human 

 

60 The percentage of agriculture and natural resources majors who were male was not measurably different from 50 percent. 

61 The percentage of Hispanics majoring in legal services was not measurably different from the percentages majoring in personal and consumer services, protective services, education, and trade and industry. 

62 The percentages of Asian/Pacific Islanders majoring in computer sciences and in engineering and architectural sciences were 

not measurably different from the percentages majoring in public, social, and human services and in legal services. 

63 Majors in public, social, and human services and in trade and industry did not have measurably higher disability rates than 

majors in personal services, computer sciences, and legal services. 
Table 3.17.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by sex, race/ethnic

Table 3.17.—and 2004

Asian/

Pacific American You

Career major Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other tha

1990

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 44.1 55.9 74.8 11.6 8.5 4.3 0.8 † 

Agriculture and natural 

 resources 64.2 35.8 92.0 0.6 2.5 2.6 2.2 † 

Business and marketing 43.1 56.9 73.5 12.3 9.0 4.7 0.6 † Communications 45.8 54.2 74.9 13.7 7.3 4.0 # † Computer sciences 51.4 48.6 67.3 14.1 10.5 7.4 0.6 † Education 20.5 79.5 82.9 6.3 7.9 1.9 1.0 † Engineering and architectural 

 sciences 79.7 20.3 75.5 6.9 9.1 7.5 1.0 † 

Health care 22.5 77.5 77.8 12.7 5.7 2.9 0.9 † Legal services 18.0 82.0 69.4 16.3 10.2 2.0 2.1 † Personal and consumer 

 services 24.9 75.1 69.3 17.0 9.2 4.1 0.3 † 

Protective services 72.1 27.9 72.1 14.3 12.4 0.9 0.3 † Public, social, and human 

 services 18.8 81.2 74.3 14.0 10.0 0.9 0.7 † 

Trade and industry 89.5 10.5 75.0 10.1 8.9 5.0 0.9 † 

See notes at end of table.

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

112
Table 3.17.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by sex, race/ethnic

Table 3.17.—and 2004—Continued

Asian/

Pacific American You

Career major Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other tha

2000

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 44.5 55.5 65.2 14.4 12.4 5.4 0.9 1.7 

Agriculture and natural 

 resources 60.4 39.6 88.5 1.8 ! 6.0 2.5 ! 0.9 ! 0.2 

Business and marketing 43.4 56.6 64.6 13.5 13.1 5.8 1.0 2.1 Communications 45.4 54.6 71.9 12.4 10.3 3.7 0.2 ! 1.4 Computer sciences 64.1 35.9 57.9 15.9 10.1 12.1 1.0 ! 3.0 Education 22.1 77.9 72.8 12.9 11.4 1.2 0.7 0.9 Engineering and architectural 

 sciences 81.8 18.2 64.6 8.7 13.5 9.7 1.1 2.4 ! 

Health care 17.9 82.1 65.1 17.9 11.0 3.9 1.1 1.0 Legal services 28.4 71.6 55.3 19.9 19.3 2.5 ! 2.9 ! 0.1 ! Personal and consumer 

 services 27.8 72.2 58.3 21.6 13.5 4.2 1.0 ! 1.5 ! 

Protective services 64.2 35.8 65.9 15.4 16.5 0.7 ! 0.5 ! 0.9 ! Public, social, and human 

 services 18.2 81.8 66.6 16.9 12.6 2.4 ! 1.3 ! 0.2 ! 

Trade and industry 91.4 8.6 64.4 13.1 16.2 4.4 0.7 ! 1.1 ! 

See notes at end of table.

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

113
Table 3.17.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by sex, race/ethnic

Table 3.17.—and 2004—Continued

Asian/

Pacific American You

Career major Male Female White Black Hispanic Islander Indian Other tha

2004

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 42.0 58.0 62.9 16.6 11.1 4.9 0.9 3.7 

Agriculture and natural 

 resources 55.5 44.5 83.4 3.9 8.6 0.9 ! 0.8 ! 2.4 ! 

Business and marketing 45.2 54.8 61.5 17.3 10.8 6.0 0.9 3.5 Communications 41.4 58.6 65.7 14.0 10.1 3.8 0.7 ! 5.7 Computer sciences 73.1 26.9 58.1 18.7 10.4 7.9 0.7 4.2 Education 19.8 80.2 70.9 12.2 11.1 2.0 0.7 3.1 Engineering and architectural 

 sciences 80.6 19.4 65.4 11.9 10.4 7.5 1.0 3.9 

Health care 16.6 83.4 61.1 18.9 11.2 4.3 0.9 3.6 Legal services 26.1 73.9 56.7 17.6 16.0 5.3 ! 1.7 ! 2.7 Personal and consumer 

 services 29.7 70.3 60.4 17.7 14.0 3.1 1.0 ! 3.7 

Protective services 54.9 45.1 62.3 17.5 13.5 2.3 1.1 3.4 Public, social, and human 

 services 20.0 80.0 49.8 30.3 9.6 5.7 ! 1.7 ! 2.9 ! 

Trade and industry 92.3 7.7 65.4 15.9 10.7 2.6 1.3 ! 4.1 

† Not applicable.# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.

1 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. “Other

students. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are av

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Sex Race/ethnicity1 

_______

114
Table 3.18.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by disability status

Table 3.18.—education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004

Some

college,

Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

have Has high school career degree or

Career major disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Mar

1990

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields † † 7.9 25.3 17.0 23.1 26.8 70.4 2

Agriculture and natural 

 resources † † 3.1 29.1 17.3 33.8 16.7 83.1 1

Business and marketing † † 8.1 24.4 16.1 24.4 26.9 73.2 2Communications † † 3.5 20.4 22.0 30.9 23.2 85.0 1Computer sciences † † 9.1 23.0 16.1 19.4 32.4 64.9 3Education † † 7.1 26.6 17.9 25.7 22.8 66.8 3Engineering and architectural 

 sciences † † 5.6 25.1 18.6 30.6 20.1 76.1 2

Health care † † 8.7 26.2 17.6 20.3 27.2 64.4 3Legal services † † 11.3 30.4 15.4 11.0 31.9 69.2 2Personal and consumer 

 services † † 8.6 22.7 14.8 21.3 32.7 75.5 2

Protective services † † 7.2 28.4 21.0 17.4 26.1 68.5 2Public, social, and human 

 services † † 7.1 23.8 19.7 23.5 25.9 74.3 2

Trade and industry † † 9.8 29.1 14.4 13.7 32.9 58.4 3

See notes at end of table.

Disability status Parents’ highest education level M

_______

115
Table 3.18.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by disability status

Table 3.18.—education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Some

college,

Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

have Has high school career degree or

Career major disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Mar

2000

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 90.9 9.1 8.3 30.1 22.1 34.1 5.4 67.1 2

Agriculture and natural 

 resources 89.6 10.4 ! 0.8 ! 26.1 22.4 45.2 5.6 ! 77.1 1

Business and marketing 91.9 8.1 8.2 30.0 21.3 35.6 4.9 68.3 2Communications 91.2 8.8 4.3 23.1 22.6 46.8 3.2 82.0 1Computer sciences 87.9 12.1 10.0 30.7 19.1 33.3 6.8 62.6 2Education 90.5 9.5 7.4 29.4 23.6 34.8 4.8 65.0 2Engineering and architectural 

 sciences 94.0 6.0 5.1 26.0 19.6 44.1 5.1 74.4 2

Health care 92.0 8.0 9.3 31.6 24.5 29.9 4.8 64.0 2Legal services 91.0 9.0 8.4 30.6 29.6 19.4 12.0 52.1 2

Personal and consumer 

 services 86.3 13.7 8.6 31.5 21.1 30.6 8.3 69.1 2

Protective services 92.7 7.3 7.2 32.6 27.3 29.0 3.9 70.0 2Public, social, and human 

 services 88.3 11.7 ! 10.8 32.1 25.4 27.4 4.3 63.0 2

Trade and industry 88.2 11.8 12.8 35.5 18.7 24.4 8.7 61.2 3

See notes at end of table.

Disability status Parents’ highest education level M

_______

116
Table 3.18.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by disability status

Table 3.18.—education level, and marital status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Some

college,

Does not Less than High including Bachelor’s

have Has high school career degree or

Career major disability disability school diploma training higher Unknown Single Mar

2004

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 88.8 11.2 6.6 28.7 24.3 37.5 3.0 74.7 2

Agriculture and natural 

 resources 89.9 10.1 2.8 ! 22.8 25.0 48.3 1.1 ! 87.9 1

Business and marketing 89.4 10.6 6.6 28.6 24.0 37.9 2.9 74.5 2Communications 89.3 10.7 3.5 19.3 24.9 50.6 1.7 90.5 Computer sciences 86.9 13.1 6.1 28.2 22.9 39.4 3.5 72.6 2Education 89.6 10.4 6.1 27.5 25.7 38.3 2.4 76.3 2Engineering and architectural 

 sciences 90.4 9.6 4.7 23.4 21.7 47.8 2.3 82.2 1

Health care 89.1 10.9 8.3 32.2 25.6 30.5 3.4 67.0 2Legal services 87.2 12.8 10.3 34.3 23.6 27.0 4.7 ! 67.2 2

Personal and consumer 

 services 86.5 13.5 5.8 28.9 21.8 39.4 4.1 81.3 1

Protective services 88.9 11.1 6.9 30.8 26.6 32.7 3.1 78.5 1Public, social, and human 

 services 84.0 16.0 10.5 36.0 19.6 30.2 3.7 69.6 2

Trade and industry 85.1 14.9 6.7 32.1 24.2 33.5 3.5 71.7 2

† Not applicable.! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are avhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Disability status Parents’ highest education level M

_______

117
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

118 

services were age 35 or older in 2004, and a larger percentage of these majors were 35 or older 

than career majors in all other fields except legal services (31 percent in public, social, and 

human services vs. 6–24 percent in other fields). With regard to marital status, a smaller 

percentage of communications majors and agriculture and natural resources majors were married 

than career majors in all other fields (9 and 11 percent vs. 16–29 percent).64 The majority of 

credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields were financially independent (54 percent) and 

received financial aid (68 percent) (table 3.19). There were no measurable differences found 

among career fields in the percentage of majors receiving financial aid. 

Parental Education 

While a larger concentration of undergraduates with career majors had parents with a 

bachelor’s or higher degree than any other level of education (38 vs. 3–29 percent), parental education also varied by career field of study (table 3.18). A larger percentage of students with majors in communications, in agriculture and natural resources, and in engineering and architectural 

sciences had at least one parent with a bachelor’s degree than students in all other career fields 

(48–51 vs. 27–39 percent). As seen earlier, the majority of students majoring in these three fields 

were themselves seeking bachelor’s degrees in 2004 (table 3.11). In contrast, a larger percentage 

of students with majors in public, social, and human services and in legal services than majors in 

most other career fields indicated that their parents’ highest educational attainment was a high 

school diploma (34–36 vs. 19–32 percent).65 As seen earlier, the majority of legal services majors 

were seeking associate’s degrees in 2004 (table 3.11). 

Prior Degrees and Postsecondary GPA 

The majority of credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors did not have a prior 

bachelor’s degree (94 percent) and had postsecondary grade point averages (GPAs) in the range 

of 2.0 to 3.49 (corresponding to grades of C to B+) (62 percent) (table 3.19). There was some 

variation in these educational characteristics across career fields of study. Public, social, and human services majors had higher rates of attaining a bachelor’s degree prior to 2004 than under- 

 

64 The percentage of agriculture and natural resources majors who were married was not measurably different from the percentage for communications and personal and consumer services. 

65 No measurable differences were detected between the percentage of legal services majors whose parents’ highest educational 

attainment was a high school diploma and the corresponding percentages of majors in trade and industry and in health care. 
Table 3.19.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by dependency sta

Table 3.19.—previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004 

Depen- Indepen- Financial No financial Less than 

Career major dent dent aid aid Yes No 2.0 

1990

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 45.2 55.5 44.9 55.1 2.4 97.6 12.1 

Agriculture and natural resources 65.9 34.1 44.7 55.3 3.3 96.7 14.9 Business and marketing 46.3 53.5 42.8 57.2 2.2 97.8 13.1 Communications 62.1 37.7 37.3 62.7 2.3 97.7 13.9 Computer sciences 34.7 65.3 44.8 55.2 4.2 95.8 12.6 Education 47.8 52.0 44.9 55.1 3.7 96.3 9.7 Engineering and architectural sciences 53.3 46.7 43.1 56.9 2.1 97.9 11.3 Health care 37.0 62.9 48.8 51.2 2.2 97.8 11.6 Legal services 36.9 63.1 54.6 45.4 1.9 98.1 10.6 Personal and consumer services 46.8 52.9 51.2 48.8 1.2 98.8 11.6 Protective services 43.8 56.1 39.2 60.8 3.3 96.7 17.4 Public, social, and human services 52.2 47.8 46.4 53.6 0.4 99.6 13.4 Trade and industry 29.6 70.3 44.8 55.2 1.1 98.9 8.4 

See notes at end of table.

P

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree

_______

119
Table 3.19.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by dependency sta

Table 3.19.—previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Depen- Indepen- Financial No financial Less than 

Career major dent dent aid aid Yes No 2.0 

2000

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 46.2 53.8 60.6 39.4 5.1 94.9 9.2 

Agriculture and natural resources 69.7 30.3 57.4 42.6 3.7 ! 96.3 12.3 Business and marketing 48.3 51.7 59.8 40.2 2.4 97.6 10.1 Communications 69.4 30.6 59.2 40.8 2.2 97.8 7.9 Computer sciences 36.8 63.2 61.7 38.3 9.2 90.8 8.7 Education 51.3 48.7 60.4 39.6 8.6 91.4 8.3 Engineering and architectural sciences 58.5 41.5 60.3 39.7 5.6 94.4 9.6 Health care 39.2 60.8 62.8 37.2 5.7 94.3 9.5 Legal services 34.4 65.6 63.9 36.1 4.4 95.6 10.6 Personal and consumer services 42.6 57.4 62.4 37.6 3.1 96.9 8.1 Protective services 47.1 52.9 57.0 43.0 2.5 97.5 9.2 Public, social, and human services 38.5 61.5 64.2 35.8 6.6 93.4 7.4 ! Trade and industry 33.5 66.5 56.3 43.7 3.8 96.2 8.4 

See notes at end of table.

P

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree

_______

120
Table 3.19.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by dependency sta

Table 3.19.—previous bachelor’s degree, and postsecondary GPA: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Depen- Indepen- Financial No financial Less than 

Career major dent dent aid aid Yes No 2.0 

2004

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 46.0 54.0 67.8 32.2 5.5 94.5 8.7 

Agriculture and natural resources 66.9 33.1 64.2 35.8 4.8 95.2 11.5 Business and marketing 45.3 54.7 66.7 33.3 4.8 95.2 8.6 Communications 72.0 28.0 68.6 31.4 2.9 97.1 8.8 Computer sciences 40.6 59.4 68.0 32.0 6.1 93.9 9.1 Education 55.0 45.0 68.1 31.9 4.3 95.7 7.7 Engineering and architectural sciences 60.6 39.4 69.0 31.0 4.5 95.5 8.2 Health care 33.0 67.0 68.5 31.5 7.8 92.2 8.0 Legal services 29.7 70.3 71.9 28.1 7.9 92.1 10.4 Personal and consumer services 50.6 49.4 67.6 32.4 4.7 95.3 9.0 Protective services 47.4 52.6 65.9 34.1 3.9 96.1 12.6 Public, social, and human services 30.8 69.2 73.6 26.4 10.1 89.9 9.5 Trade and industry 41.6 58.4 65.5 34.5 7.0 93.0 10.0 

! Interpret data with caution.NOTE: Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are avhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Previous

Dependency status Financial aid status bachelor’s degree P

_______

121
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

122 

graduate majors in most other career fields (10 vs. 3–8 percent).66 In addition, about one-third of 

undergraduates majoring in the fields of trade and industry, computer sciences, legal services, 

personal and consumer services, health care, and in public, social, and human services had GPAs 

of 3.5 or higher in 2004, while smaller percentages of majors in other career fields attained this 

GPA level. 

Employment and Enrollment Status 

The majority (75 percent) of undergraduates seeking a credential in a career field in 2004 

worked while they were enrolled (table 3.20). Despite this high employment rate, more career 

majors considered themselves primarily as “students who work” rather than as “employees who 

study” (48 vs. 27 percent). In addition, more career majors attended postsecondary education full 

time for the full 2003–04 academic year than attended either part time, part year, or both (42 vs. 

15–23 percent). Nevertheless, there was some variation in employment and enrollment patterns 

by career field of study. A higher percentage of majors in protective services were employed than 

their peers in other career major fields (79 vs. 67–76 percent), with the exceptions of legal 

services (79 percent), business and marketing (77 percent), and computer sciences (77 percent), 

with which there were no measurable differences. A larger percentage of communications and 

agriculture and natural resources majors considered themselves primarily as students who work 

(60–61 vs. 41–56 percent) and attended school full time for the full academic year (56–57 vs. 

32–52 percent) than majors in most other career fields (table 3.20).67 The majority of students 

majoring in these two fields were seeking bachelor’s degrees (65–77 percent) (table 3.11). In 

contrast, a larger percentage of legal services majors—the majority of whom were pursuing 

associate’s degrees in 2004 (65 percent) (table 3.11)—considered themselves primarily as 

employees who study than career majors in most other fields (36 vs. 12–33 percent).68

Additionally, a smaller percentage of legal services majors were enrolled full time for the full 

academic year than credential-seeking undergraduates in most other career majors (31 vs. 33–57 

 

66 No measurable differences were found between the percentage of majors in public, social, and human services who attained a 

bachelor’s degree prior to 2004 and the corresponding percentages of those majoring in legal services, health care, and trade and 

industry. 

67 No measurable differences were detected in the percentages of agriculture and natural resources and of education majors who 

considered themselves as students who work or were enrolled full time for the full academic year. In addition, no measurable 

difference was detected in the percentages of agriculture and natural resources and of engineering majors who were enrolled full 

time for the full academic year. 

68 No measurable differences were detected in the percentages of legal services majors and majors in computer sciences, business 

and marketing, and public, social, and human services who considered themselves as employees who study. 
Table 3.20.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by work experience 

Table 3.20.—work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004

Student Employee Does

Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-t

Career major work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-

1990

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 22.7 77.3 35.6 41.7 — — — —

Agriculture and natural resources 16.4 83.6 44.5 39.1 — — — — Business and marketing 20.8 79.2 34.8 44.4 — — — — Communications 22.8 77.2 41.6 35.6 — — — — Computer sciences 23.5 76.5 27.9 48.6 — — — — Education 24.0 76.0 44.2 31.8 — — — —Engineering and architectural  sciences 19.2 80.8 36.4 44.4 — — — — Health care 24.2 75.8 39.8 36.0 — — — — Legal services 34.1 65.9 26.9 39.0 — — — — Personal and consumer services 31.9 68.1 38.0 30.1 — — — — Protective services 17.8 82.2 23.9 58.3 — — — — Public, social, and human services 22.1 77.9 45.7 32.2 — — — — Trade and industry 23.5 76.5 22.1 54.3 — — — — 

See notes at end of table.

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Atte

_______

123
Table 3.20.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by work experience 

Table 3.20.—work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Student Employee Does

Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-t

Career major work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-

2000

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 19.4 80.6 39.3 41.3 47.5 33.0 19.5 39.4 

Agriculture and natural resources 23.1 76.9 54.4 22.5 64.1 12.8 23.2 57.8 

Business and marketing 18.4 81.6 36.1 45.5 45.3 36.2 18.5 40.1 Communications 18.8 81.2 55.4 25.8 62.9 18.2 18.9 54.9 Computer sciences 19.3 80.7 32.8 47.9 40.6 40.0 19.4 30.9 Education 20.5 79.5 46.0 33.5 54.3 25.0 20.7 43.7 Engineering and architectural  sciences 21.5 78.5 40.0 38.5 51.6 26.8 21.7 47.4 Health care 20.2 79.8 43.0 36.8 49.5 30.2 20.3 38.2 Legal services 22.7 77.3 29.0 48.3 40.0 36.7 23.3 33.6 Personal and consumer services 25.1 74.9 43.9 31.0 47.2 27.1 25.7 35.1 Protective services 11.5 88.5 32.7 55.8 46.7 41.8 11.5 36.5 Public, social, and human services 19.0 81.0 44.4 36.6 47.6 33.3 19.1 39.7 Trade and industry 18.0 82.0 27.6 54.5 31.5 50.4 18.1 27.0 

See notes at end of table.

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Atte

_______

124
Table 3.20.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking undergraduates in career fields with each career major, by work experience 

Table 3.20.—work orientation, and attendance status: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued

Student Employee Does

Did not Worked, Worked Worked who who not Full-time/ Full-t

Career major work total part time full time works studies work full-year part-

2004

 All credential-seeking 

 undergraduates in career fields 24.8 75.2 41.1 34.1 48.0 27.2 24.8 41.9 

Agriculture and natural resources 27.2 72.8 51.2 21.6 60.2 12.6 27.2 56.1 

Business and marketing 22.7 77.3 37.9 39.3 45.3 32.0 22.7 41.2 Communications 26.5 73.5 52.3 21.2 61.1 12.4 26.5 56.8 Computer sciences 22.9 77.1 35.9 41.2 43.9 33.2 22.9 38.2 Education 24.3 75.7 49.2 26.5 55.7 20.1 24.3 51.2 Engineering and architectural  sciences 32.8 67.2 41.4 25.7 48.5 18.7 32.8 52.0 Health care 24.3 75.7 41.7 34.0 45.6 30.0 24.3 32.8 Legal services 21.0 79.0 32.2 46.7 42.6 36.4 21.0 31.5 Personal and consumer services 30.0 70.0 41.7 28.4 47.7 22.3 30.0 43.3 Protective services 20.7 79.3 39.7 39.6 52.6 26.6 20.7 41.2 Public, social, and human services 27.4 72.6 34.3 38.3 40.9 31.6 27.4 37.3 Trade and industry 25.2 74.8 35.9 38.9 44.3 30.5 25.2 34.9 

— Not available.NOTE: Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are avhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid SNPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04).

Work experience while enrolled Work orientation Atte

_______

125
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

126 

percent), and a larger percentage were enrolled part time for part of the academic year than most 

other career majors (29 vs. 11–23 percent) (table 3.20).69 

Table 3.21 presents a summary of selected characteristics of undergraduates seeking credentials in career fields in 2004 according to their specific career major fields. Several patterns 

emerge. For example, as mentioned above, higher concentrations of students with majors in the 

fields of agriculture and natural resources, communications, and engineering and architectural 

sciences had at least one parent with a bachelor’s or higher degree than other career majors, and 

the majority of the majors in these three fields were themselves seeking bachelor’s degrees. 

Moreover, agriculture and natural resources majors and communications majors had higher rates 

of enrolling full time for the full academic year than other career majors. In contrast, higher percentages of legal services majors in 2004 were over 35 years old, had parents whose highest educational degree was a high school diploma, and were financially independent. The majority of 

these legal services majors were seeking an associate’s degree. 

Changes in Undergraduates Majoring in Career Education: 1990 and 2004 

Changes in the Prevalence of Career Majors 

Between 1990 and 2004, the number of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in career fields increased by about one-half million students (from 10.1 to 10.6 million) (table 3.8). 

Over the same period, the number of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in academic 

fields increased by about 400,000 students (from 3.6 to 4.0 million) and the number majoring in 

“other” fields increased by about 800,000 students (from 1.4 to 2.2 million).70 As a result of these 

changes, career majors represented a smaller percentage of the total credential-seeking undergraduate population by the end of the period (63 percent down from 67 percent). 

The number of career majors increased between 1990 and 2004 among both associate’s and 

bachelor’s degree seekers (from 3.8 to 4.4 million and from 4.2 to 5.3 million, respectively), 

while the number of certificate-seeking undergraduates majoring in career education decreased 

(from 2.1 to 1.0 million) (table 3.8). Over the same period, there was no measurable change in 

the percentage of bachelor’s degree seekers with career majors (59–60 percent), although the per- 

 

69 No measurable differences were detected in the percentages of legal services majors and majors in health care, trade and industry, and public, social, and human services who were enrolled full time for the full academic year, nor were measurable differences detected in the percentages of legal services majors and majors in public, social, and human services, trade and industry, 

and computer sciences who were enrolled part time for part of the academic year. 

70 “Other” major fields include interdisciplinary studies, basic skills, other unspecified majors, and undeclared majors. See appendix A for detail on how majors were classified. 
Table 3.21.—Summary of selected characteristics of credential-seeking undergraduates with specific career majors: 2004

Havin

Having a paren

a parent whos

Majority Majority with a highe

seeking a seeking an bachelor’s degree is 

bachelor’s associate’s Majority 35 years A "student degree high schoo

Specific career major degree degree female1 White Black or older who works" or higher diplom

Agriculture and natural

 resources 33 3 3 

Business and 

 marketing 3 3

Communications 3 3 3 3 Computer sciencesEducation 3 3 3Engineering and 

 architectural sciences 3 3

Health care 3Legal services 3 33Personal and 

 consumer services 3

Protective servicesPublic, social, and

 human services 3 33 3 3

Trade and industry

1 Male students were the majority in the remaining career fields except agriculture and natural resources where there were no measurable differences be

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:04).

Among career majors, highest

concentrations of students who were:

Among career m

_______

127
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

128 

centage of associate’s degree seekers with career majors decreased (from 69 to 64 percent) as did 

the percentage of certificate seekers (from 87 to 81 percent). Nevertheless, career majors still represented the majority of credential-seeking undergraduates at each credential level in 2004 (60–

81 percent). 

The number of students majoring in career education increased in some fields between 

1990 and 2004, but decreased in others (table 3.10). Particularly notable was the increase in 

health care majors, who grew in number from 1.7 to 2.3 million and in percentage from 17 to 22 

percent of all career majors, with most of this growth occurring during the period from 2000 to 

2004. A notable decrease between 1990 and 2004 occurred in business and marketing, where 

both the number of majors (from 3.4 to 2.9 million) and their percentage among all career majors 

(from 34 to 28 percent) declined. Another notable change occurred in computer sciences. While 

the number and percentage of computer sciences majors increased over the entire period from 

1990 to 2004, the interim period from 2000 to 2004 saw a decrease in both the number of computer sciences majors (from 1.3 million to about 900,000) and the percentage of all career majors 

who were in this field (from 12 to 9 percent). 

Changes between 1990 and 2004 in the percentage of students majoring in different career 

fields varied across credential levels. For example, the percentage of students majoring in the 

health care field increased at the associate’s degree (from 19 to 30 percent) and certificate (from 

17 to 40 percent) levels, but did not change measurably at the bachelor’s degree level (12–14 

percent in each year) (table 3.10). In contrast, the percentage of computer sciences majors 

showed a measurable increase only at the bachelor’s degree level (from 6 to 9 percent). Over the 

same period, the percentage of students majoring in business and marketing declined at all three 

credential levels (from 37 to 33 percent of bachelor’s degree seekers, 36 to 25 percent of associate’s degree seekers, and 25 to 11 percent of certificate seekers). 

Over the period from 1990 to 2004 changes occurred in the types of credentials that career 

majors sought (table 3.11). The percentages of career majors seeking bachelor’s and associate’s 

degrees increased (from 42 to 49 percent and from 37 to 41 percent, respectively), while the percentage seeking certificates decreased (from 20 to 9 percent). Some changes also occurred in the 

type of credential that students with various career majors sought. For example, among students 

majoring in communications, protective services, legal services, business and marketing, computer sciences, engineering and architectural sciences, and trade and industry, the percentage 

seeking bachelor’s degrees increased (by 7 to 16 percentage points). Among students majoring in 

trade and industry, public, social, and human services, health care, education, legal services, personal and consumer services, and computer sciences, the percentage seeking an associate’s degree increased (by 5 to 17 percentage points). With the exception of majors in the fields of 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

129 

agriculture and natural resources and personal and consumer services, the percentage of career 

majors seeking certificates decreased in all career fields (by 4 to 23 percentage points).71 

Changes in the Student Characteristics of Career and Academic Majors

This section focuses on how the characteristics of career majors changed between 1990 and 

2004, compares these changes with those for academic majors, and compares changes among 

career majors according to their credential level. 

Sex and Race/Ethnicity 

Females constituted 58 percent of all career majors in 2004, a percentage that was not 

measurably different from 1990 (table 3.12). Over the same period, however, the percentage of 

academic majors who were female increased from 55 to 58 percent. While there was no measurable change between 1990 and 2004 in the percentage of bachelor’s degree seekers in career 

fields who were female, the percentages of associate’s degree and certificate seekers in career 

fields who were female increased from 58 to 62 percent and from 58 to 66 percent, respectively. 

The racial/ethnic composition of undergraduates with career majors also changed between 1990 

and 2004. The percentage of credential-seeking undergraduate career majors who were White 

decreased (from 75 to 63 percent), while the percentage of career majors who were Black increased (from 12 to 17 percent). A similar decrease occurred in the percentage of academic majors who were White, although there were measurable increases over the period both in the 

percentage of academic majors who were Black and in the percentage of these majors who were 

Hispanic. 

Age and Financial Aid 

No measurable changes were detected in the age distributions of either career or academic 

majors between 1990 and 2004 (table 3.12). However, the percentage of students receiving financial aid increased between 1990 and 2004, from 45 to 68 percent for career majors and from 

40 to 66 percent for academic majors (table 3.14). Increases in the receipt of financial aid by career majors were found during this period at all credential levels. 

 

71 Apparent decreases of majors in the fields of agriculture and natural resources and personal and consumer services were not 

statistically significant. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

130 

Parental Education 

Overall, career majors in 2004 appeared to have better educated parents than their counterparts who were enrolled in 1990 (table 3.13), but the large percentage of students in 1990 who 

did not report their parents’ highest level of education (27 percent) makes this observation difficult to confirm. Between 2000 and 2004, the percentage of career majors who had at least one 

parent with a bachelor’s degree increased from 34 to 37 percent. At the same time, there was no 

measurable change in the percentage of academic majors whose parents had attained this level of 

education. The only credential level at which there was a measurable increase between 2000 and 

2004 in the percentage of career majors with at least one parent with a bachelor’s or higher degree was the certificate level. 

Prior Degrees and Postsecondary GPA 

Over the period from 1990 to 2004, the percentage of career majors who had previously 

earned a bachelor’s degree increased from 2 to 6 percent, while there was no measurable difference in the percentage of academic majors with such a degree (table 3.14). Among career majors, 

the only substantive increase was among associate’s degree seekers, where the percentage who 

had previously earned a bachelor’s degree increased by the same overall amount (from 2 to 6 

percent). The percentage of students earning high GPAs (3.5 or higher) increased between 1990 

and 2004 among both career and academic majors; this pattern was detectable for career majors 

at all three credential levels. 

Employment and Enrollment Status 

While there was no substantive change between 1990 and 2004 in the percentage of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in career fields who worked while enrolled (75–77 percent), the percentage of academic majors who worked while enrolled decreased from 77 to 72 

percent (table 3.15). However, the percentage of career majors who worked part time increased 

over the period (from 36 to 41 percent), while the percentage who worked full time decreased 

(from 42 to 34 percent). These patterns held for career majors pursuing associate’s degrees and 

certificates. While the percentage of bachelor’s degree-seeking career majors who worked part 

time did not measurably change, the percentage of those who worked full time decreased. 

Changes in Student Characteristics by Career Major Field 

The following sections describe changes in the characteristics of all undergraduates majoring in the different career fields. Detail on the characteristics of bachelor’s degree, associate’s 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

131 

degree, and certificate students majoring in the different career fields can be found on the Career/Technical Education Statistics (CTES) website (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/).72

Sex and Race/Ethnicity 

As described above, the gender composition of undergraduates majoring in career education overall did not change significantly between 1990 and 2004 (table 3.17), although changes 

were apparent in some fields. Specifically, the percentage of career majors who were female increased over the period in the fields of protective services, agriculture and natural resources, 

health care, and communications (by 4 to 17 percentage points), and decreased in computer sciences and legal services (by 8 to 22 percentage points). The largest increase in the representation 

of females was in protective services, where the percentage of female majors increased from 28 

to 45 percent, while the largest decrease occurred in computer sciences, where the percentage of 

female majors declined from 49 to 27 percent. 

As described above, a smaller percentage of career majors overall were White in 2004 than 

in 1990, and a larger percentage were Black (table 3.17). The percentage of career majors who 

were White decreased in all career fields between 1990 and 2004 (decreases ranged from 8 to 25 

percentage points), while the percentage of career majors who were Black increased in 9 out of 

12 career fields (increases ranged from 3 to 16 percentage points) (the exceptions were personal 

and consumer services, legal services, and communications). The percentage of career majors 

who were Hispanic increased in the fields of agriculture and natural resources, legal services, 

health care, and personal and consumer services (increases ranged from 5 to 6 percentage points), 

and the percentage of career majors who were Asian or Pacific Islander increased in public, social, and human services by 5 percentage points.73

Age and Financial Aid 

Overall, among undergraduates there was no measurable change in the age distribution of 

career majors between 1990 and 2004 (table 3.17). However, there were changes in a number of 

career fields. In several fields, the mix of career majors was generally younger (in the “younger 

than 25” category) in 2004 than in 1990 (including agriculture and natural resources, communications, computer sciences, and education). In other fields, the mix of career majors was generally older (in the “35 or older” category) at the end of the period (including health care, business 

 

72 Recent trends (1995–2004) in the characteristics of undergraduates enrolled in selected majors can also be found on the National Science Foundation website for Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering 

(http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/) (National Science Foundation 2007). Some tables provide detail at different degree levels. 

73 There were no measurable changes in the percentage of majors in any career field who were American Indian. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

132 

and marketing, legal services, and public, social, and human services). Career majors in all fields 

were more likely to receive financial aid in 2004 than in 1990 (64–74 vs. 37–55 percent) (table 

3.19). 

Parental Education 

Career majors in several fields had better educated parents in 2004 than did their counterparts in 2000 (table 3.18).74 The percentage of students with at least one parent who had a bachelor’s or higher degree increased between 2000 and 2004 in the fields of trade and industry, 

personal and consumer services, legal services, computer sciences, and education (by 4 to 9 percentage points). 

Prior Degrees and Postsecondary GPA 

An increase in the percentage of career majors who had a prior bachelor’s degree was observed in 5 out of the 12 career fields (public, social, and human services; legal services; trade 

and industry; health care; and personal and consumer services), while no measurable change was 

found for the rest of the career fields (table 3.19). An increase between 1990 and 2004 in the percentage of students earning GPAs of 3.5 or higher was evident in over half of the career fields 

(public, social, and human services; health care; engineering and architectural sciences; protective services; business and marketing; personal and consumer services; and education). 

Employment and Enrollment Status 

As noted above, no measurable change occurred between 1990 and 2004 in the percentage 

of career majors who worked while enrolled, but more of these students worked part time (41 vs. 

36 percent) and fewer worked full time (34 vs. 42 percent) in 2004 compared with 1990 (table 

3.20). This pattern held for most career program areas. However, a larger percentage of legal services majors worked while enrolled in 2004 than in 1990 (79 vs. 66 percent), and smaller percentages of majors in the following fields worked while enrolled: agriculture and natural 

resources; engineering and architectural sciences; public, social, and human services; and communications (67–74 percent vs. 77–84 percent). Also in contrast to the overall trend, majors in 

legal services and in public, social, and human services worked full time in larger percentages in 

2004 than in 1990 (47 vs. 39 percent and 38 vs. 32 percent, respectively). 

 

74 The relatively large percentage of students in 1990 who did not report their parents’ education level makes it difficult to compare this year with subsequent years. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

133 

D. WHO TEACHES CAREER EDUCATION? 

About 10.6 million credential-seeking undergraduates majored in career fields in 2004 in 

the about 5,700 postsecondary institutions that awarded credentials in career fields (tables 3.8 

and 3.1, respectively). Career education represented a substantial percentage of the total undergraduate enterprise: 90 percent of institutions offered programs in career fields in 2005 and 63–

67 percent of students majored in this area in the years studied in this report. 

This section of the report turns to the question of who taught postsecondary career education during this period. The section draws upon data collected from the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF) in the fall of 1992, 1998, and 2003 to describe the size of the 

postsecondary career education teaching force, their teaching conditions and background characteristics, and how they compare with their academic colleagues. The analysis focuses on “teaching faculty,” defined as all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class during the 

fall semester of the year. NSOPF includes all such teaching faculty at 4- and 2-year public and 

private not-for-profit postsecondary institutions. Unlike the surveys described in the other sections of this chapter, NSOPF is restricted to 2- and 4-year not-for-profit degree-granting postsecondary institutions and thus does not include teaching faculty in less-than-2-year institutions or in 

for-profit institutions. About 50 percent of the postsecondary certificates, 21 percent of the associate’s degrees, and 5 percent of the bachelor’s degrees awarded in career fields in 2005 were 

awarded by these excluded institutions.75 Thus, the teaching faculty described in this section are 

likely to underrepresent those who taught in postsecondary certificate and associate’s degree programs, in particular, in career fields. The teaching faculty described here, however, include those 

who taught noncredit as well as for-credit courses at the included institutions. 

Due to the way that the survey questions were asked, postsecondary teaching faculty are 

classified by the level of their postsecondary institution (4- or 2-year), rather than by the credential level of the students they taught. Teaching faculty were classified as career, academic, or 

“other” based on their principal teaching field (as indicated in exhibit 1.2). Some of the career 

fields were combined or further subdivided for this faculty analysis. Additional information on 

NSOPF and the classification used in this section can be found in appendix A. 

This section of the report describes postsecondary faculty who taught in career fields in fall 

1992, fall 1998, and fall 2003 and compares them with their academic colleagues. The section 

also compares career education faculty at the four main institution types (public and private notfor-profit 4-year and 2-year institutions) and compares faculty in the 11 specific career fields presented. Additional detail on the characteristics of faculty in specific career fields at different 

 

75 See table 3.35 later in this report. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

134 

postsecondary institution types can be found on the Career/Technical Education Statistics 

(CTES) website (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/). 

The Size of the Postsecondary Career Education Teaching Force: Fall 2003 

Just over one-half million faculty taught in career fields at not-for-profit degree-granting 

postsecondary institutions in fall 2003 (table 3.22). The largest group of career faculty taught in 

public 4-year institutions (39 percent), followed by public 2-year institutions (34 percent) and 

private not-for-profit 4-year institutions (26 percent), and trailed by private not-for-profit 2-year 

institutions (1 percent) (table 3.23). No measurable difference was found in the overall number of 

career and academic teaching faculty in this semester (522,000 and 509,000, respectively) (table 

3.22). A larger percentage of academic faculty taught at private not-for-profit 4-year institutions 

compared with career faculty (30 vs. 26 percent) while a larger percentage of career than academic faculty taught at public 2-year institutions (34 vs. 31 percent) (table 3.23). Because of 

small sample sizes and large standard errors, teaching faculty in private not-for-profit 2-year institutions are generally not discussed in the rest of this chapter. 

The three largest postsecondary career teaching fields in fall 2003 were health (109,000 

teaching faculty), education (95,000 teaching faculty), and business (82,000 teaching faculty) 

(table 3.22). Although these three fields were among the largest career teaching fields at each of 

the three institution types for which data were available, the prevalence of career fields varied 

somewhat by institution type. At each of the main institution types examined, additional fields 

were also among the largest career teaching fields. At public 4-year institutions, engineering and 

architectural sciences (27,000 teaching faculty) was among the top four career fields. At private 

not-for-profit 4-year institutions, public, social, human, and legal services (14,000 teaching 

faculty) figured among the top four fields.76 At public 2-year institutions, computer science 

(24,000 teaching faculty) was among the top four fields. These findings are consistent with those 

in the previous section, which showed that business and marketing, health care, and education 

were the most common career majors among credential-seeking undergraduates in 2004. 

The majority of all agriculture and natural resources teaching faculty (67 percent) taught at 

public 4-year institutions in fall 2003 (table 3.23). In contrast, the majority of all teaching faculty 

in the fields of protective services (70 percent) and trade and industry (82 percent) taught at pub- 

 

76 Engineering and architectural sciences was not measurably different from public, social, human, and legal services at private 

not-for-profit 4-year institutions. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

135 

Table 3.22.—Number of teaching faculty, by level of institution and sector, principal teaching field, and specific 

Table 3.22.—career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field Private not- Private notand specific career field Total Public for-profit Public for-profit

1992

 All faculty 830,000 322,000 228,400 265,600 14,000

Principal teaching field

Career education 397,200 158,600 107,900 124,000 6,700

Academic 394,900 152,300 112,800 122,900 6,900

Other 37,900 11,100 7,600 18,600 500 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 7,200 5,000 800 ! 1,400 100 !

Business 6,600 ! 800 ! 300 ! 5,100 ! 400 !

Communications and design 23,400 9,400 8,300 5,200 600 !

Computer science 26,400 7,500 5,500 13,000 300 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 42,900 22,100 8,900 11,600 300 !

Health care 96,900 43,100 25,800 25,700 2,200 !

Personal and consumer services 12,100 4,900 2,100 4,700 300 !

Protective services 6,800 1,100 500 ! 5,300 #

Public, social, human, and legal services 33,700 9,300 18,600 5,400 400 !

Education 58,000 30,800 15,100 11,600 500 !

Trade and industry 16,100 1,600 1,000 ! 13,400 #

1998

 All faculty 927,300 370,500 262,900 282,400 11,500 !

Principal teaching field

Career education 445,900 183,000 125,100 132,500 5,400 !

Academic 442,600 176,700 129,600 130,500 5,700 !

Other 38,700 10,800 8,200 19,400 400 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 8,900 6,600 400 ! 1,800 #

Business 68,400 20,600 23,800 22,100 1,800 !

Communications and design 23,400 9,900 7,600 5,600 300 !

Computer science 37,100 9,800 7,300 19,400 500 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 41,800 24,600 9,100 8,000 #

Health care 107,400 48,300 30,600 27,700 900 !

Personal and consumer services 9,300 4,300 1,400 ! 3,500 200 !

Protective services 9,300 2,500 700 6,000 100 !

Public, social, human, and legal services 37,700 13,700 18,800 4,700 400 !

Education 85,300 39,800 24,000 20,400 1,100 !

Trade and industry 17,300 2,800 1,200 ! 13,200 #

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

136 

lic 2-year institutions. In no other career field was the majority of teaching faculty employed at 

one of the four institution types studied.77 

 

77 At public 4-year institutions, the percentage of faculty teaching engineering and architectural sciences was not significantly

greater than 50 percent, and at public 2-year institutions, the percentage teaching computer science was not significantly greater 

than 50 percent. 

Table 3.22.—Number of teaching faculty, by level of institution and sector, principal teaching field, and specific 

Table 3.22.—career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field Private not- Private notand specific career field Total Public for-profit Public for-profit

2003

 All faculty 1,041,600 405,300 291,700 336,100 8,300

Principal teaching field

Career education 522,200 203,800 137,400 176,700 4,300

Academic 508,900 198,800 150,800 155,200 4,000

Other 10,500 ! 2,800 ! 3,600 ! 4,200 ! ‡

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 10,200 6,800 ‡ 2,900 ‡

Business 81,700 28,400 29,800 22,800 ‡

Communications and design 28,200 11,900 6,900 ! 9,000 ‡

Computer science 46,400 13,200 9,100 23,900 ‡

Engineering and architectural sciences 50,500 27,300 11,500 11,700 ‡

Health care 109,200 44,300 30,400 34,000 ‡

Personal and consumer services 34,300 13,100 6,000 ! 14,700 ‡

Protective services 15,800 2,900 ! 1,700 ! 11,100 ‡

Public, social, human, and legal services 36,100 15,200 13,900 6,600 ‡

Education 94,900 38,500 27,200 27,900 ‡

Trade and industry 14,900 2,300 ! ‡ 12,200 ‡

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

4-year 2-year
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

137 

Table 3.23.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in each principal teaching field and specific career field, 

Table 3.23.—by level of institution and sector: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field Private not- Private notand specific career field Total Public for-profit Public for-profit

1992

 All faculty 100.0 38.8 27.5 32.0 1.7

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 39.9 27.2 31.2 1.7

Academic 100.0 38.6 28.6 31.1 1.7

Other 100.0 29.4 20.1 49.2 1.3 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 68.7 10.7 ! 18.9 1.6 !

Business 100.0 32.1 29.1 36.3 2.4 !

Communications and design 100.0 40.2 35.2 22.2 2.4 !

Computer science 100.0 28.4 20.9 49.3 1.3 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 51.6 20.7 27.1 0.6 !

Health care 100.0 44.5 26.7 26.5 2.3 !

Personal and consumer services 100.0 41.0 17.5 38.9 2.7 !

Protective services 100.0 15.8 6.6 ! 77.6 #

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 27.7 55.1 15.9 1.3 !

Education 100.0 53.1 26.0 20.0 0.9 !

Trade and industry 100.0 10.1 6.4 ! 83.3 0.2 !

1998

 All faculty 100.0 40.0 28.4 30.5 1.2 !

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 41.0 28.0 29.7 1.2 !

Academic 100.0 39.9 29.3 29.5 1.3 !

Other 100.0 27.8 21.2 50.1 0.9 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 74.1 4.9 ! 20.4 0.5 !

Business 100.0 30.1 34.8 32.3 2.7 !

Communications and design 100.0 42.4 32.5 24.0 1.1 !

Computer science 100.0 26.6 19.7 52.4 1.4 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 58.8 21.9 19.2 0.1 !

Health care 100.0 44.9 28.5 25.8 0.8 !

Personal and consumer services 100.0 45.6 14.9 ! 37.4 2.1 !

Protective services 100.0 27.4 7.0 ! 64.7 0.8 !

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 36.4 49.9 12.5 1.1 !

Education 100.0 46.7 28.2 23.9 1.3 !

Trade and industry 100.0 16.3 7.2 ! 76.3 0.3 !

See notes at end of table.

4-year 2-year
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

138 

Teaching Conditions of Career and Academic Faculty: Fall 2003 

Employment Status 

Although a majority of postsecondary teaching faculty in both career and academic fields 

(53 percent and 58 percent, respectively) were employed full time during fall 2003, a lower percentage of career faculty than academic faculty were employed full time (table 3.24). Less than 

half of career teaching faculty in public 2-year institutions were employed full time (34 percent), 

in contrast with more than half of career teaching faculty in both types of 4-year institutions (58–

Table 3.23.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in each principal teaching field and specific career field,

Table 3.23.—by level of institution and sector: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field Private not- Private notand specific career field Total Public for-profit Public for-profit

2003

 All faculty 100.0 38.9 28.0 32.3 0.8

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 39.0 26.3 33.8 0.8

Academic 100.0 39.1 29.6 30.5 0.8

Other 100.0 26.6 33.7 39.6 0.1 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 66.7 5.2 28.1 #

Business 100.0 34.7 36.4 27.9 1.0 !

Communications and design 100.0 42.2 24.5 31.8 1.5 !

Computer science 100.0 28.4 19.5 51.6 0.5 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 53.9 22.8 23.2 #

Health care 100.0 40.6 27.9 31.1 0.4 !

Personal and consumer services 100.0 38.2 17.4 42.9 1.4 !

Protective services 100.0 18.4 11.0 70.2 0.4 !

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 42.1 38.5 18.2 1.2 !

Education 100.0 40.5 28.6 29.4 1.4

Trade and industry 100.0 15.4 ! 2.4 ! 82.1 #

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

4-year 2-year
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

139 

71 percent). Among career teaching faculty, only in the fields of protective services (22 percent) 

and education (44 percent) were a minority employed full time.78 

 

78 Business, computer science, and trade and industry were not significantly less than 50 percent. 

Table 3.24.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types,

Table 3.24.—by employment status, and among part-time faculty, by reason for part-time employment: 

Table 3.24.—Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field, career teaching Full-time

faculty by type of institution, position Personal

and specific career field Full-time Part-time unavailable preference

1992

 All faculty 58.1 41.9 55.8 49.0

Principal teaching field

Career education 57.4 42.6 65.6 39.3

Academic 59.6 40.4 45.2 58.4

Other 50.6 49.4 58.0 55.7

Career teaching faculty in each type of institution 

Public 4-year 73.2 26.8 66.1 37.3

Private not-for-profit 4-year 52.9 47.1 71.2 38.0

Public 2-year 42.3 57.7 61.8 41.5

Private not-for-profit 2-year 35.0 65.0 59.3 37.9

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 84.1 15.9 ‡ ‡

Business 53.5 46.5 64.3 42.8

Communications and design 50.1 49.9 52.0 49.8

Computer science 49.9 50.1 70.8 35.0

Engineering and architectural sciences 64.8 35.2 67.4 37.8

Health care 64.5 35.5 73.2 30.6

Personal and consumer services 59.9 40.1 55.9 44.5

Protective services 26.3 73.7 70.8 35.1

Public, social, human, and legal services 50.6 49.4 70.0 46.2

Education 56.4 43.6 62.9 38.2

Trade and industry 52.8 47.2 48.3 41.9

See notes at end of table.

Among part-time faculty, reason

Employment status for part-time employment1
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

140 

Table 3.24.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types,

Table 3.24.—by employment status, and among part-time faculty, by reason for part-time employment: 

Table 3.24.—Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching Full-time

faculty by type of institution, position Personal

and specific career field Full-time Part-time unavailable preference

1998

 All faculty 55.4 44.6 58.9 74.9

Principal teaching field

Career education 56.3 43.7 52.5 81.9

Academic 55.7 44.3 64.9 67.8

Other 41.9 58.1 62.2 75.9

Career teaching faculty in each type of institution 

Public 4-year 70.2 29.8 51.3 80.9

Private not-for-profit 4-year 54.4 45.6 44.7 85.6

Public 2-year 39.2 60.8 58.4 80.0

Private not-for-profit 2-year 46.7 53.3 64.0 82.7

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 82.8 17.2 ‡ ‡

Business 53.4 46.6 51.3 83.1

Communications and design 51.0 49.0 51.7 77.1

Computer science 45.5 54.5 54.4 80.8

Engineering and architectural sciences 69.0 31.0 56.0 72.9

Health care 63.3 36.7 49.5 84.1

Personal and consumer services 51.4 48.6 64.8 90.2

Protective services 26.5 73.5 32.9 93.5

Public, social, human, and legal services 52.1 47.9 54.4 79.2

Education 52.9 47.1 55.7 81.9

Trade and industry 54.2 45.8 51.9 85.7

See notes at end of table.

Among part-time faculty, reason

Employment status for part-time employment1
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

141 

Table 3.24.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types,

Table 3.24.—by employment status, and among part-time faculty, by reason for part-time employment: 

Table 3.24.—Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching Full-time

faculty by type of institution, position Personal

and specific career field Full-time Part-time unavailable preference

2003

 All faculty 55.2 44.8 — —

Principal teaching field

Career education 52.9 47.1 — —

Academic 57.6 42.4 — —

Other 50.9 49.1 — —

Career teaching faculty in each type of institution 

Public 4-year 71.0 29.0 — —

Private not-for-profit 4-year 57.9 42.1 — —

Public 2-year 33.6 66.4 — —

Private not-for-profit 2-year 57.3 42.7 — —

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 75.0 25.0 — —

Business 49.2 50.8 — —

Communications and design 53.1 46.9 — —

Computer science 49.0 51.0 — —

Engineering and architectural sciences 67.1 32.9 — —

Health care 61.7 38.3 — —

Personal and consumer services 53.4 46.6 — —

Protective services 21.8 78.2 — —

Public, social, human, and legal services 51.9 48.1 — —

Education 44.3 55.7 — —

Trade and industry 44.5 55.5 — —

— Not available.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1

 Respondents could select multiple reasons for their part-time employment.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

Among part-time faculty, reason

Employment status for part-time employment1
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

142 

A larger percentage of career than academic teaching faculty performed outside consulting 

or had other professional employment in fall 2003 (60 vs. 50 percent) (table 3.25). Career teaching faculty in public 4-year institutions performed outside consulting or had other professional 

employment less often than their peers in private not-for-profit 4-year or public 2-year institutions (48 vs. 57–62 percent). Among the specific career fields, teaching faculty in protective services had the lowest percentage teaching full time (22 vs. 44–75 percent) (table 3.24) and the 

highest percentage with outside consulting or other professional employment (81 vs. 54–65 percent) (table 3.25). 

Table 3.25.—Percentage of teaching faculty with selected employment characteristics, by principal teaching field,

Table 3.25.—type of institution, career teaching faculty, and specific career field: Fall 1998 and 2003

Considered Performed outside

Principal teaching field, career teaching position as consulting or had Performed Had other

faculty by type of institution, primary other professional outside professional

and specific career field employment employment, total consulting employment

1998

 All faculty 68.4 63.0 32.2 49.5

Principal teaching field

Career education 65.8 67.7 38.4 51.1

Academic 71.6 58.9 26.7 47.9

Other 63.8 56.2 24.4 49.3

Career teaching faculty in each type of institution 

Public 4-year 77.2 62.8 39.7 41.7

Private not-for-profit 4-year 63.2 70.3 43.6 53.0

Public 2-year 52.8 71.9 32.2 61.7

Private not-for-profit 2-year 55.0 73.1 26.5 67.5

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 88.9 51.6 33.6 31.9

Business 62.8 67.0 38.7 51.8

Communications and design 65.5 68.0 40.7 54.6

Computer science 57.1 69.9 40.8 54.2

Engineering and architectural sciences 74.7 66.1 49.2 37.9

Health care 72.9 69.0 35.2 54.9

Personal and consumer services 78.4 53.6 32.0 37.7

Protective services 29.3 83.2 39.3 70.2

Public, social, human, and legal services 55.3 74.5 39.0 55.8

Education 64.9 65.0 36.0 49.5

Trade and industry 58.6 67.7 38.3 50.3

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

143 

Job Satisfaction 

The majority of teaching faculty in fall 2003 reported being either somewhat or very satisfied with many aspects of their job, including their job overall (90 percent), benefits (67 percent), 

and salary (63 percent) in fall 2003 (table 3.26). Postsecondary teaching faculty in career fields 

were more satisfied in all surveyed aspects of their jobs than their academic colleagues. Ninetyone percent of career teaching faculty reported being somewhat or very satisfied with their jobs 

Table 3.25.—Percentage of teaching faculty with selected employment characteristics, by principal teaching field,

Table 3.25.—type of institution, career teaching faculty, and specific career field: Fall 1998 and 2003

Table 3.25.——Continued

Considered Performed outside

Principal teaching field, career teaching position as consulting or had Performed Had other

faculty by type of institution, primary other professional outside professional

and specific career field employment employment, total consulting employment

2003

 All faculty — 55.2 — —

Principal teaching field

Career education — 60.0 — —

Academic — 50.2 — —

Other — 61.8 — —

Career teaching faculty in each type of institution 

Public 4-year — 48.3 — —

Private not-for-profit 4-year — 57.2 — —

Public 2-year — 62.0 — —

Private not-for-profit 2-year — 45.6 — —

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources — 54.1 — —

Business — 61.5 — —

Communications and design — 57.8 — —

Computer science — 56.2 — —

Engineering and architectural sciences — 59.0 — —

Health care — 57.2 — —

Personal and consumer services — 55.3 — —

Protective services — 80.7 — —

Public, social, human, and legal services — 65.4 — —

Education — 61.1 — —

Trade and industry — 63.6 — —

— Not available.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1998 or Fall 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999 and 2004 National Study of Postsecondary 

Faculty (NSOPF:99 and NSOPF:04).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

144 

overall compared with 88 percent of academic faculty. This pattern held with regard to salary, 

benefits, and workload. Among career teaching faculty, those in public 4-year institutions were 

less satisfied with their jobs overall (86 vs. 90–93 percent), with their salary (56 vs. 65–70 percent), and with their workload (75 vs. 81–85 percent), than their peers in private not-for-profit 4-

year and public 2-year institutions. Career faculty at public 4-year institutions were more satisfied 

with their benefits than faculty at public 2-year institutions (70 vs. 63 percent).79

 

79 There was no measurable, substantive difference in satisfaction with benefits between career faculty at public 4-year institutions and private not-for-profit 4-year institutions. 

Table 3.26.—Percentage of teaching faculty who were either somewhat or very satisfied with selected aspects of 

Table 3.26.—their jobs, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, and specific

Table 3.26.—career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Time available

Principal teaching field, career teaching to keep

faculty by type of institution, Overall Job current

and specific career field job Salary Benefits Workload security in field

1992

 All faculty 84.6 54.3 61.1 74.6 69.9 56.3

Principal teaching field

Career education 87.3 58.1 64.8 77.1 72.9 59.2

Academic 81.7 50.4 57.8 71.8 67.2 53.6

Other 86.0 54.4 57.2 77.9 66.7 54.2

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 84.6 52.9 68.7 71.7 72.6 53.5

Private not-for-profit 4-year 89.3 58.7 61.7 80.2 74.5 65.0

Public 2-year 88.8 64.2 62.9 80.9 72.3 61.0

Private not-for-profit 2-year 89.9 59.4 58.9 85.4 65.7 64.6

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 88.3 57.6 69.8 64.4 85.6 45.7

Business 88.4 58.8 61.1 81.7 72.4 63.5

Communications and design 83.9 50.1 55.0 74.9 65.0 53.2

Computer science 87.0 62.8 63.5 79.4 69.4 58.7

Engineering and architectural sciences 85.0 56.9 63.8 75.2 71.6 56.7

Health care 87.0 57.1 70.9 73.2 77.5 57.4

Personal and consumer services 90.8 59.4 69.2 74.9 69.9 61.5

Protective services 88.4 69.7 58.6 86.4 76.6 69.0

Public, social, human, and legal services 89.3 60.5 65.8 83.3 72.4 65.4

Education 88.2 55.1 63.9 76.0 72.8 58.1

Trade and industry 84.3 69.5 63.0 78.3 64.9 56.6

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

145 

Table 3.26.—Percentage of teaching faculty who were either somewhat or very satisfied with selected aspects of 

Table 3.26.—their jobs, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, and specific

Table 3.26.—career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Time available

Principal teaching field, career teaching to keep

faculty by type of institution, Overall Job current

and specific career field job Salary Benefits Workload security in field

1998

 All faculty 84.7 55.5 63.9 74.4 73.6 58.1

Principal teaching field

Career education 86.8 59.0 67.6 75.7 76.3 60.0

Academic 82.5 51.8 60.7 72.7 71.7 55.9

Other 86.4 57.7 58.1 78.7 63.4 61.6

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 84.4 56.7 72.2 72.0 78.1 56.9

Private not-for-profit 4-year 88.4 57.1 64.6 76.2 77.4 61.6

Public 2-year 88.9 64.1 64.3 80.0 73.3 62.4

Private not-for-profit 2-year 81.1 58.9 63.9 87.6 68.6 70.2

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 87.5 59.3 74.6 70.9 81.5 52.1

Business 84.9 56.4 64.7 79.9 75.6 64.0

Communications and design 82.7 56.1 60.0 76.4 73.9 57.5

Computer science 85.8 62.2 63.7 75.2 76.9 57.3

Engineering and architectural sciences 84.5 59.7 70.5 71.4 81.9 59.0

Health care 87.4 59.6 72.6 72.3 75.6 57.7

Personal and consumer services 95.1 47.9 74.0 79.7 79.8 72.1

Protective services 93.3 78.9 72.2 90.1 84.9 77.3

Public, social, human, and legal services 89.3 58.0 65.1 79.7 76.6 65.2

Education 87.2 57.8 65.2 74.4 74.3 56.3

Trade and industry 88.9 64.0 68.2 81.7 73.4 65.6

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

146 

Characteristics of Career and Academic Faculty: Fall 2003 

Age and Teaching Experience 

In fall 2003, career education faculty were, on average, age 50, with an average of 9 years 

in their current job (table 3.27). There were no measurable differences in age or years of emTable 3.26.—Percentage of teaching faculty who were either somewhat or very satisfied with selected aspects of 

Table 3.26.—their jobs, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, and specific

Table 3.26.—career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Time available

Principal teaching field, career teaching to keep

faculty by type of institution, Overall Job current

and specific career field job Salary Benefits Workload security in field

2003

 All faculty 89.5 63.3 67.0 80.1 — —

Principal teaching field

Career education 91.2 65.9 69.0 82.5 — —

Academic 87.8 60.5 64.9 77.7 — —

Other 89.0 68.4 69.9 82.0 — —

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 86.2 56.1 70.0 75.4 — —

Private not-for-profit 4-year 90.3 64.8 67.6 81.4 — —

Public 2-year 92.7 70.3 62.6 84.6 — —

Private not-for-profit 2-year 97.9 75.0 76.9 83.5 — —

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 90.8 68.5 76.4 82.6 — —

Business 91.6 65.8 65.4 85.7 — —

Communications and design 90.9 56.0 60.4 80.8 — —

Computer science 90.0 70.3 66.8 82.2 — —

Engineering and architectural sciences 89.2 65.0 70.2 77.8 — —

Health care 90.0 64.9 75.8 79.8 — —

Personal and consumer services 93.5 65.9 71.2 84.7 — —

Protective services 92.0 77.4 67.1 86.1 — —

Public, social, human, and legal services 93.2 62.1 64.7 82.7 — —

Education 92.4 66.0 67.0 83.6 — —

Trade and industry 92.3 76.1 72.0 87.3 — —

— Not available.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

147 

ployment in their current job between career and academic teaching faculty overall. Agriculture 

and natural resources faculty were employed longer in their current jobs (13 vs. 7–11 years) than 

their peers in most other career fields.80 

 

80 There was no measurable difference in the number of years employed in their current job between faculty in agriculture and 

natural resources and those in engineering and architectural sciences. 

Table 3.27.—Average age of teaching faculty and their average number of years teaching in higher education and

Table 3.27.—employed in current job, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, 

Table 3.27.—and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field, career teaching

faculty by type of institution, Years teaching in Years employed in

and specific career field Age higher education current job

1992

 All faculty 47.1 — —

Principal teaching field

Career education 46.9 — —

Academic 47.6 — —

Other 45.2 — —

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 47.4 — —

Private not-for-profit 4-year 46.9 — —

Public 2-year 46.0 — —

Private not-for-profit 2-year 47.3 — —

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 47.8 — —

Business 47.6 — —

Communications and design 45.5 — —

Computer science 44.9 — —

Engineering and architectural sciences 46.6 — —

Health care 45.8 — —

Personal and consumer services 46.8 — —

Protective services 45.9 — —

Public, social, human, and legal services 47.1 — —

Education 49.1 — —

Trade and industry 47.0 — —

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

148 

Table 3.27.—Average age of teaching faculty and their average number of years teaching in higher education and

Table 3.27.—employed in current job, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, 

Table 3.27.—and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching

faculty by type of institution, Years teaching in Years employed in

and specific career field Age higher education current job

1998

 All faculty 48.7 13.8 9.8

Principal teaching field

Career education 48.4 12.7 9.0

Academic 49.0 15.1 10.8

Other 48.5 11.6 8.3

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 49.0 14.2 10.0

Private not-for-profit 4-year 48.8 12.9 8.7

Public 2-year 47.4 10.5 7.9

Private not-for-profit 2-year 46.7 10.5 6.6

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 49.2 16.7 14.5

Business 49.7 13.3 8.8

Communications and design 47.5 13.0 8.3

Computer science 46.3 10.4 7.5

Engineering and architectural sciences 48.9 14.5 11.1

Health care 47.5 12.7 8.6

Personal and consumer services 45.9 11.3 8.0

Protective services 46.6 10.7 7.0

Public, social, human, and legal services 49.6 13.4 9.9

Education 49.6 12.0 8.6

Trade and industry 48.0 11.7 9.4

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

149 

Educational Attainment 

The majority of postsecondary teaching faculty in both career and academic fields in fall 

2003 possessed a graduate degree,81 although a larger percentage of academic teaching faculty 

than their career colleagues attained this level of education (92 vs. 81 percent) (table 3.28). Larger percentages of career teaching faculty than their academic colleagues possessed a bachelor’s 

 

81 Graduate degrees include all degrees beyond a bachelor’s degree, including M.A., M.S., M.B.A., Ph.D., and J.D. 

Table 3.27.—Average age of teaching faculty and their average number of years teaching in higher education and

Table 3.27.—employed in current job, by principal teaching field, career teaching faculty by type of institution, 

Table 3.27.—and specific career field: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching

faculty by type of institution, Years teaching in Years employed in

and specific career field Age higher education current job

2003

 All faculty 49.5 — 9.8

Principal teaching field

Career education 49.6 — 9.0

Academic 49.5 — 10.5

Other 49.1 — 8.5

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 49.4 — 10.6

Private not-for-profit 4-year 49.8 — 9.8

Public 2-year 49.5 — 8.8

Private not-for-profit 2-year 48.5 — 7.1

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 49.8 — 13.3

Business 50.8 — 9.4

Communications and design 49.4 — 9.2

Computer science 48.5 — 8.4

Engineering and architectural sciences 49.9 — 10.9

Health care 48.7 — 8.9

Personal and consumer services 47.4 — 9.2

Protective services 47.7 — 8.4

Public, social, human, and legal services 49.9 — 9.7

Education 51.2 — 7.4

Trade and industry 49.1 — 9.3

— Not available.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

150 

degree as their highest degree (12 vs. 7 percent) or had less than a bachelor’s degree as their 

highest degree (7 vs. 1 percent). A larger percentage of career teaching faculty at public 2-year 

institutions than their peers at 4-year institutions had less than a bachelor’s degree as their highest 

degree (11 vs. 1 percent each) and a smaller percentage possessed a graduate degree (71 vs. 94 

percent each). The two career fields with the highest concentrations of teaching faculty with less 

than a bachelor’s degree as their highest degree included trade and industry (58 percent) and protective services (29 percent). The majority of teaching faculty in all other career fields held 

graduate degrees (73–96 percent). 

Table 3.28.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types, 

Table 3.28.—by highest degree earned: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Doctorate

or firstPrincipal teaching field, career teaching Asso- Bach- profesfaculty by type of institution, Certi- ciate’s elor’s Master’s sional

and specific career field Total Total None ficate degree degree Total degree degree

1992

 All faculty 100.0 2.7 † 1.0 1.7 9.3 88.0 39.9 48.0

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 4.7 † 1.7 3.0 12.8 82.6 36.7 45.9

Academic 100.0 0.4 † 0.2 0.2 5.7 93.9 42.0 51.9

Other 100.0 6.8 † 2.7 4.1 12.0 81.2 52.8 28.4

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 100.0 0.3 † 0.2 ! 0.2 ! 5.1 94.6 27.4 67.2

Private not-for-profit 4-year 100.0 0.3 † 0.2 ! 0.2 ! 6.7 93.0 37.0 55.9

Public 2-year 100.0 14.2 † 5.1 9.1 27.9 57.9 47.3 10.6

Private not-for-profit 2-year 100.0 6.0 † # 6.0 20.5 73.5 60.8 12.7

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 0.9 ! † 0.7 ! 0.3 ! 6.6 ! 92.5 22.8 69.7

Business 100.0 1.3 ! † 0.6 ! 0.7 ! 12.4 86.3 48.2 38.1

Communications and design 100.0 1.6 ! † # 1.6 ! 18.3 80.2 49.7 30.5

Computer science 100.0 4.3 † 1.1 ! 3.2 24.3 71.4 43.0 28.4

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 6.3 † 1.5 4.8 14.4 79.3 28.7 50.7

Health care 100.0 4.8 † 2.2 2.6 11.4 83.8 32.9 50.9

Personal and consumer services 100.0 5.2 ! † 3.4 ! 1.8 ! 18.3 76.5 48.8 27.7

Protective services 100.0 22.3 † 7.9 ! 14.5 27.2 50.5 32.2 18.3

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 0.6 ! † 0.1 ! 0.5 ! 1.8 ! 97.6 16.3 81.4

Education 100.0 0.4 ! † 0.1 ! 0.3 ! 6.8 92.8 41.5 51.3

Trade and industry 100.0 41.0 † 13.6 27.4 30.6 28.5 22.1 6.4

See notes at end of table.

Less than bachelor’s degree Graduate degree
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

151 

Table 3.28.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types, 

Table 3.28.—by highest degree earned: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Doctorate

or firstPrincipal teaching field, career teaching Asso- Bach- profesfaculty by type of institution, Certi- ciate’s elor’s Master’s sional

and specific career field Total Total None ficate degree degree Total degree degree

1998

 All faculty 100.0 3.1 0.9 0.6 1.6 9.3 87.7 40.5 47.1

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 4.7 1.1 1.0 2.6 11.9 83.4 38.0 45.4

Academic 100.0 0.8 0.3 0.1 ! 0.5 ! 5.7 93.5 42.4 51.0

Other 100.0 9.6 4.8 1.8 ! 3.0 19.5 71.0 48.6 22.3

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 100.0 0.4 0.3 # 0.1 4.8 94.8 28.4 66.4

Private not-for-profit 4-year 100.0 0.6 0.2 ! 0.1 ! 0.2 6.5 92.9 37.7 55.3

Public 2-year 100.0 14.6 3.2 3.2 8.2 26.1 59.3 51.0 8.3

Private not-for-profit 2-year 100.0 3.9 # 1.2 ! 2.7 29.7 66.4 51.7 14.7

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 4.6 ! 2.2 ! 0.8 ! 1.6 ! 6.2 ! 89.2 26.3 62.9

Business 100.0 1.6 ! 0.3 ! 0.4 ! 1.0 ! 10.4 88.0 53.5 34.4

Communications and design 100.0 1.5 ! 1.0 ! 0.2 ! 0.3 ! 16.5 82.0 47.5 34.5

Computer science 100.0 7.3 1.7 ! 1.6 ! 3.9 ! 21.6 71.2 43.8 27.4

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 2.6 0.8 ! # 1.8 10.1 87.3 28.6 58.8

Health care 100.0 4.0 0.3 ! 1.1 ! 2.6 9.8 86.2 32.0 54.2

Personal and consumer services 100.0 12.2 ! 2.6 ! 5.4 ! 4.2 ! 20.5 67.3 48.9 18.4

Protective services 100.0 28.7 5.3 ! 5.5 ! 17.9 21.1 50.2 21.1 29.1

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 0.7 ! 0.3 ! # 0.4 ! 3.1 96.2 24.5 71.7

Education 100.0 1.4 0.3 ! 0.1 ! 1.0 10.8 87.8 43.0 44.8

Trade and industry 100.0 34.3 11.8 ! 7.2 15.3 26.2 39.5 24.9 14.6

See notes at end of table.

Less than bachelor’s degree Graduate degree
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

152 

Sex and Race/Ethnicity 

The majority of postsecondary teaching faculty in both career and academic fields in fall 

2003 were male, although a larger percentage of academic teaching faculty were male compared 

Table 3.28.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution types, 

Table 3.28.—by highest degree earned: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Doctorate

or firstPrincipal teaching field, career teaching Asso- Bach- profesfaculty by type of institution, Certi- ciate’s elor’s Master’s sional

and specific career field Total Total None ficate degree degree Total degree degree

2003

 All faculty 100.0 4.2 1.3 0.7 2.2 9.4 86.4 39.1 47.3

Principal teaching field

Career education 100.0 7.3 2.0 1.3 4.0 11.6 81.1 39.2 41.9

Academic 100.0 1.1 0.6 0.2 0.4 7.0 91.9 39.0 52.9

Other 100.0 5.2 2.9 ! 0.5 ! 1.8 ! 12.6 82.2 40.0 42.2

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 100.0 0.8 0.3 0.2 ! 0.3 ! 5.0 94.2 27.0 67.2

Private not-for-profit 4-year 100.0 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.2 ! 5.3 93.8 36.0 57.8

Public 2-year 100.0 11.2 3.3 1.8 6.2 17.9 70.8 56.1 14.8

Private not-for-profit 2-year 100.0 6.6 ! 2.2 ! # 4.5 ! 18.2 75.2 52.2 23.0

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 100.0 4.3 ! 0.3 ! 0.9 ! 3.0 ! 13.5 82.2 25.3 56.9

Business 100.0 1.0 ! 0.2 ! # 0.7 ! 8.9 90.1 50.1 40.0

Communications and design 100.0 1.2 ! 0.8 ! # 0.4 ! 13.2 85.6 50.8 34.8

Computer science 100.0 5.0 2.1 ! 0.3 ! 2.6 20.6 74.4 46.4 28.0

Engineering and architectural sciences 100.0 8.7 1.4 ! 1.7 ! 5.6 11.4 79.9 23.6 56.3

Health care 100.0 9.3 0.8 2.4 6.1 10.9 79.8 30.5 49.3

Personal and consumer services 100.0 9.6 5.7 1.4 ! 2.5 17.3 73.2 49.5 23.7

Protective services 100.0 29.3 9.4 3.4 ! 16.5 17.7 53.0 29.5 23.5

Public, social, human, and legal services 100.0 2.2 ! 0.8 ! # 1.4 ! 1.9 ! 95.9 30.0 65.9

Education 100.0 2.3 0.8 ! 0.2 ! 1.2 ! 8.1 89.6 49.1 40.5

Trade and industry 100.0 57.9 19.1 11.3 27.5 27.1 15.0 8.1 6.9 !

† Not applicable.

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

Less than bachelor’s degree Graduate degree
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

153 

with career faculty (59 vs. 56 percent) (table 3.29). Among career teaching faculty, males made 

up the majority at both types of 4-year institutions (60–61 percent), although males represented 

about half (52 percent) of the career teaching faculty at public 2-year institutions. Female faculty 

represented the majority of those teaching health care (62 percent) and education (67 percent). 

Male faculty, on the other hand, represented the majority of those teaching agriculture and natural 

resources (78 percent), business (70 percent), computer science (69 percent), engineering and architectural sciences (89 percent), protective services (88 percent), and trade and industry (98 percent). 

Table 3.29.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution 

Table 3.29.—types, by sex: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field, career teaching

faculty by type of institution,

and specific career field Male Female Male Female Male Female

 All faculty 62.1 37.9 58.4 41.6 57.8 42.2

Principal teaching field

Career education 62.0 38.0 57.5 42.5 56.4 43.6

Academic 63.7 36.3 60.5 39.5 59.4 40.6

Other 46.0 54.0 44.3 55.7 50.1 49.9

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 65.1 34.9 61.2 38.8 61.2 38.8

Private not-for-profit 4-year 63.5 36.5 61.4 38.6 60.2 39.8

Public 2-year 58.1 41.9 49.7 50.3 51.7 48.3

Private not-for-profit 2-year 39.1 60.9 31.4 68.6 53.3 46.7

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 89.3 10.7 81.4 18.6 78.0 22.0

Business 69.3 30.7 64.2 35.8 70.0 30.0

Communications and design 55.8 44.2 56.6 43.4 55.4 44.6

Computer science 79.4 20.6 64.0 36.0 69.3 30.7

Engineering and architectural sciences 88.9 11.1 88.5 11.5 89.2 10.8

Health care 43.1 56.9 42.2 57.8 37.9 62.1

Personal and consumer services 47.3 52.7 36.1 63.9 47.1 52.9

Protective services 83.6 16.4 83.1 16.9 88.2 11.8

Public, social, human, and legal services 68.9 31.1 61.2 38.8 51.8 48.2

Education 43.2 56.8 41.9 58.1 33.5 66.5

Trade and industry 94.6 5.4 92.0 8.0 97.8 2.2

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. “Other” 

teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified

fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

1992 1998 2003
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

154 

The majority of postsecondary teaching faculty in both career and academic fields in fall 

2003 were White (83 percent each) (table 3.30). There were no measurable differences in the racial/ethnic composition of career and academic teaching faculty overall. However, a lower percentage of career faculty in public 4-year institutions were White than their peers at private 4-

year institutions (81 vs. 85 percent). Few differences in race/ethnicity were apparent across the 

career program areas. However, lower percentages of engineering and architectural sciences and 

Table 3.30.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution 

Table 3.30.—types, by race/ethnicity: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003

Principal teaching field, career teaching Asian/ More than

faculty by type of institution, Pacific American one race/

and specific career field White Black Hispanic Islander Indian ethnicity

1992

 All faculty 87.5 4.9 2.8 4.2 0.6 †

Principal teaching field

Career education 87.4 5.3 2.2 4.4 0.7 †

Academic 87.6 4.7 3.1 4.1 0.4 †

Other 87.9 3.9 4.3 3.1 0.8 ! †

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 85.9 5.6 1.9 6.1 0.5 †

Private not-for-profit 4-year 89.2 4.7 1.5 4.3 0.3 †

Public 2-year 87.9 5.4 3.3 2.3 1.0 †

Private not-for-profit 2-year 87.6 6.9 ! 0.5 ! 2.7 ! 2.3 ! †

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 92.0 3.3 ! 3.0 ! 1.7 ! # †

Business 89.1 4.5 2.1 3.5 0.8 †

Communications and design 90.1 4.2 1.0 ! 4.1 ! 0.7 ! †

Computer science 84.9 3.3 2.3 8.3 1.2 ! †

Engineering and architectural sciences 81.0 2.8 3.0 12.2 0.9 ! †

Health care 88.2 5.6 1.5 4.2 0.4 ! †

Personal and consumer services 87.6 6.1 2.7 ! 2.6 1.0 ! †

Protective services 88.9 4.5 3.9 ! 2.4 ! 0.2 ! †

Public, social, human, and legal services 88.5 7.7 2.2 1.6 # †

Education 86.8 8.4 2.5 1.4 1.0 †

Trade and industry 90.0 3.5 4.3 1.9 ! 0.4 ! †

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

155 

Table 3.30.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution 

Table 3.30.—types, by race/ethnicity: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching Asian/ More than

faculty by type of institution, Pacific American one race/

and specific career field White Black Hispanic Islander Indian ethnicity

1998

 All faculty 85.8 4.9 3.5 4.3 0.5 0.9

Principal teaching field

Career education 86.4 4.9 3.0 4.3 0.6 0.8

Academic 85.8 4.7 3.9 4.1 0.4 1.0

Other 79.5 8.1 4.6 6.3 0.4 ! 1.0 !

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 84.6 4.8 2.8 6.2 0.5 1.0

Private not-for-profit 4-year 88.2 4.2 2.6 3.8 0.4 0.9

Public 2-year 87.2 5.7 3.7 2.0 0.8 0.6 !

Private not-for-profit 2-year 86.0 6.3 ! 4.0 3.3 ! # 0.4 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 87.5 4.2 ! 2.1 ! 3.1 ! 1.1 ! 1.9 !

Business 88.8 5.2 1.5 3.3 0.1 ! 1.0 !

Communications and design 90.5 3.6 2.6 2.6 ! 0.1 ! 0.6 !

Computer science 87.0 4.0 2.6 5.2 0.7 ! 0.5 !

Engineering and architectural sciences 78.9 2.8 5.3 11.4 0.4 ! 1.2 !

Health care 87.3 4.2 2.8 4.4 0.5 ! 0.8

Personal and consumer services 68.2 9.6 ! 2.5 ! 14.1 ! 5.4 ! 0.3 !

Protective services 91.5 4.9 2.0 ! 0.3 ! 0.5 ! 0.7 !

Public, social, human, and legal services 87.9 5.4 3.3 3.0 0.3 ! 0.1 !

Education 85.5 7.1 3.9 1.9 0.7 ! 0.8

Trade and industry 90.4 2.9 ! 3.2 ! 1.6 ! 0.5 ! 1.3 !

See notes at end of table.
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

156 

Table 3.30.—Percentage distribution of teaching faculty in various principal and career fields and institution 

Table 3.30.—types, by race/ethnicity: Fall 1992, 1998, and 2003—Continued

Principal teaching field, career teaching Asian/ More than

faculty by type of institution, Pacific American one race/

and specific career field White Black Hispanic Islander Indian ethnicity

2003

 All faculty 82.9 5.7 3.6 5.7 0.4 1.7

Principal teaching field

Career education 82.6 6.0 3.3 6.0 0.5 1.6

Academic 83.1 5.3 3.9 5.6 0.3 1.8

Other 86.6 7.7 2.1 ! 1.4 ! 0.8 ! 1.4 !

Career teaching faculty by type of institution 

Public 4-year 81.1 5.3 3.3 8.2 0.3 1.7

Private not-for-profit 4-year 85.0 5.0 2.7 5.5 0.2 ! 1.6

Public 2-year 82.9 6.8 4.8 3.1 0.6 1.8

Private not-for-profit 2-year 95.2 1.9 ! 0.4 ! 1.1 ! # 1.4 !

Specific career field

Agriculture and natural resources 90.3 0.4 ! 2.1 ! 4.1 ! # 3.1 !

Business 82.8 5.3 2.3 7.1 0.4 ! 2.0

Communications and design 87.3 4.7 2.9 1.9 ! 0.6 ! 2.5 !

Computer science 78.1 5.9 3.5 10.6 0.2 ! 1.7

Engineering and architectural sciences 75.4 5.4 2.9 14.7 0.3 ! 1.3 !

Health care 83.4 5.2 2.5 6.9 0.5 ! 1.6

Personal and consumer services 86.9 6.2 2.7 2.0 0.5 ! 1.7

Protective services 89.0 5.6 ! 2.5 0.2 ! 1.4 ! 1.3 !

Public, social, human, and legal services 80.6 10.1 4.4 2.9 0.7 ! 1.2

Education 83.3 7.5 4.9 2.6 0.4 1.3

Trade and industry 85.1 3.5 7.2 2.0 ! 1.1 ! 1.0 !

† Not applicable.

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Teaching faculty includes all faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class in Fall 1992, 1998, or 2003. Black 

includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and American Indian includes Alaska 

Native. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified. “Other” teaching fields include basic skills, English as a second 

language, military studies, interdisciplinary studies, and other unspecified fields. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National Study of 

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

157 

computer science teaching faculty were White than their peers in other career fields (75–78 percent vs. 81–90 percent). In these same two fields, larger percentages of faculty were Asian or Pacific Islander than faculty in all other career fields (11–15 vs. 7 percent or less).82

Summary of Faculty Comparisons: Fall 2003 

Tables 3.31 and 3.32 provide summaries of selected comparisons among teaching faculty in 

fall 2003 according to their primary teaching field, level and sector of institution, and specific 

career field. Table 3.31 shows that in comparison with their academic colleagues, greater percentages of career teaching faculty were employed part time, performed outside consulting or 

other professional employment, were satisfied overall with their postsecondary job, possessed 

less than a bachelor’s degree, and were female. No measurable differences were detected between career and academic teaching faculty with regard to years employed in their current job or 

minority racial/ethnic status. 

 

82 There was no measurable difference in the percentage of computer science and public, social, human, legal, and services faculty who were White. 

Table 3.31.—Summary of selected comparisons of teaching faculty, by principal teaching field and institution type:

Table 3.31.—Fall 2003

Public 2-year vs. Public 2-year vs. Private 4-year vs.

Career vs. academic public 4-year private 2-year public 4-year

Employed part time + +++

Performed outside consulting or had + + + +

 other professional employment

Satisfied with job overall + + 0 +

Years employed in current job 0 0 0 0

 

Possess less than a bachelor’s degree + + + 0

Female + + + 0

From a racial/ethnic minority 0 0 0 -

NOTE: Plus sign means that faculty in the first group listed were more likely to have this characteristic or had a higher value on 

this characteristic than the faculty in the second group listed; minus sign means that faculty in the first group listed were less 

likely to have this characteristic or had a lower value on this characteristic than the faculty in the second group listed; and zero 

means that no measurable difference was found between the two groups.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2004 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty 

(NSOPF:04).

Career
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

158 

Table 3.31 also shows that the characteristics of career teaching faculty often varied by the 

level and sector of the institution at which they were employed. For example, compared with 

their colleagues at both types of 4-year institutions, greater percentages of career teaching faculty 

at public 2-year institutions were employed part time, had performed outside consulting or another professional job, possessed less than a bachelor’s degree, and were female. 

Table 3.32 compares teaching faculty in various career fields on selected characteristics, 

revealing some common patterns. For example, the majority of teaching faculty in the fields of 

protective services and education were employed part time, and these two areas had the highest 

concentrations of faculty performing outside consulting or other professional employment. However, they diverged on other indicators. Education represented one of the largest career faculties 

and had one of the highest concentrations of female faculty. Protective services, on the other 

hand, had one of the highest concentrations of faculty with less than a bachelor’s degree, and the 

majority of faculty in this field were employed at public 2-year institutions. 

Table 3.32.—Summary of selected characteristics of teaching faculty in specific career fields: Fall 2003

 Performed

outside Were

 consulting from

Largest Majority Majority or other Held less minority

career at public at public Majority profess- than a racial/

fields in 4-year 2-year employed ional em- bachelor’s Were ethnic

Specific career field 2003 institution institution part time ployment degree female group

Agriculture and natural 3

 resources

Business 3

Communications and

 design

Computer science

Engineering and 3

 architectural sciences

Health 3 3

Personal and 

 consumer services

Protective services 33 33

Public, social, human,

 and legal services

Education 3 3 3 3

Trade and industry 3 3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2004 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty 

(NSOPF:04).

Among career fields,

highest concentration of faculty who:
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

159 

Changes in the Size of the Career Education Teaching Force: 1992 and 2003 

Some changes in the career education teaching force were observed between fall 1992 and 

fall 2003. These changes included the size and distribution of career faculty, the distribution of 

faculty by career field, employment intensity, job satisfaction, demographics, and educational 

attainment by career field. The number of postsecondary teaching faculty who taught in career 

and academic fields increased by 125,000 and 114,000, respectively, between fall 1992 and fall 

2003 (table 3.22). Increases in career and academic faculty were found at public 4-year institutions, private not-for-profit 4-year institutions, and public 2-year institutions. No measurable 

changes were detected in the number of career and academic teaching faculty at private not-forprofit 2-year institutions. All but 3 of the 11 career fields examined exhibited significant increases in the number of teaching faculty over the period. The exceptions were found in agricultural and natural resources; public, social, human, and legal services; and trade and industry, each 

of which experienced no measurable change in the size of the teaching faculty over this period. 

Changes in Teaching Conditions: 1992 and 2003 

Employment Status 

The percentage of career teaching faculty who were employed part time increased between 

1992 and 2003 from 43 to 47 percent, while no measurable change was detected in the percentage of academic faculty who worked part time (40–42 percent in both years) (table 3.24). The 

percentage of career faculty working part time increased at public 2-year institutions, but no 

measurable change was detected among career faculty at public 4-year institutions. The percentage of career faculty working part time at private 4-year institutions decreased. 

Job Satisfaction 

Job satisfaction increased for both career and academic faculty between fall 1992 and fall 

2003, overall and with regard to salary, benefits, and workload (table 3.26). Satisfaction with salary and workload increased among career teaching faculty at public 4-year institutions, while satisfaction with salary and benefits increased among career faculty at private 4-year institutions. 

Career faculty at public 2-year institutions experienced increases in satisfaction overall and with 

salary and workload. Increases in overall job satisfaction were found among faculty in the specific career fields of business; communications and design; engineering and architectural sciences; health; public, social, human and legal services; and education. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

160 

Changes in Faculty Characteristics: 1992 and 2003 

Demographics 

No substantive changes were detected between fall 1992 and fall 2003 in the average age of 

career and academic teaching faculty overall or among career faculty at public or private 4-year 

postsecondary institutions (tables 3.27 and 3.30). However, average age increased among career 

teaching faculty at public 2-year institutions and in the fields of business and health. The percentages of non-White faculty increased among academic faculty and among career faculty overall 

and among those at public and private 4-year institutions and public 2-year institutions. An increase in the percentage of non-White faculty was found among the specific career fields of business; computer science; engineering and architectural sciences; health; public, social, human and 

legal services; and education. 

The percentages of career and academic faculty overall who were male declined between 

fall 1992 and fall 2003 (by 4 to 6 percentage points) (table 3.29). The decline in the percentage of 

male career teaching faculty occurred primarily at public 4-year and public 2-year institutions 

(with declines of 4 and 6 percentage points, respectively) and among career faculty in the fields 

of agriculture and natural resources; computer science; health; public, social, human and legal 

services; and education (with declines of 5 to 17 percentage points). 

Educational Attainment 

No substantive changes were detected between fall 1992 and fall 2003 in the educational 

attainment of career and academic faculty overall or among career faculty at any of the postsecondary institution types, with the exception of an increase in the percentage of career faculty at 

public 2-year colleges who possessed a graduate degree (table 3.28). Some changes among specific career fields were also noted. The percentage of career faculty with graduate degrees increased in business and decreased in the fields of agriculture and natural resources, health, 

education, and trade and industry. 

Summary of Faculty Changes: 1992 and 2003 

Career and academic teaching faculty overall exhibited some similar and some divergent 

changes between fall 1992 and fall 2003. For example, both groups increased in number and 

were more satisfied with their jobs in 2003 than in 1992. However, the percentage of career 

teaching faculty who worked part time increased over the period while no measurable change in 

part-time status was detected among academic faculty. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

161 

E. WHAT IS ACCOMPLISHED? 

This section of the report focuses on education and employment outcomes for career majors. It uses data from the 2004–05 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) 

(referred to here as 2005) to provide an overview of credentials awarded to postsecondary students in 2005 and from the 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 

(BPS:96/01) to look at persistence, attainment, and labor market outcomes of career majors who 

began their postsecondary education during the 1995–96 academic year. 

Postsecondary Credentials Awarded: 2005 

Information on credentials awarded in career fields was obtained from IPEDS for 2005, 

which is restricted to awards at Title IV eligible 4-year, 2-year, and less-than-2-year postsecondary institutions. A total of about 1.9 million undergraduate credentials were awarded in career 

fields by these institutions in 2005 (table 3.33). Among career credentials awarded in 2005, about 

44 percent were bachelor’s degrees, 21 percent were associate’s degrees, and 36 percent were 

certificates (table 3.34). About half (50 percent) of career credentials in 2005 were awarded by 4-

year institutions, 38 percent by 2-year institutions, and 13 percent by less-than-2-year institutions 

(table 3.35). 

The most common career credential field was health care, representing 26 percent of all 

credentials awarded in career fields in 2005, followed by business and marketing, which accounted for 24 percent of all career credentials in this year (table 3.36). The majority of postsecondary credentials awarded in health care were certificates (60 percent) followed by associate’s 

degrees (24 percent) and bachelor’s degrees (16 percent) (table 3.34). In contrast, the majority of 

credentials awarded in business and marketing were bachelor’s degrees (67 percent) followed by 

associate’s degrees (20 percent) and certificates (13 percent). 

The most common career credential fields varied by credential level. Among certificates 

awarded in 2005, the most common career field was health care (44 percent of all CTE certificates), followed by trade and industry (17 percent), and personal and consumer services (15 percent) (table 3.36). The dominant career fields for associate’s degrees included health care (31 

percent), business and marketing (23 percent), and engineering and architectural sciences (9 percent). Among bachelor’s degrees, the most common fields were business and marketing (37 percent), education (13 percent), engineering and architectural sciences (11 percent), and health care 

(10 percent). 
Table 3.33.—Number of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions, by career fie

Table 3.33.—2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prote

Type of credential Total resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 1,923,400 34,642 461,974 86,106 114,769 125,545 148,270 503,135 20,075 174,082 8

Certificates, total 685,450 5,236 61,286 5,001 26,013 6,823 21,664 300,631 7,038 103,557 2

Less than 1 year 356,536 3,355 37,676 2,357 14,397 4,312 10,592 161,785 2,736 41,910 2At least 1 but 

 less than 2 years 301,808 1,667 22,776 2,402 10,761 2,412 10,171 129,795 3,915 56,206 

2 or more years 27,106 214 834 242 855 99 901 9,051 387 5,441 

Degrees, total 1,237,950 29,406 400,688 81,105 88,756 118,722 126,606 202,504 13,037 70,525 5

Associate’s degree 398,673 6,404 91,493 6,058 35,864 13,299 37,753 122,141 9,876 26,977 2Bachelor’s degree 839,277 23,002 309,195 75,047 52,892 105,423 88,853 80,363 3,161 43,548 3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

162
Table 3.34.—Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each care

Table 3.34.—credential: 2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prote

Type of credential Total resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Certificates, total 35.6 15.1 13.3 5.8 22.7 5.4 14.6 59.8 35.1 59.5 

Less than 1 year 18.5 9.7 8.2 2.7 12.5 3.4 7.1 32.2 13.6 24.1 At least 1 but 

 less than 2 years 15.7 4.8 4.9 2.8 9.4 1.9 6.9 25.8 19.5 32.3 

2 or more years 1.4 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.6 1.8 1.9 3.1 

Degrees, total 64.4 84.9 86.7 94.2 77.3 94.6 85.4 40.2 64.9 40.5 

Associate’s degree 20.7 18.5 19.8 7.0 31.2 10.6 25.5 24.3 49.2 15.5 Bachelor’s degree 43.6 66.4 66.9 87.2 46.1 84.0 59.9 16.0 15.7 25.0 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

163
Table 3.35.—Number and percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecond

Table 3.35.—level and sector, by type of credential: 2004–05

At least 1 

Less than but less 2 or 

Level and sector of institution Total Total 1 year than 2 years more years Total 

Number of credentials

 Total 1,923,400 685,450 356,536 301,808 27,106 1,237,950 

4-year total 952,952 27,934 11,397 14,728 1,809 925,018 

Public 586,908 10,385 4,459 4,754 1,172 576,523 Private not-for-profit 286,915 7,921 2,940 4,559 422 278,994 Private for-profit 79,129 9,628 3,998 5,415 215 69,501 

2-year total 728,110 415,328 220,691 169,851 24,786 312,782 

Public 561,863 311,735 183,099 118,587 10,049 250,128 

Private not-for-profit 19,001 10,790 4,791 2,035 3,964 8,211 

Private for-profit 147,246 92,803 32,801 49,229 10,773 54,443 

Less-than-2-year total 242,338 242,188 124,448 117,229 511 150 

Public 38,644 38,644 16,884 21,422 338 0 

Private not-for-profit 11,172 11,145 6,353 4,792 0 27 

Private for-profit 192,522 192,399 101,211 91,015 173 123 

See notes at end of table.

Certificates 

_______

164
Table 3.35.—Number and percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecond

Table 3.35.—level and sector, by type of credential: 2004–05—Continued

At least 1 

Less than but less 2 or 

Level and sector of institution Total Total 1 year than 2 years more years Total 

Percentage distribution of credentials

 within credential type

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

4-year total 49.5 4.1 3.2 4.9 6.7 74.7 

Public 30.5 1.5 1.3 1.6 4.3 46.6 

Private not-for-profit 14.9 1.2 0.8 1.5 1.6 22.5 

Private for-profit 4.1 1.4 1.1 1.8 0.8 5.6 

2-year total 37.9 60.6 61.9 56.3 91.4 25.3 

Public 29.2 45.5 51.4 39.3 37.1 20.2 

Private not-for-profit 1.0 1.6 1.3 0.7 14.6 0.7 

Private for-profit 7.7 13.5 9.2 16.3 39.7 4.4 

Less-than-2-year total 12.6 35.3 34.9 38.8 1.9 0.0 

Public 2.0 5.6 4.7 7.1 1.2 0.0 

Private not-for-profit 0.6 1.6 1.8 1.6 0.0 0.0 

Private for-profit 10.0 28.1 28.4 30.2 0.6 0.0 

See notes at end of table.

Certificates 

_______

165
Table 3.35.—Number and percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecond

Table 3.35.—level and sector, by type of credential: 2004–05—Continued

At least 1 

Less than but less 2 or 

Level and sector of institution Total Total 1 year than 2 years more years Total 

Percentage distribution of credentials

 within institution type

 Total 100.0 35.6 18.5 15.7 1.4 64.4 

4-year total 100.0 2.9 1.2 1.5 0.2 97.1 

Public 100.0 1.8 0.8 0.8 0.2 98.2 Private not-for-profit 100.0 2.8 1.0 1.6 0.1 97.2 Private for-profit 100.0 12.2 5.1 6.8 0.3 87.8 

2-year total 100.0 57.0 30.3 23.3 3.4 43.0 

Public 100.0 55.5 32.6 21.1 1.8 44.5 

Private not-for-profit 100.0 56.8 25.2 10.7 20.9 43.2 

Private for-profit 100.0 63.0 22.3 33.4 7.3 37.0 

Less-than-2-year total 100.0 99.9 51.4 48.4 0.2 0.1 

Public 100.0 100.0 43.7 55.4 0.9 0.0 Private not-for-profit 100.0 99.8 56.9 42.9 0.0 0.2 

Private for-profit 100.0 99.9 52.6 47.3 0.1 0.1 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

Certificates 

_______

166
Table 3.36.—Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutio

Table 3.36.—credential, by career field: 2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prote

Type of credential Total resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 100.0 1.8 24.0 4.5 6.0 6.5 7.7 26.2 1.0 9.1 

Certificates, total 100.0 0.8 8.9 0.7 3.8 1.0 3.2 43.9 1.0 15.1 

Less than 1 year 100.0 0.9 10.6 0.7 4.0 1.2 3.0 45.4 0.8 11.8 At least 1 but 

 less than 2 years 100.0 0.6 7.5 0.8 3.6 0.8 3.4 43.0 1.3 18.6 

2 or more years 100.0 0.8 3.1 0.9 3.2 0.4 3.3 33.4 1.4 20.1 

Degrees, total 100.0 2.4 32.4 6.6 7.2 9.6 10.2 16.4 1.1 5.7 

Associate’s degree 100.0 1.6 22.9 1.5 9.0 3.3 9.5 30.6 2.5 6.8 Bachelor’s degree 100.0 2.7 36.8 8.9 6.3 12.6 10.6 9.6 0.4 5.2 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

167
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

168 

Tables 3.37 and 3.38 show the number and percentage of credentials awarded in the various 

career fields by each institution type in 2005. Four-year institutions conferred the majority of credentials in the fields of communications (89 percent), education (86 percent), public, social, and 

human services (82 percent), business and marketing (72 percent), agricultural and natural resources (71 percent), engineering and architectural sciences (68 percent), and computer sciences 

(58 percent) (table 3.38). Two-year institutions conferred the majority of credentials in trade and 

industry (72 percent), legal services (57 percent), protective services (54 percent), and health care 

(53 percent). The largest concentration of credentials awarded by less-than-2-year institutions 

was in personal and consumer services, with these institutions conferring 35 percent of all personal and consumer services credentials in 2005. 

Looking within each type of institution, 4-year institutions awarded their largest percentage 

of undergraduate career credentials in the field of business and marketing (35 percent), whereas 

2-year and less-than-2-year institutions both awarded their largest percentages of career credentials in health care (37 and 49 percent, respectively) (table 3.39). 

Beginning Postsecondary Student Outcomes: 1996–2001 

The rates at which students with career majors persist in postsecondary education, attain 

certificates and degrees, and are successful in the labor market are key measures of their accomplishment. This section uses tables excerpted from the NCES report Students Entering and Leaving Postsecondary Occupational Education: 1995–2001 (Hudson, Kienzl, and Diehl 2007)83 to 

examine these measures. This section presents findings on differences between relevant groups 

that were statistically significant (sometimes referred to as measurably different). Substantive 

difference is not considered, because the source report for this section did not apply this criterion. 

Because success in postsecondary education and the labor market depends in part on students’ 

characteristics and enrollment patterns, these are described first. 

Hudson, Kienzl, and Diehl (2007) used data from the 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary 

Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01), a dataset that follows students who enrolled in postsecondary education for the first time in 1995–96 over a 6-year period to study their progress 

through postsecondary education and into the labor force. The base year sample for BPS:96/01 

came from the 1995–96 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:96), a nationally 

representative survey of all postsecondary students in the United States who attended less-than-2- 

 

83 Some of the terminology used in Hudson, Kienzl, and Diehl (2007) was changed in this section to be consistent with how 

career education is described in this report. 
Table 3.37.—Number of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions, by career fie

Table 3.37.—and sector: 2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

Level and sector natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prote

of institution Total resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 1,923,400 34,642 461,974 86,106 114,769 125,545 148,270 503,135 20,075 174,082 8

4-year total 952,952 24,557 333,610 76,720 66,197 107,496 101,296 114,855 6,668 52,153 3

Public 586,908 21,062 186,270 52,044 29,795 75,511 72,765 66,494 2,508 36,376 2Private not-for-profit 286,915 3,495 118,934 23,167 16,777 31,848 20,081 36,680 2,250 12,922 Private for-profit 79,129 0 28,406 1,509 19,625 137 8,450 11,681 1,910 2,855 

2-year total 728,110 9,775 116,130 7,033 41,178 16,164 42,092 268,653 11,336 61,656 4

Public 561,863 9,664 96,770 6,298 30,794 15,192 33,431 195,418 7,182 42,144 4Private not-for-profit 19,001 33 5,725 81 1,100 221 1,300 7,624 168 710 Private for-profit 147,246 78 13,635 654 9,284 751 7,361 65,611 3,986 18,802 

Less-than-2-year total 242,338 310 12,234 2,353 7,394 1,885 4,882 119,627 2,071 60,273 

Public 38,644 216 3,757 204 1,565 3 1,252 18,209 68 2,822 Private not-for-profit 11,172 47 1,608 13 387 836 147 4,120 0 431 Private for-profit 192,522 47 6,869 2,136 5,442 1,046 3,483 97,298 2,003 57,020 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

169
Table 3.38.—Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions in each care

Table 3.38.—institution and sector: 2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

Level and sector All fields natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prot

of institution of study resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

4-year total 49.5 70.9 72.2 89.1 57.7 85.6 68.3 22.8 33.2 30.0 

Public 30.5 60.8 40.3 60.4 26.0 60.1 49.1 13.2 12.5 20.9 Private not-for-profit 14.9 10.1 25.7 26.9 14.6 25.4 13.5 7.3 11.2 7.4 Private for-profit 4.1 0.0 6.1 1.8 17.1 0.1 5.7 2.3 9.5 1.6 

2-year total 37.9 28.2 25.1 8.2 35.9 12.9 28.4 53.4 56.5 35.4 

Public 29.2 27.9 20.9 7.3 26.8 12.1 22.5 38.8 35.8 24.2 Private not-for-profit 1.0 0.1 1.2 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.9 1.5 0.8 0.4 Private for-profit 7.7 0.2 3.0 0.8 8.1 0.6 5.0 13.0 19.9 10.8 

Less-than-2-year total 12.6 0.9 2.6 2.7 6.4 1.5 3.3 23.8 10.3 34.6 

Public 2.0 0.6 0.8 0.2 1.4 0.0 0.8 3.6 0.3 1.6 Private not-for-profit 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.8 0.0 0.2 Private for-profit 10.0 0.1 1.5 2.5 4.7 0.8 2.3 19.3 10.0 32.8 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

170
Table 3.39.—Percentage distribution of undergraduate credentials awarded in career fields by Title IV eligible postsecondary institutio

Table 3.39.—level and sector, by career field: 2004–05

EngiAgricul- neering Personal 

tural and Business and archi- and 

Level and sector All fields natural and Communi- Computer tectural Health Legal consumer Prote

of institution of study resources marketing cations sciences Education sciences care services services se

 Total 100.0 1.8 24.0 4.5 6.0 6.5 7.7 26.2 1.0 9.1 

4-year total 100.0 2.6 35.0 8.1 6.9 11.3 10.6 12.1 0.7 5.5 

Public 100.0 3.6 31.7 8.9 5.1 12.9 12.4 11.3 0.4 6.2 Private not-for-profit 100.0 1.2 41.5 8.1 5.8 11.1 7.0 12.8 0.8 4.5 Private for-profit 100.0 0.0 35.9 1.9 24.8 0.2 10.7 14.8 2.4 3.6 

2-year total 100.0 1.3 15.9 1.0 5.7 2.2 5.8 36.9 1.6 8.5 

Public 100.0 1.7 17.2 1.1 5.5 2.7 6.0 34.8 1.3 7.5 Private not-for-profit 100.0 0.2 30.1 0.4 5.8 1.2 6.8 40.1 0.9 3.7 Private for-profit 100.0 0.1 9.3 0.4 6.3 0.5 5.0 44.6 2.7 12.8 

Less-than-2-year total 100.0 0.1 5.0 1.0 3.1 0.8 2.0 49.4 0.9 24.9 

Public 100.0 0.6 9.7 0.5 4.0 0.0 3.2 47.1 0.2 7.3 Private not-for-profit 100.0 0.4 14.4 0.1 3.5 7.5 1.3 36.9 0.0 3.9 Private for-profit 100.0 0.0 3.6 1.1 2.8 0.5 1.8 50.5 1.0 29.6 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Completions aCharacteristics data file, 2004–05.

_______

171
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

172 

year, 2-year, or 4-year institutions.84 NPSAS:96 students who enrolled in postsecondary education for the first time in 1995–96 formed the BPS sample. Students in this sample were asked 

additional questions in 1995–96 and were reinterviewed in 1998 and 2001. While BPS:96/01 includes beginning students of all ages, as a group these students are younger than the NPSAS 

population as a whole—45 percent of BPS:96/01 students were age 18 or younger compared with 

10 percent of NPSAS:96 students (Kojaku and Nunez 1998; Horn and Berktold 1998). In part 

because of this age difference, the background characteristics and enrollment patterns of BPS 

students differ from those of the NPSAS students described in section C. 

In addition, the beginning postsecondary students examined in this section were limited to 

those who had earned a high school diploma or its equivalent (such as a general educational development [GED] certificate) and who reported in 1995–96 that their goal was a certificate, an 

associate’s degree, a bachelor’s degree, or transfer to another institution.85 These students are referred to here as “credential seeking.”86 In 1995–96, this restricted population of beginning students numbered about 2.5 million (table 3.40). 

For this analysis, these beginning postsecondary students were classified as either subbaccalaureate or baccalaureate based on their first institution and credential goal. Subbaccalaureate 

students were those who enrolled first at a less-than-4-year institution (about 96 percent of all 

subbaccalaureate students) or enrolled at a 4-year institution but were seeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or planning to transfer downward to a less-than-4-year institution 

(about 4 percent of all subbaccalaureate students) (Hudson, et al., 2007). Baccalaureate students 

were those who initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were seeking a bachelor’s or higher 

degree at that institution (93 percent of all baccalaureate students) or planning to transfer to another 4-year institution (7 percent of all baccalaureate students). 

Students’ majors (as reported in 1995–96) were classified as academic, career, or “other” 

according to a taxonomy similar to the one used in section C and shown in exhibit 1.2. “Other” 

majors include primarily undeclared majors.87 The taxonomies used for the different postsecondary analyses in this report are shown in appendix A. 

 

84 See the BPS:96/01 methodology report (Wine et al. 2002) for additional details on the study. 

85 Based on these criteria, 24 percent of all BPS students were omitted from this study: 17 percent because of “missing” or 

“don’t know” responses to the question about credential goals, 6 percent because they had no credential goal, and 1 percent because they did not have a high school diploma or equivalent. 

86 In contrast, in section C, credential-seeking students were identified based on the type of degree program in which they were 

currently enrolled, rather than on the highest level of education students sought at their first institution. 

87 “Other” majors did not include interdisciplinary studies, which was included under academic majors in the BPS:96/01 analysis. This differed from the NPSAS analysis in section C, where interdisciplinary studies had to be included under “other” majors 

because of differences in the coding used in NPSAS:90 and NPSAS:2000. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

173 

In 1995–96, more than half of the beginning postsecondary students in this analysis (58 

percent) were enrolled at the subbaccalaureate level—36 percent with a career major, 9 percent 

with an academic major, and 12 percent with an “other” major (table 3.40). The other 42 percent 

were baccalaureate students—19 percent with a career major, 10 percent with an academic 

major, and 13 percent with an “other” major. Thus, taking into account both level and major, 

subbaccalaureate career majors—at 36 percent—constituted the largest group of beginning 

postsecondary students. At both the subbaccalaureate and baccalaureate levels, more students 

majored in career fields than in academic fields. 

The tables in this section show detailed information by level (subbaccalaureate and baccalaureate), credential (certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree), and field of major 

(career and academic). For simplicity, subbaccalaureate students seeking an associate’s degree or 

planning to transfer without a degree to a 4-year institution to earn a bachelor’s degree are referred to in the tables as having a goal of “associate’s degree or higher” and in the text as “subbaccalaureate degree seekers.” The discussion focuses on three main comparisons: 

Table 3.40.—Number and percentage distribution of credential-seeking beginning postsecondary students, by 

Table 3.40.—initial credential goal and major field: 1995–96 

Initial credential goal and major field Number Percent 

 Total 2,472,000 100.0

Subbaccalaureate 1,429,000 57.8

Career education 893,000 36.1

Certificate 279,000 11.3

Associate’s degree or higher 614,000 24.9

Academic 233,000 9.4

Certificate 6,000 ! 0.3

Associate’s degree or higher 227,000 9.2

Other 302,000 12.2

Baccalaureate 1,043,000 42.2

Career education 468,000 18.9

Academic 258,000 10.4

Other 317,000 12.8

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Subbaccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially

enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a

less-than-4-year institution. All subbaccalaureate students planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. 

Baccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were either seeking a bachelor’s or higher

degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to another 4-year institution. Students in the “other” category have mainly 

undeclared majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

174 

subbaccalaureate degree seekers with career versus academic majors, subbaccalaureate career 

majors seeking a certificate versus a degree, and baccalaureate students with career versus academic majors. (There were too few students seeking an academic certificate to permit comparisons of this group with career certificate seekers.) 

Characteristics of Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Student outcomes depend in part on the characteristics of students who enter postsecondary 

education and on their enrollment patterns. Research has shown that students are less likely to 

persist in postsecondary education if, for example, they come from low socioeconomic backgrounds, earn a GED rather than a regular high school diploma, delay their entry into postsecondary education (and thus are older when they begin), enroll part time, work full time while 

enrolled, have dependents other than a spouse, or are (for financial aid purposes) financially independent (Horn and Berger 2004; Hoachlander, Sikora, and Horn 2003; Horn 1996; Berkner, 

Cuccaro-Alamin, and McCormick 1996). Thus, before turning to an examination of their educational and labor market outcomes, it is useful to look at the characteristics of career and academic 

beginning postsecondary students (Bailey et al. 2004). 

At the subbaccalaureate level, greater percentages of degree seekers with career majors 

compared with their counterparts with academic majors were Black (15 vs. 7 percent) and attended private for-profit institutions (10 vs. 1 percent) (table 3.41). As one might expect, career 

majors also appeared to be more employment oriented: a larger percentage of career majors compared with academic majors enrolled mainly to obtain job skills (24 vs. 7 percent) and considered 

themselves as employees going to school (28 vs. 16 percent). 

Among subbaccalaureate career majors, certificate seekers were older, on average, than degree seekers (27 vs. 22 years old) and more often exhibited some of the characteristics mentioned 

above as associated with lower rates of persistence and completion (table 3.41). Specifically, larger percentages of career certificate seekers than career subbaccalaureate degree seekers had a 

GED (18 vs. 9 percent), delayed enrollment in postsecondary education after finishing high 

school88 (73 vs. 48 percent), and had parents without a college degree (70 vs. 50 percent). In addition, compared with career subbaccalaureate majors seeking a degree, larger percentages of career certificate seekers enrolled in private for-profit institutions (55 vs. 10 percent) and reported 

that their main reason for enrolling was to obtain job skills (78 vs. 24 percent). On the other 

hand, a smaller percentage of career certificate seekers than career subbaccalaureate degree seekers worked while enrolled (61 vs. 80 percent). 

 

88 Delayed enrollment was defined in the BPS as enrollment by a student who received a high school diploma prior to 1995 or 

who reached age 20 before December 31, 1995. 
Table 3.41.—Average age and percentage of beginning postsecondary students with various demographic and enrollment characteris

Table 3.41.—comparisons, by initial credential goal and major field: 1995–96

Deg

Certificate 

Demographic or enrollment Career Career Career e

characteristic education Academic education education Academic vs. aAverage age 22.1 20.9 26.8 19.1 18.9 

Female 55.5 46.3 60.7 50.6 60.4 

Race/ethnicity2

White 72.6 79.3 65.6 75.6 73.7 

Black 14.5 6.7 ! 17.7 11.4 10.4 

Hispanic 7.2 6.8 ! 13.5 7.1 7.3 

Other 5.6 7.2 ! 3.2 5.9 8.6 

Family in lowest SES quartile 28.6 22.6 33.6 19.8 19.4 

Parents do not have a college degree 49.9 39.8 70.1 29.3 26.4 

GED instead of regular high 

 school diploma 8.6 6.6 17.9 1.4 1.5 

Delayed postsecondary enrollment 48.1 33.8 73.3 11.9 10.9 

Enrolled full time 56.6 52.7 67.7 88.0 86.7 

First postsecondary institution sector

Public 86.3 97.3 43.2 65.6 62.3 

Private not-for-profit 3.9 1.6 1.8 ! 32.1 ‡ 

Private for-profit 9.7 1.1 55.0 2.3 ‡ 

See notes at end of table.

Sum

Subbaccalaureate Baccalaureate

Degree

_______

175
Table 3.41.—Average age and percentage of beginning postsecondary students with various demographic and enrollment characteris

Table 3.41.—comparisons, by initial credential goal and major field: 1995–96—Continued

Deg

Certificate 

Demographic or enrollment Career Career Career e

characteristic education Academic education education Academic vs. aWork status and orientation

Worked while enrolled 79.6 75.7 60.5 63.6 61.2 

Student working to meet expenses 52.0 59.5 29.8 57.5 55.8 

Employee who enrolled 27.6 16.2 30.7 6.1 5.4 

Worked full time (40 hours or more) 12.0 11.3 ! 12.6 2.4 1.8 Job skills were primary 

 enrollment purpose 23.5 6.9 ! 77.7 † † 

† Not applicable. Primary purpose for enrolling was asked only of students enrolled in less-than-4-year postsecondary institutions.! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1 Plus sign means that students in the first group listed were more likely to have this characteristic or had a higher value on this characteristic than the stu

listed; minus sign means that students in the first group listed were less likely to have this characteristic or had a lower value on this characteristic than thgroup listed; and zero means that no measurable difference was found between the two groups.

2 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, and and “other” rac

exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Subbaccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year instseeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution. All subbaccalaureate students planning to associate’s degree or higher. Baccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were either seeking a bachelor’s or hiinstitution or seeking to transfer to another 4-year institution. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Standard error tables ahttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/

Sum

Subbaccalaureate Baccalaureate

Degree

_______

176
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

177 

At the baccalaureate level, students with career majors were less often female compared 

with academic majors (51 vs. 60 percent). Otherwise, the two groups were not measurably different from each other on any of the characteristics shown in table 3.41. 

Postsecondary Education Persistence and Attainment 

Several educational outcomes are examined in this section, including rates of persistence 

and credential attainment, types of credentials earned relative to initial goals, and, for noncompleters, reasons for leaving postsecondary education. These outcomes are assessed as of June 

2001, approximately 6 years after most beginning postsecondary students enrolled in 1995–96. 

Persistence and Attainment 

Among credential-seeking students who began at the subbaccalaureate level in 1995–96, 

some 60 percent had either earned a credential or were still enrolled in postsecondary education 

as of June 2001 (table 3.42). Apparent differences between degree seekers with career and academic majors and between certificate and degree seekers with career majors were not measurable. 

Among subbaccalaureate students with degree goals, no measurable differences were found 

between career and academic students in the percentage who earned any credential (42 and 44 

percent, respectively), earned an associate’s degree (20 and 21 percent, respectively), or had no 

credential but were still enrolled (15 and 19 percent, respectively) (figure 3.1 and table 3.42). 

However, compared with their counterparts who had academic majors, degree-seeking students 

with career majors earned a certificate more often (11 vs. 2 percent).89 

Among career students whose initial goal was a certificate, 62 percent had earned some 

type of credential by 2001. Fifty-seven percent had earned a certificate, with the rest exceeding 

their initial goals and earning an associate’s degree (5 percent) or a bachelor’s degree (1 percent). 

Another 3 percent had not earned any credential but were still enrolled. Among career subbaccalaureate majors with degree goals, 42 percent had attained a credential: among them, 20 percent 

had earned an associate’s degree; 11 percent had earned a bachelor’s degree; and the remaining 

11 percent attained a certificate (some of these students might also still have been enrolled for 

another credential). Another 15 percent were still enrolled (without a credential). While a larger 

 

89 The apparent difference in bachelor’s degree attainment was not measurable, given the relatively large standard errors (reflecting the small sample sizes) for this group. 
Table 3.42.—Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who attained a credential or were still enro

Table 3.42.—percentage distribution of these students in terms of their attainment and enrollment status in 2001, by initial credential 

Attained

a credential 

or were Any Associate’s Bachelor’s No c

Initial credential goal and major field still enrolled credential Certificate degree degree stil

All students 69.7 54.7 11.5 10.3 32.9 

Subbaccalaureate 60.4 44.9 18.4 16.1 10.5 

Career education 59.9 48.4 25.4 15.4 7.5 

Certificate 65.6 62.2 56.9 4.6 ! 0.7 

Associate’s degree or higher 57.4 42.1 11.2 20.3 10.6 

Academic 63.6 43.5 3.0 ! 20.6 20.0 

Certificate 83.3 34.6 ! 27.4 ! 4.5 ! 2.8 ! Associate’s degree or higher 63.0 43.8 2.3 ! 21.0 20.5 

Other 59.6 35.9 9.6 14.5 11.8 

Baccalaureate 82.3 68.0 2.0 2.5 63.5 

Career education 82.5 68.6 2.2 2.9 63.5 Academic 82.5 69.4 1.7 2.0 65.7 Other 81.9 66.1 1.9 ! 2.4 61.8 

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate.NOTE: Subbaccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year instseeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution. All subbaccalaureate students planning to associate’s degree or higher. Baccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were either seeking a bachelor’s or hiinstitution or seeking to transfer to another 4-year institution. Students in the “other” category have mainly undeclared majors. Estimates include studenDC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pd

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/

Attainment and enrollment status

Highest credential attained

_______

178
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

179 

percentage of career majors who started with a certificate goal than career majors who started 

with a degree goal earned some type of credential by 2001, this gap may change over time because a greater percentage of degree seekers were still enrolled. 

At the baccalaureate level, both career and academic majors persisted or attained at rates of 

about 82–83 percent. No measurable differences were found between the two groups in the percentages who earned bachelor’s degrees (63 and 66 percent, respectively) or in the percentages 

who were still enrolled (14 and 13 percent, respectively) as of 2001. 

Figure 3.1.— Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students with

Figure 3.1.— various levels of attainment as of 2001, by initial credential goal

Initial degree goal Certificate degree degree still enrolled

Academic associate’s degree or higher 2 21 21 19

degree or higher 11 20 11 15

Career/technical education certificate 57 5 1 3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

2

11

57

21

20

5

21

11

19

15

3

0 25 50 75 100

Percent

Certificate Associate’s degree Bachelor’s degree No credential still enrolled

Certificate in 

career field

Associate’s degree or higher

in career field

Associate’s degree or

higher in academic field

1

66

57

63

Initial credential goal
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

180 

Reasons for Leaving Postsecondary Education

As seen in table 3.42, 30 percent of all credential-seeking students who began their postsecondary education in 1995–96 had not earned a credential and were no longer enrolled in 2001. 

This section examines the reasons these students gave for leaving school, comparing groups of 

interest. Among subbaccalaureate career students, 40 percent had left school without a credential 

(table 3.43). Job or financial demands was the most frequently cited reason for leaving school, 

with 14 percent of subbaccalaureate career students leaving primarily for this reason. From 2 to 6 

percent each reported leaving primarily due to dissatisfaction with their program or academic 

problems, completion of the desired classes, family demands, moving to another city or state, 

“other,” or unknown reasons. 

Among degree seekers at the subbaccalaureate level, no measurable differences were detected between students with career and academic majors in the percentages leaving for any of 

these reasons (table 3.43).90 However, among career majors, certificate and degree seekers differed in some respects. For example, a smaller percentage of certificate seekers left because of 

job or financial demands (7 vs. 17 percent) or because of family demands (3 vs. 7 percent). This 

finding may reflect, at least in part, the fact that certificate programs tend to be shorter and therefore require less time out of the labor force or away from home. Alternatively, this finding may 

reflect the fact that a larger percentage of career certificate seekers than career subbaccalaureate 

degree seekers were enrolled to obtain job skills or that a smaller percentage of these certificate 

seekers than subbaccalaureate degree seekers worked while enrolled. These are only some of the 

possible explanations for these findings. A larger percentage of career certificate seekers than 

career degree seekers left because they were finished taking the classes they wanted (5 vs. 2 percent). 

At the baccalaureate level, 18 percent left without earning a credential, and 6 percent left 

because of job or financial demands. No measurable differences were found between career and 

academic majors in their reasons for leaving. 

 

90 This was true where sample sizes were sufficient to test differences; samples sizes were not sufficient for dissatisfaction with 

the program or other academic problems and for completion of the desired classes. 
Table 3.43.—Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who had left and had not returned to posts

Table 3.43.—2001, by reason for leaving and initial credential goal and major field

Total who Not satisfied/ Done with Moved to 

 left and did academic desired Family Job/financial another 

Initial credential goal and major field not return problems classes demands demands city or state 

All students 30.3 2.0 1.8 4.0 10.7 4.0 

Subbaccalaureate 39.6 2.0 2.8 5.3 14.4 5.9 

Career education 40.1 2.5 2.7 6.0 13.5 6.1 

Certificate 34.4 2.1 5.5 3.2 6.5 9.1 

Associate’s degree or higher 42.6 2.7 ! 1.5 ! 7.3 16.6 4.8 

Academic 36.4 0.4 ! 1.8 ! 5.3 16.6 5.5 ! 

Certificate 16.7 ! ‡‡‡‡‡

Associate’s degree or higher 37.0 ‡ ‡5.4 17.1 5.5 ! 

Other 40.4 1.7 ! 3.7 ! 3.4 15.3 5.6 

Baccalaureate 17.7 2.0 0.5 2.3 5.6 1.4 

Career education 17.6 2.1 0.6 ! 1.7 5.7 1.5 

Academic 17.5 1.6 ! 0.5 ! 2.6 5.7 1.3 

Other 18.1 2.3 0.4 ! 2.8 5.4 1.3 

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)NOTE: Subbaccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year instseeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution. All subbaccalaureate students planning to associate’s degree or higher. Baccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were either seeking a bachelor’s or hior seeking to transfer to another 4-year institution. Students in the “other” category have mainly undeclared majors. Estimates include students from the Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/

Reason for leaving

_______

181
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

182 

Labor Market Outcomes 

This section of the chapter focuses on the labor market outcomes of beginning students 

who earned (rather than sought) career credentials, classifying students according to the highest 

level of credential they earned by 2001. These postsecondary completers are compared with noncompleters, who were classified according to their initial credential goal. Table 3.44 and figure 

3.2 show the percentage of 1995–96 credential-seeking beginning postsecondary students who 

had earned a credential by 2001 according to the highest credential earned. Among completers, 

33 percent earned certificates and associate’s degrees in career fields (19 percent earned certificates and 14 percent earned associate’s degrees), and 34 percent earned bachelor’s degrees in career fields. 

Table 3.44.—Percentage distribution of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who had,

Table 3.44.—by 2001, obtained each credential as their highest credential, by credential type and major field: 2001

Credential type and major field Percent

 Total 100.0

Subbaccalaureate 38.5

Career education 33.4

Certificate 19.2

Associate’s degree or higher 14.2

Academic 4.2

Certificate 0.5

Associate’s degree or higher 3.7

Other 0.9

Baccalaureate 58.8

Career education 33.6

Academic 24.8

Other 0.4 !

Unknown 2.8

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate. 

NOTE: Subbaccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially

enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a

less-than-4-year institution. All subbaccalaureate students planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. 

Baccalaureate includes students who were initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were either seeking a bachelor’s or higher

degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to another 4-year institution. Students in the “other” category have mainly 

undeclared majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

183 

This section presents an examination of several labor market outcomes, including rates of 

labor force participation and unemployment, employment status (working full or part time), average annual salary, and relatedness of coursework to employment. These labor market outcomes 

are examined here only for students who sought or earned subbaccalaureate credentials. 

Employment Rates 

The percentage of graduates who are employed is one measure of the success of a postsecondary program. Among the 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who earned certificates 

or associate’s degrees in career fields, 87 percent were employed in 2001 (table 3.45). Another 7 

percent were not employed and looking for work (“unemployed”), and the remaining 6 percent 

were not employed and not looking for work. 

Figure 3.2.—Percentage distribution of 1995–96 credential-seeking beginning postsecondary students who had 

Figure 3.2.—attained a credential by 2001, by type of credential

Career/technical education (CTE) certificate 19.2

Career/technical education (CTE) associate’s degree 14.2

Academic associate’s degree 3.7

Career/technical education (CTE) baccalaureate degree 33.6

Academic baccalaureate degree 24.8

Other 4.5

1

 Subject and/or level of credential could not be determined.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

Baccalaureate degree in 

academic field

25%

Baccalaureate degree

in career field

34%

Associate’s degree

in academic field

4%

Associate’s degree in 

career field

14%

Certificate in 

career field

19%

Unknown

4%

1
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

184 

Table 3.45.—Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students with 

Table 3.45.—selected labor force participation characteristics as of 2001, by attainment status, type of 

Table 3.45.—subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major field

Labor

 force parti- UnemAttainment status, type of subbaccalaureate Not looking Looking cipation ployment

credential attained or sought, and major field Employed for work for work rate1 rate2

 All subbaccalaureate students 86.1 6.2 7.7 93.8 8.2 

Attained a subbaccalaureate credential, total 87.1 6.3 6.6 93.7 7.0 

Career education 87.0 6.0 7.0 94.0 7.4 

Certificate 87.1 5.6 7.3 94.4 7.8 

Associate’s degree or higher 86.9 6.7 ! 6.4 ! 93.3 6.9 !

Academic 85.8 ‡ ‡ 89.7 ‡

Certificate 98.9 ‡ ‡ 98.9 ‡

Associate’s degree or higher 83.7 ‡ ‡ 88.3 ‡

Other 98.7 ‡ ‡ 100.0 ‡

Did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate 

 credential, total 85.3 6.2 8.5 93.8 9.1

Career education 85.2 7.1 7.7 92.9 8.3 

Certificate 74.4 11.1 ! 14.5 ! 88.9 16.3 !

Associate’s degree or higher 89.2 5.7 5.1 ! 94.3 5.4 !

Academic 79.0 6.7 ! 14.3 93.3 15.3 

Certificate ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Associate’s degree or higher 79.1 6.5 ! 14.5 93.5 15.5 

Other 90.1 3.2 ! 6.7 ! 96.8 6.9 !

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.) 

1

 Labor force participants are adults who are employed or not employed but looking for work. The labor force participation rate is 

the number of adults who are in the labor force divided by the number of adults in the total population. 

2

 The unemployed are adults who are not employed but are looking for work. The unemployment rate is the number of 

unemployed adults divided by the number of adults in the labor force. 

NOTE: The category of students who did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential includes students who were initially

enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less 

than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution; subbaccalaureate seekers

planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. Students in the “other” category have mainly 

undeclared majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

Not employed
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

185 

Among completers of associate’s degrees, the employment rate for career majors was 87 

percent, which was not measurably higher than the 84 percent rate observed for completers with 

academic majors. Among career completers, both certificate and associate’s degree recipients had 

87 percent employment rates. Students who earned career certificates had a higher employment 

rate (87 percent) than those who started with a career certificate goal when they first enrolled but 

did not complete the certificate (74 percent) (figure 3.3). In contrast, there was no measurable 

difference in the employment rates of students who earned an associate’s degree in a career field 

and those who started with that goal but did not complete the degree (87 and 89 percent, 

respectively). Small sample sizes make it difficult to make reliable comparisons among 

subgroups that were not employed. 

Figure 3.3.—Percentage of credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students who were employed 

Figure 3.4.—in 2001, by attainment status and type of major

All subbaccalaureate degrees 87.1

 Occupational/career subbaccalaureate degree 87.0

 Certificate 87.1

Completer Noncompleter 

career/technical 87 74

career/technical 87 89

academic major 84 89

NOTE: Completers are students who attained the indicated credential by 2001, regardless of their initial credential goal. Noncompleters are students who initially intended to earn the indicated credential, but who left school without a credential as of 2001.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

87 87 84

74

89 89

0

25

50

75

100

Certificate,

career/technical

education (CTE) major

Associate’s degree,

career/technical

education (CTE) major

Associate’s degree,

academic major

Percent

Completer Noncompleter 

Certificate,

career major

Associate’s degree,

career major
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

186 

Full-time employment is another measure of labor market success. Overall, 86 percent of 

1995–96 beginning students who had earned a subbaccalaureate credential in a career field and 

were working in 2001 were employed full time (table 3.46). A larger percentage of employed associate’s degree recipients worked full time compared with employed certificate recipients (91 

vs. 84 percent) There were no measurable differences in the full-time employment rates of completers and noncompleters at either the certificate or associate’s degree level. 

Table 3.46.—Percentage of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students with 

Table 3.46.—part- and full-time employment status during 2001, by attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate 

Table 3.46.—credential attained or sought, and major field

Attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate

credential attained or sought, and major field Part-time Full-time Part-time Full-time

 All subbaccalaureate students 11.8 74.3 13.7 86.3

Attained a subbaccalaureate credential, total 11.4 75.7 13.1 86.9

Career education 11.9 75.1 13.6 86.4

Certificate 14.2 72.8 16.4 83.6

Associate’s degree or higher 7.6 ! 79.3 8.8 ! 91.2

Academic 9.4 ! 76.4 11.0 ! 89.0

Certificate 32.0 ! 66.8 32.4 ! 67.6

Associate’s degree or higher ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Other ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential, total 12.1 73.2 14.2 85.8

Career education 9.8 75.4 11.5 88.5

Certificate 13.2 ! 61.3 17.7 ! 82.3

Associate’s degree or higher 8.6 80.6 9.6 90.4

Academic 14.6 ! 64.4 18.5 ! 81.5

Certificate ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Associate’s degree or higher 14.7 ! 64.4 18.6 ! 81.4

Other 16.9 ! 73.2 18.7 ! 81.3

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1

 Labor force participants are adults who are employed or not employed but looking for work.

NOTE: The category of students who did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential includes students who were initially

enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less 

than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution; subbaccalaureate seekers

planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. Students in the “other” category have mainly undeclared 

majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).

All labor force participants Those currently employed 1
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

187 

Salaries 

Salary is an important indicator of the return on the investment students make in their education. Among career completers, the average 2001 salary was $27,400 (table 3.47). The salary 

of career certificate recipients ($25,900) was lower than that of their counterparts who had earned 

associate’s degrees in career fields ($30,100). Comparing only full-time workers, however, no 

measurable difference was found between these two groups ($27,900 and $30,700). Nor were 

measurable differences found between the salaries of career completers and noncompleters at either the certificate or associate’s degree level for all workers or for full-time workers. 

Table 3.47.—Annual salary of subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary students, by 

Table 3.47.—employment status, attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and 

Table 3.47.—major field: 2001

Attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate

credential attained or sought, and major field Part-time Full-time Total

 All subbaccalaureate students $16,200 $28,300 $26,700 

Attained a subbaccalaureate credential, total 17,100 29,000 27,500 

Career education 17,000 29,000 27,400 

Certificate 15,200 27,900 25,900 

Associate’s degree or higher 23,000 30,700 30,100 

Academic ‡ 31,100 29,800 

Certificate ‡ 30,600 27,600 

Associate’s degree or higher ‡ 31,200 30,200 

Other ‡ 21,900 21,900 

Did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential, total 15,600 27,800 26,100 

Career education 12,800 28,000 26,200 

Certificate 14,100 ! 26,600 24,400 

Associate’s degree or higher 12,100 28,400 26,700 

Academic 19,600 25,100 24,000 

Certificate ‡ ‡ ‡

Associate’s degree or higher 19,700 25,200 24,100 

Other 17,800 28,800 27,000 

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

NOTE: The category of students who did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential includes students who were initially

enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less 

than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution; subbaccalaureate seekers

planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. Students in the “other” category have mainly undeclared 

majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

188 

Employment in a Related Field 

Based on self-reports of relatedness of employment to field of study, most career majors 

who had completed a subbaccalaureate credential and were working in 2001 reported that they 

were employed in a job that was related to their field of study (70 percent) (table 3.48). Among 

career completers, no measurable difference was found between certificate and associate’s degree 

recipients in their likelihood of being employed in a related job (68 and 75 percent, respectively). 

Career majors who had completed associate’s degrees were more often employed in a related 

field than noncompleters (75 vs. 43 percent). The apparent difference for career certificate completers and noncompleters (68 vs. 58 percent) was not measurable. 

Table 3.48.—Percentage of working subbaccalaureate credential-seeking 1995–96 beginning postsecondary 

Table 3.48.—students whose employment was related to their credential program, by attainment status, type of 

Table 3.48.—subbaccalaureate credential attained or sought, and major field

Attainment status, type of subbaccalaureate Employment closely 

credential attained or sought, and major field or somewhat related1

 All subbaccalaureate students 52.0 

Attained a subbaccalaureate credential, total 67.4 

Career education 70.1 

Certificate 67.6 

Associate’s degree or higher 74.5 

Academic 39.0

Certificate 26.5 !

Associate’s degree or higher 41.4 !

Other 74.7 

Did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential, total 40.0 

Career education 46.2 

Certificate 57.8 

Associate’s degree or higher 42.6 

Academic 25.5 !

Certificate ‡

Associate’s degree or higher 25.1 !

Other 32.0 

! Interpret data with caution. Standard errors were more than one-third as large as the estimate.

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1

 All other respondents rated their employment as “not related“ to their credential program.

NOTE: The category of students who did not attain but sought a subbaccalaureate credential includes students who were initially

enrolled at a less-than-4-year institution, as well as students initially enrolled at a 4-year institution who were either seeking less 

than a bachelor’s degree at that institution or seeking to transfer to a less-than-4-year institution; subbaccalaureate seekers

planning to transfer are included under associate’s degree or higher. Students in the “other“ category have mainly undeclared 

majors. Estimates include students from the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Standard error tables are available at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1996/01 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study (BPS:96/01).
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

189 

F. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Size and Scope of the Postsecondary Career Education Enterprise 

Career education represented a substantial percentage of the total undergraduate enterprise 

during the period covered in this chapter: 63–67 percent of students majored in career fields during the period examined in this report (table 3.8) and 90 percent of postsecondary institutions 

awarded a total of 1.9 million career credentials in 2005 (tables 3.1 and 3.33). In addition, just 

over one-half million faculty taught in career fields at not-for-profit 2- and 4-year degree-granting 

postsecondary institutions in fall 2003 (table 3.22), a number that was not measurably different 

from the number of academic teaching faculty in this semester (table 3.22). 

Despite some differences in sampling frames and available data for the various analyses in 

this chapter, there were a number of consistent findings. For example, health care and business 

and marketing were among the largest career fields in terms of student majors, teaching faculty, 

and credentials awarded in recent years (2003–2005) (tables 3.10, 3.22, and 3.35). In these same 

years, agriculture was predominantly a 4-year or baccalaureate enterprise: the majority of students who majored, faculty who taught, and credentials that were awarded in this field were 

found at the bachelor’s degree or 4-year institution level (65 percent, 72 percent, and 71 percent, 

respectively) (tables 3.11, 3.23, and 3.37). In contrast, half or more of students, faculty, and credentials in the fields of protective services and trade and industry were found at the subbaccalaureate or 2-year institution level (54–84 percent, 71–82 percent, and 55–72 percent, respectively). 

Finally, about half or more of the students who majored and credentials that were awarded in the 

fields of business and marketing, communications, computer sciences, education, engineering 

and architectural sciences, and public, social, and human services were found at the bachelor’s 

degree level (49–77 percent of students and 58–89 percent of credentials), while the majority of 

students and credentials in the fields of health care and legal services were found at the subbaccalaureate level (56–65 percent of students and 53–56 percent of credentials) (tables 3.11 and 3.37). 

Over the decade and a half examined, changes in the size of the postsecondary student body 

and teaching force occurred somewhat in parallel. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of credential-seeking undergraduates majoring in career fields increased overall and at the associate’s 

and bachelor’s degree levels (table 3.8). Similarly, the number of postsecondary teaching faculty 

who taught in career fields increased between fall 1992 and fall 2003 overall and at public 4-year 

institutions, private not-for-profit 4-year institutions, and public 2-year institutions (table 3.22). 

In contrast, the number of career majors seeking certificates decreased, and no measurable 

change was detected in the number of career teaching faculty at private not-for-profit 2-year institutions. 
3. Career Education at the Postsecondary Level

190 

Changes over time varied by career field. Increases in the number of both student majors 

and teaching faculty occurred in the fields of health care, education, communications, computer 

science, and protective services (tables 3.10 and 3.22). In contrast, while the number of student 

majors declined in business, engineering and architectural sciences, and personal and consumer 

services, the number of faculty increased in these fields. 

Beginning Postsecondary Student Outcomes 

Overall, the majority of credential-seeking undergraduates had attained a degree or were 

still enrolled 6 years after beginning postsecondary education in 1995–96 (70 percent) (table 

3.42). By 2001, 82 percent of students who initially in 1995–96 were career majors seeking a 

bachelor’s degree and 60 percent of those initially seeking a subbaccalaureate career credential 

had attained a degree or were still enrolled. Although a larger percentage of career certificate 

seekers than career subbaccalaureate degree seekers possessed characteristics associated with 

lower rates of postsecondary persistence and attainment (table 3.41), a larger percentage of them 

met their educational goal (table 3.42). Subbaccalaureate career completers generally exhibited 

high labor force participation and employment rates, with 94 percent participating in the labor 

force in 2001, and 87 being employed (table 3.45). A greater percentage of those who completed 

certificates in career fields were employed compared with those who attempted but did not complete career certificates (figure 3.3). However, there were no measurable differences in the fulltime employment rates of employed completers and noncompleters at either the certificate or 

associate’s degree level (table 3.46). 
191 

4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

Chapter 3 examined postsecondary career education, which is taken both by young adults 

who have just completed their high school education and by older adults who may have already 

entered the labor force. This chapter focuses on the courses that adults take outside of formal 

education programs in order to acquire, maintain, or upgrade their workforce skills. These 

courses can include employer-provided training, postsecondary courses (other than those taken as 

part of a degree program), professional or technical licensing or certification courses, and other 

types of work-related courses. Specifically, the chapter addresses the following questions: 

A. Who participates in work-related courses and what do they study? 

B. Who are the providers of work-related courses for adults? 

C. To what extent do work-related courses involve employer requirements or educational 

or occupational credentialing? 

D. To what extent is work-related coursetaking supported by employers? 

E. What are the outcomes of participation in work-related courses? 

The analysis uses data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Adult 

Education Survey of the 2005 National Household Education Surveys Program (AENHES:2005), supplemented by data from the 2003 NHES Adult Education for Work-Related 

Reasons Survey (AEWR-NHES:2003).91 Both data collections surveyed a nationally 

representative sample of adults aged 16 or older who were no longer in compulsory education. 

These adults were asked about their participation in various types of learning activities during the 

previous 12 months. Thus, the reported participation data span the years 2002–03 (in AEWRNHES:2003) and 2004–05 (in AE:NHES:2005).92 

The two previous chapters described in some detail the types of institutions that provide 

work-related learning at the secondary and postsecondary education levels. This chapter cannot 

do the same for adults, however, because describing the institutions that offer work-related 

learning for adults would require a nationally representative survey of providers, which is not 

 

91 Because the AEWR-NHES:2003 focused on work-related education, it could delve in more depth into a few key issues, 

including the perceived utility of the courses adults took and of work-related learning in general. These issues are examined here 

using 2003 survey data that had been previously analyzed for the tables included on the Career/Technical Education Statistics 

(CTES) website (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/). 

92 Further details on the methodology for the AE-NHES:2005 are available in the user’s manual in Hagedorn et al. (2006), and 

for the methodology of the AEWR-NHES:2003 in Hagedorn et al. (2004a, 2004b). 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

192 

available. Therefore, this chapter takes the participant’s perspective: it focuses on information 

that participants can reliably provide, including a description of their participation, the providers 

they used, and their perceptions of the results of their coursetaking. This chapter also does not 

include a detailed analysis of trends in participation in work-related coursetaking, because 

comparable data are available only from 2001 to 2005, which was deemed too short a period to 

warrant a trend examination in this report.93 

This chapter presents findings on differences between relevant groups that were statistically 

significant (sometimes referred to as measurably different)94 and also substantively different, the 

latter defined as a difference of at least 3 percentage points or the equivalent.95 Statistically 

significant differences of a magnitude smaller than 3 percentage points or the equivalent are 

generally not reported. 

Definition and Extent of Participation in Work-Related Coursetaking 

Definition of Work-Related Coursetaking 

The AE-NHES:2005 includes a number of survey sections, each asking adults about their 

participation in a different type of activity during the 12 months preceding the survey: 

• English as a Second Language (ESL) classes; 

• basic skills and General Educational Development (GED) preparation classes (classes 

to improve basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills; classes to prepare for the 

GED test; and other high school equivalency or adult high school programs); 

• college and university degree programs; 

• vocational and technical diploma programs; 

• apprenticeship programs; and 

• other courses.96

In the last section of the survey, adults who had participated in any courses (exclusive of 

courses addressed in previous survey sections) were asked to list each course (up to 20) and to 

 

93 Although NCES conducted surveys of adult learning prior to 2001, those surveys used a different format for collecting data on 

work-related coursetaking, which makes them less comparable to more recent surveys for examining trends in this type of 

learning (see Kim et al. 2004, p. 8). 

94 The statistical significance of a difference was determined using a Student’s t test and an alpha level of .05, as described in 

appendix A. Adjustments were not made for multiple comparisons. 

95 On a scale that ranged from 0 to 10 million adults, for example, the equivalent substantive difference would be 300,000 

students. 

96 Courses are defined to include training seminars, classes, workshops, and other types of courses, any of which involve an 

instructor. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

193 

state whether each course was taken mainly for work-related reasons or for personal interest. 

Although enrollment in postsecondary credential programs (programs leading to a postsecondary 

degree, certificate, or diploma) is not counted as participation in work-related coursetaking, 

participation in a postsecondary course outside of a postsecondary credential program is counted 

as work-related coursetaking. Adults who listed at least one course as taken mainly for workrelated reasons, or equally for both work-related reasons and personal interest, are counted here 

as participants in work-related courses. For each of these participants, the AE-NHES:2005 

collected detailed coursetaking information on up to four courses. 

The AEWR-NHES:2003 followed the same general pattern, asking about participation in 

specific learning activities during the 12 months preceding the survey. However, because the 

AEWR-NHES:2003 focused on work-related learning, it had fewer sections, all focused 

exclusively on learning activities in which adults participated for work-related reasons:97

• college and university degree programs taken for work-related reasons; 

• vocational and technical diploma programs taken for work-related reasons; 

• apprenticeship programs; and 

• courses taken for work-related reasons. 

As in the AE-NHES:2005, adults who reported in the last section that they had participated 

in any courses were asked to list these courses (up to 20) and detailed information was collected 

on up to four courses. 

The analysis in this chapter defines participants as those adults who took at least one course 

for work-related reasons during the 12 months preceding the survey interview. The 

characteristics of their courses were determined mainly from the responses that the participants in 

each survey gave concerning the four work-related courses that they were asked about in detail.98

Because some adults took more than one work-related course over the 12-month period, the 

results from each survey reflect the percentage of adults who participated in at least one course 

(or at least one course with a given characteristic); however, for the sake of simplicity, this 

chapter will often refer to participation in work-related courses rather than to participation in at 

least one course. The occurrence of multiple coursetaking also means that many of the table 

percentages in this chapter sum to greater than 100. As a hypothetical example, in a population of 

100 adults, if 30 participated only in a course taught in the morning, 30 participated only in a 

course taught in the afternoon, and 30 participated in both a morning and an afternoon course, the 

 

97 This survey did not ask respondents whether they participated in the activity mainly for work-related reasons or for personal 

interest (as in the AE-NHES:2005), but simply whether they participated in the activity for work-related reasons. 

98 There are two exceptions: for the average number of courses taken and the average hours of coursetaking, information was 

available and was used from the survey list of up to 20 courses. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

194 

percentage of “morning coursetakers” would be 60, and the percentage of “afternoon 

coursetakers” would be 60; however, these percentages do not sum to the total percentage of 

coursetakers (which is 90, not 120). 

This chapter examines participation among adults and courses with varying characteristics; 

however, most analyses (other than those that examine overall participation rates) focus on a 

select set of characteristics that preliminary analyses suggested had the most consistent 

relationship to work-related coursetaking (i.e., adults’ education attainment, adults’ occupation, 

topic of instruction, and, in some cases, type of provider). 

Extent of Participation 

Surveys conducted since 1995 have found that adults’ participation rate in formal learning 

activities over a 1-year period have ranged between 42 and 46 percent (Creighton and Hudson 

2002; Kim et al. 2004; O’Donnell 2006).99 Much of this participation is in work-related courses. 

In the AE-NHES:2005, for example, 56 percent of the adults who participated in formal learning 

activities had participated in work-related learning. 

The past three NHES adult education surveys (in 2001, 2003, and 2005) found that between 

27 and 33 percent of all adults participated in work-related courses during these years (Kim et al. 

2004; Kleiner et al. 2005; O’Donnell 2006). The rate of participation declined in 2004–05, 

decreasing to 27 percent from 33 percent in 2003. Participation rates tended to be higher among 

adults who were in the labor force (working or unemployed and looking for work); in 2004–05, 

some 37 percent of labor force members participated in work-related courses, compared with 27 

percent of all adults (table 4.1). 

Participation rates provide an indicator of the breadth of participation in work-related 

courses—i.e., they reveal how widespread participation is. Another way to examine participation 

is to look at the depth of participation—i.e., at how extensively each person participates. Two 

measures of the depth of participation are the average number of work-related courses that 

participants take, and the average hours of instruction they receive across all work-related 

courses. Because the distributions of both these measures are skewed, both mean (average) and 

 

99 All participation rates presented in this chapter refer to formal learning activities only; participation in informal learning

activities (e.g., on-the-job training, self-paced study using computer software) has been included in many surveys, but is not 

reported here. The Kim et al. (2004) and O’Donnell (2006) analyses excluded participation in full-time postsecondary education;

the Creighton and Hudson (2002) analysis excluded participation in full-time postsecondary education among those ages 16–24. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

195 

Table 4.1.—Number of adults and labor force members, and percentage of adults and labor force members 

Table 4.1.—who participated in work-related courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05

Percent of Percent of

adults who labor force

Number of participated members who

Number of labor force in work- participated

adults members1 related in workCharacteristic (thousands) (thousands) course related course

 All adults 211,607 53,133 26.9 37.1

Sex

Female 110,011 29,874 29.2 44.1

Male 101,596 23,258 24.5 30.7

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic 146,614 40,117 29.1 40.2

Black, non-Hispanic 23,467 5,614 27.0 35.9

Hispanic 26,101 4,040 16.8 22.3

Other2 15,426 3,363 23.8 34.2

Age as of 2004

16–24 years 25,104 4,438 21.2 23.4

25–34 years 38,784 11,785 31.7 37.1

35–44 years 42,890 13,874 33.7 39.3

45–54 years 41,840 14,657 36.5 43.2

55–64 years 29,068 7,097 27.0 40.9

65 years or older 33,922 1,283 ! 5.2 21.3

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 

 equivalent 31,017 1,123 ! 4.2 7.3

High school diploma or equivalent 64,334 9,427 16.5 22.7

 Some college/vocational/associate's 

 degree 58,545 17,148 31.4 42.0

Bachelor’s degree 37,244 15,495 43.8 52.7

Graduate or professional degree 20,466 9,938 50.7 61.6

Employment status1 

Employed 133,479 51,767 38.8 38.8

Full-time 106,388 43,083 40.5 40.5

Part-time 27,090 8,684 32.1 32.1

Unemployed and looking for work 9,941 1,366 ! 13.7 13.7

Not in the labor force 68,187 † 5.7 †

Months employed in the past 12 months3

1–11 months 41,785 10,428 28.4 32.7

12 months 110,665 42,315 38.7 39.3

See notes at end of table.
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

196 

Table 4.1.—Number of adults and labor force members, and percentage of adults and labor force members 

Table 4.1.—who participated in work-related courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05—Continued

Percent of Percent of

adults who labor force

Number of participated members who

Number of labor force in work- participated

adults members1 related in workCharacteristic (thousands) (thousands) course related course

Occupation3

Professional and managerial 48,647 26,516 56.3 58.0

Sales, service, and clerical 66,218 19,458 30.6 32.7

Trades and labor 37,585 6,769 18.7 19.7

† Not applicable.

! Interpret data with caution.

1

 Labor force participants are adults who are employed or not employed but looking for work. Labor force status and employment 

status are based on the respondent’s employment status during the week he or she was surveyed. 

2 Other includes Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, those with more than one race, and those of other

(unspecified) race.

3 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

median values are presented here.100 Among participants in work-related courses in 2004–05, the 

average number of courses taken over the year was 2.1. However, half (51 percent) of 

participants took one course, while 74 percent took one or two courses (table 4.2). Likewise, the 

average number of hours that participants spent in work-related courses per year was 42.3, but 

half of participants spent 20 or fewer hours in these courses and 72 percent spent 40 or fewer 

hours (table 4.3). 

 

100 Each distribution has a positive skew, as indicated by the higher mean (average) than median (50th percentile) for each 

measure seen in tables 4.2 and 4.3. Positive skewness results from a distribution having a few very high values that pull the mean 

toward the higher end of the distribution. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

197 

Table 4.2.—Average and median number of work-related courses taken by participants in the past 12 months 

Table 4.2.—and percentage distribution of the number of such courses: 2004–05

Number or percent

Average number of courses taken 2.1

Median number of courses taken 1.0

Percentage distribution of the number of courses taken

1 course 51.3

2 courses 22.5

3–4 courses 18.3

5 or more courses 7.8

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

Table 4.3.—Average and median number of hours participants spent in work-related courses in the past 12 months 

Table 4.3.—and percentage distribution of the number of hours: 2004–05

Number or percent

Average number of hours spent in courses 42.3

Median number of hours spent in courses 20.0

Percentage distribution of the number of hours

1–4 hours 14.1

5–8 hours 16.2

9–20 hours 20.7

21–40 hours 21.0

41 or more hours 28.0

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

A. WHO PARTICIPATES IN WORK-RELATED COURSES AND 

WHAT DO THEY STUDY? 

Who Participates 

Past studies have found a relatively consistent profile of the work-related learner in terms 

of age, education level, and employment characteristics. Research has generally shown higher 

participation rates in work-related learning among adults who are middle aged (rather than young 

or old), more (rather than less) educated, in the labor force (rather than out of it), and in 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

198 

professional or managerial jobs (rather than in other jobs) (Bishop 1997; Creighton and Hudson 

2002; Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe 1998; Frazis et al. 1997; Hudson et al. 2005; Kim et al. 

2004; Kim and Creighton 1999; Kleiner et al. 2005; Kopka, Schantz, and Korb 1998; Lee and 

Clery 1999; Lerman, McKernan, and Riegg 1999; Lynch and Black 1998; Valentine 1997; Veum 

1993). As discussed below, the relationships between sex and participation and between 

race/ethnicity and participation have been less consistent. 

Sociodemographic Characteristics 

Age and Education Level 

Similar to findings in past studies, this study found that participation rates in work-related 

courses were lowest for the youngest and oldest adults (ages 16–24 and age 65 or older) (table 

4.1). Similarly, labor force members (those working or unemployed and looking for work) in the 

youngest and oldest age groups had lower rates of participation in work-related learning than did 

labor force members in the middle age groups (ages 25–64). Patterns by educational attainment 

level also mirrored those found in past studies, with participation rates increasing with adults’ 

level of educational attainment, rising from 4 percent for those with less than a high school 

diploma to 51 percent for those with a graduate or professional degree. A similar relationship 

was found among labor force members, where participation rates ranged from 7 to 62 percent 

between the least educated and the most educated. 

Sex 

Although earlier studies showed greater participation in work-related learning among men 

than women (see review in Bishop 1997), these differences seem to have disappeared in more 

recent years (Kleiner et al. 2005). After controlling for labor force participation, recent studies 

have often found that women participate at a higher rate than men (Creighton and Hudson 2002; 

Hudson et al. 2005; Kleiner et al. 2005). In this analysis, women participated in work-related 

courses at a higher rate than men (29 vs. 24 percent) even without controlling for labor force 

participation (table 4.1). Looking only at adults who were in the labor force, the difference 

remained, with female labor force members participating at a rate of 44 percent compared with 

31 percent for males. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

199 

Race/Ethnicity101 

Past studies of the relationship between race/ethnicity and participation in work-related 

learning have not yielded consistent results, possibly because of variations in the definitions of 

work-related learning, analysis samples, and analytic techniques. For example, in a study using 

the AE-NHES:2001, Hudson et al. (2005) found that labor force members who were White or 

classified as “other race/ethnicity” (including Asians) participated in work-related learning 

(broadly defined) at a higher rate than did Black or Hispanic labor force members. In the AEWRNHES:2003, participation rates in work-related courses were higher for White, Black, and Asian 

adults than for Hispanic adults (Kleiner et al. 2005). In this study, participation rates were higher 

for White and Black adults than for Hispanic adults (29 and 27 vs. 17 percent), with the “other 

race/ethnicity” group (including Asians) participating at a rate between those of Blacks and 

Hispanics (24 percent) (table 4.1). Among labor force members, Whites, Blacks, and the “other 

race/ethnicity” groups participated at higher rates than Hispanics (34–40 vs. 22 percent).102 

Labor Force Characteristics 

Patterns of participation in work-related education by labor force characteristics were the 

same in 2004–05 as in previous years (table 4.1). First, individuals who were employed had 

higher rates of participation in work-related courses than those who were not employed; 

employed adults participated at a rate of 39 percent, compared with 14 percent for unemployed 

adults and 6 percent for those not in the labor force. In addition, adults employed full time had a 

higher rate of participation than those employed part time (41 vs. 32 percent). Participation rates 

were also highest for those in professional and managerial jobs, followed by those in sales, 

service, and clerical jobs and those in trades and labor occupations (56, 31, and 19 percent, 

respectively). 

Number of Courses Taken by Participants 

Among the adults who participated in work-related courses, some took more courses than 

others (table 4.4). On average, female participants in 2004–05 took more work-related courses 

than male participants (2.2 vs. 1.9 courses), participants with more education took more courses 

 

101 In the NHES analyses discussed here, including this study, race/ethnicity categories include a category for Hispanic adults, 

with the remaining racial groups excluding those of Hispanic origin. Of the three studies discussed in this paragraph, only 

Kleiner et al. (2005) included a separate category for Asians. 

102 To ensure representativeness of the Hispanic population, the NHES surveys are administered in Spanish and English. This 

means that the Hispanic sample may include a relatively high percentage of adults who do not speak English and whose 

participation in some coursetaking opportunities may be limited by language. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

200 

Table 4.4.—Average number of work-related courses taken by participants in the past 12 months and percentage 

Table 4.4.—distribution of the number of such courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05

Table 4.4.—

Average

number of

courses 3–4 5 or more

Characteristic taken 1 course 2 courses courses courses

 All participants 2.1 51.3 22.5 18.3 7.8

Sex

Female 2.2 48.5 23.0 19.2 9.2

Male 1.9 55.0 21.9 17.2 6.0

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic 2.1 48.7 23.3 20.3 7.7

Black, non-Hispanic 1.8 64.1 19.8 10.7 5.4

Hispanic 2.2 53.2 20.6 13.4 12.7

Other1 2.1 58.2 20.2 14.1 7.6

Age as of 2004

16–24 years 2.0 61.9 16.4 9.2 12.5

25–34 years 1.9 56.2 20.7 16.9 6.3

35–44 years 2.2 51.1 23.0 17.4 8.6

45–54 years 2.2 45.8 24.3 22.2 7.8

55–64 years 2.1 47.5 24.6 21.1 6.8

65 years or older 1.8 53.8 25.7 17.7 2.9

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 

 equivalent 1.5 66.8 18.9 12.3 ‡

High school diploma or equivalent 1.9 56.4 20.6 16.9 6.2

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 2.1 52.7 20.6 15.8 10.9

Bachelor’s degree 2.0 50.8 25.6 17.2 6.4

Graduate or professional degree 2.2 42.7 23.6 26.8 6.9

Employment status in the past 12 months

Employed 2.1 50.1 23.0 18.9 8.1

Full-time 2.1 48.8 22.9 19.5 8.8

Part-time 1.9 56.2 23.3 15.8 4.8

Unemployed and looking for work 1.4 78.6 11.5 8.0 ‡

Not in the labor force 1.8 59.0 20.4 14.8 5.8

Months employed in the past 12 months2

1–11 months 2.0 51.3 25.6 15.7 7.3

12 months 2.1 50.3 21.8 19.6 8.3

See notes at end of table.

Percentage distribution of the number of courses taken
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

201 

than those with less education, employed participants took more courses than unemployed 

participants (2.1 vs. 1.4 courses), and participants who were employed full time took more 

courses than those employed part time (2.1 vs. 1.9 courses). 

These differences in the number of courses taken compound differences in the prevalence 

of coursetaking among these groups. For example, not only do more females than males take 

work-related courses, but also when females do take such courses, they take more courses than 

males. It is not clear whether this difference translates into more hours of coursetaking; analyses 

of hours of coursetaking among participants (not shown here) did not show any measurable 

differences among the various groups of adults, but these data had relatively high standard errors, 

which limited their statistical power.103

 

103 For example, the average and standard error for total hours of coursetaking for Blacks were 42.7 and 8.45; for 16- to 24-yearolds they were 44.1 and 7.67; for those with a high school diploma they were 42.2 and 6.32; and for part-time workers they were

33.6 and 4.85. 

Table 4.4.—Average number of work-related courses taken by participants in the past 12 months and percentage 

Table 4.4.—distribution of the number of such courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05—Continued

Table 4.4.—

Average

number of

courses 3–4 5 or more

Characteristic taken 1 course 2 courses courses courses

Occupation2

Professional and managerial 2.2 45.8 23.6 22.7 7.9

Sales, service, and clerical 2.0 55.5 21.1 14.6 8.8

Trades and labor 2.0 54.6 23.6 15.5 6.4

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1 Other includes Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, those with more than one race, and those of other 

(unspecified) race.

2 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

Percentage distribution of the number of courses taken
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

202 

Topics Studied 

Hudson et al. (2005) found that the three most common topics studied by labor force 

members in 2000–01 were business (42 percent of participants), health (25 percent), and 

computer science (19 percent). For the current analysis, work-related coursetaking was classified 

into the same topic areas as in Hudson et al., with the addition of basic education104 (table 4.5). 

As shown in table 4.5, business and health remained the two most common topics studied 

by all adults in 2004–05. Overall, 35 percent of participants took a course in business and 32 

percent in health, with each other topic area having been studied by 6–15 percent of participants. 

Looking at adults with various educational attainment levels shows different patterns, however. 

Among participants who had not completed high school, the two most common topics studied 

were health and vocational trades (32 and 29 vs. 6–15 percent in other topic areas).105 Among 

adults who had completed high school, who had completed some college, and who had 

completed a bachelor’s degree, business and health were the two most common topics studied 

(26–40 vs. 2–18 percent in other areas). Among participants with a graduate or professional 

degree, the most commonly studied topics were business, health, and education (23–31 vs. 2–16 

percent in other areas).106 In addition, business and health were the two most commonly studied 

topics among participants who worked in professional and managerial jobs and those in sales, 

service, and clerical jobs (27–48 vs. 2–18 percent in other areas); however, among those in trades 

and labor, the topics studied most often were health, science, and vocational trades (26–39 vs. 2–

19 percent in other topic areas).107 Although computer science is not in any of these “most 

common topic” lists, it appears to be a relatively common topic among all participants because 

most groups of adults take computer science courses. For example, excluding those who had not 

completed high school and those working in the trades and labor, 13–18 percent of participants in 

each education and occupation group studied computer science in 2004–05. 

 

104 Basic education courses are courses in basic education, personal awareness/improvement, and physical education/leisure. 

Basic/recreational education was included in the miscellaneous “other” topic area in Hudson et al. (2005). 

105 These topics were studied more often than all other topics except business. Business was not found to be studied by more 

participants than any of the remaining topics. 

106 There was one exception: the percentage of adults with a graduate or professional degree who studied education was not 

measurably different from the percentage who studied computer science. 

107 There was one exception: the percentage of participants in trades and labor who studied vocational trades was not measurably 

different from the percentage who studied business. 
Table 4.5.—Percentage of participants in work-related courses who studied each topic of instruction, by selected adult characteristics: 

Table A10.—

Social

Basic Com- sciences 

edu- puter Edu- and 

Characteristic cation1 Business science cation Health Science services 

 All participants 8.0 35.4 15.2 9.2 31.9 10.3 6.3 

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 

 equivalent 8.0 ! 14.6 7.6 ! ‡ 32.5 9.1 ! 6.2 ! 

High school diploma or equivalent 5.9 37.8 13.8 2.3 ! 34.7 13.6 4.7 ! 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 8.2 33.8 13.5 4.2 39.6 11.8 3.3 

Bachelor’s degree 7.2 40.2 18.1 10.9 25.6 8.8 5.9 Graduate or professional degree 11.1 30.8 16.0 22.7 25.4 6.7 14.1 

Occupation2

Professional and managerial 8.3 31.4 17.7 17.0 33.6 7.3 9.6 Sales, service, and clerical 8.6 47.7 14.1 1.8 ! 27.5 6.1 3.5 Trade and labor 6.5 18.7 8.9 1.9 ! 39.3 34.4 # 

# Rounds to zero.! Interpret data with caution.‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)

1 This category includes courses in basic education, personal awareness/improvement, and physical education/leisure.2 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Estimates were based on the responses given for up to four courses by each participant. Detail may exceed 100 percent because respondents can different topics. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National Household Education Surve

_______

203
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

204 

B. WHO ARE THE PROVIDERS OF WORK-RELATED COURSES FOR ADULTS? 

Traditional education providers, such as elementary and secondary schools, colleges and 

universities, and vocational/technical schools, all play a role in providing work-related courses 

for adults; however, other organizations, such as businesses, professional associations, 

community and government agencies, and private, voluntary, and religious organizations, are 

also providers (Kim et al. 2004; Kopka, Schantz, and Korb 1998). As indicated earlier, it is not 

possible to describe these varied providers using a survey of adults, as the survey may not have 

sampled adults who had a given provider and also may have sampled multiple adults with the 

same provider. So, for example, a count of the number of adults who had professional 

associations as providers would not yield an accurate count of the number of professional 

associations that offer work-related courses for adults. Thus, rather than describing the providers 

of work-related coursetaking, this section provides an overview of the types of providers that 

participants use for work-related coursetaking. Specifically, the NHES adult education surveys 

ask who provided the instruction for a course (which may differ from the organization that 

provides the facilities for the course or that pays for the course). 

Previous NHES studies have found that among the broad array of providers identified 

above, adults most often receive instruction for work-related courses from business or industry, 

followed by professional associations and postsecondary institutions (Darkenwald, Kim, and 

Stowe 1998; Kim et al. 2004). A previous analysis of the AE-NHES:2005 found that business or 

industry was the instructional provider for 52 percent of participants in work-related courses, 

followed by postsecondary schools, professional organizations, and government agencies (each 

with 16–19 percent of participants) (O’Donnell 2006). In many cases, the organization that is the 

provider of work-related instruction is also the participant’s employer. Employers were the most 

common provider, with 45 percent of participants in 2004–05108 (table 4.6). Among nonemployers of participants, business or industry was the second most common provider, with 25 

percent of participants. Employers were also generally the most common providers for adults at 

each level of education, for adults in each occupational area, and for each topic studied.109

However, a larger percentage of adults studying education had an employer as their instructional 

provider compared with those studying any other topic (66 vs. 39–54 percent). 

 

108 An “employer” could be a business or industry, postsecondary institution, professional association or organization, 

government agency or other organization. 

109 There were a few exceptions all among groups that had relatively high standard errors. First, among adults who had not 

completed high school, no measurable difference was found between the percentage of participants who had an employer as their 

instructional provider and the percentage who had business or industry, a professional association, or “other” as their 

instructional provider. Second, among adults who studied basic education, no measurable difference was found between the 

percentage of participants who had an employer as their instructional provider and the percentage who had business or industry 

as their instructional provider. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

205 

Table 4.6.—Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each type of instructional provider, 

Table 4.6.—by selected adult and course characteristics: 2004–05

Professional

Post- association GovernBusiness secondary or organ- ment

Characteristic Employer1 or industry institution ization agency Other

 All participants 45.1 25.2 15.9 14.5 8.2 10.6

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 

 equivalent 34.4 16.4 ! 8.4 ! 21.3 ! 8.4 ! 16.5 !

High school diploma or equivalent 44.0 21.0 15.3 10.5 12.7 11.3

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 44.6 26.3 16.1 10.8 9.3 10.6

Bachelor’s degree 45.7 28.2 16.0 15.5 5.0 10.9

Graduate or professional degree 47.5 27.7 16.7 22.9 6.8 8.9

Occupation2

Professional and managerial 49.0 26.4 13.7 18.9 7.3 10.8

Sales, service, and clerical 45.3 23.2 16.8 11.7 9.5 8.9

Trade and labor 44.2 26.1 18.8 8.8 8.6 9.1

Topic of instruction

Basic education3 46.3 36.1 18.5 16.0 4.7 23.8

Business 48.3 29.4 14.8 16.5 7.4 5.5

Computer science 53.8 30.0 21.0 8.7 4.2 5.9

Education 66.2 18.7 26.8 14.5 8.9 8.5

Health 47.2 22.7 15.2 17.9 10.5 19.3

Science 46.7 28.8 22.2 11.8 9.1 9.3

Social sciences and services 39.2 16.1 14.7 30.5 6.1 27.0

Vocational trades 45.1 28.2 12.6 12.2 17.9 ! 7.9

Other 50.5 24.7 25.8 9.2 10.0 5.0

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Employer overrode other types of instructional providers.

2 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

3 This category includes courses in basic education, personal awareness/improvement, and physical education/leisure.

NOTE: Estimates were based on the responses given for up to four courses by each participant. Detail may exceed 100 percent

because respondents can take multiple courses from different providers. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

Non-employer
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

206 

C. TO WHAT EXTENT DO WORK-RELATED COURSES INVOLVE EMPLOYER 

REQUIREMENTS OR EDUCATIONAL OR OCCUPATIONAL CREDENTIALING? 

Although adults can participate in work-related courses for many reasons, including to seek 

higher pay or a promotion or simply to do their job better, they can also be motivated by 

employer requirements for participation or by the need to attain an official education or 

occupational credential. This section examines the extent to which adults take work-related 

courses in response to at least one of these inducements. Specifically, the section examines the 

extent to which adults took work-related courses that (1) were required by their employer, (2) 

provided college credit, (3) provided continuing education credits, or (4) allowed them to get or 

keep a state, industry, or company certificate or license (i.e., provided an occupational 

credential). 

Table 4.7 shows that 63 percent of participants in 2004–05 took at least one course that had 

been required by their employer; 42 percent took a course that allowed them to obtain or keep a 

state, industry, or company license; 33 percent earned continuing education credits for their 

participation; and 11 percent earned college credit. 

Participants’ education level and occupation were both associated with the frequency of 

taking courses to earn continuing education credits. Participants with higher levels of educational 

attainment more often sought continuing education credits than did those with lower levels of 

attainment; the percentage ranged from 11 percent for those who had not completed high school 

to 49 percent for those with a graduate or professional degree. Participants employed in 

professional and managerial occupations also more often sought continuing education credits 

than did those employed in other occupations (43 vs. 20–24 percent). Participants’ education 

level was also related to occupational credentialing, but in the opposite way. Participation in a 

course that provided an occupational credential decreased with the participant’s education level, 

ranging from 56 percent for those who had not completed high school to 35–39 percent for those 

with a bachelor’s or higher degree.110

These findings do not mean that adults with higher education levels more often have 

continuing education requirements or that those with lower education levels more often seek 

occupational credentialing, but merely that when they do participate in work-related courses, 

their participation more often involves each of these inducements. 

 

110 No systematic differences were found among participants in the frequency with which their coursetaking involved employer 

requirements and either their education level or occupation. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

207 

Table 4.7.—Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each inducement for participation, 

Table 4.7.—by selected adult characteristics: 2004–05

Obtain or

keep a state, Earn

Employer industry, or continuing Earn

required company education college

Characteristic course license credit credit

 All participants 63.0 41.6 33.2 11.0

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 

 equivalent 66.3 56.5 10.8 ! 2.6 !

High school diploma or equivalent 66.6 47.3 24.7 12.9

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 67.6 44.3 30.7 12.4

Bachelor’s degree 59.5 35.0 33.3 10.0

Graduate or professional degree 55.9 39.3 49.0 9.3

Occupation1

Professional and managerial 61.7 40.8 43.4 10.9

Sales, service, and clerical 65.9 40.8 23.9 9.7

Trade and labor 61.4 47.1 20.3 10.1

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Estimates were based on the responses given for up to four courses by each participant. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).

D. TO WHAT EXTENT IS WORK-RELATED COURSETAKING 

SUPPORTED BY EMPLOYERS? 

Employers often assist their employees in furthering their education and improving their 

work skills (Frazis et al. 1997). This section examines the nature and extent of employer support 

for work-related coursetaking. Rather than providing the types of information typically gathered 

through employer surveys, the AE-NHES:2005 offers the employee’s perspective on employer 

support. Because the survey captures all work-related coursetaking, not just coursetaking that is 

employer sponsored, it is possible to examine the proportion of all work-related coursetaking that 

is supported by employers and the types of coursetaking that are most often supported by 

employers. However, because the AE-NHES:2005 is a survey of adults, it describes only the 

extent to which employer support was used by participants and cannot be used to determine the 

extent to which employers provide support. For example, while the results of the survey indicate 

that the majority of work-related coursetakers received employer support, this finding does not 

mean that employer support was available to most employees. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

208 

O’Donnell’s (2006) analysis of the AE-NHES:2005 examined the full range of employer 

support for adults’ participation in learning activities and found that 91 percent of the employed 

adults who participated in work-related courses received some type of employer support. This 

chapter focuses on two types of financial support that employers can provide to help reduce or 

eliminate adults’ participation costs: (1) employer payment for the employee’s time during 

coursetaking and (2) employer funding for course tuition, fees, books, or materials. Because 

employer support necessitates having an employer, the analyses in this section are restricted to 

employed participants (those who worked at any time in the past 12 months). 

Overall, 88 percent of employed participants received either form of employer financial 

support for their participation in at least one work-related course: 77 percent had their salary paid 

during their coursetaking, and 84 percent received employer funds to cover course expenses 

(table 4.8). Among these employed participants, a larger percentage working in professional and 

managerial jobs received employer financial support than did those working in sales, service, and 

clerical jobs (91 vs. 85 percent).111 A larger percentage of employed participants whose 

instruction was provided by their employers or by a government agency received employer 

financial support than did those with other instructional providers (97 and 94 vs. 74–86 percent). 

Finally, in general, a larger percentage of employed participants studying business and computer 

science received employer support than did those studying many other topics (basic education, 

health, social sciences and services, and “other” topics) (94 for both business and computer 

science vs. 79–88 percent). 

E. WHAT ARE THE OUTCOMES OF PARTICIPATION IN 

WORK-RELATED COURSES? 

Adults presumably participate in work-related courses because these courses are perceived 

as useful, either by the participants themselves or by the organizations that employ them. The 

extent to which adults find such learning useful was assessed in the 2003 and 2005 NHES Adult 

Education surveys with questions that asked (1) participants about the usefulness of the skills or 

knowledge obtained from the course (AE-NHES:2005), (2) participants about the outcomes of 

their participation (e.g., learned new skills, made more money; AEWR-NHES:2003), and (3) 

adults about their views of work-related training and courses (e.g., interest in them, financial 

benefit from taking them; AEWR-NHES:2003). 

 

111 A difference of the same magnitude between professional and managerial workers and trade and labor workers was not 

statistically significant, because the estimate for the latter group is relatively unreliable (has a large standard error). 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

209 

Table 4.8.—Percentage of employed participants in work-related courses who reported each type of employer 

Table 4.8.—financial support for their participation, by selected adult and course characteristics: 2004–05

Employer paid 

for part or all of Employer paid 

Any employer tuition, fees, books, salary during 

Characteristic financial support and other materials coursetaking

 All employed participants 87.8 83.5 76.8

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or 66.0 63.9 59.6

 equivalent

High school diploma or equivalent 90.1 83.8 78.5

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 85.3 82.4 76.1

Bachelor’s degree 89.0 86.6 78.0

Graduate or professional degree 90.4 82.2 76.1

Occupation

Professional and managerial 90.5 85.3 78.5

Sales, service, and clerical 85.1 81.5 76.0

Trade and labor 84.6 82.2 71.9

Type of instructional provider

Employer 96.9 93.7 88.6

Postsecondary institution 73.5 69.7 57.1

Business or industry 86.2 80.8 74.2

Government agency 93.8 83.9 87.4

Professional association or organization 85.2 80.6 76.8

Other 76.4 70.3 61.9

Topic of instruction

Basic education1 78.9 74.6 63.7

Business 93.7 89.6 88.2

Computer science 93.5 90.7 86.2

Education 90.6 86.4 74.7

Health 87.9 84.3 73.9

Science 89.3 85.9 83.5

Social sciences and services 81.1 70.3 70.2

Vocational trades 86.7 86.7 75.3

Other 81.2 77.8 77.8

1 This category includes courses in basic education, personal awareness/improvement, and physical education/leisure.

NOTE: Estimates were based on the responses given for up to four courses by each participant. In this table, employed

participants are those who were employed at any time in the past 12 months. Standard error tables are available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

210 

Perceptions of Usefulness 

As seen in table 4.9, most participants (65 percent) rated the skills or knowledge obtained 

from at least one of their work-related courses as “very useful.” Ninety-six percent of participants 

rated the skills and knowledge obtained as “very useful” or “useful.”112 A minority of 

participants (7 percent) rated the skills and knowledge obtained from at least one course as “not 

too useful.” No systematic differences were found in the extent to which participants found at 

least one course to be “very useful,” based on their education level or occupation, the topic 

studied, or type of provider. 

Outcomes of Participation 

In the AEWR-NHES:2003, adults were asked about various outcomes of their 

participation, as listed in table 4.10. The most commonly reported outcome was improvement in 

the skills and knowledge that one already had (94 percent), followed by increasing employability 

in the labor market, learning new skills, and an improved ability to advance in one’s career (71–

74 percent); all of these outcomes were indicated by a majority of participants. Fewer participants 

reported that at least one work-related course resulted in an increase in earnings (22 percent), and 

fewer still reported that it resulted in a change in their job (13 percent). 

The two least frequent outcomes (increased earnings and job change) were generally 

reported more often by participants who had not completed at least a 4-year college degree than 

by those who had completed one.113 For example, 28 percent of those with no more than a high 

school diploma reported that they made more money as a result of their participation in workrelated coursetaking, compared with 18 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree and 15 percent 

of those with a graduate or professional degree. Similarly, 16 percent of those with no more than 

a high school diploma reported that they had obtained a new job as a result of their participation, 

compared with 10 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree and 7 percent of those with a 

graduate or professional degree. 

Compared with participants in other jobs, those employed in professional and managerial 

jobs also reported less often that their coursetaking resulted in higher earnings or a new job (17 

vs. 27–28 percent and 9 vs. 15 percent). However, professional and managerial workers reported 

more often than other workers that their participation improved their existing skills (97 vs. 91–93 

percent). 

 

112 This statistic cannot be derived from table 4.9, as adults who participated in more than one course may have given each 

course a different rating, resulting in categories that are not mutually exclusive. 

113 The exception to this pattern was that participants with a bachelor’s degree did not differ measurably from participants with a 

vocational or associate’s degree on these two outcomes. 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

211 

Table 4.9.—Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each level of usefulness of the skills 

Table 4.9.—and knowledge learned for their job, by selected adult and course characteristics: 2004–05

Very Somewhat Not too

Characteristic useful Useful useful useful

 All participants 65.4 30.5 21.6 7.0

Highest level of education attainment

Less than a high school diploma or equivalent 55.4 14.4 ! 15.7 ! 5.4 !

High school diploma or equivalent 65.0 25.4 17.2 7.3

 Some college/vocational/associate’s 

 degree 68.8 28.0 22.2 7.6

Bachelor’s degree 61.4 34.2 23.4 7.6

Graduate or professional degree 67.2 36.4 23.0 5.0

Occupation1

Professional and managerial 67.5 35.1 23.7 6.0

Sales, service, and clerical 70.4 28.2 21.3 7.7

Trade and labor 64.3 29.7 21.9 11.3

Type of instructional provider

Employer 71.6 34.5 24.5 6.8

Postsecondary institution 69.9 39.5 31.9 14.6

Business or industry 69.4 36.0 25.4 9.0

Government agency 71.7 32.9 24.0 6.7

Professional association or organization 72.4 35.5 26.9 8.7

Other 71.5 39.8 25.3 11.5

Topic of instruction

Basic education2 68.6 37.9 19.9 16.9

Business 66.5 36.6 24.6 5.4

Computer science 69.3 34.0 26.1 7.7

Education 69.7 43.0 34.5 9.2

Health 74.4 31.2 21.7 8.0

Science 64.4 40.6 32.2 10.7

Social sciences and services 67.4 38.7 17.7 10.1

Vocational trades 71.2 27.6 24.7 10.0

Other 71.5 31.0 24.2 12.9

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

2 This category includes courses in basic education, personal awareness/improvement, and physical education/leisure.

NOTE: Detail may exceed 100 percent because respondents can take multiple courses. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education Survey of the 2005 National 

Household Education Surveys Program (AE-NHES:2005).
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

212 

Views on Work-Related Coursetaking 

Finally, the AEWR-NHES:2003 asked adults a series of questions concerning their views 

about “work-related training or courses and whether or not it might be useful.” As indicated in 

table 4.11, about a third of adults (37 percent) expressed an interest in participating in additional 

work-related courses, while higher percentages (48–59 percent) felt that such training is 

necessary or beneficial (i.e., their job requires training, there would be financial benefit to 

training, or training would help them advance in their career). A majority of adults (70 percent) 

also reported that their supervisor supported their participation in training. Thus, although most 

adults saw a benefit to work-related training, fewer were interested in participating in more 

training than they were already taking. 

Table 4.10.—Percentage of participants in work-related courses who reported each result from their participation, 

Table 4.10.—by selected adult characteristics: 2002–03

Increased

Improved employ- Improved Obtained

existing ability in ability to new job or Made

skills and Learned the labor advance changed more

Characteristic knowledge new skills market in career career money

 All participants 94.2 73.6 73.8 70.6 12.9 22.5

Highest level of education attainment

High school diploma or less 91.4 73.7 75.0 66.8 16.2 27.9

Some college but no degree 92.9 74.3 78.5 73.6 16.7 27.4

Vocational/associate’s degree 96.9 82.3 78.5 73.0 14.6 23.6

Bachelor’s degree 95.6 72.4 73.8 73.3 10.1 18.1

Graduate or professional degree 96.0 69.6 64.4 67.9 7.4 15.0

Occupation1

Professional and managerial 96.6 72.0 72.2 70.2 9.3 17.4

Sales, service, and clerical 93.4 75.0 77.0 74.6 15.0 27.7

Trade and labor 90.8 73.3 75.2 64.4 15.4 26.9

1 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Estimates were based on the responses given for up to four courses by each participant. Standard error tables are available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey

of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (AEWR-NHES:2003).
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

213 

Adults who participated in work-related courses in 2002–03 reported more often than those 

who did not participate that they were interested in taking more training (58 vs. 27 percent); they 

also reported more often that their supervisor supports their training (82 vs. 60 percent), their job 

requires training (63 vs. 37 percent), training helps them advance in their career (71 vs. 53 

percent), and training provides financial benefits (62 vs. 51 percent). 

Interest in taking additional work-related training also increased with adults’ educational 

attainment level; for example, 27 percent of adults whose highest level of attainment was high 

school or below reported an interest in additional training, compared with 49 percent of those 

with a bachelor’s degree and 52 percent of those with a graduate or professional degree. Adults 

with higher education levels also reported more often that their supervisor supports their training 

and that their job requires training. For the perceived benefits of participation, a different pattern 

was found. On these questions, adults who completed no more than high school and adults who 

Table 4.11.—Percentage of adults who reported having each view about participation in work-related training or 

Table 4.11.—courses, by selected adult characteristics: 2002–03

Have an More There would

 interest in training be financial

 taking any Supervisor My job would help benefit

or additional supports me requires me get ahead to getting

 work-related getting more additional in my job additional

Characteristic training training1 training2 or career training

 All adults 37.3 69.9 48.5 58.8 55.0

Took any work-related courses

Yes 58.3 82.5 62.8 71.3 62.4

No 26.8 59.7 37.2 52.6 51.3

Highest level of education attainment

High school diploma or less 27.0 61.5 40.3 54.5 52.2

Some college but no degree 40.5 67.6 46.3 64.3 59.8

Vocational/associate’s degree 44.5 73.1 55.4 65.9 60.6

Bachelor’s degree 48.6 79.5 56.5 62.9 58.2

Graduate or professional degree 52.4 83.7 61.0 55.1 48.7

Occupation2

Professional and managerial 57.4 81.1 58.4 63.1 53.9

Sales, service, and clerical 41.0 67.2 44.8 65.9 58.5

Trade and labor 36.1 60.5 42.6 60.1 54.9

1 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months and were not self-employed only.

2 Includes only adults who worked in the past 12 months.

NOTE: Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008035se.pdf.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey

of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (AEWR-NHES:2003).
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking

214 

completed a graduate or professional degree reported less often that there would be either a 

financial benefit or a career benefit to further training, compared with adults at other educational 

attainment levels. 

Findings by occupation group were not as systematic. Interest in additional training did 

increase with the socioeconomic status of the job held (from trades and labor; to sales, service, 

and clerical; to professional and managerial), as did perceptions of supervisor support. Those in 

professional or managerial jobs also reported more often that their job required additional 

training, compared with those in sales, service, and clerical jobs and those in trades and labor 

jobs (58 vs. 45 and 43 percent). No clear patterns were evident in the extent to which different 

occupation groups perceived that there were financial or career benefits to participation. 

F. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

In 2004–05, some 27 percent of all adults and 37 percent of adults in the labor force 

(working or not working but looking for work) participated in at least one work-related course 

(table 4.1). About half of all adult participants took one course over a period of a year, and about 

half took more than one course (table 4.2); about half took courses totaling 20 or fewer hours, 

and about half took more than that (table 4.3). 

Females participated in work-related coursetaking at a higher rate than males (29 vs. 24 

percent), Blacks and Whites at higher rates than Hispanics (27–29 vs. 17 percent), and those with 

higher educational attainment levels at higher rates than those with lower attainment levels (table 

4.1). Employment was also positively related to participation (39 vs. 6–14 percent), and those in 

professional and managerial jobs participated at a higher rate than those in sales, service, and 

clerical jobs, with both of those occupation groups participating at higher rates than those in 

trades and labor (31–56 vs. 19 percent). These differences are often compounded by differences 

in the extent of participation among those who took work-related courses: female participants 

took more courses than males (2.2 vs. 1.9 courses), those with higher levels of education took 

more courses than those with lower levels of education, employed participants took more courses 

than those who were unemployed (2.1 vs. 1.4 courses), and those employed full time took more 

courses than those employed part time (2.1 vs. 1.9 courses) (table 4.4). 

Business and health were the most common topics studied in work-related courses in 2004–

05 (35 and 32 vs. 6–15 percent), although this pattern varied somewhat by the education level of 

the participants. Vocational trades was a relatively common topic studied by those who had not 

completed high school (29 vs. 6–9 percent in other topic areas except business and health), as 
4. Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

215 

was education among those with a graduate or professional degree (23 vs. 2–14 percent in other 

topic areas except business, health, and computer science) (table 4.5). 

Employers play a significant role in work-related coursetaking. Employers were the most 

common provider of instruction for work-related courses in 2004–05 (table 4.6), and 63 percent 

of participants took at least one course that had been required by their employer (table 4.7). In 

addition, 88 percent of participants in work-related courses received employer financial support 

for their participation (table 4.8). Earning education credentials also plays a role in work-related 

coursetaking, with 33 percent of participants seeking continuing education credits, and 11 

percent seeking postsecondary education credits (table 4.7). Professional requirements also 

contribute to coursetaking, with 42 percent of work-related course participants seeking to get or 

keep a state, industry, or company license. 

Most participants found their coursetaking useful in terms of building the skills and 

knowledge they needed for work (74–94 percent), increasing their employability (74 percent), 

and improving their opportunities for career advancement (71 percent) (table 4.10). In addition, 

most adults believed that work-related training provides financial and career advantages (55–59 

percent), although only about a third expressed an interest in getting additional training (table 

4.11). Participants reported financial and career advantages to work-related training more often 

than did nonparticipants (62–71 vs. 51–53 percent); participants also reported more often that 

their job required training (63 vs. 37 percent) and that their supervisor supports it (82 vs. 60 

percent). 

Adults’ educational attainment level was related to many aspects of participation. Not only 

did those with higher levels of education participate in work-related courses more often than 

those with lower levels of education (and take more courses when they did participate), but also 

they were more often interested in taking additional work-related courses, to report that their job 

requires training, and to report that their supervisor supports their participation in training. 

However, participants whose highest educational attainment was high school or some college 

(without a degree) reported more often than those with a bachelor’s degree or higher that their 

participation resulted in a job change (16–17 vs. 7–10 percent) or in their having made more 

money (27–28 vs. 15–18 percent) (table 4.10). 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
217 

5. Summary 

Career and technical education (CTE) spans secondary, postsecondary, and adult education 

levels. This report sought to describe this wide-ranging enterprise over the period from 1990 

through 2005. The measures that were available for describing career and technical education at 

the different education levels varied somewhat, however. Participation in high school was generally measured in terms of credits earned in occupational education, for example, while participation at the postsecondary level was measured in terms of students majoring in career fields. 

While these measures are not directly comparable, they both indicate the prevalence of participation in career-related versus other curricula and majors, as well as indicate changes in the extent 

of participation over time. In addition, the available data sometimes described different years. For 

example, trends in high school student participation covered the period from 1990 to 2005, while 

trends in postsecondary student participation covered the period from 1990 to 2004, and trends 

for postsecondary faculty covered the period from 1992 to 2003. Differences in the timing or 

content of datasets used for the different analyses in the report are noted in the text and tables. 

This chapter highlights key findings from across the three education levels, focusing on common 

and consistent patterns, but also indicating where these patterns differ. 

Institutional Providers 

The majority of public high schools in 2002 and of undergraduate postsecondary institutions in 2005 offered career and technical education (88 and 90 percent) (tables 2.2 and 3.1). At 

the high school level, CTE was provided in three main settings, including approximately 17,000 

comprehensive high schools that offered occupational programs either on or off site, 900 fulltime CTE high schools, and 1,200 area CTE schools serving multiple high schools (tables 2.1 

and 2.5). At the postsecondary education level, about 5,700 institutions offered career education 

to undergraduates, with public 4-year institutions awarding the largest numbers of undergraduate 

credentials in career fields in 2005 (587,000 credentials), followed by public 2-year institutions 

(562,000 credentials) (tables 3.1 and 3.4). Postsecondary institutions also figured in the provision 

of adult work-related learning, with 16 percent of adult participants in 2004–05 reporting a postsecondary institution as the instructional provider for at least one of their work-related courses, 

although employers were the most common provider for these courses (45 percent) (table 4.6). 
5. Summary

218 

The Scope of Participation 

Student participation in career and technical education was relatively common at all three 

education levels. Just over 90 percent of public high school graduates from the class of 2005 took 

at least one occupational course during high school (table 2.16) and these graduates earned a 

higher average number of credits in occupational education than they earned in fine arts and foreign language (3.0 vs. 2.0–2.1 credits) (table 2.17). In addition, about one in five of the 2005 

graduates concentrated in occupational education (21 percent) (table 2.18), earning 3.0 or more 

credits in at least one of the 18 high school occupational programs examined in the report. At the 

postsecondary level, a higher proportion of undergraduates in 2004 majored in career fields than 

in academic areas at each credential level (certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree) 

(60–81 vs. 6–30 percent) (table 3.8). With regard to adult education, 37 percent of labor force 

members age 16 years or older participated in work-related courses in 2004–05 (table 4.1). 

Trends in student participation at the secondary level showed no measurable changes over 

the period studied in overall participation in occupational education. For example, no measurable 

changes were detected between 1990 and 2005 in the average numbers of total CTE credits and 

occupational credits that public high school graduates earned (4.0–4.2 credits and 2.9–3.0 credits, 

respectively) (table 2.17). In contrast, between 1990 and 2004, the number of credential-seeking 

undergraduates majoring in career fields increased by about one-half million students (table 3.8). 

At both education levels, participation in academic education increased. Both the average numbers of total academic credits and core academic credits earned by public high school graduates 

increased between 1990 and 2005 (increases of 2.8 and 1.8 credits, respectively) (table 2.17), as 

did the number of undergraduates majoring in academic fields (an increase of 449,000 students) 

(table 3.8). 

Common Occupational Programs 

Business, heath care, and computer science were among the most common occupational 

programs. Specifically, business and computer technology were the most common occupational 

programs offered by public high schools in 2002 (97 and 94 percent, respectively) (table 2.9), 

and the 2005 public high school graduates earned more credits in business services and in computer technology than in any other occupational program area (0.4 and 0.5 credits vs. 0.0–0.2 

credits) (table 2.17). At the postsecondary level, more credential-seeking undergraduates majored 

in business and marketing and in health care than in any other career field in 2005 (22–28 vs. 1–

12 percent) (table 3.10). In addition, more undergraduate credentials were awarded in business 

and marketing and in health care than in other career fields in 2005 (24–26 vs. 1–9 percent) (ta-
5. Summary 

219 

ble 3.35). At the adult education level, business and health were the topics studied most frequently by work-related coursetakers in 2004–05 (32–35 percent vs. 6–15 percent) (table 4.5). 

Between 1990 and the mid-2000s, shifts in participation were detected among the different 

occupational program areas. At both the secondary and postsecondary levels, student participation (including coursetaking at the high school level and majors at the postsecondary level) increased in health care (by 0.1 credit on average and 639,000 majors) and computer science (by 

0.2 credits on average and 265,000 majors) and decreased in business (by 0.3 credits in business 

services on average and 484,000 majors) (tables 2.17 and 3.10). However, despite a net increase 

in participation at the postsecondary level over the entire timespan, the number of computer science majors was lower in 2005 than in 2000 (by 338,000 majors). 

Characteristics of Participants 

This summary presents selected comparisons between participants and nonparticipants in 

career and technical education overall, while the body of the report also compares participants in 

different occupational and career programs. Among public high school graduates in 2005, the 

majority of occupational concentrators were male (59 percent), while the majority of nonconcentrators were female (54 percent) (table 2.21). At the postsecondary level, the majority of both 

credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors and those with academic majors were female in 2004 (58 percent each) (table 3.12). Higher rates of participation in work-related coursetaking were also observed for female than for male adult labor force members in 2004–05 (44 vs. 

31 percent) and also for female than for male adults in general (29 vs. 24 percent) (table 4.1). 

At both the high school and postsecondary levels, career and technical education participants had less advantaged educational backgrounds than nonparticipants. For example, in high 

school in 2005, a greater percentage of occupational concentrators took lower levels of 9th-grade 

mathematics courses compared with nonconcentrators (15 vs. 11 percent) (table 2.21). At the 

postsecondary level, a smaller percentage of undergraduate career majors had parents with a 

bachelor’s or higher degree compared with academic majors (37 vs. 48 percent) (table 3.13). In 

contrast, adults with higher educational levels participated in work-related education in 2004–05 

more often than those with lower educational levels (table 4.1). 

Among bachelor’s degree seekers in 2004, a larger percentage of undergraduate career majors than academic majors worked full time while enrolled (28 vs. 18 percent) and considered 

themselves to be an employee who studies (21 vs. 10 percent) rather than a student who works 

(table 3.15). This work-study linkage was also found among adult learners in 2004–05; higher 

rates of participation in work-related education were observed for employed than for unemployed 
5. Summary

220 

labor force members (39 vs. 14 percent), and for those employed full time compared to those 

employed part time (41 vs. 32 percent) (table 4.1). 

Between 1990 and the mid-2000s, changes in the characteristics of students with a career 

and technical education focus were found at both the high school and postsecondary levels. Specifically, a larger percentage of the 2005 public high school graduates who took high-level 9thgrade mathematics courses completed an occupational concentration compared with their 1990 

peers (an increase of 8 percentage points), while a smaller percentage of 2005 graduates who 

took low-level 9th-grade mathematics courses completed an occupational concentration compared with their 1990 peers (a decrease of 9 percentage points) (table 2.22). At the postsecondary 

level, undergraduate career majors in 2004 appeared to have better educated parents than their 

counterparts who were enrolled earlier (for example, 37 percent in 2004 vs. 23–34 percent in 

1990 and 2000 had at least one parent with a bachelor’s degree) (table 3.13), and the percentage 

of career majors who had previously earned a bachelor’s degree increased between 1990 and 

2004 (by 3 percentage points) (table 3.14). 

Faculty 

Data on career education faculty were available at the postsecondary level. Just over onehalf million faculty taught in career fields at 2- and 4-year not-for-profit degree-granting postsecondary institutions in fall 2003 (table 3.22). The largest group of career education teaching faculty taught in public 4-year institutions (39 percent), followed by public 2-year institutions (34 

percent) and private not-for-profit 4-year institutions (26 percent), and trailed by private not-forprofit 2-year institutions (1 percent) (table 3.23). 

The majority of postsecondary career education teaching faculty in fall 2003 held a graduate degree, although the percentage who held a graduate degree was lower than that among academic teaching faculty (81 vs. 92 percent) (table 3.28). Larger percentages of career education 

teaching faculty than their academic colleagues possessed a bachelor’s degree as their highest 

degree (12 vs. 7 percent) or had less than a bachelor’s degree as their highest degree (7 vs. 1 percent). Career education teaching faculty with less than a bachelor’s degree were concentrated in 

the trade and industry (58 percent) and protective services (29 percent) fields. 

Between fall 1992 and fall 2003, the number of postsecondary faculty who taught in career 

fields increased by about 125,000 (table 3.22). This change generally coincided with an increase 

in the number of undergraduates seeking credentials in career fields, as noted above (an increase 

of 534,000 majors) (table 3.8). 
5. Summary 

221 

Changes between the early 1990s and mid-2000s in the size of the postsecondary student 

body and teaching force varied by career field. Increases in the number of both student majors 

and teaching faculty occurred in the fields of health care, education, communications, computer 

science, and protective services (increases of 172,000–639,000 majors and 4,800–36,900 faculty) 

(tables 3.10 and 3.22). In contrast, while the number of student majors declined in business, engineering and architectural sciences, and personal and consumer services (decreases of 182,000–

484,000 majors), the number of faculty increased measurably in these fields (increases of 7,600–

75,100 faculty). 

Academic Attainment 

Between 1990 and 2005, the core academic coursetaking (including English, mathematics, 

science, and social studies coursework) of public high school graduates increased (by 1.8 credits 

on average), including among those who participated in the occupational curriculum (increases of 

1.4–2.6 credits) (table 2.23). There were also increases in the percentage of CTE participants who 

met the New Basics core academic standards (increases of 17–42 percentage points)114 and who 

completed 4-year college-preparatory coursework115 (increases of 14–27 percentage points) (table 2.25). Moreover, the more occupational credits graduates earned in high school, the greater 

their academic coursetaking gains between 1990 and 2005. The higher prior achievement (as 

measured by 9th-grade mathematics coursetaking) of high school participants in the occupational 

curriculum at the end of the decade may have contributed to the increased academic outcomes 

among occupational participants over this period. 

At the postsecondary level, a larger percentage of undergraduate career majors in 2004 reported earning high postsecondary grade point averages (GPAs of 3.5 or higher) compared with 

their counterparts 14 years earlier (an increase of 5 percentage points), and this pattern was detectable at all three credential levels (certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree) (increases of 3–9 percentage points) (table 3.14). 

Postsecondary Education Outcomes 

The more occupational credits that the 1992 public high school graduates earned in high 

school, the more often they were in general to have no postsecondary plans or to have subbacca-

 

114 New Basics are core academic coursetaking standards that include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies (National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983). 

115 Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined in this report as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more 

credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits 

in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. 
5. Summary

222 

laureate postsecondary plans (including a postsecondary certificate or an associate’s degree) (table 2.27). Consistent with these aspirations, the more occupational credits that graduates earned 

in high school, the less often they were to enroll in postsecondary education within 8 years of 

graduating (table 2.28). Among those who enrolled, the more occupational credits high school 

graduates earned, the more often they attained a subbaccalaureate credential (in particular an associate’s degree) and the less often they attained a bachelor’s or higher degree by 2000 (table 

2.32). Nevertheless, among the heaviest high school occupational coursetakers (those earning 

4.00 or more occupational credits), more graduates aspired to a bachelor’s degree than any other 

postsecondary goal (36 vs. 14–18 percent) (table 2.27); 70 percent of these heavy occupational 

coursetakers enrolled in postsecondary education by 2000 (table 2.29); and among those who enrolled, more graduates attained a bachelor’s or higher degree than either an associate’s degree or 

postsecondary certificate (25 vs. 7–15 percent) (table 2.32). 

Turning to a cohort of students who began their postsecondary education in 1995–96, this 

report documents that the majority of credential-seeking undergraduates with career majors had 

attained a degree or were still enrolled 6 years later (table 3.42). Specifically, by 2001, 82 percent 

of career majors seeking a bachelor’s degree and 60 percent of those seeking a subbaccalaureate 

credential had attained a credential or were still enrolled. A greater percentage of career majors 

seeking certificates than those seeking a subbaccalaureate degree possessed characteristics associated with lower rates of postsecondary persistence and attainment, such as having parents who 

do not have a college degree (70 vs. 50 percent) and having themselves earned a GED rather than 

a regular high school diploma (18 vs. 9 percent) (table 3.41). Nevertheless, a larger percentage of 

career majors seeking certificates attained a postsecondary credential within 6 years compared 

with career majors seeking subbaccalaureate degrees (62 vs. 42 percent) (table 3.42). 

Employment and Earnings Outcomes 

The more occupational credits that male graduates of the class of 1992 earned in high 

school, the more often they worked full time in 2000 (table 2.38). No systematic relationship was 

detected, however, between the occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school 

and their full-time earnings in 1999 (table 2.39). Male graduates who were employed full time 

earned about $31,000–$33,000 in this year, regardless of their occupational coursetaking in high 

school. In contrast, the more occupational credits that male graduates earned in high school, the 

higher their part-time earnings were in 1999. The employment and earnings experiences of female graduates who took occupational coursework in high school were somewhat different: no 

systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates 

earned in high school and their rate of working full time in 2000. In addition, the more occupa-
5. Summary 

223 

tional credits that female graduates earned in high school, the lower their full-time earnings were 

in 1999, with female graduates who accumulated 4.00 or more occupational credits in high 

school earning about $5,000 less in 1999 than their female classmates who took no occupational 

coursework in high school. In contrast, no systematic relationship was detected between the occupational credits that female graduates earned in high school and their part-time earnings as of 

this year. Thus, the only measurable associations between 1999 earnings and occupational 

coursetaking in high school were among part-time male employees (a positive association) and 

full-time female employees (a negative association). It was not possible to determine from the 

available data whether these differences in earnings were due to differing hourly wages or to differing amounts of time that full- or part-time graduates worked during 1999. 

Among beginning postsecondary students in 1995–96, most subbaccalaureate career completers were employed full time by 2001 (86 percent) (table 3.46). Those who completed certificates in career fields were more often employed compared with those who attempted but did not 

complete career certificates (87 vs. 74 percent) (figure 3.3 and table 3.45). However, there were 

no measurable differences in the full-time employment rates of employed completers and noncompleters at either the certificate (82–84 percent) or associate’s degree (90–91 percent) level 

(table 3.46). 
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225 

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A-1 

Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

DATA USED IN THIS REPORT

This report uses a number of data collections conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). These data collections are described below, organized by each level of 

education examined in the report. 

Career and Technical Education (CTE) at the High School Level 

Common Core of Data 

The Common Core of Data (CCD), the U.S. Department of Education’s primary database 

on public elementary and secondary education in the United States, is a comprehensive annual, 

national statistical database of information concerning all public elementary and secondary 

schools (approximately 91,000) and school districts (approximately 16,000). Rather than a probability sample, the CCD collects information on all schools and districts. 

The CCD consists of five surveys that state education departments complete annually, using their administrative records. The database includes general descriptive information on 

schools and school districts; data on students and staff, including demographics; and fiscal data, 

including revenues and current expenditures. Further information about the database is available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/. 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

The Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) is the fourth major national longitudinal survey of high school students conducted by NCES. The three similar earlier surveys 

were the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS–72), the High 

School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 (HS&B:80), and the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). Like its predecessors, ELS:2002 is designed to provide information to researchers, policymakers, and the public about high school students’ experiences and 

activities, and to track changes in these young people’s lives as they mature in the years after 

high school. ELS:2002 represents the base year for this longitudinal survey. Data from the stu-
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-2 

dent and school files were used for this report to describe 10th-graders and their schools in spring 

2002. For most analyses in this report, the sample was restricted to public schools and their students. The analysis samples included about 600 public and 200 private schools serving 10thgraders, and about 12,000 public and 3,000 private school 10th-graders. 

The weighted response rate for student questionnaire completion was 87.5 percent, while 

the weighted response rate for the school administrator survey was 67.8 percent. For further details on the survey, see http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/els2002/overview.asp and Ingels et al. (2005).

High School Transcript Study, 1990, 2000, and 2005 

The High School Transcript Study datasets for graduates in the classes of 1990, 2000, and 

2005 (HSTS:1990, HSTS:2000, HSTS:2005) were used in this report to examine occupational 

CTE coursetaking by these cohorts, and in particular any changes that occurred over the 15-year 

period. The HSTS periodically collects information on courses completed and credits and grades 

earned during high school by the 12th-graders sampled for the National Assessment of Educational Progress tests. Only those 12th-graders who had graduated by early fall of the study year 

had their transcript data included in the HSTS. For additional information about HSTS:2000, see 

Roey et al. (2005). The technical manual for HSTS:2005 was not available in time to cite in this 

report, but the 2005 HSTS generally followed the same procedures as the 2000 study, as described in Roey et al. (2005). 

Consistent methods for computing grade point averages across cases and for classifying 

courses were applied. High school courses vary by content and level, even those with similar 

course titles. Therefore, to compare the thousands of transcripts collected from schools included 

in the HSTS, and to ensure that each course is uniquely identified, a common course coding system, the Classification of Secondary School Courses (CSSC), was used. The 1998 Revision of 

the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) (Bradby and Hoachlander 1999) was then used to assign 

each of the over 2,200 CSSC course codes to subject and program areas; the classification presented in exhibit 1.1 was based on this taxonomy.1 The same classification was used for the 

HSTS:1990, HSTS:2000, and HSTS:2005 analyses. 

This report followed the sample selection criteria outlined in the NCES publication, Procedures Guide for Transcript Studies (Alt and Bradby 1999). Specifically, samples were restricted 

 

1 The Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) was first developed in 1987, and revised in 1998. It was revised again in 2007 (Bradby 

2007), although not in time for the analysis stage of this report. Thus, this report relies on the 1998 version of the SST. The 2007 

revision reassigned some occupational coursetaking into different occupational categories, but did not move CTE courses out of 

the CTE curriculum, nor move non-CTE courses into the CTE curriculum. Therefore, applying the 2007 SST to the data presented in this report would not alter the overall participation rate in CTE (as measured by percentage of students taking a CTE

course) nor the average credits earned in CTE. 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-3 

to public high school graduates who earned regular or honors diplomas, earned 16 or more total 

credits in high school, and earned more than zero credits in English. See Alt and Bradby (1999) 

for the rationale behind this approach, which involves excluding transcripts that are likely to be 

incomplete or otherwise unreliable. After applying the stated selection criteria, the analysis samples included about 16,500 public high school graduates in 1990, 19,000 public high school 

graduates in 2000, and 24,000 public high school graduates in 2005. Further information about 

the database is available at http://www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/hsts/. 

National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) is the third major longitudinal study of secondary school students sponsored by NCES. The two studies that preceded 

NELS:88, the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72) and the 

High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 (HS&B:80), surveyed high school seniors 

(as well as sophomores, in HS&B) through high school, postsecondary education, work, and 

family formation. NELS:88 was designed to provide longitudinal data about critical transitions 

experienced by young people as they develop, attend school, and embark on their careers. 

Unlike its predecessors, NELS:88 began with a cohort of roughly 25,000 8th-grade students. Four follow-up surveys were conducted with the original cohort in later years. This report 

relied on data from the second and fourth follow-ups. The second follow-up, conducted in 1992, 

added students to the sample to make it representative of all 12th-graders in that year. Detailed 

information from the students’ high school transcripts was also collected, including courses 

completed, credits earned, and grades. As with the HSTS analyses, courses were coded using the 

CSSC and the 1998 SST, and the sample was restricted to public high school graduates who 

earned regular or honors diplomas, earned 16 or more total credits in high school, and earned 

more than zero credits in English. After applying these selection criteria, the sample used in the 

report included about 7,300 public high school graduates. 

In 2000, the fourth (and final) NELS:88 follow-up occurred. By this time most of the student participants had been out of high school for 8 years. The 2000 survey focused on postsecondary enrollment and completion, transitions into the labor force, and family formation. For 

those who had enrolled in any postsecondary education, postsecondary transcripts were collected 

from each institution attended. This report uses data from the NELS High School Transcript 

Study (HSTS) and NELS Postsecondary Education Transcript Study (PETS) as well as the baseyear survey and the fourth follow-up survey. Further information about the study is available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/. 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-4 

Schools and Staffing Survey 

The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) includes data collected from K–12 school districts, schools, principals, teachers, and library media centers in the United States. One SASS table appears in this report (table 2.15). It is based on the Public School Questionnaire from the 

2003–04 SASS and reports the number and percentage of public high schools that offer career 

academies. It was determined during preparation of this report that SASS, which is a primary 

source of national data on K–12 teachers and schools, undercounted area CTE schools serving 

high school students. The 1999–2000 SASS described only 43 percent of the universe of area 

CTE schools, while the 2003–04 SASS described only 64 percent of this universe. The magnitude of the undercount of high school CTE teachers—due to the undercount of area CTE 

schools—is not known. The NCES Technical Review Panel for Career/Technical Education Statistics recommended in 2006 that NCES not present data on high school CTE teachers based on 

existing SASS surveys. Steps are being taken to improve the coverage of area CTE schools—and 

thus high school CTE teachers—in the 2007–08 SASS survey. Further information about the 

survey is available at http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/SASS/. 

Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study: 1996–2001 

The base-year sample for the 1996 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 

(BPS:96) was drawn from the sample for the 1995–96 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:96), a nationally representative survey of all postsecondary students in the United States 

who attended institutions of various levels (less-than-2-year, 2-year, or 4-year undergraduate, or 

graduate/professional schools). NPSAS:96 students who enrolled in postsecondary education for 

the first time in 1995–96 formed the BPS sample, which was surveyed in 1995–96 and reinterviewed in 1998 and 2001. 

Some 12,100 students were eligible for BPS:96/01 participation, and over 10,400 responded to the interview. The institutional response rate for BPS:96/01 was 91.1 percent and the 

student response rate was 83.6 percent, for an overall rate of 76.1 percent (weighted). Nearly all 

students who were interviewed completed the entire interview. For more information on this BPS 

cohort and study methods, see Wine et al. (2002). 

This report limited BPS students examined to those who had earned a high school diploma 

or its equivalent (such as a general educational development [GED] certificate) and who reported 

in 1995–96 that their goal was a certificate, an associate’s degree, a bachelor’s degree, or transfer 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-5 

to another institution—termed “credential-seekers.” Thus, 24 percent of all BPS students were 

omitted from this study: 17 percent because of “missing” or “don’t know” responses to the question about credential goals; 6 percent because they had no credential goal; and 1 percent because 

they did not have a high school diploma or equivalent. Beginning postsecondary students were 

classified for this report as either subbaccalaureate or baccalaureate, based on their first institution and initial credential goal. Subbaccalaureate students were those who enrolled first at a lessthan-4-year institution or enrolled at a 4-year institution but were seeking less than a bachelor’s 

degree at that institution or planning to transfer downward to a less-than-4-year institution. Baccalaureate students were those who initially enrolled at a 4-year institution and were seeking a 

bachelor’s or higher degree at that institution or planning to transfer to another 4-year institution. 

Further information about the study is available at http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/bps/. 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) is NCES’s core data collection on postsecondary education. IPEDS is a single, comprehensive system of annual surveys that 

encompass all identified institutions whose primary purpose is to provide postsecondary education—it is a universe survey. Completing IPEDS is mandatory for all institutions that participate 

or have applied to participate in any federal financial assistance program authorized by Title IV 

of the Higher Education Act of 1965. The IPEDS for 2004–05 collected data from Title IV eligible 4-year, 2-year, and less-than-2-year postsecondary institutions. 

IPEDS consists of institution-level data that can be used to describe trends in postsecondary 

education at the institutional level, as well as the state or national levels or both. Data are collected from approximately 9,900 postsecondary institutions, including the following: baccalaureate or higher degree-granting institutions, 2-year institutions, and less-than-2-year institutions 

(i.e., institutions that generally award occupationally specific credentials that are terminal or are 

creditable toward a formal 2-year or higher degree). Each of these three categories is further disaggregated by control (public, private not-for-profit, private for-profit), resulting in nine institutional categories or sectors. This report focused on Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions 

that awarded postsecondary certificates, associate’s degrees, and bachelor’s degrees in 2005, including about 6,600 such institutions. Further information about IPEDS is available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/. 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-6 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

Data from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) were obtained from the 

1989–90 (NPSAS:90), 1999–2000 (NPSAS:2000), and 2003–2004 (NPSAS:04) surveys. 

NPSAS is a comprehensive nationwide study designed to determine how students and their families pay for postsecondary education and to track demographic and other characteristics of those 

enrolled. NPSAS surveys a nationally representative sample of all students in postsecondary education institutions, including undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional students. 

Students attending all types and levels of institutions are represented in NPSAS, including 

public and private not-for-profit and for-profit institutions, and institutions whose undergraduate 

programs are less-than-2-year, 2-year (mainly community colleges), or 4-year, and whose graduate programs vary in length. Part-time and full-time students enrolled in academic or vocational 

courses or programs at these institutions at any time during the year, and not concurrently enrolled in a high school completion program, are eligible for inclusion in NPSAS. Each NPSAS 

survey provides information on the cost of postsecondary education, the distribution of financial 

aid, and the characteristics of both aided and nonaided students and their families. To be eligible 

for NPSAS:04, students must have been enrolled at some time between July 1, 2003, and June 

30, 2004. 

To be eligible for inclusion in the NPSAS sample, an institution must have satisfied the following conditions: (1) offer education programs designed for persons who have completed secondary education; (2) offer academic, occupational, or vocational programs of study lasting 3 

months or longer; (3) provide access to the general public; (4) offer instruction beyond correspondence courses; and (5) be located in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, or the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. 

The overall student response rate for NPSAS:04 was 72 percent (weighted, calculated by 

multiplying the institutional response rate by the student response rate). Further information 

about NPSAS:04 is available from Cominole et al. (2006); see also http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/npsas/

for information about the NPSAS survey in general. 

Postsecondary Students Described in the Report 

In its analysis of NPSAS students, this report focused on credential-seeking undergraduates—those students seeking a postsecondary certificate, associate’s degree, or bachelor’s degree. 

The analysis samples included 44,000 credential-seeking undergraduates in 1990, 35,000 such 

students in 2000, and 72,000 in 2004. Students’ major fields were classified as academic, career, 

or other according to the following table. 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-7 

Table A-1. Classification of majors as academic, career, or other: 1990, 2000, and 2004 

MAJOR FIELD 1990 2000 2004 

1. Academic 

Math 27 mathematics 

279999 calculus 

65 mathematics 19 Mathematics and statistics 

Science 26 life science 

40 physical science 

4005 chemistry 

400601geology 

4008 physics 

64 biological sciences 

74 physical sciences 

18 Biological and biomedical sciences 

25 Physical sciences 

38 Natural sciences, other 

Letters and Humanities 23 letters 

230401 composition 

230701 literature, American

230801 literature, English 

16 foreign language 

160501 German 

160901 French 

160905 Spanish 

38 philosophy/religion 

39 theology 

3906 theological studies 

61 letters 

37 Spanish 

39 other European foreign 

language 

38 other non-European foreign language 

71 philosophy 

72 religious studies 

73 clinical pastoral care 

15 English language and 

literature/letters 

12 Foreign languages and 

literatures 

16 Liberal arts, sciences and 

humanities 

23 Philosophy and religious 

studies 

24 Theology and religious 

vocations 

Social Sciences 42 psychology 

45 social science 

4502 anthropology 

4510 political science 

4511 sociology 

4507 geography 

4506 economics 

05 ethnic studies 

4508 history 

06 American civilization 

07 area studies 

08 African-American studies

09 other ethnic studies 

67 women’s studies 

75 psychology 

79 anthropology/archeology 

80 economics 

81 geography 

82 history 

83 sociology 

84 political science 

85 international relations 

4 Area, ethnic, and gender 

studies 

27 Psychology 

37 History 

40 Economics 

41 Geography 

42 International relations 

and affairs 

43 Political science and 

government 

44 Sociology 

45 Social sciences, other 

Fine and Performing 

Arts 

50 performing arts 

5003 dance 

5007 fine arts 

5009 music 

95 speech/drama 

96 film arts 

97 music 

98 art history/fine art 

99 fine and performing arts 

91 commercial art 

94 design 

34 Visual and performing 

arts 

General/Liberal 

Studies 

24 general studies 62 liberal studies 55 

2. Career 

Agriculture and 

Natural Resources 

01 agricultural production 

02 agricultural science 

03 natural resources 

01 agriculture 

02 agricultural science 

03 natural resources 

04 forestry 

1 Agriculture and related 

sciences 

2 Natural resources and conservation 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-8 

Table A-1. Classification of majors as academic, career, or other: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

MAJOR FIELD 1990 2000 2004 

Business and Marketing 06 business/management 

602 accounting 

603 banking/finance 

07 business 

706 secretarial 

08 marketing 

14 secretarial 

15 business support 

13 management, business, 

administration 

10 accounting 

11 finance 

12 business/management 

systems 

16 marketing/distribution 

36 Business, management, 

and marketing 

Health Care 17 allied health 

170605 practical nursing 

18 health sciences 

1803 chiropractic 

180401 dentistry 

181001 medicine 

1811 nursing 

1812 optometry 

1813 osteopathic medicine 

1814 pharmacy 

1815 podiatry 

1824 veterinary medicine 

43 nurse assisting 

50 nursing 

40 dental and medical technology 

41 community/mental health 

42 physical education/recreation 

44 general/other health 

45 audiology 

46 clinical health 

47 dentistry 

48 medicine 

49 veterinary medicine 

51 health/hospital administration 

52 public health 

53 all other health 

26 Science technologies/technicians 

35 Health professions and 

related sciences 

46 Residency programs 

Personal and Consumer Services 12 consumer service 

19 home economics 

20 voc home economics 

31 parks/recreation 

23 cosmetology 

24 other consumer services 

54 dietetics 

55 textiles 

56 home economics 

57 voc. home economics: 

child care 

58 voc. home economics: 

other 

69 leisure studies/parks/recreation 

8 Personal and culinary services 

13 Family and consumer/human sciences 

22 Parks, recreation, and 

fitness studies 

Public, Social, and 

Human Services 

44 public affairs 

4407 social work 

25 library science 

63 library/archival science 

77 social work 

78 public administration 

17 Library science 

29 Public administration and 

social services 

Legal Services 220101 law 

220103 legal assisting 

59 paralegal 

60 law 

14 Legal professions and 

studies 

39 Criminal justice 

Protective Services 28 military science 

43 protective services 

66 military sciences 

76 protective services 

20 Military technologies 

28 Security and protective 

services 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-9 

Table A-1. Classification of majors as academic, career, or other: 1990, 2000, and 2004—Continued 

MAJOR FIELD 1990 2000 2004 

Computer Sciences 1102 computer programming 

1103 data processing 

11 computer science 

20 computer programming 

21 data processing technology 

22 computer/information 

sciences

7 Computer and information 

sciences 

Communications 904 journalism 

09 communications 

10 communications technology 

17 journalism 

18 communications 

19 communications technology 

5 Communication and journalism 

6 Communications technologies/technicians 

Engineering and 

Architectural Sciences 

14 engineering 

1408 civil engineering 

141001 electrical engineering 

1419 mechanical engineering 

15 engineering technology 

41 science technology 

04 environmental design 

05 architecture 

86 city planning 

31 electrical engineering 

32 chemical engineering 

33 civil engineering 

34 mechanical engineering 

35 other engineering 

36 engineering technology 

3 Architecture and related 

services 

10 Engineering 

11 Engineering technologies/technicians 

Trade and Industry 46 construction 

47 mechanics 

48 precision production 

49 transportation/moving 

88 transportation mechanics

90 all other mechanics 

87 construction 

89 electronics 

92 precision production 

93 transportation 

30 Construction trades 

31 Mechanic and repair 

technologies 

32 Precision production 

33 Transportation and materials moving 

Education 13 education 

131201 adult/continuing 

education 

131202 elementary education 

131203 junior/high school 

education 

131204 pre-elementary education 

131205 secondary education 

26 elementary education 

27 secondary education 

28 special education 

29 physical education 

30 other education 

25 early childhood education 

9 Education 

3. Other 

Basic skills 32 basic skills 70 basic skills 

Other/Unspecified 999995 = uncodeable 

-1 = legitimate skip 

-9 = missing 

68 interdisciplinary studies 

Other/missing/not reported 

21 Multi/interdisciplinary 

studies 

NOTE: The variables used to categorize students’ majors are MAJORCODE (1990), MAJOR (2000), and MAJOR 

(2004). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1989–90, 1999–2000, and 2003–

04 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:90, NPSAS:2000, and NPSAS:04). 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-10 

National Study of Postsecondary Faculty 

NSOPF:93 Sample 

The 1992–93 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93) provides a national 

profile of faculty at U.S. higher education institutions, including their professional backgrounds, 

responsibilities, workloads, salaries, benefits, and attitudes. The NSOPF:93 contained two major 

components: (1) a survey of institutional-level respondents in a stratified random sample of 974 

higher education institutions in the United States (public and private; not-for-profit 2- and 4-

year); and (2) a survey of a stratified random sample of 31,400 faculty and instructional staff in 

the sampled institutions. Both NSOPF:93 institutional and faculty respondents completed surveys that described their policies and activities during the 1992 fall term. 

The institution survey collected information on topics including faculty composition, new 

hires, departures and recruitment, and retention and tenure policies; the faculty survey gathered 

information about the professional backgrounds, responsibilities, workloads, salaries, benefits, 

and attitudes of both full- and part-time faculty and staff. The response rate for the institution 

survey was 91 percent, and the response rate for faculty (adjusted by the institution participation 

rate) was 70 percent (weighted). All cases were weighted to compensate for unequal probability 

of selection into the NSOPF:93 faculty sample and to adjust for nonresponse. For more information on the NSOPF:93 cohort and study methods, see the methodology report by Selfa et al. 

(1997). See http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/nsopf/ for information about the NSOPF survey in 

general. 

NSOPF:99 Sample 

The 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99) continues the first two cycles of the NSOPF survey, conducted in 1988 and 1993; it was designed both to facilitate comparisons over time and to examine new faculty-related issues that emerged since the previous 

study in 1993. Since the 1993 study, the operant definition of “faculty” for NSOPF has included 

instructional faculty, noninstructional faculty, and instructional personnel without faculty status. 

NSOPF:99 used a sample of 960 institutions and 28,576 faculty members, of whom 19,213 

were found eligible for the survey. The sample was designed to allow detailed comparisons and 

high levels of precision at both the institution and faculty levels. In previous rounds of the study, 

the sample consisted of public and private not-for-profit 2- and 4-year (and above) higher education institutions. The NSOPF:99 sample represents all public and private not-for-profit Title IVparticipating, degree-granting institutions in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The insti-
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-11 

tution sample included an expanded sample to ensure that there would be enough institutions 

from which to sample, based on an estimated 15 percent of institutions that were expected to decline to participate. In addition, four groups of faculty were oversampled: Blacks, Hispanics, 

Asian/Pacific Islanders, and full-time female faculty. The weighted institutional response rate 

was 88.4 percent, with 865 institutions responding to the survey. About 17,600 faculty members 

participated, with a weighted response rate of 91.6 percent. For more information on the 

NSOPF:99 cohort and study methods, see the methodology report by Abraham et al. (2002). 

NSOPF:04 Sample 

NSOPF:04 was designed both to facilitate comparisons over time and to examine new faculty-related issues that emerged since the previous study in 1999. NSOPF:04 used a sample of 

1,070 institutions and 35,360 faculty members, of whom 34,330 were found eligible for the survey. The weighted institutional response rate was 84 percent, with 920 institutions responding to 

the survey. About 26,100 faculty members participated, with a weighted response rate of 76 percent. For more information on the NSOPF:04 cohort and study methods, see the methodology 

report by Heuer et al. (2005). 

Postsecondary Faculty Described in the Report 

The teaching faculty studied in this report are defined as all faculty and instructional staff 

who taught at least one class during the fall semester of the year studied, at public and private 

not-for-profit 2- and 4-year postsecondary institutions. The faculty cases retained for analysis include those who taught noncredit as well as for-credit courses at the included institutions, and 

those who taught full time or part time. Postsecondary teaching faculty are classified by the level 

of their postsecondary institution (4- or 2-year), rather than by the credential level of the students 

they taught. Teaching faculty were classified as career, academic, or “other” based on their principal teaching field as shown in the following table. 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-12 

Table A-2. Classification of teaching fields as academic, career, or other: 1993, 1999, and 2004 

TEACHING FIELD 1993 1999 2004 

1. Academic 

Math 430 mathematics 

440 statistics 

390 mathematics/statistics 18 Mathematics and statistics 

Science 391-400 biological sciences 

411-420 physical sciences 

391-400 biological sciences 

411-420 physical sciences 

Biological and biomedical sciences 

25 Physical sciences 

English/literature 291-300 English and 

literature, except 297 

ESL 

291-300 English and 

literature, except 297 

ESL 

12 English language and literature/letters 

Humanities 311-320 foreign languages 

480 philosophy and religion 

311-320 foreign languages 

440 philosophy 

441 religion 

14 foreign languages/literature/ 

linguistics 

24 Philosophy, religion & theology 

Social Sciences 541-560 social sciences 

and history 

510 psychology 

541-560 social sciences 

and history 

510 psychology 

3 Area/ethnic/cultural/gender studies 

20 Multi/interdisciplinary studies 

26 Psychology 

30 Social sciences (except psych) and 

history 

Fine and Performing Arts 141-150 art, 

except 144 design 

141-150 art, 

except 144 design 

4 Arts—visual and performing 

2. Career 

Agriculture and 

Natural Resources 

101-110 agriculture and 

natural resources 

101-110 agriculture and 

natural resources 

1 Agriculture/natural resources/related 

Business 164 business support 

161 accounting 

162 banking & finance 

163 business administration/management 

165 human resources 

development 

166 organizational behavior 

167 marketing & distribution 

170 other business 

164 business support 

161 accounting 

162 banking & finance 

163 business administration/management 

165 human resources 

development 

166 organizational behavior 

167 marketing & distribution 

170 other business 

6 Business/management/marketing/ 

related 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-13 

Table A-2. Classification of teaching fields as academic, career, or other: 1993, 1999, and 2004—Continued 

TEACHING FIELD 1993 1999 2004 

Health care 335 nursing 

331 allied health technology & service 

332 dentistry 

333 health services administration 

334 medicine, including 

psychiatry 

336 pharmacy 

337 public health 

338 veterinary medicine 

340 other health sciences 

335 nursing 

331 allied health technology & service 

332 dentistry 

333 health services administration 

334 medicine, including 

psychiatry 

336 pharmacy 

337 public health 

338 veterinary medicine 

340 other health sciences 

15 Health professions/clinical sciences 

28 Science technologies/technicians 

Personal and 

Consumer Services 

350 home economics 

621 personal services 

(e.g., barbering, cosmetology) 

630 other consumer services 

350 home economics 

621 personal services 

(e.g., barbering, cosmetology) 

630 other consumer services 

13 family/consumer sciences, human 

sciences 

23 Personal and culinary services 

Public, Social, 

Human, Legal 

Services 

380 library/archival science 

490 theology 

520 public affairs, including social work 

370 law 

380 library/archival science 

442 theology 

520 public affairs, including social work 

370 law 

16 Legal professions and studies 

17 Library science 

21 Parks/recreation/leisure/fitness studies 

27 Public administration/social services 

Protective Services 500 protective services 500 protective services 29 Security & protective services 

Computer Sciences 201-210 computer sciences 201-210 computer sciences8 Computer/info sciences/support tech 

Communications 

and Design

181-190 communications 

144 design

181-190 communications

144 design

7 Communication/journalism/comm. 

tech

Engineering and 

Architectural Sciences 

121-130 architecture and 

environmental design 

261-280 engineering 

530 science technologies 

121-130 architecture and 

environmental design 

261-280 engineering 

530 science technologies 

2 Architecture and related services 

11 Engineering technologies/technicians 

Trade and Industry 601-610 construction 

trades 

641-644 mechanics and 

repairers 

661-670 precision production 

681-690 transportation 

and material moving 

601-610 construction 

trades 

641-644 mechanics and 

repairers 

661-670 precision production 

681-690 transportation 

and material moving 

9 Construction trades 

18 Mechanical/repair technologies/ 

techs 

22 Precision production 

31 Transportation & materials moving 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-14 

Table A-2. Classification of teaching fields as academic, career, or other: 1993, 1999, and 2004—Continued 

TEACHING FIELD 1993 1999 2004 

Education 241-250 teacher education including: 

241 pre-elementary 

242 elementary 

243 secondary 

244 adult and continuing 

245 other general teacher 

education 

250 teacher education in 

specific subjects 

221 general education 

223 bilingual/crosscultural 

224 curriculum & instruction 

225 education administration 

226 education evaluation 

& research 

227 educational psychology 

228 special education 

229 counseling/personnel 

230 other education 

241-250 teacher education including: 

241 pre-elementary 

242 elementary 

243 secondary 

244 adult and continuing 

245 other general teacher 

education 

250 teacher education in 

specific subjects 

221 general education 

223 bilingual/crosscultural 

224 curriculum & instruction 

225 education administration 

226 education evaluation 

& research 

227 educational psychology 

228 higher education 

229 special education 

230 counseling/personnel 

231 other education 

470 physical education 

10 Education 

3. Other 

Basic Skills/ESL 222 basic skills 

297 English as a second 

language (ESL) 

222 basic skills 

297 English as a second 

language (ESL) 

Other/Unspecified 450 military studies 

460 multi/interdisciplinary studies 

900 other 

Missing/not specified 

900 other 

Missing/not specified 

32 Other 

NOTE: The variables used to categorize teaching fields are X04A12 (1990), Q16CD2 (2000), and X11Z14 (2004). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993, 1999, and 2004 National 

Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93, NSOPF:99, and NSOPF:04).

Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

National Household Education Surveys Program: 2003 and 2005 

The National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES) is a set of telephone surveys 

conducted on a periodic basis. The 2003 Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-15 

(AEWR-NHES:2003) and the 2005 Adult Education Survey (AE-NHES:2005) are surveys in 

this set. Data collection for the AEWR-NHES:2003 took place from January through April 2003 

and for the AE-NHES:2005 from January through April 2005. Both samples were selected using 

random digit dialing (RDD) methods, and are nationally representative of all civilian, noninstitutionalized adults in the 50 states and the District of Columbia who are age 16 or older and not 

enrolled in grades K–12. The data for both surveys were collected using computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI). For a complete discussion of the methodology for each survey, see the 

user’s manual in Hagedorn et al. (2006). 

In both NHES surveys, the samples were selected using a multiple stage sampling framework. The first stage of sample selection was the generation of a list-assisted RDD sample of 

telephone numbers, with areas with high percentages of Black and Hispanic residents sampled at 

higher rates than those in areas with low percentages of Black and Hispanic residents. In the second stage, the sampled telephone numbers were classified as mailable or nonmailable depending 

on whether they could be matched to a mailing address in the white pages telephone directory or 

other databases. During the survey interview, a set of household screening items was administered to an adult member of the household. (A screener was used to collect information on 

household composition and interview eligibility.) Household members were enumerated, the 

adult education participation status of each adult (age 16 or older, not in high school) was determined, and the sample of adults was selected according to the survey’s sample design. 

In the AE-NHES:2005, screening surveys were completed with 58,140 households, with a 

weighted unit screener response rate of 67 percent. A total of 8,904 adults completed the interview, for a weighted unit response rate of 71 percent and an overall estimated unit response rate 

(the product of the screener unit response rate and the adult interview unit response rate) of 48 

percent. In the AEWR-NHES:2003, screener interviews were completed with 32,049 households, 

with a weighted unit screener response rate of 65 percent. The weighted unit response rate was 

76 percent and the overall estimated unit response rate was 49 percent. 

In the AE-NHES:2005 interview, information was collected from 8,904 adults, and in the 

AEWR-NHES:2003 interview, information was collected from 12,725 adults. In both years, 

adults were asked about their demographic characteristics, participation in the past 12 months in 

educational activities (educational activities taken for work-related reasons in AEWRNHES:2003), and labor force participation. The only person eligible to respond to this interview 

was the sampled adult. Multiple attempts were made to complete interviews with targeted adults 

not available at the time of selection, and interviews were conducted in either English or Spanish. 

See http://www.nces.ed.gov/nhes/ for information about the NHES studies. 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-16 

STATISTICAL PROCEDURES

This report describes various characteristics of career and technical education participants, 

including sex, race/ethnicity, and prior academic achievement, among others. It should be remembered that, while each of these characteristics is examined separately, there may be collinearity among them. For example, participation patterns for the different racial/ethnic groups may 

be related to their differing prior academic achievement. The report does not employ any statistical procedures to attempt to determine which characteristics are most strongly related to participation in career and technical education or to isolate the independent contribution of different 

characteristics to participation patterns. 

It is important when reading NCES reports to remember that they are descriptive in nature. 

That is, they are limited to describing some aspect of the condition of education and may suggest 

ideas to be further examined. Readers are cautioned against making unwarranted causal inferences from simple cross tabulations. It is never the case that a simple cross tabulation of any 

variable with a measure of educational achievement is proof that differences in the variable are a 

cause of differential educational achievement or any other outcome. 

Two types of statistical procedures were used in this report: testing differences between 

means (or percentages) and testing linear trends. Each procedure is described below. Note that 

significance testing was not conducted for data from universe surveys such as CCD and IPEDS, 

which represent the full population of interest rather than a sample. 

Differences Between Means 

The descriptive comparisons were tested in this report using Student’s t statistic. Differences between estimates are tested against the probability of a Type I error,2 or significance level. 

The significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values for the differences 

between each pair of means or percentages and comparing these with published tables of significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing. 

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the following formula: 

2

2

2

1

21

sese

EE

t

+

− = (1) 

 

2 A Type I error occurs when one concludes that a difference observed in a sample reflects a true difference in the population 

from which the sample was drawn, when no such difference is present. 
 Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology 

A-17 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When estimates are not independent, a covariance term must be added to the formula: 

t =

21

2

2

2

1

21

 se2(r)se-se+se

E-E (2) 

where r is the correlation between the two estimates.3 This formula is used when comparing two 

percentages from a distribution that adds to 100. If the comparison is between the mean of a subgroup and the mean of the total group, the following formula is used: 

t =

2 2 2

sub tot 2 sub

sub tot

sepsese

EE

−+

− (3) 

where p is the proportion of the total group contained in the subgroup.4 

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons 

based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading since the 

magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or percentages 

but also to the number of respondents in the specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a 

small difference compared across a large number of respondents would produce a large t statistic. 

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests is the possibility that one can report a “false 

positive” or Type I error. In the case of a t statistic, this false positive would result when a difference measured with a particular sample showed a statistically significant difference when there is 

no difference in the underlying population. Statistical tests are designed to control this type of 

error, denoted by alpha. The alpha level of .05 selected for findings in this report indicates that a 

difference of a certain magnitude or larger would be produced no more than one time out of 20 

when there was no actual difference between the quantities in the underlying population. When 

we test hypotheses that show t values at the .05 level or smaller, we treat this finding as rejecting 

the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the two quantities. Failing to detect a difference, however, does not necessarily imply the values are the same or equivalent. 

With an alpha level set at .05, each additional comparison made using a particular dataset 

increases the likelihood that a Type 1 error will occur. In other words, it becomes more likely that 

 

3 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1993). A Note from the Chief Statistician, no. 2. 

4 Ibid. 
Appendix A—Technical Notes and Methodology

A-18 

at least one of the estimated differences measured will appear significant merely by chance. This 

report made no adjustments for multiple comparisons. 

Linear Trends 

While many descriptive comparisons in this report were tested using Student’s t statistic, 

some comparisons across categories of an ordered independent variable used a test for a linear 

trend across all categories, rather than a series of tests between pairs of categories. In this report, 

when differences among percentages of a dependent variable were examined relative to an ordered independent variable, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for a linear relationship between the two variables. To do this, ANOVA models included orthogonal linear 

contrasts corresponding to successive levels of the independent variable (e.g., to test whether participation in work-related courses increased as the education level of the adult increased). The 

squares of the standard errors, the variance between the means, and the unweighted sample sizes 

were used to partition the total sum of squares into within- and between-group sums of squares. 

These were used to create mean squares for the within- and between-group variance components 

and their corresponding F statistics, which were then compared with published values of F for a 

significance level of .05.5 Significant values of both the overall F and the F associated with the 

linear contrast term were required as evidence of a linear relationship between the two variables. 

Means and standard errors were calculated by standard statistical software. Unweighted sample 

sizes were provided by NCES through a restricted-use data license agreement. 

 

5 More information about ANOVA and significance testing using the F statistic can be found in any standard textbook on statistical methods in the social and behavioral sciences. 
B-1 

Appendix B—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables used in this publication. In the index below, variables 

are generally organized according to the chapter in which they are first presented. Within each 

chapter section, the variables are presented in alphabetical order. 

GLOSSARY INDEX

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Adult work-related course 

Career and technical education (CTE) 

CHAPTER 2: CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 

AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

Area CTE schools

Career academy

Career major or pathway

Career plan

Community service 

Cooperative education 

Credit 

Dual credit

Four-year college-preparatory coursework 

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

Internship

Job shadowing

Limited English proficient (LEP)

Locale

Mentoring

National School Lunch Program (NSLP)

New Basics

Occupational concentrator 

Occupational credits 

Occupational education 

Occupational programs 

Professional license

Region

School-based enterprise

School type

Work-based learning

CHAPTER 3: CAREER EDUCATION AT THE 

POSTSECONDARY LEVEL

Career education/career field of study

Credential

Level of institution

Level of offering 

Sector of institution 

Subbaccalaureate 

Title IV eligible 

CHAPTER 4: ADULT WORK-RELATED 

COURSETAKING

Employer financial support

Employment status 

Hours of coursetaking 

Months employed 

Number of courses taken 

Occupation 

Provider type 

Topic of instruction 

Work-related courses

Chapter 1: Introduction 

Adult work-related course is defined as courses outside formal education programs that adults 

take in order to acquire, maintain, or upgrade their workforce skills. These courses can include 

employer-provided training, postsecondary courses (other than those taken as part of a degree 
Appendix B—Glossary

B-2 

program), professional or technical licensing or certification courses, and other types of workrelated courses. 

Career and technical education (CTE) is defined somewhat differently at the secondary, postsecondary, and adult levels: 

High school/secondary CTE encompasses family and consumer sciences education, 

which prepares students for roles outside the paid labor market; general labor market 

preparation, which teaches general employment skills such as word processing and introductory technology skills; and occupational education, which teaches skills required in 

specific occupations or occupational clusters. 

Postsecondary career education describes career-related postsecondary programs at the 

certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree levels. (At the postsecondary level, 

“CTE” refers specifically to subbaccalaureate career programs.) For purposes of this report, postsecondary career education is defined as formal undergraduate programs designed to impart relevant knowledge and skills that relate to the requirements of specific 

occupations or careers. In contrast, academic education is defined as formal undergraduate programs designed to impart knowledge and skills that represent the accumulated 

knowledge base in a subject area. Career education instruction typically involves less theory, more application, and a narrower focus than what is taught in academic programs, 

while academic instruction is typically designed to be comprehensive, theoretical, and independent of specific labor market requirements. 

Adult work-related coursetaking includes formal courses and training that adults participate in to acquire, maintain, and upgrade their workforce skills (see Adult workrelated course). 

Chapter 2: Career and Technical Education at the High School Level 

Area CTE schools provide career and technical education part time to students who receive all 

or most of their academic instruction at their home high school. Area CTE schools typically serve 

multiple high schools. 

Career academy is a multiyear high school program in which the curriculum integrates academic and CTE courses, organized around one or more broad career themes. 

Career major or pathway specifies the academic and CTE courses to be taken by a student. 

Career plan is a written plan of study based on the student’s career interests. 
 Appendix B—Glossary 

B-3 

Community service refers to school-arranged volunteer opportunities for students that support 

their local community. 

Cooperative education refers to work experiences that are part of CTE courses and for which 

students can earn course credit. 

Credit is a standard coursetaking measure at the high school level, awarded when a student successfully completes a course. One credit is equivalent to a Carnegie unit, or one course that meets 

for one period per day for one year. 

Dual credit refers to a course or program where high school students can earn both high school 

and postsecondary credits for the same course. 

Four-year college-preparatory coursework is defined in this report as earning 4.0 or more 

credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more 

credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at least 1.0 

credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

Individualized Education Program (IEP) refers to an education program that is developed for 

students with disabilities to meet their special needs.

Internship is a work experience arranged by the school, but not necessarily part of a CTE class. 

Job shadowing teaches students about a job by having students follow the schedule of a person 

who holds that job. 

Limited English proficient (LEP) refers to students who are in an English as a Second Language instructional program. 

Locale refers to the metropolitan status of the school, assigned using 2000 Decennial Census 

data. A three-level categorization is used in these tables: urban (large or midsize central city), 

suburban (large or small town or urban fringe of a large or midsize city), and rural (rural area).

Mentoring refers to school-arranged matches with an adult in a career area who can give advice 

and support to students. 

National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federal program that provides free or reducedprice lunches to students based on the student’s household income.

New Basics are core academic coursetaking standards that include 4 years of English and 3 years 

each of mathematics, science, and social studies. 
Appendix B—Glossary

B-4 

Occupational concentrator is a student who earns 3.0 or more credits in any one of the 18 occupational program areas defined under Occupational Programs below. Due to small sample 

sizes, occupational concentrators were defined in some analyses as graduates who earned 3.0 or 

more credits in any of the following 10 broad program areas: agriculture, business (comprised of 

business management and business services), marketing, technology and communications (comprised of communications technology, computer technology, and other technology), trade and 

industry (comprised of construction, mechanics and repair, transportation, materials production, 

print production, and other precision production), health care, childcare and education, protective 

services, food service and hospitality, and personal and other services. 

Occupational credits are high school credits earned for courses taken in the 18 occupational 

program areas identified below. One credit is equivalent to a Carnegie unit, or one course that 

meets for one period per day for one year. 

Occupational education teaches skills required in specific occupations, occupational clusters, or 

careers. At the high school level, occupational education is a subset of CTE and consists of the 

occupational programs identified below. At the postsecondary level, occupational education is a 

term used sometimes in place of CTE to describe subbaccalaureate career programs. 

Occupational programs consist of one or more high school courses in the following 18 occupational areas identified in the High School Transcript Studies (HSTS): agriculture, business management, business services, child care and education, communications technology, computer 

technology, other technology, construction, food service and hospitality, health care, marketing 

and distribution, materials production, mechanics and repair, print production, other precision 

production, public and protective services, personal and other services, and transportation. In the 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), school administrators reported on occupational programs in the following 16 areas: agriculture, business, child care and education, communications technology, computer technology, other technology, construction, food service and 

hospitality, health care, marketing, mechanics and repair, personal services, precision production, 

public and protective services, transportation, and other (unspecified) occupational programs. 

Professional license was defined by responses to the following question, “Have you received a 

professional license or professional credential since leaving high school? For example, these 

might be a real estate or cosmetology license, teacher’s certificate or networking engineering credential. Do not consider certificates provided for the completion of academic programs at postsecondary schools.” 

Region is the geographic region in which the school is located. Northeast includes CT, ME, MA, 

NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT; Midwest includes IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, 
 Appendix B—Glossary 

B-5 

SD, and WI; South includes AL, AR, DC, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, 

TX, VA, and WV; and West includes AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, 

and WY. 

School-based enterprise is a business run by students or teachers from a school. 

School type is defined in the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) based on the 

school administrator’s report, and was collapsed for this report into the following categories 

(only public schools included in analyses): 

Full-time CTE high school: Full-time technical or vocational schools 

Comprehensive high school served by an area CTE school: Comprehensive public 

schools (not including magnet school or school of choice) that are served by an area or 

regional vocational school/center (part time or part day) 

Other comprehensive high school: Comprehensive high schools that are not served by 

an area or regional vocational school/center

Work-based learning provides supervised learning activities for students that occur in paid or 

unpaid workplace assignments, and for which course credit is awarded. 

Chapter 3: Career Education at the Postsecondary Level 

Career education/career field of study refers to undergraduate instruction at the certificate, associate’s degree, and bachelor’s degree levels designed to impart relevant knowledge and skills 

that relate to the requirements of specific occupations or careers. Career fields of study at the 

postsecondary level include the following 11 career fields described in the report: agriculture and 

natural resources; business and marketing; communications and design; computer sciences; education; engineering and architectural sciences; health care; personal and consumer services (e.g., 

cosmetology, culinary arts); protective services (e.g., fire protection, corrections); public, social, 

human, and legal services (legal services is sometimes described separately); and trade and industry (construction, mechanics and repair, precision production, and transportation). See appendix A for more detail on the classifications used in the report. 

Credential refers to the following undergraduate certificates and degrees awarded by postsecondary institutions: 

• Certificate: An award granted for the successful completion of a postsecondary program of study. Certificates typically require the equivalent of less than 2 academic 

years of full-time college-level study, with some requiring less than 1 full-time equiva-
Appendix B—Glossary

B-6 

lent year. These certificates are usually awarded in a career education field and may 

cover the same coursework as an associate’s degree, but without the general education 

requirements. Only undergraduate certificates are included in the report. 

• Associate’s degree: A degree granted for the successful completion of a subbaccalaureate program of study, usually requiring the equivalent of at least 2 but less than 4 

full-time academic years of college-level study. 

• Bachelor’s degree: A degree granted for the successful completion of a baccalaureate 

program of study, usually requiring the equivalent of at least 4 but not more than 5 fulltime academic years of college-level study. 

Level of institution refers to a postsecondary institution’s operational organization and the level 

of instruction it provides. Level of institution refers to the highest level of credential (postsecondary certificate or degree) awarded by the institution—4-year or higher (4-year), 2-year or 

higher but less than 4-year (2-year), and less-than-2-year. 

Level of offering refers to the level of undergraduate credential awarded by an institution. Some 

tables in this report present statistics on all levels of undergraduate credentials that an institution 

awards (i.e., all offering levels), while other tables present only the highest level of undergraduate credential awarded (i.e., the highest level of offerings). 

Sector of institution for postsecondary institutions is determined based on whether the institution is operated by publicly elected or appointed officials and derives its primary support from 

public funds (public institution) or by privately elected or appointed officials and derives its major source of funds from private sources (private institution). A second distinction, between private for-profit (or proprietary) and private non-profit institutions, is also included in some of the 

tables. 

Subbaccalaureate refers to postsecondary programs and credentials that are below the bachelor’s degree level. 

Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions meet the criteria for participating in the federal student financial aid program, as specified in Title IV of the Higher Education Act. A Title IV eligible postsecondary institution must be one of the following: (1) an institution of higher education 

(with public or private, nonprofit control), (2) a proprietary institution (with private for-profit 

control), or (3) a postsecondary vocational institution (with public or private, nonprofit control). 

In addition, it must meet the criteria in the Higher Education Act for acceptable legal authorization, acceptable accreditation and admission standards, eligible academic program(s), administrative capability, and financial responsibility. 
 Appendix B—Glossary 

B-7 

Chapter 4: Adult Work-Related Coursetaking 

Employer financial support questions were asked of participants who were working at the time 

that they were enrolled in courses. Participants were considered to have received employer financial support if their employer paid for either (1) part or all of a course’s tuition, fees, books, and 

materials, or (2) the participant’s salary during coursetaking. 

Employment status indicates the respondent’s labor force status within the past week or month 

prior to the interview. Adults are classified as working full-time (35 hours or more weekly), 

working part time (less than 35 hours weekly), unemployed and looking for work, and not in the 

labor force. 

Hours of coursetaking is based on the full roster of 20 courses that respondents could list as 

having taken during the 12 months prior to the interview. Each respondent who reported participating in a particular work-related course was asked to delineate the number of classroom hours 

they attended each course in the 12 months prior to the interview. 

Months employed indicates the number of months respondents worked during the 12 months 

prior to the interview. Respondents who had not worked in the 12 months prior to the interview 

are treated as missing. 

Number of courses taken includes up to 20 courses that respondents reported they had participated in during the 12 months prior to the interview. 

Occupation indicates the respondent’s employment status and occupation during the 12 months 

prior to the interview. Respondents who had not worked in the 12 months prior to the interview 

are treated as missing. Information on occupations is provided by the respondents and was coded 

according to the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) used by the federal government to 

classify occupations. The occupations were organized as specified below: 

Professional and managerial 

Executive, administrative, managerial 

Engineers, surveyors, and architects 

Natural scientists and mathematicians 

Social scientists, social/religious workers, and lawyers 

Teachers: college, university, and other 

Teachers, except postsecondary institution 

Health diagnosing and treating practitioners 

Registered nurses, pharmacists, dieticians, and therapists 

Writers/artists/entertainers/athletes 

Health technologists and technicians 
Appendix B—Glossary

B-8 

Sales, service, and clerical 

Technologists and technicians, except health 

Marketing and sales 

Administrative support, including clerical 

Service Miscellaneous 

Trades and labor 

Agricultural, forestry, and fishing 

Mechanics and repairers 

Construction/extractive 

Precision and production working 

Transportation and material moving 

Provider type was collected through a series of questions that asked who provided the instruction for each course in which the respondent participated. For respondents who indicated in a 

separate question that their employer was the instructional provider, the employer overrode the 

other types of instructional providers. 

Topic of instruction was asked of all respondents who participated in a work-related course and 

was coded into nine topic areas: 

Basic education 

Personal awareness/improvement 

Physical education and leisure 

Basic education 

Business 

Business marketing 

Real estate and insurance 

Marketing management 

Accounting and finance 

Business management 

Business administrative support 

Business computer software 

Public administration and services 

Other business 

Computer science 

Computer science and systems 

Education 

Education 
 Appendix B—Glossary 

B-9 

Health 

Health sciences 

Allied health 

Self-health and personal health 

Other health 

Science 

Agriculture and natural resources 

Engineering and related technologies 

Science 

Mathematics 

Social sciences and services 

Social sciences and social studies 

Law 

Psychology 

Religion and philosophy 

Informal religion/Bible study 

Other religion and Bible study 

Vocational trades 

Vocational and personal services 

Home economics 

Other vocational and personal services 

Other 

Liberal arts/general studies 

English language and literature 

Foreign languages 

Communications 

Protective services/military science 

Fine and performing arts 

Interdisciplinary 

Indeterminable/other/unknown 

Work-related courses are defined in both the 2003 and 2005 National Household Education 

Surveys Program (NHES) as any formal courses or training (hereafter, courses) taken in the 12 

months prior to the interview that had an instructor present and that were taken mainly for workrelated reasons. Respondents indicated whether each course in which they participated was taken 

mainly for work-related reasons or mainly for personal reasons; courses listed as taken mainly for 

work-related reasons or equally for both reasons were counted as work-related courses.