i

THE NATIONAL ACTION PLAN

TO

CONSERVE CORAL REEFS

United States Coral Reef Task Force

March 2, 2000

Washington, D.C.
ii

The United States Coral Reef Task Force was established by President

Clinton in June 1998 though Executive Order #13089 to lead U.S. efforts,

both domestically and internationally, to protect, restore and sustainably

use coral reef ecosystems. Chaired by the Secretary of the Interior and the

Secretary of Commerce, the Task Force is composed of the heads of 11

federal agencies and the Governors of 7 states, territories or

commonwealths with responsibilities for coral reefs.

For more information on the Task Force, this document, or on coral reefs,

please visit the Task Force web site at http://coralreef.gov/.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE i

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii

I. CORAL REEFS – ECOSYSTEMS AT RISK 1

A. Reefs Are Invaluable Coastal Ecosystems 1

B. Reefs are in Peril 3

C. The Global Response to the Coral Reef Crisis 4

D. The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs 5

E. Using This Document 7

F. Constraints on Action 7

II. CORE PRINCIPLES FOR CORAL REEF CONSERVATION 9

III. TAKING ACTION 10

A. Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems 10

1. Map All U.S. Coral Reefs 11

2. Assess and Monitor Reef Health 12

3. Conduct Strategic Research 13

4. Understand The Human Dimension 16

B. Reduce the Adverse Impacts of Human Activities 17

 1. Expand and Strengthen the U.S. Network Of Coral Reef MPAs 17

2. Reduce Impacts of Extractive Uses 21

3. Reduce Habitat Destruction 23

4. Reduce Pollution 24

5. Restore Damaged Reefs 26

6. Reduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs 27

7. Reduce Impacts from International Trade in Coral Reef Species 30

8. Improve Governmental Coordination and Accountability 32

9. Create An Informed Public 33

APPENDICES

A. Executive Order 13089 - Coral Reef Protection

B. Coral Reef Task Force – Members and Participants

C. Project Summary Tables (A1-4, B1-9)
iii

PREFACE

The world’s coral reefs and associated seagrass and mangrove habitats are in serious

jeopardy, threatened by an increasing array of over-exploitation, pollution, habitat

destruction, invasive species, disease, bleaching and global climate change. The rapid

decline of these ancient, complex and biologically diverse marine ecosystems has

significant social, economic and environmental impacts here in the U.S. and around the

world.

In response to this growing global environmental crisis, President William Jefferson

Clinton issued the Coral Reef Protection Executive Order 13089 on June 11, 1998

(Appendix A). The Executive Order established the United States Coral Reef Task Force

(CRTF), which includes the major federal agencies responsible for aspects of coral reef

conservation, plus our state and territorial partners (Appendix B). Through the policies

set forth in the Executive Order, the federal government was directed to strengthen its

stewardship of the nation’s reef ecosystems and coral reefs around the world.

At its second meeting in March 1999, the CRTF directed six Working Groups to develop

a detailed, long-term strategy for implementing the Executive Order. Working Group

members were drawn from federal, state and territorial governments. In addition, the

Working Groups and the CRTF received input from a variety of non-governmental

sources including academia, environmental organizations and the private sector. The

Working Groups’ draft plans were disseminated as separate reports and synthesized in a

Draft National Action Plan presented formally to the Task Force and the public for

review and comment at the third meeting in November 1999 in St. Croix, USVI. At that

meeting, a seventh Working Group on outreach and education was formed.

The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs represents the collective experience

and commitment of a large number of coral reef professionals inside and outside the

government. Drafts were modified extensively based on significant input from

stakeholders, resource management agencies and the American public. As a result, this

Action Plan represents a true reflection of the national commitment by the Task Force’s

member agencies, conservation partners and the public to reverse the decline of coral

reefs around the world.

On behalf of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, we are pleased to present the National

Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs to the President, the Vice President, the White

House Council on Environmental Quality, the Congress and the American people. This

document lays out a carefully considered, science-based road map to healthy coral reefs

for generations to come -- the ultimate intent of Executive Order 13089. This significant

challenge cannot be met by governmental action alone. Rather, it will require both

concerted efforts and sustained collaboration by many public and private entities

concerned with the fate of coral reefs worldwide.
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Toward that end, the National Action Plan presents priority recommendations to be

undertaken by federal, state and territorial governments, and our non-governmental and

international conservation partners. The proposed actions range widely in scope,

complexity, cost and duration, reflecting the nature of the conservation challenge we

face. All are considered important elements of the overall strategy to save the world’s

reefs. If fully implemented, these bold actions will help ensure that coral reefs continue

to provide valuable ecological, social and economic services to future generations – and

that their beauty, diversity and power to inspire will remain undiminished.

The Coral Reef Task Force identified two fundamental themes for immediate and

sustained national action:

ÿ understand coral reef ecosystems and the natural and anthropogenic processes that

determine their health and viability;

ÿ quickly reduce the adverse impacts of human activities on coral reefs and

associated ecosystems.

Within these broad themes, we developed 13 integrated conservation strategies to

comprehensively meet the most pressing challenges facing reefs today. In addition to

these tangible field-based actions, the Coral Reef Task Force identified a consensus suite

of core principles to guide the government’s future actions to ensure an integrated,

consistent, sustainable and inclusive approach to conserving coral reefs.

Our intent was not to create a static plan that would become obsolete in a few years.

Instead, this large and diverse group designed the National Action Plan as a dynamic

road map for achieving the goals of the Executive Order: to conserve and protect the

coral reefs of the U.S. and the world. Consequently, we view this Action Plan as a living

document. It is intended to be revisited, evaluated and updated regularly as conditions on

the world’s coral reefs change – hopefully for the better. As an integral part of that

iterative process, the member agencies of the Coral Reef Task Force will develop and

present implementation plans and annual reports detailing their efforts to execute specific

portions of this plan. These summaries will be made accessible to the public on the

CRTF web site: http://coralreef.gov.

Perhaps as important as the specific actions presented here is the spirit of cooperation and

shared purpose evidenced by the Coral Reef Task Force member agencies throughout this

intensive planning processes. Coral reef experts from inside and outside the government

put aside institutional and personal interests to focus on the common goal and

responsibility invested in us through the Executive Order 13089: to conserve these

remarkable ecosystems for future generations. We believe we have succeeded in the first

essential task of that challenge – creating the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral

Reefs. However, the publication of this Action Plan marks the beginning, not the end of

our real work. Now is the time to turn these progressive ideas into action to save our

coral reefs.

Bruce Babbitt William M. Daley

Secretary of the Interior Secretary of Commerce
v

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Coral reefs are among the most diverse and biologically complex ecosystems on earth.

These rainforests of the sea provide economic and environmental services to millions of

people as areas of natural beauty and recreation, sources of food, jobs, chemicals,

pharmaceuticals, and shoreline protection. Now under threat from multiple stresses that

are overwhelming their natural resilience, coral reefs are deteriorating worldwide at

alarming rates. An estimated 10% of the world’s reefs have already been lost and 60%

are threatened by bleaching, disease and a variety of human activities including shoreline

development, polluted runoff from agricultural and land-use practices, ship groundings,

over-harvesting, destructive fishing, and global climate change. The trend in coral reef

health is downward, and these ancient ecosystems are in peril.

This document presents the United States’ collective response to this crisis: The National

Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. The Action Plan was produced by the Working

Groups of the United States Coral Reef Task Force in response to its request for a

cohesive national strategy to implement Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reefs

(Appendix A). These actions were developed in consultation with a variety of

stakeholders and cover the spectrum of coral reef conservation from mapping,

monitoring, management and research, to education and international cooperation

(Appendix B). Collectively, these actions are intended to provide a comprehensive road

map for federal, state, territorial and local action to reverse the worldwide decline and

loss of coral reefs. This is a living document, intended by its authors to be revisited and

revised regularly, and to be augmented by agency implementation plans and an annual

report from each CRTF member agency summarizing significant issues and

accomplishments related to coral reef conservation.

Strategies to Conserve Coral Reefs

Two fundamental themes will frame the Coral Reef Task Force’s conservation actions:

ÿ Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems – by conducting comprehensive mapping,

assessment and monitoring of coral reef habitats; supporting strategic research on regional

threats to coral reef health and the underlying ecological processes upon which they

depend; and incorporating the human dimension into conservation and management

strategies.

ÿ Reduce The Adverse Impacts Of Human Activities – by creating an expanded and

strengthened network of federal, state and territorial coral reef Marine Protected Areas;

reducing the adverse impacts of extractive uses; reducing habitat destruction; reducing

pollution; restoring damaged reefs; strengthening international activities; reducing the

impacts of international trade in coral reef species; improving governmental accountability

and coordination; and creating an informed and engaged public for coral reef conservation.
vi

Core Conservation Principles

In addition to these specific action strategies, the Coral Reef Task Force member agencies have

developed a suite of 8 core principles to guide their future endeavors to implement the Executive

Order as well as the National Action Plan:

ÿ to adopt a science-based ecosystem approach to coral reef conservation that

recognizes and builds upon important linkages among adjacent and remote habitats

associated with coral reefs.

ÿ to employ adaptive management approaches that track and respond to

environmental change and emerging threats.

ÿ that scientific uncertainty shall not prevent taking precautionary measures as

appropriate to protect coral reefs.

ÿ to incorporate the human dimension into coral reef conservation strategies by

ensuring that management measures reflect, and are sensitive to the local socioeconomic, political and cultural environment, and that they build an informed

public engaged in choosing alternatives to activities that harm coral reefs.

ÿ to apply marine zoning - including marine protected areas and no-take

ecological reserves - in order to protect and replenish coral reef ecosystems by

minimizing harmful human impacts and user conflicts in important habitats.

ÿ to fully and proactively use existing management authorities and programs at

the federal, state and territorial levels, and develop, where needed, new legal

mechanisms that protect, restore and enhance coral reef ecosystems.

ÿ to develop and support strong domestic partnerships among governmental,

private and scientific interests to meet the complex cross-jurisdictional challenges

of coral reef conservation.

ÿ to provide global leadership to reduce global threats to coral reefs through international

technical and development assistance, capacity building and collaboration.
1

I. CORAL REEFS — ECOSYSTEMS AT RISK

A. REEFS ARE INVALUABLE COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Coral reefs, and their associated sea grass and mangrove habitats, are among the most

diverse and valuable ecosystems on earth. Such reef systems are storehouses of immense

biological wealth and provide economic and environmental services to millions of people

as shoreline protection, areas of natural beauty, recreation and tourism, and sources of

food, pharmaceuticals, jobs, and revenues. According to one estimate, these rainforests of

the sea provide services worth about $375 billion each year -- a staggering figure for an

ecosystem which covers less than one percent of the earth’s surface.

The United States has a significant national interest in protecting our nation’s coral ecosystems.

U.S. coral reefs cover approximately 17,000 square kilometers of our Exclusive Economic Zone

(EEZ). Over ninety percent of U.S. reefs are in the Western Pacific (i.e., Hawaii, Guam,

American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands); the remainder are

located off Florida, Texas, and the U.S. islands in the Caribbean (i.e., Puerto Rico and the U.S.

Virgin Islands). In addition, reef habitats play a central cultural role among many U.S. islands,

where community-based conservation, subsistence fisheries, and protected areas have been

successfully managed for generations.

The United States also has strong political and economic interests in protecting

international coral reef ecosystems. Healthy marine ecosystems are critical to U.S.

diplomatic and development strategies to promote economic and food security, social

stability, democratic governance, improved human health, disaster and climate change

mitigation, and biodiversity conservation in many countries. Coral reef ecosystems have

great economic, social and cultural importance to many nations and entire regions.

These extremely valuable ecosystems constitute the economic base and future hope for

sustained development in many countries, particularly small island nations.

In addition, the ecological health and economic benefits of U.S. coral reefs are directly and

intimately connected with those of reef habitats in other countries. Currents that bathe the

Florida Keys originate in the wider Caribbean and along the coast of Central America. These

water masses carry essential larvae and juvenile corals, fish, and other invertebrates that

replenish our reefs. They can also carry potentially harmful pollutants and diseases. Similarly,

the coral reefs of many of the U.S. Pacific territories are connected to those of other Indo-Pacific

reefs, sharing many of the same coral reef species. Conserving coral reefs is a challenge of global

dimensions.

Coral reefs provide a vast array of valuable services to the nation and the world. Chief among

these are:
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ß Tourism -- The tourism industry is one of the fastest growing sectors of the global

economy. U.S. reefs are a major destination for snorkelers, scuba divers, recreational

fishers, boaters and sun seekers. Diving tours, fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other

businesses based near reefs provide millions of jobs and support many regional economies

in the U.S, contributing billions of dollars in tourism-dependent revenue annually. In the

Florida Keys, for example, tourism related to coral reef ecosystems produces over $1.2

billion per year. Similar trends are seen internationally, where ecotourism to coral reef

destinations is emerging as a major economic sector in many countries.

ß Fishing -- Over 50% of all federally managed fisheries species depend on coral reefs for

part of their life cycle. The annual dockside value of commercial U.S. fisheries from coral

reefs is over $100 million. The annual value of reef-dependent recreational fisheries

probably exceeds $100 million per year. In developing countries, coral reefs contribute

about one-quarter of the total fish catch, providing food to an estimated one billion people

in Asia alone.

ß Coastal Protection -- Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and prevent

erosion, property damage and loss of life. Reefs also protect the highly productive

mangrove fisheries and wetlands along the coast, as well as ports and harbors and the

economies they support. Globally, half a billion people are estimated to live within 100

kilometers of a coral reef and benefit from its production and protection.

ß Biodiversity -- Reefs support at least a million described species of animals and plants,

including about 4,000 documented species of fish and 800 species of hard corals. Another

8 million coral reef species are estimated to be as yet undiscovered. In many ways, coral

reefs rival and surpass tropical rainforests in their natural wonder and biological diversity

and complexity. This unparalleled biodiversity holds great promise for natural products

derived from reef dwelling organisms, such as the many pharmaceuticals being developed

from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer, arthritis, human bacterial

infections, viruses, and other diseases. In fact, reefs are often predicted to be the primary

source of natural compounds for new medicines in the 21st century.

ß Natural Heritage -- Coral reefs are an important part of our natural heritage, rivaling the

longevity or complexity of some treasured land-based resources like old growth forests,

Joshua trees and Sequoias. For example, a well-developed reef may be the manifestation

of thousands of years of incremental accretion by its resident coral colonies, sometimes

growing only millimeters each year. Many coral species have no known limit on colony

size or age and may continue growing indefinitely in favorable habitats. As a result, some

of the largest individual coral colonies found on U.S. reefs today were almost surely alive

centuries ago, long before modern times and it associated environmental pressures. The

scientific, aesthetic and conservation value of such ancient animals and their complex

biogenic habitats is unparalleled in the world’s oceans, and indeed on land as well. These

are truly living museums of the world’s marine biological diversity.
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B. REEFS ARE IN PERIL

Ironically, the value of coral reefs to the nation is matched only by their vulnerability to harmful

environmental changes, particularly those resulting from human activities. Present estimates are

that 10% of all coral reefs are degraded beyond recovery; 30% are in critical condition and may

die within 10 to 20 years, particularly those near human populations; and, if current pressures

continue unabated, another 30% may perish completely by 2050.

The growing number of anthropogenic threats to coral reefs has been exhaustively documented

and evaluated by several expert groups over the past decade. Based on these excellent reports,

the Coral Reef Task Force identified 8 specific and widely accepted threats as being particularly

important, and tractable, for immediate action by its member agencies and our non-governmental

partners:

ß pollution, including eutrophication and sedimentation from poor or overly intensive land

use, chemical loading, oil and chemical spills, marine debris and invasive alien species.

ß over-fishing and over-exploitation of coral reef species for recreational and commercial

purposes, and the collateral damage and degradation to habitats and ecosystems from

fishing activities.

ß destructive fishing practices, such as cyanide and dynamite fishing that can destroy

large sections of reef.

ß dredging and shoreline modification in connection with coastal navigation or

development.

ß vessel groundings and anchoring that directly destroy corals and reef framework.

ß disease outbreaks that are increasing in frequency and are affecting a greater diversity of

coral reef species.

ß global climate change and associated impacts including increased coral bleaching,

mortality, storm frequency, and sea level rise.

The global degradation and demise of coral reef ecosystems imperils the communities that

depend upon them for services, jobs, food and protection

.

C. THE GLOBAL RESPONSE TO THE CORAL REEF CRISIS

The International Coral Reef Initiative. The recent global decline in coral reef health has

galvanized an international movement to save these invaluable ecosystems. The United States

has played an integral role in these efforts since their inception. In 1994, the United States was

instrumental in establishing and supporting the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its
4

Framework for Action and Call for Action. In initiating ICRI, the Governments of the United

States, Australia, France, Jamaica, Japan, The Philippines, Sweden, and the United Kingdom

recognized the importance of stopping and reversing the global degradation of coral reefs and

related ecosystems, and preserving marine biodiversity.. The United States provided critical

support to ICRI and its Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), and served as the

first ICRI Secretariat. In 1998, the United States joined with other countries in supporting

ICRI’s Renewed Call to Action, which represented a revitalized global pledge to strengthen

international action to address the decline of coral reefs.

National Action. The United States also worked actively to address the coral reef crisis

through the domestically focused U.S. Coral Reef Initiative. Federal agencies, State,

local, territorial, and commonwealth governments, non-governmental organizations, and

commercial interests have worked together to design and implement management,

education, monitoring, research and restoration efforts to conserve and sustainably use

coral reef ecosystems.

During 1997, the International Year of the Reef, the U.S. joined many other nations in

activities to raise public awareness about the importance of conserving coral reefs and to

facilitate actions to protect coral reef ecosystems. On October 21, 1997, the 105th

Congress passed House Concurrent Resolution 8, recognizing the significance of

maintaining the health and stability of coral reef ecosystems. The year 1998 was

declared to be the International Year of the Ocean to raise public awareness and increase

actions to conserve and use in a sustainable manner the broader ocean environment,

including coral reefs.

On June 11, 1998, as part of the National Ocean Conference, President William Jefferson

Clinton signed Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reef Protection (64 Fed. Reg. 323701, and

Appendix A), which recognized the importance of conserving coral reef ecosystems and

established the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force under the joint leadership of the Departments of the

Interior and Commerce (Appendix B). The Coral Reef Executive Order directs Federal agencies

whose actions may affect United States coral reef ecosystems to take steps to protect and

enhance the conditions of such ecosystems, and requires the Task Force to develop a

comprehensive plan for protection, restoration and sustainable use of U.S. coral reefs. The

Executive Order also highlights international trade and protection of coral reef species with

implementation of appropriate strategies and actions to promote conservation and sustainable use

of coral reef resources worldwide.

After the first CRTF meeting in Florida in October 1998, the Task Force created 6 Working

Groups organized around broad themes in coral reef conservation. The Working Groups

comprised experts in the science, policy and conservation of coral reef ecosystems, drawn from

all levels of government and the private sector. A detailed list of participants in each working

Group can be found on the CRTF web page at http://coralreef.gov. During the third CRTF meeting

in November 1999 in St. Croix, a seventh Working Group was formed to address outreach and

education.
5

The 7 Working Groups and their Chairs are:

ß Coastal Uses Working Group (J. Benoit, DOC/NOAA)

ß Water and Air Quality Working Group (C. Fox, USEPA)

ß Mapping and Information Synthesis Working Group (M. Monaco, DOC/NOAA,

J. Williams, DOI/USGS, and G. Feldman, NASA)

ß Ecosystem Science and Conservation Working Group (K. Koltes, DOI)

ß International Working Group (B. Yeager, DOS, and D Hales, USAID)

ß All U.S. Islands Working Group (M. Ham, Guam, followed by L. Peau, American

Samoa)

ß Outreach and Education Working Group (A. Clark, Hawai’i, M. Stout, DOC/NOAA, and

H. Hankin, DOA)

D. THE NATIONAL ACTION PLAN TO CONSERVE CORAL REEFS

Working Group Reports. To fulfill the mandate of Executive Order 13089, the Task Force

charged the Working Groups with developing a recommended strategy for specific aspects of

coral reef conservation. Each Working Group produced at least one – and in some cases several -

detailed reports and implementation plans evaluating conservation needs and threats to coral

reefs and recommending specific actions to address them. These documents were presented for

public review and comment in November 1999 at the third meeting of the Coral Reef Task Force

in St. Croix and can be found on the CRTF’s web site: http://coralreef.gov.

Coastal Uses Working Group Summary Report

Sub-group reports include:

ß Fishing Pressures

ß Coastal Development And Shoreline Modification

ß Vessel Impacts.

Draft Recommendations of the Water & Air Quality Working Group

ß Assessment, Criteria and Standards

ß Physical Impacts to Coral Reefs

ß Pollution Problems - Sediments

ß Pollution Problems - Nutrients

ß Pollution Problems - Other Chemical and Biological Pollutants

ß Education and Outreach Activities

Coral Reef Mapping Implementation Plan, by the Mapping and Information Synthesis

Working Group.
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Ecosystem Science and Conservation Working Group, Draft Implementation Plan.

Sub-Group Reports include:

ß Building a National System of Marine Protected Areas for Coral Reefs

ß Coral Reef Protected Areas: A Guide to Management

ß Coral Disease and Health Consortium

ß Draft Implementation Plan for Long-term Regional Research on Coral Reef Ecosystems

ß A National Program to Assess and Monitor Coral Reefs

ß The Hawai'i Coral Reef Emergency Response Team

International Working Group: Draft Report to the United States Coral Reef Task Force

Sub-Group Reports include:

ß Support To International Initiatives And Diplomatic Efforts

ß Wider Caribbean Region: Report of Subgroup

ß South East Asia Region: Report of Subgroup

ß Pacific Region: Report of the Subgroup

ß Unprecedented Coral Bleaching and Mortality

ß International Trade in Coral and Coral Reef Species: Report of the Trade Sub-Group

Outreach and Education Strategic Plan – Draft

All U.S. Islands Coral Reef Initiative Strategy

Sub-group reports (chapters) include:

ß American Samoa

ß Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

ß Guam

ß Hawai’i

ß Puerto Rico

ß U.S. Virgin Islands

The Integrated National Action Plan. The Working Group reports developed an impressive

array of potential responses to the growing coral reef crisis. Over time, a number of common

themes and needs began to emerge across groups (e.g., the need for research, for improved

permitting, for reduced extractive uses, and for Marine Protected Areas). As a result, the CRTF

and the Working Groups opted to integrate and synthesize their collective recommendations into

a single plan, the comprehensive framework for concerted action. This integrated document, The

CRTF’s National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs, organizes the Working Group

recommendations around two primary themes covering 13 distinct conservation strategies.

These themes and strategies are:

Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems –

ß create comprehensive maps of all U.S. coral reef habitats

ß conduct long-term monitoring and assessments of reef health and trends

ß support strategic research to respond to the major threats to reef health

ß incorporate the human dimension into coral reef conservation strategies
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Reduce the Adverse Impacts of Human Activities –

ß create an expanded network of coral reef Marine Protected Areas and No-take Reserves;

ß reduce impacts of extractive uses

ß reduce habitat destruction

ß reduce pollution

ß restore damaged reefs

ß reduce global threats to coral reefs

ß reduce impacts from international trade in coral reef species

ß improve Federal accountability and coordination

ß create an informed public for coral reef conservation

E. USING THIS DOCUMENT

The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs addresses a complex problem with complex

solutions: mobilizing the public and private forces to save coral reefs. This document reflects

that complexity, it is designed to provide varying levels of detail to inform different audiences

and end users. For example, the Preface and Executive Summary present a general overview of

the CRTF’s long-term goals and approach. A more thorough understanding of the CRTF’s

rationale, core operating principles and key conservation strategies and objectives can be found

in Parts I-III, respectively. Additional detail can be found in the attached Project Tables

(Appendix C) which lay out the comprehensive road map for action over several years, with

individual Action Items corresponding directly to specific Working Group recommendations.

Additional details and insight can be found in the relevant Working Group reports, which are

cited in the Project Tables of Appendix C. All are available to the public on the CRTF web

page: http://coralreef.gov.

F. CONSTRAINTS ON FEDERAL AGENCY ACTION

Executive Order 13089 presents a formidable call to action for federal agencies, and this

National Action Plan responds with recommendations for proactive and decisive governmental

action to reverse the worldwide decline of reefs. Taken together, the CRTF’s Action Plan

represents a comprehensive national strategy for meeting the conservation challenges facing

coral reefs today. It is important to understand, however – particularly for the non-governmental

reader – that there are legal and practical limits to what can be done in the short term.

Resource Constraints. This action plan assumes the CRTF agencies will work

cooperatively wherever their missions, authorities and resources allow to implement the

actions laid out in this plan. All actions are subject to appropriations and budgetary

constraints in the context of all Administration priorities. Moreover, agency priorities

from year to year will reflect emerging threats and needs, as well as new technologies

available to meet those challenges.
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Legal and Policy Constraints. In addition to fiscal constraints on federal action, all

federal agency actions proposed in this plan to protect coral reefs must conform to legal

and policy limits set forth in domestic policy and international law. These include:

applicable legal authorities; available appropriations; intergovernmental agreements

between federal, state and territorial entities; international laws, rules and standards,

including the Law of the Sea Principles as reflected in the United Nations Convention on

the Law of the Sea; prior uses required by law; national security; and, Presidential

directives.

Annual Priorities. Recognizing the fluid nature of the challenge we face, and our collective

means to meet it, the CRTF has opted to develop the nation’s comprehensive strategy – or road

map - for permanently conserving coral reefs, without specifying agency priorities beyond Fiscal

Year 2001. Consequently, the Action Plan indicates which agencies intend to participate in

specific conservation objectives for FY00 and 01. Additional information on specific projects

planned by each CRTF agency will be presented in the implementation plans required by E.O.

13089 to be developed by June 2000. These plans will be updated and made available annually

as part of the CRTF’s implementation of the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. In

essence, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force intends this Action Plan to be a living document, which

will be revisited regularly by the CRTF member agencies, and the public, to evaluate the need

for changes in light of future trends in coral reef health.
9

II. CORE PRINCIPLES FOR CORAL REEF CONSERVATION

During the development of the Action Plan, a number of philosophical and

methodological approaches to coral reef conservation emerged from the Working

Groups’ deliberations. In effect, these fundamental concepts represent a set of core

guiding principles to ensure that the world’s coral reefs are conserved for future

generations. To that end, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force commits:

ÿ to adopt a science-based ecosystem approach to coral reef conservation that

recognizes and builds upon important linkages among adjacent and remote habitats

associated with coral reefs.

ÿ to employ adaptive management approaches that track and respond to

environmental change and emerging threats.

ÿ that scientific uncertainty shall not prevent taking precautionary measures as

appropriate to protect coral reefs.

ÿ to incorporate the human dimension into coral reef conservation strategies by

ensuring that management measures reflect, and are sensitive to the local socioeconomic, political and cultural environment, and that they build an informed

public engaged in choosing alternatives to activities that harm coral reefs.

ÿ to apply marine zoning - including marine protected areas and no-take

ecological reserves - in order to protect and replenish coral reef ecosystems by

minimizing harmful human impacts and user conflicts in important habitats.

ÿ to fully and proactively use existing management authorities and programs at

the federal, state and territorial levels, and develop, where needed, new legal

mechanisms that protect, restore and enhance coral reef ecosystems.

ÿ to develop and support strong domestic partnerships among governmental,

private and scientific interests to meet the complex cross-jurisdictional challenges

of coral reef conservation.

ÿ to provide global leadership to reduce global threats to coral reefs through

international technical and development assistance, capacity building and

collaboration.
10

III. TAKING ACTION

A. UNDERSTAND CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS

Coral reefs are imperiled throughout the world. Threatened by a growing number of

natural and anthropogenic stresses, including nutrient over-enrichment, sedimentation,

over-fishing, climate change, bleaching, disease and habitat destruction, coral reef

ecosystems are deteriorating worldwide at alarming rates. The origin and impacts of

these threats range from very localized and potentially manageable events, such as

resource extraction or coastal development, to poorly understood global phenomena

affecting entire ocean basins (e.g., climate change, bleaching and disease. The challenge

of interpreting, predicting and responding to such stressors on coral reefs is further

exacerbated by the complexity and variability of reef ecosystems in space and time.

Adjacent reefs on the same coastline may be inexplicably different, while a single reef

may cycle through significant changes in composition and health in response to unknown

events.

Ultimately, our success – or failure – in conserving these highly complex and extremely

fragile ecosystems will depend on a parallel approach of proactive, precautionary

management measures coupled with a much more sophisticated level of understanding

about their fundamental ecology and response to environmental stressors. As this

knowledge base evolves, it will provide invaluable support for management actions such

as the siting of new marine protected areas or the development of more effective

discharge standards. Unfortunately, the nation lacks a coordinated effort to determine the

status of coral reefs, the causes of coral reef decline, or the impact of natural and

anthropogenic stress on coral reef and associated ecosystems.

Toward that goal, the Coral Reef Task Force will actively pursue four major components

of understanding coral reef ecosystems and their long-term conservation:

ß develop comprehensive maps of all U.S. reefs

ß develop a nationally coordinated coral reef inventory, assessment and monitoring

program

ß support strategic research focused on the determinants of coral reef health and

recovery, including basic ecological processes, bleaching and disease, and best

management practices for coral reefs and closely linked marine and terrestrial

habitats.

ß conduct socioeconomic studies of the human dimension of successful coral reef

conservation.
11

1. Map All U.S. Coral Reefs

Rationale and Need. Accurate geo-referenced information on the exact location of

specific natural resources and habitat types is essential for effective management of any

marine habitat. This need is particularly acute for coral reefs where reef-dwelling

communities may be very different over short distances and where the consequences of

misinformed management decisions, such as the siting of potentially harmful human

activities, can have devastating and lasting ecological consequences.

Comprehensive maps and habitat assessments form the foundation for a variety of reef

conservation measures, including:

ß creating accurate baselines for long-term monitoring.

ß illustrating important community-scale trends in coral reef health over time.

ß characterizing habitats for place-based conservation measures such as MPAs.

ß enabling scientific understanding of the large-scale oceanographic and ecological

processes affecting reef health.

Clearly, a set of recent, accurate and carefully designed mapping products can greatly

enhance coral reef conservation and management efforts throughout the US.

Unfortunately, most coral reefs in U.S. waters, and particularly those in the Pacific

Ocean, have not been accurately mapped with modern techniques and at a scale relevant

to emerging conservation issues.

To address this critical information need, the Mapping and Information Synthesis

Working Group: (i) evaluated the status of existing mapping products for U.S. reefs; (ii)

surveyed local mapping and assessment needs among the U.S. islands of the Caribbean

and Pacific; (iii) prioritized mapping activities within regions; (iv) identified strategies to

fill gaps in technology and data access necessary to enhance mapping capabilities for

coral reefs; and, (v) developed a detailed Mapping Implementation Plan that describes

these activities and their outcomes.

Plan of Action. From that consensus-based process, the CRTF is committed to produce

comprehensive digital maps of all coral reefs in the U.S. States and Trust Territories

within 5 to 7 years. During this period, the ongoing mapping of the Caribbean region

will be completed, and new efforts will begin in the Pacific where critical data gaps

presently exist. This interagency effort will produce maps at both low- and highresolutions that address locally identified conservation and management needs. All

mapping products will be: (a) made publicly available to federal, state, territorial and

local agencies, as well as the general public; (b) designed with local input to ensure that

the location of sensitive natural and/or cultural resource features are not unduly

compromised; and, (c) developed consistent with national security requirements.
12

Overall, the mapping project comprises three primary elements:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table A.1

ÿ Develop high-resolution benthic maps and coastline surveys of local and

regional coral reef ecosystems using satellites, aircraft and in situ surveys, with

particular emphasis on marine protected areas, reefs at risk of degradation due

to human activities, and other priority sites identified by the U.S. Islands

representatives.

ÿ Develop large-scale, low-resolution maps of broad coral reef ecosystems

throughout U.S. waters using satellites and other remote sensing assets for use

in characterizing habitats, designing monitoring programs, and planning

regional conservation measures such as marine protected areas.

ÿ Develop and adapt new technologies and data sources to enhance coral reef

mapping, survey and assessment capabilities to detect important ecological

changes and trends.

2. Monitor, Assess and Inventory Reef Health

Rationale and Need. Successful coral reef conservation requires adaptive management

that responds quickly to changing environmental conditions. This, in turn, depends upon

monitoring programs that track trends in coral reef health and reveal significant trends in

their condition – before irreparable harm occurs. Monitoring can also play a vital role in

guiding and supporting the establishment of complex or potentially controversial

management strategies such as no-take ecological reserves, fishing gear restrictions or

habitat restoration, by documenting the impacts of gaps in existing management schemes

and illustrating the effectiveness of new measures over time.

When linked to comprehensive habitat mapping efforts, a rigorous monitoring and

assessment program will contribute to coral reef conservation by:

ß documenting the status of ecologically and economically important reef species

ß tracking and assessing changes in reef communities in response to environmental

stressors or specific human activities and uses

ß evaluating the effectiveness of specific management strategies and identifying

directions for future adaptive responses

ß evaluating the natural recovery and/or restoration of injured or degraded reefs

ß enabling informed decisions about the location of potentially harmful activities

ß providing baselines for assessing catastrophic damage from natural or manmade

events such as storms, diseases, vessel groundings, and toxic spills

ß serving as an "early warning system" for identifying declines in coral reef health
13

In spite of the fundamental importance of this type of time-series information, there is

currently no nationally coordinated monitoring effort for coral reefs in U.S. waters.

Although a number of monitoring programs are currently operated by various

governmental and private entities at local, state and regional levels, they generally lack a

consistent design, comparable data sets and products, or easy interoperable access by

users.

Plan of Action. Recognizing this long-standing and fundamentally important

management need, the Coral Reef Task Force places high priority on the establishment of

a nationally coordinated, long-term monitoring program for U.S. coral reefs. The

program will link new efforts to ongoing successful monitoring programs worldwide.

Preliminary CRTF efforts will focus mainly on reef habitats of particularly high value

(e.g., existing or planned marine protected areas) and on reefs at high risk of degradation

from human activities. Subsequent stages will expand monitoring coverage to wider

areas containing coral reef habitats throughout U.S. waters.

The primary elements of the CRTF Monitoring Strategy are the following:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table A.2

ÿ Working closely with partners and stakeholders, develop and implement a

nationally coordinated, long-term program to inventory, assess and monitor

U.S. coral reef ecosystems.

ÿ Develop a web-enabled data management and information system for U.S. reef

monitoring and mapping data, with user-friendly GIS-based mapping and

querying capability to present complex information in usable formats to all

potential users, while ensuring the security of sensitive place-based biological

or cultural resource data.

ÿ Prepare biennial reports on the State of American Coral Reef Ecosystems.

3. Conduct Strategic Research

Rationale and Need. We are now witnessing a steady stream of alerts about entire reef

tracts being devastated by bleaching events, disease outbreaks, chronic over-harvesting

and other stressors. Unfortunately, modern coral reef ecology is still a comparatively

young discipline, and many of these phenomena remain only partially understood,

particularly as they relate to coral reef conservation. For example, the causes and impacts

of many coral reef stressors remain uncertain, as do many of the fundamental ecological

processes that determine the structure, condition and dynamics of healthy coral reef

communities and the recovery of impaired systems.
14

As a result, the coral reef conservation community is at a great disadvantage in

understanding and predicting both local and ecosystem scale responses to the varied and

complex pressures facing reefs today. In essence, the threats to coral reefs are increasing

faster than the scientific knowledge base needed to understand and eliminate them

through active conservation measures. Without significant effort to strategically target

research on coral reef conservation issues, this race may be lost within our lifetimes. At

present, the intensity of coral reef research - both basic and applied - in insufficient to

meet these needs. Moreover, further efforts are needed to identify and target critical

knowledge gaps through cooperative assessment and planning by federal and state

resource and funding agencies with responsibilities for coral reef ecosystems.

Plan of Action. To meet the need for research on key threats facing U.S. coral reefs,

two main activities are proposed: (1) a long-term, holistic program of ecological studies

of coral reefs to improve our understanding of the underlying processes that govern the

health of coral reef ecosystems in the Caribbean/Atlantic and Pacific regions, and (2)

formation of a Coral Disease Consortium to organize and coordinate the scientific

resources of the U.S. and its territories to address increasingly urgent ecosystem-scale

threats such as disease, bleaching, and other sources of mass mortalities.

1. Long-Term Regional Research Program. Gaining a better understanding of the

complex connections and interactions of coral reef ecosystems is critical to predicting

coral reef response to natural and anthropogenic stresses and to assess alternative

management strategies to promote their survival and recovery. Long-term, holistic

ecological studies are needed to acquire basic information on the underlying factors that

regulate coral reef ecosystems and on the key threats that are causing their decline. The

National Science Foundation (NFS) supports much of the fundamental research that

contributes to advancing current understanding of coral reef ecosystems. Building on this

base, NOAA and the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) propose to co-sponsor, along

with other potential agency partners, a long-term (minimum of five-years), ecosystemlevel research program on coral reefs in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. This research

initiative will support management-oriented basic research to develop a better

understanding of the impacts of land-based activities and extractive pressures on the

health of coral reef ecosystems in the Pacific and Caribbean. The program will be

implemented through a competitive, peer-review process to ensure the highest quality

science. Products will include research data, assessments, synthesis reports and technical

guidance that will provide resource managers, resource users, and the public with timely

information and new insights about important reef conservation issues, as well as

predictive tools such as simulation models that will assist managers in making

scientifically informed decisions.

The objectives of this management-driven regional research strategy are to: (1)

understand the ecological and oceanographic processes responsible for structuring reef

communities and for influencing their health, degradation and recovery, (2) understand

and predict the response of reef communities to anthropogenic environmental stressors,

including land-based pollution and consumptive uses, (3) Demonstrate the ecological

linkages among different coral reef habitats - including where appropriate mangroves and
15

seagrass beds - on local, regional and international scales; and, (4) design, evaluate and

adapt specific reef management strategies to reduce human impacts.

2. Coral Disease Consortium. Coral diseases, bleaching, and mortalities are increasing

worldwide in frequency, distribution and range of taxa affected. While new disease

syndromes caused by biotic and abiotic stressors are emerging with alarming frequency,

most have not been thoroughly characterized and their etiologies and causative agents

remain uncertain. Although natural disease-causing organisms and anthropogenic

stressors, acting alone or in combination, are believed to cause many of the diseases and

mortalities observed among corals, the cause-effects relationships are largely unknown.

To fill this gap in our understanding of these rapidly emerging threats to reefs worldwide,

the CRTF will establish a Coral Disease Consortium focused specifically on coral health

issues, with an emphasis on the diagnosis and etiology of coral diseases and bleaching.

This unique interagency virtual center will draw on the expertise of scientists from

around the U.S. who are actively involved in bleaching and disease research; provide a

coordinated focal point for researching and tracking the progression of bleaching and

disease events; and help identify environmental influences that affect these phenomena.

The Consortium will be implemented through interagency partnerships of EPA, NOAA,

and DOI. Contingent on availability of funding, the activities of the Consortium will be

initiated at existing laboratories of the participating agencies in addition to funding

targeted research on coral reef bleaching and disease issues.

The Coral Disease Consortium will organize and coordinate the scientific resources of the

U.S. and its territories in order to:

ß document the condition of our coral reef ecosystems

ß determine the occurrence, causes and effects of diseases and bleaching

ß define exposure-response threshold values and associated criteria, as appropriate

ß provide technical information and assistance to managers and scientists regarding

the health of coral reefs and possible causes and remedies.

The primary elements of the Coral Reef Task Force’s strategy to improve understanding

of critical coral reef issues and processes include the following:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table A.3

ÿ Design and implement a regionally-focused competitive research program on

the natural processes that regulate coral reef ecosystem health and on the

causes, impacts and potential remedies for important anthropogenic threats

ÿ Create an interagency Coral Reef Disease Consortium to study, evaluate, track

and predict outbreaks of coral diseases and bleaching worldwide.

ÿ Study the impact of management actions on local communities with a view to

promote their sustainable development.
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4. Understand The Human Dimension

Rationale and Need. Most coral reefs occur in shallow water near shore. As a result,

they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of human activities, both through direct

exploitation of reef resources, and through the indirect impacts of adjacent land-based

activities such as polluted runoff from coastal development. Many of these activities,

and thus their eventual impacts on reefs, are inextricably woven into the social, cultural,

and economic fabric of regional coastal communities. Consequently, any meaningful

reductions in human impacts on reefs will necessarily require a much greater

understanding of, and management attention to, the underlying motivations and beliefs

that influence our commitment to conserving healthy coral reef ecosystems. Although

this human dimension is often overlooked in developing coral reef management

strategies, it is crucial for their long-term success. This is particularly important among

many of the U.S. Islands, in which traditional uses of coral reef resources, including

subsistence fishing, have been an integral part of locally managed sustainable use for

generations.

Plan of Action. In recognition of the fundamental importance of the human dimension to

successful coral reef conservation, the Coral Reef Task Force will actively seek to

incorporate the social, economic and cultural dimensions of its broader conservation

strategies through the following steps:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table A.4

ÿ Develop regional economic valuations of coral reef ecosystems – including

both market and non-market values – to help strengthen management

approaches and ensure effective decision-making.

ÿ Conduct locally focused socio-economic studies of high-risk anthropogenic

threats in specific U.S. coral reef habitats in order to resolve important user

conflicts affecting these and other coral reefs.

ÿ Evaluate examples of traditional and community-based coral reef conservation

efforts on coral reefs, particularly in the U.S. Islands, support sustainable

practices, and transfer the lessons learned to other management programs.
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B. REDUCE THE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

The most severe threats to coral reefs stem directly from human activities. Human

impacts on reefs range from direct exploitation of specific natural resources (e.g., fishing,

coral and live rock extraction, and sand mining), to more diffuse degradation of large reef

tracts caused by runoff of sediment or polluted waters from urban areas, mangrove

deforestation, coastal development or other upland activities. These impacts are

exacerbated by degradation of the overall marine environment due to global climate

change.

While the nature and magnitude of human impacts vary tremendously among reefs, in the

United States many of the underlying activities are authorized and regulated under law

and therefore can be managed or mitigated using existing federal and state authorities and

programs tailored to local needs. In addition, human impacts stemming from lands under

private ownership can be minimized through voluntary implementation of various model

conservation measures. On a broader scale, consumer and life style choices made every

day by Americans and others around the world contribute to global warming, pollution,

overexploitation and other stresses on coral reefs worldwide.

To a very real extent, the future of U.S. coral reefs lies in our hands, and specifically in

our technical capacity and our national will to reduce or eliminate avoidable human

impacts, both domestically and internationally. To that end, the U.S. Coral Reef Task

Force will actively pursue a comprehensive program of 9 critical conservation strategies

designed to reduce or eliminate the most significant and tractable threats to coral reefs:

ß expand and strengthen the U.S. network of coral reef marine protected areas

ß reduce impacts of extractive uses

ß reduce habitat destruction

ß reduce pollution

ß restore damaged reefs

ß reduce global threats to coral reefs

ß reduce impacts of international trade in coral reef resources

ß improve interagency accountability and coordination

ß create an informed public

1. Expand and Strengthen the Network Of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas

Rationale and Need. If current declines in coral reef health continue, these vital coastal

ecosystems may be severely damaged or lost within our lifetimes. Many of the chief

threats to coral reefs stem from human activities taking place on or near specific reef

tracts. If we are to reverse this trend in coral reef health, the stewards for the nation’s

coral reefs must act quickly and decisively using every practical conservation tool

available. Among the most promising of these are marine protected areas (MPAs) that

encompass and protect important habitats where harmful activities can be minimized,

eliminated or allocated to appropriate areas and/or seasons through a system of marine

zoning.
18

MPA Types and Benefits. For the purposes of this Action Plan, the term marine

protected area is understood as any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its

overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has

been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed

environment. In practice, this broad and widely used definition encompasses a

spectrum of place-based management approaches varying in size, purpose and level of

protection afforded reefs within their boundaries. Examples range from no-take reserves

where resource extraction is prohibited in order to protect biodiversity and/or to enhance

specific fisheries stocks, to multiple use sites that balance sustainable human uses with

resource conservation goals within their borders through a system of special use zones

designed for specific reef areas and/or seasons.

MPAs have proven to be an effective and equitable conservation tool for coral reefs

throughout the world. Effective MPAs protect the biodiversity and ecological

integrity of the resources and habitats they encompass. They can also serve an

integral role in an overall ecosystem approach to coral reef management and

conservation. As such, they may represent the nation’s best – and perhaps last –

hope to save these invaluable coastal ecosystems from further decline.

Among the various types of MPAs, ecological reserves – or no-take zones – are

particularly effective in maintaining biodiversity, productivity and ecological integrity on

coral reefs and other marine habitats. Their protection of critical habitats from resource

extraction and destruction provides a “safe haven” for the replenishment of harvested or

imperiled species both within and beyond their boundaries. For example, many marine

scientists have called for protection of over 20 percent of the total potential fishing area

as no-take zones as a minimum to ensure population sustainability. A National Research

Council report on sustainable marine fisheries recently recommended that this figure

provides a worthwhile reference point when insufficient information is available to

determine necessary no-take area size based on species life histories, use of habitat and

community function.

Gaps in the National MPA System. Coral reefs under some form of MPA status are

found in the Pacific, Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. They are administered by a

number of federal, state, territorial and local entities and include national marine

sanctuaries, national parks and monuments, national fish and wildlife refuges, national

estuarine research reserves, fishery reserves, marine conservation districts, and numerous

non-federal parks and managed areas. Although all of the existing U.S. coral reef MPAs

are intended to conserve these fragile habitats, they nevertheless vary widely in design,

size, legal authority, management goals and measures, and level of protection afforded to

the encompassed coral reefs. For example, while fishing is considered to be among the

most destructive and pervasive threats to coral reefs in the United States and worldwide,

relatively few existing MPAs address this activity directly. 

 

 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas, World Conservation Union (IUCN), 1995.
19

Thus, although some U.S. coral reefs now have some form of enhanced protection

through MPA status, there is widespread belief and concern among scientists,

stakeholders and the management community that the current system of MPA sites does

not provide adequate long-term protection against the growing number and severity of

threats to coral reefs today. Key aspects of this problem include:

ß Gaps in Geographic Coverage. Many of the nation’s most important coral reefs

are not currently adequately protected against rapidly emerging threats.

ß Gaps in Protection Within Existing Sites. Many existing coral reef MPAs are

managed using plans developed years or even decades ago, when uses of, and

threats to, reef ecosystems were considerably different than they are now (e.g.,

fishing pressure).

ß Linkages among Sites. Although some recent exceptions exist, federal and state

resource agencies have generally not collaborated on the design of MPA sites or

networks, or on their coordinated management. Consequently, the current MPA

system does not provide for important ecological linkages among distant habitats

(e.g., through migration corridors, larval pools, oceanographic transport, etc.).

ß Multiple U.S. Jurisdictions. An additional complexity is created by the multiple

jurisdictions and authorities under which marine protected areas may be designated

and managed in the United States. These systems, including federal, state,

territorial and local programs, often differ considerably in purpose, scope and

authority.

ß International Cooperation. Many U.S. coral reef MPAs are influenced by

ecological processes and conditions in other countries, often over considerable

distances. In addition, most reefs of the world lie outside U.S. waters but are also

in need of enhanced protection. Significant opportunities exist for collaboration in

multilateral planning and conservation of special coral reef habitats around ocean

basins and within regions.

ß Confusion over Definitions and Goals. The United States – and indeed the world –

has suffered from the lack of consistently applied definitions to describe the various

levels of protection and allowable uses in marine protected areas. This situation

has led to considerable confusion, and potentially avoidable conflict, among

resource agencies, scientists and stakeholder groups.

Plan of Action. Recognizing the urgent need to protect our most important reef habitats

from further decline, the Coral Reef Task Force is committed to strengthen and expand

the nation’s existing coral reef marine protected areas. Beginning immediately we will

undertake the design and implementation of a comprehensive national system of coral

reef marine protected areas in U.S. waters, including significant new no-take ecological

reserves to protect biodiversity and support sustainable fisheries on important reefs.

While individual MPA sites within this system will undoubtedly vary in purpose, size,
20

level of protection and applicable management authority, all will contribute to the same

overarching national conservation goal: to ensure the long-term viability, ecological

integrity and sustainable use of the nation’s and the world’s coral reefs for future

generations.

Central to the success of this critical national effort will be the meaningful and sustained

public participation by several key stakeholder groups in all phases of the design,

implementation and evaluation of this system. Chief among these are: (a) resource

managers from governmental agencies with jurisdiction or expertise relevant to coral reef

resources and habitats; (b) commercial and recreational users and stakeholders; (c)

environmental groups; and (d) coral reef scientists and other subject matter experts.

Moreover, the development of an integrated network of coral reef MPAs will necessarily

take into account appropriate legislative and regulatory authorities at all levels of

government, with particular emphasis on involving the Island states and territories in the

evaluation, design, establishment and implementation of component sites. This issue is

of particular importance in the Pacific Islands, where traditional, community-based and

subsistence uses of nearshore coral reef habitats, including protected areas, are intimately

linked to cultural values and practices.

This critical marine conservation endeavor consists of five parallel tracks to be

undertaken immediately:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.1

ÿ Accelerate ongoing efforts to strengthen protection of resources within existing

MPAs of all types through the review and revision of applicable management plans,

programs, policies and legal authorities.

ÿ Establish additional no-take ecological reserves to provide needed protection to a

balanced suite of representative U.S. coral reefs and associated habitats, with a goal

to protect at least 5% of all coral reefs and associated habitat types in each major

island group and Florida by 2002; at least 10% by 2005, and at least 20% by 2010.

Toward this end, immediately move forward to establish no-take reserves in the

highest priority reef habitats.

ÿ Conduct a national assessment of the remaining gaps in protection throughout U.S.

coral reef ecosystems and establish new MPAs – including multiple use sites -

where additional protection is needed.

ÿ Strengthen and support international cooperation among countries possessing coral

reef habitats to conserve global biological diversity and to enhance the viability of

reef systems world-wide, and particularly in regions where MPAs may serve as

“sources” for the trans-boundary supply of planktonic larvae to seed U.S. and

international reefs.
21

ÿ Develop and provide tools for MPA management, such as models of communitybased conservation, policy guidance and model legislation, and cutting-edge

methods to evaluate management effectiveness or to determine functional linkages

among distant MPA sites.

2. Reduce Impacts Of Extractive Uses

Rationale and Need. Coral reefs and associated habitats provide fishery resources that

represent a critical source of food, both commercial and subsistence, and recreation for

the U.S. and world populations. Many coastal populations in the United States have

historically relied upon nearby coral reefs for food, construction materials and trade. In

recent times, this formerly sustainable local collection has been overtaken by growing

coastal populations, increasing domestic consumption and global trade of coral reef

resources. In many cases, increased rates of collection, and associated habitat

destruction, threaten to exceed the regenerative capacity of reefs that have traditionally

sustained subsistence fishing for generations through community-based conservation

measures. Overfishing has become the most widespread direct human impact on coral

reefs.

Fishing Impacts. Overfishing of high value species has been documented on nearly all

U.S. inshore reefs on populated islands, and is spreading to deeper reefs and more remote

locations. For example, long-term catch trends suggest that there has been dramatic

decline (~ 80%) in the nearshore Hawaiian fishery stocks in this century. The abundance

of the top ten aquarium fish species has decreased by 59% in just two decades at one site

on the Island of Hawai`i. In Florida and the U.S. Caribbean, overfishing of groupers has

prompted the National Marine Fisheries Service to name four species as candidates for

listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Of even greater concern are the dramatic changes that have been observed on reefs when

herbivores are overharvested – often resulting in ecosystem shifts in which corals and

other important reef-dwelling benthic invertebrates become smothered by overabundant

fleshy algae. Also of concern are the habitat damage caused by inappropriate fishing

methods and gear, the continued occurrence of destructive fishing methods, and the

bycatch of non-target species. Other indirect impacts associated with fisheries include

anchor damage, vessel groundings, and damage from fishing debris and poorly designed

artificial reefs.

Mariculture or marine aquaculture (e.g., of corals, giant clams, or fishes) is growing

rapidly in regions with coral reefs. It has the potential to provide employment and

decrease collection pressure on wild populations. However if poorly sited or managed,

mariculture in open systems can adversely affect coral reef ecosystems by disrupting

submerged land on and adjacent to reefs, serving as fish aggregation devices, introducing

invasive alien species, discharging nutrients, and causing disease.
22

Plan of Action. In order to protect coral reef ecosystems and ensure sustainable

fisheries, the Coral Reef Task Force will undertake several integrated measures intended

to eliminate excessive and unsustainable extraction of reef resources on U.S. reefs.

Key elements of this strategy include:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.2

ÿ Identify, monitor and protect critically important U.S. coral reef fisheries

habitats and spawning populations through an expanded network of no-take

ecological reserves, following the targets, milestones and guidelines presented

above in Section B.1.

ÿ Reduce the impacts of fishing where it occurs by eliminating destructive fishing

practices, reducing bycatch and overfishing, assessing current fishing

regulations, assessing the need for additional gear restrictions as needed,

providing enhanced enforcement and education, and removing fishing debris

from reefs off the U.S. Pacific Islands.

ÿ Assess deeper coral reefs, banks and beds, and develop a strategy to conserve

these critical ecosystems.

ÿ Reduce the overexploitation of reef organisms for the aquarium trade by: (a)

restricting domestic collection of coral and live rock, (b) monitoring the

collection of other species, (c) developing new management measures or

ecologically sound alternatives to wild collection (see also Section B.7), (d)

evaluating the effectiveness of existing legal authorities and policies governing

the collection and importation of coral and other reef-dwelling species, and (e)

taking approprite action to ensure that international trade in coral reef species

for use in U.S. aquariums does not threaten the sustainability of coral reef

species and ecosystems.

ÿ Work with State and Territory resource management agencies, Fisheries

Management Councils and other interested entities to explore more effective

ways to incorporate ecosystem-scale considerations into Fishery Management

Plans for coral reef areas.

ÿ Develop a process to evaluate issues and possibly develop guidance related to

coral reef aquaculture in conjunction with relevant interagency groups

including the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force and the Invasive Species

Council.
23

3. Reduce Habitat Destruction

Rationale and Need. Coral reefs require thousands of years to develop, but can take

only minutes to destroy. Reefs around the world, including in the United States, are

being damaged regularly, and in some cases irreparably, by a number of potentially

avoidable human activities, including poorly planned coastal development and shoreline

modification, and direct impacts by vessels, anchors and other activities. To some

extent, these growing pressures are symptoms of the rapid growth in coastal populations

and tourism over the past few decades, and of current resource limitations in programs

responsible for implementation and enforcement of existing conservation authorities.

Coastal Activities. Many reefs, especially those nearshore, have suffered from the direct

or indirect impacts of deliberate alterations to offshore habitats or to the adjacent

shoreline and upland areas. These include dredging for navigation or marinas,

breakwaters and other hardened shoreline protection measures, beach renourishment,

sand mining, installations of pipelines and underwater cables, and land-use practices,

including road construction. To the extent that these activities are undertaken or

permitted by federal and state agencies, several preventative measures can be taken

immediately at relatively low cost and within existing authorities. In addition, the vast

increases in coastal tourism have resulted in increased pressure on coral reef resources,

either through direct impacts on the reefs or indirectly through increased levels of coastal

development, sewage discharge, vessel traffic, etc.

Vessel Impacts. As the number of people using and transiting coral reefs increases

annually, so too has the frequency of vessel groundings on reefs. Every year hundreds of

vessels strike U.S. coral reefs, causing significant damage that goes largely unrepaired

and unrecovered. In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary alone, approximately

500 small vessel groundings occur each year. Vessels striking shallow coral reefs can

cause profound damage to the habitat by destroying the benthic community, displacing

resident fishes, and eliminating critically important topographic complexity and habitat

structure that is the result of thousands of years of growth. In addition, propeller

scarring, anchoring and other physical impacts are of growing concern in nearshore

habitats, especially close to large population centers, or off-shore at way-points for

shipping traffic. In certain cases, the impacted reefs cannot recover without direct, and

often expensive, human intervention in the form of immediate clean up of debris,

emergency triage of injured animals, and long-term restoration of habitats and benthic

communities.

Military Activities. While it is recognized that military activities potentially can have

adverse impacts on coral reefs, the Department of Defense (DoD) is addressing these

concerns by implementing coral reef protection efforts that focus on effective and longterm conservation. Recognizing that coral reef ecosystems are biologically rich and

diverse habitats, DoD gives high priority to their protection and, to that end, is

developing management guidelines and policies to enhance coral reef protection. For

example, every military installation whose operations may affect a coral reef ecosystem

must prescribe and include protective measures in the installation's Integrated Natural
24

Resources Management Plan. DoD is also an active participant in the implementation of

the Coral Reef Protection Executive Order, 13089. DoD policy issued under the E.O.

establishes that it is DoD practice to protect U.S. and international coral reefs and to

avoid impacting coral reefs to the maximum extent feasible consistent with mission

requirements.

Plan of Action. Many of the adverse habitat impacts of coastal development and vessel

groundings can be prevented through consistent and proactive application of existing

federal and state authorities and programs, and through a rapid and scientifically

informed response to the injury. Toward that end, the CRTF Working Groups have

developed specific actions to significantly reduce these severe threats to coral reefs.

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.3

ÿ Strengthen, improve and better integrate federal and state permitting and

management programs for coastal development activities that impact coral reef

habitats by developing long-needed technical guidance, impact thresholds and

policy directives designed to minimize or avoid adverse impacts to reefs.

ÿ Initiate actions at the national and international levels to prevent vessel

groundings and other vessel-related impacts by improving seamanship,

strengthening aids to navigation, enhancing vessel traffic management

measures; installing and maintaining mooring buoys in areas where anchor

damage is likely, enhancing local and regional emergency response capabilities,

strengthening and standardizing enforcement and damage assessment actions,

and, where needed, developing additional legal authorities.

ÿ Develop informal guidance, protocols and technical assistance programs to

reduce the risks of damage to coral reefs resulting from activities conducted,

funded or approved by federal agencies.

4. Reduce Pollution

Rationale and Need. Healthy coral reefs require good water quality and natural habitats.

Pollution enters reef ecosystems in many ways ranging from specific point source

discharges such as sewage pipes and vessels, to more diffuse runoff from land-based

sources such as agriculture, coastal development, road construction or golf course

irrigation. Water pollution can poison sensitive species, disrupt critical ecological

functions, and trophic structure and dynamics, and impede the normal settlement and

growth of critically needed reef-dwelling larvae.

Conserving the nation’s coral reefs will require reductions in the amounts, sources and

cumulative impacts of five types of pollution:
25

ß Sediment. Excess sedimentation generated by coastal development, agriculture,

and offshore dredging is smothering living coral reefs worldwide. High

sedimentation can kill existing benthic communities and retard their recovery by

inhibiting future recruitment.

ß Nutrients. Increased nutrients from agriculture, fertilizers, sewage discharge and

aerial atmospheric deposition can disrupt the normal trophic structure and

dynamics of coral reefs by artificially encouraging algal blooms.

ß Oil and Chemicals. Numerous chemicals enter coral reef habitats through point

and nonpoint sources including land-based runoff, industrial effluents, vessel

discharges and oil and chemical spills. Their effects can disrupt normal biological

and ecological processes, and retard coral reef community growth and recovery.

ß Marine Debris. Many reefs, particularly those in the Pacific, are cloaked by large

amounts of man-made debris lost by commercial fishing operations or emanating

from other marine or terrestrial sources. These objects degrade reef health by

abrading, smothering and dislodging corals and other benthic organisms,

preventing recruitment on reef surfaces, and continued entanglement of fish, marine

mammals, crustaceans and other mobile species.

ß Invasive Alien Species. Like all marine habitats, coral reefs are increasingly

vulnerable to invasion by alien species that can cause lasting ecological and

economic harm. The primary pathways of introduction into coral reefs include

ships’ ballast water, releases and escapes from aquaria, aquaculture and research

operations, and fouling organisms on movable marine equipment such as floating

dry docks or ship hulls or marine debris.

Plan of Action. Although the sources, characteristics and impacts of pollution vary

widely among U.S. reefs, many could be significantly reduced or potentially eliminated

by fully implementing existing authorities among various federal and state agencies. The

following actions are designed to meet that important goal:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.4

ÿ Strengthen the scientific rigor and ecological relevance of existing water quality

programs and permitting mechanisms that routinely affect coral reefs.

ÿ Develop innovative partnerships with, and provide technical guidance to,

landowners, federal, state and local governments, and users to reduce landbased sources of pollution on a watershed scale, and where appropriate, on a

river basin scale.

ÿ Control discharges from known point sources including onshore facilities and

offshore sewage and industrial pipes, and vessel operations.
26

ÿ Evaluate and address the potential impacts of aerial atmospheric deposition of

nutrients and other pollutants, where they are potentially significant sources of

pollution loading.

ÿ Prevent, prepare for, and respond to oil and chemical spills to reduce impacts on

reef ecosystems.

ÿ Clean up existing concentrations of marine debris and address known sources in

the future.

ÿ Evaluate and mitigate major pathways of invasion by alien species.

5. Restore Injured and Degraded Habitats

Rationale and Need. A well-developed coral reef can represent thousands of years of

slow incremental growth by resident stony corals, and consequently, many corals living

today are centuries old. However, in spite of the longevity and apparent natural

resilience of corals and the reefs they construct, both are extremely vulnerable to

destruction by human activities – either gradually through degraded habitat quality, or

suddenly through catastrophic damage from vessel groundings, toxic spills or habitat

destruction.

In many circumstances, damaged coral reef communities recover very slowly – if at all -

particularly when the underlying habitat structure is destroyed, or when the prevailing

environmental conditions have been chronically degraded over time. In such cases, full

recovery of pre-existing ecological communities, and the full range of services they

provide, may require hundreds or thousands of years without active intervention by

resource managers. Such measures may range from eliminating anthropogenic stressors

that impede recovery, to more direct restoration of damaged habitats or depleted

populations.

Coral reef restoration is a young science, and the majority of our collective experience

derives from attempts to repair vessel-grounding sites by recreating physical reef habitat

and transplanting adult corals in damaged areas. Recent scientific studies of ways to

enhance recovery rates show promise for future restoration efforts.
27

Thus, while it is clearly preferable to prevent the loss of coral reef habitat through the

kinds of proactive conservation measures presented elsewhere in this Action Plan, reality

requires that the stewards of these slow growing biogenic habitats also be prepared to

actively restore reefs that are injured or degraded. To that end, the Coral Reef Task

Force will pursue several avenues to strengthen restoration science and methods in the

United States and abroad.

It should be noted, however, that Executive Order 13089 prohibits federal agencies from

actively harming coral reefs, with limited exceptions such as in time of war, or when

necessary for reasons of national security. Consequently, the Coral Reef Task Force does

not normally view restoration as a legitimate means to mitigate actions or projects that

are expected to adversely impact reef habitats, other than those deemed necessary for

national security reasons.

Plan of Action. Recognizing the need to be able to restore injured or degraded coral

reefs under certain circumstances, the CRTF recommends that Federal, State, and local

agencies pool their resources and expertise to strengthen the efficiency and effectiveness

of restoration. These actions, which involve research, monitoring, pilot studies and

technology transfer, include:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.5

ÿ Review and evaluate existing reef restoration projects to quantify the extent that

they expedite recovery, and make recommendations for improvements.

ÿ Develop and test innovative methods and techniques to expedite reef restoration

for all major categories of coral reef injury.

ÿ Develop regional restoration plans that identify significant restoration

alternatives, and weigh the costs and benefits of natural recovery.

ÿ Based on the review of restoration approaches, promote cost-effective pilot

restoration of selected degraded U.S. reefs, focusing on habitats of high

ecological, economic, social or conservation value.

ÿ Transfer proven restoration tools, techniques and lessons learned to domestic

and international partners.

6. Reduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs

Coral reefs around the world are seriously threatened by direct and indirect human

actions. The 1998 Reefs at Risk study found that almost 60% of the world’s coral reefs

are potentially threatened by human activity, including coastal development, destructive
28

and over-fishing practices, overexploitation of resources, marine pollution and runoff

from inland deforestation and farming. Reef Check surveys conducted in 1997 and 1998

found that most reefs are severely over-fished, with most organisms of high commercialvalue missing from reefs. Over the last two decades, coral reefs have experienced an

unprecedented loss of live coral cover due to human-caused and natural threats.

Increased Population Pressures:: Six billion people now inhabit our planet, twice as

many as 40 years ago, and an additional 3 billion is expected in the next 40 years.

Population pressures are particularly acute in coastal areas. Presently, almost half a

billion people are estimated to live within 100 kilometers of a coral reef, deriving great

benefits from reef resources while placing increasing demands on these complex and

fragile ecosystems that can no longer be sustainably met. Increasing coastal populations

increase the threats from unsound coastal development, over-fishing for subsistence and

commercial uses, marine pollution, and land-based sources of pollution and sediment.

Loss of mangrove forests: The ecological integrity of coral reefs is also severely

threatened by the worldwide loss of coastal mangrove forests. Mangrove forests cleanse

coastal waters by serving as buffer zones that absorb excess nutrients from agricultural

runoff and human-derived wastes, and by retaining land-based sediments and pollution.

In addition, mangroves serve a critical role in protecting the shore from storm surge and

rising sea level, and are the nursery grounds and home to many commercially and

ecologically important fish and other species.

Globally, human activities have already destroyed one-half of the original coastal

mangrove forests. Deforestation has primarily occurred for conversion of land to

agriculture, mariculture pond construction, firewood and charcoal production, building

material, and coastal development. Over the last 10-15 years, an increasing international

demand for shrimp has accelerated the conversion of mangrove forests to shrimp ponds;

in some areas of the world, shrimp framing may account for almost all the loss of these

precious forests.

Coral bleaching and mortality: Recent global impacts of catastrophic events, such as

widespread coral bleaching and mortality and increased storm intensity, compound the

more localized human impacts that place reefs at risk. Coral reef bleaching events have

occurred worldwide at an increasing frequency since 1983. Widespread bleaching

events are thought to be a consequence of steadily rising water temperatures driven by

anthropogenic global warming in combination with El Niño. In 1998, coral reefs around

the world experienced the most extensive and severe bleaching event in modern record;

in many locations, 70 to 90% of all corals bleached and subsequently died.

Coral diseases and mortality: The unprecedented, sudden emergence of coral diseases

in the western Atlantic is threatening the health of many corals and reefs, and thus the

economic base for most of the Wider Caribbean. Adverse water conditions associated

with increased sedimentation, eutrophication and pollutants may exacerbate the

occurrence of the pathogens, coral diseases and coral mortality.
29

Destructive fishing pr acticesand uns us tainable use: The globalization ofmarkets and the

surge in inter national trade are also incr easing the r isks on reefs . M any cor al reef and

mangrove species and r es our ces are collected ar ound the w or ld for commer cial purposes

such asf ood f ish, the aquarium tr ade, live fis h mar kets, cons tr uction materials,

phar maceuticals and tr aditional medicines. Some of this commercial collection involves 

destructive fishing pr actices , and, in many cas es , the local and regional intensity of

collection appear s to be unsustainable over time.

Plan of Action. The United States is committed to collaborating with our domestic and

international partners to protect and conserve international coral reefs and associated

ecosystems. To accomplish this goal, the U.S. government will continue to exercise

global leadership in shaping priorities and approaches that conserve coral reef, mangrove

forest and seagrass ecosystems and global biodiversity, while sustaining the human

communities that depend on them. Development and technical assistance efforts will

focus on building human and institutional capacity for integrated coastal management,

marine park and protected area management, sustainable tourism, and sustainable

fisheries in coral reef nations; in many cases, these capacity-building efforts will provide

the foundation for a governance system based upon the principles of open, participatory

democracy.

In response to the unprecedented worldwide coral bleaching and mortality, the U.S. Coral

Reef Task Force passed a resolution in March of 1999 stating that biodiversity

conservation can no longer be achieved without consideration of the global climate

system and urging agencies to address the impacts of global climate change on the natural

resources they manage. The United States will also continue to lead in scientific efforts

that improve and increase information on the causes, occurrence and impact of bleaching

and disease throughout the world; these efforts will be enhanced through the creation of

the coral disease consortium.

Key elements of the proposed international conservation strategy are:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.6

ÿ Exercise global leadership in the international arena in shaping and developing

environmentally sound and comprehensive coral reef policy, strengthen

international conventions and foster strategic partnerships with other countries,

international organizations and institutions, the public and private sectors, and

non-governmental organizations to address international threats to coral reef

ecosystems.

ÿ Strengthen the International Coral Reef Initiative and implement its Renewed

Call to Action, and support the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and its

linkage to the national monitoring effort.
30

ÿ Provide assistance in managing and conserving reef ecosystems and their

watersheds in the Wider Caribbean, the Pacific, South East Asia, East Africa,

and Middle East regions; and support the creation and management of coral reef

marine protected areas, particularly those that contain substantial ecological

(i.e., no-take) reserves

ÿ Strengthen international research, monitoring and assessment efforts aimed at

understanding, predicting, preventing and responding effectively to the impacts

of large-scale phenomena such as bleaching and disease, and their socioeconomic impacts

ÿ Analyze and address unsustainable and destructive fishing practices and

unsustainable international trade in coral reef and mangrove species. (Also see

International Trade section.)

7. Reduce Impacts Of International Trade In Coral Reef Resources

Rationale and Need. Many coral reef species and resources are harvested globally for

commercial purposes, including food, the aquarium trade, live fish markets, construction

materials, curios, jewelry, pharmaceuticals and traditional medicines. Some of this

commercial collection involves destructive fishing practices, such as the use of poisons

to capture live reef fish for aquaria and live fish markets. In many cases, the local and

regional intensity of collection appears to be occurring at unsustainable levels. The

international trade in coral reef species is increasing at a rate of 10-20% per year.

The Executive Order charged the CRTF with analyzing and addressing the U.S. role in

the international trade of coral reef species. The United States is the number one

importer of live coral and marine fishes for the aquarium trade, and the largest importer

of coral skeletons and precious corals for curios and jewelry world-wide. During the

1990’s, the United States was consistently the world’s largest importer of live coral,

importing over 80% of the live coral and 95% of the live "rock" or reef base in

international trade. Hundreds of thousands of kilograms of hard corals and live rock, and

over 1000 different coral reef species, are estimated to be collected for trade every year.

Ironically, the U.S. prohibits or strictly limits the extraction of stony corals in most of its

federal, state and territorial waters. Coral reef fishes are also collected for the aquarium

trade in U.S. waters, however cyanide is not used.

In addition, it is estimated that the United States imports nearly half of the total

worldwide-trade in aquarium fishes, with approximately two-thirds originating in the

Indo-Pacific. Between 15 to 20 million coral reef fishes are traded each year. Reports

estimate that many of these are caught using cyanide.
31

Handling and care of coral reef species in trade is also a growing concern. A 1997 survey

of U.S. retailers found that as many as one-third to over one-half of the aquarium fishes

imported from Southeast Asia die shortly after arrival. Improvements in transportation,

handling and husbandry of live coral reef species for the marine aquarium trade may also

be needed to reduce mortality rates.

Plan of Action. As a major consumer and importer of coral reef organisms, a major

player in the world trade arena, and a leader in coral reef conservation efforts, the United

States has a critical responsibility to address the degradation and loss of coral reef

ecosystems that may arise from commerce in coral reefs species and products. Following

are some high priority actions intended to stem the adverse impacts of trade in coral and

coral reef resources:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.7)

Continue to actively participate in international and regional fora, including CITES,

APEC and ICRI, to address concerns relating to coral reef species trade and to raise

global and regional awareness of this problem and its solutions.

ÿ Continue consultations with coral exporting countries and other stakeholders to

assess the nature and extent of the problems associated with the trade in coral

reef species, to express U.S. government concern about the coral reef species

trade problem and discuss possible approaches to mitigate the negative impacts

of the trade.

ÿ Expand capacity-building efforts in countries with coral reefs to enforce relevant

laws and regulations, collect trade data, assess the status of reefs, evaluate the

impacts of extraction of reef resources, develop and implement sustainable

management plans, consider developing certification schemes and institute

alternative and environmentally sound collection practices and alternatives, such

as aquaculture and coral farming.

ÿ Improve domestic law enforcement of illegal coral reef species trade.

ÿ Work with various stakeholders to develop public education and awareness

materials aimed at reducing unsustainable harvest practices.

ÿ Work with the marine aquarium industry and various stakeholders to eliminate

destructive collection practices and reduce mortality during handling and

transportation of coral reef species.

ÿ Provide additional measures as appropriate to ensure that U.S. consumer

demand for marine aquarium organisms does not threaten the sustainability of

coral reef species and ecosystems. (See also section B7)
32

8. Improve Governmental Coordination and Accountability

Rationale and Need. Executive Order (E.O.) 13089 on Coral Reefs directs U.S.

government agencies to avoid actions and decisions that may harm coral reefs.

Specifically, federal agencies are required “to the extent permitted by law, to ensure that

actions they authorize, fund or carry out will not degrade the conditions of such

ecosystems.” This Presidential directive is particularly important given that many

potentially harmful activities (e.g., dredging, pollution discharge, fishing) are expressly

authorized, permitted or conducted by federal agencies under existing authorities and

programs. In addition, the E.O. specifies a number of other responsibilities involving

coordinated planning and review of actions affecting coral reefs. At present, however,

there exists no infrastructure to facilitate the implementation of Executive Order 13089

by federal agencies or their state and territorial conservation partners.

Plan of Action. To ensure that the conservation goals of E.O. 13089 are realized, the

Coral Reef Task Force will establish a small, interagency staff responsible for the

administrative aspects of coordinating the shared federal agency tasks of the Executive

Order. Key elements of this interagency staff’s role include:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.8

ÿ Coordinate the submission of Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plans by

CRTF member agencies

ÿ Coordinate joint planning and development of crosscutting budget initiatives on

coral reef conservation.

ÿ Coordinate the annual submission of agency reports of programs, policies and

actions.

ÿ Coordinate the process for the public inquiry about, and agency response to,

issues or concerns relating to federal agency actions and coral reef protection.

ÿ Working with the Council on Environmental Quality, assist member agencies and

other interested entities, when requested by the agency, to develop guidance for

the inclusion of coral reef protection in environmental documents prepared under

the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and Executive Order 12114.

ÿ Develop and implement a comprehensive outreach and education strategy for the

CRTF.

ÿ Implement specific actions at the regional, state, territorial and local levels to

strengthen the cohesive national strategy for coral reef conservation.
33

9. Create An Informed Public

Rationale and Need. Reducing human impacts to coral reefs often requires changing

our collective behavior, beliefs, values and decision making-criteria about when, how and

whether to conserve these vital ecosystems. Fundamental to the success of all of the Task

Force Working Group’s conservation strategies is an informed and engaged public,

including policy makers, industry representatives, non-governmental organizations and

the myriad of other stakeholders that, either directly or indirectly, affect coral reefs.

Numerous organizations have already done a grat deal of innovative work to educate

different constituencies about he importance of coral reef ecosystems and the need for

specific management actions. We must build upon these efforts, working with others to

increase awareness of coral reef conservation issues and inform specific target audiences

about how they can help protect coral reefs.

Plan of Action. Toward that end, the Coral Reef Task Force will conduct a focused,

multi-level outreach campaign designed to prevent further declines in coral reef health.

The campaign will build upon and coordinate current outreach efforts to:

ß raise general awareness, understanding, and appreciation of coral reef ecosystems;

ß inform decision-makers and the general public about accomplishments and

recommendations of the USCRTF;

ß create and distribute solution-focused outreach materials targeting specific

domestic and international threats and user-groups;

ß promote local and regional outreach efforts designed to raise awareness about the

importance of local coral reef resources and modify behaviors that affect reefs on a

local scale.

The CRTF will undertake the following activities to implement the Outreach and

Education strategy:

Key Conservation Objectives – Synthesizing Specific Action Items in Table B.9

ÿ Increase national and international awareness of the ecological, economic and

cultural importance of coral reefs.

ÿ Inform local and regional audiences of the linkage between their actions and local

coral reef health.

ÿ Educate specific user groups (e.g., fishers, vessel owners, divers, etc.) about ways

to minimize the impacts of their specific activity.

ÿ Provide information to coastal decision-makers to influence reef conservation

issues at the local, regional and national levels.
34

ÿ Increase awareness of and support for the actions proposed by the U.S. Coral Reef

Task Force.

ÿ Establish a CRTF Education Coordinator to act as a key member of the CRTF

Staff, and to plan and coordinate Task Force education efforts on a national and

local scale, including development of a competitive grants program to support

community-based coral protection activities

ÿ Utilize and build upon existing material and successful outreach activities

developed during the International Year of the Ocean and the Year of the Reef

campaigns within individual governmental agencies and NGOs

ÿ Work with NGOs, Federal agencies, educational institutions, States and

Territories, and the scientific community to compile a compendium of general

information that currently exists on coral reef resources.

ÿ Coordinate with all national and international campaigns focused on protecting

coral reefs.
i

APPENDIX A

EXECUTIVE ORDER 13089 –

CORAL REEF PROTECTION
ii

THE WHITE HOUSE

Office of the Press Secretary

___________________________________________________________________

For Immediate Release June 11, 1998

EXECUTIVE ORDER 13089

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

CORAL REEF PROTECTION

 By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the

United States of America and in furtherance of the purposes of the Clean Water Act of

1977, as amended (33 U.S.C. 1251, et seq.), Coastal Zone Management Act (16 U.S.C.

1451, et seq.), Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 U.S.C.

1801, et seq.), National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321,

et seq.), National Marine Sanctuaries Act, (16 U.S.C. 1431, et seq.), National Park

Service Organic Act (16 U.S.C. 1, et seq.), National Wildlife Refuge System

Administration Act (16 U.S.C. 668dd-ee), and other pertinent statutes, to preserve and

protect the biodiversity, health, heritage, and social and economic value of U.S. coral reef

ecosystems and the marine environment, it is hereby ordered as follows:

 Section 1. Definitions. (a) "U.S. coral reef ecosystems" means those species,

habitats, and other natural resources associated with coral reefs in all maritime areas and

zones subject to the jurisdiction or control of the United States (e.g., Federal, State,

territorial, or commonwealth waters), including reef systems in the south Atlantic,

Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific Ocean. (b) "U.S. Coral Reef Initiative" is an

existing partnership between Federal agencies and State, territorial, commonwealth, and

local governments, nongovernmental organizations, and commercial interests to design

and implement additional management, education, monitoring, research, and restoration

efforts to conserve coral reef ecosystems for the use and enjoyment of future generations.

The existing U.S. Islands Coral Reef Initiative strategy covers approximately 95 percent

of U.S. coral reef ecosystems and is a key element of the overall U.S. Coral Reef

Initiative. (c) "International Coral Reef Initiative" is an existing partnership, founded by

the United States in 1994, of governments, intergovernmental organizations, multilateral

development banks, nongovernmental organizations, scientists, and the private sector

whose purpose is to mobilize governments and other interested parties whose

coordinated, vigorous, and effective actions are required to address the threats to the

world's coral reefs.
iii

 Sec. 2. Policy. (a) All Federal agencies whose actions may affect U.S. coral reef

ecosystems shall: (a) identify their actions that may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems; (b)

utilize their programs and authorities to protect and enhance the conditions of such

ecosystems; and (c) to the extent permitted by law, ensure that any actions they authorize,

fund, or carry out will not degrade the conditions of such ecosystems.

 (b) Exceptions to this section may be allowed under terms prescribed by the heads of

Federal agencies:

 (1) during time of war or national emergency;

 (2) when necessary for reasons of national security, as determined by the President;

 (3) during emergencies posing an unacceptable threat to human health or safety or to

the marine environment and admitting of no other feasible solution; or

 (4) in any case that constitutes a danger to human life or a real threat to vessels,

aircraft, platforms, or other man-made structures at sea, such as cases of force majeure

caused by stress of weather or other act of God.

 Sec. 3. Federal Agency Responsibilities. In furtherance of section 2 of this order,

Federal agencies whose actions affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems, shall, subject to the

availability of appropriations, provide for implementation of measures needed to

research, monitor, manage, and restore affected ecosystems, including, but not limited to,

measures reducing impacts from pollution, sedimentation, and fishing. To the extent not

inconsistent with statutory responsibilities and procedures, these measures shall be

developed in cooperation with the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force and fishery management

councils and in consultation with affected States, territorial, commonwealth, tribal, and

local government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, the scientific community,

and commercial interests.

 Sec. 4. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. The Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary

of Commerce, through the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, shall co-chair a U.S. Coral Reef Task Force ("Task Force"), whose

members shall include, but not be limited to, the Administrator of the Environmental

Protection Agency, the Attorney General, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of

Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of State,

the Secretary of Transportation, the Director of the National Science Foundation, the

Administrator of the Agency for International Development, and the Administrator of the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Task Force shall oversee

implementation of the policy and Federal agency responsibilities set forth in this order,

and shall guide and support activities under the U.S. Coral Reef Initiative ("CRI"). All

Federal agencies whose actions may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems shall review their

participation in the CRI and the strategies developed under it, including strategies and

plans of State, territorial, commonwealth, and local governments, and, to the extent

feasible, shall enhance Federal participation and support of such strategies and plans.
iv

The Task Force shall work in cooperation with State, territorial, commonwealth, and

local government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, the scientific community,

and commercial interests.

 Sec. 5. Duties of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force.

(a) Coral Reef Mapping and Monitoring. The Task Force, in cooperation with State,

territory, commonwealth, and local government partners, shall coordinate a

comprehensive program to map and monitor U.S. coral reefs. Such programs shall

include, but not be limited to, territories and commonwealths, special marine protected

areas such as National Marine Sanctuaries, National Estuarine Research Reserves,

National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and other entities having significant coral reef

resources. To the extent feasible, remote sensing capabilities shall be developed and

applied to this program and local communities should be engaged in the design and

conduct of programs.

(b) Research. The Task Force shall develop and implement, with the scientific

community, research aimed at identifying the major causes and consequences of

degradation of coral reef ecosystems. This research shall include fundamental scientific

research to provide a sound framework for the restoration and conservation of coral reef

ecosystems worldwide. To the extent feasible, existing and planned environmental

monitoring and mapping programs should be linked with scientific research activities.

This Executive order shall not interfere with the normal conduct of scientific studies on

coral reef ecosystems.

(c) Conservation, Mitigation, and Restoration. The Task Force, in cooperation with

State, territorial, commonwealth, and local government agencies, nongovernmental

organizations, the scientific community and commercial interests, shall develop,

recommend, and seek or secure implementation of measures necessary to reduce and

mitigate coral reef ecosystem degradation and to restore damaged coral reefs. These

measures shall include solutions to problems such as land-based sources of water

pollution, sedimentation, detrimental alteration of salinity or temperature, over-fishing,

over-use, collection of coral reef species, and direct destruction caused by activities such

as recreational and commercial vessel traffic and treasure salvage. In developing these

measures, the Task Force shall review existing legislation to determine whether

additional legislation is necessary to complement the policy objectives of this order and

shall recommend such legislation if appropriate. The Task Force shall further evaluate

existing navigational aids, including charts, maps, day markers, and beacons to determine

if the designation of the location of specific coral reefs should be enhanced through the

use, revision, or improvement of such aids.

(d) International Cooperation. The Secretary of State and the Administrator of the

Agency for International Development, in cooperation with other members of the Coral

Reef Task Force and drawing upon their expertise, shall assess the U.S. role in

international trade and protection of coral reef species and implement appropriate
v

strategies and actions to promote conservation and sustainable use of coral reef resources

worldwide. Such actions shall include expanded collaboration with other International

Coral Reef Initiative ("ICRI") partners, especially governments, to implement the ICRI

through its Framework for Action and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network at

regional, national, and local levels.

 Sec. 6. This order does not create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural,

enforceable in law or equity by a party against the United States, its agencies, its officers,

or any person.

WILLIAM J. CLINTON

THE WHITE HOUSE,

June 11, 1998.

# # #
vi

APPENDIX B

CORAL REEF TASK FORCE

PARTICIPANTS
vii

CORAL REEF TASK FORCE MEMBERS

Honorable Bruce Babbitt, Co-Chair

Secretary of the Interior 

Honorable William M. Daley, Co-Chair

Secretary of Commerce

Honorable Carol M. Browner

Administrator

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Honorable Janet Reno

Attorney General

Department of Justice

Honorable William S. Cohen

Secretary of Defense

Honorable Madeleine K. Albright

Secretary of State

Honorable Daniel R. Glickman

Secretary of Agriculture

Honorable Rodney E. Slater

Secretary of Transportation

Honorable Daniel S. Goldin

Administrator

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Honorable J. Brady Anderson

Administrator

U.S. Agency for International

Development

Honorable Rita R. Colwell

Director, National Science Foundation

Honorable Benjamin J. Cayetano

Governor of Hawaii

Honorable Jeb Bush

Governor of Florida

Honorable Carl T.C. Gutierrez

Governor of Guam

Honorable Pedro J. Rossello

Governor of the Commonwealth of

Puerto Rico

Honorable Charles W. Turnbull

Governor of the U.S. Virgin Islands

Honorable Pedro P. Tenorio 

Governor of the Commonwealth of the

Northern Mariana Islands

Honorable Tauese P.F. Sunia

Governor of American Samoa
viii

PRINCIPAL REPRESENTATIVES OF FEDERAL AGENCIES

Department of Commerce

Robert Mallett

Deputy Secretary of Commerce

Dr. D. James Baker

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Sally J. Yozell

Deputy Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Department of the Interior

 Donald J. Barry

 Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks

 Stephen Saunders

 Deputy Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks

 Dr. William Y. Brown

 Science Advisor to the Secretary

Department of Agriculture

Glenda Humiston

Deputy Under Secretary

Department of Justice

Lois Schiffer

Assistant Attorney General

Department of Transportation

CAPT Robert Ross

US Coast Guard
ix

Department of State

Brooks Yeager

Deputy Assistant Secretary for Environment

U.S. Agency for International Development

David Hales

Deputy Assistant Administrator

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

J. Charles Fox

Assistant Administrator for Water

Department of Defense

Robert B. Pirie

Assistant Secretary of the Navy – Installations and Environment

Elsie Munsell

Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Navy – Environment and Safety

Dr. Joseph W. Westphal

Assistant Secretary of the Army – Civil Works

Michael Davis

Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army – Civil Works

National Science Foundation

Dr. Mary E. Clutter

Assistant Director for Biological Science

National Aeronautics and Space Aministration

Dr. John Marra

Program Manager
x

PRINCIPAL REPRESENTATIVES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES

American Samoa

Lelei Peau

Director

Department of Commerce

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

Peter Barlas

Coastal Resources Management Office

Florida

Robert. G. Ballard

Deputy Secretary

Department of Environmental Protection

Guam

Michael Ham (to Nov. 1999)

Director

Guam Coastal Zone Management Program

Hawai’i

William S. Devick

Administrator

Division of Aquatic Resources

Puerto Rico

Danial Pagan

Secretary

Department of Natural and Environmental Resources
xi

U.S. Virgin Islands

Dean Plaskett

Commissioner

Department of Natural Resources

Janice Hodge

Department of Planning and Natural Resources

PRIMARY STAFF FOR CRTF FEDERAL AGENCIES

Department of Commerce

Roger B. Griffis

Dr. Charles M. Wahle

Dr. Michael P. Crosby (at USAID as of 11/99)

Jeffrey R. Benoit

Eric Denny

Department of the Interior

Molly N. Ross

Dr. Karen Koltes

Department of Defense

CDR. Barry Stamey

CDR Carole Gaasch

Department of Agriculture

Howard Hankin

Department of Transportation

CAPT Robert Ross

Department of State

Dr. Jamie Reaser

Roberta Chew

Environmental Protection Agency

Robert Wayland

Macara Lousberg

Debora Martin

US Agency for International Development

Dr. Barbara Best

National Science Foundation

Dr. Phillip Taylor
xii

CRTF WORKING GROUP CHAIRS

Ecosystem Science and Conservation

Dr. Karen Koltes

Department of the Interior

Coastal Uses

Jeffrey R. Benoit

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Department of Commerce

Mapping and Information Synthesis

Dr. Mark Monaco

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Department of Commerce

Dr. Gene Feldman

National Aeronautic and Space Administration

Dr. J. Williams

U.S. Geological Survey

Department of the Interior

Water and Air Quality

J. Charles Fox

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

International

David Hales

U.S. Agency for International Development

Brooks Yeager

Department of State
xiii

All U.S. Islands Coral Reef Initiative

Michael L. Ham

Guam Coastal Management Program (to November 1999)

Lelei Peau

American Samoa Coastal Management Program

Outreach and Education

Athline Clark

State of Hawai’i

Matt Stout

Department of Commerce / NOAA

Howard Hankin

Department of Agriculture / NRCS

ACTION PLAN EDITORIAL TEAM

Core Team

Dr. Charles M. Wahle

Team Leader and Principal Writer

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Roger B. Griffis

Office of Policy and Strategic Planning

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Molly N. Ross

Office of the Secretary

Department of the Interior

Gini Kennedy

Graphics Designer

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
xiv

Draft Action Plan Team

Jeffrey R. Benoit

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Eric Denny

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Dr. Karen Koltes

Department of the Interior, OIA

Marla A. Steinhoff

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Final Action Plan Team

Dr. Barbara Best

U.S. Agency for International Development

Howard Hankin

Department of Agriculture, NRCS

Dr. Tom Hourigan

Department of Commerce, NOAA

CDR Carole Gaasche

Department of Defense, USN

Dr. Karen Koltes

Department of the Interior, OIA

Debra Martin

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Dr. Mark Monaco

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Lelei Peau

American Samoa, Coastal Management Program

Dr. Steve Rohmann

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Kelly Shotts

Department of Commerce, NOAA
xv

Ashley Simons

Department of the Interior, OIA

CDR Barry Stamey

Department of Defense, USN

Matt Stout

Department of Commerce, NOAA

Lisa Symons

Department of Commerce, NOAA