Analyzing Racial and Ethnic Data in

the Survey of Young Workers

October 2015

B O A R D O F G O V E R N O R S O F T H E F E D E R A L R E S E R V E S Y S T E M

Analyzing Racial and Ethnic Data in

the Survey of Young Workers

October 2015

B O A R D O F G O V E R N O R S O F T H E F E D E R A L R E S E R V E S Y S T E M
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Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

Key Findings ............................................................................................................................. 3

White Respondents Lead in Educational Attainment ..................................................................... 3

Black and Hispanic Respondents Lag in Early Work Experience .................................................... 4

Black and Hispanic Respondents Lead in Unemployment and Underemployment .......................... 5

Black Respondents Have Lower Rates of Contingent Work ........................................................... 6

White Respondents Lead in the Perception of Upward Career Mobility .......................................... 6

Black Respondents Lag in Financial Stability ................................................................................ 7

White Respondents Have Greater Access to Social Capital Networks ............................................ 7

Job Outlook Is Consistent across Racial and Ethnic Groups .......................................................... 7

About the Survey ..................................................................................................................... 9

iii

Contents

Introduction

In November 2014, the Board of Governors of the

Federal Reserve System released the initial findings

from the Survey of Young Workers.1 The report

focused on the experience and expectations of young

adults in light of two substantial changes to the U.S.

labor market: increases in globalization and automation that have reduced the availability of well-paid,

secure jobs for less-educated persons and a long-run

increase in the use of “contingent work” arrangements.2 Consequently, young adults have experienced

higher rates of unemployment and lower rates of

labor market participation than the general population for at least 20 years.

Key findings in the report included (1) a notable correlation between education and early work experience

with upward career mobility and higher pay, (2) a

young adult’s ability to pay for postsecondary education affects their decision to enroll, and (3) job stability is more important than higher pay among young

workers.

The initial report also found that intangibles, including demographics and personal connections, play a

role in an individual’s labor market success. In principle, the labor market is supposed to be unbiased

toward demographic differences. However, sociological research supports the notion that race and ethnicity constrain individual choices and affect one’s

chances of success.3 This report focuses on the similarities and differences the survey data found across

respondents of three racial and ethnic groups: white

(non-Hispanic), black (non-Hispanic), and Hispanic.

1 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2014), In

the Shadow of the Great Recession: Experiences and Perspectives

of Young Workers (Washington: Board of Governors, November), www.federalreserve.gov/econresdata/2013-experiences-andperspectives-of-young-workers-201411.pdf.

2

In 1995, the Bureau of Labor Statistics defined contingent work

as “any job in which an individual does not have an explicit or

implicit contract for long-term employment.” See www.bls.gov.

3 American Sociology Association (2005), Race, Ethnicity, and the

American Labor Market: What’s at Work? (Washington: ASA,

June), www.asanet.org/images/research/docs/pdf/

RaceEthnicity_LaborMarket.pdf.

1

Key Findings

White Respondents Lead in

Educational Attainment

Educational attainment is highly correlated with economic success, even more so for this generation than

previous ones. In an increasingly knowledge-based

economy, young adults who do not have any postsecondary education typically earn lower wages and

experience higher rates of unemployment than their

counterparts did one and two generations ago.4

The Survey of Young Workers finds that the educational attainment of white respondents places them

in a better position for obtaining a job with upward

mobility and higher earnings than either black or

Hispanic respondents. White respondents earned

postsecondary degrees at a greater rate than black

and Hispanic respondents (figure 1). Although Hispanic respondents earn associate’s degrees (11 percent) at a greater rate than the total sample (9 percent), they earn bachelor’s degrees and higher

(12 percent) at a much lower rate than the total

sample (21 percent). Black respondents earned associate’s degrees (3 percent) and bachelor’s degrees and

higher (13 percent) at a much lower rate than the

total sample.

4 Pew Research Center (2014), Millennials in Adulthood: Detached

from Institutions, Networked with Friends, Report (Washington:

Pew Research Center), www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/03/07/

millennials-in-adulthood/.

Figure 1. White respondents lead in educational attainment

Percent

Some college,

no degree

Associate’s

degree

Bachelor’s

degree (and

higher)

29

28

32

29

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

8

3

11

9

25

13

12

21

Note: Number of responses is 2,097.

3
As noted above, 29 percent of the total survey

respondents reported having some college education

but no degree. Some of these respondents will complete their degree going forward, especially if they are

currently enrolled in school. While white, black, and

Hispanic respondents reported similar rates of “some

college, no degree” (29 percent, 28 percent, and

32 percent, respectively), white respondents were far

more likely to be currently enrolled in an educational

program (53 percent, 36 percent, and 37 percent,

respectively) (figure 2). Furthermore, white respondents were more likely than black or Hispanic

respondents to be enrolled in school full time (43 percent, 26 percent, and 24 percent, respectively).

The Survey of Young Workers indicates that white

and Hispanic respondents have greater educational

aspirations than black respondents. While white

respondents had greater levels of educational attainment, Hispanic respondents were more likely to be

interested in obtaining additional education (59 percent) than black (49 percent) respondents. The Survey of Young Workers responses do not explain these

findings. However, it is possible that black respondents have lower expectations about their job paths

(i.e., glass ceiling) or that they lack some understanding about the changing demands of the labor market.

Black and Hispanic Respondents Lag

in Early Work Experience

A 2014 study by the Brookings Institution found that

teen employment is associated with improved

employment and earnings outcomes later in life.

Although problems finding work affected all young

people in the past decade, those with work experience, those with higher levels of education, and those

from higher-income households have been more successful in the labor market. Because teen and young

adult unemployment is concentrated among lesseducated and low-income individuals, this phenomenon threatens the upward mobility of already vulnerable populations.5

Furthermore, labor market outcomes for young

adults in the post-recession period differ across racial

and ethnic lines. For example, in 2011, black teenagers from 16 to 19 years old had the highest rate of

underutilization (60 percent), followed by Hispanics

(52 percent), Asians (48 percent), and whites (35 percent). As with teens, young adults’ (aged 20 to

24 years) underutilization was highest among blacks

(42 percent), followed by Hispanics (32 percent),

whites (24 percent), and Asians (22 percent).6

In the Survey of Young Workers, 57 percent of all

full-time students and 55 percent of all part-time students were both working and attending school. Consistent with the Brookings findings, respondents who

had a paid job during high school were more likely to

be currently working (69 percent) than those who did

not have a paid job during high school (48 percent).

In addition, in the Survey of Young Workers, white

respondents were more likely to have worked both

while attending high school and while attending college than black or Hispanic respondents (figure 3).

According to the research cited above, these respon5 Andrew Sum, Ishwar Khatiwada, Mykhaylo Trubskyy, and

Martha Ross with Walter McHugh and Sheila Palma (2014),

The Plummeting Labor Market Fortunes of Teens and Young

Adults (Washington: The Brookings Institution, March), www

.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2014/03/14%

20youth%20workforce/youth_workforce_report_final.pdf.

6

Sum and others, The Plummeting Labor Market Fortunes of

Teens and Young Adults.

Figure 2. Blacks and Hispanics lag in current college

enrollment

43

26 24

38

10 10 13 12

White Black Hispanic Total

Percent

Full time Part time

Note: Number of responses is 2,097.

4 Analyzing Racial and Ethnic Data in the Survey of Young Workers
dents will be better positioned for success in the labor

market in the long run.

Black and Hispanic Respondents

Lead in Unemployment and

Underemployment

Black and Hispanic respondents in the Survey of

Young Workers were more likely to be unemployed as

well as underemployed. Twenty-six percent of black

respondents and 25 percent of Hispanic respondents

were unemployed compared with 15 percent of white

respondents (figure 4).7 Likewise, 34 percent of black

respondents and 43 percent of Hispanic respondents

reported being underemployed, or working less than

their desired number of hours per week, compared

with 27 percent of white respondents.8 The lower

unemployment and underemployment rates for white

respondents are correlated with the higher levels of

7 Unemployment is defined as respondents who did not have a

paid job and were seeking a paid job.

8 The labor force underutilization rate includes (1) those who do

not have a job and are actively looking for one, (2) those who

desire employment but are not actively looking, and (3) those

who are working part-time but desire and are available for fulltime work.

Figure 3. White respondents had more early work experience while attending school

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

62

50

39

54

79

64

70

74

Worked while

attending

high school

Worked while

attending

college

Percent

Note: Number of responses for “high school” is 2,097; for “college” is 1,548.

Figure 4. Blacks and Hispanics lag in steady work

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

Percent

Working more

than one job

Want more

work hours

Looking for

paid job

18

17

11

16

27

34

43

31

15

26

25

19

Note: Number of responses for “Working more than one job” and “Want more work hours” is 1,252 (have a paid job); for “Looking for paid job” is 2,097.

October 2015 5
educational attainment and early work experiences

noted earlier.

Black Respondents Have Lower Rates

of Contingent Work

Because of an increase in the use of contingent workers over the past few decades, the availability of fulltime, permanent jobs has decreased in the U.S. labor

market. As a result, young workers are increasingly

likely to face job and financial uncertainty.

In the Survey of Young Workers, an analysis of

respondents with a paid job revealed that black

respondents were more likely to have a full-time job

(70 percent) than white (66 percent) or Hispanic

(64 percent) respondents. Furthermore, after removing respondents who were attending school, black

respondents were still more likely to be working full

time (83 percent) than white (78 percent) or Hispanic

(68 percent) respondents.

When given the choice, respondents in the Survey of

Young Workers overwhelming preferred steady work

(67 percent) to higher pay (30 percent). Interestingly,

black respondents were slightly less partial to steady

work (60 percent) than white (70 percent) and Hispanic (67 percent) respondents.

Black respondents were also slightly more likely to

have a permanent job (72 percent) than white

(71 percent) or Hispanic (71 percent) respondents.

However, in this scenario, when students are removed

from the analysis, black respondents have a much

lower rate of permanent jobs (68 percent) than white

(80 percent) and Hispanic (79 percent) respondents.

This may indicate that black students are finding permanent jobs in connection with their school but

struggling to find permanency when entering the

labor market full time.

White Respondents Lead in the

Perception of Upward

Career Mobility

In the Survey of Young Workers, 25 percent of

respondents with paid employment described their

position as a “career” rather than a “job.” White

respondents were most likely to describe their job as

a career (28 percent) compared with black (16 percent) and Hispanic (23 percent) respondents (figure 5). Based on these findings, it is not surprising

Figure 5. White respondents lead in the perception of upward career mobility

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

Percent

Describe job

as “career”

Been promoted

in past year

Opportunity for

promotion

Feel overquali!ed

for job

28

16

23

25

49

43

52

49

47

39

43

45

28

28

28

35

Note: Number of responses is 1,252 (have a paid job).

6 Analyzing Racial and Ethnic Data in the Survey of Young Workers
that white respondents were more likely to be satisfied with their compensation, benefits, and work

schedule than black and Hispanic respondents. As

noted earlier, these results correlate to the respondents’ level of education.

Black Respondents Lag in

Financial Stability

On the same note, black respondents perceive fewer

career opportunities than white or Hispanic respondents. Black respondents were least likely to have

been promoted in the previous year (43 percent) and

least likely to believe that they would receive a promotion at their job (39 percent) compared with white

(49 percent and 47 percent, respectively) and Hispanic (52 percent and 43 percent, respectively)

respondents. Furthermore, black respondents were

more likely to report being overqualified for their job

(35 percent) than white (28 percent) and Hispanic

(28 percent) respondents. Correspondingly, black

respondents were less likely to be satisfied with their

compensation and benefits than the total sample.

In the Survey of Young Workers, black respondents

(49 percent) were least likely to be able to cover their

monthly living expenses when compared with white

(68 percent) and Hispanic (61 percent) respondents

(figure 6). Moreover, black respondents were least

likely to be able to make ends meet if they were out

of work for four weeks (21 percent) when compared

with white (43 percent) and Hispanic (30 percent)

respondents.

White Respondents Have Greater

Access to Social Capital Networks

Research indicates that social capital and other intangible factors play a role in the uneven labor market

outcomes between racial and ethnic groups. A study

by the Urban Institute found that while it is unclear

whether racially prejudiced employers, insufficient

job networks, or limited work experience cause the

labor market differences, it is clear that black youth

(16- to 24-year-olds) are not obtaining full-time,

steady work. Without an early foothold on the

employment ladder, they do not move up the career

ladders as fast as their white counterparts when they

become young adults.9

In the Survey of Young Workers, white respondents

were more likely to receive information about jobs

and careers from their parents (43 percent) and

friends (35 percent) than black (25 percent and

23 percent, respectively) and Hispanic (23 percent

and 30 percent, respectively) respondents during their

high school years (figure 7).

Job Outlook Is Consistent across

Racial and Ethnic Groups

Despite the differences in education, job experience,

and financials noted across racial and ethnic lines,

9 Margaret Simms and Marla McDaniel (2010), The Black-White

Jobless Gap, Urban Institute brief (Washington: Urban Institute, September), www.urban.org/publications/901378.html.

Figure 6. Black respondents lag in financial stability

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

Percent

Able to cover monthly

living expenses

Able to make ends meet

if out of work for 4 weeks

Earn a salary

68

49

61

64

43

21

30

38

26

20

18

24

Note: Number of responses is 2,097.

October 2015 7
young workers do not show a significant difference in

their outlook about the future. Black (44 percent)

and Hispanic (45 percent) respondents were as likely

to be optimistic about their job future as white

respondents (44 percent) (figure 8).

The Survey of Young Workers does not provide an

explanation for the respondents’ outlook not reflecting their reported experience across racial and ethnic

lines. In general, young adults are more optimistic

than older adults. It is likely that the optimism that is

held by young adults in general plays a distinct role in

these findings.

Figure 7. Whites have more access to job and career information

White

Black

Hispanic

Total

Received information

from parents

Received information

from friends

Percent

43

25

23

23

35

35

30

32

Note: Number of responses is 2,097.

Figure 8. Job outlook is optimistic

White Black Hispanic

44 44 45

Percent

Note: Number of responses is 2,097.

8 Analyzing Racial and Ethnic Data in the Survey of Young Workers
About the Survey

The Survey of Young Workers was administered by

GfK, an online consumer research company, on

behalf of the Federal Reserve. The survey was conducted using a sample of adults between the ages

18 to 30 from the KnowledgePanel, a proprietary,

probability-based web panel of more than 50,000

individuals from randomly sampled households; the

sample was designed to be representative of the U.S.

population. The data collection for the Survey of

Young Workers began on December 4, 2013, and

concluded on December 17, 2013. In November 2014, the Board released a report with analysis of

the survey data.10

The 2,097 respondents represented 49 percent of

those contacted. The numbers cited in this report are

derived from the survey unless otherwise noted. All

data are weighted to yield estimates for the U.S.

population (figure 9).

10 Board of Governors, In the Shadow of the Great Recession.

Figure 9. Survey sample by race and ethnicity

White, 57%

More than

one race, 2%

Hispanic, 21%

Other, 7%

Black, 13%

9
1015

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