In Search of a Sustainable Palm Market 

in North America 

The Commission for Environmental Cooperation of North America

September 2002
The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) was established under the North 

American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) to address environmental 

issues in North America from a continental perspective, with a particular focus on those 

arising in the context of liberalized trade. 

This publication was prepared by the Secretariat of the CEC. The views contained herein 

do not necessarily reflect the views of the CEC, or the governments of Canada, Mexico 

or the United States of America.

Reproduction of this document in whole or in part and in any form for educational or 

nonprofit purposes may be made without special permission from the CEC Secretariat, 

provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The CEC would appreciate receiving a 

copy of any publication or material that uses this document as a source.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation

393, rue St-Jacques Ouest, Bureau 200

Montréal (Québec) Canada H2Y 1N9

E-mail: info@ccemtl.org

http://www.cec.org

© Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2003
ii

Table of Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................................................ iv

Executive Summary........................................................................................................................ iv

Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1

Palm Species in Mexico ............................................................................................................................................................ 2

History of Use............................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Major Uses of Chamaedorea Palms .................................................................................................. 5

Floriculture .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Horticulture .................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Species Used..................................................................................................................................... 6

In the Cut-greens Trade............................................................................................................................................................. 6

In the Nursery Industry.............................................................................................................................................................. 8

Physical/Biological Characteristics Influencing Trade ..................................................................... 8

Uniform Growth Characteristics from Seed Gathered in the Wild .................................................................................... 9

Seed Production Dynamics....................................................................................................................................................... 9

Complementary Seed and Foliage Production .................................................................................................................... 10

Production Costs for Seed and Foliage................................................................................................................................. 10

Low Light Requirement .......................................................................................................................................................... 10

Current Population Status....................................................................................................................................................... 11

Regulation...................................................................................................................................... 12

Domestic Regulation and Use................................................................................................................................................ 12

International Regulation.......................................................................................................................................................... 12

The World Floriculture and Environmental Horticulture Trade ................................................... 13

Market Overview........................................................................................................................... 14

The World Market .................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Trends in the Floriculture and Environmental Horticulture Trade .................................................................................. 14

The Palm Market in Mexico .......................................................................................................... 15

Chamaedorea palm fronds...................................................................................................................................................... 15

Current and Projected Market and Trade in Chamaedorea Palm Products................................... 19

The Growing US Market......................................................................................................................................................... 19

The Canadian and European markets.................................................................................................................................... 22

Markets for Seed and Potted Plants....................................................................................................................................... 23

Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

The Chamaedorea Supply Chain.................................................................................................... 24

The Supply Chain ..................................................................................................................................................................... 25
iii

Importers and Wholesalers ..................................................................................................................................................... 26

Processing Along the Supply Chain ...................................................................................................................................... 28

Market Concentration.............................................................................................................................................................. 29

Opportunities for Value -Added Processing and “Green” Marketing............................................. 29

Value-Added Processing......................................................................................................................................................... 30

Green Marketing and Certification........................................................................................................................................ 30

Potential Markets for Certified Products.............................................................................................................................. 37

Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 38

Appendixes.................................................................................................................................... 39

Appendix 1: Additional Information and Research Needs.............................................................................................. 39

Appendix 2: Market Summaries for the United States and Canada............................................................................... 41

Appendix 3: Internet Sites with Information on the Chamaedorea Palm for the Floral or Horticultural Industries

..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Annex A: Harvest and Cultivation of the Chamaedorea Palm........................................................ 46

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Harvest........................................................................................................................................................................................ 46

Cultivation ................................................................................................................................................................................. 49

Commercialization ................................................................................................................................................................... 51

AnnexB: Mexico’s Regional Markets............................................................................................ 55

Chiapas....................................................................................................................................................................................... 55

The Huasteca Region (Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí) ........................................................................................................ 57

Oaxaca ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 58

Tamaulipas................................................................................................................................................................................. 59

Veracruz..................................................................................................................................................................................... 59

The case of La Flor de Catemaco, S.P.R. ............................................................................................................................. 62

Annex C: Maps.......................................................................................................................... 64

Map 1. Estimated historical vegetation and distribution of the genus Chamaedorea ........................................... 64

Map 2. Estimated present vegetation and distribution of the genus Chamaedorea ............................................... 65

Map 3. Regions considered as priorities for the conservation and distribution of the genus Chamaedorea..... 66
Preface

This paper was prepared by the Secretariat of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation of 

North America (CEC) and combines the work of two research papers on the Chamaedorea palm, 

one by Dean Current and David Wilsey, and another (mainly incorporated here as AnnexA) by 

Fulvio Eccardi, César Carrillo Trueba, Nasim Musalem and Clara Ramos in collaboration with

Esteban Martínez and Luis Aznar. 

The CEC’s work on the project itself has been undertaken to identify opportunities for 

developing sustainable practices and criteria for trade in wildlife by ensuring that those practices: 

are legal and biologically sustainable, encourage in situ conservation, create economic 

opportunities (when applicable), and benefit local communities.

Executive Summary

The goal of the CEC’s work on the Chamaedorea palm, a wild species endemic to Mexico and 

selected by the CEC’s Governing Council as a pilot species, is to study the possibility of using 

the market to protect the species. The basic question is, under what conditions, if any, would 

trading of a wild species be sustainable? This report, the first for this project, documents palm 

collection and cultivation in Mexico, and its market structure within and outside Mexico. This

information is used to assess whether eco-labeling palm would provide sufficient incentive for 

sustainable trade in the species.

Chamaedorea is a large family of palms that grow in the understory of tropical forests 

throughout Latin America. They are shade-tolerant and reproduce easily. They are valued by the 

floral and horticultural industries for their size and shade tolerance. These attributes have earned 

them a steady market as potted plants for interior decorating. Chamaedorea fronds are also used 

in floral displays, with peak demand during the Easter and Palm Sunday holiday seasons.

There is a large variety of palm species endemic to Mexico, one of the most biologically diverse 

countries in the world. The country is home to 95 species of palm grouped in 22 genera, which 

represent 18 percent of the palm species found worldwide. There are more than 130 species of 

palm that grow only in the Americas, and the majority—50 species—are Chamaedorea palms. 

Of these, 14 species are native to Mexico, making Mexico the leader in number and endemism of 

Chamaedorea varieties. 

Trade in the 21 commercial species began long ago, but massive exportation—mainly to the 

United States with some re-exported to other countries—started just 50 years ago. The 

Chamaedorea palm family has a well-established international market. The existence of this 

market, which can be expected to remain fairly constant into the future, appears to be 

contributing to the maintenance of the forest areas where the palm products are gathered. At the

same time, the availability of the palm for harvesting from the wild and its market price have 

maintained production primarily in natural forest areas, with some recent movement towards 

cultivation in tree or forest shade. There have also been reports of reductions in wild populations 

due to overharvesting and, primarily, habitat destruction.

Seed and leaf gathering are carried out by farmers, most of them indigenous, who grow corn and 

sometimes earn a large share of their income from palm. They live in towns located in the 

mountains of Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Campeche and 
v

Chiapas. Some of these states have important remaining forest areas and the most marginalized 

populations. This creates an interesting combination of biological and cultural diversity, although 

it carries with it the common problems found in rural areas. In some areas, income from palm 

has encouraged local residents to maintain the forests that shade the palms, but it also has led to 

overharvesting.

Marketing channels in Mexico, from regional buyer to exporter, are concentrated, there being 

only one or two of each (see Annex B for fuller treatment of this). This makes it hard for 

individual farmers to negotiate prices. They generally receive only US$1 to US$1.20 for 144 

leaves (a gross). In the United States, the same price purchases just a dozen. These low prices, 

the time palms take to regenerate, the difficulty involved in leaf cutting, and the availability of 

other sources of income make harvesting of the Chamaedorea palm a sporadic activity. Yet, at 

times, such as this period of coffee-price crisis, farmers must cut a larger number of leaves to 

survive, irrespective of the regeneration process of wild populations. Overexploitation of 

commercial species and a dramatic reduction in rain forest areas over the last decades has 

affected many of the Chamaedorea species, especially those with restricted distributions or sold 

as seeds. Thirty-eight of the species of this genus are currently under official Mexican protection 

(NOM-059-ECOL-94). 

In response, producers have begun to cultivate some of the most popular species, such as C. 

elegans, both in the primary and secondary rain forests, as well as in coffee plantations and in 

other shade systems. The initiatives are many and diversified, but have been impeded by low 

palm prices. Some of these projects have emphasized diversification of sources of income, but 

too many could lead to market saturation and additional downward pressure on prices. 

To maintain and enhance the role of the palm as an important income-generating crop, and to 

maintain its function in protecting natural forest areas, certification may be an option. By tying 

certification to production in natural forest areas, as well as offering market premiums for forestgathered sustainable production, both environmental and economic conditions may improve in 

the natural areas and communities where the palm grows and is harvested by local residents.

The Chamaedorea palm could be a candidate for certification efforts if the cost of certification is 

reasonable or can be covered by a premium paid for certified products. To do that requires 

identifying potential markets for the certified product or, perhaps more importantly, focusing 

attention on its quality. More information is needed on the specific market sectors that might 

demand certified production, and the costs and potential premiums available through 

certification. Attention must be paid to certification costs, since these have often been borne by 

producers, with no premiums paid in the marketplace. 

There may be opportunities for marketing certified palm products in the United States and 

Europe. In the United States, the principal markets may be niche markets, since the floral 

industry has not pursued certified production. In Europe, there appears to be a growing market 

for certified products in the floral industry. Certification could be channeled through the existing 

certification efforts in Europe, while specific niche markets are approached and explored in 

North America.

To succeed in using the market to protect this wild species, further exploration of specific 

markets for certified palm is needed, as well as identification of palm-producing 

areas/communities that meet the basic tenure and production/distribution requirements for 

certification. More information is also needed on the sustainable management of Chamaedorea

species, and on how it relates to conservation of the forests that provide the palms with shade. 
1

Introduction

Chamaedorea: Greek word for “dwarf/near the ground” and “a gift”1

The Greek meaning of Chamaedorea points to characteristics that have made palms of the genus 

popular in both floriculture and horticulture. Highly ornamental and with an array of species, 

their small size, relative to other palms, makes Chamaedorea a desirable potted plant for interior 

applications. In the floral industry, the palm’s fronds provide a good background for larger floral 

displays, as well as being the popular choice for Palm Sunday and Easter. The fact that the palms 

grow “near the ground” makes them especially useful for interior low-light applications. Their 

requirement of shaded environments has contributed and may continue to contribute to the 

maintenance of the forested areas from which seed and palm fronds are harvested.

Nonetheless, the palms’ popularity has, according to some sources, led to their overharvesting 

and a decline in populations. This, combined with habitat destruction, has raised concerns about 

the long-term sustainability of the wild populations of Chamaedorea spp. The decline and loss of 

those populations carries with it an environmental and ecological cost, as well as the loss of an 

important source of income for the farm families and communities that use palm gathering to 

complement their income from other productive activities.

This study begins with an introduction to the Chamaedorea palm in Mexico. Later sections will 

give a history of its use, its main commercial applications, and its current status in Mexico, as 

well as laws and regulations governing its harvesting in Mexico and its trade internationally. The 

paper continues with a description of the supply side of the market in Mexico, followed by the 

main markets for palm in the United States, Canada and Europe. The paper then focuses on 

prices and margins along the supply chain, opportunities for green marketing, and market and 

policy tools to reduce environmental effects and enhance socioeconomic benefits at the 

local/producer level. The study then looks at Mexico, one of the major Chamaedorea-producing 

countries, to address the contribution of the palm-products market to local environments and 

livelihoods. Finally, the report suggests ways for the palm market to make a greater contribution 

to local livelihoods and environments, and the work needed to achieve this.

The principal sources of data for the North American and European study were: 1) a review of 

published government documents and databases on trade statistics; 2) personal and telephone 

interviews with wholesalers and retailers; 3) a mail survey of retailers and wholesalers to explore 

their use of the palms and knowledge of green marketing; 4) a review of relevant cases of 

certification and green marketing of nontimber forest products, and information gathered from 

groups directly involved in efforts to certify nontimber forest products. A trip to Texas and 

Florida was made to meet with major importers/wholesalers of seed and palm fronds, and to visit 

nurseries producing seed and potted palms for the nursery/interior landscape industry.

 

1

Robert Lee Riffle. (1999) What’s in a (Botanical) Name? 

<http://www.iconx.com/html/riffle_botanical_glossary.html>.
2

Palm Species in Mexico

Mexico holds a privileged position in worldwide biological diversity. Its is home to nearly 10 

percent of all identified plants and land animals, and most of the Earth’s ecosystems can be 

found there. In addition to this great biological wealth, making it one of the so-called 

“megadiversity” countries, Mexico has an equal wealth of human history, great cultural 

diversity—past and present—and the creation of cultivated plants (Ramamoorthy et al. 1993). It 

remains to be seen whether the genus Chamaedorea originated in Mexican territory and migrated 

south, or whether it comes from other regions of the world where, to some extent, it has 

disappeared only to be found today in the neotropical zone (Rzedowski 1992). 

About 18 percent of all palm species worldwide are found in Mexico—95 species in 22 genera 

(Quero 1994). According to a review of the National Herbary, the genus Chamaedorea—whose 

more than 130 species exist only in the Americas—is the largest of the palm genera found in 

Mexico, with 50 species. Of these, 14 are endemic. This makes Mexico the country with the 

greatest number of endemic Chamaedorea species, and most probably one of two centers for the 

diversification of the genus (Hodel 1992).

In Mexican territory, Chamaedorea is found principally in the high- and mid-range perennial, 

sub-perennial and sub-hardwood forests, as well as in so-called cloud forests, at altitudes ranging 

from sea level to more than 2,000 meters above sea level. Some species live in oak and pine-oak 

forests, and several may be found in hardwood forests near rivers and streams, or in ravines 

where leaf loss is less. Only a few species grow in low hardwood forests, such as those of the 

central and northern Yucatán Peninsula, including C. seifrizii, whose thick fronds allow it to 

resist drying and live in direct sunlight. 

Chamaedorea species are understory palms, mostly in the herbaceous stratum, and require shade. 

They generally grow in rocky areas with well-drained soil and abundant organic matter. One 

exception is C. cataractarum, which lives on the course of mountain streams. The light, humidity 

and temperature conditions are those prevailing where each type of vegetation grows (Rzedowski 

1978). 

The height and size of Chamaedorea leaves varies between species, from the small C. 

tuerkheimii to the majestic C. woodsoniana, which measures more than 10 meters, or C. elatior,

which, as a climbing plant, easily surpasses them. Their morphology—leaf size, shape and 

pinnae (when they have them), as well as flowers and seeds—is likewise varied. Variations of 

the leaves’ shades of green are also notable, and some have a more or less intense sheen. Their 

phenology is equally diverse, with individuals of a single species showing strong varia tions. 

These palms have an enormous capacity to adapt to disturbances and transformations in habitat, 

which has allowed them to overcome major climate changes, and to live in diverse types of 

vegetation and disparate environmental conditions. Their shade requirements are highly flexible, 

as are their temperature and humidity requirements. They are resistant to predators since, as seen 

in the case of C. tepejilote, the defoliation of adult plants increases leaf production and does not 

affect fruit production (Oyama and Mendoza 1999). 

Little is actually known about the biology of Chamaedorea species. It is known that they are 

dioecious, having male and female plants, although there may be hermaphrodite plants bearing 

flowers of both sexes. Based on what is known of C. tepejilote (Oyama 1984), the percentage of 

female and male plants seems to be equal (50 percent of each). It is not known precisely how 
3

pollination occurs. It is believed that, by producing a dry pollen, some species must be pollinated 

by wind. Others, with sticky pollen, are probably pollinated by insects, which are also attracted 

by the scent of the flowers (Hodel 1992). Bees, flies, beetles and other insects have been seen 

visiting Chamaedorea inflorescences. 

The plants flower once a year, but with various inflorescences, which makes fructification extend 

over several months. Individual variation in flowering, number of fruits, seed germination and 

growth rate, and mortality rates is large, in addition to the variation among individuals of 

different sexes, ages, and species. For example, a study of C. tepejilote has shown that the male 

plants produce more flowers than the females and, in each sex, the same percentage of 

individuals always contributes more of them (Oyama 1990). There are also few fruits in C. 

ernesti-augusti, maybe 40 or 50, while in C. elegans there may be more than 500, and up to 400 

in C. tepejilote (Oyama 1991). In the Huasteca, a bird called palsuquet in Nahuatl does eat and 

disperse the seeds. However, most of the fruits stay close to where they fall, near the mother 

plant, which explains the spotty distribution characteristic of Chamaedorea species. 

It is known that C. elegans can take up to nine months to germinate, while C. tepejilote requires 

about six. The growth characteristics of both sexes appear to be about the same. In C. elegans, 

growth is estimated at five centimeters per year, while in C. tepejilote, which can be more than 

five meters high, an average growth of six to 12 centimeters per year has been reported. Leaf 

production seems to vary from one sex to another, since, based on knowledge of C. tepejilote, the 

male plants produce an average of three leaves per year, while the female plants produce only 

two (Oyama 1990). 

Mortality is higher in younger plants, cause more from falling trees and branches, and less from 

water erosion. The lifespan of each wild Chamaedorea species is not known with certainty. 

According to producers, the lifespan of C. elegans is estimated at 15 to 20 years, while it can be 

almost 60 years for C. tepejilote (Oyama, personal communication).

All these characteristics allow for an understanding of the environmental heterogeneity of these 

palms, as well as of the lack of homogeneity in individual physiology, i.e., the absence of 

synchrony in the different stages of the individuals’ life cycles due to different growth 

conditions. This heterogeneity explains the broad altitudinal distribution found in some species, 

such as C. elegans. Furthermore, these factors allow distinct species to coexist at a single site, 

each occupying a specific niche and often being distributed on a slope, as was found in 

measurements taken in the Chinantla forest. There, seven Chamaedorea species were found in 

different locations on a mountainside, with densities tha t varied with altitude. C. elatior was 

found in greatest density between 300 and 400 meters above sea level (masl), C. ernesti-augusti

showed a small increase around 420 masl, C. metallica between 400 and 450 masl, C. concolor

between 480 and 520 masl, C. tepejilote around 550 masl, C. oblongata between 550 and 600 

masl, and C. elegans between 600 and 650 masl. The topographical changes and soil abundance 

might slightly alter this distribution, as was the case with C. tepejilote, which had a higher 

density in places with abundant soil or with flat surfaces, although this was well below its 

highest density on the slope.

The result is a wide variation in the density of these palms, both from one region to another and 

within a single region, even at the same altitude and at neighboring sites. This makes an estimate 

difficult, especially an extrapolation of the number of plants per hectare to a larger area. 

However, in order to have an idea as to the density of Chamaedorea in conserved places, the 
4

data obtained by Vovides and García (1994) in Veracruz can be taken, calculating an average of 

680 C. tenella plants, 2,400 C. metallica plants and 9,000 C. monostachys plants per hectare. In 

addition, Hodel (1992) cites Olmsted’s work (1988), reporting an average of 195 C. seifrizii

plants per hectare in Quintana Roo, and the work done in Guatemala by Heinzman and Reining 

(1998), showing an average of 5,933 C. elegans plants per hectare.

History of Use

At the end of the 19th century, leading horticulturists in Belgium, England and France sold 

Chamaedorea plants. The United States had also adopted the fashion and, in the early 20th 

century, it was possible to obtain samples of C. ernesti-augustii, C. oblongata, C sartorii and C. 

elatior, cultivated from Mexican and Guatemalan seeds. However, trade in Chamaedorea species 

in Mexico began en masse several decades later. There are different versions of the history, but 

all set the beginning around the 1940s. It is said in the Huasteca, for example, that in 1945 or 

1946 an American named Wilson—perhaps the palm collector Robert Wilson—began to buy C. 

elegans seeds to take back to his country, to be planted and sold in small pots as ornamental 

plants. However, Mr. Luciano Guerra, who currently owns the country’s largest seed business, 

soon took an interest in the matter and replaced Wilson. 

As for the fronds, Mr. Everett is said to have begun importing the C. elegans leaf in the second 

half of the same decade, and later to have founded the Continental Floral Greens company, 

which today sells nearly all the palm cultivated in and extracted from the country. There is, 

however, an anecdote relating to the rival Jewel Foliage Company. In mid-1949, the story goes, 

the company Flores de México S.A. ran out of the wax paper used to wrap flowers and, for some 

reason, could not obtain more. The warehouse foreman went to the Merced market in search of a 

replacement and found the so-called “palmilla” or “tepejilote,” which was economical and 

served as packing material. In the United States, gladiola buyer W. F. Roger found this foliage 

among his flower bouquets and became interested. He later founded the first Chamaedorea palm 

importer, the Jewel Foliage Company, and patented the regulation sizes for sale (premium

emerald, bunches of 25 sticks; regular emerald, bunches of 30 sticks; and econo emerald, 

bunches of 50 sticks). Its first suppliers were in the states of Veracruz and Puebla, and little by 

little, the extraction extended to the states of San Luis Potosí, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Hidalgo, 

Tamaulipas, Campeche, Tabasco and Chiapas.

Some Chamaedorea species have certainly been used for a long time in Mexico. Floral 

arrangements were made in churches for some festivals, and in cemeteries during the Day of the 

Dead. In addition, C. tepejilote leaves were traditionally used in some regions to cure insect 

stings, while the stem of C. elatior was (and is) used in basketmaking in various regions. The 

stem of C. woodsoniana has been eaten as heart of palm for some time. Consumption of the male 

flowers ofC. tepejilote—considered a delicacy when tender—is so old that Hernández X. (1993) 

includes the palm among the domesticated plants of Mexico and Guatemala, where they are 

eaten most. There seem to be morphological and flavor differences in the plants preferred for 

eating (Hodel 1992). Mass extraction of Chamaedorea species dates from the mid-20th century, 

when the direct effect on their population begins by reason of both seed and leaf extraction, and 

the sale of the whole plant for ornamental purposes.

Over time, horticulturists and florists have selected the species with the broadest market, or those 

most easily found or harvested—a total of 21 species having different attributes.
5

The populations of these species have been affected in various ways during this time, through the 

pressures of fashion and the requirements of traders (principally abroad, in the United States), as 

well as through the technical changes developed to establish plantations to cover market 

demands. Intensive harvesting seasons took place with no regulation whatsoever—concern for 

the conservation of biodiversity is relatively recent—and almost parallel to the destruction of the 

populations’ habitat. As is well known, the deforestation of most of the country occurred during 

the last 50 years (See Maps 1 and 2 in Annex C).

The result of all this was a major decrease in the populations of many useful Chamaedorea

species. Those of commercial value and restricted distribution were placed at risk as their 

populations where reduced through the harvest of all their seeds (e.g., C. tenella), or through 

plant death in those species whose stem is harvested (e.g., C. elatior). Species whose foliage was 

used seemed to have fewer problems because of their broader distribution (e.g., C. oblongata) or 

higher density (e.g., C. elegans and C. tepejilote), the apparent regeneration capacity of the entire 

genus, and the rhythm and handling undertaken during cutting. 

Major Uses of Chamaedorea Palms

Floriculture

Chamaedorea palms have specific uses in the floral industry based on their particular physical 

properties and, in some cases, very traditional uses. Although they are small compared to other 

palms they are generally used in large showy displays as a backdrop to flowers and other greens, 

and to provide support. Events calling for such displays include weddings and funerals. Funerals 

were most often mentioned as an event where the palms are used. In some cases, they were the 

only events the palms were used for. In all cases, the palms were used as part of a floral display 

or arrangement, so are not priced separately. 

The other major occasion that represents a spike in demand for palm fronds is during the Easter 

season and, particularly, on Palm Sunday. These are the only times at which the palms are sold 

as fronds or bunches of fronds, and not as part of a floral arrangement. A flower-and-cut-greens 

supplier in Great Britain that carries the Chamaedorea palms (C. elegans and C. erumpens) 

included on its web site a special section of Easter palms, which did not, however, include 

Chamaedorea species. Thus, there may be some geographical variation in the use of palms at 

Easter, with the North American market using them more.

There are several characteristics of the palms that make them attractive to florists. Some have 

already been mentioned—stiffness in backdrops and filler for large displays. Another important 

characteristic of the palms is their relatively long shelf life of two to three weeks. This was 

discussed with a floral designer in Minnesota who had worked in several small communities 

before transferring to one of the major retailers in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. 

She mentioned that florists in the smaller communities tend to prefer cut greens to flowers 

because of their longer shelf life. Another comment from florists was the versatility of the palms, 

and that it is possible to trim the fronds and remove poor tips without hurting their appearance.

Two or three retailers (one was a specific designer), representing less than 10 percent of those 

interviewed, said they were not using Chamaedorea palms because they are old-fashioned. They 
6

would now choose other greens. Other florists said palms are used in tropical displays for parties 

for upscale clients.

Horticulture

The use of Chamaedorea palms in the horticultural industry includes: i) seed for production of 

potted plants and nursery stock, ii) potted palms for interior decorating; iii) nursery stock for 

exterior landscaping; and iv) palms produced in limited quantities for collectors. 

• By far the greatest quantity of palms are produced for interior decorating and are sold 

through nurseries, garden centers, department stores and other retail outlets. 

• The seed for that production comes from Mexico and Guatemala, as well as from palm 

plantations in Florida, Texas, and probably Hawaii and California. 

• Palms for landscaping purposes are limited to those areas where the climate permits their 

growth—e.g., Florida, Texas, California, other southern states, and tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

• The palms sold to collectors are often provided through specialized channels. This is 

frequently the most destructive type of collection because rare palms in limited 

populations may be greatly diminished by such specialized collectors. To quote Don 

Hodel (1988), an expert on Chamaedorea palms:

Perhaps of greater concern is the quasi-commercial collection of mature plants, seedlings, 

and seeds of several highly ornamental and often very localized and rare species by plant 

hobbyists and enthusiasts. This type of wholesale collecting has wiped out entire local 

populations of some of these species. Coupled with habitat destruction, the future for these 

species is not a bright one.

Species Used

In the Cut-greens Trade

There is a great deal of variation in the trade names used for the Chamaedorea palms in the cutgreens trade. Commodore is the generic trade name used to describe all Latin greens, possibly 

derived from the Mexican word “camedor.” Latin greens should be distinguished from greens of 

other origins (e.g., Florida, Western). Trade names have become commonplace based on the 

various physical features of different species. Jade, Emerald, and Teepee describe wide-, 

medium- and narrow-leaf species. It is likely that the wide-leaved greens are C. oblongata, while 

the medium-leaved greens are probably C. elegans. The narrow-leaved greens or “tepe” are most 

likely C. tepejilote. Although other species are likely involved in the trade, C. elegans and C. 

oblongata appear to be the most common. Table 1 provides a list of some of the common and 

scientific names used for different species.
7

Continental Greens, one of the largest importers of cut greens, has three varieties with wider and 

shorter leaves which go by the designations Medium (narrow), Wide (long) and Wide (regular). 

The term “wide” refers to the width of the face of the leaf. They also carry a Jumbo (Chiapas), 

Jumbo (Regular), Giant (Narrow), Mayan and Tepe, all with narrower longer leaves. Moore 

Greens has a different set of names (see Box 1). 

Simpson’s Greens of Florida, which imports greens exclusively from Guatemala, sells Jade and 

Emerald, Jade being the shorter wider leaf, and Emerald being narrower and wider. 

Box 1. Use of Chamaedorea in the floral industry

Jade: wide shiny light-green leaf of about 6” to 10” in length. It is 11⁄2” to 21⁄4” wide at about 

two-thirds of the distance from the stem, after which it tapers abruptly at the tip. Stems have 

alternating leaf patterns (left, right, left), with the top two merging as a single co-joined leaf. 

Overall height is about 18” to 24”. Cut and banded in bunches of 25 stems. Delivery and postharvest handling may cause some stems to be removed from the bunch. Pricing is based on a 

20-stem bunch allowing for some dumpage. The Detroit market for this product is very poor. 

Attempts at commercialization over the years have not worked out well, as this product has 

the shortest shelf life of the three. We have no historical data in our files at this time. It is no 

longer on our price list, however it is listed on the web site, as we do have a source for this 

item. It has probably been more than 10 years since the last sale from our shop.

Tepee is a narrow-sized dull dark-green leaf of about 8” to 12” long. It is 3/8” to 3/4” wide at 

about one-fourth the distance from the stem, then a gradually tapers to the tip. Stems have 

alternating leaf patterns, as above, with a similar co-joined leaf top. Overall height is about 

22” to 34”. Cut, banded and priced as above. There is modest demand for this product, as it 

gives strength or stiffness in floral arrangements. The slim leaves prohibit high demand. 

Emerald is a medium-sized medium-green leaf of about 8” to 12” long. It is 1” to 2” wide at 

about one-fourth the distance from the stem, then tapers gradually to the tip. Stems have 

alternating leaf patterns, as above, with a similar co-joined leaf top. Overall height is about 

22” to 32”. Cut, banded and priced as above. There is high demand for this product, as it 

gives fast cover economically in floral arrangements, and is more lacy and flexible than the 

stiff Tepee. Some customers of larger orders occasionally purchase case quantities. But with 

Michigan retailers receiving wholesale deliveries on a daily basis, why stock up? Dun & 

Bradstreet show us at 54 turns per year on inventory. We handle fresh flowers, foliages, 

supplies and, for Christmas, wreaths and garlands.

All three of the abovementioned products come primarily from Mexico. They are also 

available from Guatemala and other Central American countries. In Mexico, they are 

predominantly from the Chiapas area.

Source: Steven Moore, Moore Greens, personal communication.
8

Table 1. Common and scientific names of Chamaedorea species used in foliage

Source: prepared by Dean Current.

In the Nursery Industry

Although potted plants often have common names, the industry buys and trades seed and 

vegetative material by species. According to a report by Hodel (1988) on the California market, 

99 percent of the total number and 85 percent of the total value of Chamaedorea in horticulture 

resides in two species, C. elegans and the C. seifrizii complex2. C. costaricana is the third palm 

listed by Hodel in his study, but at much lower volumes than the other two.

Although in smaller quantities, a number of other palms are produced for the nursery industry. 

The Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association (2001) lists most of the major producers in 

the state and lists nine species of Chamaedorea offered at the wholesale level. Hodel (1988) 

gives 15 species in his report on Chamaedorea production in California. Edmondson’s (1989) 

study of the Florida Nursery Industry lists 15 species. Table 2 gives the species mentioned in 

those sources. Although there is some variation, the principal species remain the same.

Physical/Biological Characteristics Influencing Trade

The palms of the Chamaedorea genus used in the floriculture and horticulture industries have 

characteristics which make them popular and which, in the context of these markets, may help 

 

2

 The C. seifrizii complex is C. seifrizii, the Florida Hybrid (C.sefrizii x C. erumpens) and C. erumpens.

Common Name Species Country Source

Xate C. oblongata

C. elegans GT Morell 1990

Palma xiat (Hoja ancha)

Palma xiat (Hoja angosta)

C. oblongata

C. seifrizii MX Unknown

Camedor C. spp., C. elegans has 

greatest demand MX Sanchez-Marcelino

Palma camedor C. elegans MEX INIFAP, Manual para la produccion 

de P. Camedor 2000

Xate hembra

Xate macho

Cambray

C. elegans

C. oblongata

C. erumpens

GT Robles-Valle 1999

Xate

Jade

C. elegans

C. oblongata GT Marmillod 1997

Camedor, Palma camedor, 

Cambray negrita, Palmilla de 

hojas angostas, Palma fina, 

Tepejilote, Xiat (Chiapas, 

GT)

C. elegans MX Red Mexicana de Germoplasmo 

Forestal IV, Ficha tecnica #10

Palmilla C. radicalis MX Olivo et al. 1996
9

contribute to more sustainable use. In addition, these characteristics and market forces appear to 

have led to the preservation of the palms’ natural habitat in some areas, and have guaranteed the 

continued production of palm products where they grow naturally. This, in turn, has created 

opportunities for income-generating activities in the local communities.

Table 2. Chamaedorea palm grown in nurseries in California and Florida

Uniform Growth Characteristics from Seed Gathered in the Wild

As one nursery owner noted, C. elegans, the palm most widely cultivated for the nursery 

industry, is fairly simple to produce. Seed gathered from wild populations, as long as it is 

cleaned and has any poor seed removed, will produce plants with uniform growth, shape and 

form. With that kind of performance from wild seed, there is little incentive to do any selection 

of seed or development of seed orchards to produce the uniform product the market requires. 

Although this increases the pressure on wild populations, it also discourages moving seed 

production into artificial shade in seed production farms, as has been the fate of many nontimber 

forest products. Because the seed is harvested from natural forests, it provides local communities 

with a motivation to maintain the forest as a source of income.

Seed Production Dynamics

As was previously mentioned, the most popular species of Chamaedorea in the nursery industry 

is C. elegans, accounting for approximately 97 percent of Chamaedorea production in California 

(Hodel 1988). C. elegans is insect-pollinated (Marshall 1989; Guerra 2001). It cannot, therefore, 

be produced outside of its natural ecological zones unless it is hand-pollinated—an expensive 

process. This makes gathering seed from wild populations in their natural habitat, or at least their 

areas of natural distribution, the most economical way to supply seed to the nursery industry. 

This, again, puts pressure on natural populations, but provides further incentive to preserve the 

natural forest habitat of the species. 

Edmondson 1989 (Florida) Florida Nurserymen and 

Growers Association 2001

Hodel 1988 (California)

C. elegans

C. seifrizii 

C. seifrizii – Florida hybrid

C. amabilis

C. cataractarum

C. costaricana

C. ernesti-augusti

C. erumpens

C. glaucifolia

C. metalica

C. microspadix

C. radicalis

C. stolonifera

C. tenella

C. tepejilote

C. elegans

C. seifrizii 

C. seifrizii – Florida hybrid

C. cataractarum

C. erumpens

C. hooperiana

C. microspadix

C. radicalis

C. humilis

C. elegans

C. seifrizii 

C. seifrizii – Florida hybrid

C. cataractarum

C. costaricana

C. elatior

C. ernesti-augusti

C. erumpens

C. metalica

C. microspadix

C. neurochlamys

C. oblongata

C. potchutlensis

C. satorii

C. tepejilote
10

Edmondson (1989) mentions that, in 1988, there were already efforts to cultivate the species in 

Mexico. A personal conversation with the Guerra family, who are one of the original and largest 

importers of seed, confirmed that both farmers and larger-scale producers are establishing 

Chamaedorea plantings for seed and foliage production under forest or tree cover. This is 

supported by numerous accounts of projects in Mexico promoting the cultivation of 

Chamaedorea as an income-generating option for rur al communities, primarily for foliage 

production.

In contrast to the case of C. elegans, C. seifrizii is wind-pollinated. Much of the seed used for the 

nursery industry now comes from plantings growing in nurseries. Very little comes from Mexico 

or Guatemala. Bernecker’s nursery in Homestead, Florida, has a seed orchard from which they 

produce all the seed they require. C. seifrizii is their specialty.

Complementary Seed and Foliage Production

Producers working for the Guerra family supply foliage for the floral industry and harvest seed 

for the nursery industry, thus having two sources of income from their plots. The Guerras had 

little information on the foliage harvest, since they deal only with seed. They did say they had 

had problems in the past because, when producers harvested the palm fronds, they often cut the 

stem carrying the seed. To remedy this, they gave producers “twist-ties” to tie the seed stem to 

the main stem of the palm and keep it out of reach during foliage cutting.

Production Costs for Seed and Foliage

The combination of low costs for seed and foliage production, and a relatively low market price 

for Chamaedorea palm products has tended to maintain the production of the palm products 

under natural forest conditions. For other floral crops, much of the production that might once 

have been carried out in natural shade conditions has been moved into artificial shade. In the 

case of Chamaedorea, this has not happened and is unlikely to happen in the near future because 

of production costs. Continental Greens does maintain production farms in Mexico where the 

palms are produced in tree shade (Continental Greens, personal communication).

Low Light Requirement

The low light requirements for Chamaedorea palms have made them attractive for interior 

decorating businesses, and means they must be produced in a shaded/forest environment. In 

guides for plants for interior decorating, the Chamaedorea species are recommended for interiors 

with low light conditions and are used extensively for that purpose. Their natural occurrence in 

low light conditions in forested areas contributes to the permanence of forest cover where the 

foliage and seeds are harvested. Seed and foliage production provide an incentive to local 

communities to maintain the forest. This could be increased through certification, provide there 

was an increase in benefits to the local communities doing the harvesting. If the cost of 

certification was reflected in lower costs paid to the individuals and groups doing the harvesting, 

they would be less likely to maintain the forest.
11

Current Population Status 

Throughout Mexico’s history, the rainforests have been most affected by environmental 

destruction, primarily due to extensive stockbreeding. Only about 10 percent of the original area 

occupied by rain forest now remains. The hardwood forests have fared better, although the 

pressure of farming on them has increased, rapidly decreasing the 40 or 45 percent of their 

original area that remains. Cloud forests, sparsely distributed in Mexico but of great biological 

value, have had little more than half their area preserved. This destruction has resulted in habitat 

reduction for thousands of species, not just plants, putting some on the verge of extinction and 

constituting a serious threat to hundreds of others. Chamaedorea populations are no exception 

(see Maps 1 and 2 in Annex C). Of 47 species, NOM 059 ECOL 94 regards 33 as threatened, 

four as endangered and one as rare (Semarnap 1997). Chamaedorea shares this fate will the other 

palm species. Of the 95 found in Mexico, 64 fall below standard—Chamaedorea species 

included. Despite the alarming fact that more than one-third of the species in this genus fall 

below the official standard, there are those who think these figures are not high enough 

(Vovides, personal communication), and the country’s protected nature areas do not include the 

genus wealth (see Map 3).

Ironically, of these species, only 14 have any use and the most commercial species—those sold 

in large quantities as foliage—are not included.

Table 3. Marketable Chamaedorea species, and parts of the plant traded (distribution and 

status according to NOM 059)

D* S* Species Parts Used

leaves seed plant flowers stems

E T C. cataractarum X

C. concolor * X

T C. elatior X X

C. elegans * X X X

T C. ernesti-augusti X X

E ES C. glaucifolia X

T C. graminifolia X

E T C. hooperiana X X

C. liebmannii X

E T C. metallica X X

C. neurochlamys X

C. oblongata * X

E T C. pochutlensis X X

T C. quezalteca * X

C. radicalis X X

C. seifrizii X X

E T C. stolonifera X

ES C. tenella X X
12

C. tepejilote * X X X X

ES C. tuerckheimii X

T C. woodsoniana X

*Notes. D=distribution, S=status, E=endemic, T=threatened, ES=endangered species, *=most commercial species

Regulation

Domestic Regulation and Use

The market and use of palm in Mexico is regulated by NOM-006-RECNAT-1997. This Mexican 

Official Standard establishes the procedures, criteria and specifications for the use, transportation 

and storage of palm leaves. 

As specifically mentioned in this standard, its purpose and scope “is of general observance 

throughout national territory and is intended to establish the procedures, criteria and technical 

and administrative specifications for the sustainable use, transportation and storage of palm 

leaves in natural populations.”

On this basis, notice must be given of the use to be undertaken and of the measures for 

recovering the exploited area, in order to have a sustainable use.

The standard describes the procedures, criteria and specifications for using palm leaves from 

forest vegetation, as well as for registering the collection centers in the National Forestry 

Registry and their obligations. It also includes lega l requirements for transporting palm leaves, 

and the origin, destination and volume transported. 

In addition, NOM-059-ECOL-1994 details the endangered, threatened and rare species and 

subspecies of wild land and aquatic flora and fauna, and those subject to special protection, in 

addition to establishing the specifications for their protection. 

International Regulation

The international trade of the Chamaedorea palm involves its green foliage and seeds. Based on 

the nomenclature of the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System in Mexico, the 

fresh foliage of Chamaedorea palms (Chamaedorea spp.) is not classified under a specific tariff 

section and thus falls under section 0604.91.01, described as follows:
13

Chapter 06 Live plants and floriculture products

Heading 04 Foliage, leaves, branches, and other parts of plants, without flowers or 

flower buds, and grasses, mosses and lichens, for bouquets or for 

ornamental purposes, fresh, dried, bleached, dyed, impregnated, or 

otherwise prepared

Subheading 91 Fresh

Section 01 Fresh 

This section is part of the necessary and fundamental information to be included in export 

documents and data reviewed by customs.

With the entry into force of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994, all importations 

of flowers and plants made by the United States and Canada from Mexico are immediately 

exempt from the payment of import duties.

Given that there is no specific tariff section, data on the worldwide Chamaedorea palm trade 

cannot be precisely determined, as such data are included within statistics on fresh foliage 

generally.

The World Floriculture and Environmental Horticulture Trade 

The trade in Chamaedorea seed, foliage and potted plants forms part of what is called, in the 

United States, the floriculture and environmental horticulture trade. Floriculture includes cut 

flowers, cut cultivated greens, potted flowering plants, and potted foliage, bedding and garden 

plants. Environmental horticulture includes nursery plants such as trees, shrubs, ground covers, 

vines, and fruit and nut plants; bulbs, turf grass, and unfinished plants and propagation materials 

such as cuttings, plugs, seedlings, and “lining out” stock used by other growers for growing on. 

Chamaedorea is primarily used in the floriculture trade as seed, foliage or potted plants (in 

different presentations and sizes). The extent to which Chamaedorea enters into that trade is hard 

to determine because it is often combined with other cut cultivated greens for reporting purposes. 

Nevertheless, the growth in cut greens is generally proportional to the increase in the demand for 

floral products since cut greens are often used in floral arrangements.

Because it forms part of that trade, setting aside differences in consumer preferences, the demand 

for Chamaedorea products will probably follow general trends in the industry. The floriculture 

and nursery industries have been growing in recent years, and demand has been growing both for 

flowers and foliage in the cut flower and greens sector, as well as for potted plants for interior 

decoration.

Below, an overview of the world market is presented, followed by a section looking at the supply 

side of the market Mexican market, and a description of the demand side in the United States, 
14

Canada and Europe. (In1, market overviews are presented which were extracted from recent 

studies of the industry in the United States and Canada, and present good summaries of trends in 

the industry in those countries.)

Overall, world markets for floriculture and environmental horticultural products have been 

increasing in North America and Europe, with South American cut flowers taking a greater share 

of the market. In Europe, there have been efforts to certify environmentally and socia lly 

“friendly” production (more on this in the section on opportunities for certification and green 

marketing). In North America, there has been little or no movement towards guaranteeing 

ecologically and socially sustainable production. Retailers surveyed were not aware of any 

efforts to certify flower and cut greens production, and very few were even aware of what it 

means to certify production.

Market Overview 

The World Market

World markets for cut flowers are organized primarily along regional lines, with Asia-Pacific 

countries supplying cut flowers to Hong Kong and Japan. African and European countries are the 

main suppliers to Europe’s markets. The African nations of Kenya, Zimbabwe and Zambia are 

producers, and the majority of their production is sent to Europe. In the Americas, the major 

market is the United States. Colombia and Ecuador send 70 percent of their production to the 

United States, although they are also producing for the European market.

Germany is the largest importer of cut flowers, followed by the United States. Nonetheless, the 

growth in German imports leveled off in the early 1990s, while the Netherlands, the United 

States and Japan have shown rapid growth. The Netherlands re-exports 70 percent of the flowers 

it imports through its auctions. Developing countries have rapidly increased their share of the 

market over the last decade. More favorable growing conditions, low production prices, foreign 

investment and rising fuel prices—which have a greater impact in developed countries—have 

helped make developing countries more competitive.

World demand for cut flowers has been increasing by about six percent to nine percent per year. 

The value of trade in potted plants in 1990 was US$14.2 billion, 21 percent higher than in 1985 

and was expected to increase to $20–$23 billion in 2000 (de Groot, 1998). Production to meet 

this demand has been gradually shifting to developing countries, often with investment by 

foreign investors, banks and wealthy individuals. According to de Groot, the managers of these 

farms are frequently hired from the major producing countries in Europe.

Trends in the Floriculture and Environmental Horticulture Trade

Van Liemt (1998) identified several trends in the world cut flower industry that represent 

changes which may have important consequences in the trade of Chamaedorea palm products. 

Those trends are:
15

• Increasing importance of quality products and the need to invest more capital to achieve 

that quality. When discussing the purchase of palm fronds with retailers, particularly 

wholesalers, the quality issue was brought up as an important consideration and may be 

key to any potential increase in the prices that might be paid for those products.

• The emergence of new growing and exporting countries. This probably would have little 

impact on the Chamaedorea trade unless emerging Latin American producers were to 

become interested in palm production, and competed with producers in Mexico and 

Guatemala.

• Enhanced demand for mixed bouquets. This would have limited impact on the palm trade 

since palms are generally used in larger flower arrangements.

• The attention being given to higher ecological and labor standards. This refers to a 

growing concern about pesticide and herbicide use in production, and about the treatment 

of workers by the companies producing for the trade. This has become an issue in Europe 

with flower-labeling programs and could provide the potential for certification of palm 

products. This same concern has not yet become important in the North American 

market.

• The increased influence of supermarkets. Supermarkets and retail chains are increasingly 

involved in the sale of cut flowers and potted plants (K-mart, Home Depot, etc.). This 

trend could provide opportunities for marketing of palms, as well as an outlet for certified 

palm production. For example, Home Depot has decided to only sell certified wood. If 

supermarkets or large retail chains were to promote sustainable production, this could 

provide further impetus for certification.

• Another trend mentioned in several reports on world markets, and the US and European 

markets specifically, was an increasing use of the Internet to sell products, eliminating 

the middleman in some cases. Most researchers expect this trend to continue in the future.

The Palm Market in Mexico

It is difficult to establish general trends in the production and pricing of Chamaedorea palm, due 

to the lack of records on palm-use permits granted in Mexico. Furthermore, part of such use 

occurs outside the legal framework, making it difficult to draw a true estimate of production and 

trade volumes.

As noted above, Chamaedorea is principally used in two forms—leaves and seeds. The analysis 

of each of these products will be discussed separately.

Chamaedorea palm fronds

As described at the beginning of this chapter, the commercial process for Chamaedorea palm 

fronds may be summarized as follows: the producer or gatherer supplies the palm leaf to a local 

buyer or collector, who forwards it to a regional buyer, who transports the product to a regional 

collection center (Flor de Catemaco and Continental Greens). This center or collector channels 

the product to the wholesale markets in Mexico and abroad. 
16

Based on use permits issued by the Semarnat Department of Non-Timber Usage, production 

varies widely by state, with greater volumes (exceeding 500 tons in recent years) in Veracruz, 

Chiapas and Tamaulipas. In addition, some states have not obtained use permits for several 

years, such as Campeche in 1994 and 1995, Hidalgo in 1997 and 1998, and Tabasco in 1994. 

Permits for lower palm–leaf-use volumes have also been granted in Tabasco. 

Production volumes authorized by Semarnat for the eight states increased from approximately 

1,500 tons in 1994 to nearly 2,000 tons in 1999 (see Table 4). Reported prices per ton for each 

producing state have been variable, rising from an average of P$2,574 per ton in 1994 to P$7,360 

per ton in 1999. This represents accumulated revenues of around $20 million in 1999 (see Table 

4). 

Table 4. Evolution of production and price of Chamaedorea fronds in Mexico, 1994–1999

STATE YEAR PRODUCTION

(tons)

PRICE

(P$/ton)

REVENUE

(P$)

CAMPECHE 1994 0 0 -

1995 0 0 -

CHIAPAS 1994 407 1,405.78 572,152.46

1995 68 522.00 35,496.00

1996 435 1,088.00 473,280.00

1997 1052 4,500.00 4,734,000.00

1998 515 5,500.00 2,832,500.00

1999 500 5,500.00 2,750,000.00

HIDALGO 1994 114.7 1,649.34 189,179.30

1995 170 4,008.15 681,385.50

1996 30 11,067.04 332,011.20

1997 0 4,000.00 -

1999 0 0 -

OAXACA 1994 90 2,927.62 263,485.80

1995 148 4,030.78 596,555.44

1996 42 6,907.89 290,131.38

1997 146 3,250.00 474,500.00

1998 182 4,000.00 728,000.00

1999 108 6,310.00 681,480.00
17

SAN LUIS POTOSI 1994 437 1,148.46 501,877.02

1995 254 4,480.56 1,138,062.24

1996 150 50,301.91 7,545,286.50

1997 478 10,500.00 5,019,000.00

1998 150 8,000.00 1,200,000.00

1999 359 8,250.00 2,961,750.00

TABASCO 1994 0 0 -

1996 17 1,087.00 18,479.00 

1997 36 4,500.00 162,000.00 

1998 40 5,715.00 228,600.00 

1999 31 8,000.00 248,000.00 

TAMAULIPAS 1994 432.5 969.36 419,248.20 

1995 807 4,182.31 3,375,124.17 

1996 633 9,005.44 5,700,443.52 

1997 574 4,300.00 2,468,200.00 

1998 578 4,300.00 2,485,400.00 

1999 596 5,000.00 2,980,000.00 

VERACRUZ 1994 12.9 7,346.95 94,775.66 

1995 150 2,990.43 448,564.50 

1996 598 1,383.07 827,075.86 

1997 610 6,500.00 3,965,000.00 

1998 800 6,500.00 5,200,000.00 

1999 872 11,100.00 9,679,200.00 

Source: Department of Non-Timber Forest Usage, Semarnat 2001.

Prices vary according to the species, region, and product demand of local and regional collectors. 

In general, producers receive between $12 and $15 per gross (144 fronds). The local or first-level 

intermediaries collect them at places where they are gathered or produced. The regional 

collection centers manage a similar price with a markup of two or three pesos. One advantage 

they offer is that, once the buyer’s material pickup date is agreed upon, the centers assume all 

risks. 

In the domestic market, wholesalers manage prices ranging from $30 to $35 per gross, while the 

price to the end consumer varies between $10 and $15 per dozen. The price on the international 

market is variable, ranging from US$3.00 to $3.50 per 25-stem bouquet in the US wholesale 

market. 
18

Table 5. Average prices paid to commercial agents on the domestic market

Agent Price*

(P$/gross)

Producer / Gatherer 12.00

Local collector 14.00

Regional collector 16.00

Mexican wholesaler 30.00

Mexican retailer or US wholesaler 180.00

* Average price per gross in pesos. Source: Author’s research, April 2001.

In analyzing the prices paid to the different agents participating in the commercial process, the 

trade margins increase for each successive agent in the chain of commerce. The share received 

by the producer/extractor is only seven percent of the final price. 

Chamaedorea seed 

The Chamaedorea seed shares the same trade route as the leaves, but it is used on a smaller scale 

because it is not common to all regions. In most cases, the seed is sent to the United States, 

although there are no detailed records on volumes exported. It is generally known that the seed 

comes from the Huasteca region, the main seed-producing area in Mexico. To a lesser extent, 

seed is used to establish vivariums and new plantations. 

The seed trade is very similar to the leaf trade, and takes place among local and regional buyers 

and collectors. Seed does not require special handling for storage or transport, and follows the 

same pattern of seasonal prices—starting at about P$40–$50 per kilogram in September, and 

coming down in October, the main maturity season, to as low as $6 per kilogram in some areas. 

The seed trade in recent years has realized about $13 million between 1995 and 1998 for the 

state of San Luis Potosí alone (see Table 6).
19

Table 6. Evolution of production and price of Chamaedorea seed in Mexico, 1994-1999

STATE Year Production

(tons)

Price

($/ton)

Revenue

Hidalgo 1994 50 6,597.36 329,868.00 

San Luis Potosí 1994 166 3,828.21 635,482.86 

1995 103 21,856.40 2,251,209.20 

1996 49 167,673.04 8,215,978.96 

1997 113 17,000.00 1,921,000.00 

1998 3 15,000.00 45,000.00 

1999 0 - -

Source: Department of Non-Timber Usage, Semarnat 2001.

Extraction of palm seeds and fronds takes place in parts of the states outlined above that are 

generally quite marginalized and poor. The relatively high prices that can be obtained for palm, 

combined with this marginalization, puts pressure on, and in some cases leads to

overexploitation of, natural populations of palm. One region in which overexploitation is of 

particular concern is Chiapas. It is reported that overexploitation has taken place for quite some 

time, in particular, in both northern and southern Chiapas and that in some cases it is being 

extracted illegally, either within nature reserves, or in ejidos by non-ejido residents. Various 

government programs have attempted to better inform on, and encourage residents to undertake, 

more sustainable practices of palm cultivation and extraction, such as Fonaes, the National

Reforestation Program, and the shared risk trust (Firco). For more information on the

particularities of palm producing regions, please see Annex C.

Current and Projected Market and Trade in Chamaedorea Palm Products

The Growing US Market

The value of floriculture and environmental horticulture crops reached US$12.1 billion in 1998, 

an increase of two percent over the previous year. This maintained a trend that had seen an 

average increase of $440 million per year since 1991. The United States is a net importer of 

green products. Domestic grower cash receipts for cut flowers and cut greens have shown a 

decline from $671 million in 1989 to $642 million in 1996. Cut-green receipts increased in 1996 

by seven percent (Stevenson 2000). The decline in grower cash receipts is not a reflection of 

lower demand, but of increasing imports of cut flowers, primarily from Latin America. 

Receipts for cut flowers increased three percent, receipts for cut greens jumped nine percent, and 

receipts for potted foliage plants increased by four percent. Also in 1998, retail expenditures 

reached US$203 per capita, which represents an increase of 37 percent since 1991. The 

floriculture and environmental industries are growing, which should provide a steady and 
20

possibly increasing demand for Chamaedorea products, although it is likely that the recent 

downturn in the US economy will affect the growth of both markets.

Americans consumed nearly 2.2 billion stems of cut cultivated greens in 1998. Only 17 percent 

of these were imported. Leatherleaf, a cut green raised in the United States, represented nearly 62 

percent of purchases and Chamaedorea nearly 14 percent. Greens from the Pacific Northwest are 

another important component of the cut-greens trade although not reaching the proportions of 

Leatherleaf and Chamaedorea greens. The USDA Economics Research Service records data on 

the amount and value of Chamaedorea palm imported into the United States, primarily for the 

cut-greens trade. Figure 1 below presents time-series data on the quantity of Chamaedorea palm 

fronds imported into the United States between 1971 and 1998, while Figure 2 presents the 

volume and value of the Chamaedorea palm fronds imported between 1985 and 1998, the dates 

for which that information was available.

Imports of Chamaedorea Foliage 1971-1998

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

500,000

19711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997

Year

1,000s of stems 

Figure 1. Time-series amounts of Chamaedorea imported to the United States
21

The import of Chamaedorea shows a somewhat erratic trend over the years. In recent years, 

there has been an average annual importation of about 350,000 stems, the majority coming from 

Mexico and the remainder from Guatemala. Figure 3 compares the percentage of total imports 

from Guatemala and Mexico When questioning retailers, wholesalers and importers, we were 

told there was no problem supplying the market with the amount of product required. The only 

exception was during holidays in Mexico and Guatemala, when frond gatherers were not 

working, but that was expected and suppliers planned accordingly, stockpiling for those 

occasions. Other disruptions in supply were related to weather conditions that made gathering 

fronds impossible. Again, retailers were still generally getting the palm fronds when they needed 

them.

Volume and Value of Chamaedorea Foliage

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

500,000

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Year

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

1,000s of US dollars

Volume in 1,000s of stems Value in 1,000s of dollars

L

Figure 2. Volume and value of Chamaedorea imports

Figure 3. Percent of foliage from Guatemala and Mexico 
22

An analysis of the last 10–15 years shows a tendency for palm imports to decline. This is 

consistent with some of the comments from retailers, who mentioned they were using less of the 

palm, although those comments came from less than 10 percent of the retailers surveyed. The 

picture that emerges from the survey of retailers, wholesalers and importers is one of a fairly 

static market over the years, with few changes in supply and demand for a product that has a 

well-defined end use. The palm fronds are a relatively low-volume product for wholesalers, but 

one they carry because of the needs and demands of their customers. When asked if there were 

other greens that florists would use if the palms were not available, florists mentioned several of 

the northwestern greens although, for some uses, Chamaedorea is preferred.

Some of the retailers surveyed mentioned that they felt that the palms were “old fashioned” or 

“passé.” These respondents represented less than 10 percent of those surveyed. This could, 

however, be a problem for the market in the future if consumer tastes in floral arrangements 

change, although there is no indication that such a change is imminent.

The time-series comparing volume and value covering a shorter period does show a decline in 

the imports of Chamaedorea and an increase in total value reported for the fronds. That would be 

consistent with a declining supply and subsequent increase in prices. Here again, the survey of 

retailers, wholesalers and importers provided no indication of such a relationship. When asked if 

there had been any changes in price or supply, most responded that both price and supply had 

remained constant. A few said the price had increased, but not more than would be expected over 

time.

The Canadian and European markets

The Canadian and European markets are serviced by some of the same importers that import 

Chamaedorea into the United States, so some of the palms imported to the United States are reexported to Canada or Europe. Others are exported directly from Guatemala and Mexico to other 

foreign destinations, primarily Germany and Holland.3 It is hard to estimate the amount of 

Chamaedorea imported or exported to and from Canada and the European Community. Data are 

not readily available and, when they are, Chamaedorea is often lumped with other cut greens. 

Imports to Canada are probably channeled through the United States, because the United States 

has been the traditional importer of the palms and is in direct communication with gatherers in 

Mexico. 

In Canada, imports of cut greens have been rising steadily since the early 1990s. Canadian 

import/trade statistics report Chamaedorea in a group labeled “Grasses and palm leaves, fresh, 

suitable for bouquets or for ornamental purposes.” Statistics are available for imports of that 

category from both Mexico and the United States (see Figure 4). Because Chamaedorea cannot 

be separated out from the rest of the greens, it is not possible to determine the trends in the 

market for the palm, other than to assume they are most likely similar to those in the US market. 

According to Canadian government reports, the increase in imports is part of a general trend to 

the use of more cut greens in the floral industry.

 

3

 US importers interviewed said they also ship Chamaedorea to Europe and Canada. 
23

The same is true of published statistics on the European market, based upon the harmonized 

tariff schedules used to report trade activity. Chamaedorea is lumped with other similar 

products. The Dutch flower auctions do report individual products and demonstrate a relatively 

stable market for the palms. Several publications mentioned the export of Chamaedorea from 

Guatemala, but gave little detail on amounts and destinations (Nations 1992).

Markets for Seed and Potted Plants

Chamaedorea seed is used extensively throughout the world for the production of potted plants 

and outdoor landscape plants where the climate allows. By far the greatest volume of sales is of 

C. elegans (Neanthe Bella, Parlor Palm). This is reflected in the fact that this species’ seed was 

always the least expensive in the commercial seed lists reviewed.

The market and supply of seed is hard to determine for a number of reasons. Imported seed is 

subject to some control at the USDA quarantine stations. Nonetheless, because of the large flow 

of goods through Miami, seed imports are not always registered or may be registered as “cut 

flowers and miscellaneous” rather than seed, making it impossible to get an accurate reading of 

the amount of Chamaedorea seed entering the United States (Ron Sponaugle, USDA Port 

Operations, personal communication). In Canada, the government does not keep records of seed 

imported for palms, although they do have records for flower-seed imports. Records were 

obtained from the USDA, but the information proved unreliable so it was not included in the 

report. To be able to get a good estimate of seed imported would probably require a survey of 

importers of seed and, as Edmondson found earlier, most importers are reluctant to provide 

information on their commercial activities.

Another phenomenon which has probably affected the amount of seed imported has been 

concern over the effect of unsustainable harvests of seed and fronds, and the loss of habitat for 

Canadian Imports of Cut Palm Leaves and Cut Grasses

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

3,500,000

4,000,000

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Year

Value of imports from Mexico Value of imports from US Total Value of imports

Figure 4. Canadian imports of cut greens from Mexico and the United States
24

Chamaedorea in Mexico and Guatemala. Some Chamaedorea species were proposed for 

inclusion in the CITES lists in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but eventually were not included 

because of industry objections and a lack of data on sustainable harvest levels (Endress 2001). 

Because of these concerns over unsustainable harvests and habitat loss, production has often 

shifted to cultivated seed orchards.

For those palms that produce seed when grown outside of their native habitat (e.g., C. seifrizii), 

the trend toward production from ornamental plantings and seed orchards will likely continue. 

For palms that do not produce seed outside of their native habitat (e.g., C. elegans), there will be 

a continuing demand for imported seed that may increase as new markets develop. An 

illustration of this is recent sales to the Chinese market.

Summary

• Time-series data suggest that the market for Chamaedorea, although showing 

considerable variability from year to year, has remained relatively stable. 

• There has been a decrease in foliage sales in the last few years but, given the 

changeability of the market, this may not be a trend.

• It is difficult to find data on the palm market outside of the United States. There has been 

a continuous market in Europe for foliage supplied by direct and US importers.4

The Chamaedorea Supply Chain

The Chamaedorea supply chain is fairly simple, as little processing is required.5 The leaves are 

harvested in Guatemala and Mexico, culled, packed and shipped by air or truck to the United 

States as primary destination. Other recipients are members of the European Union. In the 

destination country, the fronds are boxed in case lots and shipped, usually by truck, to 

wholesalers and retailers throughout the floral industry. Wholesalers, depending on their size, 

generally deal with cases of fronds which they ship to retailers. Sometimes cases are broken 

down into bunches, which are shipped to retailers. The bulk of the culling (removal of 

undersized or poor fronds) takes place in collection points in the country of origin, although 

importers do some culling.

 

4

 Pathfinder Publishing, <http://www.pathfastpublishing.com/>, which publishes statistics on the floral trade in 

Europe and worldwide, reports that the use of palms in Europe is generally limited to Palm Sunday, and is relatively 

minor compared to the use of other cut foliage, such as leather leaf, tree fern (various asparaguses), bear grass and 

western greens. They estimate that Chamaedorea accounted for less than five percent of the trade in that sector 

(personal communication). The Guatemalan Ag. Export agency reports leatherleaf as a major export crop, while 

“Xate” is mentioned as a traditional export but not a major export commodity.

5

 The information presented in this section is based on mail surveys and individual interviews with importers, 

wholesalers and retailers, including interviews conducted during visits to floral shops and wholesale operations.
25

The Supply Chain

In the country of origin6

Fronds are gathered from natural forest areas and, increasingly, from areas of cultivated palms 

under forest cover. Continental Floral Greens, one of the largest suppliers of “Latin greens”, has 

production areas and processing plants in both Mexico and Guatemala, and received an award 

from the former President of Mexico for its service in providing job opportunities in Mexico. 

The Luciano Guerra family also has seed production. The same plantings are used for frond 

production.

Fronds are gathered by individuals and organized groups, and are sold to middlemen hired by the 

importers. The middlemen generally develop long-term relationships with the importing 

companies, and often will receive advances to cover emergencies and their expenses. The palm 

fronds are transported to centralized collection points, and thence to processing plants where they 

are prepared for shipment by truck or plane to the United States and other destinations.

There are about a half a dozen major importers of Chamaedorea palm fronds and about the same 

number of seed importers working out of Texas, Florida and California. Seed is collected in 

much the same way the palm fronds are collected, from a mixture of wild and cultivated palms.

As was previously mentioned, there has been a predictable trend towards cultivation of the palms 

for both seed and foliage collection, and often the same palms are used for both.

The harvest and transport of palms in Mexico is subject to government permit and control. The 

Guerra family indicated that it is a system that they have learned to work with and that the 

government has exercised greater control over the years, primarily for purpose of tax collection. 

The government is now asking palm collectors to be registered by the Guerra family, so the 

income they receive from seed collection can be monitored. Another seed importer, who has not 

been in the business as long as the Guerras, commented that the government permit requirements 

were a serious constraint on his business. 

After the palms are prepared for shipping, they are loaded into trucks and transported to Texas, 

or are sent by air to Miami. Continental Floral Greens said their costs have not improved 

following implementation of the NAFTA agreements because they have to change drivers at the 

border. According to the NAFTA agreements for free trade, trucks from Mexico are supposed to 

be able to travel freely in the United States, lowering transport costs. Recently, the US Congress 

enacted legislation to allow trucks from Mexico to enter and travel in the United States, but 

imposed strict safety standards. The palms are subject to an inspection at the USDA quarantine 

post at the border. If they have insect pests or other phytosanitary problems, the shipment may be 

delayed or refused. According to the importers interviewed, the preparation of the shipments is 

the responsibility of the middlemen and if there is any problem at the border, the middleman is 

responsible for any loss.

In discussing the study, Randy Natalino of Foremost Co, which imports plant material from 

Latin America, mentioned that problems at the border can be very expensive and, in countries 

 

6

 The section on the country of origin is based upon published reports and discussions with importers, and is not 

meant to be a detailed discussion of harvesting. A parallel report is being prepared in Mexico on the harvesting and 

processing of palms and seeds.
26

like Israel, the USDA actually stations an inspector to ensure that shipments conform to US 

phytosanitary standards before they leave. This serves more than one purpose. It provides 

training to shippers in the exporting country to bring them up to international standards. It also 

eliminates problems and delays at the border which, in turn, lowers costs and helps ensure better 

phytosanitary control of imported materials.

Importers and Wholesalers

As already mentioned, importers of foliage and seed are located in Texas and Florida. Many 

have been in business since the 1940s and 1950s, when the trade began, and have well-organized 

collection and distribution systems in Mexico, Guatemala and the United States. Most of them 

have diversified into other floral products and cut foliage from other sources. Jim of Continental 

Floral Greens said he is still dealing with Latin greens primarily because that was how his father 

got started.

The importers compete against each other in the market for Latin greens, although there are some 

differences between Guatemalan and Mexican fronds. Wholesalers, as might be expected, base 

their purchases on quality and supply issues. They receive shipments on a weekly basis, and turn 

around and distribute to their client wholesalers and retailers. They make all deliveries within a 

day of receiving orders. Distribution is very efficient, with fast turnover of the product. Within 

the floral industry, such efficiency is essential. An advantage of the palms already mentioned is a 

relatively long shelf life—up to two weeks—although shelf life varies between species.

Florida importers concentrate more on the East Coast; Texas importers concentrate on the 

Midwest and Western states. The range of wholesalers varies depending on size of operation and 

location. Wholesalers working out of the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metro region distribute to an area 

within a day’s travel of the city. They may supply palms to smaller metropolitan area distributors

who service retailers. 

Importers sell flowers by the case; wholesalers sell by the case or by the bunch, breaking the 

cases into bunches. Even wholesalers with annual sales volume of US$20 million distribute palm 

by the bunch. If wholesalers sell by the case, they basically act as a warehouse facility, receiving 

the cases and then dispatching them to their customers. Others break the case down and sell the 

product in bunches. Probably, most wholesalers do both, depending on their clients’ demands. 

The importers generally use their own trucks and guarantee the product will arrive in good 

condition. If a refrigeration unit breaks down or something else happens during transport causing 

deterioration of the palms, the importer/wholesaler is responsible for any loss. Figure 5 illustrates 

the distribution of Chamaedorea in the United States, using Minneapolis, Minnesota, as an 

example. The pattern illustrated in Minnesota would be repeated in major cities throughout the 

country, generally with the palm originating from importers in Texas and Florida.
27

Wholesalers and retailers interviewed indicated that there is little or no need to cull or discard 

palm fronds as long as a minimum effort is made to provide the conditions necessary for 

maintaining the palms—low moisture and refrigeration. With excess moisture or exposure to 

heat or higher temperatures the leaves will often turn black.

Importers are located in Texas and Florida, and ship to wholesalers throughout the United States, 

Canada and Europe. Wholesalers are located in both large and small metropolitan centers. 

Wholesalers in larger metropolitan areas generally receive their palms directly from the importer. 

For example, the wholesalers interviewed in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metro area received 

shipments from two different importers, one in Texas and the other in Florida. There were minor 

differences between the two importers but the wholesalers worked with both to guarantee a good 

supply.

Retailers

Retailers are generally the last link in the supply chain before the palms reach the consumer. 

They are served by wholesalers within a day’s shipping distance. The majority of the retailers 

surveyed purchase the fronds by the bunch (63 percent), while many of the larger retailers also 

Figure 5 - Illustrative example of the distribution of Chamaedorea Palm in the US; 

Minneapolis, Minnesota, wholesaler
28

purchase fronds by the case (43 percent). The fronds are incorporated into large, showy floral 

arrangements for weddings and funerals, and, to a lesser extent, for parties with a tropical theme. 

During the Easter season and especially for Palm Sunday, palms may be sold to churches by the 

frond or by the bunch. 7

The demand for palms has been fairly constant over the years, according to the retailers and 

wholesalers interviewed. About 25 percent mentioned some decrease in sales while 20 percent 

mentioned increases. Some decreases were attributed to there being fewer funerals, which is 

where many palms are used8. Others were attributed to changing tastes and, in one case, the 

“Martha Stewart” effect9 was mentioned. Frequently, where a decline in sales was noted, the 

decrease was small.

Prices 

Retailers were asked to indicate the prices they pay for different varieties of the Chamaedorea

palm fronds. As might be expected, the prices seemed to va ry with the volume purchased and, to 

a certain extent,with the distance from the supplier. Prices for bunches (25 stems) ranged from 

US$1.45 per bunch to $4 or more. The most frequent price for a bunch ranged from $2 to $2.50. 

The lower prices were reported by those retailers who used a greater volume of palms and those 

who purchase by the case (see Table 3 for a summary of prices). According to the wholesalers 

interviewed, there is a difference in quality between the various palms available, and this too is 

reflected in the price.

Volumes play an important role in prices, but they are also indicative of the type of market in 

which Chamaedorea is sold. Retailers reported use of Chamaedorea ranging from one to two 

floral arrangements per year, up to four cases per week. The average use was 10–30 bunches per 

week, representing an expenditure of $20–$100 per week for an item that is included in floral 

arrangements. This is a relatively small-volume expenditure for most retail florists, but the palms 

are an essential component of certain flower arrangements.

For wholesalers, the price per bunch varied from $0.80 to $1.70, while case prices ran from 

$25.50 to $50. The lowest price was paid by a wholesaler in Louisiana, where transport costs are 

among the lowest. The wholesalers purchase by the case, and distribute by the case and bunch. 

The per-bunch cost provided is arrived at by dividing the case price by 25 or 30 bunches, 

depending on which is the number of bunches in a case.

Processing Along the Supply Chain

As was noted earlier, there is relatively little processing of Chamaedorea palm. This is also true 

for the seed. In both cases, the products are culled, graded and loaded into cases. The only major 

 

7

 In Europe, Pathfinder Publishing commented that this is largely restricted to the Catholic Church, while in the 

United States the use is more widespread and includes other Christian denominations.

8

 Some 98 percent of the retailers mentioned using Chamaedorea for funerals and several shops indicated that 

funerals were their only use for the palm.

9

 Martha Stewart publishes home decorating magazines and guides that are distributed throughout the United States. 

As a result, she has had a significant effect on how people use plants and flowers when decorating or preparing for 

social events.
29

handling and changes in the product take place in the retailers’ shops, where the fronds are added 

to floral arrangements. This last phase is of interest because how much the palm gets used often 

depends upon individual floral designers’ tastes; some prefer other species for their designs. 

Nonetheless, Chamaedorea palms fill an important niche in the floral designs due to their ability 

to function well as filler for large arrangements and to add stiffness to arrangements. Apart from 

that, their use for Palm Sunday and Easter is unique and leaves little room for substitutes.

The one area of processing where efficiency and income-generating potential could be improved 

is the process of gathering the palm fronds in forest areas. A number of publications have 

indicated that anywhere from 40 to 60 percent of the harvested leaves are culled out at collection 

points in Guatemala (Nations, 1995; Segura-Bonilla, 1999). Although some of these losses may 

be unavoidable, due to transport problems and local conditions, it is reasonable to expect that 

some could be avoided. Buyers would pay more for the fronds if they did not have to discard 

such a larger percentage of what they purchase from collectors.

Market Concentration

Market concentration does not seem to be a problem in the US market. Given the volume of 

Chamaedorea palm sold there, the current number of importers probably reflects an effective 

number of suppliers. It was evident from conversations with importers that there is competition 

in the market. This was also evident in discussions with wholesalers who will work with more 

than one supplier to guarantee their supply and who discriminate on the basis of product quality. 

The prices for the palms are low compared to those for other floral greens, so there is no 

evidence of monopolistic price setting. If there is a problem, it may be in Mexico and Guatemala, 

where the palms are gathered and where it is often a single buyer who sets the purchase price. 

Although there is not good data for analyzing the price at which other greens might be 

substituted for the palms. If collection costs were to increase, boosting the cost of the palm to 

wholesalers and retailers, substitution might be a problem.

Opportunities for Value-Added Processing and “Green” Marketing

Because of the limited amount of processing that is required for the production of fronds and 

seed from Chamaedorea palm, there is not much room for value-added processing. Nonetheless, 

there is some potential for eliminating inefficient gathering practices, improving quality, and 

shifting some stages of potted plant production from importing countries to the seed-producing 

countries (Mexico and Guatemala). Such opportunities will differ depending on the destination 

country, and its markets and regulatory requirements.

There are a number of different areas to consider for green marketing, depending upon the 

objectives, target audience, and potential for and interest in providing financing for activities 

which would promote green marketing. Green-marketing efforts in the floral industry have been 

limited to Europe. Surveys in the United States indicate that more than 90 percent of retailers are 

unaware of any such efforts in the US floral industry. 

In a recent CEC (1999) study of the shade-grown coffee market, it was found that people were 

primarily interested in taste as a criterion for purchasing coffee. The fact that it was shade grown 

was a secondary consideration. In the floral industry, an equivalent primary criterion is product 
30

quality. The demand for greater quality has increased in recent years and is primary 

consideration for florists. It should be a key element in any effort to certify or promote 

Chamaedorea as a green-market product.

Value-Added Processing

Palm fronds

Because of the limited amount of processing done to Chamaedorea palm, there may be little 

scope for value-added processing. Nonetheless, there may be some opportunities to improve 

prices paid at the producer/campesino level. Information from experience suggests that there 

may be opportunities to improve individual frond selection in the forest to increase va lue and 

prices. According to some sources, there is a high level of culling after the gatherer sells the 

fronds to buyers and before they are exported. If this is the case, and gatherers become more 

selective to minimize culling, they should be able to demand a better price for the fronds. Other 

options for value-added processing will be explored and presented.

Potted-plant production

The preparation of germinated seedlings (slips) and potted plants for the nursery and interiordecorating industry is mostly undertaken outside of Mexico and Guatemala. This is a type of 

value-added processing which could be done in the countries from which seeds and fronds 

originate. However, the production of slips and potted plants is subject to the phytosanitary 

regulations of the importing countries. The most significant restriction is that against the 

importation into the United States of plants with soil, that eliminates the possibility of exporting 

potted plants from other countries. The other limitation on potted-plant exports is the cost of 

transport that, in many cases, would make the product unprofitable. 

For communities and companies to be able to compete in potted-plant production would require 

training, investment and an efficient exporting system. The benefits would be employment 

opportunities, and greater social and economic benefits than those earned for simply exporting 

seed. It would also require a careful analysis of the potential costs and benefits. Rising fuel prices 

would likely make Mexico and Guatemala more competitive compared to countries that must 

maintain plants in greenhouses during the cooler months. In Florida, plants can be maintained 

outside greenhouses year round, but this is not be possible in important production centers such 

as the Netherlands.

Green Marketing and Certification

The ultimate goal of certification should be to facilitate better management of nontimber 

forest products and reward exemplary producers with reputable marketing claims, not 

serve as an impediment to technical assistance and market access. (Pierce 1999 #5)

Certain characteristics of its current production practices and markets make Chamaedorea palm 

a promising target for green marketing and certification efforts. Chamaedorea are nontimber 

forest products (NTFP) with an established and stable position in international markets. At their 

present level of domestication and production, they promote the preservation of natural forest 

areas. Furthermore, they have well-established processing chains that already are subject to a 
31

certain amount of control. In Guatemala, Chamaedorea are harvested from natural forest areas 

under management by community concessions, many of which are already certified for timber 

production. In Mexico, by contrast, harvesting is often from forest areas with little control, and 

gatherers move from one area to the next as palm populations dwindle or are harvested.

Caution should be exercised when considering options for certification. Chamaedorea are a lowvolume, low-value item, and that is what gives them their competitive edge. The danger exists 

that the costs of certification could remove that competitive advantage. In addition, the market 

for palm fronds is limited. Recent efforts to promote palm planting often describe a market with 

an unsatisfied demand. If promotion programs succeed in getting large areas planted to 

Chamaedorea, there exists the real possibility of saturating the market and driving prices down 

to the point where production would become unprofitable. Ultimately, this would lead to the 

replacement of forests—now protected for palm production—by agricultural crops. These 

considerations need to be taken into account and dealt with.

The following section will examine the potential for the certification and green marketing of 

Chamaedorea palm products. This potential will be analyzed with reference to the objectives of 

certification, an evaluation of the current situation of the palm, the objectives that might be 

reached through different certification and green-marketing strategies, and the range of options 

that might be considered.

Factors influencing the potential for certification

In recent years, there have been several efforts to promote the certification of NTFPs. Those 

efforts, successful or not, have provided practical field experience with certification, and lessons 

have been learned about certifying these products. There has been a coordinated effort among 

different certifying groups and organizations involved in certification efforts to extract lessons 

from experience to help guide present and future certification work. (Shanley 2001 #4). In the 

Shanley, 2001 #4 manual, several factors are identified which influence the potential for 

certification and its possible effects, both positive and negative. In this section, several of those 

factors and considerations are presented and analyzed for the case of Chamaedorea.

The factors that have the greatest relevance for Chamaedorea include:

• Market: issues related to the existence of a market and the demand for certified products.

• Tenure: issues related to ownership of the forest areas from which Chamaedorea palms 

are harvested, and to the ability to control that harvest as part of a certification process.

• Technical knowledge: existence of good scientific and local empirical knowledge that 

would form the basis for sustainable management guidelines.

• Coordination with timber certification: opportunities to combine timber certification 

and palm management certification in order to lower costs and apply the effects of timber 

management on the palms.

• Chain of custody: issues related to the ability of certifiers to effectively monitor the 

chain of custody from forest to retailer.

• Social factors: issues related to wages earned by gatherers who are basically paid for the 

number or weight of fronds and seeds harvested by middlemen.
32

A preliminary assessment, based on secondary sources of information, indicates that there are 

significant differences between Mexico and Guatemala with regard to opportunities for 

certification and the above-mentioned factors. This assessment is only preliminary and should be 

interpreted as such. Further investigation will be needed to determine how well the conclusions 

reached here apply in the field.

Markets for Chamaedorea palm products

Initially, NTFP certification many be most useful for a limited number of products with 

international markets. Markets for environmental and fair trade certified products are 

primarily found in Europe and to a lesser extent in North America (Shanley 2001 #4).

This statement, from a forthcoming book on the certification of NTFPs, provides insight into the 

opportunities for the certification of Chamaedorea palm products. Their well-established 

international market makes them good candidates for certification. That market, however, is in a 

sector with existing certification activities in Europe, but with little or no history of certification 

in North America. This was evident in the survey of US retail florists and wholesale suppliers, 

and was reflected in the review of secondary information sources. It would, therefore, appear that 

the greatest opportunities for initial certification would exist in the European markets and, 

possibly, in some niche markets in North America that will be discussed later.

The other important factor in certification is the guaranteed quality of the product, as discussed 

earlier. Wholesalers and retailers mentioned this as an important factor for them in selecting their 

sources of palms. Any efforts to certify would have to guarantee that the quality of the certified 

product is at least equal to alternative noncertified sources and, if a premium is expected, efforts 

need to be made to improve quality to the point where certified products are of higher quality 

than noncertified products.

Tenure: ownership and control of palm-gathering areas

To be able to certify any product, it is necessary to control the areas in which it is produced so as 

to ensure a sustainable harvest. This implies both the ability to control the harvest by the certified 

group (community, cooperative, association, individual, company etc.), and to exclude other 

individuals and groups from the harvest areas who may be harvesting in a nonsustainable 

manner. This could create problems for the certification of Chamaedorea palm products in two 

ways. First, according to published accounts of palm frond gathering in Mexico, much of the 

palm is harvested opportunistically from natural forest areas—harvesters move in, gather what is 

available, then move on to a new area. There is not necessarily a continuous sustainable harvest 

from well-defined areas. Under those circumstances, it would probably be impossible to certify 

the production due to the uncertain tenure and lack of control of the resource.

The second problem is related to the potential effects of certification. If certification is 

implemented, and well-defined tenure and control are required, and if those criteria are not 

satisfied, gatherers may be driven from the natural forest to production in planted shade and a 

more domesticated production. If this were to happen, it would remove the incentive, provided 

by the current system, to maintain natural forest areas. Thus, an indirect effect of certification 

could conceivably be the movement of Chamaedorea production out of natural forest areas, 

leading to loss of the protection harvesting now provides for natural forests as sources of income 

from palm-frond gathering.
33

The tenure issue may provide opportunities for individual property owners and communities with 

ejidal lands in Mexico, and for community concessions in Guatemala already certified for forest 

management activities. If those communities can effectively control harvest from their forest 

areas, they would be good candidates for certification and could directly cater to niche markets 

for certified palm products. In some areas of Mexico, individual farmers are cultivating 

Chamaedorea palms for seed and fronds in natural shade. Here again, if they have the capacity to 

control harvesting and exclude opportunistic gatherers, they might also be good candidates for 

certification. In either case—community or individual production—tenure and control of 

harvesting will be important and limiting considerations.

Technical knowledge: sustainable harvest guidelines

In order to come up with guidelines for certifying sustainable harvest practices, we must 

understand the biology of the palm species in question. We must understand how many fronds 

per plant can be harvested at a given frequency of collection without degrading the resource. We 

must also understand how changes in the habitat in which the palms grow and reproduce might 

affect their long-term viability. In cases where other timber and NTFPs are harvested from the 

same area, we may need to understand how the interaction between the harvest of one or several 

species affects the viability of the others. For many NTFPs, this information is not available.

Because Chamaedorea has a relatively long history of exploitation for international markets, 

there have been efforts to research and define sustainable levels of harvest by researchers in 

Mexico, Guatemala, United States universities and international institutes such as CATIE in 

Costa Rica. In Mexico there have been efforts to promote the cultivation of Chamaedorea palms 

that include a published manual for their production. In addition, there is undoubtedly a 

significant amount of local knowledge that could provide guidance. The existing information 

could serve as the basis for the development of guidelines, but first would require a thorough 

review to see if it is sufficient and to identify additional information needs. Nonetheless, with the 

existing information it should be possible to develop preliminary guidelines that could be used 

while more complete information is developed.

Coordination with timber certification

In forest areas in which palm production is practiced and which are subject to certification for 

timber production, it may be possible to reduce costs by combining efforts and using single visits 

for both appraisal and monitoring. Obviously, this would not always be an option, but where it is, 

it could significantly lower the cost of certification. At present, several community concessions 

in Guatemala have received forest certification. They provide an opportunity to carry out trial 

certification of palm-frond harvesting in combination with forest certification, if the certifying 

organization is willing to consider that arrangement.

Chain of custody

One of the major difficulties with certification is in guaranteeing that a product certified in the 

field is the same one that arrives at the retail outlet, without having noncertified products 

included in the final sale. This is the chain-of-custody issue. With logs and lumber from certified 

forest management operations, this has been possible. With palm fronds and seeds, it may be 

more difficult, although probably not impossible.
34

At present, palm fronds and seed, gathered by individuals or groups at the request of a 

middleman, are sold to that middleman who then sells them to the companies that import them 

into North America and Europe. These companies then distribute the products to wholesalers and 

retailers. It is not a long chain of custody, but noncertified palms could enter at any time if 

adequate control were not provided. The importer/wholesalers generally control the product once 

they receive it from the middleman, through the warehousing and transport phases in Mexico and 

Guatemala, until it reaches their warehouses in the United States. They usually control the 

transport of the boxed fronds to wholesalers and some retailers throughout the United States. The 

palm is then bundled as cases or bunches in retail orders.

Certification efforts would have to work at three levels: 1) at the forest level in areas with well 

defined tenure and control of harvesting; 2) with the middleman or directly with the importer, if 

that arrangement were made; and 3) at the wholesale distribution and retail level in the country 

of destination. If importers could buy directly from the certified community or organization, it 

would simplify the monitoring. Most importers of palm fronds have been in the business for at 

least 10 years, and some have been the pioneers in the market and have a very well-defined 

process for importing and distributing palm products. Working through those companies and 

their well-established networks in Mexico, Guatemala and North America would probably be the 

most efficient and cost-effective way to carry out certification.

Social factors

Since most of the transactions related to the trade in palm products occur between independent 

gatherers and middlemen or the companies that import the palms, the primary concern related to 

social issues is fair payment for the palm products. This report does not include an analysis of the 

prices paid for palm fronds and seeds, nor is that its aim, but there are some probably outdated 

publications that discuss the issue. One report from Guatemala indicated that frond gathering 

provided a daily wage three to four times the going rate for day laborers. If that continues to be 

the case, it would seem that prices are certainly sufficient and provide a good source of cash 

income for gatherers. There would need to be an analysis of present conditions, as far as prices 

are concerned, to determine if gatherers are being treated fairly—an issue that would have to be 

addressed for certification.

Options for green marketing and certification

If the ultimate objective is to promote and maintain sustainable production of the palm while 

improving the well-being of the communities harvesting the palm, there are three general 

approaches that could be taken toward certification or green marketing. The first option is 

principally a market mechanism that is not closely linked to sustainable management of the 

resource. The other two options are:

1. Working with market to increase demand would allow new areas to be included in 

production and, thus, protection.

2. Maintain forest protection and production through certification program that would 

require production under forest cover as a condition for certification. This would 

discourage intensification of production (moving production into artificial shade or 

planted forest). Certification at this level that might not necessarily include all the 

requirements of many certification programs.
35

3. Certify production as sustainable under criteria similar to that used to certify wood 

production.

When discussing certification and green marketing, it is important to understand the effect 

certification might have on the market and on the profitability of the activity being certified and, 

ultimately, the objective of the certification. The instrument or strategy chosen must be the most 

effective for reaching the objective.

In any certification or green-marketing strategy, it is essential to produce the same quality 

product now available. If such a program were seeking higher prices for the product, improving 

quality relative to the present supplies would be necessary. It is doubtful that consumers would 

be willing to accept a product of lower quality just because it is certified.

Working with the market to increase demand

The objective of this first option would be to increase market demand to accommodate greater 

production of Chamaedorea, assuming that increased demand could lead to expansion of the area 

under harvest. This would provide an incentive for local communities to preserve larger forest 

areas for palm production. This option assumes that an increased supply will come from new 

forest areas, but it may also come from a greater intensity of harvest from existing areas, or from 

cultivation of palms in planted shade. The present structure of the supply and demand for seed 

and fronds tends to encourage harvest from the wild, since the prices received do not justify 

more intensive production requiring investment in shade structures or plantation operations. 

Continental Floral Greens has started production from plantings established in natural tree shade, 

which could be a first step towards more intensive production.

Advantages:

ß Would not require the infrastructure and costs involved in setting up certification of 

palm products.

ß Market entry could be tied to sustainable production.

ß Could have a significant effect on the areas protected by palm production if there is 

unsatisfied market demand.

Disadvantages:

ß It is uncertain what the effect of increased market demand would be, and whether it 

would be beneficial or detrimental to the forest and wild populations of 

Chamaedorea.

ß It is uncertain how much, the market for Chamaedorea products can increase, if at all. 

This study suggests the market is fairly static and there may not be opportunities for 

expansion.

ß Could potentially lead to a degradation of the forest and/or Chamaedorea resource.

Certification of products as coming from forest shade under a sustainable-harvest regime

The objective of this option would be to provide a certification which would: encourage harvest 

from forest areas; discourage production in artificial shade; guarantee a sustainable harvest 

without the expense that full certification of sustainable production often requires. This would be 
36

important if the costs of full certification were so high they discouraged or prohibited 

certification. Collection areas maintained with forest cover and under a schedule of harvesting 

intensity that sustained production without degrading the resource would receive certification 

that would provide them with access to markets for certified products. Obviously, identifying 

and developing those markets would have to be an important part of any certification program. 

At present those markets do not exist.

Advantages:

ß Would promote the production of palm products in natural shade and discourage 

production in artificial shade.

ß If a simpler scheme than full conventional certification could be worked out, it might 

be possible to avoid those costs that might make full certification economically 

unviable.

ß A process of certification that is simpler and less costly would improve the chances of 

its being accepted by the current producers, importers and distributors. The importers 

and distributors interviewed are concerned about government intervention and 

controls on their businesses. Those businesses, because of their organization and 

control of the supply chain, would be the logical vehicles for any certification 

program.

ß Starting with simplified certification might help initiate a market for certified 

products and give a competitive edge to those producers who are certified. If there 

were a positive market response, it might be possible to develop more stringent 

certification guidelines in the future based on consumer demand.

Disadvantages:

ß This simplified certification process would not be as rigorous as other certification 

systems now in place; there could be objections to that.

ß Any potential intervention in the trade is likely to be met with objections from those 

involved unless there is an associated benefit.

Certification of sustainable production under current guidelines for forest certification

This option would contemplate a certification process similar to that used for shaded coffee and 

timber production, with comprehensive guidelines covering social, economic, biophysical and 

ecologic issues. This type of certification would probably be too costly for Chamaedorea palms, 

given the relatively low volume and price the palm represents in the market. 

Advantages:

ß Provides a more comprehensive protection for the forest. Could also address social 

issues if there were problems with compensation for frond gatherers.

Disadvantages:

ß The cost of certifying the palms under a format similar to that used now for forest 

certification could be prohibitive.
37

Potential Markets for Certified Products

North American markets

The surveys of retail florists, as well as personal interviews with importers and wholesalers in 

Florida and Texas, revealed an almost total lack of awareness of certification of products used in 

the floral trade. Approximately five percent of the persons and businesses participating knew of 

certification efforts. There is evidently no movement in this direction in the floral industry. 

Those that were aware of certification had read about it. Roughly five percent more expressed an 

interest in certification because of the allergic reaction of floral workers to some of the chemicals 

used either for the production of flowers or for post-harvest treatments.

One response to the question on certification indicated that the factor that had the greatest effect 

on sales was quality. This same point was mentioned in the literature as an important trend in the 

floral industry—the increasing market demand for higher quality. This was also mentioned by 

wholesalers as one of their principal criteria in choosing a supplier for Chamaedorea palm.

Based on the results of the surveys and interviews, and on the literature, it is likely that 

certification of Chamaedorea palm products will not be an option in the near future. If it were to 

become an option, certified products would have to be of equal, if not of better quality than the 

uncertified products with which they would be competing. Nonetheless, there may be 

opportunities to introduce certification in parts of the palm market. One potential area is religious 

organizations.

Palm fronds for funerals, weddings and the Easter season represents a major part of the market 

for Chamaedorea products in North America. These are all events closely associated with the 

Church. Increasingly, religious organizations are getting involved in environmental issues and 

social justice issues, both issues often linked to certification efforts in the floral industry in 

Europe. The Minnesota Council of Churches was contacted about their current efforts in 

encouraging action on the CO2 issue. They suggested that, if they were aware of a certified 

source of palm products, they could use their newsletter to advise churches of the existence of an 

alternative source. The decision of whether or not to purchase certified palms would be left up to 

individual churches. There are several organizations representing different religions and religious 

denominations involved in environmental and social justice issues that could potentially support 

certification efforts.

European markets

Europe, and particularly Germany and Holland, are home to several efforts to provide 

certification of the floral industry. Two programs, the Milieu Project Seirteelt (MPS) 

(Floriculture Environmental Project) in Germany and the Flower Label Program (FLP) in the 

Netherlands, both started in the mid 1990s. They are certifying flowers grown in Africa, Latin 

America and Europe. 

The MPS program has developed criteria for certification which include: crop protection agents, 

fertilizer use, energy use, waste and water use. They issue a label to growers meeting their 
38

standards which is accepted in the market and for which there has been a growing demand. In 

1999, there were 3,309 participants in the Netherlands and 326 international participants.10

The Flower Label Program, based in Germany, is working primarily in Africa and Latin 

America. Twenty-nine companies participating in Ecuador, and another 11 in Kenya and 

Zimbabwe. They have developed comprehensive criteria, grouped into a technical-environmental 

section, and a social and industry security section. A German company carries out the 

certification and the flower growers cover the cost. There has been some criticism from the 

international human rights organization Food International Action Programme (FIAN), which 

would prefer that the certification be awarded by an independent body, not a company. FLP is 

working with FIAN to improve certification.

The European market is opening up to certified flowers and contrasts sharply with the US 

market, where there is little awareness of certification and, apparently, little interest. This may 

mean that European markets for palm products should be targeted for certified production if the 

costs are reasonable. 

Summary

The Chamaedorea palm family is well-established in international markets at present. That the 

existence of this market is expected to remain fairly constant into the future appears to be 

contributing to the maintenance of the forest areas where the palm products are gathered. At the 

same time, the availability of the palm for harvesting from the wild and its market price have 

maintained production primarily in natural forest areas, with some recent movement toward 

cultivation in tree or forest shade. There have also been reports of reductions in wild populations 

due to over harvesting and, primarily, habitat destruction.

The palm family could be a candidate for certification efforts if the cost of certification were 

reasonable or could be covered by a premium paid for certified products. To do this requires 

identifying potential markets for certified production or, perhaps more importantly, attending to 

the quality of the certified product. It is recommended that certification be linked to production 

in natural forest areas in order to maintain the protective function of the economic forest asset the 

palm represents to local communities.

There may be opportunities for marketing certified palm products in the United States and 

Europe. In the United States, the principal markets may be niche markets since the floral industry 

has not pursued certified production, while in Europe there appears to be a growing market for 

certified products in the floral industry.

To be able to promote a program of certified palm production would require further exploration 

of specific markets for certified production, and the identification of palm-producing 

areas/communities that meet the basic tenure and chain of custody requirements for certification. 

Furthermore, the information on sustainable management of Chamaedorea species needs to be 

synthesized and any information gaps addressed.

 

10 1999 Annual Report of MPS—Dutch Floriculture Environmental Project. <http://www.stmps.nl/jaarverslag991_uk.html>.
39

Appendixes

Appendix 1: Additional Information and Research Needs

In preparing this report, it has been possible to identify information needs that would help clarify 

issues related to the potential for certification of Chamaedorea products, as well as their role in 

promoting the preservation of natural forest areas. Some of those issues and areas for future 

research and information gathering are listed below.

1. Determination of the contribution of palm frond and seed collection to individual and 

family income.

Published reports differ on the degree to which the prices paid to harvesters can be considered 

adequate. In one study in Guatemala, the author found that palm gatherers were earning two to 

three times the going wage for agricultural labor. In other publications, the fairness of price paid 

to harvesters, as compared to prices paid once the palm products are exported, has been 

questioned. There is no doubt prices paid for the palm vary, although there are relatively few 

exporters and their prices in the US market do not vary greatly. The variation is, therefore, most 

likely related to the prices that local middlemen pay for the product, as well as other economic 

factors which determine price (transport, quality of fronds/seeds, amount of handling and 

processing required, opportunity costs for labor etc.). In addition, most of the claims of low 

prices reflect the disparity between those paid to the gatherer and those paid in export markets, 

but do not include an analysis of the costs of getting the products to market.

One consideration in certification is the income provided by the sale of certified products, and 

the contribution to the well-being of the individuals, families and communities involved in the 

activity. It would be helpful to have information available that would provide a gauge of the 

importance of the income from palm product gathering and cultivation, and its magnitude 

compared to that of income from other productive activities.

2. Identify communities/forest areas where forest certification could be combined with 

the certification of the sustainable harvest of palm products.

An important option, identified by the international community engaged in efforts to certify 

nontimber forest products, is the joint certification of timber and nontimber forest products. This 

has the potential to lower costs and improve efficiency of certification. If a pilot project were 

developed to promote certification of palm production, it would be advisable to identify cases 

where it could be combined with forest certification. This could be done with multiple 

objectives. One would be to lower costs and improve efficiency; another might be to provide a 

test case for the joint application of certification of timber and nontimber forest products.

3. Feasibility study for certification for provision of palm products to religious groups.

Initial discussions with religious groups involved in environmental issues, although only 

exploratory, suggest that there may be an opportunity to work with those groups on the 

certification of palm fronds, since churches and church-related activities are a principal market 

for palms in the floral industry. It may be possible to set up a pilot project to explore the 

certification of palms for this niche market. This would require identifying forest 

areas/communities where palm production could be controlled, coordinating with importers of 
40

palm fronds, and distributing (chain of custody) in the North American and possibly European 

markets. A recommended first action would be a feasibility study of such a certification effort to 

determine if there might be a significant demand for certified palm fronds and, if so, if the 

certification would be logistically possible.

4. Preparation of manuals for sustainable harvest of palm products.

As has been mentioned, there exists some information and research on the sustainable harvest of 

Chamaedorea palm species, but it is often isolated and may benefit from a synthesis, to extract 

preliminary management guidelines for the sustainable harvest of palm fronds and seed. This 

would be needed if palm production were to be certified and would be a valuable resource for the 

sustainable management of the palm resource.

5. Determination of the extent to which palm harvesting has contributed to the 

preservation of forest areas.

Anecdotal information suggests that the income communities receive for the harvest of palm 

products may be an important factor in preserving some forest areas. This would obviously be an 

important reason to promote certification and support for the production of palm products from 

natural forest areas. However, the information encountered is primarily anecdotal. An objective 

study would be useful for determining the extent to which this is actually happening and would 

also provide valuable information that could be used in certification efforts.

6. Explore the potential for improving quality by training harvesters.

Because quality is such an important issue in the floral industry, improving quality could be a 

key factor in improving prices and market share for certified production. If quality becomes 

associated with certified products, there will likely be a greater demand and higher price for the 

products. To guarantee quality would require control, from harvest through the entire chain of 

custody. Improvements in quality could be achieved through education of harvesters, with the 

added benefit of improving efficiency by lowering the number of fronds culled out due to 

damage and size issues.

7. Further research on the biology of the species of Palm Chamaedorea

Little is actually known about the biology of Chamaedorea species. It is known that they are 

dioecious, having male and female plants, although there may be hermaphrodite plants bearing 

flowers of both sexes. Based on what is known of C. tepejilote (Oyama 1984), the percentage of 

female and male plants seems to be equal (50 percent of each). It is not known precisely how 

pollination occurs. It is believed that, by producing a dry pollen, some species must be pollinated 

by wind. Others, with sticky pollen, are probably pollinated by insects, which are also attracted 

by the scent of the flowers (Hodel 1992). Bees, flies, beetles and other insects have been seen 

visiting Chamaedorea inflorescences.
41

Appendix 2: Market Summaries for the United States and Canada

Canada (source: Agrifood 2000)

The floriculture, nursery and Christmas tree sectors recorded the highest production value in the 

Canadian horticultural industry in 1998, with receipts of nearly C$1.2 billion. This represented 

35 percent of the receipts for the total horticultural sector and 4.2 percent of total agriculture 

farm cash receipts (FCR). In fact, this sector was the highest FCR crop, after wheat and canola. 

The sector’s total FCR increased by one percent from 1997, and 44 percent over 1993, 

maintaining strong export sales. For the past 10 years, the sector has increased its production 

value by 8.7 percent a year.

According to the industry, the sector employs 150,000 people. Nursery farms increased by 26 

percent from 1991 to 1996, while greenhouse flower farms decreased in number. The area of 

production increased by 52 percent from 1991 to 1996. For the floriculture and nursery sectors, 

Ontario and British Columbia are the largest production regions; for the Christmas tree sector, 

Quebec and Nova Scotia are largest. These three sectors have national associations and have 

developed web sites for contacts and information 

Floriculture: In 1998, Ontario (52 percent), British Columbia (23 percent) and Quebec (12 

percent) accounted for 87 percent of the Canadian floriculture production. Floriculture sales

reached C$903 million in 1998, up eight percent from 1997 and 44 percent from 1993, mainly 

due to increased export sales. Sales to wholesalers and to the public continue to be the preferred 

channel for marketing flowers and plants, representing 25 and 21 percent respectively of total 

flower and plant sales. Through research, the sector continues to produce a wide variety of floral 

products for consumers. Through AAFC’s Matching Investment Initiative (MII), new research 

helps to improve the quality and deve lop new varieties of floral products. 

In 1998, the main varieties of cut flowers produced in Canada were roses, tulips and 

chrysanthemums. The main potted plants produced were geraniums, chrysanthemums, 

poinsettias and tropical plants (including foliage and green). The production of cuttings and other 

propagating material included chrysanthemums, with 12.7 million cuttings, and geraniums, with 

18.4 million. Bedding plants for ornamentals totaled 584 million plants in 1998, down 1.6 

percent from 1997, and 348 million vegetable plants, up 37 percent from 1997. The floriculture 

industry shares the same issues as those identified for the nursery industry. Canada has to 

compete with the world in this industry since 25 percent of the total supply comes from outside 

Canada, mostly the United States, Europe and South America. 

The influx of cut flowers from South America is a concern for Canadian growers, who face 

higher wages, and higher heating and lighting expenses. This is resulting in a shift to different 

specialty crops, and research into ways of improving crop yields and quality in general. Canada 

lags behind other major flower producing countries in rapid access to newer, cheaper and more 

effective pest-control products.

In 1998, imports of floriculture and nursery products accounted for $289.8 million, up 16 percent 

from 1997, and 48 percent from 1993. The main products imported were cut flowers (32 percent) 
42

and live plants, including cuttings (47 percent). Many imported nursery products go to nurseries 

that use cuttings and tissue culture to propagate saleable plants. The United States accounted for 

54 percent of all imports, 20 percent from South America (cut flowers and flower buds) and 19 

percent from Europe (bulbs). The competition is worldwide, as imports originate from more than 

100 countries. The largest suppliers are the United States, the Netherlands, Columbia, Ecuador 

and Mexico.

The United States (source: Stevenson 2000)

The market for floriculture and environmental horticulture (greenhouse, turf grass, and nurseryrelated crops) represents the fastest growing segment of US agriculture, typically increasing 

grower cash receipts byUS$500 million annually. In 1996, with $10.9 billion in grower receipts, 

floriculture and environmental horticulture crops ranked as the United States’ seventh mostimportant commodity group, behind cattle and calves, dairy products, corn, hogs, and soybeans. 

By 1998, American grower receipts were valued at $12.1 billion. While these are impressive 

figures, it must be noted that they represent only a fraction of the overall American “green 

industry”. In 1998, retail expenditures for all floriculture and environmental horticulture 

products, as estimated by the Economic Research Service (ERS), reached $54.8 billion or $203 

per capita. 

The $54.8 billion makes the United States the world’s largest market for floriculture and 

environmental horticultural products. While there are still many nations—such as Japan and 

several in the European Union—that show a higher per capita expenditure on floral products, the 

United States spends the most in total dollars. The United States is an extremely competitive 

market. As of 1998, it housed 14,308 growers, an increase of 1,591 from the previous year. That 

said, a large percentage of the growers are small farmers with low gross sales. In fact, only 1,533 

of the American growers report revenues in excess of $500,000. This figure is down from 1,829 

in 1997, indicative of the mergers and amalgamations which have become commonplace within 

much of the business community. As already mentioned, the majority of grower businesses are 

smaller. Revenues of $10,000–$19,999 will be realized by just 2,459 growers, and 3,075 will 

earn $20,000–$39,999 in gross sales.

American floriculture and environmental horticulture producers tend to specialize. 

Bedding/garden plants are the dominant specialty, with 3,748 growers concentrating their efforts 

in that field. This is followed by potted flowering plants, produced by 2,543 growers, and by 

foliage, which has 1,510 growers. Cut flowers and cut cultivated greens receive the least 

attention by domestic producers, as this market is largely satisfied by foreign exporters.

The United States is both the largest market for and producer of floriculture and environmental 

horticultural products. Commercial growers can be found throughout the United States. 

However, production tends to be concentrated in the southern and western states, where the 

climate is more temperate. In fact, 10 states account for more than two-thirds of the total US 

output. They are California, producing 20 percent of US output; Florida, 11 percent; North 

Carolina and Texas, eight percent each; Ohio and Oregon, five percent each; and Michigan, 

Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and New York each produce two to four percent of the total. 

Regardless of locale, net farm income for growers of “greenhouse and nursery crops” is among 

the highest of all production specialties. Furthermore, according to a University of Georgia 
43

study, the floriculture and environmental horticulture sector ranks as the second most important 

segment of US agriculture, behind beef and beef products. This study takes into account the 

industry’s total economic output, or the value of the industry and its closely associated business 

activities, such as product handling, marketing and distribution.

Much of the growth seen in this industry can be attributed to the market for outdoor flowers and 

plants. The United States produces and spends more on this category than any other country. 

Furthermore, the United States is the world’s largest producer and consumer of nursery products, 

such as trees and shrubs, bedding plants, and turf-grass. When discussing the floriculture and 

environmental horticulture sector—commonly referred to as the “greenhouse and nursery” 

sector—it is important to distinguish between the two. Floriculture includes cut flowers, cut 

cultivated greens, potted flowering plants, potted foliage, and bedding and garden plants. 

Floriculture crops are predominantly grown under protective cover, such as in plastic or glass 

greenhouses. This category typically accounts for one-third of all grower cash receipts for 

floriculture and environmental horticulture crops. Environmental horticulture, accounting for 

two-thirds of all grower cash receipts for floriculture and environmental horticulture crops, 

includes nursery plants such as trees, shrubs, ground covers, vines, and fruit and nut plants; 

bulbs, sod (turf-grass), and unfinished plants and propagation materials such as cuttings, plugs, 

seedlings, and “lining-out” stock used by other growers for growing-on. Environmental 

horticulture crops are predominantly grown outdoors and used for landscaping purposes. That 

said, trees and plants used for conservation, reforestation, seedlings for Christmas tree 

plantations, and nursery stock grown for transplant sales to growers of fruits and vegetables are 

also included within this category. Excluded from this category are cut Christmas trees, seeds 

(flower, vegetable or others) and food crops grown in greenhouses.
44

Appendix 3: Internet Sites with Information on the Chamaedorea Palm for the Floral 

or Horticultural Industries

<http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/Beltsville/na/research/index.htm>

<http://www.cec.org/home/index.cfm?varlan=english>

<http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/circular/2000/00-12/toc.htm>

<http://www.marketag.com/links/>

<http://www.iied.org/smg/pubs_stsc.html>

<http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0451e/X0451e08.htm>

<http://www.undp.org/sgp/cty/LATIN_AMERICA_CARIBBEAN/GUATEMALA/pfs791.htm>

<http://www.mesoamerica.org.mx/Simposio/marmillod.htm>

<http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfp-e.stm>

<http://www.flowerweb.com/>

<http://host8693.hostamerica.com/index.htm>

<http://www.rfaflorist.org/>

<http://www.ftdassociation.org/ftda/home.nsf/public/contact_FTDA.htm>

<http://www.safnow.org/>

<http://www.flowersource.net/>

<http://www.endowment.org/>

<http://www.tapin.co.uk/services.htm>

<http://www.ifas.ufl.edu/~apkweb/folnotes/chamaed.htm>

<http://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/cutfol/cutinfo.htm>

<http://www.rainforestcollection.com/html/welcome.html>

<http://nav.webring.yahoo.com/hub?ring=palmring&list>

<http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast>

<http://www.lakesidenursery.com/info.html>

<http://www.usda.gov/nass/>

<http://www.forestdirectory.com/>

<http://sfcw.org/background_articles.htm>

<http://www.wfrinc.com/>

<http://www.nass.usda.gov/census/census97/horticulture/horticulture.htm>

<http://www.stern.nyu.edu/~akambil/teaching/cases/auction/flowers.html>

<http://www.gemi.org/>

<http://www.plant-care.com/PlantCareTips/082500.asp>

<http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/cutflower.html>

<http://www.fintrac.com/gain/>
45

<http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/980420/20fore.htm>

<http://www.select-seeds.com/Seeds.htm>

<http://www.hortworld.com/scripts/hortworld/plantsearch.asp>

<http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/misc/vpe_commonnames.htm>

<http://www.palmcollector.com/palms/Chamaedorea_turkheimeii.htm>

<http://www.palmcollector.com/palms/Chamaedorea_hooperiana.htm>

<http://www.volcano.si.edu/botany/projects/centres/lacandon.htm>

<http://nmnhwww.si.edu/botany/projects/centres/gfar-elc.htm>

<http://www.marketsearch-dir.com/html/d8102.htm>

<http://www.pathfastpublishing.com/qr27/qreport.htm>

<http://dataweb.usitc.gov/scripts/user_set.asp>

<http://www.ita.doc.gov/td/industry/otea/ref-room.html>

<http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/Public/datashop/print-catalogue/EN?catalogue=Eurostat>

<http://www.ita.doc.gov/td/industry/otea/>

<http://www.iconx.com/html/riffle_botanical_glossary.html>

<http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/papers/ctflower/index.htm>

<http://tradeforum.pressflex.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/224>

<http://www.enterweb.org/market.htm>

<http://www.un.org.mx/cepal/link/enlaces.htm>

<http://www.agribiz.com/agInfo/usdalist.html>

<http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/other/zfc-bb/>

<http://www.ams.usda.gov/fv/mncs/fvcomp.htm>

<http://www.cbi.nl/marketinfo.htm>

<http://www.oneworld.de/eco-label/umweltsiegel.htm>

<http://www.semarnap.gob.mx/proders/gestion/oax98.htm>

<http://mobot.mobot.org/cgi-bin/search_vast>

<http://www.voyager.net/mfa/cut.html>

<http://www.itto.or.jp/newsletter/v10n1/4.html>

<http://www.fao.org/docrep/t2354s/t2354s0f.htm>

<http://www.statcan.ca/trade/scripts/trade_search.cgi>

<http://www.fintrac.com/gain/traderegs/>
46

Annex A: Harvest and Cultivation of the Chamaedorea Palm 

Introduction

Chamaedorea palm is the name given to the various species of Chamaedorea that are harvested. 

They constitute one of the 250 non-timber products extracted from Mexican forests. Along with 

plants such as the pepper, the palapa palm, the royal palm and the cascalote, Chamaedorea palm 

is regarded as having a “high development potential” in both perennial and hardwood forests 

(Semarnap 1997). 

The map of current vegetation (see Map 2 in C) shows the distribution of forests where 

Chamaedorea palm is found. These areas coincide with the mountain zones where indigenous 

peoples and peasant farmers live. These zones have been called “refuge regions” because of the 

natural and cultural preservation maintained in them (Aguirre Beltrán 1967). Chamaedorea palm 

has been included in the multiple-use resource strategy practiced in these zones for centuries, as 

a product that the communities can use to supplement income. 

In these subsistence zones, field corn rules productive and social life. The opportunity to cut 

several gross Chamaedorea palm fronds or to gather seed during the apuración—the season of 

reduced corn work—was welcomed. This rate of harvest was compatible with the time needed 

for the plants to regenerate and maintain the populations needed to sustain the resource. 

Inevitably, marketing of the palms became part of the dominant market in these regions. This 

market formed after the Mexican Revolution, when families whose lands had been expropriated 

and the new middle class formed a new class: intermediaries or coyotes. These coyotes paid low 

prices to peasants for their produce, resulting in an increased harvest that today threatens the 

conservation of the resource.

Harvest

Leaf production is variable in Chamaedorea palms, making it inadvisable to try to obtain a 

consistent yield. Excessive technification does not appear to improve cultivation. Fertilization 

does not significantly increase production and can be costly. However, leaf-cutting and seeding 

techniques are fundamental to keeping plants in good condition. As mentioned above, two 

leaves—three if there are seeds— and new shoots must always be left for proper maturation. The 

fronds must not be cut too close to the stem, because this leaves the growing inflorescence 

unsupported. The time for cutting new leaves also needs to be established; if cut at the wrong 

time, the frond thickens and is no longer useful. 

This does not mean that yield is unimportant in the cultivation of Chamaedorea palm. There is a 

problem of waste due to deficient leaf quality from spotting, bites, thickening, etc. Also, about 10 

percent is discarded when the leaves are wrapped in a parcel, another 10 percent by the producer 

when the leaves are tied, and another portion is lost at the different collection centers (10 percent 

regionally and another 10 percent when sent abroad). This problem must be addressed, not 

directly with additional material inputs, but perhaps by means of careful shipping and, on-site, by 

shade selection, soil drainage, and other factors known and regularly managed by the peasant 

farmers and indigenous people of Mexico. 
47

Palm frond harvesting

Since the trade in Chamaedorea palm began, frond harvest has been sporadic. The decision to 

harvest depends on the season, the cutters’ economic conditions and specific conditions of 

families, which means it impossible to make generalizations or reliable calculations. There are 

those who cut once a week, or every two weeks, or once a month. Many cut only during seasons 

when they do not have other work, such as clearing coffee fields or cornfields. Others never cut. 

For example, in the Chinantec community of Monte Tinta, one-third of the heads of households 

do not cut palm, whether because of age (younger men generally cut palm), gender (few women 

cut palm), or simply because they prefer not to go too far up in the mountains. Most people who 

cut do so primarily in the months of June, July and August. They cut to a lesser extent in April 

and September, which fall after planting and before the harvesting of corn, and do not overlap 

the coffee season. Those who cut regularly throughout the year tend to be young, as the rate of 

leaf production does not create an abundant harvest and, thus, considerable effort is required to 

walk through rough and dangerous terrain, often with meager results—only a few hundred 

fronds—and the threat of a major loss to the palm population if cutting is increased. Over the 

course of a year, this cutting pattern results in harvested volumes of a fairly fixed quantity, with 

notable increases during high-extraction seasons (Carrillo-Trueba 2001).

There are communal farms (ejidos) and communities where attempts have been made to regulate 

cutting, establishing periods and rules in assembly resolutions. For example, at the Martín Chino 

ejido in Chinantla, it was agreed that cutting would take place only during March and April. In 

Ozumasín, cutting is allowed only when a buyer agrees to a good deal. 

This type of land generally has vegetation areas that are in common use by all members of the 

ejido or community. This is where the cutters go. As Chamaedorea tends to grow in particular 

spots, there are places where they are found or sought. The same places are visited by several 

people, who return from time to time. An interesting aspect of the cutting is that, at least for the 

more commercial species (C. elegans, C. tepejilote, C. oblongata and C. quezalteca), it leads to 

greater frond production. In the case of C. elegans, according to the producers, this allows for a 

harvest of a couple of leaves every four months instead of one every three months. The same 

amount can be harvested from C. tepejilote, instead of one frond every four or five months 

(Oyama and Mendoza 1999). 

When cutters, alone or in a group, come to a spot where there are palms of appropriate size and 

density, they may cut up to 12 or 15 gross of fronds each. An average cut would be seven or 

eight gross, 10 at most. If the harvest is not so good, they might cut four gross each. Thus, when 

a cutter finds a place with several C. elegans spots—such as those counted in Chinantla for this 

study—after leaving the required two leaves on each palm, he might harvest ten gross of fronds 

in just a quarter hectare. Likewise, a cutter in the Los Tuxtlas region might visit one of the sites 

counted by Ken Oyama and his collaborators (1992), and gather about five gross in a quarter 

hectare. On such a site, in 1,800 square meters, there are 63 C. tepejilote plants taller than 1.5 

meters, 34 C. oblongata plants, and an equal number of plants too small to be harvested. From 

this we can grasp the volume of palm leaves moved each day. It is otherwise inconceivable that a 

community where only 30 people cut leaves, such as the Miguel Hidalgo ejido in the Sierra de 

Santa Martha, can extract 500 gross per week, or 60,000 leaves (Velázquez and Ramírez 1995), 

or that communities like San Antonio de las Palmas, in Chinantla, can extract between 800 and 

1,000 gross every week during non-corn seasons, as it has been doing for many years (CarrilloTrueba 2001).
48

Most farmers know that they must not cut the leaves too close to the plant, because doing so 

takes the stem off the budding inflorescence. The leaf stem must also be cut to a size meeting the 

commercial standard, which varies for each species. At least two leaves should be left on each 

plant, along with any new shoots. A person who fails to observe this kind of recommendation 

generally does so in an “emergency,” and will do anything to get the needed money. It is unusual 

for someone to do it unknowingly. Even those who know that a plant left leafless can bud, also 

know that it takes longer and that the plant will probably not flourish.

This awareness has contributed to some extent to the preservation of Chamaedorea populations. 

It should be noted that, in most regions where leaves are cut, the seed is not harvested for sale, so 

palm populations are able to regenerate. Furthermore, as seen in the case of C. tepejilote, leaf 

cutting has practically no effect on the plants’ reproductive capacity nor on seed germination. In 

fact, plants pruned regularly tend to produce from two to three times more offspring, given the 

necessary reproductive interval.

Despite all these factors, the ever-present high demand for palm and the fall in prices for 

agricultural produce have led to increased pressure on this resource in many producing regions. 

Thus, “emergencies,” and increased and more regular cutting, are pushing the palm use to its 

limit. There is a clear reduction in populations near human settlements, constituting a loss. At the 

same time, the distance to be traveled to harvest palm has become excessive and involves a 

series of hazards—snake bites, falls on the rough terrain, traveling alone to cut more than if 

accompanied, etc. This makes many people, especially older people, less interested in cutting, 

which affects their family incomes. 

Thus in recent years Chamaedorea cultivation has become prevalent in almost all production 

regions, even though the possibility was first promoted nearly two decades ago (Saldivia and 

Cherbonnier 1982). The most marketable species for foliage are C. elegans, C. tepejilote, C. 

quezalteca, C. oblongata and C. concolor, which are the most attractive to producers, with some 

variation by region. Due to the high demand, C. elegans ranks first.

Seed

Until a few years ago, marketing seeds for various Chamaedorea species was common. In 1988, 

Mexico exported 100,000 kilograms of C. elegans seed, about 18,000 kilograms of C. seifrizii, 

more than 11,000 kilograms of C. cataractarum and a little more than 10,000 kilograms of other 

species (C. elatior, C. ernesti-augustii, C. metallica, C. radicalis, C. tepejilote and several 

others). At the same time, US horticulturists were planting to obtain seeds of the more 

commercial species, and the lower price for seed from Mexico gave them a good profit margin. 

They also financed research and equipment to enable them to stop buying seeds when pressure 

from conservationists, in response to the destruction of wild populations, compelled them to do 

so (Hodel 1992). 

At present, environmental regulations do not allow this type of trade, principally because the 

majority of species are endangered to some extent and thus fall under NOM 059. Nonetheless, 

there appears to be enormous demand for C. elegans seeds, and all seeds sold in the United 

States seem still to come from Mexico. In contrast to other species—e.g., C. seifrizii—which are 

widely produced in Florida and Hawaii, C. elegans does not produce seeds in plantations there, 

and artificial pollination is difficult and costly (Hodel 1992). Almost all C. elegans seed is 

produced in Huasteca region. As mentioned earlier, the seed trade began in the Huasteca about 
49

50 years ago. The forest loss was already dramatic in this region, and palm populations were not 

abundant. Cultivation of oranges and clearing for livestock delivered the final blow. Mr. Guerra 

began the cultivation of C. elegans in the 1960s to satisfy the seed demand of buyers in Florida, 

with no decrease in purchases from the communities. Some ejidos in the region soon followed 

modestly—a few producers in each, with no more than half a hectare. Today there are very few 

wild populations, as the forest has completely disappeared. Only a few peaks have secondary 

vegetation at a certain altitude, although some researchers say there is still mid-perennial forest 

in southern San Luis Potosí (Rivera and Domínguez 1994). There is no academic consensus on 

this assertion.

In Veracruz, a certain amount of seed seems to have been harvested from wild populations. For 

the same reasons as the destruction in the Huasteca region, this appears to be true in only a few 

places and in minimal quantities. There is no information from other zones where the seed is 

commercialized. In recent years, low-level trade circuits have been created in response to 

demand by those who acquire seed to establish plantations. 

C. elegans seeds are gathered from September to December, during the season in which they 

mature, although there are regions, such as Lacandon, where this process appears to begin earlier 

(Saldivia and Cherbonnier 1982). In general, the plants begin to produce seeds at four years of 

age, but may have only one or two infructescences, perhaps without many fruits. Over time and 

given the necessary conditions, they produce more—up to six—all of which are full. At eight 

years, they seem to reach their peak. Harvesting a plant’s seed is not done in one cutting, since 

the fruits mature slowly, so the same site must be visited several times. Each mature plant 

produces from 100 to 150 grams of seed. The collectors gather seed until they have several 

kilograms to sell. Each kilogram amounts to about 5,000 seeds. 

Not much is known about other species. As mentioned above, there is currently no seed trade for 

them, except to a few local horticulturists. This is changing, through regulation of their use. 

Cultivation

Although Chamaedorea cultivation in Mexico goes back 50 years, awareness and practice are 

fairly recent, going back no more than 10 years. There have been many initiatives but, because of 

lack of awareness, the same errors are often repeated. It is worth noting that producers, 

institutions, some nongovernmental organizations and research centers alike, have undertaken 

this task with similar results, using very diverse methods.

Cultivation should not be seen as simply technical. It has a social dimension, including the 

application of traditional knowledge, forms of organization, types of landholding, relationships 

with governmental institutions, and strong repercussions in the regional and community 

economies. There is extensive literature on the technical aspect of cultivating C. elegans, and it 

refers to a variety of situations and environmental conditions (see bibliography). There is still 

much to learn about the biology of the other species, which would be useful in the handling, 

preservation and possible search for new Chamaedorea species for ornamental purposes and for 

foliage. As our intent is not to create a manual or guide to cultivation, we will cover the most 

relevant aspects of the process that may provide elements for support and awareness in Mexico.
50

Raw Material

This is perhaps the most difficult and costly part of the entire process. It is easier in regions 

where Chamaedorea populations still abound, although the problem is that the grower must be 

willing to sacrifice practically an entire “generation.” In general, growers prefer to transplant 

seedlings from the forest directly into the defined cultivation sites when seed is being gathered 

for vivariums, at the plot or where the seed will be sown. In places where neither seeds nor 

seedlings can be obtained, the cost of acquisition must be considered, implying a somewhat 

larger support for producers wishing to cultivate the palm.

In cases where seed is purchased, buyer pressure has led to the introduction of C. elegans seed 

from San Luis Potosí in various production regions throughout the country. This creates a 

problem since most of these areas have great biological diversity and some border on protected 

zones, as in the case of Montes Azules and El Triunfo. This may affect the native varieties of C. 

elegans. If plantings are extended to other Chamaedorea species, the preservation of this 

diversity should be a priority in the various production regions, since this represents potential 

wealth for them.

Germination

Germination is the aspect most studied by research institutions, educational institutions and 

producers. There are numerous methods, many of which reduce germination time. A chemical 

may be used, or the seeds may simply be washed and kept in a bag for a time. Many growers 

prefer to wait for the natural germination process to occur. Using germination beds or making 

small furrows in the forest plot where the seeds are planted give similar results. In fact, it 

depends more on the producers’ organization. 

Germination tends to be the key to cultivation. If producers are convinced it is possible, the rest 

comes easily and there are several ways to control germination (Velázquez and Ramírez 1995; 

Carrillo-Trueba 2001). The technical part is so easy and there is such a mass of documentation 

(see bibliography) that, at this stage of the process, a promoter or facilitator is needed more than 

a technician, to involve the entire community even if not everyone plants at first. If a given 

community is the first to plant in a region, it may have a major influence at the regional level.

Planting

The choice of planting sites is a decision made with the community’s participation, allowing for 

the recovery of community-owned property on which there may still be primary vegetation 

because of the impossibility of planting corn—e.g., on hilltops and hillsides—and which may be 

allocated to a grower without troubling the rest of the ejido, or as little as possible. Because of 

light, temperature and substrate conditions, these are actually the most appropriate places for 

cultivating palm. This method of allocating land for palm cultivation is also an indirect way to 

conserve the forest areas that still stand in Mexico. It is preferable for small areas to be planted, 

separated by forest extensions rather than affecting the diversity of the understory. If an ejido is 

fully parceled, each person may decide what portion of their land to plant with palm.

If there is little or no primary vegetation, palm could be planted on land that has lain fallow for a 

certain time. With adequate land management planning, this can even allow the palm stands to 

grow to maturity. However, this measure should be accompanied by a program of intensifying 
51

corn production elsewhere, since using fallow land for palm will take land away from corn. One 

of the advantages of using this kind of vegetation is the ability to manage shade by cutting some 

branches or trees to let in light and thus increasing leaf or seed production. The same result may 

be obtained by planting in shade coffee plantations, which will also conserve the coffee trees, 

even during low-price seasons when producers are tempted to cut them down. 

Certain fruit trees, such as mango, and products like allspice may provide good shade for palm. 

Some may cause spotting and leaf loss, as happens with orange trees. Shade management is 

something that palm producers in various regions have experimented with in recent years, 

developing and fine-tuning techniques appropriate for the conditions prevailing in each region. 

These initiatives will bear fruit in the near future.

Care

As with other cultivation, workdays must be spent on the palm plantation every now and then to 

keep it in proper condition. Tasks include weeding, making sure that the shade is not spotting the 

leaves, pest control, and cutting diseased leaves to prevent problems from spreading.

Pests

This is a somewhat controversial issue, since pests are scarce where Chamaedorea is cultivated 

in its natural habitat. Most that are reported (Hodel 1992) appear to be in plantations in Florida 

and California. However, producers complain about lichens and fungi causing spots on leaves, 

earworms attacking leaves, crickets eating fruit pulps, rabbits eating seedlings, and red spiders 

and other herbivores harming the palm. These do not seem to be as extensive as the pests 

characteristic of monoculture, even in large plantations such as La Flor de Catemaco. In any 

case, it is an aspect that requires observation, since the temptation to use pesticides is present. 

Perhaps better handling will reduce these pests to acceptable levels, as has occurred with corn in 

some of these regions, where certain mountain pests cause light damage without being regarded 

as a major problem. 

Renewal 

It is not known precisely how long a cultivated plant lives. It is said that C. elegans begins to 

produce fewer leaves and seeds after 15 years and, if it has not died after 20 years, it must be 

replaced. Of course, as the cultivation of Chamaedorea species develops, this type of knowledge 

will increase. Meanwhile, the only assertion that can be made is that renewal must be accounted 

for, so seedlings within a parcel are planted at 10-year intervals to ensure enough plants to 

maintain production as established plants reach 15 years of age.

Commercialization 

Mexico’s rain forest zones are characterized by a broad environmental, biological, social and 

cultural diversity, enabling the use of a wide variety of natural resources. These zones are 

characterized by agricultural and forestry activities carried on at the peasant farmer level, making 

a diversified use of ecosystems. They organize their activities by combining farming with 

gathering. Part of the products obtained are allocated for their own consumption, while others are 

marketed.
52

It should be understood that the harvest of non-timber products has traditionally complemented 

family subsistence farming in these regions. The principal farming activities include production 

of basic crops for consumption by the farmers and their families (corn and beans), and of some 

products for sale, such as coffee and citrus fruits (Paré 1997).

As stated above, these activities are complemented by the gathering of non-timber products such 

as allspice, Chamaedorea palm leaves and seeds, chicozapote latex, royal palm leaves and 

shoots, and white twig (see Figure A1).

Figure A1. Principal non-timber products in Mexico’s tropical ecosystem

(Percent of economic share within the ecosystem)

ROYAL PALM 

LEAVES AND 

SHOOTS

6%

PEPPER

40%

CHICOZAPOTE 

LATEX

12%

OTHERS

2%

WHITE TWIG

3%

CHAMAEDOREA 

PALM LEAVES 

AND SEEDS

37%

Source: SEMARNAP Undersecretariat of Natural Resources, Semarnap, 1997.

The price drop suffered by agricultural products such as coffee, the dismantling of the regulatory 

structure, and the withdrawal of coffee promotion programs in Mexico, have resulted in an 

economic crisis in Mexico’s coffee-producing regions. As a result, farmers need to find more 

profitable options by diversifying their products or increasing complementary activities (Anta 

1992). 

In recent years, the gathering and, to a lesser extent, production of Chamaedorea palm has been 

a major complementary option for coffee farmers. It has become part of existing farming 

systems. In some regions, it has led to a considerable increase in the gathering of this non-timber 

forestry resource, putting some species at risk of extinction, with no guarantees for their 

conservation or sustainable use. Some examples of this association with other plants or systems 

are brush/palm, coffee/palm, orange/palm and forest/palm.

For years there has been high demand for Chamaedorea palm— foliage, live plants and seeds—

on the domestic and international markets. Green foliage provides the most revenue and a 

number of commercial agents participate in its marketing, from harvest and production to final 

delivery.
53

In Mexico, Chamaedorea palm gathering and production activities are principally carried on in 

84 municipalities within the following eight states: Campeche, Chiapas, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, San 

Luis Potosí, Tabasco, Tamaulipas and Veracruz.

An analysis of the municipalities and of their economic and demographic indicators from census 

data reveal them to be similar in their high levels of marginalization, largely communal 

landholdings, high percentage of indigenous population, mostly rural settings, high percentage of 

population carrying on primary economic activities, and low compensation for agricultural 

activities (see Table A1).

Table A1. Summary of socioeconomic information from Chamaedorea palm 

producing/gathering municipalities in Mexico.

State

State 

population*

Population 

of palmproducing 

municipalities **

Leading 

degree of 

marginalization***

EAP*

(economically 

active 

population) 

EAP in 

primary 

sector * 

Illiterate 

population* 

Population 

speaking 

indigenous 

language * 

No. of 

rural 

towns 

**** 

No. of 

urban 

towns 

**** 

Campeche 535,185 44,496 Medium 11,821 6,118 4,783 2,496 519 2

Chiapas 3,210,496 749,637 High 199,340 134,076 115,867 94,120 7769 37

Hidalgo 1,888,366 253,717 High 63,658 44,961 57,464 138,801 755 10

Oaxaca 3,019,560 239,467 High 65,627 35,533 31,851 86,853 629 11

SLP 2,003,187 180,848 High 47,756 32,346 28,743 86,808 737 5

Tabasco 1,501,744 152,705 Low 33,090 16,317 12,065 8,669 352 7

Tamaulipas 2,249,.581 419,825 Medium 126,507 32,000 21,195 580 1715 8

Veracruz 6,228,239 1,035,704 High 289,326 148,175 142,444 123,625 3642 48

* 11th General Population and Housing Census 1990, National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information (Instituto 

Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática—INEGI)

** 7th Agricultural and Stockbreeding Census 1991, INEGI 

*** National Population Council (Consejo Nacional de Población), 1995

**** National Population and Housing Count 1995, INEGI

The marked poverty and, in some cases, malnutrition, health problems and limited access to 

education are characteristic of the studied regions. The low prices for agricultural produce or 

difficulties in marketing them are factors contributing to the production regions’ socioeconomic 

situation.

In general, the commercial process for Chamaedorea palm fronds is as follows: the producer or 

gatherer delivers the palm leaf to a local buyer or collector, who may also be a producer. He 

gathers together the fronds from his community and from some surrounding communities, and 

delivers them to a regional buyer. The buyer transports the produce to a collection center, where 

leaves are selected, packed and distributed, according to quality. Lower-qualify foliage is 

allocated to the domestic market, while better quality fronds are exported. The same criteria are 

applied to the different species. For example, C. oblongata is allocated to the domestic market 

and C. elegans goes mostly to the export market, including its main destinations in the United 

States and Canada in North America, Germany and the Netherlands in Europe, and, more 

recently, to Japan (Figure A2).
54

Figure A2. Channel of distribution, Veracruz region 

GATHERER/PRODUCER

(INDEPENDENT)

LOCAL OR 1st LEVEL COLLECTOR

PRODUCER ORGANIZATIONS 

- TROPICALES DE LOS TUXTLAS, S.S.S

3rd LEVEL COLLECTOR

LA FLOR DE CATEMACO S.P.R.

CONTINENTAL FLORAL GREENS 

(CATEMACO, VER.)

MABRODE FERNS 

(JALAPA, VER.)

MEXICO CITY SUPPLY 

CENTER 

EXPORT

- United States

- Holland 

- Germany

- Japan

 OAXACA CITY 

MARKET

REGIONAL OR 2nd 

LEVEL COLLECTOR 

(PUEBLA)
Annex B: Mexico’s Regional Markets

Chiapas 

In the state of Chiapas, palm is gathered and produced in the municipalities of Acacoyagua, 

Albino Corzo, Arriaga, Cacahoatán, Catazajá, Cintalapa, La Concordia, Huehuetan, Jiquipilas, 

Mapastepec, Ocosingo, Ocozocoautla de Espinosa, Pijijiapan, Tonalá, Tuxtla Chico, Villa Corzo 

and Villaflores. These municipalities, representing 39.6 percent of the state’s area, have similar 

land characteristics: most is privately held, little is communal. According to the National 

Population Council (Consejo Nacional de Población—Conapo), the Lacandon, Chole and 

Tzetzal indigenous populations all share a high level of marginalization (Conapo 1985).

Southern Chiapas: The southern region of the state has important palm harvests within the El 

Ocote, La Sepultura and El Triunfo reserves, especially for C. quetzalteca. Some harvests are 

illegal. For example, in the San Gabriel community, on the Ocozocuautla ejido at the edge of the 

El Ocote reserve, the C. elegans has been illegally extracted for years. This stopped from 1992 to 

1994 due to agrarian disputes over the allocation of communal lands. Today, the extraction of 

natural populations is done by residents and people outside the ejido.

Producer organizations: In 1994, Chamaedorea palm producers in the region established palm 

plantations on nine ejidos in the municipalities of Cintalapa, Villacorzo, Tonalá Jiquipilas, 

Pijijiapan and Acacoyagua, planting approximately 280 hectares of C. quetzalteca. These 

producers also formed Social Solidarity Companies (Sociedades de Solidaridad Social—S.S.S.) 

and commercial associations with the company Palmeiras S.P.R. de R.L., which for the past year 

have sponsored a pilot project for regenerating Chamaedorea palm with seed in the town of San 

Fernando, Chiapas. This project was carried out with the help of the company Continental Floral 

Greens, which provided technical advice in establishing vivariums and plantations.

Northern Chiapas: This region has recently established palm cultivation in the communities of 

Lacanjá, Palestina and Frontera Corozal, with two-year-old plantations and vivariums. The Chole 

producers in Frontera Corozal use wild seeds for their seed plots and vivariums, which each 

producer has on his plot.

Eighty percent of the communal and productive lands of the Lacanjá community are inside the 

Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. There is no handling program or specific regulation for using 

the palm. However, the community has had unsuccessful plantation experiences, as it depended 

on outside financing and assistance with no commitment from the community. Only 35 persons 

have permission from the authorities to carry out palm production, although there is a greater 

number of cutters.

Producer organizations: There are major producer organizations in the region, including 

Follajes Lacandones. The organizational structure, objectives and background of this federation 

have allowed for the development of microenterprises as an interesting model for community 

organizations for the use and conservation of natural resources.

Follajes Lacandones is a young cooperative formed by Chamaedorea palm cutters who, for 

years, were exploited by collectors and officials. In 1995, after obtaining a permit from 

Semarnap to use and commercialize palm for a five-year period, they found that the cutting area 

had been reduced by overexploitation. Thus, in 1997, with the participation of 72 partners with 

their own seed plots and backyard vivariums, a commercial plantation program was begun with a 
56

goal of establishing 800 hectares in 10 years. As a result of the consolidation of their 

organizational process, they managed to cultivate 125 hectares in 2000.

This federation has organizations for land transport, tourism, furniture making, stores, 

stockbreeding and foliage marketing. According to its bylaws, it works as follows: members 

participate with a half-hectare for planting palm on a designated parcel. Each month, the partners 

deliver palm leaves, paid one week after the leaves are cut and selected. The payment is made in 

cash, set according to the seasonal price. Follajes Lacandones commits to paying a royalty to the 

Assembly in order to ensure that there are no internal rivalries or conflicts regarding use of the 

land. Profits from the sale of palm are divided into equal portions, establishing two types of 

payments to members, one on sales and one paid into a social interest fund to support members’ 

health services, education, food, infrastructure, property or loans. With the diversification of 

activities, a total of 604 beneficiaries derive production benefits from the organization.

Pricing 

The price paid to cutters in the region is P$9.00 per gross. It is estimated that an average fivemember family cuts around 60 gross per day. These families may cut between 300 and 400 gross 

per week, doing so all year long, principally after the rainy season and depending on the intensity 

of their other agricultural activities.

In the Nueva Palestina community, there is a roster of 115 cutters recognized by the Lacandon 

authorities, although there are more than 200 potential cutters belonging to the community who 

have not joined the roster for fear of being penalized or controlled by Semarnat.

Given that its communal and forest areas are extremely degraded, there is no potential for 

production or reforestation projects. This leads to the illegal sale and trade of palm to “coyotes” 

and other local collectors, resulting in cutting within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve and 

nearby forest areas.

Institutional Support

Follajes Lacandones obtained financing from the National Social Company Support Fund 

(Fondo Nacional de Apoyo para las Empresas Sociales—Fonaes) for 1998–2000, the National 

Reforestation Program (Programa Nacional de Reforestación—Pronare) for 1999–2000, and the 

Shared Risk Trust (Fideicomiso de Riesgo Compartido—Firco) in 2000, for a total of 

P$2,498,000 over three years for the establishment, planting and maketing of Chamaedorea

palm.

With Fonaes’ support, last MayFollajes Lacandones called for a national meeting of owners, 

producers, and farm and business organizations to analyze and promote the creation of a national 

distributor for Chamaedorea palm. This proposal is being analyzed and discussed in each 

group’s headquarters, in order to define guidelines and strategies for implementation.

The channel of distribution in the south of Chiapas is similar to channel for independent 

producers/collectors in Veracruz above, except that the local organization of producers are 

SOCAMA and PALMEIRAS, S.P.R.DE R.L, the second-level buyer is Sr. Araiza, and there is 

only one third-level buyer (CATEMACO, Ver). The channel of distribution in the north of 

Chiapas is similar to the one in the south, except that the local organization of producers are 

Follajes Lacandones (frontera Corozal, Chiapas) and the second-level buyer is Sr. Olvera. There 

is only one third-level buyer (CATEMACO, Ver). 
57

The Huasteca Region (Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí)

C. elegans palm is gathered and produced in the municipalities of Aquismon, Tamazunchale, 

Xilitla and Matlapa in the state of San Luis Potosí, and in the municipalities of Atlapexco, 

Calnali, Huautla, Huazalingo, Huejutla de Reyes, Lolotla, Molango de Escamilla, Tianguistengo, 

Tlanchinol, Xochiatipan, Xochicoatlan and Yahualica in the state of Hidalgo. According to 

CONAPO data (1995), all of these municipalities are highly marginalized.

C. elegans is marketed in the Huasteca regions of both San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo. In San Luis 

Potosí, palm is cultivated; in Hidalgo, it is gathered. Most of the palm used is cultivated. It 

appears that only C. elegans is cultivated, under pressure from intermediaries who wish to satisfy 

the demand of US buyers, and because of the scarcity of palm growing in natural conditions in 

the region.

At present, the Huasteca region leads the nation in the production of seed from this species. 

According to decade-old data, the United States bought between 80 and 100 tons of C. elegans

seed per year from this region. In 2000, according to Semarnat data, 284 tons of C. elegans seed 

were exported to Miami, Florida. 

Palm cultivation in the region began more than 20 years ago. Members of virtually all palmproducing communities are indigenous Nahuas, some with broad experience and others just 

beginning to plant. In the mountain zones, palm is grown with coffee trees, and very little in the 

secondary forest. In the valleys, palm is grown with orange trees, to a lesser extent with coffee 

trees, and minimally in brush and forest remnants. There are towns where most inhabitants 

cultivate palm, as well as towns where few people do. They have relatively small holdings, with 

an average of a half-hectare each.

Producer organizations: The National Indigenous Institute (Instituto Nacional Indigenista—

INI) has promoted the organization of palm producers to improve conditions for their market 

participation. The first step took place in the mountains around the Huasteca region of Hidalgo in 

1997, when the INI promoted the formation of the Hidalgo Sierra Palm Producers’ Company, 

composed of 13 communities from the municipalities of Tepehuacan, Tlanchinol and Molango. 

Although this group was not legally registered, it obtained INI funding and support to collect 

palm leaves and to look for an outside buyer. Through a Mexico City distributor, it was able to 

establish a purchase agreement with a Dutch buyer for 300 packages per week. The package 

price paid to the cooperative was P$10.50.

The organization opened a warehouse to receive palm fronds from the Tlanchinol community, 

and had two vehicles for picking up palm from the communities and bringing it to the 

warehouse. One vehicle was INI property, the other was privately owned. The cooperative also 

hired a technician to organize and support the collection and commercialization work.

When palm leaf collection began, the price was P$7 per gross, gradually increasing to P$12. The 

regional collector with a warehouse in Ixtlahuaco reacted by increasing his price over the price 

paid by the cooperative. With late payments from the buyer and pressure from the regional 

collector, the organization became undercapitalized and could support only four months of work.

With INI support, 21 communities in the Huejutla area are currently organizing to undertake 

projects involving coffee and Chamaedorea palm. The organization will encompass 900 small 

producers, with the aim of improving the members’ economic situation by establishing better 

conditions for the production and sale of their produce.

Pricing: In this region, prices for palm leaf vary over the year. From March through May, prices 

reach their highest point. The lowest prices are in December. In the case of seed, the purchase 
58

price from producers reaches its high in late September and early October, drops and then 

recovers at the end of the collection season. Currently, the average price for one kilogram of seed 

is around P$50.

The chain of commerce in this region is well defined. Generally, there is an intermediary, whose 

profit per unit is small, buying from producers directly in the communities. The intermediary 

takes the produce to another regional intermediary collector, who in turn takes the produce to the 

main collection centers in the region. 

In the Huasteca region of Hidalgo, there are three major regional collection centers for palm 

fronds and seed. The biggest is located in the El Pintor community, outside the city of Huejutla. 

It has large refrigerated vaults, a leaf selection area and a seed disinfection area. Two more 

centers are located in Huejutla and Tehuetlán. There is a smaller center with less capacity in the 

Ixtlahuaco community in the municipality of Lolotla, where palm is gathered from the high 

range (Tepehuacán, Tlanchinol, Lolotla). 

The larger collection centers have refrigeration chambers to keep palm in good conditions while 

the load is put together. These centers also have areas for disinfecting seeds.

Most palm producers in the Huasteca region are small producers with a few plants, or up to three 

or four hectares for growing. The producers with more growing time have better established and 

better tended plantations, while the producers with less experience usually have only small areas 

of their parcels planted with palm.

Institutional Support: The region has had institutional support to promote or improve 

Chamaedorea palm cultivation. In 2000, the Hidalgo Delegation of the Secretariat of 

Agriculture, Stockbreeding and Rural Development (Secretaría de Agricultura Ganadería 

Desarrollo Rural—Sagar) began a program providing seed to producers to increase the area 

cultivated with Chamaedorea. In the Tlamamala community in the municipality of Huaza lingo, 

40 producers joined the program along with the 10 established palm growers.

The INI has made important efforts to improve producers’ trade conditions, using resources from 

the Regional Funds that are donated by the federal government but administered by producers, 

and also from the Productive Agroecology Fund.

In San Luis Potosí, the Xochiayo community in the municipality of Tamazunchale received a 

support of P$40,000 from the INI Productive Agroecology Program. It plans to use the funds to 

increase the planting density of its palmillo plantations under coffee trees. The INI is planning to 

develop a palm leaf marketing project in this community. Other communities in the states’ 

Huasteca region have received funding for frond collection from the INI Regional Fund.

The channel of distribution in Hidalgo and San luis Potosí is segmented into what goes to the 

Molina family, which is exported directly to Germany, and the other segment that is similar to 

the independent channel in Veracruz above, except that there are five second-level buyers 

(Huejutla, Comunidad “El Pintor, Tehuetlan, and Lolotla in Hidalgo and Tamazunchales in San 

Luis Potosí), and only one third-level buyer (CATEMACO, Ver).

Oaxaca 

In the state of Oaxaca, the gathering and production of palm is carried out in the municipalities 

of Ayotzintepec, Chahuites, San Felipe Usila, San José Chiltepec, San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec, 

San Juan Lalana, San Lucas Ojitlan, San Miguel Chimalapa, Santa Maria Chimalapa, Santa 

Maria Jacatepec, Santiago Choapam, Santiago Jocotepec, Santo Domingo Zanatepec and San 

Juan Bautista Valle Nacional. 
59

These municipalities represent 11.33 percent of the state’s area and share general ejido 

characteristics such as high and very high levels of marginalization (Conapo 1995). Identified 

populations are Chinantec, Mazatec, Zapotec and Mixes indigenous groups. 

The principal regions using this resource are the Mazateca region and Chinantla. The species 

most commercialized are C. elegans, C. tepejilote and C. oblongata. In the Chinantla region, 

according to estimates, about 2,000 gross of C. elegans, 1,500 gross of ancha and 300 gross of 

chapana are sold each week. While there used to be three buyers, today there is only one. The 

Valle Nacional, Ayotzintepec, Río Mazo and Usila communities each harvest an average of 500 

gross per week.

Producer organizations: Some producers in the region are trying to eliminate the use of local 

and regional intermediaries; one collects and sells to the public directly in the Oaxaca City 

market.

In this region, the communities negotiate the sale collectively and not individually. Likewise, 

ejidos establish cutting plans and negotiations for the sale of palm on the basis of communal 

assemblies.

Pricing: The average price per gross is P$12. Of this, 50 centavos are allocated to a common 

community fund for eventualities or accidents arising from palm collection. 

Producers and collectors are organized in ejidos in Oaxaca. The channel of distribution in 

Oaxaca is segmented: some goes directly into the city of Oaxaca and the rest goes to second- and 

third-level buyers as in the independent channel in Veracruz above. 

Tamaulipas 

The production and gathering of Chamaedorea in the state of Tamaulipas is concentrated in eight 

municipalities: Gómez Farias, Güemez, Hidalgo, Jaumave, Llera, El Mante, Ocampo and 

Victoria, which occupy 13.6 percent of the state’s total area. The land is mostly privately owned, 

and these municipalities are generally considered to have a medium degree of marginalization.

Mostly C. radicalis is gathered in Tamaulipas. This activity has been carried out since the 1940s, 

especially in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. The gathering is a family activity and represents 

the main source of income for many homes in the region. Ten communities in the El Cielo 

Reserve sell their product to a single collector, and some negotiate the payment of a royalty. 

The channel of distribution in Tamaulipas is similar to channel for independent 

producers/collectors in Veracruz above, except that the second-level buyer is La Huasteca in San 

Luis Potosí and El Hidalgo).

Veracruz 

It is important to note that Veracruz is the state with the most municipalities involved in the 

gathering and/or production of Chamaedorea palm in Mexico, including the following 28: Alto

Lucero, Amatlán de Los Reyes, Catemaco, Córdoba, Coyutla, Cuichapa, Las Choapas, Emiliano 

Zapata, Hueyapan de Ocampo, Juchique de Ferrer, Mecatlán, Mecayapan, Misantla, Omealca, 

Pajapan, San Andrés Tuxtla, Santiago Tuxtla, Soteapan, Teocelo, Tepatlaxco, Texcatepec, 

Tezonapa, Tlachichilco, Tlaltetela, Totutla, Tuxpan, Zongolica and Zontecomatlán. 

More than half the land area of these municipalities is in ejidos and they have a high or very high 

level of marginalization. The mestizo population, and Nahua and Popoluca indigenous groups 

predominate.
60

Of approximately 15 species found in the state, nine are developed. Veracruz is the main frondproducing state. Most of the harvest is C. elegans, which is produced under natural canopy or 

coffee. 

Producer organizations: Important regional initiatives in the use and cultivation of palm have 

be identified. In communities such as San Fernando Soteapan, vivariums have been established 

for palm reproduction. The palm seedlings are sold as an additional source of income.

In the production zones in the state of Veracruz, there have been several attempts to consolidate 

palm producer organizations such as Tropicales de los Tuxtlas S.S.S., Aguanacida S.S.S., San 

Fernando S.S.S., Grupo Nacional de Reforestación S.S.S. and Tatahuicapan de Juárez. Of these, 

the most successful has been Tropicales de los Tuxtlas, S.S.S with 150 affiliates, seven 

communities and two more becoming affiliates, as shown in Table B1.

Table B1. Municipalities under the influence of Tropicales de los Tuxtlas, S.S.S. 

Community Municipality

Miguel Hidalgo Catemaco

Adolfo López Mateos Catemaco

Perla San Martín Catemaco

La Esperanza Huayapan de Ocampo

Sta. Rosa Loma Larga Huayapan de Ocampo

Cartagena Catemaco

Amayada Catemaco

Nvo. México Mecayapan

San Fernando Soteapan

Source: Félix Flores Zamora, president of Tropicales de los Tuxtlas, personal communication.

Of the foliage volume handled by the social solidarity company (from 75 to 150 gross per week), 

90 percent is sold to Continental Floral Greens at P$14.50 per gross, while the remaining 10 

percent is sold to Mabrode Ferns in Jalapa, Veracruz, atP$16.00 per gross.

Pricing: Table B2 provides a summary of prices paid per gross to the producer, according to the 

species in the main region of Chamaedorea palm use in the state of Veracruz.
61

Table B2. Summary of producer prices paid on three ejidos in the Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz 

region (P$/gross).

Species San Fernando*

Santa 

Martha 

(collector)

Santa 

Martha 

(S.S.S.)

Adolfo 

López 

Mateos 

(collector)

Adolfo 

López 

Mateos 

(S.S.S.)

Adolfo López 

Mateos

(Mabrode Ferns)

C. elegans $12 $12 $14.50 $11 $16 $22

Negrita

C. liebmannii

$12 $12 $14

Mayan 

C. hooperiana

$14 $14 $16 $13

Ancha

C. oblongata

$11–12

Atoyac

C.elegans

$12–$14

Bejuco

C. elatior

Not commercialized

Fishtail

C. ernesti-augustii

Not commercialized $8–$12

*Personal communications, Esteban Cruz, Secretary of the San Fernando Soteapan Palm Committee, Regulo 

Chachas Rivas, Félix Flores Zamora.

Institutional Support: There are various agencies in the state of Veracruz that support the 

production and sustainable use of Chamaedorea palm. 

The Secretariat of Agricultural and Fisheries Development (Secretaría de Desarrollo 

Agropecuario y Pesquero—Sedap) of the Veracruz state government has published manuals to 

promote and support palm cultivation, in addition to supporting plantation establishment projects 

and increasing awareness of the overexploitation of natural populations. 

The Veracruz Institute for Rural Development (Instituto Veracruzano de Desarrollo Rural—

Inveder) promotes the transition from traditional farming to modern agricultural and the market 

economy, as well as further increased productivity and quality of life for the traditional farm 

sector. For Chamaedorea palm, this is done in two ways: financing for the promotion of 

production projects, technology and materials for palm plantations; and advice on selling 

produce such as Chamaedorea palm.

With more than 10 years’ experience in palm growing and community work, its members began 

to implement palm production and cultivation techniques. Test runs with treated seeds generated 

proposals for planting and experimenting with palm, relieving the pressure on wild populations.

Inveder’s working area in the state includes 18 municipalities and about 70 communities. It 

covers more than 840 beneficiaries and an area of approximately 700 hectares for palm 

production (principally C. elegans), not including other producers who have yet to join the effort 

but who practice systema tic palm cultivation independently.
62

The promotion, planting and cultivation began in 1995 with the Forestry Bureau, although the 

responsibility and follow-up was assigned to Inveder. Beginning in 1998, Inveder reactivated 

systematic palm-growing in communities where there was community work. State and federal 

resources were invested and cooperative business strategies were designed, although they remain 

in the proposal stage.

Cost Analysis 

Table B3. Cost of establishing one hectare with 16,890 Chamaedorea palm plants

ACTIVITY (day-work) COST ($)

4 kilograms of seed at P$50 ea. 200

Seed scarification 55

Bedding or seedling preparation and setting 140

Seed planting 105

Establishment of shade 250

Seed plot handling and maintenance; pest, disease and weed control 800

Preparation of ground for transplanting 315

Transfer of seedling from seedplot to planting ground 300

Holing and transplanting (14 days’ work at $35.00/day) 490

TOTAL 2,655

Source: Author’s research with field data from Veracruz, 2001.

Table B4. Harvest production and value per 16,890-plant hectare

Plants /Ha. No. of 

leaves/cut 

per plant

No. of cuts 

per year

No. of gross 

per cut

Total gross 

per year

Value of 

gross (P$)

TOTAL 

VALUE 

harvest per 

year (P$)

16,890 3 4 351.9 1,407.5 15 21,112.5

Source: Author’s research with field data from Veracruz, 2001.

The case of La Flor de Catemaco, S.P.R. 

The company Continental Floral Greens, through its Mexican counterpart La Flor de Catemaco, 

S.P.R., is the main state and regional collector exporting to the United States and Europe. Onehalf of the palm traded by this company is grown on its plantations, while the other 50 percent is 

collected directly or through intermediaries (personal communication with plantation manager 

Leobardo Tollen).

In April 1989, La Flor de Catemaco was formed and the first Chamaedorea were planted. The 

company has 85 Chamaedorea palms planted on different lots spread across the property, with 

20 on the largest plot. Five species, C. ernesti-augusti, C. quezalteca, C. tepejilote, C. oblongata, 

C. hooperiana and C. elegans are grown, comprising more than 90 percent of the total.

There are 200 people working at La Flor de Catemaco, 10 percent of whom work exclusively on 

intensive palm cultivation. The rest handle the planting of other foliage such as the leatherleaf 
63

fern. In the cutting season, each worker cuts from 600 to 700 leaves per day. The weekly wage is 

P$315 (Monday through Saturday) with P$8.50 per hour of overtime.

Bedding is made for seed germination. C. elegans seed comes from San Luis Potosí and 

Huejutla, Hidalgo, while the C. quezalteca seeds are from Zanatepec, Oaxaca and Chiapas. 

When seedlings reach an appropriate size, they are transplanted to the lot, principally in the 

month of June or, ideally, during the period with the highest rainfall. Weeding, pest and disease 

control, and shade management are performed until the plants reach three years of age and leafcutting begins. According to the plantation managers, pests and diseases are minimal. Weeds and 

dry leaves are left on the ground to be reincorporated into the soil, acting as organic cover. 

Of the palm traded by this company, 50 percent is collected by regional collectors in different 

Mexican states, while the rest is produced on company plantations. Between 20 and 22 percent 

of the palm collected does not meet the market’s quality requirements in areas such as size, 

color, quality (extent of withering) and maturity.

According to plantation managers, selection is the most delicate stage of the whole process. 

Fronds are chosen for size, color, height, health and freshness. The company has a selection 

room where approximately 35 people select about 100 bunches (3,000 fronds) per day. From 

eight to 10 percent of the palm coming from company plantations is discarded. Once selected, 

the palm leaves are packed into cardboard boxes, containing from 25 to 30 bunches in 

commercial sizes. These boxes are put in a chamber refrigerated to 5oC, where they remain until 

transport. They are shipped in 40-cubic-foot refrigerated trailers with room for about 1,000 

packages. An average of two trailers a week are sent to the United States. Table B5 shows the 

three commercial sizes for C. elegans. 

Table B5. Commercial sizes of C. elegans from La Flor de Catemaco, S.P.R. 

Leaf width 

(inches) Brand name Leaves per bunch Bunches per case

14” Chico Jumbo D ́oro 20 30

15” Mediano-Regular Jumbo 20 30

17” Grande Jumbo Lutz 20 30

The Jade brand also is used for C. oblongata, and Teepee seems to be a variety of C. elegans. 
Annex C: Maps 

Map 1. Estimated historical vegetation and distribution of the genus Chamaedorea
65

Map 2. Estimated present vegetation and distribution of the genus Chamaedorea
66

Map 3. Regions considered as priorities for the conservation and distribution of the 

genus Chamaedorea

(con't next page)
67