Forest

Service

General Technical

Report NRS-45

United States 

Department of

Agriculture

Photo Guide 

for Estimating Fuel Loading and

Fire Behavior in Mixed-Oak

Forests of the Mid-Atlantic Region
Cover photos: Mountain laurel and logging slash fuel types and their observed fire behavior during prescribed burning.

All photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service.

Abstract

A field guide of 45 pairs of photographs

depicting ericaceous shrub, leaf litter,

and logging slash fuel types of eastern

oak forests and observed fire behavior of

these fuel types during prescribed

burning. The guide contains instructions

on how to use the photo guide to choose

appropriate fuel models for prescribed

fire planning. 

The Author

Patrick H. Brose is a research forester

with the U.S. Forest Service’s Northern

Research Station at Irvine, Pennsylvania. 
Manuscript received for publication 

December 2008

Published by:

USDA FOREST SERVICE

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200

NEWTOWN SQUARE, PA 19073-3200

May 2009

For additional copies:

USDA Forest Service

Publications Distribution

359 Main Road

Delaware, OH 43015

Fax: 740-368-0152

Visit our website: 

www.nrs.fs.fed.us

Patrick H. Brose

Photo Guide for Estimating

Fuel Loading and Fire

Behavior in Mixed-Oak

Forests of the Mid-Atlantic

Region
2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

How to use this photo guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Leaf Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Ericaceous Shrub. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Logging Slash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Contents

3
Throughout the eastern United States, prescribed fire is a

new practice to help regenerate mixed-oak (Quercus spp.)

forests (Yaussy 2000, Dickinson 2006, Hutchinson 2009).

In this capacity, prescribed fire functions as a site

preparation tool in mature stands, helping establish new

oak seedlings from acorns, or as a release agent in

shelterwoods and clearcuts, freeing existing oak

reproduction from competing vegetation (Brose and others

2006, Brose and others 2008). Because burning in mixedoak forests is a new concept, many resource managers

lack experience in planning and conducting prescribed

fires in this forest type. This lack of experience is

especially pronounced in terms of estimating fuel loadings

in the different fuel types commonly found in mixed-oak

forests and predicting their expected fire behavior for

given weather conditions. Photo guides can help resource

managers overcome unfamiliarity with oak forest fuels

and their fire behavior tendencies and aid in the

preparation of sound prescribed fire plans.

This photo guide is a sequence of photographs and

accompanying data that depict a variety of common fuel

conditions. The photos provide a quick and easy means to

quantify wildland fuels for a particular forest type or plant

community. Photo guides are common in the southern and

western states (Wade and others 1993, Scholl and

Waldrop 1999, Ottmar and others 2000), but few exist for

eastern oak forests. Wilcox and others (1982) published a

small, single-photo guide for the northern hardwood and

oak-hickory types in Pennsylvania. It focused on woody

fuels in undisturbed mature stands. A similar style guide

of pine-dominated forests included a few photos of firedisturbed stands (Lynch and Horton 1983). Sanders and

Van Lear (1988) published a paired photo (preburn and

postburn) guide of mixed pine-oak clearcuts in the

southern Appalachian region of South Carolina. More

recently, photo series of the Great Lakes and Northeast

regions contained some photographs and fuels data for

mixed-oak forests (Ottmar and Vihnanek 1999, Wright and

others 2006). Unfortunately, none of these photo guides

contained many photos or much fuels data either from oak

stands containing ericaceous shrubs [blueberry (Vaccinium

spp.), huckleberry (Gayluscia spp.), mountain laurel

(Kalmia latifolia)] or oak stands that had been partially or

completely harvested. 

This photo guide will assist forest managers in planning

prescribed fires in mixed-oak stands by simplifying fuels

inventories; identifying appropriate standard fuel models

for ericaceous shrub, leaf litter, and logging slash fuels;

predicting probable minimum and maximum fire behavior

for these fuel types; and providing sufficiently detailed

fuels data for the development of custom fuel models,

when needed. 

Methods

This photo guide was developed from 11 mixed-oak

stands on federal and state land in New Jersey and

Pennsylvania that received a single prescribe burn

between 2002 and 2008. These stands were dominated by

the five upland oak species [black (Q. velutina), chestnut

(Q. montana), northern red (Q. rubra), scarlet (Q. coccinea),

and white (Q. alba)], and also contained associated

species such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia), black

birch (Betula lenta), black cherry (Prunus serotina), eastern

hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), pitch pine (Pinus rigida), red

maple (Acer rubrum), white pine (Pinus strobus), and

yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), depending on site

quality. Generally, these stands were partially stocked

(basal areas ranged from 70 to 110 ft2

/ac) due to past

disturbances or recent timber harvesting. 

Introduction

4
Prior to burning, each stand was scouted for uniform areas

(fuel beds) of ericaceous shrubs, leaf litter, and logging

slash that exceeded 40 ft by 40 ft in size and were

unchanging in aspect and slope. In the center of each fuel

bed, a 30 ft by 30 ft plot was established and inventoried

for fuel loading, height, and cover. Woody fuels were

inventoried by the time-lag size classes described by

Fosberg (1970) along fifteen 15-ft transects that uniformly

transversed the plot. Woody fuel counts were converted to

tons/ac loadings using the standard equations (Brown

1974). Fuel height was measured to the nearest 0.1 ft at

the midpoint of each transect. Litter and shrub loadings

were determined by collecting these materials from a 1.2

yd2 quadrat at the end of every third transect, drying them

at 75 °C to a constant weight, and weighing them to the

nearest 0.1 ounce. Fuel cover was determined by standing

in the center of each plot and visually estimating the

proportion of the plot covered by leaf litter and shrubs.

A permanent photopoint was established approximately 30

ft from each fuels plot on the downhill side. From this

position, a preburn photo was taken of each fuels plot from

a height of 6 ft with a tripod-mounted Canon EOS Elan

camera using a 35-mm lens. Generally, photos were taken

several days before each burn and in overcast conditions. 

During the prescribed fires, weather conditions (air

temperature, relative humidity, wind direction, wind speed,

and cloud cover) were measured every 15 minutes with a

belt-weather kit (Forestry Suppliers, Jackson, MS).

Moisture content for 10-hour fuels was determined

immediately before each burn with a wood moisture meter

(Forestry Suppliers, Jackson, MS). Also during the

prescribed burns, the flaming front was photographed or

videotaped as it passed through or near the plots. Flame

length was estimated from these photographs by using the

diameter of overstory trees to estimate flame length to the

nearest foot. Rate-of-spread was calculated by placing a

thermocouple and data logger (Onset Computer Corp.,

Bourne, MA) in the corners and center of each plot. These

devices measured the time (seconds) and temperature

(degrees Fahrenheit) during the prescribed burn and this

data allowed calculation of rate-of-spread in ft/min as the

flaming front passed through the plot. Generally, three to

five flame-length and rate-of-spread calculations were

made for each plot. 

The fuels data and weather readings were used in

BehavePlus 3.0 (Andrews and others 2005) to identify

which of the fuel models described by Anderson (1982)

most closely predicted the average fire behavior recorded

during the prescribed burns. Also, two additional fuel

models were selected based on their outputs reflecting the

minimum and maximum fire behavior measured during the

prescribed burns.

5
This guide consists of 45 pairs of photos and

accompanying data. They are arranged by fuel type 

(5 leaf litter, 20 ericaceous shrub, 20 logging slash) and in

order of increasing fuel loading within each fuel type. In

each pair, the upper photo shows the fuels plot before

burning and the lower photo shows fire behavior in or

near the fuels plot. On the facing page are three tables

containing site information, fuels characteristics, and

weather/fire behavior data. 

To use this photo guide, scout a proposed burn unit in a

systematic manner. As you encounter areas of the three

fuel types, look through the guide and select a photo that

closely resembles the fuels you observe. The fire photo

shows the type of fire behavior you can expect given the

data provided in the three tables. The fuels table also

contains the three fuel models that produced BEHAVEgenerated fire behavior predictions matching the average,

minimum, and maximum flame lengths and rates of

spread recorded during the burns. If a more specific fire

behavior prediction is needed, the site information and

fuels data can be used in BEHAVE to produce a custom

fuel model. Sometimes, no photo perfectly depicts the

field condition. In those cases, select a pair of photos that

appear to bracket the observed fuels. 

Remember that a photo guide is an elementary aid for

estimating fuel characteristics and predicting fire

behavior. Many additional factors influence fire behavior

so users should be advised that this guide depicts only a

few of the possible situations. Also, this guide is

designed for low-intensity fall and moderate- to highintensity spring prescribed fires. Burns conducted at other

times of the year and under different topography and

weather conditions will likely produce different fire

behavior from that depicted in this guide.

How to use this photo guide

Photos/data are arranged

by fuel type (5 leaf litter,

20 ericaceous shrub, 20

logging slash) and in order

of increasing fuel loading

within each fuel type. 

The upper photo shows the

fuels plot before burning

and the lower photo shows

fire behavior in or near the

fuels plot. 

6
Acknowledgments

The National Park Service, Pennsylvania Bureau of 

Forestry, Pennsylvania Game Commission, and the U.S.

Forest Service assisted in locating the stands used in this

project and conducted the prescribed fires. Special thanks

are due to Wendy Andersen, Brent Carlson, Josh Hanson,

Lance Meyen, Ty Ryen, and Greg Sanford for the fuels

inventories. This research was partially funded by the U.S.

Forest Service through the Joint Fire Science Program and

the National Fire Plan.

References

Anderson, H.E. 1982. Aids to determining fuel models for

estimating fire behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-122.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 22 p.

Andrews, P.L.; Bevins, C.D.; Seli, R.C. 2005. BehavePlus fire

modeling system version 3.0: User’s guide. Gen. Tech.

Rep. RMRS-106. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research

Station. 130 p.

Brose, P.H.; Schuler, T.M.; Ward, J.S. 2006. Responses of

oak and other hardwood regeneration to prescribed

fire: what we know as of 2005. In: Dickinson, M.B., ed.

Fire in eastern oak forests: delivering science to land

managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square,

PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Northern Research Station: 123-135.

Brose, P.H.; Gottschalk, K.W.; Horsley, S.B.; Knopp, P.D.;

Kochenderfer, J.N.; McGuinness, B.J.; Miller, G.W.; Ristau,

T.E.; Stoleson, S.H.; Stout, S.L. 2008. Prescribing

regeneration treatments for mixed-oak forests of

the mid-Atlantic region. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-33.

Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 100 p.

Brown, J.K. 1974. Handbook for inventorying downed

woody material. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-16. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p.

Dickinson, M.B., ed. 2006. Fire in eastern oak forests:

delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech.

Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station.

303 p.

7
Fosberg, M.A. 1970. Drying rates of wood below fiber

saturation. Forest Science. 16: 57-63.

Hutchinson, Todd F., ed. 2009. Proceedings of the 3rd fire

in eastern oak forests conference; 2008 May 20-22;

Carbondale, IL. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-46. Newtown

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northern Research Station. 154 p. 

Lynch, C.M.; Horton, L.J. 1983. Photo series for

quantifying forest residues in loblolly pine, eastern

white pine, pitch pine, and Virginia pine. For. Rep.

NA-FR-25. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private

Forestry. 69 p.

Ottmar, R.D.; Vihnanek, R.E. 1999. Stereo photo series for

quantifying natural fuels. Volume V: midwest red

and white pine, northern tallgrass prairie, and

mixed oak types in the Central and Lake States.

Publication Management System 834. Boise, ID: National

Wildfire Coordinating Group, National Interagency Fire

Center. 99 p.

Ottmar, R.D.; Vihnanek, R.E.; Wright, C.S. 2000. Stereo

photo series for quantifying natural fuels. Volume

III: Lodgepole pine, quaking aspen, and gambel oak

types in the Rocky Mountains. Publication

Management System 832. Boise, ID: National Wildfire

Coordinating Group, National Interagency Fire Center. 

85 p.

Sanders, B.M.; Van Lear, D.H. 1988. Photos for estimating

residue loadings before and after burning in

Southern Appalachian mixed pine-hardwood

clearcuts. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-49. Asheville, NC: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern

Forest Experiment Station. 21 p.

Scholl, E.R.; Waldrop, T.A. 1988. Photos for estimating fuel

loadings before and after prescribed burning in the

upper coastal plain of the southeast. Gen. Tech. Rep.

SRS-26. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 25 p.

Wade, D.D.; Forbus, J.K.; Saveland, J.M. 1993. Photo series

for estimating post-hurricane residues and fire

behavior in southern pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-82.

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 19 p.

Wilcox, F.; McCarty, J.; Bungard, B. 1982. Photo series for

quantifying forest residues in the northern hardwood

type, oak-hickory type. For. Rep. NA-FR-22. Broomall, PA:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. 43 p.

Wright, C.S.; Ottmar, R.D.; Vihnanek, R.E. 2006. Stereo photo

series for quantifying natural fuels, Volume VIII:

hardwood, pitch pine, and red spruce/balsam fir

types in the northeastern United States. Publication

Management System 840. Boise, ID: National Wildfire

Coordinating Group, National Interagency Fire Center. 91 p.

Yaussy, D.A., comp. 2000. Fire, people, and the central

hardwood landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-274.

Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 129 p.

8
Leaf Litter 

9
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Allegheny National Forest, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 118 trees/acre; basal area 87 feet/acre; stocking 53 percent

Overstory composition Red maple, northern red oak, chestnut oak, white oak

Aspect/elevation/slope Northeast; 1,900 feet; 7 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 0.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.2 feet

10-hour woody 1.3 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 11 percent

100-hour woody 0.9 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 9

Total fuels 6.6 tons/acre Min/max Fuel Models 8, 2

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 79 °F Burn date/time 09 May 2005, 1600

Relative humidity 22 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Southwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 4 miles/hour Flame lengths 0.5 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 4 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 2, trace

Leaf Litter 1

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service

Allegheny

National Forest

11
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Allegheny National Forest, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 118 trees/acre; basal area 87 feet/acre; stocking 53 percent

Overstory composition Red maple, northern red oak, chestnut oak, white oak

Aspect/elevation/slope Northeast; 1,900 feet; 7 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 0.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.2 feet

10-hour woody 1.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 11 percent

100-hour woody 1.3 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 9

Total fuels 7.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 8, 2

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 79 °F Burn date/time 09 May 2005, 1600

Relative humidity 22 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Southwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 4 miles/hour Flame lengths 0.5 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 4 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 2, trace

Leaf Litter 2

Allegheny

National Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 13
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Allegheny National Forest, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 118 trees/acre; basal area 87 feet/acre; stocking 53 percent

Overstory composition Red maple, northern red oak, chestnut oak, white oak

Aspect/elevation/slope Northeast; 1,900 feet; 7 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.4 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.3 feet

10-hour woody 1.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 11 percent

100-hour woody 2.4 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 9

Total fuels 8.4 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 8, 2

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 79 °F Burn date/time 09 May 2005, 1600

Relative humidity 23 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Southwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 4 miles/hour Flame lengths 0.5 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 2, trace

Leaf Litter 3

Allegheny

National Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 15
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 153 trees/acre; basal area 112 feet/acre; stocking 73 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, yellow-poplar

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,650 feet; 15 percent

Stand history Shelterwood preparatory cut (whole-tree harvest) in 2000

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.2 feet

10-hour woody 1.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 5 percent

100-hour woody 2.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 9

Total fuels 9.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 8, 2

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 83 °F Burn date/time 10 May 2005, 1000

Relative humidity 17 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 3 to 5 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 6 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 8, 0.1 inch

Leaf Litter 4

Clear Creek

State Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 17
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Allegheny National Forest, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 77 trees/acre; basal area 83 feet/acre; stocking 47 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, chestnut oak, white oak

Aspect/elevation/slope Northwest; 1,950 feet; 5 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.3 feet

10-hour woody 2.3 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 12 percent

100-hour woody 2.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 9

Total fuels 10.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 8, 2

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 66 °F Burn date/time 06 May 2005, 1430

Relative humidity 40 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Southwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 30 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.1 inch

Leaf Litter 5

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 19

Allegheny

National Forest
20
Ericaceous Shrub

21
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 252 trees/acre; basal area 138 feet/acre; stocking 96 percent 

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, yellow-poplar

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,750 feet; 2 percent

Stand history No management for several decades

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.2 tons/acre Shrub cover 75 percent

10-hour woody 1.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.5 feet

100-hour woody 0.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 7 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 9.5 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 83 °F Burn date/time 10 May 2005, 1000

Relative humidity 17 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 3 to 5 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 6 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 8, 0.1 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 1

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 23

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.6 tons/acre Shrub cover 75 percent

10-hour woody 3.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.7 feet

100-hour woody 2.3 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 12.4 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57 °F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 3 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 2

Delaware State

Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 25
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.8 tons/acre Litter cover 95 percent

1-hour woody 3.2 tons/acre Shrub cover 70 percent

10-hour woody 3.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.8 feet

100-hour woody 4.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 13.7 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57°F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 3

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service

Delaware State

Forest

27
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, buckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.2 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.7 tons/acre Shrub cover 85 percent

10-hour woody 3.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.1 feet

100-hour woody 4.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 14.5 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57 °F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 4

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 29

Delaware State

Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware Water Gap NRA, Sussex County, New Jersey

Overstory metrics 114 trees/acre; basal area 79 feet/acre; stocking 62 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, red maple, pitch pine

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope West; 1,270 feet; 8 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality in late 1980s and mid 1990s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.2 tons/acre Shrub cover 90 percent

10-hour woody 2.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.3 feet

100-hour woody 5.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 15.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 54 °F Burn date/time 16 Nov 2004, 1400

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 10 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 5

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 31

Delaware

Water Gap

NRA
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.7 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.0 tons/acre Shrub cover 70 percent

10-hour woody 3.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.6 feet

100-hour woody 5.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 16.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57 °F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 6

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 33

Delaware State

Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware Water Gap NRA, Sussex County, New Jersey

Overstory metrics 114 trees/acre; basal area 79 feet/acre; stocking 62 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, red maple, pitch pine

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope West; 1,270 feet; 8 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality in late 1980s and mid 1990s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.3 tons/acre Litter cover 95 percent

1-hour woody 3.7 tons/acre Shrub cover 80 percent

10-hour woody 2.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.8 feet

100-hour woody 7.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 16.7 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 54 °F Burn date/time 16 Nov 2004, 1400

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 10 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 7

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 35

Delaware

Water Gap

NRA
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware Water Gap NRA, Sussex County, New Jersey

Overstory metrics 114 trees/acre; basal area 79 feet/acre; stocking 62 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, red maple, pitch pine

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope West; 1,270 feet; 8 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality in late 1980s and mid 1990s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.4 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.6 tons/acre Shrub cover 90 percent

10-hour woody 4.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.7 feet

100-hour woody 3.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 2.6 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 18.4 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 54 °F Burn date/time 16 Nov 2004, 1400

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 10 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 8

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 37

Delaware

Water Gap

NRA
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware Water Gap NRA, Sussex County, New Jersey

Overstory metrics 114 trees/acre; basal area 79 feet/acre; stocking 62 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, red maple, pitch pine

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope West; 1,270 feet; 8 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality in late 1980s and mid 1990s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.1 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.8 tons/acre Shrub cover 90 percent

10-hour woody 3.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.8 feet

100-hour woody 9.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 19.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 54 °F Burn date/time 16 Nov 2004, 1400

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 10 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 9

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 39

Delaware

Water Gap

NRA
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Bald Eagle State Forest, Centre County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 109 trees/acre; basal area 85 feet/acre; stocking 63 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope North; 1,850 feet; 17 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.3 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.7 tons/acre Shrub cover 85 percent

10-hour woody 3.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.2 feet

100-hour woody 8.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 19.5 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 71 °F Burn date/time 21 May 2002, 1200

Relative humidity 23 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 7, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 10

Bald Eagle

State Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 41
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.1 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 2.5 tons/acre Shrub cover 75 percent

10-hour woody 3.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.6 feet

100-hour woody 7.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 3.8 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 20.0 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57 °F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 11

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 43

Delaware State

Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Bald Eagle State Forest, Centre County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 109 trees/acre; basal area 85 feet/acre; stocking 63 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope North; 1,850 feet; 17 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.8 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.7 tons/acre Shrub cover 90 percent

10-hour woody 5.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.3 feet

100-hour woody 7.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 21.2 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 71 °F Burn date/time 21 May 2002, 1200

Relative humidity 23 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 7, 0.25 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 12

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 45

Bald Eagle

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Delaware State Forest, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 132 trees/acre; basal area 96 feet/acre; stocking 76 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, red maple

Understory composition Blueberry, huckleberry, mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope East; 1,325 feet; 11 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.6 tons/acre Shrub cover 90 percent

10-hour woody 3.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.6 feet

100-hour woody 9.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 14 percent

1,000-hour woody 0.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6

Total fuels 21.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 10

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 57 °F Burn date/time 09 Nov 2005, 1300

Relative humidity 31 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.3 inch

Ericaceous Shrub 13

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 47

Delaware State

Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 123 trees/acre; basal area 108 feet/acre; stocking 78 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,825 feet; 16 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 3.6 tons/acre Shrub cover 85 percent

10-hour woody 4.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.8 feet

100-hour woody 6.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 5.5 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 23.6 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 14

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 49

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 123 trees/acre; basal area 108 feet/acre; stocking 78 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,825 feet; 16 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.8 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.1 tons/acre Shrub cover 75 percent

10-hour woody 4.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.2 feet

100-hour woody 6.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 6.2 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 24.6 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 15

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 51

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 103 trees/acre; basal area 95 feet/acre; stocking 69 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,800 feet; 5 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.8 tons/acre Shrub cover 95 percent

10-hour woody 4.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 3.2 feet

100-hour woody 5.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 5.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 24.7 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 16

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 53

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 103 trees/acre; basal area 95 feet/acre; stocking 69 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,800 feet; 5 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.4 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.1 tons/acre Shrub cover 95 percent

10-hour woody 4.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 3.3 feet

100-hour woody 6.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 8.2 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 26.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 17

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 55

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 103 trees/acre; basal area 95 feet/acre; stocking 69 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,800 feet; 5 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 95 percent

10-hour woody 4.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 4.0 feet

100-hour woody 6.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 7.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 26.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 18

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 57

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 103 trees/acre; basal area 95 feet/acre; stocking 69 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,800 feet; 5 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.7 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.2 tons/acre Shrub cover 95 percent

10-hour woody 3.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 4.0 feet

100-hour woody 8.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 7.6 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 27.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 19

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 59

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Jefferson County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 103 trees/acre; basal area 95 feet/acre; stocking 69 percent

Overstory composition Chestnut oak, red maple, northern red oak, white oak 

Understory composition Mountain laurel 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,800 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Gypsy moth mortality and salvage harvest in late 1980s

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 4.8 tons/acre Shrub cover 95 percent

10-hour woody 5.3 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 4.5 feet

100-hour woody 5.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 15 percent

1,000-hour woody 9.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 5*

Total fuels 27.9 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10*, 4*

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 64 °F Burn date/time 01 May 2003, 1200

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction South Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 8 to 15 feet

Cloud cover 50 percent Rates of spread 5 to 10 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 3, 0.25 inch

* None of the 13 standard fuel models adequately characterize

mountain laurel. Developing a custom fuel model may be the 

most appropriate choice for this fuel type.

Ericaceous Shrub 20

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 61

Clear Creek

State Forest
62
Logging Slash 

63
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 0.9 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 3.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 0.8 feet

100-hour woody 3.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 1.5 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 12.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air Temperature 72 °F Burn date/time 19 Apr 2006, 1100

Relative humidity 27 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 2 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 1

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 65
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.6 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.0 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 3.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.5 feet

100-hour woody 3.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 18 percent

1,000-hour woody 3.6 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 14.5 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 72 °F Burn date/time 19 Apr 2006, 1100

Relative humidity 27 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 3 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 6 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 2

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 67
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.1 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 4.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.2 feet

100-hour woody 3.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 18 percent

1,000-hour woody 3.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 16.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 72 °F Burn date/time 19 Apr 2006, 1100

Relative humidity 27 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 3 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 1 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 3

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 69
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, Northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.1 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 2.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.5 feet

100-hour woody 6.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 18 percent

1,000-hour woody 4.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 18.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 72 °F Burn date/time 19 Apr 2006, 1100

Relative humidity 27 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 3 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 6 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 4

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 71
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Moshannon State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 2,300 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.6 tons/acre Shrub cover 20 percent

10-hour woody 3.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.2 feet

100-hour woody 5.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 5.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 18.7 tons/acre Min/Max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 70 °F Burn date/time 04 May 2004, 1300

Relative humidity 30 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 3 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2

Logging Slash 5

Moshannon

State Forest

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 73
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.7 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 0.8 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 2.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.5 feet

100-hour woody 7.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 18 percent

1,000-hour woody 6.3 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 19.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 72 °F Burn date/time 19 Apr 2006, 1100

Relative humidity 27 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 6

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 75
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Moshannon State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 2,300 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.2 tons/acre Shrub cover 20 percent

10-hour woody 2.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.2 feet

100-hour woody 5.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 17 percent

1,000-hour woody 8.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 20.2 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 70 °F Burn date/Time 04 May 2004, 1300

Relative humidity 30 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind Direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind Speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 1 to 3 feet

Cloud Cover 0 percent Rates of spread 2 to 5 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 7

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 77

Moshannon

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Moshannon State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 2,300 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2003

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.4 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.3 tons/acre Shrub cover 20 percent

10-hour woody 2.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.8 feet

100-hour woody 5.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 11 percent

1,000-hour woody 11.3 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 22.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 73 °F Burn date/time 06 May 2008, 1400

Relative humidity 26 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2

Logging Slash 8

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 79

Moshannon

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Moshannon State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 2,300 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2003

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 20 percent

10-hour woody 2.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.6 feet

100-hour woody 6.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 12 percent

1,000-hour woody 12.5 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 25.2 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 70 °F Burn date/time 06 May 2008, 1100

Relative humidity 30 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 9

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 81

Moshannon

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Venango County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 75 trees/acre; basal area 83 feet/acre; stocking 68 percent 

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Northern red oak, black birch, red maple, mixed fern 

Aspect/elevation/slope Southeast; 1,650 feet; 12 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.8 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 2.0 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 4.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.2 feet

100-hour woody 7.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 10.5 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 27.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 77 °F Burn date/time 07 May 2007, 1100

Relative humidity 35 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 6 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 5, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 10

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 83

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.6 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.3 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.3 feet

100-hour woody 5.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 18.5 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 28.2 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 68 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 1000

Relative humidity 34 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 3 to 8 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 11

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 85
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Moshannon State Forest, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 148 trees/acre; basal area 115 feet/acre; stocking 84 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Black birch, red maple, striped maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 2,300 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2003

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.5 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 1.5 tons/acre Shrub cover 10 percent

10-hour woody 2.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.8 feet

100-hour woody 7.7 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 12 percent

1,000-hour woody 14.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 29.6 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 73 °F Burn date/time 06 May 2008, 1430

Relative humidity 26 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 4 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 7 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 4, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 12

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 87

Moshannon

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Venango County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 75 trees/acre; basal area 83 feet/acre; stocking 68 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Northern red oak, black birch, red maple, mixed fern 

Aspect/elevation/slope Southeast; 1,650 feet; 17 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.7 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 2.3 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 4.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.0 feet

100-hour woody 6.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 13.9 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 30.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 77 °F Burn date/time 07 May 2007, 1100

Relative humidity 35 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 6 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 5, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 13

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 89

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Venango County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 75 trees/acre; basal area 83 feet/acre; stocking 68 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Northern red oak, black birch, red maple, mixed fern 

Aspect/elevation/slope Southeast; 1,650 feet; 17 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.2 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 2.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 4.1 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.5 feet

100-hour woody 7.0 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 14.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 30.7 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 77 °F Burn date/time 07 May 2007, 1100

Relative humidity 35 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 6 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 5, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 14

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 91

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.4 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 1.3 feet

100-hour woody 7.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 18.7 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 31.4 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 66 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 0930

Relative humidity 33 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 2 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 6 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 15

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 93
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location Clear Creek State Forest, Venango County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 112 trees/acre; basal area 91 feet/acre; stocking 73 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Northern red oak, black birch, red maple, mixed fern 

Aspect/elevation/slope Northwest; 1,650 feet; 3 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 2002

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.2 tons/acre Litter cover 100 percent

1-hour woody 2.1 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 4.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 3.0 feet

100-hour woody 7.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 10 percent

1,000-hour woody 14.8 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 6 or 10

Total fuels 31.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 9, 12

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 77 °F Burn date/time 07 May 2007, 1100

Relative humidity 35 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 1 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 2 to 6 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 5, 0.2 inch

Logging Slash 16

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 95

Clear Creek

State Forest
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
State Game

Lands 29

Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 3.0 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.3 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.4 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.3 feet

100-hour woody 9.6 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 18.9 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 33.2 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 75 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 1430

Relative humidity 25 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 4 to 6 miles/hour Flame lengths 4 to 8 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 5 to 9 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 17

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 97
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.9 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.3 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 3.3 feet

100-hour woody 9.8 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 20.0 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 34.8 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 70 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 1130

Relative humidity 29 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction Northwest Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 10 feet

Cloud cover 10 percent Rates of spread 4 to 9 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 18

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 99

State Game

Lands 29
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.2 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.1 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.2 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 3.3 feet

100-hour woody 8.5 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 27.1 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 39.1 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 77 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 1500

Relative humidity 24 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 4 miles/hour Flame lengths 5 to 15 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 4 to 8 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 19

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 101

State Game

Lands 29
Fuels Plot Before Burning 

Fuels Plot Fire Behavior
Site Information

Location State Game Lands 29, Warren County, Pennsylvania

Overstory metrics 21 trees/acre; basal area 11 feet/acre; stocking 15 percent

Overstory composition Northern red oak, red maple, black cherry, white oak

Understory composition Pin cherry, black birch, red maple, northern red oak 

Aspect/elevation/slope South; 1,900 feet; 2 percent

Stand history Shelterwood first removal cut in 1996, final harvest in 2001

Fuel Characteristics

Leaf litter 2.8 tons/acre Litter cover 90 percent

1-hour woody 0.5 tons/acre Shrub cover 0 percent

10-hour woody 1.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel height 2.8 feet

100-hour woody 12.9 tons/acre Ave. fuel moisture 9 percent

1,000-hour woody 23.2 tons/acre Optimal fuel model 12

Total fuels 41.3 tons/acre Min/max fuel model 10, 13

Weather and Fire Behavior Data

Air temperature 73 °F Burn date/time 03 May 2006, 1000

Relative humidity 24 percent Firing device Drip torch

Wind direction West Firing pattern Strip-head fire

Wind speed 2 to 3 miles/hour Flame lengths 4 to 8 feet

Cloud cover 0 percent Rates of spread 3 to 9 feet/minute

Days since rain, amt. 6, 0.25 inch

Logging Slash 20

Photos by Patrick Brose, U.S. Forest Service 103

State Game

Lands 29
Brose, Patrick H. 2009. Photo guide for estimating fuel loading and fire behavior

in oak forests of the mid-Atlantic region. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-45. Newtown

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station.

104 p.

A field guide of 45 pairs of photographs depicting ericaceous shrub, leaf litter, and

logging slash fuel types of eastern oak forests and observed fire behavior of these fuel

types during prescribed burning. The guide contains instructions on how to use the

photo guide to choose appropriate fuel models for prescribed fire planning. 

KEY WORDS: ericaceous shrubs, leaf litter, logging slash, prescribed fire, Quercus

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May 2009

104

“Capitalizing on the strengths of existing science capacity

in the Northeast and Midwest to attain a more integrated,

cohesive, landscape-scale research program”