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Hydrogeologic Framework and 

Water Quality of the Vermont Army 

National Guard Ethan Allen Firing Range, 

Northern Vermont, October 2002 through 

December 2003

By Stewart F. Clark, Jr., Ann Chalmers, Thomas J. Mack, and Jon C. Denner

In cooperation with the Vermont Army National Guard

Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5159

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

For more information about the USGS and its products:

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Clark, S.F., Jr., Chalmers, Ann, Mack, T.J., and Denner, J.C., 2005, Hydrogeologic framework and water quality of the 

Vermont Army National Guard Ethan Allen Firing Range, northern Vermont, October 2002 through December 2003: 

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5159, 48 p.
Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the personnel of the Vermont Army National Guard for 

their assistance with this study. Special thanks go to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond P. Bouchard 

and Lieutenant Colonel George Bergeron for guidance and input on study design, Michael 

O’Hara and Sergeant Neal Sargent for logistical support in field operations, and Edward 

Rounds for technical assistance. The authors also wish to thank the following U.S. Geological 

Survey personnel for their involvement: Martin Risch, of the Indiana Water Science Center, for 

general project guidance; and from the New Hampshire-Vermont Water Science Center, James 

Degnan and Craig Johnston for GIS assistance, Jeffrey Deacon for surface-water and fish-tissue 

sampling, Anita Cotton for graphic assistance, and Glenn Berwick and Jeffery Grey for drilling.

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Background and Physical Setting......................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................4

Previous Studies ...................................................................................................................................4

Methods of Study..................................................................................................................................4

Streamflow....................................................................................................................................4

Geologic Mapping .......................................................................................................................4

Geohydrologic Data Collection..................................................................................................5

Water-Quality, Streambed Sediment, and Biologic Sampling..............................................5

Surface Water.....................................................................................................................8

Streambed Sediment..........................................................................................................8

Biologic.................................................................................................................................8

Ground Water......................................................................................................................8

Quality Assurance ..............................................................................................................9

Hydrogeologic Framework...........................................................................................................................9

Streamflow.............................................................................................................................................9

Bedrock ................................................................................................................................................12

Glacial Sediments...............................................................................................................................14

Aquifer Characteristics......................................................................................................................16

Water Quality................................................................................................................................................19

Surface Water.....................................................................................................................................19

Streambed Sediment..........................................................................................................................21

Biologic.................................................................................................................................................21

Macroinvertebrates ..................................................................................................................21

Fish Tissue...................................................................................................................................22

Bacteria.......................................................................................................................................23

Ground Water......................................................................................................................................28

Summary........................................................................................................................................................32

Selected References...................................................................................................................................33

Appendix 1. Lithologic logs of wells and boring drilled at Ethan Allen Firing Range in 

northern Vermont ...........................................................................................................................38

Appendix 2. Well data in and near the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont................40

Appendix 3. Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed 

sediment, and fish tissue at Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont........................41

Appendix 4. Macroinvertebrate abundance and average flow velocity in five streams 

at Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, June 18, 2003............................................46

iii
Figures

1. Map showing location of the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont....................2

2. Map showing hydrologic observation points in the Ethan Allen Firing Range 

in northern Vermont......................................................................................................................3

3. Graphs showing (A) Daily mean streamflow at U.S. Geological Survey streamflowgaging station on the Lee River at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern 

Vermont, December 17, 2002, through December 22, 2003 and (B) monthly total 

precipitation at Mount Mansfield, Vermont ..........................................................................10

4–6. Graphs showing—

4. Monthly total runoff at the Dog River, Ranch Brook, and Lee River streamflowgaging stations in northern Vermont, January 1, 2003, through November 30, 2003 ......10

5. Normalized runoff hydrographs of the Dog River, Ranch Brook, and Lee River 

streamflow-gaging stations in northern Vermont, December 16, 2002, through 

December 22, 2003......................................................................................................................11

6. Stream stage at the West Branch Little River, Ranch Brook, and Lee River in 

northern Vermont, June 10–30, 2003........................................................................................11

7–8. Maps showing—

7. Bedrock geology at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont............................12

8. Surficial materials at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont ........................15

9. Diagram showing hydrogeologic section of the Lee River Valley, Ethan Allen 

Firing Range in northern Vermont............................................................................................17

10. Map showing generalized altitude of the water table in the Lee River and 

Mill Brook watersheds at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont .................18

11. Diagram showing a generalized hydrogeologic section .....................................................19

12. Map showing generalized saturated thickness of stratified-drift deposits in the 

Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.......................................................................20

13. Graph showing comparison of macroinvertebrate taxa and Ephemeroptera, 

Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) richness index collected over a 15-year span 

from the Lee River at the outlet of the Ethan Allen Firing Range (SS-5) in 

northern Vermont........................................................................................................................27

iv
Tables

1. Well-depth and screened-interval data for the wells in the study area, 

Ethan Allen Firing Range, northern Vermont............................................................................6

2. Summary of physical properties and water-quality characteristics of surface 

water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont..................................................7

3. Estimated horizontal hydraulic conductivity of aquifer materials in the region 

in northern Vermont from Mack (1995)....................................................................................16

4a. Concentrations of dissolved major ions, trace elements, and nutrients in 

surface water during moderate and low-flow conditions at the Ethan Allen Firing 

Range in northern Vermont.......................................................................................................22

4b. Concentrations of nutrients in surface water during moderate and low-flow 

conditions at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont. .....................................23

5. Comparison of surface-water chemistry at three stream sites at the Ethan Allen 

Firing Range in northern Vermont, 1992, 1999, and 2003 ......................................................24

6. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements in streambed sediment at the

Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.......................................................................25

7. Comparison of trace-element concentrations in streambed sediment collected 

at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, 1992, 1999, and 2003......................26

8. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements in fish tissue at the Ethan Allen 

Firing Range in northern Vermont............................................................................................27

9. Comparison of trace-element concentrations in fish tissue from the Lee River 

at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont ...........................................................28

10. Summary of physical properties and water-quality characteristics of ground 

water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont................................................29

11. Concentrations of dissolved major ions and trace elements in ground water 

at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont ...........................................................30

12. Nutrient concentrations in ground water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in 

northern Vermont. ......................................................................................................................31

v
Conversion Factors and Datum

Multiply By To obtain

Length

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

Area

square meter (m2) 0.0002471 acre

square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Volume

liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)

cubic meter (m3) 264.2 gallon (gal) 

Flow rate

liter per minute (L/min) 0.2642 gallons per minute (gal/min)

meter per day (m/d) 3.281 foot per day (ft/d)

cubic meter per second (m3/s) 35.31 cubic foot per second (ft3/s)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

 °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the “North American Vertical Datum of 1988 

(NAVD 88)”

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the “North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) 

unless otherwise noted.

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Abbreviations used in the report: centimeter per year (cm/yr), inch per year (in/yr)

Water quality units used in this report: Specific conductance are measured in microsiemens 

per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; turbidity in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU); 

concentrations in milligrams per liter (mg/L); milligram per kilogram (mg/kg)

vi
Abstract

The Ethan Allen Firing Range of the Vermont Army 

National Guard is a weapons-testing and training facility in a 

mountainous region of Vermont that has been in operation for 

about 80 years. The hydrologic framework and water quality of the facility were assessed between October 2002 and 

December 2003. As part of the study, streamflow was continuously measured in the Lee River and 24 observation wells 

were installed at 19 locations in the stratified drift and bedrock 

aquifers to examine the hydrogeology. Chemical analyses of 

surface water, ground water, streambed sediment, and fish 

tissue were collected to assess major ions, trace elements, 

nutrients, and volatile and semivolatile compounds. Sampling 

included 5 surface-water sites sampled during moderate and 

low-flow conditions; streambed-sediment samples collected at 

the 5 surface-water sites; fish-tissue samples collected at 3 of 

the 5 surface-water sites; macroinvertebrates collected at 4 of 

the 5 surface-water sites; and ground-water samples collected 

from 10 observation wells, and Escherichia coli samples collected at all surface- and ground-water sites. 

The hydrogeologic framework at the Ethan Allen Firing 

Range is dominated by the upland mountain and valley setting 

of the site. Bedrock wells yield low to moderate amounts of 

water (0 to 23 liters per minute). In the narrow river valleys, 

layered stratified-drift deposits of sand and gravel of up to 

18 meters thick fill the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys. In 

these deposits, the water table is generally within 3 meters 

below the land surface and overall ground-water flow is from 

east to west.

Streamflow in the Lee River averaged 0.72 cubic meters 

per second (25.4 cubic feet per second) between December 

2002 and December 2003. Streams are highly responsive to 

precipitation events in this mountainous environment and 

a comparison with other nearby watersheds shows that Lee 

River maintains relatively high streamflow during dry periods. 

Concentrations of trace elements and nutrients in surfacewater samples are well below freshwater-quality guidelines 

for the protection of aquatic life. Brook-trout samples collected in 1992 and 2003 show trace-metal concentrations have 

decreased over the past 11 years. Escherichia coli concentrations in water samples are well below levels that restrict 

swimming at all five stream sites at moderate and low-flow 

conditions and in all observation wells. Comparisons among 

surface-water, streambed-sediment, and biological samples 

collected in 2003 to earlier studies at the Ethan Allen Firing 

Range indicate water-quality conditions are similar or have 

improved over the past 15 years. 

Ground water in the stratified-drift aquifers at the facility is well buffered with relatively high alkalinities and pH 

greater than 6. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, uranium, and zinc were below detection 

levels in ground-water samples. Barium, cobalt, copper, iron, 

manganese, molybdenum, and strontium were the only trace 

elements detected in ground-water samples. Cobalt and iron 

were detected at low levels in two wells near Mill Brook, 

and copper was detected at the detection limit in one of these 

wells. These same two wells had concentrations of barium 

and manganese 2 to 10 times greater than other ground-water 

samples. Concentrations of nutrients are at or below detection 

levels in most ground-water samples. Volatile organic compounds and semivolatile organic compounds were not detected 

in any water samples from the Ethan Allen Firing Range.

Introduction

The Vermont Army National Guard (VTANG) Ethan 

Allen Firing Range (EAFR) is composed of 45.4 km2

(11,220 acres) of mountainous land and is about 19 km east 

of Burlington, in northern Vermont (fig. 1). Originally, the 

area was used for farming and pasture. Established by the War 

department in 1926 for use as an artillery range, the area has 

been used during the 1930s for Reserve Officer Training corps 

(ROTC) and two Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC) camps. In 

1941, the EAFR was expanded and used as a bombing range 

by the Army Air Corps. From 1952 to present (2003), developmental and proof testing of newly manufactured weapons 

systems on 3.1 km2 within EAFR (U.S. Army, 1980) has been 

done by the Armament Systems Department of General 

Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the 

Vermont Army National Guard Ethan Allen Firing Range, 

Northern Vermont, October 2002 through December 2003

By Stewart F. Clark, Jr., Ann Chalmers, Thomas J. Mack, and Jon C. Denner
Electric. The EAFR includes 18 active gunnery ranges also 

used by National Guard units for armor, artillery, combat engineer, and helicopter training. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation 

with the VTANG, did an assessment of the physical hydrogeologic framework of the site and the chemical and biologic 

quality of the ground water and surface water from October 

2002 through December 2003. A thorough understanding of 

the hydrogeologic framework and water quality of EAFR is 

needed to quantify current (2003) water resources and provide 

a baseline for future activities. This study is the first base-wide 

geologic and hydrologic assessment of the site.

Background and Physical Setting

The EAFR is in the Green Mountains of Vermont, in the 

New England Physiographic Province. Altitudes range from 

about 213 m (699 ft) along the Lee River, to 1,122 m (3,681 ft) 

above NAVD 88 at Bolton Mountain on the eastern boundary 

of the range. Mount Mansfield, the highest point in Vermont, 

is about 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of the site and lies on the 

central ridge of the north-south trending Green Mountains. 

The facility is rural and supports a wide variety of wildlife. 

Most of the EAFR is contained within a watershed drained by 

the Lee River in the center of EAFR (fig. 1) and is bounded by 

the surrounding peaks and hillsides. Mill Brook drains southern areas of the EAFR, and makes up much of the southern 

boundary, whereas a small area (Steinhour Brook) drains to 

the north to Browns River (outside the study area). The physiography is characterized by narrow east-west trending valleys 

that bisect the regional north-south trending mountain range. 

Precipitation averages about 86.4 cm/yr (36 in/yr).

The EAFR facility is sparsely populated (fig. 2), consisting of a few offices, barracks, and equipment maintenance 

buildings in the Lee River Valley. Onsite barracks occasionally 

are used to house a few hundred individuals during training 

exercises. Weapons-training activities are held throughout 

the year and historically have occurred at more than 10 firing 

ranges in the EAFR (U.S. Army, 1980, table 4). Weapons 

training involves the firing of various caliber weapons at specific targets in the ranges. The use of explosive ammunition is 

limited to an area termed the Impact Area (fig. 2). Historically, 

the EAFR was used by the Vermont Militia to fire large-caliber 

artillery into small areas in, and adjacent to, an area called 

the Impact Area (the old Impact Area). This area may contain 

shrapnel and duds (U.S. Army, 1980, p. 26). Current (2003) 

policy requires an accounting of all rounds fired and tracking 

and exploding duds in place. A government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) facility in the EAFR conducts weapons 

test-firing operations in the Lee River Valley. Between 1969 

and 1982, depleted uranium ammunition was tested at the 

GOCO facility. Soils were removed after the munitions testing 

ceased and residual radiation above background levels was not 

Figure 1. Location of the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.



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Introduction   
detected at the affected sites (Bonds and others, 1987). Waste 

materials generated from the testing activities were contained 

and shipped off-site to licensed disposal facilities. 

Since 1999, the primary drinking-water source for the 

EAFR has been the Champlain Water District system. Previously, EAFR facilities were served by three onsite bedrock 

wells. Two, approximately 91-m-deep bedrock wells at the 

Mountain School Complex formerly supplied water to that 

facility and a 43-m-deep bedrock well formerly provided 

water to the Cantonment facility. The well formerly used for 

the Cantonment facility is now occasionally used to fill portable drinking-water-supply tanks. The GOCO facility is still 

supplied by onsite water from a bedrock well. Firing Range 

3-1 also is supplied water onsite by an infrequently used 

69-m-deep bedrock well. The West Bolton Public Water 

Source Protection area includes land areas in the EAFR; however, the water system is upgradient of the EAFR watershed 

and not likely to be affected by activities at the firing range. 

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to present (1) the hydrogeologic framework including a description of surficial and 

bedrock geology, areal extent of stratified-drift aquifers, watertable altitudes, general directions of ground-water flow, and 

saturated thickness; (2) the surface-water discharge of the Lee 

River watershed in order to understand the watershed hydrology and stream-aquifer interactions at the EAFR; and (3) the 

general quality of surface water, streambed sediment, fish 

tissue, biota, and ground water. The area of study is delineated 

by the EAFR site boundary. The study was performed at the 

watershed scale.

Previous Studies

Bedrock geology of the region including the EAFR has 

been described and mapped by Christman and Secor (1961), 

Mallard (2000), and Thompson and Thompson (1997). Surficial geology and hydrology have been studied by Stewart and 

MacClintock (1969), Stewart (1973), Ladue (1982), and Clapp 

and Bierman (1994).

 Surface-water and streambed-sediment samples were 

collected and analyzed in 1992 at 10 sites on the Lee River and 

Mill Brook (Bouwkamp, 1992) and again in 1999 at the same 

locations (Goetz, 1999). Ten locations sampled in 1999 did not 

indicate an adverse effect on water quality or streambed sediment from munitions training (Goetz, 1999). Fish-tissue samples were collected and analyzed at two sites on the Lee River 

in 1992; the 1999 survey did not include chemical analysis of 

fish tissue. Macroinvertebrate samples were collected from 

five sites on the Lee River in 1992 and six sites in 1999. Three 

of the six sites sampled in 1999 corresponded to sites sampled 

in 1992. Results from 1999 were inconclusive, taxa richness 

was higher (an indication of improving water quality) in 1992 

than in 1999, but macroinvertebrate abundance was lower than 

in 1999. Although ground-water sampling in the stratified-drift 

aquifer was done to test for potential contamination at two 

locations (a former waste-disposal site and a logistical-operations building) at the EAFR (Butoryak, 1995 and 1996), previous studies have not included a comprehensive investigation of 

ground-water resources and background water quality.

Methods of Study

The following section describes the methods used to 

accomplish the objectives of the study. These methods include 

streamflow gaging; geohydrologic data collection including 

lineament analysis, observation-well drilling, and mapping; 

and water-quality, streambed sediment, and biologic sampling. 

Databases and geographic information system (GIS) coverages 

used to complete analysis of the geohydrologic framework are 

referenced or described. 

Streamflow

Streamflow was gaged at the Lee River between December 16, 2002, and December 22, 2003, to assess the magnitude 

and range of streamflow in the Lee River watershed. The 

streamflow-gaging station (fig. 2) was located near where the 

river leaves the EAFR. Streamflow measured at the Lee River 

station was indexed to nearby stations to provide a context for 

understanding flow in the Lee River during water year 2003, 

in relation to long-term regional trends. Specific study methods included

1. Installation of a continuously recording streamflowgaging station at the Lee River to allow streamflow 

in the watershed to be indexed to nearby long-term 

USGS network stations. Streamflow data were 

collected using standard USGS techniques (Rantz 

and others, 1982; Buchannan and Somers, 1969). The 

station at Lee River was equipped with a datalogger 

that recorded stage data at 10-minute intervals. 

A stage-discharge relation was developed from 

numerous current-meter discharge measurements.

2. Additional streamflow measurements were made at 

two sites on Lee River (above and below the station), 

and on tributaries to Lee River and at Steinhour 

Brook (fig. 2, SS-11), to assess flow conditions 

during the sampling period at macroinvertebratesampling sites. 

Geologic Mapping

Bedrock geologic maps at a scale of 1:24,000, which 

include areas of the EAFR, were made by Mallard (2000) and 

Thompson and Thompson (1997). A 1:100,000-scale compilation by the Vermont Geological Survey (Stanley and others, 

2002) forms the basis for the bedrock geologic map. Bedrock 

outcrops were located and examined during the course of this 

 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
study; however, no revision of Mallard’s (2000) or Thompson 

and Thompson’s (1997) work was warranted.

A map of generalized surficial geologic materials was 

prepared based on observations of materials exposed in eroding unconsolidated cliffs, gravel pits, road cuts, stream banks, 

pits dug in unconsolidated materials, well borings, split-spoon 

samples from observation wells, and the distribution of boulders on the land surface. A 1:62,500-scale surficial-geologic 

map including the EAFR, accompanies Christman and Secor’s 

(1961) report on the geology of the Camels Hump Quadrangle. Christman and Secor’s (1961) surficial-materials map and 

maps by Stewart (1973) and Ladue (1982) and interpretations 

by Ladue (1982) are consistent with those of this study. 

Geohydrologic Data Collection

Observation wells were located to assess the geohydrologic framework and local and regional ground-water-flow 

systems. Wells were installed along the central axis of the 

Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys to determine the thickness 

of valley-fill deposits and the general gradient of the water 

table. Wells were located at the valley perimeter along the 

main stem of each river and in headwater stream reaches to 

determine general ground-water-flow directions and provide 

points for assessment of ground-water quality. Rock core 

retrieved from observation wells drilled in bedrock provided a 

measure of the extent of fracturing within the bedrock aquifer 

(Deere and Deere, 1988). Additional existing domestic bedrock wells, beyond the boundary of the EAFR, were identified 

to provide data relevant to aquifers underlying the study area. 

Characteristics of the bedrock aquifer are described by 

well depths and yields. Domestic-well data were obtained 

from the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources (Ken Yelsey, 

Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, written commun., 

2004). Domestic wells were reviewed and assessed for use in 

estimating stratified-drift aquifer thicknesses. 

A photolineament analysis of the study area identified 

potential high-transmissivity bedrock zones. Moore and others 

(2002) found that increased bedrock-well yields were associated with lineaments that correlated with the direction of 

primary bedrock fracturing in New Hampshire. Two observers independently identified linear patterns on 1:58,000-scale 

color-infrared aerial photographs following the methods of 

Clark and others (1996). Coincident photolineaments identified by two observers are provided in the GIS lineaments coverage. Comparison of photolineament position and orientation 

with field-measured fractures at outcrop-scale was beyond the 

scope of this study; therefore, the relation between photolineaments and bedrock structure at the study area is uncertain. 

Observation wells were installed at 16 locations (fig. 2, 

table 1) in glacial sediments to improve the understanding 

of the thickness and nature of stratified-drift aquifers. Pairs 

of wells with screens set relatively shallow and deep were 

installed at four locations to assess ground-water quality and 

head difference from different depths within the aquifers. 

Split-spoon samples were collected at approximately 3-m 

intervals to determine the composition of the sediments with 

increasing depth. Lithologic logs of wells drilled at the EAFR 

are presented in appendix 1. Information from well reports 

from the surrounding area collected by the VTANR is provided in appendix 2. Stratified-drift wells consisted of a 5-cm 

(2-in.) inside-diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) well and 

1.5-m long, 0.01-mm slotted screen. Four bedrock wells were 

installed in selected locations to improve the understanding 

of the bedrock aquifer. Bedrock wells consisted of a 10-cmdiameter open borehole drilled in rock. Boreholes were cased 

with 11-cm outer-diameter steel casing, set into a 15-cm-diameter hole, grouted with cement approximately 1.5 m into the 

bedrock surface. Well characteristics and construction information are provided in table 1. The wells were used to provide 

ground-water-sampling points and are shown on figure 2. 

Numbers assigned to wells consist of a code that corresponds 

to the town the site is in and a sequential number. Well codes 

used are BO, Bolton; JE, Jericho; and UH, Underhill. 

Depth to the water table in the stratified-drift (layered 

sands and gravel) aquifers was used to determine the altitude 

of the water table. Measurements of the depth to the water 

table were obtained from measurements made for this study, 

well-completion-report records maintained by the VTANR, 

and from approximated altitudes of the surface of ponds and 

streams as shown on USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic maps. 

The altitude of the water-table surface generally fluctuates by 

less than 2 m during the year at observation wells in northern 

Vermont (Keirstead and others, 2004); therefore, measurements from various times of the year are sufficient for use in 

creating a regional water-table map and in determining general 

directions of ground-water flow. The saturated thickness of the 

stratified-drift aquifers was determined using the data mentioned above in addition to the thickness of stratified glacial 

sediments as reported in drillers’ well-completion reports 

(appendix 2). 

Water-Quality, Streambed Sediment, and 

Biologic Sampling

Surface-water sampling sites (fig. 2, table 2) were 

selected to assess surface-water, streambed-sediment and 

biologic quality at EAFR. Sites were selected that were at, or 

near, 4 of the 10 previous sampling sites (Goetz, 1999) to provide continuity and correlation with the previous studies. Sites 

SS-5, SS-6, and SS-10 (fig. 2) were coincident with previous 

sample sites (Lieutenant Colonel Bouchard, Vermont Army 

National Guard, oral commun., 2003). Site SS-5 provides a 

surface-water sampling site that captures most of EAFR drainage and provides a measure of the overall quality of water 

leaving the base. In contrast, site SS-6 provides an analysis of 

a relatively undisturbed upland tributary drainage. Site 

SS-12 (fig. 2), about 305 m downstream from site SS-3 

(Goetz, 1999), is downstream of all tributaries draining the 

Impact Area. This site provides an indicator of the effect of 

the Impact Area, and other active firing ranges to the north, 

Introduction 
Table 1. Well-depth and screened-interval data for the wells in the study area, Ethan Allen Firing Range, northern Vermont.

[Site locations are shown in figure 2. Latitude and longitude are in degrees, minuntes, seconds,  ̊ ‘ “. All depths in meters from land-surface datum. Measurement point (MP) is top of casing. Altitude is in meters (m) above NAVD 88; L/min, liter per minute; --, not applicable or unknown]

Site identifier Latitude

 ̊ ‘ “

Longitude

 ̊ ‘ “

Measurement point 

(m)

MP 

above 

landsurface1

(m)

Depth to 

water 

September 1, 2003

(m)

Depth to 

screened 

or open 

interval 

(m)

Depth to 

end of 

boring 

well, or 

casing

(m)

Well 

yield

(L/min)

Aquifer type

VT-JEA 1 44 27 9 72 55 17 244 -- -- -- 11.8 -- --

VT-JEA 2 44 27 19 72 56 20 242 -- -- -- 3.6 -- --

2

VT-JEW 121 44 28 47 72 57 8 195 0.8 1.53 14.8 19.5 23 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 122 44 28 47 72 57 8 195 .7 1.53 4.8 9.4 4 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 123 44 28 43 72 56 20 203 .9 .80 9.4 11.9 6 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 124 44 28 37 72 55 51 215 .9 1.89 20.1 23.2 1 Confined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 125 44 28 36 72 55 5 232 .6 .88 11.6 14.9 1 Confined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 126 44 29 6 72 54 16 180 .9 3.15 7.6 9.1 5 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 127 44 27 9 72 55 41 236 .9 1.12 2.4 7.6 45 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 128 44 27 18 72 54 41 250 .8 2.28 5.2 7.0 6 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 129 44 27 6 72 54 58 241 .9 1.08 7.9 22.2 6 Confined stratified drift

VT-JEW 130 44 28 50 72 56 48 204 .3 1.73 4.0 21.3 0 Bedrock

VT-JEW 131 44 28 42 72 54 57 241 .4 3.91 16.7 16.7 -- Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-JEW 132 44 28 37 72 55 51 215 .7 1.52 2.3 4.6 30 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 133 44 28 47 72 53 47 299 .4 2.99 2.1 9.1 2 Bedrock

VT-JEW 134 44 28 47 72 56 33 200 .8 1.91 11.9 13.4 5 Confined stratified drift

VT-JEW 135 44 28 51 72 56 35 207 .9 2.23 9.4 11.6 1 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 137 44 27 9 72 55 41 236 .9 1.08 6.7 8.2 1 Confined stratified drift

VT-JEW 138 44 27 19 72 56 20 242 .6 1.70 5.9 14.8 4 Bedrock

VT-JEW 139 44 27 5 72 54 48 250 1.2 .53 16.2 18.9 1 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 140 44 27 5 72 54 48 250 1.0 .62 7.2 9.1 47 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 141 44 27 6 72 55 7 244 .9 2.15 9.1 14.0 4 Unconfined stratified drift

VT-JEW 142 44 27 18 72 54 41 250 .6 2.38 8.4 16.6 0 Bedrock

VT-UHW 110 44 29 25 72 53 30 308 .9 1.83 4.0 5.7 1 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-UHW 111 44 29 1 72 53 19 331 .9 3.05 5.2 10.1 1 Unconfined stratified drift

2

VT-UHW 112 44 29 22 72 53 23 314 .9 3.76 4.0 8.5 1 Unconfined stratified drift

1 Land-surface altitude determined from map altitude, vertical accuracy is approximately 3 meters.

2 Wells sampled.

 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Table 2. Summary of physical properties and water-quality characteristics of surface water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

[Sites are located on figure 2. Date samples are in months, days, year mm/dd/yy. EC, Specific conductance in microsiemens per centimeter, μS/cm; °C, degrees Celsius; NTU, nephelometric 

turbity units; DO, dissolved oxygen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; <, less than; --, no standard]

Site

identifier Name of river Flow conditions Date site sampled mm/dd/yy

Physical properties Water-quality characteristics

EC 

(μS/cm)

pH

(standard 

units)

Water 

temperature 

(° C)

Turbidity 

(NTU)

DO 

(mg/L)

Alkalinity 

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

solids 

(mg/L)

Suspended 

solids 

(mg/L)

Total 

solids 

(mg/L)

SS-5 Lee River (near outlet from 

Ethan Allen Firing Range)

 Moderate flow 06/05/03 78 7.4 13.7 0.24 9.7 36.6 68 0.6 48

Low flow 07/30/03 110 7.5 20.5 .16 8.7 17.9 91 1.9 43

SS-6 Unnamed tributary to 

Lee River

Moderate flow 06/04/03 25 6.8 9.8 .31 10.4 7.6 18 <.5 24

Low flow 07/30/03 46 6.8 15.5 .18 7.5 48.0 133 <.5 75

SS-10 Unnamed tributary to 

Mill Brook

Moderate flow 06/05/03 56 7.1 19.3 .69 6.3 36.4 53 .9 52Low flow 07/30/03 90 7.0 21.0 1.4 5.3 51.9 136 1.9 77

SS-11 Steinhour Brook Moderate flow 06/04/03 29 7.0 11.5 .21 10.0 23.8 20 .6 25

Low flow 07/30/03 57 7.3 16.0 .09 9.2 34.3 135 1.0 54

SS-12 Lee River (upstream) Moderate flow 06/05/03 51 7.4 11.4 .36 10.1 33.3 63 .8 40

Low flow 07/31/03 73 6.9 15.0 .24 9.4 37.4 99 .6 373

Summary statistics

Moderate flow

Minimum 25 6.8 9.8 0.21 6.3 7.6 18 0.6 24

Maximum 78 7.4 19.3 .69 10.4 36.6 68 .9 52Median 51 7.1 11.5 .31 10 33.3 53 .7 40

Low flow

Minimum 46 6.8 15.0 0.09 5.3 17.9 91 .6 43

Maximum 110 7.5 21.0 1.4 9.4 51.9 136 1.9 373

Median 73 7.0 16.0 .18 8.7 37.4 133 1.4 75

Overall

Minimum 25 6.8 9.8 0.09 5.3 7.6 18 .6 24

Maximum 110 7.5 21.0 1.4 10.4 51.9 136 1.9 373Median 56 7.0 15.3 .24 9 35.4 79 .8 50

Guidelines or standards

MCL1 -- -- -- 5 -- -- -- -- --

SMCL2 -- 6.5–8.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- 500

CCREM3 -- 6.5–9.0 -- -- 5.5–9.5 -- -- -- --

1 Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002a).2 Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002b).3 Canadian water-quality guidelines for the protection of freshwater-aquatic life (Canadian Council of Resources and Environmental Ministers, 2003).

Introduction 
on the water quality of the Lee River. Site SS-11, on Steinhour Brook, was used to assess water quality from the one 

watershed that drains to the north, towards Underhill (fig. 1), 

from the study area. Site SS-10, a tributary to Mill Brook, was 

selected to provide an indicator of the effect of Guard activities along the southern side of the EAFR in the Mill Brook 

watershed. Because most of Mill Brook watershed is outside 

the EAFR area, no other sites in this watershed were assessed.

Surface- and ground-water chemistry, streambed sediment, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish samples were 

collected in the Lee River watershed during June and July 

2003. Water-quality and biological data collection focused on 

background sampling (sampling from relatively pristine areas 

within the EAFR) in addition to assessing the overall water 

quality of the study area. Field data collection included 

(a) surface- and ground-water samples, (b) streambed-sediment samples, (c) fish-tissue samples, and (d) an aquatic 

macroinvertebrate inventory. Water, streambed-sediment, and 

fish-tissue samples were analyzed for major ions and trace 

elements listed in appendix 3. Water samples were also analyzed for alkalinity, turbidity, dissolved solids, total suspended 

solids, Escherichia coli (E-coli) bacteria, nutrients, volatile 

organic compounds (VOCs) identified in U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA) schedule 8260, and semivolatile 

organic compounds (SVOC) in USEPA schedule 8270 (appendix 3). All analyses except E-coli were performed at SevernTrent Laboratory (a contract laboratory for USGS Department 

of Defense work) using USEPA analytical methods. E-coli

counts were analyzed by Aquatec Biological Sciences in Williston, Vt., in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (1983) protocol. 

Ten observation well sites (fig. 2, table 1) were selected 

to provide comprehensive geographic coverage for groundwater sampling and geohydrologic characteristics within 

selected aquifers. Observation-well-site selection and construction methods are described in the “Geohydrologic Data 

Collection” section. 

Surface Water

Surface-water-quality sampling was completed at five 

sites (fig. 2) during moderate-flow conditions (0.45 m3/s at 

Lee River streamflow-gaging station, June 4–5, 2001), and 

again during a low-flow (base flow) condition (0.15 m3/s at the 

Lee River station, July 30–31, 2003). Water samples and field 

water-quality parameters (pH, specific conductance, water 

temperature, and dissolved oxygen) were collected and measured consistent with guidelines for the USGS Field Manual 

for the Collection of Water-Quality Data (Wilde and others, 

1998). Grab samples were collected because all streams were 

well mixed. E-coli, VOC, and SVOC samples were collected 

directly into sample containers from a single vertical midstream dip sample. Samples for major ions, trace elements and 

nutrients were dip-collected with a Teflon bottle and composited using a Teflon churn. 

Streambed Sediment

Fine-grained streambed sediment consisting primarily of 

very fine sand, silt, clay and organic material were collected 

from depositional areas at five stream sites during base-flow 

conditions on July 4, 2003. Composite samples were collected 

from the top 2–3 cm of continuously submerged streambed 

sediment from 10 to 15 depositional areas in a manner consistent with guidelines for the USGS National Water-Quality 

Assessment Program (Shelton and Capel, 1994). Samples 

were not sieved, however, to permit for comparison with 

unsieved samples collected in 1992 and 1999. Samples were 

analyzed for major ions and trace elements (appendix 3).

Biologic

Fish were collected at three sites by electrofishing during 

moderate-flow conditions (June 10–11, 2003). Brook trout 

(Salvelinus fontinalis) were collected at sites SS-11 and SS-12 

(fig. 2). Brook and brown trout (Salmo trutta) were collected 

at site SS-5. Fish-tissue samples were a composite of five 

whole individuals. Samples were analyzed for major ions and 

trace elements (appendix 3). Benthic macroinvertebrates were 

collected at four stream sites (SS-5, SS-6, SS-11, and SS-12) 

in the Lee River and Steinhour Brook watersheds on June 18, 

2003. A Surber sampler was used to collect a semi-qualitative 

sample to provide a measure of relative abundance of invertebrate taxa living in the richest habitat (riffles) at each stream 

site. Organisms were dislodged in a 0.09-m2 area to a depth 

of about 10 cm immediately upstream of the sampler and 

collected in a 500 μm mesh net. A series of five representative 

discrete collections were combined and processed at each site. 

Samples were preserved in 95-percent alcohol. Three-hundred 

organism counts were done by Aquatec Biological Sciences 

in Williston, Vt. Taxa were identified to the level of genus and 

species. The diversity and taxa richness of samples was compared against historical samples to test for changes in biodiversity and population numbers.

Ground Water

Ground-water samples were collected from 10 wells 

during July 21–25, 2003. The wells were developed from 2 to 

4 weeks prior to sampling by pumping until a drop in temperature indicated that water stored in the casing was removed 

and that the aquifer was being pumped. A low-discharge 

submersible pump was used to purge and sample the wells. 

Purging involved setting the pump at the well screen and 

pumping greater than 3 times the casing volume until the pH, 

specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, and water temperature stabilized. Field water-quality parameters (pH, specific 

conductance, water temperature, and dissolved oxygen) were 

collected according to USGS guidelines (Wilde and others, 

1998). Samples were collected for major ions, trace elements, 

nutrients, E-coli, VOCs, and SVOCs (appendix 3). 

 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Quality Assurance

Water-quality assurance included equipment blanks, field 

blanks, and replicates collected following USGS guidelines 

(Wild and others, 1998). Equipment blanks were taken before 

any samples were collected. Approximately10 percent of samples were collected for water-quality assurance (field blanks 

and replicates). Equipment and field blanks verified that 

decontamination procedures are adequate, and field and(or) 

laboratory procedures did not contaminate samples. Trip 

blanks were kept with the samples and analyzed for VOCs 

with every batch of samples brought to the lab. VOC trip 

blanks verified that shipping, handling, and storage of sample 

vials did not result in the contamination of the samples. 

Hydrogeologic Framework

The EAFR is on the west flank of the central ridge of the 

Green Mountains (fig. 1) and is underlain by fine- to mediumgrained micaeous metamorphic rocks with a granofels or 

phyllite texture. Unsorted sediment deposited by glacial ice 

discontinuously covers bedrock. Streambed sediment associated with outwash from melting glacial ice formed stratified 

deposits in glacial lakes in the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys. The hydrogeologic framework consisting of streamflow, 

bedrock geology, glacial sediments, and the hydrology of the 

bedrock and stratified-drift aquifers is described in the following sections.

Streamflow

The headwaters of the Lee River and Mill Brook drain 

the west flank of the central ridge of the Green Mountains 

(fig. 1). The Lee River represents the primary hydrologic 

feature in the EAFR site and its watershed encompasses 

most of the study area site. The drainage area for the Lee 

River watershed upstream of SS-5 (figs. 1 and 2) is about 

26.5 km2. The drainage area for Mill Brook (fig. 2) upstream 

of its downstream EAFR boundary is about 15.5 km2. The 

only other drainage leaving the area is Steinhour Brook 

(fig. 2), a small tributary to Browns River (outside the study 

area) in Underhill. Steinhour Brook has a drainage area of 

about 3.4 km2 within the EAFR.

The period of record for the Lee River streamflow-gaging station is from December 16, 2002, to December 22, 2003. 

The period from December 17, 2002, to December 16, 2003, 

was used for statistical reporting. A hydrograph of daily mean 

flow for the Lee River is shown in figure 3. Flows ranged from 

a daily maximum flow of 10 m3/s (360 ft3/s) on November 20, 

2003, to a low flow of 0.13 m3/s (4.7 ft3/s) on July 19 and 20, 

2003, and September 15 and 19, 2003. The mean streamflow 

for the year of record was 0.72 m3/s (25.4 ft3/s) and the runoff 

for the year was 85.8 cm (33.8 in). The streamflow record during the winter of 2003 (fig. 3) illustrates a period of recession 

from January through March. Although precipitation was low 

during this period (fig. 3), January and February were some of 

the coldest months observed in the past 25 years in the region 

and precipitation remained in the snowpack. 

The Dog River streamflow-gaging station (station no. 

04287000, Keirstead and others, 2004), at Northfield Falls, Vt. 

(43 km to the southeast of the study area), is used as a reference site to describe long-term hydrologic conditions in northcentral Vermont during the period of record at the EAFR. 

Streamflow at Dog River was 107 percent of normal, and total 

precipitation on Mt. Mansfield was 116 percent of normal. The 

above normal conditions at reference stations nearby indicate 

that Lee River streamflow during the study was probably about 

10 percent above normal. 

West Branch Little River (15 km to the east of the study 

area), a highly developed watershed, and Ranch Brook (15 km 

to the east), an undeveloped watershed, are nearby watersheds 

on the east slope of Mt. Mansfield, and have physiographic 

settings similar to the Lee River. Monthly total discharge in 

the Lee River (fig. 4) was compared to discharge in Ranch 

Brook (station no. 04288230) and the Dog River (station 

no. 04287000) (Keirstead and others, 2004). The Dog River, 

a large watershed (197 km2) in the region, with a low mean 

basin altitude, provided a long-term discharge record for comparison with closely paired Ranch Brook and Lee River. Total 

annual runoff (normalized) for the period of the Lee River 

record, at the three watersheds, was Dog River 65.5 cm 

(25.8 in), Ranch Brook 106.2 cm (41.8 in) and Lee River 

85.8 cm (33.8 in). This comparison shows that the Dog River 

has the least runoff and runoff from Ranch Brook is greater 

than the runoff from Lee River. Peak snowmelt occurred in 

March at Lee River, the result of a more southerly exposure 

than at Ranch Brook, where peak snowmelt occurred in 

April (fig. 4).

The Lee River watershed on the western slopes of the 

Green Mountains has less (normalized) runoff than Ranch 

Brook on the eastern slope of the Green Mountains and may 

receive less precipitation. The western slope (upwind) of the 

Green Mountains is assumed to receive more precipitation 

than the eastern slope (downwind). However, the National 

Weather Service (NWS) indicates that the western slope may 

have received less precipitation in 2003 than the east slope, 

and evapotranspiration (ET) is likely higher on the western 

slopes (Gregory Hansen, National Weather Service, oral 

commun., 2004). 

Analysis of flows per unit area in the three watersheds 

discussed previously shows that the Lee River maintains a 

relatively high discharge (greater than 0.01 m3/s) during dry 

periods (fig. 5), notably July and September 2003. This comparison indicates that there is likely a large ground-water contribution to streamflow during periods of low rainfall. The Lee 

River watershed contains a large area of relatively permeable 

stratified-drift deposits (discussed in the “Glacial Sediments” 

section) that likely acts as a storage reservoir for ground water. 

Analysis of a short-term hydrograph (fig. 6) shows that 

the Lee River is similar to other nearby mountain watersheds 

Hydrogeologic Framework 
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Figure 3. (A) Daily mean streamflow 

at U.S. Geological Survey streamflowgaging station on the Lee River at the 

Ethan Allen Firing Range near Jericho, 

Vermont, December 17, 2002, through 

December 22, 2003 (location shown on 

figure 2) and (B) monthly total precipitation at Mount Mansfield, Vermont.

Figure 4. Monthly total runoff at the Dog River, Ranch Brook, and Lee River 

streamflow-gaging stations in northern Vermont, January 1, 2003, through November 30, 2003. (Location of Lee River shown in figure 1.) Dog River and Ranch Brook 

are outside of study area.













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10 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont








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Figure 5. Normalized runoff hydrographs of the Dog River, Ranch Brook, and Lee 

River streamflow-gaging stations in northern Vermont, December 16, 2002, through 

December 22, 2003. (Location of Lee River shown in figure 1.) Dog River and Ranch 

Brook are outside of study area.











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Figure 6. Hydrograph showing stream stage at the West Branch Little River, 

Ranch Brook, and Lee River in northern Vermont, June 10–30, 2003. (Location 

of Lee River shown in figure 1.) West Branch Little River and Ranch Brook are 

outside of study area.

Hydrogeologic Framework 11
in that it is highly responsive to storm events. A typical 

response of mountain streams to intense rainfall is a rapid 

rise at the onset of precipitation followed by a fairly steep 

recession after the rainfall ends. The rainfall runoff response 

at the Lee River is slightly subdued, when compared to the 

West Branch Little River (fig. 6), because of the undeveloped 

nature of the Lee River watershed and the extensive stratified 

glacial sediments.

Bedrock

The texture and composition of rocks and the nature and 

orientation of structural elements in rocks affect the magnitude 

and anisotropy (orientation) of the hydraulic conductivity in 

the bedrock aquifer. Minerals more susceptible to weathering 

(such as pyrite and calcite), which may be aligned with the 

schistosity, can produce porosity in rocks that allows groundwater movement such as the weathered, water-producing zone 

identified in bedrock well VT-JEW 133. Aligned mica minerals form planar features, such as schistosity and cleavage, that 

control patterns of jointing in rocks and provide pathways for 

ground-water flow. 

The EAFR, on the western flank of the Green Mountain 

anticlinorium, is underlain by fine- to medium-grained sandytextured micaeous metamorphic rocks consisting of low-grade 

granofels and phyllites. The original pre-metamorphic rocks 

were coarse- to fine-grained graywacke, siltstone, and shale 

which locally contain minor amounts of volcanic material 

(Christman and Secor, 1961). These rocks have been grouped 

into the Pinnacle, Underhill, Hazens Notch and Sweetsburg 

Formations in previous studies (Christman and Secor, 1961; 

Thompson and Thompson 1992, 1997; Mallard, 2000). Robinson and Kapo (2003) classify the general lithogeochemistry 

of this region as primarily noncalcareous pelitic rocks with a 

moderate to high sensitivity to acid deposition.

The geologic map of the EAFR (fig. 7) is based on work 

in the 7.5-min USGS Richmond Quadrangle (Mallard, 2000) 

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Figure 7. Bedrock geology at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

12 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Figure 7. Continued.

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Hydrogeologic Framework 13
and on unpublished work in the 7.5-min USGS Bolton Quadrangle (Peter J. Thompson, University of New Hampshire, 

oral commun., 2004). Their maps have been compiled into a 

1:100,000-scale map by the Vermont Geological Survey (Stanley and others, 2002). The geology for this report presented in 

figure 7 is reproduced from Stanley and others (2002) and 

Mallard (2000). Mallard (2000) has divided the Pinnacle 

and Underhill Formations into mapable units and identifies 

three stratigraphic sequences (Oak Hill group and Mansville 

complex (Mallard, 2000) and the Green Mountain domain) 

separated by two major fault complexes (West Fletcher fault 

and the Honey Hollow fault) that parallel the trend of regional 

schistosity. Two of the three fault-bounded stratigraphic packages, the Mansville complex, and Green Mountain domain, 

underlie EAFR and the Honey Hollow fault separates these 

stratigraphic packages. Minor faults are mapped where 

stratigraphic units are truncated. The Honey Hollow fault 

(fig. 7) was mapped as a west dipping, thrust fault (rocks 

of the Hazens Notch Formation thrust westward over rocks 

of the Pinnacle, Underhill, and Sweetsburg Formations, then 

folded to west-dipping) (Thompson and Thompson, 1992; 

Mallard, 2000).

Two structural domains defined by the fabric (schistosity) 

of the rock underlie the EAFR. The “central domain” (Mallard, 2000) underlies the western third of the study area. Here, 

schistosity trends north-south and is nearly vertical or dipping 

moderately to the east. “Large-scale antiforms and synforms 

control the map pattern (folding discontinuous lenses) within 

the western third of the EAFR” (Mallard, 2000). In the 

“eastern domain”, schistosity trends north-northeast and dips 

moderately to steeply west and also dips moderately to the 

east (Mallard, 2000).

At the EAFR, the textural and compositional differences 

in the mapped bedrock units (Pinnacle and Underhill Formations) are enough to define mapable rock units, but are not 

great enough to create regional variations in ground-water 

flow in the bedrock aquifer among mapped units. Thick-bedded to massive granofels (wackes) of the Pinnacle Formation 

may be more likely to fracture (Peter J. Thompson, University 

of New Hampshire, oral commun., 2004); however, there were 

few fractures in cores from wells drilled into bedrock (fig. 2). 

Rock-quality designation (RQD) values (Deere and Deere, 

1988) range from good (1 well) to excellent (2 wells) indicating little fracture. Outcrops of exposed bedrock also were not 

highly fractured. Structural features common to these rocks 

are described in the following paragraph. In some locations, 

structural features may control fracture formation, which can 

affect the permeability of the bedrock aquifer.

Three structural geologic deformations have affected the 

rocks that underlie EAFR. The first-deformation produced 

structures seldom seen within rocks at the EAFR. The second 

deformation produced the dominate schistosity in axial-plane 

orientation to isoclinal folds plunging either north or south. 

The second-deformation folds are generally sheared parallel to 

third-deformation cleavage. The second-deformation schistosity passes from east-dipping, through the vertical, to west-dipping across the area. The third deformation produced open 

upright folds, which plunge north or south at shallow amounts, 

and a spaced cleavage (Mallard, 2000). 

Glacial Sediments

Glacial ice covered the region during the Wisconsinan 

glaciation between 90,000 and 12,000 years ago (Larsen, 

1999). Sediments deposited in processes related to glaciation 

can be broadly grouped into till and stratified drift (fig. 8). Till 

is an unsorted mixture of rock fragments ranging in size from 

boulders 2–3 m in diameter to clay-size rock flour deposited 

beneath, or at, the margin of moving glacial ice. Stratified drift 

is composed of sediment moved by water (melting glacial ice) 

and deposited in water adjacent to glacial ice or at some distance from the ice. Because stratified drift is moved by water, 

the sediment is sorted and the deposits are layered. In general, 

well-sorted, coarse-textured (sand sized and greater) stratified 

drift has greater hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity than 

the generally poorly sorted, more compacted, till. The contact 

between till (unsorted to poorly sorted material) and stratified drift, consisting of sorted to well sorted, layered gravels, 

sands, silt and clay, ranges from approximately located (within 

about 60 m) to inferred (within about 120 m) (fig. 8). Various 

areas, originally covered by thin stratified sand and gravel and 

disturbed by the construction of firing ranges, are mapped on 

the basis of materials currently at land surface. 

Till was deposited in a discontinuous fashion at the 

EAFR by southeastward advancing glaciers. Glaciers scoured 

calcareous rock material from the Lake Champlain Valley and 

incorporated some into till and outwash deposits at EAFR. 

Tills generally have a high silt or clay content and, therefore, 

have a low hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivities 

of about 0.3 m/d are common for tills in New England (Mack, 

1995; Melvin and others, 1992) (table 3). Where till contains 

more sand-sized sediment, its hydraulic conductivity and, 

therefore, transmissivity, can be greater. Tills in the EAFR 

area are usually less than 6 m thick and discontinuously cover 

the bedrock surface. Examination of well-completion reports 

(appendix 2) from areas surrounding the EAFR indicated that 

the thickness of till deposits are generally from 3 to 6 m. Thick 

till (greater than 6 m thick) is found on north to west-facing 

slopes and thin till is found on bedrock ridges.

Stratified-drift deposits with varying characteristics can 

be broadly grouped into the following three settings in the 

study area: (1) high altitude coarse- and fine-grained ice-margin deposits, (2) intermediate altitude coarse-grained streamvalley deposits leading to fine-grained lake-margin deposits, 

and (3) low altitude valley-fill coarse- and fine-grained 

glacial-lake deposits (fig. 8). The horizontal hydraulic conductivities of stratified-drift deposits were estimated for similar 

deposits in Bristol, Vt. (Mack, 1995) and are listed in 

table 3. The hydraulic conductivity of clay is very low and 

14  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
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Figure 8. Surficial materials at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont. (Location of site shown in figure 1.)

Hydrogeologic Framework 15
ranges from approximately 0.44 to 7.2 × 10-5 m/d (Freeze and 

Cherry, 1979).

Ice-marginal deposits, composed of discontinuous thin 

(less than 6 m thick) sheets of interbedded cobble gravel, 

pebble gravel, and sand overlie till and bedrock above altitudes 

of 361 m (1,185 ft). These deposits likely collected in glacial 

ice-marginal meltwater pools and channels on Feigle Hill, 

Starbird Ridge, and Mayers Dome. Meltwater drained southward through Bolton Notch as retreating ice blocked drainage 

to the west down the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys.

Ice-marginal coarse-grained deposits grade into thicker, 

finer-grained deposits found at the head of the Mill Brook 

Valley and occur as thin sheets of sandy cobble-gravel and 

pebble-gravel near West Bolton. These form roughly flattopped terraces from altitudes of 326 m (1,070 ft) to 282 m 

(925 ft). This material grades westward to interfinger with 

6–21 m thick, stratified, fine- to medium-grained sand on 

west-facing slopes from 296 m (970 ft) to 282 m (925 ft) 

altitude. Locally, very fine sand and silt occur below 282 m 

(925 ft) altitude. Stratified drift was deposited between 274 m 

(900 ft) and 305 m (1,000 ft) altitude along the southern side 

of the eastern end of the Lee River Valley. Fluvial ice-marginal 

cobble and pebble gravels deposited in thin sheets along the 

stream valleys east and west of Cushing Hill. Thick deposits 

of very fine sand at the east end of firing range 4-1 (fig. 2) 

formed as moving water from melting glacial ice entered a 

glacial lake in the Mill Brook Valley. Deposits of pebble gravel 

and sand southeast of Bald Hill along the north side of the Lee 

River Valley, ranging in altitudes from 274 m (900 ft) to 286 m 

(940 ft), likely formed during this period.

Drilling logs from wells VT-JEW 127, VT-JEW 129, and 

VT-JEW 139 (appendix 1) show a pattern of very-fine sediment (clay) over coarse sands and gravel indicating various 

glacial lake levels in Mill Brook Valley. The fine sediment 

over coarse sediment is consistent with ice-margin deposits of 

coarse-grained glacial drift, deposited near westward retreating ice in the Mill Brook Valley, with clay deposited in the 

quiet water of the lake that formed as the ice withdrew. These 

stratified-drift sediments form a confined aquifer in places 

overlain by an unconfined aquifer that make up the stratifieddrift aquifers.

Glacial ice blocked the Lee River Valley at a point about 

244 m (800 ft) east of well VT-JEW 124 (fig. 2). East of that 

point, terrace deposits rise to 274-m (900-ft) altitude, and to 

238 m (780 ft) to the west. West of that point, terraces are 

at 232-m (760-ft) altitude and valley-fill deposits are from 

207-m (680-ft) to 213-m (700-ft) altitude. A diagrammatic 

hydrogeologic section representing the Lee River Valley 

deposits is presented in figure 9. Typical deposits, from 

land surface to till or bedrock, consist of 2–7 m of cobbles, 

pebbles, and coarse sand overlying 3–6 m of interfingering 

medium sand, very fine sand, silt, and 0–1 m of clay overlying 

boulders, cobbles, and very coarse sand (well logs VT-JEW 

121, VT-JEW 134, VT-JEW 135, VT-JEW 123, VT-JEW 124, 

VT-JEW 125). This pattern of coarse over fine over coarsegrained deposits (fig. 9), indicates a glacial history similar to 

the Mill Brook Valley. As the glacier receded, coarse materials 

were deposited along the ice margins and a lake was formed. 

In the quiet lake environment, fine-grained materials settled to 

the lake bottom. A fluvial environment followed that quickly 

deposited coarse material over the fine-grained materials 

without eroding or removing the underlying lake deposits. 

This sequence of deposits formed a confined aquifer overlain 

by an unconfined aquifer.

Aquifer Characteristics

Wells are commonly drilled into bedrock for domestic 

supply in areas beyond the boundary of EAFR. Drillers’ wellcompletion reports (Ken Yelsey, Vermont Agency of Natural 

Resources, written commun., 2004) for the towns of Jericho, 

Bottom, and Underhill (appendix 2) indicate that bedrockaquifer characteristics vary widely over short distances. 

However, median well depths are about 90 m (300 ft) deep 

and median short-term yields are about 23 L/min (6 gal/min). 

Characteristics of bedrock wells near the EAFR are most 

likely similar to those found in a statewide analysis of New 

Hampshire (Moore and others, 2002). The bedrock-aquifer 

characteristics inside the EAFR boundary are most likely similar to the general characteristics in Jericho and will include a 

wide range of hydraulic properties. For example, the supply 

well at the COGO facility has a reported yield of 11 L/min and 

a depth of 98 m. Bedrock borings drilled by this study were 

used to determine shallow bedrock properties, not to provide a 

water supply. The yield of the four bedrock-observation wells 

drilled for this investigation were generally low, less than 

8 L/min to near zero, and do not reflect regional bedrockaquifer characteristics. Bedrock hydraulic properties are likely 

similar to those found in New Hampshire (Mack, 2003; Tiedeman and others, 1998). The bulk (regional) bedrock hydraulic 

conductivity at the EAFR is likely to be about 0.3 m/d or less.

Based on drillers’ well-completion reports from Bolton, 

Jericho, and Underhill (Ken Yelsey, Vermont Agency of 

Table 3. Estimated horizontal hydraulic conductivity of aquifer 

materials in the region in northern Vermont from Mack (1995).

[mm, millimeters; m/d, meters per day; <, less than; >, greater than]

Material type Mean grain size

(mm)

Estimated horizontal 

hydraulic conductivity

(m/d)

Median Range

Till <0.01–0.5 0.3 <0.3–1.2

Sand, fine .1 3 0.3–9.1

Sand, medium .3 9 3–18

Sand, coarse .7 36 18–61

Gravel 2.0–4.0 76 46->76

16  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Natural Resources, written commun., 2004), the static depth to 

water in the bedrock aquifer is commonly 3–6 m below land 

surface. Deeper depths to water (greater than 6 m) are usually 

found at higher altitudes and ridges, whereas shallower depths 

to water are usually found in topographic depressions or near 

surface-water bodies. The ground-water potentiometric surface 

in the bedrock aquifer generally follows the land surface 

(Mack, 2003), and the direction of ground-water flow is from 

topographic highs to low areas. As a result of the generally 

low permeability of the bedrock aquifer, relative to glacial 

deposits, most of the ground water moving through the region 

will occur in the overlying glacial deposits. 

The altitude of the water table (fig. 10) and the saturated 

thickness describe basic characteristics of the stratified-drift 

aquifers in the EAFR. In similar valley-fill stratified-drift aquifers in Vermont, water-level fluctuations (Keirstead and others, 

2004) in stratified-drift aquifers are generally less than 2 m 

during the course of a year. The water table generally is 3 m 

below land surface (fig. 10). The 6-m (20-ft) contour interval 

provides an approximation of the regional water-table position. Water-table contours generally follow the land surface 

and indicate areas of recharge and discharge. For example, 

streams in the center of the valley in stratified-drift deposits 

generally drain the aquifer, and water-table contours bend, 

or “V”, upstream. Where streams cross from till uplands into 

stratified-drift deposits, they generally lose water to the stratified-drift aquifer. 

The overall direction of ground-water flow in the Lee 

River and Mill Brook Valleys (fig. 10) is east to west, while 

the localized flow is from the valley walls to the Lee River 

or Mill Brook in a north or south direction. A generalized 

representation of ground-water flow in a typical valley setting 

is shown in figure 11. 

The water-table altitude in the stratified-drift aquifer in 

the Lee River watershed ranges from just less than 195 m to 

more than 274 m. In the Lee River watershed, the water-table 

gradient (a dimensionless unit measured as water-table change 

per length of land surface), down the center of the watershed, 

is moderate at about 0.0175. The gradient at the valley walls 

and at the east end of the valley is much steeper. At the east 

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figure 2.)

Hydrogeologic Framework 17
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Figure 10. Generalized altitude of the water table in the Lee River and Mill Brook watersheds, Ethan Allen Firing Range in 

northern Vermont. (Location of site shown in figure 1.)

18  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Figure 11. Generalized hydrogeologic section.

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end of the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys, the gradient is 

too steep to accurately contour the water table between the 243 

and 274-m (800 and 900-ft) land-surface contours. In contrast, 

the water-table altitude in the Mill Brook watershed ranges 

from about 226 to more than 274 m and the overall gradient is 

relatively flat at 0.006. The velocity of ground-water flow in 

the center of the Lee River Valley is estimated to be 0.2 to 

0.6 m/d, which is caused by the steep gradient in the Lee River 

Valley and relatively coarse stratified drift (compared to other 

sediments). Because of the shallow gradient and generally 

fine-grained streambed sediments, the velocity of groundwater flow in the Mill Brook Valley is estimated to be 0.2 m/d 

or less. 

The saturated thickness of stratified drift in the Lee 

River and Mill Brook Valleys is shown in figure 12. Saturated 

thicknesses of about 18 m or more are found in the center of 

the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys. Thick (more than 12 m) 

saturated stratified-drift deposits are confined to a narrow area 

along the Lee River. Broad areas of thinly saturated (about 

6 m or less) stratified drift are present towards the east end 

of the Lee River Valley (fig. 12). Thin stratified-drift deposits 

extend up the Lee River Valley into Underhill, between 

Cushing and Feigel Hills (fig. 12), and saturated thicknesses 

are likely to be less than 6 m. Areas of thinly saturated (less 

than 6 m), or unsaturated, stratified-drift deposits are present 

in the headwaters of the Lee River watershed (fig. 12). Most 

of the Impact Area (fig. 2) is expected to be thinly saturated 

to unsaturated stratified drift. At the northern EAFR boundary 

in Underhill, east of Range Road (fig. 12), are small areas 

of thinly saturated stratified drift. At the southern EAFR 

boundary along Mill Brook, drillers’ well-completion reports 

indicate that stratified-drift deposits may be much greater 

than 18 m thick and, toward the east end of the valley, thick 

deposits may be more extensive. 

Water Quality

Surface- and ground-water chemistry, streambed sediment, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish-tissue samples 

were collected at the EAFR in June and July 2003. Results are 

compared to state and national water-quality guidelines and 

previous studies of the firing range (Goetz, 1999; Ward, 1999; 

Bouwkamp, 1992; Vermont Department of Environmental 

Conservation, 1988).

Surface Water

Stream-water samples were collected from sites SS-5, 

SS-6, SS-10, SS-11, and SS-12 (fig. 2, table 2) during moderate-flow conditions on June 4–5, 2003, and during low-flow 

conditions on July 30–31, 2003. Water-quality and physical 

characteristics of surface water are summarized in table 2. 

Water Quality 19
Figure 12. Generalized saturated thickness of stratified-drift deposits in the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont. 

(Location of site shown in figure 1.)

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20 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Surface-water samples had a median pH of 7.0 (neutral) and 

ranged from pH 6.8 to pH 7.5. Alkalinity ranged from 7.6 to 

52 mg/L with a median value of 35 mg/L. Dissolved oxygen 

concentrations were high (7.5–10 mg/L) at all sites except at 

site SS-10 (fig. 2), a low-gradient environment just below a 

beaver dam on a tributary to Mill Brook. Median specific conductance (56 μS/cm), turbidity (0.2 NTU), and suspended solids (0.8 mg/L) were low (table 2). Values for specific conductance, dissolved and suspended solids increased slightly from 

moderate- to low-flow conditions (table 2). VOCs and SVOCs 

(appendix 3) were not detected in any samples. Concentrations 

of major ions, trace elements, and nutrients in stream-water 

samples were well below USEPA drinking-water regulations 

and Canadian freshwater-quality guidelines for the protection 

of aquatic life (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2003; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002a,b). 

Concentrations of major ions, and trace elements, and 

nutrients in surface water are summarized in table 4. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, 

nickel, uranium, and zinc were below detection levels for all 

samples. Barium, iron, manganese, and strontium were the 

only metals above reporting levels. Concentrations of iron and 

manganese were higher at the tributary to Mill Brook (SS-10, 

fig. 2) than other sampling sites. Nitrogen was present predominately as dissolved inorganic nitrogen, except at SS-10 

(fig. 2), which is a tributary to the Mill River where wetlands 

around a beaver dam probably contributed higher dissolved 

ammonia plus organic nitrogen. Substantial differences in 

concentrations of major ions, trace elements, or nutrients were 

not observed between moderate (June) and low-flow (July) 

sampling conditions (table 4). 

Surface water at the Mill Brook tributary (SS-10), Lee 

River tributary (SS-6), and Lee River outlet (SS-5) were 

compared with similar samples collected in 1992 and 1999 

(table 5). Concentrations of major ions, trace elements, and 

nutrients at these 3 sites are relatively similar over the past 11 

years. Most metal concentrations were below reporting levels. 

Concentrations of metals with detectable levels were lower in 

1999 and 2003 than in 1992.

Streambed Sediment

Of the 23 major ions and trace elements analyzed in 

streambed sediment, 18 were detected in all 5 sediment samples (table 6). Molybdenum and sodium were not detected in 

any samples; antimony was detected in one sample, beryllium 

was detected in two samples, and selenium was detected in 

four samples. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, 

copper, lead, nickel, and zinc were well below streambed-sediment-quality guidelines for the probable adverse effects to 

aquatic life (MacDonald and others, 2000; Canadian Council 

of Ministers of the Environment, 2003). Streambed-sediment 

guidelines were not available for the other elements. Streambed-sediment samples collected at the Mill Brook tributary, 

Lee River tributary, and Lee River outlet from the firing range 

were compared with similar samples collected in 1992 and 

1999 (table 7). Substantial changes in concentrations were not 

noted over the 11 years. Generally higher concentrations in 

2003 appear to be because of differences in particle-size distribution and organic content as indicated by percent moisture. 

Median moisture in streambed sediment was 71 percent in 

2003, 36 percent in 1999, and 46 percent in 1992. Streambed 

sediments with high percent moisture generally have fine particle sizes and(or) high organic contents where trace elements 

tend to be concentrated (Brady, 1974).

Biologic

Biologic sampling was done to assess the overall surfacewater quality of the EAFR. Biological data included benthic 

macroinvertebrate samples, fish-tissue samples, and bacteria 

counts from surface and ground water. The results of these 

analyses are compared to investigations from 1988, 1992, and 

1999. (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 

1988; Bouwkamp, 1992; Goetz, 1999; and Ward, 1999).

Macroinvertebrates

Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected on June 18, 

2003, at four stream sites to assess the biologic health of the 

streams (appendix 4). Three sites were in the Lee River watershed (SS-5, SS-6, and SS-12) and one site was on Steinhour 

Brook (SS-11). Total abundance for the 4 sites sampled was 

4,240 or 212 specimens per 0.09 m2 (1 ft2). The greatest abundance of specimens was found at the Lee River outlet from 

the firing range (SS-5, fig. 2). A total of 84 taxa were identified from the 4 sites. The greatest taxa richness was found at 

Steinhour Brook (SS-11, fig. 2) located in a relatively remote 

area in the northeastern corner of EAFR (fig. 2). 

In addition to abundance and taxa richness, two numeric 

indexes were calculated to evaluate water quality. The EPT 

richness index is the total number of taxa in the pollution-intolerant members of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and 

Trichoptera (EPT). The highest EPT richness index was found 

at Steinhour Brook (SS-11) indicating that this stream had the 

best aquatic habitats and highest biological health. A tributary 

to the Lee River (SS-6) had the lowest EPT richness index, 

possibly relating to the intermittent nature of this stream. The 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI) was used to rate water quality based on abundance of pollution-tolerant and intolerant 

macroinvertebrate species (Hilsenhoff, 1987). All site samples 

collected in 2003 had HBI values between 2 and 2.5. On a 

scale from 0 to 10, values from 0 to 3.5 are ranked as excellent 

water quality with no apparent organic pollution. 

A comparison with historical data was done for the Lee 

River outlet (SS-5, fig. 2). The Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation (VTDEC) collected timed kick-net 

samples from about 0.5 mi west of the EAFR boundary in 

Water Quality 21
September 1988 (Vermont Department of Environmental 

Conservation, 1988). These data was compared to Surber 

samples collected east of the EAFR boundary in 1992 

(Bouwkamp, 1992); 1999 (Ward, 1999), and July 2003. 

Because of differences in sampling methods (Surber and 

timed kick, and three replicates collected per sample in 1992 

and 1999 compared to five replicates in 2003), the data are not 

directly comparable; however, data comparison still may indicate general changes in water quality. Taxa richness and EPT 

richness index were 38 and 21, respectively, in 2003 samples; 

45 and 24.5, respectively, in 1988; 30 and 11, respectively, 

in 1992; and 20 and 13, respectively, in 1999 (fig. 13). These 

results probably indicate little change in the biological condition of the Lee River at the EAFR between 1988 and 2003. 

Any differences in taxa richness and EPT index are most 

likely the result of a combination of natural variability and 

sampling methods. 

Fish Tissue

Whole-body-composite tissue samples of brook trout 

were collected at three stream sites; Steinhour Brook (SS-11, 

fig. 2), and two sites on the Lee River (SS-5 and SS-12, fig. 2). 

Of the 4 major ions and 19 trace elements analyzed for in fish 

tissue, 13 were detected in all 3 samples (table 8). Antimony, 

arsenic, beryllium, lithium, molybdenum, and uranium were 

not detected in any samples. Little difference in concentrations of trace elements was noted between samples below the 

Impact Area on Lee River (SS-12), at the outlet of Lee River 

from EAFR (SS-5), or from Steinhour Brook (SS-11). Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, and selenium in 

fish-tissue samples were well below USEPA screening criteria 

for protection of human health (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995) and(or) U.S. Food and Drug Administration (1993) “levels of concern” in shellfish. A comparison of 

Table 4a. Concentrations of dissolved major ions, trace elements, and nutrients in surface water during moderate and low-flow 

conditions at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

[Site locations shown on figure 2. Sample dates are in month, day and year (mm/dd/yy); All concentration units are in micrograms per liter (μg/L). The following compounds were below detection: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, lithium, molybdenum, nickel, 

potassium, selenium, sodium, uranium, zinc; J = associated laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method detection level but 

below reporting level, laboratory blank calcium concentrations are less than 3 percent of associated sample concentrations; E = estimated concentration, result 

less than reporting level; <, less than; --, no standard]

Site

identifier

Flow 

conditions

Date site 

sampled

(mm/dd/yy)

Major ions Trace elements

Calcium Chloride Magnesium Sulfate Barium Iron ManganeseSilica Strontium

SS-5 Moderate 06/05/03 J 11,000 570 2,100 4,900 5.6 < 100 7.2 5,500 42

Low 07/30/03 15,000 < 200 2,900 5,400 6.2 E 23 5.4 6,400 57

SS-6 Moderate 06/04/03 J 3,600 2600 540 5,500 10 < 100 2.6 4,000 15

Low 07/30/03 6,600 < 200 1,000 1,700 15 < 100 1.1 5,500 30

SS-10 Moderate 06/05/03 J 11,000 480 2,000 4,700 4.8 < 100 12 1,400 41

Low 07/30/03 14,000 390 2,500 6,700 6.3 160 12 3,700 53

SS-11 Moderate 06/04/03 J 3,700 700 800 6,200 8.3 < 100 2.8 4,900 18

Low 07/30/03 8,400 2,900 1,900 5,600 12 < 100 6.1 8,100 38

SS-12 Moderate 06/05/03 J 7,500 370 1,500 3,000 5.8 < 100 3.2 4,800 27

Low 07/31/03 12,000 260 2,500 5,100 6.6 E 42 1.9 6,400 43

Summary statistics

Minimum 3,600 < 200 540 1,700 4.8 < 100 1.1 1,400 15

Maximum 11,000 2,900 2,900 6,700 15 160 12 8,100 57

Median 9,700 435 1,950 5,250 6.4 < 100 4.3 5,200 39

Guidelines or standards

MCL1 -- -- -- -- 2,000 -- -- -- --

SMCL2 -- 250,000 -- 250,000 2,000 300 50 -- --

CCREM3 -- -- -- -- -- 300 -- -- --

1 Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002a).

2 Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002b).

3 Canadian water-quality guidelines (CCREM) for the protection of freshwater aquatic life (Canadian Council of Resources and Environmental Ministers, 

2003).

22 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Bacteria

Fecal indicator bacteria, Escherichia coli (E-coli), in 

water indicates the possible presence of pathogens. E-coli

concentrations in water samples were well below the State of 

Vermont (77 counts/100 mL) swimming guidelines at all five 

stream sites at moderate- and low-flow conditions, and all 10 

ground-water observation wells (Vermont Water Resource 

Board, 2004). E-coli counts were higher in stream samples 

during low-flow conditions (median 20/100 mL) than during 

moderate-flow conditions (median <10/100 mL). E-coli counts 

were above detection levels (10/100 ml) at four surface-water 

sites (SS-5, SS-6, SS-10, SS-11) during low-flow conditions, 

and above detection levels at moderate-flow conditions at one 

site directly below a beaver dam (SS-10). Any detection of 

E-coli warrants concern for potable waters (Wilde and others, 

1998). E-coli were not detected in ground-water samples.

brook-trout samples, collected at the outlet of the firing range 

in 1992 (Bouwkamp, 1992) and 2003, indicates metal concentrations may have decreased over the past 11 years (table 9). 

Concentrations of cadmium, chromium, copper, and lead were 

all about an order-of-magnitude lower in 2003 than in 1999. 

Concentrations of aluminum, selenium, and zinc were similar 

in 2003 to 1992 samples, only iron was 3 times higher in 

2003 sample. Because some of the brook trout caught in 2003 

may have been stocked, a sample of brown trout (a species of 

fish not commonly stocked) collected in 2003 is included in 

the comparison. Similar concentrations of trace elements in 

fish tissues of brown and brook trout collected in 2003 most 

likely indicate that the lower trace-metal concentrations in the 

brook-trout samples are not an artifact of fish stocking. Native, 

reproducing (non-stocked) trout found at the site generally 

indicates high-quality water. 

Table 4b. Concentrations of nutrients in surface water during moderate and low-flow conditions at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in 

northern Vermont. 

[Site locations shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). All concentration units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter. NO3 , Nitrate; 

NO2 , Nitrite; The following compounds were below detection: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, lithium, 

molybdenum, nickel, potassium, selenium, sodium, uranium, zinc; <, less than]

Site 

identifier

Flow 

conditions

Date site 

sampled

(mm/dd/yy)

Nutrients

Total 

ammonia

Dissolved 

ammonia

Total 

ammonia 

plus 

organic 

nitrogen

Dissolved 

ammonia 

plus 

organic 

nitrogen

Total 

NO3+NO2

Dissolved 

NO3+NO2

Total 

nitrogen)

Dissolved 

nitrogen

Total 

phosphorus

Dissolved 

orthophosphate 

SS-5 Moderate 06/05/03 0.043 0.027 < 0.24 < 0.24 0.086 0.086 0.129 0.113 < 0.010 0.012

Low 07/30/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .09 .093 .102 .105 < .010 < .010

SS-6 Moderate 06/04/03 .050 .054 < .24 .24 .013 .011 .063 .251 < .010 .052

Low 07/30/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .098 .095 .098 .095 < .010 < .010

SS-10 Moderate 06/05/03 .06 .047 .41 .37 < .010 < .010 .410 .375 .011 < .010

Low 07/30/03 .033 .038 .38 .32 < .010 < .010 .380 .325 .013 < .010

SS-11 Moderate 06/04/03 .037 .049 < .24 < .24 .035 .034 .072 .083 < .010 .014

Low 07/30/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .140 .140 .140 .140 < .010 < .010

SS-12 Moderate 06/05/03 .034 .032 < .24 < .24 .037 .031 .071 .063 < .010 < .010

Low 07/31/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .091 .059 .091 .059 < .010 < .010

Summary statistics

Minimum < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.24 < 0.24 < 0.010 < 0.010 0.063 0.063 < 0.010 < 0.010

Maximum .06 .054 .41 .37 .140 .140 .410 .375 .013 .052

Median .033 .029 < .24 < .24 .061 .046 .106 .110 < .010 < .010

Water Quality 23
Table 5. Comparison of surface-water chemistry at three stream sites, Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, 1992, 1999, and 2003.

[Site locations shown on figure 2. *1992 and 1999 data does not indicate if analysis is for total or dissolved nutrients; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; NO3 , Nitrate; NO2 , Nitrite; E = estimated concentrations; <, less than; --, no data]

Site

identifier Year data collected

Major ions Trace elements Nutrients

Calcium 

(μg/L)

Magnesium 

(μg/L)

Sulfate 

(μg/L)

Barium 

(μg/L)

Iron 

(μg/L)

Total 

ammonia 

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

ammonia 

(mg/L)

Total 

ammonia plus 

organic 

nitrogen 

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

ammonia plus 

organic 

nitrogen 

(mg/L)

Total 

NO3 + NO2

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

NO3 + NO2

(mg/L)

Total 

nitrogen 

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

nitrogen 

(mg/L)

Total 

phosphorus

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

orthophosphate

(mg/L)

2SS-5 *1992 17,000 3,000 7,200 30 < 50 <.05 -- <.05 -- .12 -- .12 -- .02 --

1SS-5 *1999 13,400 2,690 7,600 < 14.1 62.8 .02 -- < .24 -- .14 -- .16 -- < .01 --

 SS-5 2003 15,000 2,900 5,400 6.2 E 23 < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.24 < 0.24 0.09 0.093 0.09 0.093 < 0.01 < 0.01

2SS-6 *1992 12,000 1,800 11,000 40 130 .06 -- .08 -- .49 -- .57 -- .02 --

1SS-6 *1999 4,380 669 7,300 < 14.1 < 44 .04 -- < .24 -- .02 -- .06 -- < .01 --

 SS-6 2003 6,600 1,000 1,700 15.0 < 100 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .098 .095 .098 .095 < .01 < .01

2SS-10 *1992 10,000 1,800 2,700 50 270 .05 -- .34 -- .07 -- .41 -- < .02 --

1SS-10 *1999 9,070 1,790 7,000 < 14.1 180 .05 -- .45 -- < .01 -- .45 -- .02 --

 SS-10 2003 14,000 2,500 6,700 6.3 160 .033 .038 .38 .32 < .01 < .01 .38 .32 .013 < .01

1Goetz, 1999.2 Buowkamp, 1992.

24  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Table 6. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements in streambed sediment at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern 

Vermont.

[Site locations are shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). Concentration units are in mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram dry 

weight. E = estimated result, result is less than reporting level; J = associated laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method 

detection level but below reporting level, laboratory blank concentrations are less than 0.1 percent of associated sample concentrations; ND = not detected at 

method detection level; Molybdenum, and sodium were below method detection levels in all samples; --, no standard]

Site

identifier

Date site 

sampled

(mm/dd/yy)

Moisture 

(percent)

Major ions Trace elements

Calcium Magnesium

PotassiumAluminumAntimony

Arsenic Barium Beryllium

CadmiumChromium

SS-5 07/04/03 60 J 4,000 3,600 1,300 J 9,900 ND E 2.3 J 45 ND E 0.34 J 10

SS-6 07/04/03 71 J 3,500 3,700 1,500 J 15,000 E 0.36 E 2.2 J 84 E 0.87 E .76 J 13

SS-10 07/04/03 73 J 4,700 2,400 E 800 J 6,800 ND E 1.0 J 38 ND E .29 J 7.6

SS-11 07/04/03 69 J 4,000 2,700 1,200 J 11,000 ND E 1.9 J 73 E .70 E .94 J 11

SS-12 07/04/03 84 J 7,500 3,600 E 1,500 J 12,000 ND E 3.4 J 110 ND E 1.20 J 14

Summary statistics

Minimum -- 60 3,500 2,400 800 6,800 ND 1.0 38 ND 0.29 7.6

Maximum -- 84 7,500 3,700 1,500 15,000 0.36 3.4 110 0.87 1.20 14

Median -- 71 4,000 3,600 1,300 11,000 ND 2.2 73 ND .76 11

Guidelines or standards

CCREM1 -- -- -- -- -- 17 -- -- 3.5 90

Table 6. Concentrations of major ions, and trace elements in streambed sediment at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern 

Vermont.—Continued

[Site locations are shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). Concentration units are in mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram dry 

weight. E = estimated result, result is less than reporting level; J = associated laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method 

detection level but below reporting level, laboratory blank concentrations are less than 0.1 percent of associated sample concentrations; ND = not detected at 

method detection level; Molybdenum, and sodium were below method detection levels in all samples; --, no standard]

Site

identifier

Date site 

sampled

(mm/dd/yy)

Trace elements

Cobalt Copper Iron Lead Lithium ManganeseNickel Selenium

Strontium Uranium Zinc

SS-5 07/04/03 J 9.9 J 13 J 22,000 J 9.5 15 J 680 J 12 E 0.75 J 18 E 0.95 70

SS-6 07/04/03 J 24 J 16 J 21,000 J 12 19 J 1,000 J 20 E 1.1 J 20 E 1.4 150

SS-10 07/04/03 J 4.9 J 9.4 J 12,000 J 12 E 9.6 J 210 J 7.6 ND J 20 E .72 50

SS-11 07/04/03 J 14 J 11 J 16,000 J 10 E 14 J 1,300 J 15 E 1.0 J 22 E 1.3 150

SS-12 07/04/03 J 17 J 19 J 26,000 J 17 E 16 J 2,800 J 19 E 1.9 J 34 E 2.0 140

Summary statistics

Minimum 4.9 9.4 12,000 9.5 9.6 210 7.6 ND 18 0.72 50

Maximum 24 19 26,000 17 19 2,800 20 1.9 34 2.0 150

Median 14 13 21,000 12 15 1,150 17 1.0 21 1.35 145

Guidelines or standards

CCREM1 -- 197 -- 91.3 -- -- 35.9 -- -- -- 315

1 Canadian water-quality guidelines (CCREM) for the protection of freshwater aquatic life (Canadian Council of Resources and Environmental Ministers, 

2003).

Water Quality 25
Table 7. Comparison of trace-element concentrations in streambed sediment collected at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, 1992, 1999, and 2003.

[All concentration units are in mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram dry weight. E = estimated result, result is less than reporting level; J = associated laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method detection level but below reporting level; <, less than; location of sites shown on figure 2; --, no standard]

Site 

identifier

Year 

sampled

Trace elements

Moisture 

(percent) Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Lead Nickel Selenium Zinc

2SS-5 1992 4,600 < 1.0 .95 18 < .50 < 0.25 5.6 7.1 11,000 4.8 8.6 < .50 34 22

1SS-5 1999 3,400 < 4 < 4 < 20 < 1 1 50 < 3 11,000 < 10 14 < 4 23 10.8

SS-5 2003 J 9,900 < 0.037 E 2.3 J 45 < 0.24 E 0.34 J 10 J 13 J 22,000 J 9.5 J 12 E 0.75 70 60

2SS-6 1992 8,780 < 1.0 .99 49 < .50 < .25 8.7 10 16,036 11 11 < .50 63 46

1SS-6 1999 7,400 < 4 < 4 < 20 < 1 1 66 11 15,000 10 18 < 4 67 35.8

SS-6 2003 J 15,000 E .36 E 2.2 J 84 E .87 E 0.76 J 13 J 16 J 21,000 J 12 J 20 E 1.1 150 71

2SS-10 1992 6,800 < 1.0 3.2 55 < .50 .37 8.5 8.9 13,000 16 9.4 .7 70 76

1SS-10 1999 6,200 < 4 < 4 < 20 < 1 1 50 6.0 12,000 < 10 11 < 4 30 36.9

SS-10 2003 J 6,800 < .054 E 1 J 38 < .35 E 0.29 J 7.6 J 9.4 J 12,000 J 12 J 7.6 < .92 50 73

Guideline or standard

CCREM3 -- -- 17 -- -- 3.5 90 197 -- 91.3 -- -- 315 --

1Goetz, 1999.2Bouwkamp, 1992.3Canadian water-quality guidelines (CCREM) for the probable effect level (PEL) for the protection of freshwater aquatic life (Canadian Council of Resources and Environmental 

Ministers, 2003).

26  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont












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-!#2/).6%24%"2!4%4!8!

   















   

%042)#(.%33).$%8

9%!2 9%!2

%80,!.!4)/.

 6ERMONT$EPARTMENTOF

 %NVIRONMENTAL#ONSERVATION	

 "OUKAMP	

 7ARD	

 

%PHEMEROPTERA0LECOPTERAAND4RICHOPTERA

Figure 13. Comparison of macroinvertebrate taxa and 

Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) richness 

index collected over a 15-year span from the Lee River at 

the outlet of the Ethan Allen Firing Range (SS-5) in northern 

Vermont.

Site identifier

Date site 

sampled 

(mm/dd/yy)

Trace elements

Cobalt Copper Iron Lead Manganese Nickel Selenium Strontium Zinc

SS-5 06/10/03 E 0.06 1.3 42 E 0.021 5.8 E 0.08 0.53 J 9.9 25

SS-11 06/10/03 .17 1.1 87 E .08 8.8 .23 E .46 J 9.3 39

SS-12 06/11/03 .11 1.3 79 E .034 4.1 .12 .52 J 2.8 18

Table 8. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements in fish tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

[Site locations are shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). Units are in mg/kg wet weight, milligrams per kilogram. Samples 

are five fish composites of 5 to 7.5 inch long brook trout (Salvenlinus fontinalis). E = estimated result, result is less than reporting level; J = associated 

laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method detection level but below reporting level, laboratory blank strontium and calcium 

concentrations are less than 3 percent of associated sample concentrations, laboratory blank chromium concentrations are less than 18 percent of associated 

sample concentrations; antimony, arsenic, beryllium, lithium, molybdenum, and uranium concentrations were below method detection levels in all samples.]

Site identifier

Date site 

sampled 

(mm/dd/yy)

Major ions Trace elements

Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Aluminum Barium Cadmium Chromium

SS-5 06/10/03 J 11,000 390 3,400 720 E 9.6 E 0.59 E 0.039 J 0.32

SS-11 06/10/03 J 7,000 370 3,600 700 32 1.10 E .068 J .4

SS-12 06/11/03 J 2,000 240 2,800 650 29 E .45 E .046 J .38

Water Quality 27
Ground Water

Ten ground-water samples were collected in July 2003 

from wells in stratified-drift aquifers (fig. 2) in the Lee River 

and Mill Brook watersheds. The bedrock wells installed for 

this study were low yielding (generally less than 0.06 L/s) and 

may not have provided water-quality samples representative 

of bedrock water-supply wells in the region. Water-quality 

and physical characteristics of ground water are summarized 

in table 10. Ground water in most wells was slightly alkaline, 

pH ranged from 6.1 to 8.3 with a median of 7.5. Alkalinities 

in ground water (median 75 mg/L) were higher than in surface 

water (median 35 mg/L, table 2). The high alkalinities reflect 

the carbonate nature of some glacially derived source rock 

materials from the Lake Champlain Valley to the northwest. 

Dissolved oxygen concentrations were variable for ground 

water, ranging from 0.4 to 7.8 with a median value of 

3.3 mg/L. Specific conductance, suspended solids, and 

turbidity (median 161 μS/cm, 49 mg/L, and 22 NTU, respectively) were slightly higher in ground water than in surface 

water. Values of dissolved solids (median 97 Mg/L, table 10) 

were similar to values measured in surface water (median 

79 mg/L, table 2).

Concentrations of half of the 14 trace elements analyzed 

(arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, uranium, and zinc) 

were below detection levels. Barium, cobalt, copper, iron, 

manganese, molybdenum, and strontium were the only metals 

detected in ground-water samples (table 11). Cobalt (3.1 and 

2.5 μg/L) and iron (230 and 27,000 μg/L), and were detected 

only at 2 wells (VT-JEW 127 and VT-JEW 129) near Mill 

Brook, and copper (2 μg/L) was detected at one of these wells 

(VT-JEW 127). These same two wells also had higher concentrations of barium and manganese (from 2 to 10 times greater) 

than other ground-water samples. The higher concentrations 

of these trace elements are believed to be natural occurrences. 

The low occurrence of metals in ground water is probably due, 

in part, to the buffered nature (high alkalinity) and high pH of 

ground water in the EAFR stratified-drift aquifers.

Concentrations of nutrients in ground water were at or 

below detection levels in most samples (table 12). Ammonia and ammonia plus organic nitrogen were only found in 

ground-water samples in the Mill Brook watershed. Wetlands 

and beaver ponds in this low-gradient watershed may explain 

the presences of organic nitrogen in both surface and ground 

water in this area. Total inorganic nitrogen was essentially all 

dissolved, ranging from below detection (0.010) to 0.26 mg/L. 

Phosphorus was associated with suspended sediments, and 

concentrations ranged from below detection ( 0.010) to 

0.43 mg/L. 

Ground-water chemistry in the Mill Brook watershed, a 

low-gradient environment, generally had higher concentrations 

of dissolved trace elements and organic nitrogen than the Lee 

River watershed, a high-gradient environment. Concentrations 

of trace elements and nutrients were below USEPA drinkingwater standards for all except one constituent in one well. The 

concentration of iron in a well sample (VT-JEW 129) from the 

Mill Brook watershed was 27,000 μg/L (table 11), well above 

the 300 μg/L USEPA safe drinking-water guideline. VOCs and 

SVOCs (appendix 2) were not detected in any samples.

Table 9. Comparison of trace-element concentrations in fish tissue from the Lee River at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in 

northern Vermont.

[Site locations are shown in figure 2. All concentration units are in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) wet weight. Site SS-5 2003 sample is a 5-fish 

composite of 6 to 7 inch long brook trout (Salvenlinus fontinalis); Site SS-5 2003 Duplicate is a 5-fish composite of 5-10 inch long brown trout 

(Salmo tratta); Site SS-5 1992 sample is a composite of 3-6 inch long brook trout (Salvenlinus fontinalis); E = estimated result, result is less than 

reporting level; J = associated laboratory blank sample contains compound concentrations above method detection level but below reporting level; 

ND = not detected at method detection level; <, less than]

Site identifier Year 

sampled Species

Trace elements

Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Cadmium Chromium

1

SS-5 1992 Brook trout 21.5 < 2 < 100 < 1.97 0.197 .182 7.03

SS-5 2003 Brook trout E 9.6 ND ND E 0.59 ND E 0.039 J 0.32

DUPLICATE 2003 Brown trout 100 ND ND E .91 ND E .038 J .78

Site identifier Year 

sampled Species

Trace elements

Copper Iron Lead Nickel Selenium Zinc

1

SS-5 1992 Brook trout 14.3 14.3 3.78 < 9.85 .53 37

SS-5 2003 Brook trout 1.3 42 E 0.021 0.08 0.53 25

DUPLICATE 2003 Brown trout 1.3 310 E .061 .99 E .47 16

1 Buowkemp, 1992.

28  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Table 10. Summary of physical properties and water-quality characteristics of ground water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

[Site locations shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). EC, specific conductance, in μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; 

°C, degrees Celsius; NTU, nephelometric turbity units; DO, dissolved oxygen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; --, no standard]

Site identifier

Date site 

sampled 

(mm/dd/yy)

Physical properties Water-quality characteristics

EC 

(μS/cm)

pH 

(standard 

units)

Water 

temperature 

(°C)

Turbidity 

(NTU)

DO 

(mg/L)

Alkalinity 

(mg/L)

Dissolved 

solids 

(mg/L)

Suspended 

solids 

(mg/L)

Total solids 

(mg/L)

VT-JEW 121 07/24/03 103 6.55 9.4 3.8 6.70 38 78 45.5 67

VT-JEW 123 07/25/03 323 7.57 10.0 3.0 .55 138 173 5.1 160

VT-JEW 132 07/24/03 113 7.16 13.6 26.5 5.07 54 76 62.7 82

VT-JEW 125 07/25/03 173 8.10 9.3 16.3 .45 82 104 39.8 109

VT-UHW 110 07/21/03 231 8.31 11.0 76.6 2.29 114 143 229 405

VT-UHW 111 07/22/03 149 7.50 14.4 63.9 4.40 74 99 397 198

VT-JEW 126 07/22/03 197 8.34 11.8 16.6 4.32 100 121 34.0 147

VT-JEW 127 07/24/03 125 6.15 12.3 48.7 1.86 58 88 52.0 111

VT-JEW 128 07/23/03 143 7.80 -- 2.8 7.83 68 95 4.9 81

VT-JEW 129 07/23/03 211 6.38 9.8 128 1.03 76 85 138 239

Summary statistics

Minimum 103 6.15 9.3 2.8 0.45 38 76 4.9 67

Maximum 323 8.34 14.4 128 7.83 138 173 397 405

Median 161 7.54 11 22 3.3 75 97 49 129

Guidelines or standards

MCL1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

SMCL2 -- 6.5–8.5 -- -- -- -- 500 -- --

1 Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002a).

2 Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002b).

Water Quality 29
Table 11. Concentrations of dissolved major ions and trace elements in ground water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.

[Site locations are shown in figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). All units are in μg/L, micrograms per liter. The following trace elements were below detection: aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, lithium, nickel, selenium, uranium, zinc; E = estimated value, result less than reporting limit; <, less than; --, no standard]

Site identifier

Date site 

sampled 

(mm/dd/yy)

Major ions Trace elements

Calcium Magne- sium Sodium Potas- sium Sulfate Chloride Fluo- ride Silica Barium Cobalt Copper Iron Man- ganese Molyb- denum Stron- tium

VT-JEW 121 07/24/03 12,000 2,400 E 3,800 E 920 7,000 1,000 < 200 6,800 2.5 E 0.04 E 0.24 < 100 10 E 0.09 49

VT-JEW 123 07/25/03 41,000 8,700 E 3,200 E 1,600 370 410 < 200 9,700 3.9 E .53 < 2.0 < 100 190 E .66 170

VT-JEW 132 07/24/03 16,000 2,900 < 5,000 E 500 5,100 300 < 200 7,300 2.2 E .06 E 0.55 E 70 5.9 E .16 58

VT-JEW 125 07/25/03 24,000 5,100 E 2,700 E 2,700 6,800 400 < 200 6,900 3.2 E .19 < 2.0 E 30 92 2.5 82

VT-UHW 110 07/21/03 33,000 3,700 7,500 3,000 6,500 7,000 < 200 8,400 8.7 E .15 E 1.5 < 100 41 2.7 83

VT-UHW 111 07/22/03 23,000 3,300 E 1,400 E 2,200 6,200 450 < 200 8,300 4.2 E .16 E .41 < 100 50 E .71 67

VT-JEW 126 07/22/03 27,000 6,700 E 2,400 4,000 12,300 3,100 < 200 8,700 5.7 E .36 E .25 < 100 190 4.8 80

VT-JEW 127 07/24/03 17,000 3,800 E 1,300 E 780 7,500 310 < 200 10,000 14 3.1 2.0 230 1,000 E .08 67VT-JEW 128 07/23/03 21,000 3,400 E 1,900 E 1,800 11,500 650 < 200 9,100 3.1 E .06 E .17 < 100 3.1 E .26 76

VT-JEW 129 07/23/03 20,000 2,700 < 5,000 E 1,700 9,400 500 200 8,300 24 2.5 < 2.0 27,000 460 E .37 80

Summary statistics

Minimum 12,000 2,400 < 5,000 500 6,200 310 < 200 6,800 2.2 0.04 < 2 < 100 3.1 0.08 49

Maximum 41,000 8,700 7,500 4,000 12,300 7,000 200 10,000 24 3.1 2.0 27,000 1,000 4.8 170

Median 22,000 3,550 2,150 1,750 8,450 575 < 200 8,350 4.0 .17 .24 < 100 71 .51 78

Guidelines or standards

MCL1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 4,000 -- 2,000 -- 1,300 -- -- -- --

SMCL2 -- -- -- -- 250,000 250,000 2,000 -- -- -- 1,000 300 50 -- --

1Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002a).2 Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2002b).

30 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Table 12. Concentrations of nutrients in ground water at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont. 

[Site locations are shown on figure 2. The sample date is in month, day, year (mm/dd/yy). All concentration units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; <, less than; NO3, nitrate; NO2, nitrite]

Site identifier

Date site 

sampled

(mm/dd/yy)

Nutrients

Total 

ammonia

Dissolved 

ammonia

Total ammonia 

plus organic 

nitrogen

Dissolved 

ammonia 

plus organic 

nitrogen

Total 

NO3+ NO2

Dissolved 

NO3 + NO2

Total 

nitrogen

Dissolved 

nitrogen

Total 

phosphorus

Dissolved

 phosphorus

Dissolved 

orthophosphate

VT-JEW 121 07/24/03 < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.24 < 0.24 0.260 0.260 0.260 0.260 0.093 < 0.010 < 0.010

VT-JEW 123 07/25/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .078 .081 .078 .081 .013 < .010 < .010

VT-JEW 132 07/24/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .110 .100 .110 .100 .110 < .010 < .010

VT-JEW 125 07/25/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .037 .037 .037 .037 .068 < .010 < .010

VT-UHW 110 07/21/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 < .010 .110 < .010 .110 < .010 .012 < .010

VT-UHW 111 07/22/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .032 .033 .032 .033 .430 < .010 .011

VT-JEW 126 07/22/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .170 .190 .170 .190 .069 < .010 < .010

VT-JEW 127 07/24/03 .046 .051 < .24 < .24 .100 .110 .146 .161 .077 < .010 < .010

VT-JEW 128 07/23/03 < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .160 .150 .160 .150 < .010 < .010 < .010

VT-JEW 129 07/23/03 .420 .380 .57 .58 .057 < .010 .627 .580 .240 < .010 < .010

Summary statistics

Minimum < 0.024 < 0.024 < 0.24 < 0.24 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010 < 0.010

Maximum .420 .380 .57 .58 .260 .260 .627 .580 .430 .012 .011

Median < .024 < .024 < .24 < .24 .089 .105 .128 .130 .073 < .010 < .010

Water Quality 31
tions in hydraulic properties of the bedrock aquifer underlying 

the EAFR.

The Lee River Valley floor is capped by a thin layer 

of stratified drift, consisting of well-sorted sand and gravel. 

Beneath this coarse cap, sand grades to poorly sorted cobble, 

gravel, and pebble gravel with sand. In some areas, a meter of 

clay locally divides the coarse cobble gravels and sands. Thick 

deposits, up to about 18 m (60 ft) thick of fine sand and silt, 

lie beneath this clay at the eastern extent of the valley floor. At 

the western boundary of the EAFR, the unconsolidated aquifer 

consists of very fine sand and silt beneath a coarse-streambed-sediment cap. The overall direction of ground-water flow 

in the Lee River and Mill Brook Valleys is east to west as 

indicated by water-table contours.

The stratified-drift deposits in the Mill Brook Valley 

grade from coarse pebble gravel, cobble gravel, and coarse 

sand on the east to clay towards the west side of the valley. 

The coarse deposits at ground surface in the Lee River Valley 

are not present in the Mill Brook Valley. Maximum thickness 

of stratified-drift deposits in the Mill Brook Valley is generally 

about 18 m (60 ft) but locally may be greater. Ground-water 

gradients and hydraulic conductivities in the Lee River Valley 

are greater than those in the Mill River Valley. As a result, 

ground-water flow in the Lee River Valley is estimated to be 

approximately 0.2 to 0.6 m/d (0.6 to 2 ft/d), and in the Mill 

River Valley is estimated to be 0.2 m/d (0.6 ft/d) or less.

Ground-water samples were collected during July 2003, 

while surface-water samples were collected during moderateflow conditions in June 2003 and during low-flow conditions 

in July 2003. The regional surface- and ground-water quality 

of the base reflects the rural nature of the site and the buffering 

effect of the glacial deposits of the region. A high abundance 

and diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates, particularly pollution-intolerant species, indicate that steams had excellent 

biological health. Of particular interest is the presence of 

native-trout populations, which are intolerant of degraded 

water quality. 

Comparisons between surface water, streambed sediment, 

and biological samples collected in 2003 to earlier studies of 

the EAFR indicate that water-quality conditions are similar or 

have improved over the past 15 years. The alkalinities and pH 

of surface and ground water are moderate to relatively high 

compared to other areas of New England. Sampling results 

indicate that overall water-quality conditions at the facility 

meet State and Federal guidelines. Concentrations of trace 

elements (except for iron in ground water from one well) 

and nutrients in surface water were below freshwater-quality 

guidelines for the protection of aquatic or human life at all 

sites. Concentrations of trace elements in streambed sediments 

and fish tissue were also well below guidelines for the probable adverse effects to aquatic or human health. Concentrations of Escherichia-coli in surface water were below swimming guidelines at all sites, but above detection levels at most 

surface sites during low-flow conditions, indicating surface 

water at the facility should not be used for drinking unless it 

is first treated. The buffered effect of the glacial sediments at 

Summary

The Ethan Allan Firing Range (EAFR) in the Green 

Mountains of northern Vermont has been used for weapons 

training since 1926. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Vermont Army National Guard, designed and 

implemented a base-wide study of the hydrogeologic framework and the overall effects of military-training activities on 

water quality. Field activities for this study were conducted 

from October 2002 through December 2003. 

Altitudes at the site range from about 213 to 1,122 m 

(700 to 3,680 ft) above NAVD 88, and the physiography is 

characterized by narrow east-west trending valleys that bisect 

the regional north-south trend of the Green Mountains. Most 

of the facility is contained within, and bounded by, the drainage that makes up the Lee River watershed. The 45.4-km2

(17.5 mi2) facility is sparsely populated, consisting of only 

a few offices and barracks, and supports a wide variety of 

wildlife. Weapons-training activities are conducted throughout 

the year at the facility, and historically at more than 10 firing 

ranges onsite. The use of explosive ammunition is limited to 

an Impact Area in the center of the Lee River Valley. 

The headwaters of the Lee River and Mill Brook drain 

the west flank of the central ridge of the Green Mountains. 

From December 17, 2002, through December 16, 2003, 

streamflow in the Lee River ranged from a daily maximum 

flow of 10 m3/s (353 ft3/s) on November 20, 2003, to a low 

flow of 0.13 m3/s (4.6 ft3/s) on July 19 and 20, 2003, and 

September 15 and 19, 2003. The mean streamflow was 

0.72 m3/s (25 ft3/s) and the runoff for the year was 85.8 cm 

(34 in). Comparison with streamflow in a nearby watershed 

with a long-term record indicates that the Lee River streamflow during the study was probably about 10 percent above 

normal. The Lee River watershed, on the western slopes of 

the Green Mountains, received less precipitation and had less 

annual runoff than Ranch Brook on the eastern slope of the 

Green Mountains for the study period.

The Lee River maintained a relatively high streamflow 

during dry periods (as compared to other nearby similarsized watersheds), notably July and September 2003. This 

comparison indicates that there is likely a large ground-water 

contribution to streamflow during periods of low recharge. The 

Lee River Valley contains a large area of relatively permeable 

stratified-drift deposits that act as storage for ground-water 

resources.

The EAFR is underlain by fine- to medium-grained 

micaeous metamorphic rocks consisting of low-grade 

granofels and phyllites. The bedrock-well yields in these rocks 

are generally low, typically 23 L/min (6 gal/min) or less, but 

may be greater in fracture zones or where minerals more susceptible to weathering produce more porous rock. The textural 

and compositional differences in the mapped bedrock units 

(Pinnacle and Underhill Formations) are enough to define 

mapable rock units, but generally do not create regional varia32 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
the EAFR likely contributes to the low occurrence of trace 

elements in surface and ground water. Volatile organic compounds and semivolatile organic compounds were not detected 

in any water samples.

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Selected References 33
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34  Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
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Selected References 35

Appendixes 1–4

Appendixes 1–4 37
Appendix 1.  Lithologic logs of wells and boring drilled at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

Well name Depth below 

land surface 

(meters)

Lithologic description of

material

Well name Depth below 

land surface 

(meters)

Lithologic description of

material

VT-JEA 1 0–0.9 disturbed gravels VT-JEW 126 0–2.7 cobbles and sand

0.9–3.0 very fine to coarse sand, pebbles 2.7–4.2 silty sand

3.0–3.3 well sorted clay and silt 4.2–7.9 very coarse sand and granules

3.3–6.1 coarse sand with few cobbles 7.9 till, end of hole 9.1 meters

6.1–9.1 very fine sand

9.1–10.6 cobble gravel VT-JEW 127 0–0.6 loam

10.6 till, end of hole 11.8 meters 0.6–3.0 clay and pebbles (not till)

3.0–4.5 fine sand

VT-JEA 2 0–0.6 disturbed till 4.5–6.1 blue clay

0.6 till, end of hole 3.6 meters 6.1 cobble gravel,

pebble gravel,

VT-JEW 121 0–0.9 brown loam boulders, end of hole 7.6 meters

0.9–2.4

2.4–18.2

cobbles, sand

silt, very fine sand

18.2–19.5 small boulders, till VT-JEW 128 0–2.1 fine sand

19.5 bedrock, end of hole 19.5 meters 2.1–3.3 fine sand and cobbles

3.3–5.1 fine sand

VT-JEW 122 0–0.9 brown loam 5.1–7.0 pebbles and sand

0.9–2.4 cobbles, sand 7.0 bedrock (no till), end of hole

2.4 silt, very fine sand, 

end of hole 9.4 meters

7.0 meters

VT-JEW 123 0–0.6 

0.6–2.7

2.7–7.6

7.6–9.1

9.1–10.6

10.6

soil

boulders, cobbles, pebbles

medium sand

cobbles

small boulders

till, end of hole 11.9 meters

VT-JEW 129 0–3.6

3.6–12.8

12.8–15.8

15.8 

unsorted pebbles, clay, sand

very coarse sand

cobbles and tight sand

refusal in sand at 22.2 meters

VT-JEW 124 0–1.5 pebble gravel, medium sand VT-JEW130 0–2.2 unconsolidated sediment

1.5–2.1 cobbles, pebbles, silty gravel 2.2 very fine-grained granofels in 2

2.1–4.5

4.5–7.6

7.6

silty sand

blue gray clay, 

cobble to pebble gravel, end of hole 

23.2 meters

to 15 millimeter layers with partings 

of chlorite phyllite, unfractured, end 

of hole 21.3 meters

VT-JEW 125 0–1.2

1.2–2.1

2.1–2.4

2.4–2.7

2.7–3.4

3.4–12.5

12.5

Boulders, cobbles, pebbles

Silty gravel

cobbles

very coarse sand

clay

fine sand and silt layers

till, end of hole 14.9 meters 

VT-JEW 131 0–8.2 

8.2 

cobble and boulder gravel

till with large boulders

end of hole 16.7 meters

VT-JEW 132 0–1.5 

1.5–2.1

2.1–3.9 

3.9

pebble gravel, medium sand

cobbles, pebbles, silty gravel

silty sand

blue gray clay, end of hole 

4.6 meters

38 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Appendix 1.  Lithologic logs of wells and boring drilled at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

Well name Depth below 

land surface

(meters)

Lithologic description of

material

Well name Depth below 

land surface 

(meters)

Lithologic description of

material

VT-JEW 133 0 Quartz-chlorite-calcite-pyrite-garnet 

granofels and quartz-muscovitechlorite medium-grained schist; 

calcite-pyrite layers parallel foliation; 2 liters per minute from high 

permeability zone where calcite and 

pyrite are weathered or removed to 

leave sponge-like rock, end of hole 

9.1 meters

VT-JEW 139

VT-JEW 140

0–3.6

3.6–14.0

14.0

0–3.6

3.6

cobbles, pebbles, sand

very coarse to coarse sand and 

pebbles

medium sand with silt and pebbles, 

end of hole 18.9 meters

cobbles, pebbles, sand

very coarse to coarse sand and 

pebbles, end of hole 9.1 meters

VT-JEW 134 0–0.9 

0.9–6.7

6.7–9.1

9.1–9.4

9.4–11.2

11.2

medium sand

cobbles, pebbles, medium sand

very coarse sand

clay

cobbles, pebbles, sand

cobbles, end of hole 13.4 meters

VT-JEW 141 0–1.0 

1.0–11.2

11.2–13.1

13.1

cobbles and sand

very fine sand

cobbles and small boulders

till, refusal on bedrock at 

14.0 meters

VT-JEW 135 0–2.1 medium sand and pebbles VT-UHW 110 0–1.8 cobble to pebble gravel

2.1–3.7 cobbles 1.8–4.2 silty pebble gravel

3.7–8.8 tightly wedged very fine sand 4.2–5.7 medium to fine sand, coarse sand

8.8 boulders, till, end of hole 

11.6 meters

5.7 boulders, end of hole 5.7 meters

VT-JEW 137 0–0.6

0.6–3.0

3.0–4.5

4.5–6.1

6.1

loam

clay and pebbles (not till)

fine sand

blue clay

cobble gravel

end of hole 8.2 meters

VT-UHW 111 0–1.8

1.8–3.6

3.6

3.6–4.8

4.8–8.8

8.8

cobbles, small boulders, sand

pebbles and sand

cobbles

tightly wedged sand and pebbles

sand and pebbles

till, end of hole 10.1 meters

VT-JEW 138 0–5.9

5.9

boulders and till 

rusty micaeous schist; rotton

rock, saprolite, clay-filled 

fracture; water in porous 

green-gray calcareous granofels, 

end of hole 14.8 meters

VT-UHW 112 0–3.6

3.6–4.2

4.2–7.9

7.9 

cobbles, pebbles, sand

1-centimeter pebbles and clay

silty tightly wedged medium sand 

cobbles, till, end of hole 8.5 meters

Appendixes 1–4 39
Appendix 2.  Well data in and near the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont. Data from the Vermont Agency of Natural

Resources.

[Well locations shown in figure 2. m, meters; L/min, liter/minute; --, no data]

Well 

number

(m)

Well depth 

(m)

Yield

(L/min)

Depth to 

water

(m)

Overburden 

thickness

(m)

Casing 

length

(m)

Latitude Longitude

Degrees Minutes Seconds Degrees Minutes Seconds

BO11 72.3 170 -- -- 19.2 44 26 45 72 53 43

BO16 60.4 30 -- -- 21.0 44 26 41 72 53 51

BO28 53.0 23 -- -- 24.4 44 26 40 72 53 50

BO15816 42.7 114 -- 18.9 20.9 44 26 38 72 53 40

BO17524 83.8 95 -- 12.8 17.1 44 26 40 72 54 22

JE1 47.9 227 1.5 18.3 18.3 44 28 51 72 56 46

JE8 91.5 114 -- -- 11.0 44 26 50 72 55 29

JE10 60.4 19 -- -- 8.2 44 26 49 72 56 22

JE43 44.2 19 -- -- 20.4 44 28 22 72 57 29

JE67 38.1 114 -- -- 9.1 44 26 50 72 56 34

JE94 121.3 19 -- -- 14.0 44 29 5 72 57 41

JE95 121.0 30 -- -- 9.8 44 29 2 72 57 42

JE111 74.1 57 -- -- 32.3 44 26 39 72 54 56

JE124 68.0 4 -- -- 26.2 44 27 2 72 54 52

JE12913 182.9 9 -- 19.2 25.0 44 28 11 72 57 29

JE14374 92.4 19 -- 31.4 32.3 44 27 3 72 56 16

JE17522 106.7 38 -- 10.7 30.5 44 28 32 72 57 42

JE17523 236.3 19 -- 49.4 54.9 44 28 13 72 57 23

JE17525 129.6 227 -- 11.9 15.2 44 26 56 72 54 23

JE18303 76.2 34 -- 5.2 24.4 44 26 43 72 54 43

JE18356 77.7 76 -- 13.7 30.5 44 26 51 72 56 15

JE26778 97.9 11 1.5 22.3 -- 44 28 42 72 56 16

UH12773 99.1 17 .0 1.5 18.3 44 30 0 72 54 23

UH12921 68.6 57 .0 4.0 18.3 44 29 55 72 54 20

40 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Appendix 3.  Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed sediment, and fish

tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

[Constituent reporting levels for analysis of water (surface and ground) and solids (streambed sediment and fish tissue) collected at the Ethan Allen Firing Range. All constituents were analyzed in surface- and ground-water samples. Major ions and 

trace elements were analyzed in streambed sediment and fish-tissue samples. Units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, 

nephelometric turbitiy units; μg/L, micrograms per liter; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram]

Constituent Media Reporting limit Units

Characteristics, nutrients, major ions

Total dissolved solids Water 5 mg/L

Total suspended solids Water .5 mg/L

Total solids Water 5 mg/L

Turbidity (NTU) Water .05 NTU

Chloride dissolved Water .2 mg/L

Fluoride dissolved Water .2 mg/L

Sulfate dissolved Water .2 mg/L

Calcium Solids 20 mg/kg

Calcium Water 200 μg/L

Magnesium Solids 20 mg/kg

Magnesium Water 200 μg/L

Potassium Solids 300 mg/kg

Potassium Water 3,000 μg/L

Silica Water 1,100 μg/L

Sodium Solids 500 mg/kg

Sodium Water 5,000 μg/L

Hydroxide alkalinity Water 1 mg/L

Carbonate alkalinity Water 1 mg/L

Bicarbonate alkalinity Water 1 mg/L

Total alkalinity Water 1 mg/L

Ammonia-Nitrogen dissolved Water .024 mg/L

Ammonia-Nitrogen total Water .024 mg/L

Ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved Water .24 mg/L

Ammonia plus organic nitrogen, total Water .24 mg/L

NO3 + NO2 Nitrogen dissolved Water .01 mg/L

NO3 + NO2 Nitrogen total Water .01 mg/L

Orthophosphate as P dissolved Water .01 mg/L

Phosphorus as P dissolved Water .01 mg/L

Phosphorus as P total Water .01 mg/L

Trace elements

Aluminum Solids 10 mg/kg

Aluminum Water 100 μg/L

Antimony Solids 200 μg/kg

Antimony Water 2 μg/L

Arsenic Solids 500 μg/kg

Arsenic Water 5 μg/L

Barium Solids 1 mg/kg

Barium Water 1 μg/L

Beryllium Solids 0.5 mg/kg

Beryllium Water 5 μg/L

Cadmium Solids 100 μg/kg

Appendixes 1–4 41
Appendix 3.  Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed sediment, and fish

tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

[Constituent reporting levels for analysis of water (surface and ground) and solids (streambed sediment and fish tissue) collected at Ethan Allen Firing Range. All constituents were analyzed in surface- and ground-water samples. Major ions and trace 

elements were analyzed in streambed sediment and fish-tissue samples. Units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, nephelometric turbitiy units; μg/L, micrograms per liter; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram]

Constituent Media Reporting limit Units

Trace elements--Continued

Cadmium Water 1 μg/L

Chromium Solids 200 ug/kg

Chromium Water 2 μg/L

Cobalt Solids 100 ug/kg

Cobalt Water 1 μg/L

Copper Solids 200 ug/kg

Copper Water 2 μg/L

Iron Solids 10 mg/kg

Iron Water 100 μg/L

Lead Solids 100 ug/kg

Lead Water 1 μg/L

Lithium Solids 5 mg/kg

Lithium Water 10 μg/L

Manganese Solids 1 mg/kg

Manganese Water 1 μg/L

Molybdenum Solids 2 mg/kg

Molybdenum Water 2 μg/L

Nickel Solids 100 ug/kg

Nickel Water 2 μg/L

Selenium Solids 500 ug/kg

Selenium Water 5 μg/L

Strontium Solids 1 mg/kg

Strontium Water 10 μg/L

Uranium Solids 100 ug/kg

Uranium Water 1 μg/L

Zinc Solids 1,000 ug/kg

Zinc Water 10 μg/L

Volatile organic compounds

Ethylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

Styrene Water 1 μg/L

cis-1,3-Dichloropropene Water 1 μg/L

trans-1,3-Dichloropropene Water 1 μg/L

n-Propylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

n-Butylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

4-Chlorotoluene Water 1 μg/L

1,4-Dichlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

1,2-Dibromoethane Water 1 μg/L

Acrolein Water 5 μg/L

Allyl Chloride Water 1 μg/L

1,2-Dichloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Propionitrile Water 4 μg/L

Acrylonitrile Water 1 μg/L

Vinyl Acetate Water 1 μg/L

4-Methyl-2-pentanone Water 5 μg/L

1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

42 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Appendix 3.  Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed sediment, and fish

tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

[Constituent reporting levels for analysis of water (surface and ground) and solids (streambed sediment and fish tissue) collected at Ethan Allen Firing Range. All constituents were analyzed in surface- and ground-water samples. Major ions and trace 

elements were analyzed in streambed sediment and fish-tissue samples. Units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, nephelometric turbitiy units; μg/L, micrograms per liter; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram]

Constituent Media Reporting limit Units

Volatile organic compounds--Continued

Bromobenzene Water 1 μg/L

Toluene Water 1 μg/L

Chlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

Tetrahydrofuran Water 14 μg/L

trans-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene Water 1 μg/L

2-Chloroethyl Vinyl Ether Water 1 μg/L

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

1,4-Dioxane Water 50 μg/L

Dibromochloromethane Water 1 μg/L

Methacrylonitrile Water 1 μg/L

Chloroprene Water 1 μg/L

Tetrachloroethene Water 1 μg/L

Xylene (m,p) Water 1 μg/L

Xylene (total) Water 1 μg/L

sec-Butylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

1,3-Dichloropropane Water 1 μg/L

cis-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene Water 1 μg/L

cis-1,2-Dichloroethene Water 1 μg/L

trans-1,2-Dichloroethene Water 1 μg/L

Methyl-t-Butyl Ether Water 1 μg/L

1,2-Dichloroethene (total) Water 1 μg/L

1,3-Dichlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

Carbon Tetrachloride Water 1 μg/L

1,1-Dichloropropene Water 1 μg/L

2-Hexanone Water 5 μg/L

2,2-Dichloropropane Water 1 μg/L

1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Acetone Water 5 μg/L

Chloroform Water 1 μg/L

Benzene Water 1 μg/L

1,1,1-Trichloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Bromomethane Water 1 μg/L

Chloromethane Water 1 μg/L

Methyl Iodide Water 1 μg/L

Dibromomethane Water 1 μg/L

Bromochloromethane Water 1 μg/L

Chloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Vinyl Chloride Water 1 μg/L

Methylene Chloride Water 1 μg/L

Carbon Disulfide Water 1 μg/L

Bromoform Water 1 μg/L

Bromodichloromethane Water 1 μg/L

1,1-Dichloroethane Water 1 μg/L

1,1-Dichloroethene Water 1 μg/L

Appendixes 1–4 43
Appendix 3.  Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed sediment, and fish

tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

[Constituent reporting levels for analysis of water (surface and ground) and solids (streambed sediment and fish tissue) collected at Ethan Allen Firing Range. All constituents were analyzed in surface- and ground-water samples. Major ions and trace 

elements were analyzed in streambed sediment and fish-tissue samples. Units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, nephelometric turbitiy units; μg/L, micrograms per liter; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram]

Constituent Media Reporting limit Units

Volatile organic compounds--Continued

Trichlorofluoromethane Water 1 μg/L

Dichlorodifluoromethane Water 1 μg/L

Freon TF Water 1 μg/L

Isobutyl Alcohol Water 50 μg/L

1,2-Dichloropropane Water 1 μg/L

2-Butanone Water 5 μg/L

1,1,2-Trichloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Trichloroethene Water 1 μg/L

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Water 1 μg/L

Methyl Methacrylate Water 1 μg/L

1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

Xylene (o) Water 1 μg/L

2-Chlorotoluene Water 1 μg/L

1,2-Dichlorobenzene Water 1 μg/L

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

1,2-Dibromo-3-Chloropropane Water 1 μg/L

1,2,3-Trichloropropane Water 1 μg/L

Ethyl Methacrylate Water 1 μg/L

tert-Butylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

Isopropylbenzene Water 1 μg/L

4-Isopropyltoluene Water 1 μg/L

Semivolatile organic compounds

4-Nitroaniline Water 26 μg/L

4-Nitrophenol Water 26 μg/L

Benzyl Alcohol Water 10 μg/L

Benzaldehyde Water 10 μg/L

4-Bromophenyl-phenylether Water 10 μg/L

Azobenzene Water 10 μg/L

Caprolactam Water 10 μg/L

2,4-Dimethylphenol Water 10 μg/L

4-Methylphenol Water 10 μg/L

4-Chloroaniline Water 10 μg/L

2,2’-oxybis(1-Chloropropane) Water 10 μg/L

Phenol Water 10 μg/L

Pyridine Water 10 μg/L

bis(2-Chloroethyl)Ether Water 10 μg/L

bis(2-Chloroethoxy)methane Water 10 μg/L

bis(2-Ethylhexyl)phthalate Water 10 μg/L

Di-n-octylphthalate Water 10 μg/L

Hexachlorobenzene Water 10 μg/L

Anthracene Water 10 μg/L

2,4-Dichlorophenol Water 10 μg/L

2,4-Dinitrotoluene Water 10 μg/L

Pyrene Water 10 μg/L

Dimethylphthalate Water 10 μg/L

Dibenzofuran Water 10 μg/L

Atrazine Water 10 μg/L

44 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Appendix 3.  Constituents analyzed and reporting limits for analysis of water, streambed sediment, and fish

tissue at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont.—Continued

[Constituent reporting levels for analysis of water (surface and ground) and solids (streambed sediment and fish tissue) collected at Ethan Allen Firing Range. All constituents were analyzed in surface- and ground-water samples. Major ions and trace 

elements were analyzed in streambed sediment and fish-tissue samples. Units are in mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, nephelometric turbitiy units; μg/L, micrograms per liter; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram]

Constituent Media Reporting limit Units

Semivolatile organic compounds--Continued

Benzo(g,h,i)perylene Water 10 μg/L

Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene Water 10 μg/L

Benzo(b)fluoranthene Water 10 μg/L

Fluoranthene Water 10 μg/L

Benzo(k)fluoranthene Water 10 μg/L

Acenaphthylene Water 10 μg/L

Chrysene Water 10 μg/L

Benzo(a)pyrene Water 10 μg/L

2,4-Dinitrophenol Water 25 μg/L

4,6-Dinitro-2-methylphenol Water 26 μg/L

Dibenz(a,h)anthracene Water 10 μg/L

Benzo(a)anthracene Water 10 μg/L

4-Chloro-3-methylphenol Water 10 μg/L

2,6-Dinitrotoluene Water 10 μg/L

N-Nitroso-di-n-propylamine Water 10 μg/L

Aniline Water 26 μg/L

N-Nitrosodimethylamine Water 10 μg/L

Benzoic Acid Water 26 μg/L

Hexachloroethane Water 10 μg/L

4-Chlorophenyl-phenylether Water 10 μg/L

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Water 10 μg/L

Isophorone Water 10 μg/L

Acenaphthene Water 10 μg/L

Diethylphthalate Water 10 μg/L

Di-n-butylphthalate Water 10 μg/L

Phenanthrene Water 10 μg/L

Butylbenzylphthalate Water 10 μg/L

N-nitrosodiphenylamine Water 10 μg/L

Fluorene Water 10 μg/L

Carbazole Water 10 μg/L

Hexachlorobutadiene Water 10 μg/L

Pentachlorophenol Water 26 μg/L

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Water 10 μg/L

2-Nitroaniline Water 26 μg/L

2-Nitrophenol Water 10 μg/L

Naphthalene Water 10 μg/L

2-Methylnaphthalene Water 10 μg/L

2-Chloronaphthalene Water 10 μg/L

3,3’-Dichlorobenzidine Water 10 μg/L

1,1’-Biphenyl Water 10 μg/L

Benzidine Water 26 μg/L

2-Methylphenol Water 10 μg/L

2-Chlorophenol Water 10 μg/L

2,4,5-Trichlorophenol Water 25 μg/L

Acetophenone Water 10 μg/L

Nitrobenzene Water 10 μg/L

3-Nitroaniline Water 26 μg/L

Appendixes 1–4 45
Appendix 4.  Macroinvertebrate abundance and average flow velocity in five streams at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, June 18, 2003.—Continued

[m/s, meters per second; --, not present]

Macroinvertebrate name Abundance

Phylum Class Order Family Genus/Species SS-5 SS-5 

Duplicate

SS-6 SS-11 SS-12

Average streamflow velocity (m/s) 0.56 0.71 0.49 0.49 0.66

Mollusca Gastropoda Basommatophora Ancylidae Ferrissia rivularis -- -- -- -- 2

Platyhelminthes Turbellaria Tricladida Planariidae Hymanella retenuova -- -- 1 -- --

Annelida Oligochaeta Lumbriculida Lumbriculidae Lumbriculus variegatus -- 2 -- -- --

Tubificida Enchytraeidae Enchytraeus species -- -- -- 1 --

Lumbricillus species -- -- 1 -- --

Naididae Nais variabilis -- -- -- 1 --

Arthropoda Arachnoidae Acariformes Lebertiidae Lebertia species -- 2 -- -- --

Hygrobatidae Atractides species -- -- 1 -- --

Torrenticolidae Torrenticola species -- -- 1 -- --

Crustacea Decapoda Cambaridae Cambarus bartoni -- -- 1 -- --

Insecta Coleoptera Elmidae Optioservus 3 -- 3 -- 5

Oulimnius 1 -- -- 39 1

Promoresia species -- -- -- 1 --

Diptera Blephariceridae Blepharicera 2 2 1 2 15

Ceratopogonidae Bezzia species -- -- 1 -- --

Chironomidae Microtendipes species -- -- -- -- 14

Polypedilum aviceps 19 11 2 4 14Polypedilum fallax -- -- -- -- 1

Polypedilum scalaenum 1 1 -- -- --

Polypedilum tritum -- -- -- -- 2

Constempellina species -- -- -- 1 --

Micropsectra species 4 4 -- 39 15

Rheotanytarsus exiguus 2 3 -- 1 --

Stempellinella species -- 1 -- 1 1

Sublettea coffmani -- -- -- -- 1

Tanytarsus species 28 12 2 11 19Corynoneurua taris -- 2 -- -- --

Eukiefferiella brehmi -- -- -- -- 1

Eukiefferiella gracei 1 1 -- -- --

Eukiefferiella claripennis -- -- 1 3 --Eukiefferiella devonica -- -- -- 2 --

Orthocladius obumbratus 1 -- 2 --

Parametriocnemus lundbecki 1 -- -- 3 --

Tvetenia bavarica 5 3 1 4 --Thienemannimyia species 1 -- -- -- 1

46 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Appendix 4.  Macroinvertebrate abundance and average flow velocity in five streams at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, June 18, 2003.—Continued

[m/s, meters per second; --, not present]

Macroinvertebrate name Abundance

Phylum Class Order Family Genus/Species SS-5 SS-5 

Duplicate

SS-6 SS-11 SS-12

Arthropoda--Continued Empididae Chelifera species -- -- -- 1 --

Phoridae 1 -- 11 1 1

Simuliidae Prosimulium species 16 -- 24 1 31

Simulium species -- 10 -- 23 --

Tipulidae Antocha species -- 1 9 2 1

Cryptolabis species 1 1 -- -- --

Dicranota species -- -- -- 2 2

Hexatoma species 1 3 -- 1 1

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Acentrella species 32 33 -- 13 92

Baetis species 6 6 -- 1 13

Ephemerelllidae Drunella species 33 26 -- 8 22

Ephemerella species 78 43 -- 20 6

Serratella species 42 18 -- -- 6

Heptageniidae Epeorus species 54 60 124 197 82

Leucrocuta species -- -- 9 1 --

Rhithrogena species 5 14 -- -- --

Stenacron species -- -- 17 1 --

Leptophlebiidae Habrophlebiodes species -- 18 10 3 --

Paraleptophlebia species 10 -- -- 1 10

Odonata Gomphidae Lanthus species -- -- 2 -- --Plecoptera Chloroperlidae Haploperla species 7 7 6 4 3

Leuctridae Leuctra species -- -- 11 2 1

Nemouridae Amphinemura species -- -- 32 14 2

Perlidae Acroneuria species -- -- -- 2 1

Agnetina capitata 2 -- -- 3 2

Paragnetina species 1 -- -- --- --

Perlodidae -- 1 -- 2 --

Isoperla species -- -- 2 -- --

Pteronarcyidae Pteronarcys species 1 -- -- 6 1

Tricoptera Brachycentridae Brachycentrus americanus 1 3 -- -- --

Micrasema species 2 -- -- -- --

Glossosomatidae Glossosoma species 3 -- -- -- 71

Agapetus species 17 1 2 -- --

Hydropsychidae Cheumatopsyche species 2 1 -- -- --

Diplectrona species -- -- -- 7 2

Parapsyche species -- -- -- 1 --

Symphitopsyche bronta -- 1 -- -- --

Symphitopsyche sparna -- -- -- 2 --

Appendixes 1–4 47
Appendix 4.  Macroinvertebrate abundance and average flow velocity in five streams at the Ethan Allen Firing Range in northern Vermont, June 18, 2003.—Continued

[m/s, meters per second; --, not present]

Macroinvertebrate name Abundance

Phylum Class Order Family Genus/Species SS-5 SS-5 

Duplicate

SS-6 SS-11 SS-12

Arthropoda--Continued Hydroptilidae Stactobiella species -- 2 -- -- 2

Lepidostomatidae Lepidostoma liba 5 -- 1 4 5Leptoceridae Ceraclea species -- -- -- -- 1

Limnephilidae Neophylax species 1 1 13 4 26Odontoceridae Psilotreta species -- -- -- 1 --

-- -- -- -- --

Philopotamidae Dolophilodes species 34 12 -- 5 7

Wormaldia species -- -- 23 -- --

Polycentropodidae Polycentropus species -- -- 1 1 1

Rhyacophilidae Rhyacophila acutiloba -- -- -- -- 1

Rhyacophila carolina -- -- -- 1 --

Rhyacophila fuscula -- -- -- 2 --

-- -- -- -- --

Total specimens counted 434 316 317 450 485

Specimens per site 1,736 1,264 634 900 970Specimens per 0.09 square meter 347.2 252.8 126.8 180 194

48 Hydrogeologic Framework and Water Quality of the VTANG Ethan Allen Firing Range, Northern Vermont
Prepared by the New Hampshire-Vermont Water Science Center 

Publications Unit

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact:

Brian Mrazik, Director

U.S. Geological Survey

NH-VT Water Science Center

361 Commerce Way

Pembroke, NH 03275

dc_nh@usgs.gov

or visit our Web site at:

http://nh.water.usgs.gov