Number 334 August 2007

Traffic Safety Facts

Traffic Tech – Technology Transfer Series

U.S. Department of Transportation 1200 New Jersey Avenue SE., Washington, DC 20590

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

This compendium provides an overview of the National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration pedestrian and

bicycle safety research program. It covers the research

produced by the Office of Behavioral Safety Research and its

predecessor organizations from the inception of the program

in 1969 through 2007. Some work done by the Federal

Highway Administration (FHWA) is also included when it

was coordinated with or based on the NHTSA program.

Inthelate1960s,aresearchdecisionbyNHTSAfundamentally

altered the way in which pedestrian and bicycle crashes were

analyzed and addressed by countermeasures. The decision

involved trying to disaggregate all pedestrian crashes into

specific crash types with similar behavioral causes. The

resulting study by Snyder and Knoblauch (1971)1 has been

the cornerstone of NHTSA’s pedestrian research program

ever since.

Since the publication of the Snyder and Knoblauch report,

numerous studies have been conducted using crash types

as a focus. Many efforts were directed at the development

of specific interventions for the identified types. Other

studies dealt with uncovering a better understanding of

the crash types themselves, including any differences as a

function of locale (urban, suburban, rural) or any changes

over time. Emulating the successful approach of the work on

pedestrian-related crashes, NHTSA then repeated the crash

type identification process for bicycle/motor vehicle crashes

in a landmark study by Cross and Fisher (1977)2

.

The generation of crash taxonomies was a productive first

step forthe NHTSApedestrian and bicycle research program.

In addition, the decision to base the taxonomies on the

behaviors of the crash participants—pedestrians, bicyclists,

and drivers—proved critical in making the resulting crash

types particularly useful as a basis for development of

countermeasures. Simply, by focusing on the defined types,

countermeasures were in essence dealing directly with the

underlying behavioral errors that caused them. This is true

regardless of whether the countermeasure itself consisted

of engineering, education, or enforcement components or a

combination thereof.

Once crash types were defined, the NHTSA research

program turned to the development and evaluation of

countermeasures based on education and enforcement, the

two areas for which NHTSA has primary responsibility.

Simultaneously, FHWA focused on engineering approaches

to crash prevention. Together, these initial forays into

prevention efforts produced both useful products and a

better understanding of the basic behaviors needed to avoid

crashes. Perhaps the most fundamental of the principles

identified was the preeminent importance of the search

function for crash avoidance. The benefit of a left-right-left

search pattern for everyone in the traffic environment was

identified as a critical basic behavior.

The compendium begins with a description of the structure

andphilosophyoftheNHTSApedestrianandbicycleresearch

programs.Itis followedbyasectionthatdescribes theresearch

on the development of taxonomies of crash types since the

results of that research formed the foundation for most of the

subsequent NHTSA pedestrian and bicycle research studies.

The document then provides a chronological listing of major

activities that occurred in the decades spanned by NHTSA’s

research programs and discusses lessons learned for future

pedestrian and bicycle research.

An appendix contains abstracts of relevant research in

a standardized format. Synopses of research studies are

presented under the following topical categories:

n	 Problem identification

n	 Technology/tools

n	 Program reviews and syntheses

n	 Public awareness

n	 Conspicuity/visibility

n	 Countermeasures

n	 Alcohol

n	 Speed

n	 Children

n	 Older adults

A Compendium of NHTSA Pedestrian and Bicyclist 

Traffic Safety Research Projects, 1969-2007
TRAFFIC TECH is a publication to disseminate information

about traffic safety programs, including evaluations, innovative

programs, and new publications. Feel free to copy it as you wish.

If you would like to receive a copy, contact Patricia Ellison-Potter,

Ph.D., Editor, fax 202-366-7096, e-mail: traffic.tech@dot.gov.

Also included in an appendix are lists of pedestrian and

bicyclist crash types as they have evolved over the years.

A reference section provides documents identified in the

compendium. Finally, an index of authors and principal

subject matter is provided to assist the user in identifying

research of interest.

The compendium represents a revision, consolidation, and

update of two draft reports originally prepared for NHTSA

by Safety Consulting Services.

1 Snyder, M.B., & Knoblauch, R.L. Pedestrian Safety: 

The Identification of Precipitating Factors and Possible 

Countermeasures, Volume I. Final Report, DOT HS-800 403,

January 1971. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration.

2 Cross, K.D., & Fisher, G. A Study of Bicycle/Motor-Vehicle 

Accidents: Identification of Problem Types and Countermeasure 

Approaches. Volume 1. Final Report, DOT-HS-803 315,

September 1977. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration.

How to Order

For a copy of A Compendium of NHTSA Pedestrian and Bicyclist 

Traffic Safety Research Projects, 1969-2006 (36 pages plus

appendices) write to the Office of Behavioral Safety Research,

NHTSA, NTI-130, 1200 New Jersey Avenue SE., Washington

DC 20590, send a fax to 202-366-7096, or download from

http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov. Marvin Levy, Ph.D., was the

project officer.

1200 New Jersey Avenue SE., NTI-130

Washington, DC 20590