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Vol. 8, No. 1 JULY, 1931

AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price $1.00 per Year
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY. S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waile, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of producft, method, or

pradlice. Its fundlion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projecft of this character, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pracftice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradlice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induSlry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any commodity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabiliz,e business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city plannitig and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZA TION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

(T^ ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.

.

TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAlli^er

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares direStories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Producffs.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufadtured commodities.

The detail criteria are seledted or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjuSted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundtions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadtory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no adtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdts meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protedting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induStry.

Address NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C.,/or further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., JULY, 1931 Number 1 SUBJECT ANALYSES

AERONAUTICS Page Bulletin for air navigation (standardization briefs) 29 Current aircraft standardization (standardization briefs). 29

Safety in aeronautics (standardization briefs) 29

Some approximate equations for the standard atmosphere

(standardization briefs) 28

CODES

Building code situation 19 Safety in aeronautics (standardization briefs) 29

Standard color code for control cable (standardization

briefs) ; 28

Traffic sign code adopted in Europe (standardization

briefs) 29

COLOR

Colors for sanitary ware 21 Federal catalogue contains color codes for marketing

metal bars 27 Standard color code for control cable (standardization

briefs) — 28

Standard schedule of colors for ready-mixed paints

(standardization briefs) 29

ELECTRICAL

British standard for procelain insulators (standardization

briefs) 30

Electrical industry organizes for standardization work.. 15 Measures minute electric currents 27 Wiring the home (standardization briefs) 30 PURCHASING

Federal specifications 25 Purchasing railroad material by specification 22 FOREIGN

Association Beige de Standardization 24

Australian classification for building materials (standardization briefs) 30

British specification for steel gas cylinders (standardization briefs) 30

British standard apparatus for testing magnets (stand- ardization briefs) 29

British standard for porcelain insulators (standardization

briefs) 30

British standard for road tar (standardization briefs) 31

Bulletin for air navigation (standardization briefs) 29

Classifying fractures in hardened tool steel (standardization briefs) 31 Hospital beds standardized in Germany (standardization

briefs) 30 New magazine on Russian standardization 25

Standardization in the Soviet Union (standardization

briefs) — 29 Standard schedule of colors for ready-mixed paints

(standardization briefs) 29

Traffic sign code adopted in Europe (standardization

briefs) 29

Weights and measures law for Iraq (standardization

briefs) 30 HEALTH

Dairy standards protect consumer 14 Food standards for the housewife 17 Standardization of biological products 20

GENERAL Page

Activities of the American Standards Association 16 Foundations for better marketing 31 “Saving by simplicity” 1 Simplification briefs 8 Standardization briefs 28

HIGHWAYS

British standard for road tar (standardization briefs) 31

Standardizing road materials in Idaho 23

Traffic-sign code adopted in Europe (standardization

briefs) 29

Uniform street sanitation records (standardization briefs) . 31 METALS

Classifying fractures in hardened tool steel (standardization briefs) 31 Eaves trough and conductor pipe (simplification briefs) . 8 Fourdrinier wire cloth 10 Iron and steel roofing (simplification briefs) 8 Methods for classifying wear of metals (standardization

briefs) 31 Roofing ternes (simplification briefs) 8 Sheet steel (simplification briefs) 8

Steel bone plates and screws 26

Wire screen cloth (simplification briefs) 8 Wrought-iron pipe nipples 24 MINING

Mining standardization. 18 PAPER

Diesel-engine testing forms available (standardization

briefs) 30 Marked increase of acceptors for simplified invoice forms. 17 Paper board shipping cases for fruit and vegetables (simplification briefs) 8 FOOD

Dairy standards protect consumer 14 Federal grade label for packaged meats 26 Food standards for the housewife 17 Grading canned foods (standardization briefs) 29 RADIO

Governmental control of radio-frequencies 5 Radio-frequency standards 7 Standard allocations of radio-frequencies and bands 5 Standardizing wavelengths or frequencies of radio stations. 7 TEXTILES

Boys’ blouses (standardization briefs) ... 23 Cotton goods for rubber and pyroxylin-coated automotive

fabrics 15 Knit underwear (exclusive of rayon) 26 Standard “sun tests” for dyed textiles 27 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Accurately reproducible light standard 17 Mechancial tests used in grading farm products 10 National Weights and Measures Conference 9 Testing capacity of containers 21 The extension of weights and measures supervision 11 Thickness gage for fabrics 26 Weights and measures lawfor Iraq (standardization briefs). 30

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the National Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at

2.15 p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing

to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. Tkis

lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief stateinent of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

64781—31 1 1
FOUNDATIONS^^

FOR BETTER MARKETING

It is encouraging to note that in spite of adverse conditions, American industry is pressing steadily forward in the voluntary building of better foundations for marketing its products. Visible evidence of these

foundations is embodied in commercial standards, initiated and formulated through the voluntary action of individual industries and adjusted

and promulgated through cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards which acts as an impartial referee. During the fiscal year

1931 (ending June 30, 1931) there were issued in printed form 12 commercial standards as compared to 1 1 during 1 930 and 5 during 1 929,

making a total of 28 published to date.

These commercial standards record the recommendations of each

industry concerning terminology, types, classes, limiting dimensions,

tolerances, physical and chemical requirements, or other criteria used as

a basis for acceptance or rejection by the distributor and consumer. These standards apply to daily purchases and are not limited to purchases under contract.

For example, some of the commodities covered during the last few

months are tents, tarpaulins and covers, boys’ blouses, wrought-lron pipe

nipples, red cedar shingles, colors for sanitary ware, cotton goods for

rubber and pyroxylin coated automotive fabrics, and knit underwear.

Such standards provide not only a means for better understanding

between buyer and seller, but furnish also' minimum standards of per- formance which the producer plans to supply and which the consumer

desires^to be furnished. The movement as a whole represents one of the

most fundamental and generally beneficial trends in modern business.

2
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 3

“SAVING BY SIMPLICITY”

Simplified Practice is a Rational, Appealing, Carefully Devised Plan to Save Money and Promote Good

Business

By Dr. Julius Klein, Assistant Secretary of Commerce'^

I know there will be some sly quips about that

title—“ Saving by Simplicity.” “ Why, of course,”

you say, “it is simple to save these clays because we

haven’t so much to spend.” But that is not quite

what I have in mind. I would like to tell you of a carefully iilanned effort, launched in the Department

of Commerce years ago, which is to-day strengthening

very substantially the resources of thousands of firms

to withstand the strain of the depression. Remember

that it frequently takes but a very little bit to make

the difference between solvency and bankruptcy—just a few drops of red ink, if they linger long enough on

the ledger pages, may turn the fateful trick. Xow is the time when little things may work wonders in maintaining that invaluable ec^uilibrium in business.

With the ever-increasing complexity in our business

organization, we realize more and more the values of

what might be called economic statesmanship. Here

is a concrete instance of what I have in mind, a care- fully planned undertaking which has secured the

adoption by a large and growing section of American

industry of what has become internationally known,

copied, and commended as simplified practice. Now

the proof of any statesmanship, economic or otherwise, is in its accomplishment. We have had nearly

10 years of this particular effort, so that we can now

get a good perspective on its real value. I grant imu

that this is not quite the kind of headline fodder that

appeals to arm-waving demagogues, but to you and

me and all the rest of the everyday folks throughout

the land it has meant the saving of hundreds of millions of dollars; it has meant jobs, and that is what

counts these dai^s. “ What is simplified practice ? ” you may ask. Well,

it is the policy of limiting varieties of any given

manufactured article to such convenient minimum as will satisfy all normal and reasonable demands. Variety may be the spice of life; but variety can also

be the curse of business. Here is a good illustration.

Perhaps in your innocence you thought an inch was

always an inch, never more, never less. Not by any

means. Until simplified practice got established in

this countiT, there were 16 different sizes of an inch

recognized in a single American business—the lumber

industry. A buyer who ordered inch plank might

have found his delivery running anywhere from a half inch to li/4 inches in thickness, and yet every

piece of it would be legitimately proper “ inch lumber ” under the mixture of understanding built up in

the trade—planks measured before or after drying,

before or after planing on one side, and so on—16

different kinds of an inch measurement. That is how

the “ spice of variety ” can easily become an enormous and expensive and useless luxury—more costly than

the spices which early merchant adventurers brought

from India and Far Cathay around the bleak southern

^ \ radio talk by Doctor Klein delivered over the coast'-to-coast net- work of the Columbia Broadcasting System on May 24, 1031.

capes. This field where excessive variety frequently

proves costly is in the common, everyday articles we

use—things with which you and I are in constant contact. Until we look into it, we can not realize how

immensely a simple program of eliminating unnecessary variety in the manufacture and distribution of

such things can benefit everybody, makers and users

alike. The fact that simplified practice has within 10 years

attained a wide and beneficent application in American

industry can be attributed largely to the genius and

capacity of one man—President Hoover. Many

people before him had realized this type of costly

wastefulness. Methods of improving such practices

had been suggested, and in a few cases tried out by in- dividual concerns. But what he furnished was the

result-getting effort whereby was set up the machinery

for voluntary self-government in business on a large

scale, designed to mobilize an effective attack on such

wastes—on the extravagance of variety in common,

utilitarian things, such as bricks, hardware, steel, lumber, and countless other products. But he saw also

the very vital need of leaving unimpaired the desirable

shifting of style, the free play of artistic novelty in

matters of appearance, ornament, and individuality of

taste. Here is the vital point: Simplification in in- dustry does not mean in the least destruction of st}de. “ We do not by this process propose to abolish Easter

bonnets,” he remarked years ago at the outset of en- deavor with simplification, “ we propose more bonnets

for less money and effort.” Mention was made, a moment ago, of the fact that

qur simplified practice movement has aroused keen

interest and warm praise in foreign countries. Other

people see that it is sensible, economical, helpful in

every way. Over in Vienna, that delightful old

capital by the “ beautiful blue Danube,” there was

organized not long ago a “ Society for Simplifying

Men’s Clothes”—not quite the sort of thing ive are doing here, but presenting, nevertheless, some fascinating possibilities. And one absent-minded Austrian

immediately arose to suggest, that, as a hr.st effort,

they should reduce the number of pockets in which a railway ticket can be lost, from 13 to 3. Now there

is a man who said something.

Ten years ago, producers in the United States were

turning out 78 distinct sizes and dimensions of bedsteads, not styles, please note. jMattress manufacturers, spring manufacturers, and makers of all kinds

and types of bedding had to adjust production to this

extraordinary variety of sleeping framework. You

can see what obstacles there were to the great eco- nomies of quantity-production methods in this whole

group of industries ; they were almost on a custom

tailoring basis; and you can see ivhat that would mean

in costs. To-day, the number of staiuhml sizes (not

styles, mind you, but sizes) of bedsteads has Ik-cji re- duced to 4 (instead of 78) and the whole business of
4 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

accessoiy supply has been simplified and vastly cheapened accordingly. Now let us follow through the ac- complishment. In the factory, there can be a smaller

investment in machinery and pattern. There can be

a reduction of warehouse space and a big reduction

in the amount of capital tied up in inventories, with

a jiroportionate reduction in interest and other carry- ing charges. These advantages carry on into the field of distribution. In wholesale and retail houses, total inventories can be kept down (not so many varieties to carry) without reducing the stock of any single item

in regular demand.

The cost of accounting is reduced, and the chance

of mistakes and errors in shipments brought down

lower. There is a valuable indirect accomplishment

as well, which makes for stability of employment.

During slack times, producers can safely manufacture

for stock, knowing that, when demand imjiroves.

standard items will again be called for. All this means savings of tens of thousands of dollars, sav- ings to be distributed over the industry and among the consumers concerned.

Now, how are these objectives being attained in in- dustry? Under a procedure which has been developed

and smoothed out during 10 years of actual operation,

but which is still based squarely on the original concept, the initiative lies with industry itself. That fac- tor of self-help, absolute freedom from paternalistic

governmental dictation, is vital. When opinion in

any line of industry has developed to the point of

making the introduction of simplified practice feasible, representative men in that industry, whether producers, distributors, or users of the product, ask the

Department of Commerce (through its National Bureau of Standards) to cooperate in arranging a pre- liminary conference. The output of the industry is surve3^ed, and the actual quantity of use and demand

for each item produced is expertly determined. A

simplified-practice committee then prepares a table

showing the sizes or varieties of product which, in the

opinion of the committee, will cover all normal and

reasonable demand. Then it is submitted to the entire industry for full consideration and action. If a substantial majority of producers, distributors, and

representative users agree, the simplified list of varieties of products is adopted as a guide to future production, to be used (and that is most important) on a purely voluntary basis by the industry, with no compulsory limitation whatsoever. A standing committee, representing all elements in the industry, is apliointed to sponsor the application of the new program, now known as a simplified-iiractice recom- mendation.

The National Bureau of Standards job is to insure

that the interests of all elements are considered, in- cluding distributors, producers, and users, and to publish the program. Each simplification is subject to annual review by a standing committee, and may then

be reaffirmed, or modified to meet changed conditions

and new developments. That is how the recommendation is kept flexible and up to date. Bureaucratic dictation or regulation is conspicuously absent. The success and the survival of the practice depends upon the

common consent of the business community. Complete freedom of action has been the key to progress in

simplified ijractice, for, as President Hoover has rightly

observed : “ You can’t catch an economic force with

a policeman.” The success of the system has vindicated the conviction that American industry is entirely competent to order and conduct its own affairs,

using the Government solely as a coordinating agency.

Now, how much of this has been going on? Well,

so far, about 120 separate industries in the United

States have embarked upon simplified practice by the

methods described, and some 18 others are in process

of undertaking it. As I said before, standardization

of style, ornament, appearance, or individuality has

been absolutely avoided. You know we would not

be quite so foolhardy as to try to abolish fashion.

That is too much for any agency of mere men, governmental or otherwise. Speaking of fashions, somebody

was wondering the other day why it is that a woman

who is constantly complaining that she has “ absolutely nothing to wear ” almost invariably needs about

six closets to keep it in. But let us get back to simplified practice. How

many wire fence patterns can you think of off-hand?

Ten years ago there were 552 patterns and dimensions

of woven wire fencing on the market; simplification cut the total to 62. Do you notice your milk bottles

particularly as you come home in the early—well,

anyway, do you nofice your milk bottles ? Once there were 49 varieties; now 4 are standard, and even the

little caps have come down to standard dimensions.

And that has meant cheaper milk for us consumers and better business for the producers.

As you recall the old school blackboard, does it seem

like a proper subject for variety? These were once

offered in 251 dimensions; but now the 52 supplied

meet all requirements. Everybody is just as happy

except the youngsters who have to stay after school

and correct their spelling on the said blackboard.

Paving brick, in which a certain uniformity of size and shape is certainly desirable, once came in 66 models, but it has since been proven that 6 would meet all the needs and contribute to savings for all persons

concerned in pavement. You can run through the list of paper bags, tin cans, jack knives, shipping tags, a whole host of building items beginning with lumber,

and find like accomplishment. The principles of simplified practice worked out identically in all these

fields ; the industries were free of the burden of cumulative costs attaching to the production, storage, and

handling of useless variety, while the channels of dis- tribution were swept clear of similar cluttering. The

essence of all this is the prevention of Avaste. If we

can cut doAvn Avaste, Ave can increase wages and at the same time loAver the price of things—Avhich is again

increasing Avages.

In order to sum up completed the savings due to simplified practice, Ave Avould have to trace out all the

ramifications of industry and commerce. It is hard to

set a definite limit to such savings. Here is one angle

Amu probably would not think of : It has eA’en been

found that the efficiencj’’ of sales forces dealing Avith

simplified lines is increased sufficiently to be measurable in cash. But disregarding such indirect gains,

the representative industries Avhich have established

simplified practice haAm estimated that their present

annual outixit is being made and distributed for $250,-

000,000 less than would be its costs under old conditions. That is nearly $5,000,000 a Aveek; just translate

that into jobs—100,000 of them at $50 a Aveek. That is what I mean Avhen I say that this thing may not lend
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 5

itself to demagogic orators but it does mean pay

envelopes and bread and butter. Not a single trade which has once taken up simplified

practice has ever abandoned it. Indeed, new recruits are always coming foinvard from still unorganized

lines of industry to take up the policy. In times of

severe business stress, the savings it makes possible are even more to be sought than in the periods of fullest prosperity. Simplified practice offers one of the best means by which business can accomplish its necessary

task of getting down costs of finished goods to levels that will place them within reach of temporarily re- duced buying power.

It has had, and will continue to have, an essential

part in maintaining the ability of the American manufacturer to hold a place in world trade while producing

at the American wage scale, against competitors in

countries where living standards are far lower. Simplification practice is almost inseparable from success

in quantity-production policies for industrjL

But here is just one point that is Avorth repeating:

Simplified practice does not mean an attempt to abolish

diversity Avhere diversity is desirable. It does not mean reducing us all to robots. That is a million miles

from the truth. Simplified practice is just a rational,

appealing, carefully devised plan to sai’e money and

promote good business.

It is an accomplishment in economic statesmanship

which has reached its objective. It has made available

to all of us more articles of necessity and luxury than we could have otherwise enjoyed. Without injuring

any legitimate interest, Avithout “ cramping anybody’s

style,” Avithout limiting or even restricting the spread

of culture, taste, or individuality, it has moved reso- lutely against the OA^erdiversification Avhich has been

taking money out of the pockets of every element in the economic structure of the country. And the $250,-

000,000 a 3"ear of direct savings resulting from simplified practice is sheer gain for all of us.

GOVERNMENTAL CONTROL OF RADIO-FREQUENCIES

Radio has become so great a factor in our economic,

social, and political life that the privilege of operating

a transmitting station is now a highly prized possession. In order to avoid confusion and to use this new

agency effectively, the different “ channels ” aA^ailable,

represented by specified narrow portions of the radio

spectrum, must be allotted to prospective users by some authority ; there must also be an inspection service to see that each user confines his operations to his

own proper range of frequencies; and as a basis for

allocation and operation there must be standards and

instruments to determine accurately the frequencies

used.

By common consent all of these functions are as- signed to the Federal GoA^ernment because radio is no

respecter of political boundaries. The three kinds of

service mentioned are so different that three separate

agencies have been found desirable. These are the in- dependent Federal Radio Commission and tAvo branches of the Department of Commerce, namel}^ the

Radio Dhdsion and the National Bureau of Standards.

The three articles printed below present briefly some

activities of these three organizations bearing particularly upon governmental control of frequencies

:

STANDARD ALLOCATIONS OF RADIOFREQUENCIES AND BANDS

By E. K. Jett, Engineer, Federal Radio Commission

Prior to the adoption of the International Radiotelegraph Convention in 1927 there Avas a general

policy of freedom of operation throughout the entire

radio spectrum. To-day, however, as a result of extensive development and international agreement, Ave have a well-organized system of channeling of the

ether Avhich permits the allocation of radio channels

in much the same manner as telephone and telegraph

Avircs are assigned for private use.

The International Radiotelegraph Convention be- came effective on January 1, 1929. It provides for

the use of frequencies from 10 to 60,000 kilocycles

and above (wave lengths from 30,000 to 5 meters and

beloAv) according to classes of services as follows:

Fixed service.—The term “ fixed service ” means a service carrying on radio communications of any kind between fixed points, exclusive of broadcasting and special services. Mobile service. —The term “ mobile service ” means a radio communication service carried on between mobile stations and

land stations, and by mobile stations communicating with one

another, exclusive of special services. Special service.—The term “ special services ” means the

services of radiobeacons, radio compasses, transmission of time

signals, notices to navigators, standard waves, transmissions

having a scientific object, etc. Broadcasting service.—The term “broadcasting service” means a service carrying on the dissemination of radiotele- phone communications intended to be received by the public,

directly or by the intermediary of relay stations. The allocation of frequencies among the various

services is shoAvn in article 5 of the general regulations

annexed to the International Radiotelegraph Telegraph ConA’ention of 1927, as follows

:

Frequencies in kilocycles per second (kc/s)

-Approximate wave lengths

in meters (m)

10- 100 30, 000-3, 000

100- 110 3, 000-2, 725 no- 125 2, 725-2, 400

125- 150' 2, 400-2, 000 '

150- ICO 2, 000-1, 875

100- 194 1, 875-1, ,550

Services

Fixed services. Fixed services and mobile services. Mobile services. Maritime mobile services open to public corre- spondence exclusively. Mobile services. () Broadcasting. () Fixed services.

(c) Mobile services. The conditions for use of this band are subject to the following regional arrangements;

All regions where broadcasting]

stations now exist working on I rirnn^cMtimr

frequencies below 300 kc/s abovef^TM““®®®'‘"®-

1,000 m). J

Regional arrangements will respect the rights of other regions in this band.

' The wave of 143 kc/s (2,100 m) is the calling wave for mobile stations using long continuous waves.
6 COMMEKCIAL STANDABDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

Frequencies in kilocycles per second (kc/s)

Ai)proximate wave lengths

in meters (m)

Services

(a) Mobile services.

(5) Fi.xed service.

(c) Broadcasting. The conditions for use of this band are subject to the following regional arrangements:

(a) Air mobile service exclusively.

(6) Air fixed services exclusively.

(c) AVithin the band 250-285 kc/s (1,200- 194- 285 1, 550-1, 050 EuropeJ 1,0.50 m). Fixed service ?!of open to public correspondence.

id) Broadcasting within the band 194-

224 kc/s (1,550-1,340 m).

((a) Mobile services except commercial ship stations. Other regions/ (6) Fixed air services exclusively.

(c) Fixed services not open to pub-

[ lie correspondence. 285- 315 1,050- 9,50 Radio beacons.

315- 3.50 2 950- 8.50 ! Air mobile services exclusively. 350- 360 8.50- 830 Mobile services not open to public correspondence

.

300- 390 830- 770 (a) Radiocompass service.

(b) Mobile services, on condition that thev do

not interfere with radiocompass service. 390- 400 770- 650 Mobile services. 400- 485 650- 620 Mobile services {except damped waves and radio- telephony). 485- 515 3 620- 580 3 Mobile services (distress, call, etc.). 516- 550 580- 545 Mobile services not open to public correspondence

{except damped waves and radiotelephony)

.

550- 1, 300 * 545- 230 ‘ Broadcasting.

1, 300- 1, 500 230- 200 (a) Broadcasting.

(b) Maritime mobile services, waves of 1,365 kc/s (220 m) eiclusively.

1. 500- 1, 715 200- 175 Mobile services. (Mobile services.

1, 715- 2, 000 175- 150 / Fixed services. [Amateurs,

2, 000- 2, 250 150- 133 Mobile services and fixed services.

2, 250- 2, 750 133- 109 Mobile services.

2, 750- 2, 850 109- 105 Fixed services.

2, 850- 3, 500 105- 85 Mobile services and fixed services. (Mobile services.

3, 500- 4, 000 85- 75 / Fixed services. [Amateurs.

4. 000- 5. 500 75- 54 Mobile services and fixed seiwices.

5, 500- 5, 700 54 - 52.

7

Mobile services.

5, 700- 6, 000 52. 7 - 50 Fixed services.

6, 000- 6, 150 50 - 48.

8

Broadcasting.

6, 150- 6, 075 48. 8 - 45 Mobile services.

6, 67.5- 7, 000 45 - 42.

8

Fixed services.

7, 000- 7, 300 42. 8 - 41 Amateurs.

7, 300- 8, 200 41 - 36.

6

Fixed services.

8, 200- 8, 550 36. 6 - 35.

1

Mobile services.

8, 550- 8. 900 35. 1 - 33. 7 Mobile services and fixed services.

8, 900- 9, 500 33.7- 31.6 Fixed services.

9, 500- 9, GOO 31. 6 - 31. 2 Broadcasting.

9, 600-H, 000 31. 2 - 27. 3 Fixed services. 11,000-11, 400 27. 3 - 26. 3 Mobile services. 11,400-11, 700 26. 3 - 25. 6 Fixed services.

11, 700-11, 900 25. 6 - 25. 2 Broadcasting.

11,900-12, .300 25. 2 - 24. 4 Fixed services.

12, 300-12, 825 24. 4 - 23. 4 Mobile services.

12, 825-13, 350 23. 4 - 22. 4 Mobile services and fixed services.

13, 350-14, 000 22. 4 - 21. 4 Fixed services.

14, 000-14, 400 21. 4 - 20. 8 Amateurs.

14, 400-15, 100 20. 8 - 19. 85 Fixed services.

15, 100-15, 350 19. 85- 19. 55 Broadcasting.

15, 350-16, 400 19. 55- 18. 3 Fixed services.

16, 400-17, 100 18.3 - 17.5 Mobile services.

17, 100-17, 750 17.5- 16.9 Mobile services and fixed services.

17, 750-17, 800 16. 9 - 16. 85 Broadcasting.

17, 800-21, 450 16. 85- 14 Fixed services.

21, 450-21, 550 14 - 13.

9

Broadcasting.

21, 550-22, 300 13. 9 - 13. 45 Mobile services.

22, 300-23, 000 13. 45- 13. 1 Mobile services and fixed services.

23, 000-28, 000 13. 1 - 10. 7 Not reserved.

28, 000-30, 000 10. 7 - 10 Amateurs and experimental.

30, 000-56, 000 10 - 5. 35 Not reserved.

56, 000-60, 000 5.35- 5 Amateurs and experimental. Above 60,000 Below 5 Not reserved.

® The wave of 333 kc/s (900 m) is the international calling wave for air service.

3 The wave of 500 kc/s (000 m) is the international calling and distress wave. It may be used for other purposes on condition that it will not interfere with call signals and distress signals.

* Mobile services may use the band 550 to 1,300 kc/s (545-230 m) on condition that

this will not cause interference with the services of a country which uses this band

exclusively for broadcasting. Note.—

I

t is recognized that short waves (frequencies from 6,000 to 23,000 kc/s approximately—wave lengths from 50 to 13 m approximately) are very efficient for long distance communications. It is recommended that as a general rule this band

of waves be reserved for this purpose, in services between fixed points.

It is convenient to divide the radio spectrum into

five major bands of frequencies and to discuss each

band separately, as follows

:

Low-frequency Mnd, 10 to 100 kilocycles (30,000 to 3,000 meters ).—The low-frequency band is divided into 201 communication bands or channels. A channel, it should be explained,

is a theoretical highway of the ether which serves as the connecting wire between the transmitter and receiver. It is to be issumed that ideal conditions prevail and that no interference

will exist when the channels are properly allocated and used

in accord with the present-day technical possibilities of radio

apparatus. The frequency band width required for a channel

of communication depends on the particular type of emission

and stability of the carrier frequency. Radiotelegraphy, for example, requires a much narrower band width than is needed

for radiotelephony, and television because of the great amount

of detail which must be rapidly produced requires vastly

gr-eater “ space ” than telephony. The frequencies below 75

kilocycles are best adapted for high power long distance communication and those above 75 kilocycles for comparatively low

power short distance communication. The band, therefore,

may be considered as being international in its service range and is used for fixed service. Medium-frequency hand, 100 to 1,500 kilocycles (3,000 to 200 meters ).—These frequencies were the first to be made available

for practical use and the band is now used to full capacity by

Government stations, stations engaged in fixed service communication, ship stations, aircraft stations, beacon and compass stations, and broadcasting stations. There are 265 radio- telegraph channels between 100 and 550 kilocycles and 96

broadcast channels from 550 to 1,500 kilocycles. The frequency

band width for radiotelegraph channel varies from 1 kilocycle

in the lower part of the band to 2 kilocycles in the upper portion. Each broadcasting channel is 10 kilocycles wide. Medium high-frequency hand, 1,500 to 6,000 kilocycles (200

to 50 meters ).—This band is referred to as the continental band because the frequencies therein are considered as being

regional in their service range. Therefore it is practicable to simultaneously use these freqyencies on the various continents

of the world without the possibility of serious interference re- sulting between continents. In North America the band is allo- cated to services as between nations by a special treaty com- monly known as the North American Agreement of 1929. The

United States has the exclusive use of 112 general communication channels, and shares 34 additional channels with other

nations. In addition the United States shares, for mohile service and visual broadcasting, a total of 411 radiotelegraph channels. It is pointed out that a visual broadcasting channel in

this band is 100 kilocycles in width. The 639 standard tele- graph channels which combine to make up this hand are sepa- rated from one another by approximately 0.2 per cent of the frequency ; for example, a channel designated as 3,004 kilo- cycles having a width of 0.2 per cent of the frequency (0.2 per centX3,000 kc=6 kc) extends 3 kiloc.vcles on each side of the center of the channel from 3,001 to 3,007 kilocycles. There is thus a 6-kilocycle separation between the centers of the adja- cent channels. The band is used by maritime and aviation

stations, amateurs, visual broadcasting stations, point-to-point

stations. Government stations, and special stations including

police, fire, and geophysical.

High-frequency hand, 6,000 to 23,000 kilocycles (50 to 13 meters ).—These frequencies are world-wide in their service range, the higher freiiuencies, above approximately 16.000 kilocycles,

being useful only during the daylight hours. The frequencies

in the lower part of this band ; that is, frequencies between

about 6,000 and 9,000 kilocycles are considered as being re- gional during the daylight hours and may he used simultaneously by the various continents of the world without the possibility of serious interference resulting between continents. This band is made up of 624 channels separated from each

other by approximately 0.2 per cent of the frequency. The

international convention recognizes that these frequencies are

useful for very efficient long-distance communication and, as a

general rule, they are allocated for this purpose. Point-to- point stations, short-wave broadcasting stations, amateurs, avi- ation, maritime, and Government stations are assigned in this band. Very high-frequency hand, 23,000 kilocycles and above (13 meters and helow ).—No allocations to services have been made

internationally in this band because the frequencies are still considered to be largely experimental at this stage of develop- ment. Consequently no definite channels have yet been desig- nated. The technical phase of the radio art is in the process

of rapid development and now it is recognized by in- ternational experts that a channel of communication

above 1,500 Idlocycles may be considered as being approximately 0.1 per cent of the frequency. The effect of this recognition will unquestionably result in the
JULY. 1931 COMMEKCLYL STANDAKDS AIOETTHLY I

adoption of a new channeling s}*stem ^'hereby the

present number of high-frequency channels will be

approximately doubled.

STANDARDIZING WAVE LENGTHS IN FREQUENCIES OF RADIO STATIONS

By tv. D. Teekell, Radio Division, Department of Commerce

Radio has passed from the field of an adventure to that of a public utility.

Prior to 1911, when the Radio Service of the Department of Commerce was organized, little attention

had been given to the wave lengths used, and interference was expected. The operators were able to work through such interference successfully due to the

ditferent tones of transmitters. The use of radio was

limited to the Government stations, ship stations, coast

stations working with ships, and a few amateur sta- tions. The station owners selected their own call let- ters; usually consisting of two letters. A little later,

hot-wire ammeters and wave meters were provided.

Under an act, which was aijproved August 13, 1912,

all radio stations were required to be licensed. Ship

and coastal stations wei-e required to have equipment

for wave lengths of 300 and 600 meters. The wave

lengths between 600 and 1,600 meters were reserved

for Government use. Stations were also allowed to use wave lengths below 600 and above 1,600 meters. The

requirement that a pure and sharp wave be used made

it necessary to provide the inspectors with decre- meters. The wave length of 600 meters was provided

for distress purposes, and the distress signal : 3 dots,

3 dashes, and 3 dots, commonly known as SOS, was

adopted. It was stipulated that sufficient power

should be used to enable the distress signals to be re- ceived by day over sea a distance of 100 miles, and

absolute priority was given to these signals.

Government stations were required to observe a di- vision of time at important seaports and at all other

places whei’e naval or military and private or commercial shore stations operated in such close proximity

that interference between the services would result. Amateur stations were not permitted to use a wave

length exceeding 200 meters or power exceeding 1 kilowatt except by special authority of the Secretary

of Commerce.

The Federal Radio Commission was created in the

radio act of 1927. This commission took over the duties of licensing radio stations. The Radio Division, a separate unit under the office of the Secretary of

Commerce, conducts the field work which embraces the

examination and licensing of all radio operatoi’s employed in licensed radio stations ; the inspection of all licensed radio stations, including those on shipboard

;

the investigation of interference complaints ; the

measuring of the field strength or service range of sta- tions, and the checking of Avave lengths or frequencies

of stations; the acceptance of applications for construction permits and licenses; and the making of re- ports to the Federal Radio Commission relating to station activity.

The radio inspection service endeavors to minimize

the interference by inspection of the radio stations, by

licensing only competent operators, by using accurate measuring apparatus, and by observing the operation

of stations through monitoring stations.

The principal monitoring station is equipped to measure all of the Avorking radio-frequencies, or Avave

lengths. The station has 5 receivers : 1 for the long

Avaves, 2 for the broadcasting waves, and 2 for the

short Avaves. Monitoring equipment is also installed on radio test cars to measure the frequencies of small

stations and stations simultaneously using the same

frequencies. These measurements can be made only

by getting to a jAoint near the station which is to be

measured, as it is difficult to identify such stations

Avhen several are operating simultaneously on the same

frequenc}L

The field strength apparatus on the test cars is used

to measure the strength of signals at various distances

from the stations. This information indicates the

service range of each transmitting station. Furthermore, during these observations, information can be

gathered as to the interference between stations operating on the same frequency. It can be determined

at what point the heterodyne becomes objectionable or

at what point the cross talk becomes objectionable;

also at what point the conflicting programs make re- ception from any of the stations using a common fre- quency impossible.

RADIO-FREQUENCY STANDARDS

By J. H. Dellinger, National Bureau of Standards

The primary radio-frequency standard of the National Bureau of Standards consists of a group of four

piezo oscillators, each Aubrating at 100,000 cycles per

second. The first three are alternative standards, the

fourth serves as a reference point. Beats betAveen each

of the first three and the fourth, are visually indicated,

and the number occurring in 1,000 seconds is auto- matically recorded.' Variations of these beat numbers for each pair, from period to period, shoAV the

relatiA^e A'ariation of the pair in parts per hundred million. The output of one piezo oscillator is stepped

down to 1,000 cycles by a submultiple generator, to

driA’e a synchronous clock, Avhich is rated against time

signals, to establish the absolute value of the frequency.

The temperature, pressure, and electrical conditions

of the oscillators are all carefully regulated. The

crystals themselves are doughnut shaped, that shape

being found to give a A^ery small temperatui’e coeffi- cient of frequency. The variations of this frequency

standard from day to day are less than 1 part in 10,-

000,000. Comparisons of other frequency standards

Avith the primary standard are made by selecting

harmonics of both standard and unknoAvn frequency

such that there Avill result an audio beat note. The

beat note is then compared Avith a calibrated audio

oscillator, measured on an audio-frequenc}^ bridge, or counted on an oscillograijh.

One phase of the Avork of the National Bureau of

Standai’ds in improving frequency standards has been

the progressive develojunent of secondary standards.

These are standards Avhich are capable of being cali- brated accurately and Avhich can be relied iqion to remain constant oA’er a long period of time. Piezo

oscillators are Avell suited for this Avork, and they have

been intensively developed.

The quartz plate used in the bureau’s most recent piezo oscillators is mounted in a special holder designed for minimum change of dimensions, in a
8 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

thermostatically controlled inclosure which is capable

of maintaining the quartz plate at a very constant temperature. The circuit arrangements and shielding

are such that the frequency of the complete piezo oscil- lator is not affected by outsite influences. An amplifier is built into each piezo oscillator and is so balanced

that any type of connection may be made to the output

without changing its frequency.

In connection with this work, a study of the fundamental properties of piezo-electric materials is beingmade, with a view to improving the vibrating plates

themselves. This includes intensive study of the

elastic properties of quartz.

The frequencies of the secondary standards are compared against primary standards at regular intervals.

These comparisons are made by measuring the fre- quency difference between selected harmonics of the

fundamental frequency of each standard. Several

such difference frequencies are measured, and a mean

taken. The measurements of difference frequencies

are made by means of an oscillograph, or by a directreading balance method. Measurements over several

months have shown that the piezo oscillators remain

constant to a few parts in a million under all ordinary

conditions of use. These conditions include occasional

transportation by motor truck.

SIMPLIFICATION BRIEFS

Sheet steel.—Effecting an elimination in variety of

stock sizes of sheet steel in various gages from 1.809

to 209, the simplified-practice recommendation for this

commodity (designated as E,28-29) has been reaffirmed

by the standing committee of the industry, without

change, for another year.

Elastic shoe goring.—The standing committee of the

industry in charge of the simplified schedule for elastic shoe goring (R112-29) has reaffirmed the schedule,

without change, for another year. This program has

been instrumental in reducing the stock varieties of

unmercerized carded cotton elastic shoe goring from

70 to 29, or an elimination of aprpoximately 58 per

cent.

Roofing ternes.-—Several years ago industry developed a simplified schedule covering the variety of

weights for roofing ternes which reduced the existing

variety from 9 to 7. After a review of the schedule

the standing committee of the industry has announced

its reaffirmation, without change, for another six months. Copies of the printed recommendation are

available, at 5 cents each, from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Paper hoard shipping eases for fruit cmd vegetahles.—A proposed simplified schedule of 27 sizes of

paper board shipping cases for canned fruit and vegetables received the approval of a general conference

of the industry, held May 29, 1931, in Washington,

D. C., under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice of the National Bureau of Standards. The

proposal in the form of a simplified-practice recom- mendation has been referred to all interests for their

fox’mal acceptance.

Fames trough and conductor pipe.—The May, 1931,

meeting of the standing committee of the industry,

reaffirmed, without change, the simplified schedule

(R. 29) for eaves trough, conductor pipe, conductor

elbows, and fittings, for the next six months. Prior

to the adoption of this recommendation industry was

confronted with 21 varieties of the commodities,

whereas now there are 16. Copies of this recommendation are available, at 5 cents each, from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C.

Iron and steel roofing.—The simplified recommendation (R78-28) covering iron and steel roofing has been

reaffirmed by the standing committee of the industry,

without change, for another year. This recommendation established dimensions for widths, lengths, gages,

and weights of corrugated, roll, V crimp and pressed

standing seam galvanized or painted roofing. Through

the promulgation of this schedule the industry reduced

the variety of iron and steel roofing items from 292 to

179, or an elimination of approximately 39 per cent.

Abrasive grain sizes.—The simplified schedule for

abrasive grain sizes is now available in printed form,

and copies may be secured from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., at 6 cents each. This recommendation establishes a table of allowable limits for the sizing of

aluminum oxide and silicon carbide abrasives for polishing uses and for grinding wheel manufacture. In

requesting copies from the Superintendent of Documents it should be designated as “ Simplified Practice

Recommendation, R118-30, Abrasive Grain Sizes.”

Plain and colored polished cotton twine.—A general

conference of representatives of all interests, held in

New York, N. Y., on June 17, 1931, under the auspices

of the division of simplified practice of the National

Bureau of Standards, approved a simplified practice

recommendation on plain and colored polished cotton

twine. The recommendation, which covers twine sizes,

yarn sizes, number of feet per pound, put-ups, colors,

and packaging of stock varieties of this commodity,

will shortly be submitted to the industry for Avritten

acceptance. The apjiointment of a standing committee of the industry was also authorized by the conference.

Aire screen cloth.—The division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards has just

announced that a general conference of all interests

held in New York, N. Y., on June 18, 1931, approi^ed

a simplified practice recommendation covering wire

screen cloth. The appointment of a standing committee of the industry was also authorized by the conference. This simplification program considers the meshwire size, Avidth and length of roll, and method of

packing steel Avire screen cloth, and bronze and copper

wire screen cloth. The recommendation will be effec- tive one month after the department’s letter announcing the receipt of the required degree of acceptance.
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STAUDAEDS MONTHLY 9

NATIONAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES CONFERENCE

Actions of Conference Are Far-Reaching in Their Effect, Although Such Actions Are Not Binding on the

States

Last month at the National Bureau of Standards

Mas held a meeting of 250 weights and measures offi- cials and rejiresentatives of scale and pump manufacturers, railroads, and industry, which considered

and took action on a wide variety of matters directly

affecting the buyers and sellers of commodities and

services.

The “ penny-in-the-slot ” scale may not ordinarily

be thought of as a device for the selling of service,

yet such a scale does represent itself as prepared to render a weighing service for a consideration, and as such it becomes subject to official regulation.

One of the actions taken by the Twenty-fourth National Conference on Weights and Measures, which

will be far-reaching in its effects, was the proposal

of a code of regulations for person-weighing scales

the “ penny scales ” which are now appearing in ever- increasing number on the streets and in public places.

Whether the scale passes out a ticket with a weight

stamped upon it or whether the customer reads his

weight from a chart, the code will require the same

clearness and definiteness of the indications and will

impose the same restrictions as to permissible errors

as in the case of commercial scales used in the weighing of commodities.

The National Conference on Weights and Measures

is composed primarily of weights and measures offi- cials, who gather from all parts of the country to discuss problems affecting their work which has for

its principal object the prevention of short weight and

measure in the buying and selling of commodities and

service. The conference is effective in promoting uniformity throughout the United States in the matter

of weights and measures laws and regulations and

methods for their enforcement.

At the conference, which concluded June 5, 25

States and the District of Columbia were represented.

Among the subjects considered were a special equipment for the testing of large-capacity oil meters, several forms of trucks carrying from 7,000 to 16,000

pounds of test weights in units of 500 or 1,000 pounds,

special scales installed on the highways for determining the actual load on each wheel of a loaded truck

so as to prevent overloading and consequent damage

to the highways, and various types of gages and

gaging utilized in industry to control manufacturing

processes. A number of officials of the Federal Government

addressed the meetings which extended over four days.

R. S. Regar, of the Post Office Department, announced

a 4-year program of his department for the testing,

adjustment, and replacement of scales used in the

weighing of the mails, in which connection it was

stated that “ scales are the most important item of

supply and equipment in the entire Postal Service,”

and that it is apparent that “ corrective measures must

be taken immediately to protect the revenues of the

Government and the interests of the public.”

The conference was asked by H. A. Spilman, of the

Department of Agriculture, to consider a proposed

64781—31 2

bill designed to effect a consolidation of existing

Federal legislation relative to baskets, hampers, and

barrels for fruits and vegetables, and to correct certain

faults which have been found to exist in these laws,

particularly interference with State statutes demanding sale of dry commodities by weight.

A recent amendment to the Federal food and drugs

act Avas discussed by Dr. AV. S. Frisbie, also of the

Department of Agriculture ; under the new laAv canned

fruits, vegetables, and fish will be considered standard

if they conform to a certain standard of quality and

fill, in which case no special labeling will be required.

HoweA-er, if below the established standard of quality or fill, they must be labeled “ Below U. S. Standard

Loav Quality but Not Illegal.” Doctor Frisbie pointed

out that both grades of products will, of course, be

required to be entirely wholesome and pure under the

general provisions of the food and drugs act. F. S. Holbrook, of the National Bureau of Standards, spoke upon the status of standard-weight legislation for bread; several State laws requiring standardweight loaves haA’e recently been attacked in the courts by the bakers.

The conference was addressed by Hon. Charles

AVest, Member of Congress from the Seventeenth Ohio

district. Avho urged that a proper balance be maintained between Federal and State regulations along

weights and measures lines, so that on the one hand

interstate commerce might be safeguarded, and on the

other hand there might be a minimum of encroachment on the rights of the States to regulate their oAvn in- ternal commercial affairs. The methods of Aveights and measures control in

Canada, where the entire service is maintained by the

central Government of the Dominion, was described

to the conference and contrasted Avith the system fol- loAved in the United States, by D. J. McLean, superintendent of the Canadian Weights and Measures Inspection Service.

Other speakers were H. S. Jarrett, of Charleston,

AA^. A^a., Avho discussed the marking of all package

goods with statements of their net contents; W. O.

Williams of Girard, Ohio, who urged the rigicl inspection and testing of all person-Aveighing scales; A.

Bousfield, of St. Johnsbury, A^t., who traced the development of large-capacity scales over the last 50

years; M. J. J. Harrison, of Chicago, 111., who dis- cussed, Avith particular reference to coal Aveights, the

factors inA'olved in large capacity weighing; De Forest

McLin, of Huntington, Ind., Avho extended a Avarning

against the activities of incompetent, so-called “ scale mechanics ” Avho prey upon scale oAvners particular!}'

in the smaller toAvns; and C. L. Richard, of Chicago,

111., Avho told the conference of the activities of the

National Scale Men’s Association, an organization having many interests in common Avith the conference.

The conference revised a previously adopted code of

regulations for glass bottles used at I'etail filling sta- tions for dispensing lubricating oil for automobile

crank-case use. Certain oil distributors Avanted the
10 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

conference to exempt from the requirements of the

code all bottles intended to be marketed as sealed containers, but while the former code was liberalized in some respects, notably by permitting a popular type of

tall, small-diameter bottle, it failed to accede to the

request for the exemption of sealed bottles, and recom- mended that both sealed and unsealed bottles be re- quired to have a capacity line and a statement of their

capacity blown in the bottle. A code of regulations for mileage-recording instruments, known as odometers, was finally adopted, having been tentatively adopted a year ago. It was recommended that after January 1, 1932, new meapring devices for grease and transmission oil be required

to be so designed that whenever the lubricant is ex- hausted the device will become inoperable or a con- spicuous warning will be given that the device is in

need of refilling.

The various codes of regulations adopted by the con- ference do not become effective in most States solely

by reason of the conferehce actions; usually it is not

until these codes are promulgated by the State officials, under statutory authority, that their provisions be- come mandatory. In some States, however, adoption

of a code of specifications and tolerances by the conference either automatically or indirectly results in

putting such a code into effect.

MECHANICAL TESTS USED IN GRADING

FARM PRODUCTS

Mechanical and chemical tests are rapidly replacing

human judgment in measuring the quality of farm

products. Ten years ago, says the United States Department of Agriculture, only a few such tests were

used successfully. To-day many products are tested' chemically or mechanically by methods that give to particular quality factors a specific value in terms of

commodity standards.

One device recently developed measures the moisture

content of grain by determining the resistance offered

to an electric current passed through it. This method

requires only 30 seconds, as compared with the 40

minutes necessary under the old method.

Technical tests are also employed in measuring cer- tain quality factors in fruit. The sugar content of

grapes is determined by the saccharimeter. A sugar

acid test is used to ascertain the maturity of citrus

fruits. A specific gravity test shows the maturity of

cantaloupes.

In grading canned fruits and vegetables a pressure

gage indicates the vacuum condition of the can. Tlie

density of sirups is tested with hydrometers. Salinometers are used in testing brine solutions, and penetrometers in determining the consistency of such products as canned pumpkin. Mechanical devices measure

the maturity of canned corn. A fruit pressure tester has been developed to determine the maturity of

plums, apples, and pears. The colorimeter measures

color in hay, cotton, and honey, in which products

color is an important quality factor. Cotton fiber lengths are measured with a high degree of accuracy

by an improved cotton fiber sorting machine. The

strength of cotton fibers may be ascertained by the

bundle fiber test. Some quality factors, such as flavor and odor, are naturally difficult to measure by technical tests, though means for doing so may some day be developed. Research on this problem is under way. The progress

already made in the measurement, by technical means,

of specific quality factors suggests that dependence on

personal judgment or skill, though still necessary to a considerable degree, may eventually be largely eliminated. This elimination will make grading increasingly uniform throughout all seasons and areas and

under varying conditions.

FOURDRINIER WIRE CLOTH

A general conference of manufacturers, users, and

others interested in Fourdrinier wire cloth for paper

machines, was held in Washington, D. C., on June 2, 1931, to consider the establishment of standards of

quality for this commodity.

A few suggestions were received from correspondence and from the conferees which resulted in certain

constructive revisions of the recommendations as proposed by the Wire Cloth Manufacturers Association. Letters were read from interested individuals who

were not represented at the conference, but who, with

two exceptions, were in entire sympathy with the

standardization program.

The conference voted to approve the proposed standard as revised and to recommend it for acceptance as the standard of quality for the industry.

The proposed commercial standard as approved by

the conference specifies : The physical requirements for

wire before weaving, requirements for wire cloth after

weaving, the seam requirements, terminology, method

of inspection, wording of labels, method of handling

the wire cloth, including packing, storing and unpacking, installation, and care in use. The purpose of the standard is to establish standard

nomenclature and definitions, to secure a more intelli- gent application and use of the wire cloth ; to promote

a longer life, fewer shutdowns, and to increase the general satisfaction in the use of Fourdrinier wire cloth. A standing committee with G. W. Wray, of the National Bureau of Standards, as chairman, was appointed to represent the various interests of the industry and to receive all comments and suggestions for

the improvement of the commercial standard specification. The conference recommended that the standard be considered annually for revision to keep it continuously in accord with the desires of the industry

and advance in the art. The certification plan was approved by the confer- ence for application to Fourdrinier wire cloth. The

certification plan consists in the compilation and dis- tribution of lists of manufacturers who are willing

when requested to do so, to certify to purchasers that

products supplied by them comply with all the requirements set forth in the commercial standard.

The commercial standard as approved by the confer- ence has been circulated to all interests of the industry

for written acceptance.
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 11

THE EXTENSION OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES SUPERVISION

Concerted Efforts of Business and Industry Needed to Spread Protection Afforded Through Weights and

Measures Supervision

By Ralph W. Smith, National Bureau of Standards '

A weights and measures official has two well defined

classes of duties which, although directed to the same

general end, are yet so distinctive that they are often

separately considered. The first and more fundamental of these duties is the testing for accuracy of the

actual instrumentalities of weighing and measuring,

and includes the approval for commercial use of apparatus which is found to be correct, and the exclusion

from commercial use of all other apparatus. The sec- ond duty is supervision over the use of aiiproved apparatus to insure that it is of proper design for the use

to which it is being put and that it is being properly

used, the prevention of short weight and short measure, and the inauguration of the proper legal steps to secure the punishment of those guilt}! of willfully

delivering less or taking more than the quantity represented. It is obvious that the exercise of the second

duty must follow upon the execution of the first; but

with human nature what it is, it must be equally

obvious that unless the second duty is faithfully per- formed, the discharge of the first can effect only nominal protection to the consumer and to the competitors

of that small minority of merchants who, without

supervision, would indulge in dishonest practices.

This summary of the duties of a weights and measures official makes this service appear to be so fundamental and so necessary that it seems that long since

it would have been established everywhere. But it is a fact that weights and measures supervision does not

exist at all in some of the States, and that it is not

uniformly supplied in all sections of all States where

it does exist to some extent. The reasons for this condition are not readily apparent. Therefore, it is projiosed briefly to analyze the general causes of this condition, and in so doing to pay especial attention to the

effect on business and industry which it is considered

naturally flows from a proper supervision of weights

and measures, and the consequent attitude which it is conceived business and industry may well maintain

toward the establishment and the support of official inspection services.

First, then, is there any conflict of interest between

business and industry on the one hand, and official weights and measures sipiervision on the other ? There

appears to be no reason why the closest cooperation

and harmony should not prevail between these interests. In the first place, there can be no argument

that accuracy is the paramount consideration in the

case of all devices used commercially to determine the

weight or measure of commodities bought or sold or the value of services rendered. A scale, a weight, or

a measure is procured and used for the purpose of

eliminating guesswork and reaching a true value.

! Paper road before the Twenty-fourth Xatlonal Conference on Weights and Measures, held at the National Bureau of Standards, June 2 to 5, 1931.

There can be no question that the very great majority

of our merchants and manufacturers desire to employ

correct apparatus. Anyone who has observed the very

great advances made in the last few years in the manufacture of weighing and measuring devices knows this

to be a fact. Buyers are constantly demanding gi’eat- er refinements and increased accuracy and ai’e willing

to pay well for apparatus having these attributes ; less satisfactory apparatus is less and less in demand. One

of the important functions of the weights and measures official at this stage is to protect the buyer of the

apparatus, since his original inspection and approval

are the guarantee to the buyer of apparatus that he

has, in fact, secured the thing he desires, and for which

he has paid-—that is, an accurate piece of apparatus

which is legal for commercial use. If initial accuracy of apparatus is so desirable, it is axiomatic that the apparatus should be kept at all times in a condition accurately to fulfill its function

;

otherwise the care exercised at the time of purchase

is nullified. It is a fact, however, that some persons, including many who are technically trained and

should be better informed, assume that a weighing or measuring instrument is inherently accurate and will

remain so until it can no longer be used, or, at least,

that if it be found to be correct when neiv, no further

attention will ever be necessary. It need not be emphasized to those whose business it is regularly to ex- amine these devices that nothing could be further from

the facts. Weights and measures instruments are mechanical

devices in the same sense as an ordinary machine ; it follows that these instruments will not, in the very

nature of things, continue to maintain their accuracy

indefinitely without attention. Weighing and measuring apparatus will more or less frequentlj! become

inaccurate during and as a result of use. Here again

the weights and measures inspector plays an important part. His periodic examinations, when resulting

in approval, are insurance to the merchant that his

own apparatus and also that of his competitor, is con- tinuing to function as it should. This insurance,

Avhich is so necessar}! to stability of business, can in no other way be so completely secured. The official nature of the test is also of much value especiall}! in cases of dispute. Obviously it is a corollary that when

approval fails to follow an inspection—when it is found necessar}! to prohibit the use of improper or inaccurate equipment—such action, far from being a detriment to business and industry, is manifestly a help to these interests, since continued accuracy is every whit as important to the pi-oper conduct of busi- ness as is initial accuracy.

Thus far one fails to find anything which should be

inconsistent with enthusiastic support of weights an<l
12 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

measures supervision on the pitrt of industry and

business.

And now let us proceed to a brief survey of how

the exercise of the second group of the weights and

measures officer’s duties affects business and industr3L

Havino- seen to it that the mechanical condition of the O

weighing and measuring apparatus in his jurisdiction

meets the prescribed requirements, the official makes

it his business to prevent the misuse of that apparatus,

to protect the buyer and the seller from the deliver}^

of less or the taking of more, within reasonable limits,

than the represented amount, and to secure the punishment of the individual who will not conform to the

law but who insists upon engaging in fraudulent and

dishonest practices. What effect have these activities of the official upon the commercial life of the com- munity ? The merchant is assured that a single standard is being demanded of all and that all are being required

to meet that standard. Unfair, cutthroat competition, Avhich descends to the systematic stealing of

amounts small perhaps in a given instance, but aggregating a tremendous total, is eliminated. Carelessness

in Aveighing and measuring and inattention to the

rights of others in the matter of quantity determination, evils only less vicious by reason of the absence of

the willful intent to defraud, are effective!}^ banished.

In the case of any controversy involving weighing or measuring there is available in the person of the

weights and measures officer an impartial and skilled

arbiter to protect the interests of both parties and to adjudicate the dispute. There is inspired in the entire

community a feeling of security and confidence that

their rights will be conserved, a feeling Avhich is conduciA^e to the stimulation of business in general. Finally those elements of the business life of the com- munity which refuse to conform to the principles of

fair and honest dealing find themselves, through the

action of the courts, reduced to the necessity of dis- continuing their illegal practices or transferring their

operations to a section where less attention is paid to accurate weights and full measure.

Certainly there is nothing in that program Avhich

conflicts in any way Avith the best interests of those

engaged in industry or commercial pursuits. On the

contrary, such a program enhances the opportunities

for progress. The conclusion appears inescapable that

the character of service which is rendered by Aveights

and measures officials is such that it should have the

most hearty support of business and industry everyAvhere. Our next consideration may well be to inquire as to the extent of the interest in the condition, with respect

to accuracy, of a piece of weighing or measuring apparatus and in the delivery of full weight and measure. As has been pointed out, the owner and user of

apparatus is vitally interested. But business is by no means alone in its interest that apparatus be correct and that correct amounts be delivered. It is obvious

that the parties who buy over the apparatus directly are likewise interested. Nor does the interest stop

here ; it extends to the entire community. In the case of sales to the ultimate consumers of commodities.

such as foodstuffs and Other necessities of life, it be- comes plain that every person in the community is di- rectly concerned ; and a little reflection will shoAV that

the indirect interest of all of our citizens in transactions perhaps several times removed from the ulti- mate sale is no less real, because unsatisfactory conditions at any point along the line of progression from

producer to consumer will almost surely be reflected at the consumers’ end of the journey. Moreover, a healthy condition in industry and commerce, inspired

by fair dealings and the absence of controversy, reacts

to the benefit of the communiW as a whole.

This being the case, it seems eminently logical that

the supervision of the condition and use of weighing

and measuring instrumentalities, which have such a

close relation to the community as a Avhole, should be

carried on by the community as a whole through the

hgency of an officer of the State or local government.

NotAvithstanding the soundness of the general principle of “ less government in business,” nevertheless

there are certain fields of activity of such a public

character and of such fundamental importance that

they must be subjected to official control. It is to be

remembered that he Avho sells or buys commercially

occupies a quasi public status, and that his actions

affect, not himself alone, but directly or indirectly a multitude of others. Surely no fair-minded person

should fail to appreciate that the control of Aveights

and measures is a proper exercise of the police poAver

of the State and should be supplied as a function of our State and local governments in every community

in the entire country.

But if there is so great a necessity for the supervision of Aveights and measures, how does it happen

that some of our State and local governments are lagging behind in the adoption of such regulation? It would seem that the principal reason is that some of our State and local governing bodies do not fully

appreciate the conditions which actually exist Avithin

their several jurisdictions, ’ the consequent need for

comprehensive and adequate weights and measures

supei’Adsion, and the tremendous saAungs to the people

Avhich regularly folloAv the establishment of such

supervision. Perhaps a secondary reason, applicable to a few jurisdictions, may be the unsatisfactory results which have followed an attempt to administer an ineffective or inadequate weights and measures law, either

in the jurisdiction in question or in a neighboring one;

there may also have been the occasional unfortunate

example of the indifferent weights and measures offi- cial who has made a farce of his administration

through carelessness, inefficiency, and inattention to his duties. But such incidents, unfortunate though

they are, should not result in the failure to establish or carry on supervision. Better, they should be negatived by the adoption of a better law or the securing

of a more competent enforcement.

It is not unfair to assume that in a very large number of cases, failure of State or local governing bodies

to act along any particular line is a consequence of

lack of insistence of demand, properly voiced, for

such action. It is the general experience that con- sumers are favorable to proper supervision of weights

and measures. But sometimes the public, as a whole,

are not well organized and thus lack the proper channels to make their desires clearly known. Business

and industry are usually better equipped in this re-
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 13

spect. In view of the community of interest in weights

and measures supervision it is surjirising that our commercial interests have not, ere this, either in con- junction with consumers’ organizations or independently, demanded and secured weights and measures

supervision wherever it is lacking; for modern busi- ness in the United States is not usually backward in

taking all necessary steps to protect itself and advance

its interests, and it surely appears that the procurement of weights and measures supervision constitutes one of these steps.

It should be remembered in this connection that

those jurisdictions which have not provided for supervision are in the minority. It is well to point out also

that it is not intended to suggest by what has been said

heretofore that in places where proper weights and

measures supervision is now in effect business interests are inimical to this supervision, or that they have

not done their full share in bringing it about. Quite

the contrary is the fact. As a very general rule the

business interests of the community strongly second

the efforts of the official. It is questioned, only, why

the business interests of the remaining communities

consent to inactivity on the part of the governingauthorities in the matter of making such supervision an accomplished fact. The conclusion in this relation must be that, never having experienced the benefits to be derived, they

either have not given the subject the consideration it deserves, or they fear that concomitant inconveniences

will offset the good Avhich might result from the in- auguration of official weights and measures control.

Such conceptions are, perhaps, not surprising, especially in view of the fact that in the past the protection of the consumer may have been overemphasized,

and too little stress laid upon the advantages to be derived from competent supervision, by the business

interests themselves.

The consumer being already convinced of the desirabilitv of the service, it remains to bring the facts of

the case to the attention of the business interests before

it can be expected that they will come to the point of

making a demand for the service in question in localities where it does not now exist. In other words,

consideration may well be given to the proper method

of interesting this class. If representative business men from jurisdictions

not havino- adequate regulation Avere to come to the

National Conference on Weights and Measures and

observe the proceedings, noting the manner in which

all parties to each question are invited and encouraged

to discuss the matter from their various standpoints,

and marking hoAv earnest are the attempts made to do no injustice to any group, any underlying distrust

of weights and measures regulation avouIcI quickly dis- appear. This, then, is an excellent Avay to interest

business.

Efforts haA’e been made in the past to secure this

A^ery result and in consecjuence numerous representatives of industries very immediately concerned are accustomed to attend the conference each 3^ear. The

lists of those in attendance disclose numerous representatiA-es of manufacturers of Aveighing and measuring cleA’ices, of railroads, of the baking industry, of

petroleum producers and distributors, and of other

fundamental industries in Avhich Aveighing and measuring play an extremely important part. But man}-’,

and perhaps the majority, of these men come from

sections in Avhich inspection services are already firmly

established. Therefore efforts should still be carried

on. especiall}^ to secure business representatUes from

those sections from which official representation can

not as yet be secured, and in these efforts every member

of the conference should share. Eesults may be slow,

because our States rarely have appropriations from

Avhich the expenses of such delegates can be paid, and

because, the importance of the matter not being understood, individuals rarely can be found Avho are content to consume their time and to spend their personal funds to attend a meeting which is not directly

in line with their particular business interest. Again,

since the conference programs must of necessity be

arranged in harmony Avith the idea of the greatest

good to the greatest number in attendance, they can

not be arranged specifically to interest this group—

•

since it avouIcI ahvays be a small minority of the Avhole

attendance. To do so Avould work an injustice on the

officials Avho attend in order to attain greater efficiency

in their work, and aaEo, therefore, desire a program

along technical lines. However, efforts to secure such

attendance should be continued, and with the cooperation of the conference membership such attendance

should eventually be secured; it is reasonable to anticipate that this will be folloAved by an initiation of

activity in those jurisdictions from Avhich such attend- ance is obtained.

That country-Avide Aveights and measures laAvs and

their enforcement is the desirable condition is unquestionable. Primarily, business interests and con- sumers everywhere are entitled to benefits and protection so fundamental as this. Secondarily, our national

commercial and industrial fabric is so closely Avoven

and our interstate-commerce activities so uniA'ersal,

that so long as any section remains Avhich does not

regulate Aveights and measures its influence Avill, to a greater or less extent, be felt throughout the countr}^ as a Avhole, and those jurisdictions in Avhich everjdhing

possible is being done to secure the best conditions Avill as a consequence fail to achieve entire success. The goal, then, should be the demonstration of the

adAumtages of supervision in so unmistakable a fashion

that every jurisdiction will be convinced that it can no longer afford to lag behind. Everj^ person Avho at- tends the national conference should constitute himself a missionary to sjjread the message of Aveights

and measures protection. Especially should the rei)-

resentatiA^es of business concerns and of organizations

of business men lend their interest and their efforts

to the movement to extend this protection to every

community in the United States. The degree of success Avhich Avill folloAV Avill l)c dependent in large measure upon the sincerity and the

earnestness and the persistence Avitli Avhich this program is supported. But Avith industrv, commerce,,

the consuming public, and the Aveights and measures

official standing shoulder to shouhler in a joint endeaA’or to bring about adequate siq)ervision in everA'' city and toAvn of eA'er}^ State thtroughout the lengtli

and breadth of our countiy, ultimate success should

sureh’ croAvn these efforts.
14 COMMEKCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 DAIRY STANDARDS PROTECT CONSUMER

More Than 80 Per Cent of Milk and Cream Produced in California Is Graded For Quality

By G. H. Hecke, Director, Department of Agriculture, State of California

Health always enters into the subject of foods.

Public health must be safeguarded jealously. Main'

tenance of food standards, so that the public is protected against ill health, sickness, and infection, is a protection to the consumer. Thus, a State department of agriculture has the dual function of first serving producers, and secondly, protecting consumers. The two tasks coordinate naturally.

From the many types of work performed by the

,California department of agriculture, the records

made by its bureau of dairy control may be cited as

illustrations of the protection afforded consumers through the creation and maintenance of food standards in dairy products. By elevating those standards

the department has not only enhanced the value of

dairy products to the consumer but to the producer

as well. The accomplishments of this department in dairycontrol work find their beginning in the enactment of

the State’s pure-milk law in 1916 and its reenactment

in more stringent form in 1927. This law defines

market milk, provides for the securing of wholesome,

pure-milk supplies, prevents the sale of impure milk,

empowers cities, counties, and groups of municipalities

to establish milk-inspection service and provides

funds to defray the expenses of the inspection service

and the maintenance of laboratories. The department

promulgates the rules and regulations under which

the various grades of milk are produced. Both farm

and commercial dairies must stand rigid examination.

The scope of this program has increased until

to-day 72 inspection districts are operating under the

supervision of the department, in cooperation with

local health officers. These districts cover 96 joer cent of the total population of the State and more than

560 cities and towns. The control of this work is carried on mainly by conducting surprise milk scor- ing contests. The milk is examined for bacterial

analysis, flavor, and odor, sediment, milk-fat contents,'

acidity, and character and appearance of bottles and

caps. The average quality of the graded milk in

California computed on a volume basis for last year was more than 95 per cent perfect, a record of quality

that will be difficult to surpass. This program, which has developed largely of its own momentum, protects the consumer against un- wholesome and unsafe milk supplies, safeguards producers and distributors against unfair competition,

drives the illegitimate competitor who has no regard

for public health or honest business out of the field,

and furnishes assistance in the solution of trade problems for dairymen and distributors. This program

has stimulated the confidence of the public in milk as

a food and has resulted in increased per capita

consumption of the product.

The work of the department, through its bureau

of dairy control, includes more than the regulation

and improvement of market milk. Its projects embrace, in addition to market milk work, the supervision of manufacturing milk and cream, butter control, cheese control, ice-cream control, general dairy

products insjoection, imitation licensing service, commercial testing service, a service for dairy containers

in the form of an exchange, and the compilation and

dissemination of reliable statistics on various phases

of dairying.

The work of supervising manufacturing milk and

cream, which started in 1925, has grown to such an

extent that it now includes in its scope 90 plants

manufacturing butter, cheese, ice cream, and evaporated milk whose raw supply comes from approximately 19,000 dairies. More than 80 per cent, therefore, of all manufacturing milk and cream produced

in California, is graded for quality on a definite scientific basis. Special attention is paid to the washing, sterilizing,

and handling of equipment and the protection of the

product from contamination. Raw material found

to be unwholesome or unfit for consumption within

the provisions of the dairy law is colored and marked

for identification and returned to the producer.

By using the direct microscopic count in the grading of manufacturing milk and a standard acidity

test in connection with the grading of manufacturing

cream, an accurate examination is daily made of the

product of hundreds of dairies. It not only furnishes

reliable information relative to the quality itself,

but also supplies an index to the dairies which are using faulty methods, thus enabling the inspectors

to concentrate their attention on such patrons.

The department scores the butter produced in the

State for commercial quality, tests it for composition, and examines the packages for labeling. Special

permits are required for manufacturing butter from

sour cream without the use of neutralizers. Factories

found manufacturing cheese deficient in fat or con- taining excessive amount of moisture are instructed

to conform with the requirements of California’s general dairy laws.

A maximum bacterial standard of 150,000 bacteria

per gram has been established for ice cream. Consumers are protected in every possible way against

fraud, bad manufacturing, the use of substitutes, and

misleading trade names. The remarkable thing about the work of this division of the department is that it is practically self- supporting. Ninety-six per cent of its total budget

of $150,000 is contributed through voluntary trust funds from various branches of the industry and

receipts from licenses, and only 4 per cent is obtained

directly from public funds derived from taxation.
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 15

ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY ORGANIZES FOR STANDARDIZATION WORK

Organization of Electrical Standards Committee Under the Auspices of the American Standards

Association Has Been Effected

For several years there has been . under way a movement having for its object the unification of the

standardizing activities of the several leading agencies

in the electrical industry, including the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, the American

Standards Association, and the United States National Committee of the International Electrotechnical

Commission.

In February, 1930, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers requested the Electrical Advisory

Committee of the American Standards Association to draw up plans for the organization of a joint agency

in the electrical industry functioning as an integral

l^art of the American Standards Association for the

purpose of carrying out the standardizing activities

of the electrical industry.

At the June meeting of the council of the American

Standards Association there was presented a plan

for an organized process which was formally approved by both the Electrical Advisory Committee

and the council of that association. The plan was

submitted in the form of a constitution for the administrative body to be organized for the execution

of the 2)lan and to be called the Electrical Standards

Committee, which will deal with the standards of the

electrical industry, including the standards of the

science and art of electrophysics and electrical en- gineering, all classes of standards for electrical machinery, equif)ment, and materials employed in the

ju’oduction, distribution, and utilization of electric

jDOwer or for electrical communication, and regulations

for these applications of electricity when recognized

as standards.

The Electrical Standards Committee will act as follows

:

1. As an advisory committee to the A. S. A. for the

coordination of standardization within its scojDe under

any of the recognized jjrocedures of the A. S. A., with

the right to determine questions of sjDonsorshii), the

sco^ies of jirojects, and the personnel of sectional committees where these can be done by the unanimous

consent of the advisory committee.

2. As the s^ionsor body for the electrical industry

when this course is ordered by a unanimous vote of

the committee.

3. As a sectional committee of the electrical industry under the sponsorship defined above when this course is ordered by a unanimous vote of the committee. In this case the formulation of standards may

be done by the E. S. C. itself or by delegation to working committees.

4. For the coordination of American participation in

international standardization projects within its scope.

5. For any project involving other fields than the

electrical industry the committee will determine or recommend a sponsor to act for the electrical industry

with any other qualified body, or where its interest

does not justify a sponsorship) it will recommend the

degree of coopieration which is desirable.

The Electrical Standards Committee will consist of

repiresentatives appointed by the following organizations :

Name of organizations Number

of repre- sentatives

American Electric Railway Association American Institute of Electrical Engineers American Railway Association American Society for Testing Materials Communication Group

Electric Light and Power Group

Fire Protection Group

National Electrical Manufacturers Association. U. S. Army

U. S. Navy

National Bureau of Standards

13

I

1

13

13

1

1

1

The above-noted pilan Avas unanimously apiproved by

the A. S. A. Standards Council on June 4, 1931, and

Avill be pilaced in opieration Avhen formally apipiroved

by the aboA'e-noted member bodies. The council approved also the proposal to have the piersonnel of the

Electrical Standards Council become part of the per- sonnel of the United States National Committee of the

International Electrotechnical Commission in case this

piroposal pDroves accepDtable to the United States National Committee.

All of the expenses of the Electrical Standards

Committee will be defrayed by the American Standards Association, as will also those of the United

States National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission if it apipiroves the piropiosed

j)lan of consolidation.

COTTON GOODS FOR RUBBER AND PYROXYLIN COATED AUTOMOTIVE FABRICS

Manufacturers, distributors, and users of cotton goods

for rubber and pyroxylin-coated automotive fabrics

AA’ere notified June 15, by .the National Bureau of

Standards that the commercial standard jiroject for

these items had been formally accepted by industry

and would be considered effective as of June 15, 1931. The chief pDiuqjose of the industry in voluntarily es- tablishing the commercial standard is that they may

have a standard sjiecification that repjresents the mutual understanding of the industry; one that will be

sufficiently broad and clear to insure the manufacturer

of the necessary data to be used in the Aveaving of any

cloth for rubberizing that he may be called iqion to make, and ono that Avill piroAude the retailer or user

Avith a basis for accepitance or rejection of all or any

piart of a shipment.

The spjecifications and requirements for this standard are rather broad and inclusive in their scoije. cover- ing in a general Avay the quality, AA'idth, thread count

pier inch, unit Aveight, and tensile strength, and more

spiecifically the lengths of cuts, major and minor defects, the amount of sizing allowed, injurious chemicals

and methods of insjiection and test. Printed copiies of

the standard Avill be made available Avithin a short

time.
16 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Scope of Current Standardization Projects Reviewed

The following current information concerning developments in standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the American Standards Assocation has been furnished by that association

:

Test code for automatic refrigerators.—Work on a draft standard test code for automatic refrigerators

will be started in the near future by the committee on

tests of the sectional committee on specifications for

refrigerators, Avhich has been reorganized for the purpose. The subcommittee has recently completed a draft standard test code for ice refrigerators. The

tests for automatic refrigerators will cover five principal elements of performance as follows: Ambient

temjierature under standardized conditions, internal

temperatures, poiver input (electricity, gas, or other

fuel, and Avater), proportion of time in operation, and

number of cycles of operation in a unit of time.

Fire-hose couplings.—A bill making mandatory the

standardization of all fire-hose couplings in the State

of California in accordance Avith the American standard for screAV threads for fire-hose couplings has just

been passed by the State’s legislature and approved by

the gOA-ernor. The action of the legislature folloAvs serious fires in Berkeley and Mill Valley where aid

sent from San Francisco Avas unable to function be- cause the smaller cities used hose coupled Avith threads

different from the San Francisco standard. The bill provides for the completion of the change-OA^er to the

standard in all California municipalities during the

next fiA^e years. The Avork is to be carried on under

the direction of the State fire commissioner. The act applies also to industrial establishments and property

OAvners having equipment for fire protectiA^e purposes.

The bill attacks the problem from another direction,

making it unlaAvful for any firm or coiqjoration to sell in California any fire-hose hydrant, fire engine, or

other equipment Avith threaded parts for fire protectiA^e purposes which do not comply Avith the standard.

A fine of from $50 to $200 or imprisonment from 5

to 30 days is stipulated for violation of the act. Prefeiired numbers.—In order that renewed con- sideration may be giA^en the subject of preferred numbers, the association Avill reorganize the special committee on preferred numbers into a sectional committee under American Standards Association procedure. The neAv committee Avill revieAV the proposed

system of preferred numbers Avhich Avas recommended

in 1927 by the special committee, together AAuth any

data Avhich have become available regarding the application of the recommendation, and suggestions and

criticisms Avhich have been recei\Td in this respect.

The recommendation of the special committee Avas published in 1927 b}^ the association Avith a recom- mendation to American industry that it be given a try out in practice, the entire subject of preferred

numbers being a rather novel one. In fact, the use of preferred numbers has been given due attention

only since national standardization became of importance in most industrial countries, not long after

the World War, although the French colonel Renard

had studied the problem as far back as 1875 Avith re- gard to cables for captive balloons. Being in charge of

the military aircraft section, he found that 625 differ- ent t}qDes of cables Avere used for this purpose, and he

reduced this number to 17 on the basis of preferred

numbers.

Preferred numbers are based on the principle that

in order to cover a certain range of sizes, ratings,

values, etc., the most effective stepping-up of the seA’- eral members of the series should be in a geometric

ratio; that is, each number should be larger than the

preceding one by a definite percentage. The signifi- cance of such a system Avill at once become apparent

if visualized in connection with, say, a series of motor

ratings extending from 1 to 250 horsepoAver. If in

this series the ratings 10 and 100 appear, it is obvious

that Avith 12.5 the next larger rating above 10 horsepoAver, the next larger rating aboA'e 100 horsepower

should be 125. In fact, Avhereas a stepping-up by 2.5 horsepoAver means 25 per cent of the rating of the 10- horsepoAver motor, it would hardly mean anything in the case of the larger motor.

Evidently there are many cases in engineering design and industrial production Avhere the application

of preferred numbers, although possible in principle,

must giA^e Avay to the requirements of existing practice for reasons of economy. It can not be expected

that in setting up certain standards industry will scrap

valuable tools or equipment for the sake of changing

OA^er to a neAv series of sizes just because this is an

ideal one. On the other hand, however, there are many cases in Avhich existing standards are revised

where the series of preferred numbers can be folloAved

Avithout any difficulty. The purpose of the A. S. A.

publication of 1927 Avas, therefore, to recommend that

American industry first try out the use of the proposed preferred-number system in cases of the latter

kind, and also in cases Avhere standards for neAV objects are being set up; that is, AAdiere no existing practice limits the freedom of choice in dimensions, ratings,

etc.xllthough A^ery useful and interesting applications

of the preferred-number system have been made by

seA-eral industrial organizations since the A. S. A.

recommendation Avas published in 1927, it can not

be said that the principle has been given as much

attention as it deserves. It is for this reason that the

association has decided that the subject should be

given reneAved consideration.

In connection Avith the system of preferred numbers

jAublished in 1927, a suggestion has been received by

the association that it might be well to Avork out a

series of preferred numbers in fractional sizes to be in

parallel Avith the 1927 series Avhich Avas Avorked out in

decimal values exclush’ely. This, as Avell as any other

questions Avhich may come iqi, Avill be given attention

by the neAv committee.

yegetahle-tanned leather helting.—The scope of the

Avork to be undertaken by the sectional committee on

standardization of leather belting Avill be “ specifications for A’egetable-tanned leather belting, including
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 17

raw material, construction, marking, physical and

chemical tests.” The committee will use Federal specification No. 37 on vegetable-tanned leather belting

as a basis for its work, incorporating certain revisions

Avhich have been considered desirable by the experts.

as well as rules for the installation, care, and mainte- nance of leather belting. The latter ivill be added in an appendix to the standard proper, which will in- clude the quality and test specifications for the belts comprised in the Federal specification.

FOOD STANDARDS FOR THE HOUSEWIFE

A majority of men and women who enter the market

place are handicapped in buying because they are un- informed. Usually all they know about the item they

want to buy is what the seller tells them. The United

States Government has its National Bureau of Standards to test products before they are purchased, but no such service has been available for the individual consumer. The Kroger Grocery & Baking Co. announces a desire to change this, according to an account appearing

in Advertising and Selling, which states that the president of the company has announced that his company

had set aside a fund of $1,000,000 for the establishment and maintenance of a foundation which will do

for the housewife what the National Bureau of Standards does for the Government—put in her hands in- formation which will make her a better, because a

wiser, buyer.

“ There has never been in the food industry,” asserts the president of the company, in his announcement,

“ any effort to fix standards by which food values may

be judged or any attempt to find better ways of growing or preparing foods. This first effort of its kind

will involve the testing and analysis of every variety

of food product from its source to the table.”

The Kroger Foundation, though financed by the

company, will function as a wholly independent organization. Again quoting the announcement, “ Our only

direction to the man in charge is: Search out ways

and means of making food standards better and

better.”

MARKED INCREASE OF ACCEPTORS FOR

SIMPLIFIED INVOICE FORMS

Acceptances of the simplified invoice forms, in- cluded in Simplified Practice Recommendation No.

R37-28, Commercial Forms, total 1,049, according to

a list of accejitors recently issued by. the National

Bureau of Standards. This number represents an in- crease of 391 acceptoi’s, or approximately 59 per cent

since July 1, 1930. Mimeographed copies of the list may be had on application to the bureau.

This recommendation was sponsored by several

associations in California and Oklahoma where specific committees have been designated to carry on this

the Railway Accounting Officers’ Association. Since

the adoption of the simplified invoice foi’m in 1927,

these associations have been actively engaged in the

promotion of its use. Through the development of

the recommendation for commercial forms, the thousands of miscellaneous forms in use prior thereto have

been simplified to three standard forms.

Commendable results, in securing acceptances, re- cently have been attained by the purchasing agents

associations in California and Oklahoma where specific committees have been designated to carry on this

Avork. Inquiry and purchase order forms are

included with the simplified invoice form in the

recommendation.

ACCURATELY REPRODUCIBLE LIGHT

STANDARD

It is possible to make the heretofore rather indefi- nite “ candlepower ” standard used in rating electric

lamps, gas lights, searchlights, and other light services accurate and invariable by employing the new light

standard developed at the National Bureau of Standards.

The candlepower of a source of light, such as an

electric lamp, is measured by comparing it with a standard light source of some kind. The name implies comparison with a candle, and such a standard was at one time used.. The particular t}q)e of candle,

and the conditions under which it should be burned,

had to be .definitely specified. Various other flame

standards hai’e been devised and used, most of them

being lamps of special desigm, burning certain liquids

under specified conditions. In general, the lamps

Avere an improvement on the candle, but at best Avere unsatisfactory, since the flame could not be reproduced

at different times Avith sufficient accuracy.

In vieAv of the unsatisfactory conditions resulting

from a multijilicity of poor light standards, certain

nations, including the United States, reached an agree- ment in 1909 Avhereby the candle was defined in terms

of the light given off by certain carbon-filament elec- tric lamps deposited in the official laboratories of the

various nations. The candle so defined Avas called the

International Candle. The electric lamp standard,

hoAvever, are not reproducible. The International

Candle is therefore subject to such changes as time or use may cause to take place in the standard lamps.

A paper in the June number of the Bureau of

Standards Journal of Research describes the results of experiments in the development of accuratel}’' re- producible light standards. The source of light used

in establishing the neAv standard AA’as the open end of

a small tube closed at the other end and maintained

at a definite high temperature. The amount of liglit

emitted from the interior of the tube through the open

end is not effected by the material of AA'hich the tube is made, but depends only on the temperature. The tube

actually used Avas composed of thorium oxide, a very

refractory material, and Avas kept at a definite and re- producible high temperature by iinmersing it, closed

end doAvn, in a crucible of molten platinum. lyhen

the ])latinum begins to solidify, the immersed tube is at a definite temperature (3,224° F.) and remains at this

point as long as any liquid platinum is left. The

brightness of this source Avas compared, using an in- strument knoAA’n as a photometer, Avith the standard

electric lamjis of the bureau. iNIany comparisons Avere made, and it Avas found that the proposed standard

Avas accurately reproducible. The actual intensity of

light from a square centimeter of this source Avas found to be 58.84 candles.
18 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 MINING STANDARDIZATION

Clearing House of Ideas Needed to Formulate National Standards in Mining Practice and Equipment

By Lucien Eaton, Mining Engineer, Rhodesian Selection Trust Co}

Even in these days, when the standardization move- ment has had so much publicity and has made so much

progress in this country, there are people who consider it a new fad. They do not realize that, consciously or unconsciously, standardization has been

practiced by humanity ever since mankind emerged

from barbarism, and even before that time.

The standardization of certain sounds to carry cer- tain meanings was the origin of speech, and the standardization of certain marks to represent those sounds was the basis of communication by the written word.

Standardization of currency and of weights and measures raised the trade of the world from barter and

exchange to its present high degree of development.

All of these standards: Speech, writing, currency,

weights, and measures, and so on, were developed to a greater or less degree, more or less simultaneously

all over the world; and the result, as we all know, is quite confusing. How much simpler foreign travel

would be, if we could all speak Esperanto, for ex- ample, and all measurements were in the metric sys- tem. In much the same way different mining districts

have, by reason of their isolation and of the peculiar

conditions under which their ores occur, developed

their own standards of equipment and of mining methods, not to mention mining terms, and these have be- come so deep rooted in the minds of many of the men

in each district that they are considered to be the

proper standards to be used under all circumstances.

When, however, they are transplanted bodily to an- other district and a different set of conditions, they

are often dismal failures.

If the essential principles of these district standards

could be separated from the local variations, which

are often due to tradition or are the outgrowth of

habit, and if a clearing house of ideas, as it were, could be established, how much simpler it would be to avoid these mistakes and to profit by the experiences

of others. Just as we know that Esperanto ivill never

be the universal language so do Ave knoAV that international standards in mining are impossible. Nevertheless, national standards are possible, and the conditions surrounding metal mining in the United States

are so varied that national standards adopted here

may be applied with a minimum of change to mining

in the rest of the world.

About 30 years ago we attained a high degree of

standardization in mining practice and equipment in

the narrow veins of high-grade ore in our Western

States, and from these mines the standards spread to other territories, and they are found to-day in many

places here and abroad. Since the veins were narrow,

and since it Avas desirable to break as little of the bar- ren wall-rock as possible, narrow drifts were driven,

and the cars Avere made high and narroAV to fit the

drifts. Small tonnages only of ore were required, and

tramming was done by hand in 1-ton cars. Ore passes

and chutes Avere made small to fit the cars, and worked

satisfactorily, because the stopes also Avere small and

the ore was broken in small pieces. Shafts, slips, and

cages were also small, for the small tonnage required

could easily be hoisted from the shallow depths mined.

With the exhaustion of the narrow veins of highgrade ores, attention Avas turned to the large, Ioav- grade ore bodies, of which the porphyry copper mines

-are the most conspicuous examples. In order to mine

these ores successfully large tonnages had to be produced at loAv cost, and larger equipment Avas needed.

In order to reduce cost of equipment as well as of production, it Avas early seen that both equipment and

mining methods must be standardized, and much has

been accomplished along these lines. In the Lake Superior district high taxation and low

prices for iron ore and copper have compelled the operators to work along the same lines within the limits

imposed by the conditions under Avhich their mining

must be carried on. The same trend is apparent in

other mining districts as seen in Birmingham, Ala.,

and in southeastern Missouri. In the deep mines of

the world, even though the ore may be mined in narroAV veins or reefs, large units of production and

transportation must be used, and a high degree of

standardization is required for successful operation.

Probablj^ the highest degree of standardization in

the mining industry exists in the equipment and practice on surface and underground in the tri-State zinc

district, and the low costs obtained in that district are largely due to this standardization. Other examples

of low costs and high develojiment of standardization

are found on the WitAvatersrand and in the diamond

mines of South Africa.

The standardization campaign inaugurated and car- ried on by the American Mining Congress is an en- deavor to coordinate the work done in the different

districts, so that each may have the benefit of the

others’ experience and that the benefits of uniformity

and simplicity in design of equipment and in its use, in so far as local conditions Avill permit, may be en- joyed by all. Not content to Avait for the development of national

standards many of the large mining companies have

developed standards of their OAvn, covering different

phases of the mining operation. This movement was

stimulated by the campaign for industrial safety, and

it Avas found that success in accident prevention was so closely connected Avith economy of operation that the

adoption of operating standards, even though of a temporary character, Avas imperative.

Probably the first attempt at a national standard in

metal mining was the safety code draAvn up by representatives from the national societies about 20 years

ago. This code Avas not formally adopted. Nevertheless, it has been the basis of most of the safety

rules of the large mining companies. Of late, howeA^er, because of the close connection betAveen safety

^ Used by special permission of the Mining Congress Journal. and economical practice, it has been the custom to
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 19

incorporate the necessary safety provisions in the

standards of recommended practice for the different

kinds of mining work.

Although it was one of the first subjects to be

studied, it is only recently that a satisfactory standard

code for fire prevention in metal mines and for minerescue work has been adopted by the American Standards Association. Standards of practice which have

also been drawn up for installing and using electrical

equipment in metal mines, are in process of adoption

by the American Standards Association.

In 1928 a standard of recommended practice for

mechanical loading underground was adopted by the

American Engineering Standards Committee, predecessor of the American Standards Association. A

standard for underground transportation was also

drawn up and adopted. The scope of this standard

is to be enlarged, and recommendations of practice

are to be added, before it is submitted to the American

Standards Association for adoption.

Preliminary reports have been prepared on standardization of practice in methods of sampling, recording geological data, and estimation of ore reserves ; on

metal mine accounting, drills, and drill steel, mine

timbering and timber treatment, and ventilation

;

others are in process of preparation. When completed, these standards will foi’m a skeleton, upon

which the development and equipment of a metal

mine can be based with a minimum of waste in money

and effort. In actual mining practice changes are going on

continuously. It is always the endeavor to establish a standard cycle of operations for each 21 hours, or for

each shift. In drifting it may be desired at first to

drill and blast and muck out one round once in 24

hours. By speeding up the drilling and mucking.

deeper and deeper rounds are drilled—up to the limit

of practicability—and then a shorter round per shift

is sought, until finally the limit seems to have been

reached in two rounds per shift. Standard rounds

for drilling in drifts, raises, and shafts have been

worked out for different kinds of ground and differ- ent sizes of opening, and have been given a good deal

of publicity, but new ideas are being tried that may

result in deeper holes and larger blasts. All changes

in practice are toward larger units and more rapid

progress. Reduction in the number of different ways

of drilling a round, in the difference of spacing, direction, and depth of holes, will lead to greater efficiency on the part of the miners, and to greater speed in develojiment. Greater speed in development means that

development need not be kept so far ahead of stoping, or that safer and better methods of stoping, which

require more elaborate development, may be made

possible.

By the adoption of standard methods of drilling

and blasting, of standard sizes of stopes, standard

spacing and sizes of pull holes, bulldozing chambers,

chutes, and so forth, the work of development and of

mining may be divided among groups of men, each of

which is especially skillful along its own lines, and

great economies ivill result. It is not to be expected

that such matters can be so standardized that they will

suit all conditions, for it is most unusual even in the same district to find two mines in which conditions

are exactly alike. Mining is an art, not an exact science, but the tools with which the work is to be done and the manner in

which they should be used can be standardized to a great extent. The application of those standards to the problem in hand must be left in each case to the

judgment of the engineer or operator.

BUILDING CODE SITUATION

Committee Reviews Status of Building Codes and Plumbing

Codes

In connection with its Avork of preparing recom- mendation for use in local building codes the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee,

Avhich functions in connection with the diAusion of

building and housing of the National Bureau of

Standards, has conducted a survey of the present

status of building and plumbing codes. Local offi- cials in eA’ery city and toAvn of 1,000 population or more by the 1930 census Avere asked to give the date

of the code in current use and other information. It

Avas found that in the group of municipalities haAung

a population of 5,000 or over, 1,135 haA’e building

codes and 811 have plumbing codes. In the group of

municipalities of population from 1,000 to 5,000, 466

communities reported that they have building codes

and 458 j^lumbing codes.

Some interesting facts on the life expectancy of

codes Avere brought out. For instance, in the group

of 5,000 population and over it Avas reported that 87

cities haA'e building codes and 80 haA'e plumbing codes

20 years old or more. In this group 126 have building codes and 104 have plumbing codes from 15 to 20

years old, 161 have building codes and 97 have plumbing codes from 10 to 15 A'ears old, 341 have building

codes and 208 haA’e plumbing codes from 5 to 10 years

old, 420 haA’e building codes and 322 have plumbing

codes less than 5 years old. Many municipalities report they haA’e no codes, but

this does not necessarily mean that they are Avithout

regulations of some sort. In a number of States there

are State laAvs which apply.

Considerable activity is being manifested in the

revision of local codes, 166 municipalities reporting

building code revision under Avay and 122 reporting

plumbing code reA’ision. This process is a sIoav and

expensive one, but is becoming less difficult because of

availability of authoritatiA’e recommendations. The

Building Code Committee has already published seven

reports dealing Avith various phases of building regulations, and professional and scientific bodies have in- formation available to local officials and committees.

This is far different from the situation some years

ago AA’hen engineering handbooks, existing codes, and

rule-of-thumb information Avere the jAi’incipal sources. In the pre.sent survey, 281 municipalities reported the use of the Building Code Committee’s recommendations in revision Avork noAV completed or going on and

183 reported a similar use of plumbing recommendations. The use of these recommendations extends considerably beyond these figures, for a number of States have made use of them in State codes and the reports

are constantly consulted by local enforcing officials in connection Avith their Avork. SeA’cral recent codes of

large cities have shoAvn to a marked degree the in- fluence of the committee’s recommendations.
20 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 STANDARDIZATION OF BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS

Unit for Toxins and Antitoxins Based Upon the Requirements of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia

By G. W. McCoy, Medical Director, National Institute of Health

Biological products are standardized as to purity

and potency in order that the manufacturer may pre- pare safe and useful preparations, and that the physician may use such preparations with confidence that

he will secure the prophylactic or therapeutic result desired.

Standardization of preparations intended for medicinal use generally is based upon the requirement of

the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. We will deal here only with

the preparations which fall under the provisions of

the law of July 1, 1902, the standardization of which

is carried out by the National Institute of Health

(formerly the Hygienic Laboratory) of the United

States Public Health Service.

There are certain activities in connection with

standardization of biological products carried on by

the Permanent Standards Committee of the health

section of the League of Nations. Up to the present

time the League of Nations standard unit and the

United States standard unit are identical for diphtheria antitoxin, and substantially so for scarlet fever

streptococcus antitoxin.

Standardization according to current American

practice may, for the sake of convenience, be divided

into that carried on by the use of standard units of

potenc}^ ; and secondly, that carried on by comparison

of the preparation under test with a control preparation not designated as a standard.

The best examples of the first of these divisions are diphtheria antitoxin and tetanus antitoxin. The theoretical considerations and the details of practical application need not be considered here. The standard unit for diphtheria antitoxin employed in America is the measure of strength for the

preparation that was established by Ehrlich soon after

diphtheria antitoxin came into use. This unit may

be defined as the quantity of a standard serum, or unit,

which will preserve the life of a guinea pig for ap- proximately 96 hours after the administration to the

guinea pig of a mixture of the standard serum and an

adequate dose of diphtheria toxin. The dose of the

toxin is so adjusted that when combined with less than one unit of antitoxin it will surely kill a guinea

pig in less than 96 hours.

The standard unit for tetanus antitoxin is essentially similar to that for diphtheria antitoxin, save

that in the interest of convenience and economy the

test quantities employed of standard serum and standard toxin represent one-tenth of the unit.

The standard unit for scarlet fever streptococcus

antitoxin is based not upon tests on lower animals, but

upon the ability of the antitoxin to neutralize scarlet fever streptococcus toxin when the two are mixed and

the material is injected into the skin of a susceptible

human being. For practical purposes, the unit may

be defined as the amount of antitoxin which will neutralize 50 times the dose of toxin necessary to produce

a certain reaction in a susceptible individual.

Antitoxins for conditions produced by certain anaerobic microorganisms have been standardized more

or less satisfactorihu but are not of sufficient importance for discussion here. Standardization of antitoxins in accordance with

the practices involved in the preparations that have

been discussed is satisfactory and yields quite consistent results; indeed, two operators will be able to

test preparations and attain results that are nearly

identical.

When we leave the field of antitoxin the procedures

are decidedly less satisfactory, and leave much to be

desired in the way of accuracy; but they do serve to give some measure of the potency, at least in an ex- perimental way, of the material under test. We will now consider a few of the preparations

standardized by less satisfactory methodsi

Typhoid vaccine made in a standardized manner

is distributed to manufacturers, who utilize the preparation for immunizing rabbits, making a similar

immunization of animals with their own preparations.

The resulting titer of agglutinins of the two groups

of animals is compared and it is required that the new preparation for commercial distribution shall be

of substantially the same antigenic value in this re- spect as the control that is distributed.

Antimeningococcic serum is compared for agglutinin content with a control serum and is required to be substantially identical with the latter. The test for antipneumococci serum is based on the

survival of mice injected with otherwise fatal doses

of pneumococci, the test always being run in comparison with a control serum of known strength.

Diphtheria toxin-antitoxin mixture is standardized

by requiring a range of toxicity which permits guinea

pigs given a single human dose to survive, and requires

that those given five human doses shall show pronounced evidence of diphtheria poisoning.

Diphtheria toxoid, which has now come into sucli

wide use in the prevention of diphtheria, is standardized by requiring that it shall not be harmful to guinea pigs Avhen given in amounts equivalent to

five times the human dose, and that a single human

dose shall immunizer guinea pigs against five otherwise

fatal doses of diphtheria toxin.

Diphtheria toxin for the Schick test is standardized

so as to require that 40 or 50 test doses, depending on

the particular prejjaration employed, shall be fatal

to guinea pigs in four days.

Scarlet fever streptococcus toxin for the Dick test

is standardized on human beings and is required to- be of such strength that in susceptible individuals one

test dose shall produce a specified reaction when

injected into the skin.

Smallpox A’accine is tested on animals and persons

to determine that it is capable of giving rise to characteristic reactions.

In addition to the preparations that have been mentioned, there are a large number of serums and vaccines for Avhich there are no satisfactory methods of

control or standardization. Examples of these are.-
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 21

ordinary antistreptococcic serums and many bacterial

Taccines.

Members of the arsenic group of preparations of

the arseno-benzol, or arsphenamine type, Avhile strictly

speaking are not biological products, are tested at the National Institute of Health. In the case of these

preparations, the only requirement is that the preparation shall permit the survival of at least 60 per cent of the' test animals (usually rats) ivhen administered

in a prescribed dose and in a prescribed manner.

Practicable tests to determine the efficiency of each

batch of the preparation remains to be developed.

It has been found by experience in connection with

all standardization Avork of the nature referred to above that standardized test animals are A'ery important. For example, the observation has been made

that Avhite rats coming from different sources Avill giA'e

vastly different results Avith the same arsenic preparation. So Avide a A’ariation is there, depending

merely on the source of the animal, irrespective of

any other factor that can be eAuiluated, that a given

arsphenamine preparation may pass the test on one group of rats and fail on another.

In addition to tests for potency, it is required that

nearly all products shall be tested to determine the

absence of bacterial contamination. In the case of

smallpox A'accine where absolute freedom from bacteria is not to be expected, a limit is placed upon the

number of organisms permitted.

The field of standardization of biological products

is a very active one, and research is constantly developing neAV methods.

TESTING CAPACITY OF CONTAINERS

Baskets and b.ampers used for marketing fruits and

A'egetables are tested b}^ the United States Department

of Agriculture to determine Avhether or not they con- form to the standards established bA' Federal law.

Manufacturers of certain types of baskets and hampers must receiA’e the approval of the Secretary of

Agriculture on the specifications for these containers

before they may be legally sold. The equipment shoAvn

above is specially designed for tbe testing of containers

ranging in size from one-half pint to 2 bushels. Rape

seed is used as the testing medium. The hopper funnel

is utilized to produce a uniform fall or drop of the

seed. An amount of seed in excess of the nominal

capacity of the container under test is first determined

by the use of standard capacity measures, after Avhich

this is introduced into the container under test. After

the excess of seed has been carefully “ struck off,” this

falls through the grating to a drawer beloAv, from

which it is recovered and measured; the error of the

container, in excess or deficiency, is computed from

these figures.

COLORS FOR SANITARY WARE

Signed acceptances having been received from a number of manufacturers, distributors, and users estimated

to represents satisfactory majority of monoline production, the commercial standard for colors for sanitary ware has been announced as effective for new production and clearance of existing stocks on July 1, 1931. The standard lists six standard colors, namely, green,

orchid, iA'ory, blue, light broAvn, and black to be used

as a guide in the production of sanitary ware, which

includes plumbing fixtures and allied products made

of vitreous china, porcelain (all-clay), enameled iron,

metal, Avood, or glass.

The chief aims of the industry in the voluntary es- tablishment of this commercial standard are to improA^e marketing conditions by providing an authoritatiA^e basis for detei-mining and checking colors for sanitary ware and to protect the purchaser against a lack

of color harmony, especially when one manufacturer

supplies, for example, the vitreous china lavatory, an- other the enameled iron bath tub, and still another the

seat for the Avater-closet bowl.

It is not the purpose of the standard to retard initiatiA'e on the part of individual producers or to hinder

the introduction of neAv colors. It is intended to provide an authoritative reference to the recommendations

of the industry as a Avhole based on the composite

experience.

Standard color samples, Avith light and dark limits

of shades for each color are retained at the National

Bureau of Standards for reference. Duplicate refer- ence samples may be obtained from the secretary of

the Manufacturers Advisory Committee on Colored

Sanitary Ware (G. W. Wray, National Bureau of

Standards) as a basis for production control.
22 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 PURCHASING RAILROAD MATERIAL BY SPECIFICATION

Increasing Use of Purchase Specifications Gives the Bidders a Clear and Detailed Idea of What is Wanted

By F. H. Haedin, Assistant to the President, Neto York Central Lines

The purchase of supplies for any large organization

must obviously be conducted in a systematic manner, if material is to be obtained promptly, at reasonable

prices, and if overstocks and shortages are to be

avoided. A suitable system of standard stock lists, in- ventories, requisitions, and purchase orders, is essential.It is also apparent that efficient purchasing involves

obtaining competitive bids from a number of manufacturers or dealers. If these bids are to be intelligent

and of the greatest benefit to the purchaser, the bidders must be given a clear, detailed, and correct description of the kind, grade, and quality of material

desired. Any such description, whether it be a refer- ence to a catalogue, or requirements written on the

order, or a more formal and complete separate document, is really a specification. For the larger trans- actions a separate document is generally preferable.

A specification should include all details which are

desirable and essential, as well as those which are objectionable. The preparation of such a description is not alwa}''s easy. It requires a knowledge of the raw

materials and processes for the manufacture of the

material, full information regarding the conditions

of its use, and the properties necessary to meet these

conditions, and finally, a knowledge of the methods of

testing and test results which will enable the purchaser to determine quickly whether individual shipments will meet the required conditions.

The causes which lead to the use of a specification

for any particular article are various. The article may

have been purchased informally for a considerable

time and, under the influence of competitive bidding,

the quality has depreciated to such an extent that the

service is impaired. Or the material may still be of

its original quality, but have become unsatisfactor}^

because the conditions of service have changed. Or

again, an article, originally proprietary and kept at a satisfactory standard of quality, later becomes more

generally manufactured and at lower prices which

may cause a departure from the original j^roprietaiA^

standard.

When taking up the writing of a specification for

any particular material, it is desirable first to consult

the departments in which the material is used. One

should leai'n fully the 2inrposes for which the material

is used, how it is fabricated in the sho^i and aiiiilied and emf)loyed in service, and inquire whether the material in regular use is entirely successful in all jiarticulars, as well as durable.

One should obtain abundant and carefully selected

reiiresentative sam^iles of both satisfactory and unsatisfactory material and test, analyze, and otherwise

study them very thoroughly. It is obviously im^ior- tant to learn what differences in com^iosition or jn’oj)- erties measure the difference betiveen success and failure in service. A careful study of the material in the

scrap 2iile is very useful. In a large organization, a given material may be

used in several shojis or dejiartments. All should be

consulted. There are very likely to be differences of

ojiinion among them, regarding the merits of different

varieties or the requirements of the service. These

differences must be investigated and reconciled.

Having the jirn'chaser’s needs thoroughly in mind

it is next desirable to visit plants where the material

is manufactured. A good general idea of the raw material and the ^irocesses and jiarticularly their jiossi- bilities and limitations as related to the purj)oses of the

purchaser should be obtained. A study should be

made of the jjroblem from both the maker’s and the

user’s viewjioint.

The arranging of a system of accejitance tests which

will quickly, simply, and thoroughly determine the

suitability of shi^nnents of the material is not always

easy. The sjiecification writer must be well informed,

not only on all available methods of test and analysis,

but also on their im^iortance and significance with

reference to the jiractical efficiency of the material.

With all this information in hand, the sjDecification

may be written. It should begin with a brief general

descrijition of the article. The manufacturer will be

aided by mention of the uses for which the material is intended. In some cases the jirocess of manufacture

should be indicated. The list of tests should be keiit as short as jiossible by including only those which are

essential. If any of the tests are of an empirical

nature or the methods are not well established and

generally known, the methods of test should be indicated in sufficient detail. In the iiractical use of specifications, some allowance

for variation is often needed. If a paint vehicle is to be comjiosed of 85 jier cent linseed oil and 15 jier cent

natilitha, how much below 85 jier cent may be the

linseed oil run before the paint should be rejected?

Permissible variations should often be given in the

s^iecification, but even when this is done the chemist

may need to make a slight further allowance to cover

variations in sampling and testing. It is unwise to

reject a shipment for an unimportant few tenths of a

jier cent deviation from the specification requirements.

Such action would result in unprofitable and time-consuming controversy. The specification limits should

be written with sufficient margin to cover this detail. On the other hand, the wise manufacturer will not at- temjit to run to the very limit of the sjiecification.

By doing so he would be very likely to overstej) the

limit at times and, all told, such a policy will injure

the general standing of his jiroduct.

Specifications are being ajiplied to a continually in- creasing list of products and are being used by a larger

number of industries and individual jiurchasers. The

siiecifications themselves are being constantly reviewed

and imjjroved to keeji pace with industrial developments and make them more generally useful. The
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 23

study of the properties and service of material may

bring out the need of improvements or, on the other

hand, show that simpler or cheaper material or devices, properly used, will be equally satisfactory.

In railroad operation large quantities and a gi’eat

variety of materials are needed. The purchase of

these materials to specifications is now the generally

accepted method.

STANDARDIZING ROAD MATERIALS IN IDAHO

State Has Made Considerable Progress With its Standardization Program in Which the Accepted

Standards or Specifications are Used

By W. L. Lesher, Materials Engineer, Idaho Department of Public Works

Standardization in highway work in Idaho as re- gards materials, specifications, and tests has made considerable progress, but there is yet much to be accomplished in this direction. With Idaho, as with most

State highway departments, the greatest standardizing

agencies are the National Bureau of Standards, American Society for Testing Materials, and the American

Association of State Highway Officials. Among

States in this section the “ Portland conference ” on

road oils has been of considerable help in simplifying

specification of this one type of material. Tests as developed and specified as the American

Society for Testing Materials are the standard for all laboratory and field tests made. Uniform and definite

instructions for sampling materials during progress of

the work are issued to all field men throughout the

State in the form of an inspector’s manual. Field kits

containing testing apparatus necessary for field control of aggregates are maintained and furnished to the

construction inspectors by the testing laboratory, so that the jiroper equipment will be available. These

kits are recalled to the laboratory from time to time

for checking and replacement.

Uniform practice in sampling new local materials

deposits is obtained by sending men trained in the

testing laboratory to the various districts in the State

to work with the locating engineers on new projects.

Materials specifications are based on similar specifications of the United States Bureau of Public Roads

and the American Association of State Highway Officials, adjusted to our own conditions in the State. A quite successful effort at standardization of specifications for a particular type of material has been ac- complished by the “ Portland conference ” among several States in this section of the country in the specifications for road oil, or as designated in some States,

fuel oil. This is the asphaltic oil used in the plant

mix, and mixed in place type of road surfacing in the

Western States. A conference was called in 1929 and

again in 1930 at Portland, Oreg., and was attended by

representatives of a number of highway departments

and producers interested in this type of material.

The percentage of asphalt contained in the oil, the

viscosity, the purity desired, and other physical characteristics of the oii were discussed, and uniform specifications for the different grades of the road oil decided upon. This procedure permitted the producing

companies to carry larger stocks of fewer grades of

this material with a residting greater dependability

of supply to the highway departments.

At the present time the United States Bureau of

Public Roads is promoting a series of regional conferences and finally a national conference for the purpose of reducing the number of tests required on liquid

asphalt products, commonly known as road oils and

cut-back asphalts, and also reducing the variations of

these tests that have grown up in the different State

highway departments. A successful completion of this

movement will, of course, result in a better understanding between producing and purchasing organizations.

There is a great need for a standardizing service in

the commercial. State, and plant asphalt-testing laboratories, such as rendered by the Cement Reference

Laboratory, discussed later in this article. The need

for this service arises from the fact that various tjqies

of equipment are being used for the same test, and

while they each follow the originator’s interpretation of the standard he planned to follow, they are con- siderably different in action. Equally impoi’tant is the

matter of laboratory technique and procedure of making tests. The variations in apparatus and procedure can best be pointed out by a disinterested organization

of recognized standing.

A service was enjoyed this season by the Idaho

department of public works laboratory, and was available to any laboratory testing cement inviting such

services, that should result in more uniform laboratory

technique and in the use of more standard equipment

in all the cement laboratories of the country.

This service was rendered by the Cement Reference

Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards and

consisted of an inspector from that laboratory checking all cement-testing apparatus in the laboratory

he was visiting against the bureau’s tolerances for such

equipment. He also demonstrated the bureau’s procedure and technique in carrying out cement tests. The confidential report of his inspection certified equipment that was within tolerances and pointed out

variations from standard procedure.

Correct standardization of material tests and specifications will reduce cost of highway-construction materials, simplify production, increase the dependabilit}^ and uniformity of sup])ly, simplify the training of inspectors, reduce costs of testing, and result in a better understanding between the producing or- ganizations and the highway departments.
24 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 ASSOCIATION BELGE DE STANDARDIZATION

Scope and Function of Standardization Program in Belgium Reviewed

The Association Beige de Standardization (A. B.

S.) was founded April 1, 1919, for the purpose of

studying standardization from both the technical and

commercial points of view, and in all branches of in- dustry; also to make known and coordinate similar

work outside of the association.

The association, emanating from industrial and

technical associations of Belgium, is managed by a general committee formed by the delegates of the in- dustrial associations and engineering societies. This

committee examines and considers proposals for standardization, also appoints industrial and technical committees. However, when a problem is of public interest, as, for instance, to the ministries, provincial, or communal administrations, these committees are re- quested to send one or more representatives. In this

way a collaboration is established between public authorities and private enterprise.

The technical committees choose their own officers and regulate their work. They may be divided into

subcommittees for the study of ]iarticular questions

and sometimes affiliate themselves with other subcommittees. The work of the technical committees is submitted to the general commission which, in turn,

considers particularly whether the trend of the studies

appears rational and if the representation of the different parties interested has been adequate. It can,

in agreement with the competent technical committees, decide what reports will be published.

The Association Beige de Standardization is a private organization, being financed by industrial

groups, and since its reorganization in 1924, the assess- ments are generally calculated on the basis of the

number of workmen occupied in each branch. The

importance of standardization to each industry is also taken into consideration. The public administration furnishes certain subsidies, and the association

also received subscriptions from industrial firms.

Technical advice of members of the committees is given free of charge, and the firms delegated by the

associations collaborate in the research work and tests and in the preparation and reproduction of documents.

Up to the present time the association has published

33 reports on the following subjects : Regulations for

the construction of bridges, metal frame work and

metallic reservoirs, and reinforced concrete work;

standardization of bolts and rivets; copper rivets; screws ; transmission arms and pulleys ; metallic chains

and cables ; cast-iron pipes ; structural steel ; stone materials ; methods of sampling and analyzing zinc ores

;

tolerances; and standardization of sizes of paper.

In addition, 16 publications have been released in

the field of electricity, on the initiative of the Comite

Electrotechnique Beige (the Belgian Electrotechnical

Committee). This committee functioned before the

formation of the Association Beige de Standardization. However, it has agreed, with a view to unifi- cation, to publish the results of its studies under the

patronage of the association.

The most important reports published by the Association Beige de Standardization are, perhaps, the

regulations for the construction of metal frame work

and instructions regarding work in reinforced concrete, the application of which has become so widespread that they may be considered as national practice. The association does not publish its own periodical. Its official organ is the weekly bulletin of

the Comite Central Industriel de Belgique.

The following subjects are now under consideration

:

Standardization of concrete pipes; threading of pipes

and pipe fixtures; automobile parts; special charges

for industrial zinc; sampling and analysis of lubricating oils and greases; coal; phosphates products;

standardization of designs and technical documents

and commercial formulas ; and recommended practices

for export packing.

WROUGHT-IRON PIPE NIPPLES

The commercial standard for wrought-iron pipe

nipples (CS6-31) issued by the National Bureau of

Standards, represents the culmination of effort on the

part of representative manufacturers, distributors, and

users to establish dimensions and tolerances as a basis

for the manufacture and sale of wrought-iron pipe

nipples.

The standard includes dimensions and tolerances,

as well as stock sizes and lengths, of standard weight,

extra strong, and double extra strong pipe, and dimensions for taper pipe threads. A table of sizes and

number packed in cartons is also given for standard

weight black or galvanized nipples.

The standard was originally published as CS6-29,

but on the recommendation of the standing committee

in charge of the project, which considered the criti- cisms and suggestions received as a result of a survey

of adherence, the standard was reviewed to include

(1) a definition for wrought iron as set forth in the

American Society for Testing Materials specification

A72-30 for welded wrought-iron pipe, and (2)

changes in actual thickness and inside diameters of

pipe on the basis of the actual density of wrought

iron, instead of steel as formerly.

The chief purposes of the industry in the voluntary

establishment of this commercial standard are as fol- lows: (1) To provide a basis for user rejection of

pipe nipples made from scrap or used pipe, (2) to

establish a minimum specification as a basis for certi- fication of quality in daily trade, (3) to set up standard sizes and lengths which may be considered staple,

and (4) generally to improve the understanding between buyer and seller. The standard will become effective for new production and clearance of existing stocks on May 1, 1931.

Copies may be obtained from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., at 5 cents each.
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 25

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

During the month of June the Federal Specifications Board considered 34 specifications, of which 23 were proposed for revision and 11 were proposals for

consideration. Copies of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and further information can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications under revision Federal

specifica- tion No.

P-P-551 Polish, metal, liquid 341 EE-miOl Lard substitutes (including shortening vegetable). Bandages, plaster of Paris

603b GG-B-101 300 HH-P-156 •- Packings and gaskets, rubber (molded, sheet, and strip). Valves, rubber mb

ZZ-V-51 114a CCC-B-811 Burlap, jute 499 CCC-C-271 Oheesecloth, bleached 253b C 00-0-281 Oheesecloth, unbleached . 252b CCC-C-411 - Oloth, birdseye (diaper), in bolts 612 CCC-D-651 Drill, unbleached 557 CCC-D-771 Duck, tent, khaki. _ 160 CCC-G-101 Gauze, plain 289 CCC-P-191 Percale 556 DDD-B-61 Bandages, gauze, roller, plain 299 DDD-B-151 Bedspreads, crinkle. 620 DDD-W-101 Waste, cotton, colored 203a DDD-W-106 - Waste, cotton, white - 262a

Apricots, evaporated (or dried) 634a Ourrents, dried 634a Wiping cloths, cotton, white, for machinery

(sterilized)

.

Cloth, birdseye (diaper), made up

26ia

612 Leather, rigging 483a

616

SPECIFICATIONS PROPOSED

WA\'-C-626 Couplings, hose, oil suction and discharge

STANDARD “SUN TEST” FOR DYED

TEXTILES

The National Bureau of Standards has been cooperating with the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists for the past seven years in the development of standard methods for testing the fastness

to light of dyed textiles. Six papers on different

phases of this work have been published. A seventh,

entitled “ Classification of the Fastness of Dyed Textiles in the Standard Sunlight Exposure Test,” has

been prepared by William H. Cady, William C. Smith, and William D. Appel.

In this paper is given the relative fastness to light

of 1,197 cotton, wool, silk, and weighted silk dyeings

representing 366 dyestuffs when exposed to sunlight in

the standard “ sun test ” of the association. Tables

showing the classification of the dyeings into seven

fastness classes and an exposition of the method of

classification are given.

Briefly, the dyeings Avere exposed at an angle of 45°

from the horizontal facing south between 9 a. m. and

3 jD. m. on sunny days only in cabinets covered with a good grade of window glass approximately one-eighth

inch thick and open at the sides in such a way as to

alloAv free access of air to the samples. The distance

between the samples and the glass was one-half inch.

Each sample was exposed for four different periods

of time, each period being double that of the next

shorter period. The most fugitive samples were ex- posed for 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours. Depending on the

fastness of the color, other samples were exposed for

longer periods of time up to 768 hours.

The samples Avere then classified. Dyeings which

showed an appreciable alteration in color when ex- posed for 6 hours were assigned to the lowest class, class 0. Dyeings which shoAved little or no alteration

in color when exposed for 6 hours, but which shoAved an appreciable alteration in 12 hours Avere assigned to

class 1. Other dyeings Avere assigned to classes 2 to 6 on a similar general basis. In order to eliminate the

uncertainty inherent in the terms “ appreciable ” and

“ little ” dyeings Avere selected to represent the minimum requirements for classes 1 to 6. The use of these

standards of fastness made it possible to take into

account the changes in color of dyeings in the longer

exposures, changes which can not be adequately described in the classification scheme, outlined aboA’e. The choice df standards for general use is an important

outcome of the work that is receiving further attention. The paper in question should be of special interest to producers and users of dyeings. It is expected that

the classification will be of greatest service to those

who are already familiar with the utility of some of

the dyes for their specific purposes.

NEW MAGAZINE ON RUSSIAN STANDARDIZATION

Russian standardization is receiAung active encour- agement from a neAv monthly publication. Standard,

the first issue of which appeared in January of this year. This periodical is attempting to popularize the

standardization movement, and to encourage mass

rationalization in commerce, manufacture, and agriculture. It calls attention to the necessity for industrial specialization and cooperation. Its readers are made acquainted Avith modern technics of the more

highly developed countries, which may be used to

ad,vantage in their OAvn collecth’e standardization

program.

Stan dart is especially interested in the maintenance

of quality in Soviet manufactures, in the elimination

of Avaste from industry, and other aspects of standardization. In the first two issues of the publication articles have appeared on such subjects as Stalin’s state- ment before the first conference of responsible co- laborers of Russian industrial management, the program of Russian standardization for 1931, qualit}^

standards for coal, rationalization and the elimination

of Avaste, harmful industrial practices, standard

weights for bread, standardization in the factories of

the Ural Mountain district, quality testing of materials, and American rationalization.
26 COMMEECIAL STA.tirDAEDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 THICKNESS GAGE FOR FABRICS

A gage has been developed for measuring the thick- ness of carpets during tests on the carpet-wear testing

machine at the National Bureau of Standards. It is believed that the gage will be found suitable for measuring the thickness of other fabrics, since it provides

a ready means of measuring thickness under an ex- tremely small-known load and under a series of different loads. Thus a measure of the softness or hardness of the fabric can be obtained. The recovery after

the application of a load for any period of time can

also be determined readily with this gage and thus

the “ compressive elasticity ” can be evaluated.

The gage consists of a delicately balanced arm on

one end of Avhich can be placed a “ foot ” of any desired cross-sectional end area of contact. By placing

Aveights on the foot the load on the fabric can be

adjusted to suit conditions. The support of the knifeedge on Avhich the arm rests can be raised or lowered

by means of a micrometer screw. This movement is indicated on a dial which is graduated in thousandths

of an inch. The difference in reading obtained when

the foot is loAvered onto a fabric till the arm just

balances and a similar reading obtained with the

fabric remoA^ed gives the thickness of the fabric.

Recently a pressure gage has been designed to be

used Avith the thickness tester. By using this gage

the thickness can be read directly for any pressure on

the fabric from zero to a given maximum. The pres- sure on the fabric is indicated on a dial, over Avhich moves an indicator actuated by the balance arm of

the thickness gage.

FEDERAL GRADE LABEL FOR PACKAGED

MEAIS

Labeling of packaged meats Avith a United States Department of Agriculture certificate of quality is the latest innovation in the retailing of meats. Retail sales under this new system Avhich is used by a group of 85 food stores in NeAV York have been re- jjorted to officials of the department as haAung in- creased from 20 to 40 per cent in the individual

stores. The meat is examined by a Government grader at a central plant Avhere each wholesale cut is stamped

with the appropriate “ U. S.” grade. Each cut is placed in a sanitary package or carton covered with a transparent wrapper and a Government grade label

is affixed so that the consumer may see at a glance

the Government certificate of quality. The packages

are then placed in a special refrigerated container and

distributed among retail stores. This innovation is an extension of the beef grading

and stamping service inaugurated by the Bureau of

Agricultural Economics several years ago for the purpose of carr3ung the grade designation from packer

to consumer. Consumers in a dozen or more cities noAV can buy individual cuts of beef and lamb stamped

with a Government certificate of quality. The service

is self-supporting from the standpoint of Federal ex- pense as it is paid for by the packers and dealers who

use it. Indicative of its growing popularity is the

fact that in the last month more than 12,000,000

pounds of beef Avas Government graded and stamped.

STEEL BONE PLATES AND SCREWS

A general conference on steel bone plates and screws, used in the reduction of bone fractures, was held at the Benjamin Franklin Hotel, Philadelphia on June

18, 1931. This conference recommended a commercial

standard for this commodity based on a tentative draft

proposed by the American College of Surgeons.

For a number of years steel bone plates and screAvs that were clefectiA'e in material and construction have

been on the market and sold to hospitals and physicians, resulting in numerous cases of permanent harm

to patients. The situation became so serious that in

1929 the American College of Surgeons appointed a committee to conduct an investigation and recommend

a remedy. Last December this committee approached

the National Bureau of Standards requesting assist- ance in the establishment of a commercial standard.

The specifications adopted by this conference re- quires that chrome-vanadium steel S. A. E. No. 6160

be used and heat treated to a Rockwell C hardness not

less than 43 nor more than 53. It also specifies that

every plate sold be tested for hardness and packaged

in a sealed euA^elope bearing a guarantee label. Details of design and workmanship for both plates and

screAvs are covered.

It Avas stated at this meeting that this project is ex- pected to be a forerunner of an era of similar standardization for surgical equipment, materials, and

methods that Avill be of inestimable value to the sur- gical profession and the public.

KNIT UNDERWEAR (EXCLUSIVE OF RAYON)

On June 18, a circular letter to the manufacturers,

distributors, and users of knit underwear (exclusive

of rayon) announced the success of the commercial

standard project and indicated that since a satisfactory

number of signed acceptances have been received, the

standard will be considered effective as of January 1, 1932.

The chief purpose of the industry in voluntarily

establishing the commercial standard is to provide

standard measurements and methods of measuring

that represent the mutual understanding of the in- dustry; one that will be sufficiently broad and clear

to insure the manufacturer the necessary data for

knitting any staple garment that he may be called

upon to make; and one that Avill provide the retailer or user Avith a basis for acceptance or rejection of

either an individual garment or a whole shipment.
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STAETDAEDS MONTHLY 27

The specifications and measurements embraced in

this pamphlet cover the method of measuring and

measurements for boys’ flat knit ribbed drawers; flat knit, athletic ribbed union suits; flat knit athletic

shirts; children’s flat knit, and ribbed union suits;

flat and ribbed knit cotton pants, sleeping garments

and vests; infants’ bands and double bi'easted or button front shirts; men’s drawl’s, flat and ribbed knit,

athletic, polo, and pullover shirts; athletic, fleece,

ribbed and flat knit union suits; women’s knee length

ribbed drawers; ribbed union suits; ribbed cotton shaped vests and shoulder straps; as well as box sizes; methods of washing rayon, cotton wool, and wool-cot- ton underwear; and a recommended system whereby

the number of single yarn can be recognized by the

color of the cone. Printed copies of the commercial standard will be

available in due course.

FEDERAL CATALOGUE CONTAINS COLOR

CODES FOR MARKING METAL BARS

The Federal Standard Stock Catalogue will contain

several codes for color marking for both ferrous and

nonferrous metals. The ends of bars having a diameter of one-half inch or more will be painted in accord

with the ‘requirements of the code, while the smaller

bars may have metal tags bearing the color designation wired to bundles composed of several bars. The

catalogue also provides that the color designation may

be painted on the circumference of the bar close to the end. There is no conflict in the color combinations

used for marking bars of ferrous and nonferrous

metals.

Code No. 1 (for ferrous metals) comprises a list of

the Society of Automotive Engineers steels arranged

alphabetically by chemical compositions showing the

assignment of specification series numbers thereto and

the significance of stripe colors. Code No. 2 (for ferrous metals) was compiled by

the national committee on iron and steel of the National Association of Purchasing Agents, and ap- proved by the association, at its sixteenth annual con- vention held last month at Toronto, Canada, for marking steel. This code has also been adopted for Government use in identifying metals listed in the Federal

Standard Stock Catalogue. This code covers only

those Society of Automotive Engineers specification

steels which, in the opinion of the compilers, comprehend the steels most widely used industrially. The

assignment of a single background color to each numbered series (except in the case of carbon steels), to- gether with the identification of carbon content by

color of the stripe (wherever practicable) enhances the

value of the code and materially facilitates its use. Dots instead of stripes were utilized in three instances

to avoid conflict with the general plan.

To meet the needs of the Government for a more

comprehensive code for color marking to identify

metals not included in the commercial code (No. 2)

adopted by the National Association of Purchasing

Agents, there has been developed a third code, in which is contained an amplification of the commercial

code. All Society of Automotive Engineers specification metals listed in this code are identified by the same color marking as that provided in code No. 2. These two codes provide color markings for all fer- rous metals listed in class 46 of the Federal Standard

Stock Catalogue, which is headed “ Metal in bars

(flat; hexagon; octagon; round; scpiare) : Billets; in- gots; pigs; slabs.” A fourth code, Avhich lists nonferrous metals, ar- ranged alphabetically, has been compiled for Government use. For the ready identification of metals in storehouses

by the color marking of each, there is a fifth code

provided for by the catalogue, which contains a list of all of the color markings which are included in the

other four codes. This list is arranged alphabetically

by (a) background colors and (&) stripe colors.

MEASURES MINUTE ELECTRIC CURRENTS

For measuring minute quantities of electric current,

the National Bureau of Standards has devised a portable system of extremely high sensitivity for laboratory experimentation which is to be used in making

the forthcoming international X-ray comparisons in

Europe. The apparatus is so constructed that it may

be readily calibrated Avith an accuracy ten times better

than any other similar device so far developed ; also.

the calibration can not be easily disturbed by rough

handling in packing and transportation. The horizontal oblong case contains batteries, rheostats, and a standard condenser. At the right of the case is an

electric cable connecting Avith an ionization chamber.

Current is measured by the electrometer, the instrument Avhich stands upright upon the case and Avhich is fitted Avith a telescope for reading the record.
28 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931 STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Specificationa for proceasing in an enamel plant.

Instructions and specifications for processing in en- amel plants, presented by R. D. Beck in Ceramic Industry, which have been in actual use in enamel plant, are now offered as a model for plants which have never used a system.

Utilization of index nwmhera.—Standardized index

numbers are increasingly used by statisticians, by the

statistical departments of banks, by business men, and,

in recent years, even by the general public. A number

of commercial houses and some official agencies have

adjusted wages by an index of the cost of living.

Reducing railroad inventory —How 8,001 items of

materials carried by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad

in its maintenance service was eliminated is told in a review published in the May, 1931, issue of Railway

Purchases and Stores, by J. V. King, general store- keeper of the railroad. The reduction in inventory was accomplished without additional pay-roll ex- pense.

Standard sales agrecTnent approved.-—The standard

sales agreement and trade customs adopted by the

gray iron industry received the formal approval of

the National Association of Purchasing Agents at its sixteenth annual convention held last month at Toronto, Canada. The convention went on record as urging the general adoption of the agreement and

trade customs by the entire industry.

Hydrojulic hooh revised.—The Hydraulic Society of

New York has issued the sixth edition of its standards.

New material consists of an index, new definitions,

and illustrations of thrust bearings, illustrations of

correct and incorrect methods of connecting suction

pipe to a centrifugal pump, and revision of recommendations of materials for pumping special liquids.

Standard color code for control cable.—Following

an extensive review of questionnaires sent to 26 leading American utility eompanies and a survey of field tests conducted by a joint committee of N. E. L. A.

and N. E. M. A., a standard color code for control

cable was formulated. The details were published by

G. Sutherland in Power Plant Engineering, vol. 35,

No. 7, April 1, 1931.

Boys'’ blouses.—The commercial standard covering

minimum measurements for boys’ blouses, button-on

waists, shirts, and junior shirts, is now available in

printed form at the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at a

cost of 5 cents each. The document contains several

drawings illustrating the method of making the measurements. This standard applies to finished garments.

List of United States Government publications.

Readers of the Commercial Standards Monthly will

be interested to learn that a weekly list of United

States Government publications is available for free

distribution from the office of the Superintendent of

DocuHients, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C. This is a selected list of all Government publications, with brief abstracts of each, showing the

nature of the contents.

Some approximate equations for the standard at- mosphere.—This report, which was prepared for publication by the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics, Washington, D. C., contains the derivation of a series of simple approximate equations for

density ratios and for the pressure ratio in the standard atmosphere. The accuracy of the various equations is discussed and the limits of applications are given. Several of these equations are in excellent

agreement with the standard values.

Canadian Yearbook for 1930.—A review of standardization during the calendar year 1930 as carried on in Canada under the auspices of the Canadian

Engineering Standards Association, is contained in

the association’s 1930 yearbook released last month.

This book constitutes the annual report of the association and presents detailed information on the different

projects now under consideration. A feature of this

edition is the listing of members of all active committees.

Well organized trade associations essential to in- dustry.—Well organized and properly conducted trade

associations are essential to commerce and trade. On

several occasions the Chamber of Commerce of the

United States has indorsed the work of these associations, and at the nineteenth annual meeting of the

chamber held in May reaffirmed the indorsement and

at the same time commended their support to business

institutions and business men. The chamber also gave

approval to the work of the National Conference on

Street and Highway Safety and the Federal Trade

Commission.

Standard system for grading tobacco.—A standard

system for grading tobacco offered for sale, to be

promulgated b_y the Secretary of Agriculture, is rec- ommended by the examiner of the Federal Trade Commission, who conducted the recent investigation into

alleged collusion among tobacco manufacturers in

price fixing, Avhich Avas found to be nonexistent. It

Avas found, however, that antiquated and inadequate

marketing methods Avorked almost entirely in favor of

the manufacturer. A standard grading system as rec- ommended is expected to correct the existing marketing conditions.

Separate definitions of “ f. o. terms.—Separate

definitions of the terms “ f. o. b.,” “ f. o. b. acceptance,”

and “ f. o. b. acceptance final,” for inclusion in proposed standard rules and definitions of trade terms

under the produce agency act Avere suggested by representatives of the produce and vegetable trade at a meeting Avith officials of the Department of Agricul-
JULY, 1931 COMMEKCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY 29

ture on June 3. Trade representatives also suggested | a definition for the term “ suitable shipping condition.” Standard rules and definitions of trade terms

Mere recently proposed by the Department of Agriculture for inclusion in the act. The department’s decision will be announced later.

Standard for red cedar shingles approved.—Under

date of June 15 the division of trade standards at the

National Bureau of Standards announced the success of the project dealing with the standardization of red

cedar shingles. The quality standard as developed by

the Eed Cedar Shingle Bureau has received almost

unanimous support from manufacturers, as well as numerous distributors and users, and sets up a standard upon which the self-certifying label may be based

for the guidance of the consumer, who is desirous of

receiving the most satisfactory grade of red cedar

shingles. The effective date for new production under

this standard was fixed at July 1, 1931.

Standardization in the Soviet Union.—The work of

standardization is being intensely pushed, and is proceeding on an ever-widening scale in the Soviet Union.

Not only are individual products and pai'ts being

standardized but whole installations and buildings are coming within the orbit of the movement. For in- stance, in the metal industi-y, blast furnaces and openhearth plants are being designed on standard lines, the

sizes and shapes of metal products are being standardized, and so on, to the machine building and construction industries which use these products. Not only

are parts and accessories of industrial and residential

buildings being standardized but a start has been made

in the design of entirely standardized structures.

Grading canned foods.—After July 1, 1931, when a new . system of Federal inspection of canned foods

begins, the housewife can demand and receive from

her grocer information on the exact grade of canned

foods which she buys, and eventually it is hoped that

many of the labels will show the exact grade, according to Wells A. Sherman, in charge of the division of

fruits and vegetables. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Department of Agriculture, in a radio address

June 4, 1931. There is considerable variation fx'om

day to day in the quality of the foods packed even at the same cannery and under the same label, Mr. Sherman said, and canners should take care to show these

variations in quality.

Standard schedule of colors for ready-mixed:

paints.—A standard schedule of colors for readymixed paints has been prepared by the British Engineering Standards Association. In preliminary

studies in connection with drafting the schedule, it was found that there were in use about 3,000 different

colors, and many hundreds of different shades of some

of the colors. In addition, there were many names

for the same colors. The standard schedule just an- nounced contains 57 color patterns with agreed color names. Appendices give the colorimetric value of

each color, measured at the National Physical Laboratory on the Guild Colorimeter, and also a specification

of the celluloid used to mount the colors.

Safety in aeronautics.—A safety code for aeronautics

has been approved by the board of governors of the

Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America

(Inc.). The code has been prejjared by a committee

that has been considering safety in aeronautics under

the auspices of the Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce, and is in agreement with the regulations for

safety of the Aeronautics Branch, Department of

Commerce. The present code, however, in many re- spects goes further than the minimum requirements

of the Air Regulations. A permanent committee is formed to continue the study and promulgation of

recommended safety practices and standards.

Bulletin for air navigation.—Official Bulletin No.

18 of the Commission Internationale de Navigation

Aerienne, November, 1930, is now available. This International Commission was constituted by the convention relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation

dated October 13, 1919. Among other duties, it is charged with the promulgation of technical requirements for aircraft. This bulletin reports a number of

actions of this commission of technical significance

and also includes a large number of standard defini- tions of aeronautical terms. Resolution No. 520 sets up materially modified standards for traffic or run- ning lights to be carried by aircraft. These standards

approach closely to those in use by night-flying air- craft in the United States.

BHtish standard apparatus for testing magnets.—

A

specification entitled “Apparatus for Workshop Test- ing of Permanent Magnets,” and designated No.

4-6-1931, has been j)ublished by the British Engineering Standai'ds Association. This publication, which

is the result of over 10 years’ work and has involved a considerable amount of research, deals with the essential details of the construction and working of apparatus suitable for use in workshops for the testing of

permanent magnets of uniform cross section, fitted for

magneto generators, and of other magnets the dimensions of which are within specified limits. The specification should prove useful to those who desire to make

the necessary apparatus, and also to those who are engaged in testing magnets.

Traffic sign code adopted in Europe.—A traffic sign

system designed to facilitate international toxirist

traffic throughout Europe was adopted March 30,

1931, by the International Convention on Unification

of Road Signals which met at Geneva, as announced

in advices made public by the Department of State. Charts of the signs have been received by the Department of State. The agreement signed at Geneva proxides that the color red shall be used in traffic signs

only to denote an obligation. Thus all signs denoting

speed or proliibition of parking, etc., are in the form

of a red circle. This entire system is different from

the signs used in the United States, the principal

shapes being the triangle and the circle.

Cundent aircraft standardization.—Coincident with

the nineteenth National Aeronautic ISIeeting of the

Society of Automotive Engineers in Detroit, important progress is being made in standardization affect-
30 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY. 1031

ing both aircraft and aircraft engines. Within the

last two years much has been accomplished in the

standardization of materials, such as extruded struc- tural shapes, rivets, mountings for aeronautical instruments, etc. The aircraft division of the Standards

Committee is now formulating complete standards for

both streamline and circular structural tubing among

other subjects in progress. The ball and roller bearing

division of the Standards Committee is also developing a standard for a narrow-type light series of annular ball bearings in the use of which a saving in weight

is a prime consideration.

Weights and measures law for Iraq.—Iraq, an, independent kingdom adjoining Persia, has no standard

system of iveights and measures, and various commodities are sold according to a system of weights

and measures which varies with the commodity and

also varies in details in different sections of the country, However, on March 19, 1931, the Iraq Parliament passed a law by which it is ordered that the

metric system of weights and measures will be adopted

by all Government departments, municipalities, and

administrative councils in the country within six

months from that date. The standards of weights and

measures under the new law are : The international

meter, the international kilogram, the international

liter, and standard measures of surface; that is, the

square meter and the donum and/or mishara (2,500

square meters).

Diesel-engine testing forms available.—The standard testing forms for Diesel engines that were approved by the Society of Automotive Engineers last January are now available. The set consists of seven

sheets: General rules and directions, sheet A; specifications, sheet B ; log. sheet C ; and four curve sheets,

of which No. 1 is for low and medium speed low-power

engines; No. 2 for low and medium speed mediumpower engines; No. 3 for low and medium speed

high-poAver engines; and No. 4 a blank sheet for miscellaneous speed and poAver engines. These testing

forms Avill prOA^e of great value to the Diesel-engine

manufacturers and users by enabling them to completely standardize the records of the performance

characteristics of their engines and to at any time

make direct comparison with any other engines without having to transcribe or replot these data.

Wiring the home.—Recognizing the need for a standard specification outline on electrical wiring in

the ordinary construction of home and apartment

clAA’ellings, the Electric Association (Chicago) produced such an outline under the direction and Avith

the assistance of the joint committee on materials and

methods of the Chicago chapter, American Institute

of Architects, and the Illinois Society of Architects.

The Avork does not cover nor touch upon the idea of

wiring adequacy in any manner. It is intended to present simply the logical outline of an electrical specification from the seiwfice entry to the last outlet, and it is hoped that its use will result in simpler, clearer, and more concise specifications to obA'iate in great degree

the misunderstandings arising from present statement

of requirements, many of Avhich are poorly and

meagerly prepared.

Bntisli specification for steel gas cylinders.—The

British Engineering Standards Association has issued

three specifications relating to steel cylinders for the

storage and transport of gases, namely. No. 399-1930,

Avhich deals Avith high-carbon steel cylinders for permanent gases; No. 400-1931, Avhich refers to lowcarbon steel cylinders for permanent gases; and No.

401-1931, which deals Avith steel cylinders for liquefiable gases. These specifications are based on the re- ports of the Gas Cylinders Research Committee of the

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The specifications include particulars of tensile, impact, flattening, and hydraulic stretch and pressure

tests, together Avith a formula for the determination

of tlie minimum thickness of the cylinder walls.

Australian classification for huilding materials.

The Standards Association of Australia has recentl}''

issued its Simplified Practice Recommendation No.

R2-1931, containing a standard classification for

building materials and equipment. Careful consideration of national requirements shoAved that the classifi- cation of the American Institute of Architects could

be adapted readily for use in Australia, slight changes

in nomenclature only being necessary. On being approached, the American Institute of Architects gave

permission to the Standards Association of Australia

to adojit its standard filing system as a basis for an

Australian Standard Classification for Building Materials and Ec[uipment. The classification was develojied along these lines, and it is expected that its general adoption in offices in Australia controlling*

building construction Avill lead to an intelligent and

efficient classification of all relatHe data, and thus

assist greatly in the elimination of waste, one of the

principal objects of the Standards Association of

Australia.

British standard specification for porcelain insulators.-—The British Engineering Standards Association has issued an important revision of its specification for porcelain insulators for oA^erhead power lines. The 1922 edition Avas limited in scope to insulators

suitable for use on lines of voltages up to 150 kilovolts,

whereas the neAV specification is application for volt- ages up to 350 kilovolts. The insulators are identified

by arbitrary “ rating numbers,” for each of Avhich a

series of tests has been laid doAvn. The table does not

attempt to establish a rigid relationship between the

test Amltage and the working A*oltage, since in practice

this relationship is a A*ariable factor, largely influenced

by climatic conditions. In a separate table, hoAvever,

a recommendation is given regarding the circuit A*olt- ages, for Avhich the loAver-voltage sizes of insulators

are suitable, since experience has shown that for these

particular sizes normally the insulators ma}’’ be satisfactoril}^ assigned to certain definite circuit A*oltages.

Hospital heds standardized in Germany.—Is it nec- essary to have 50 different tA*pes and sizes of beds for

children? In the May. 1931, issue of the American

Standards Association Bulletin, John Gaillard states that “ the German doctors and hospital experts, supporting the national standardization moA^ement which

has developed strongly since 1918 under the auspices

of the German Standards Committee, have firmly*
JULY, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 31

answered this question in the negative. Two types of

children’s beds will do, they have decided, one having

a size of 100 by 65 centimeters (about 40 by 26 inches),

and the other one, of simpler construction, a size of

90 by 50 centimeters (about 36 by 20 inches).” In the

United States the hospital industry has simplified the

variety of hospital bed lengths from 33 to 1 ; widths

from 34 to 1 ; and heights from 44 to 1. The elimination of these superfluous varieties was caused by the

jiromulgation of simplified practice recommendation

No. 24, under the auspices of the National Bureau of

Standards.

Revised standardization frogram for gearmakers.

At the annual meeting of gear makers, A. A. Boss,

chairman of the general standards committee, pre- sented a revised standardization program. The original standardization program was adopted in June,

19'21, at which time a list of items to be dealt with by

each subcommittee was set up. This program was

revised in January, 1924, and again in January, 1931.

It is being carried on in cooperation with the American Standards Association. Prof. G. M. Bartlett, of

Purdue University, reported for the sprocket committee, of which he is chairman. This committee plans

to add nine items to its program, including the fol- lowing : Uniformity in character of specification sheet

;

a table of load factors for use in connection with the

horsepower and the work-load table in the present

American Gear Manufacturers’ Association, uniform

instructions regarding the selection of chain drives,

and a simple chart for the selection of chain drives.

D. T. Hamilton presented the report of the nomenclature committee, which embodies a complete nomenclature for gearing of all types, including 118 terms

with symbols, abbreviations, definitions, and in a few

cases equations, where these help to explain the meaning of the term.

Classifying fractures in hardened tool steel.—

A

method for testing the quality of tool steel by examining the fracture of quenched specimens was developed

by Dr. Kagnar Arpi, of Hagfors Jernverk (Hagfors

Iron Works) . Manufacture of high-quality steel being

of a relatively greater importance to the Swedish steel industry than to that of most other countries, it is no wonder that a good deal of work has been done lately on methods of testing tool steel. While it is, of course, recognized that the only reliable method of ascertaining the quality of a tool steel is to test tools made from

the steel in question under carefully standardized

working conditions, such a procedure must necessarily

require considerable time. A rapid and reliable

method of testing is therefore greatly needed, and the

method must permit grading the material. Doctor

Arpi has prepared a scale of fracture classes, zero designating a very coarse-grained fracture, and 10 the

finest fracture obtainable. The test is made on a mmiber of notched bars which are quenched in water from

different temperatures, such as 750°, 770°, 800°, 830°.

860°, and 890° C. The bars are then fractured and

classified by comparison with standards.

entitled “A Guide to the Literature on Rubber,” has

been prepared to tell those Avho may be concerned with

this subject, where to find recent and authentic information about rubber and rubber products. A number

of books on rubber are listed in this letter circular

with a brief characterization of the contents of each.

Rubber journals, one or more of Avhich are published

in each of the leading industrial countries of the

Avorld, describe current developments in the production of rubber and in the manufacture and testing of

rubber products. Special publications on rubber cov- ering a Avide and varied subject matter are issued by

Government departments in the United States and

abroad, and by testing societies, private institutions,

and commercial organizations. It is anticipated that

this letter circular will be of particular interest to teachers, students, and investigators in fields other

tlian rubber. Letter circulars are designed primarily

to ansAver specific inquiries and are sent free upon

request to the bureau. No mailing list is maintained

for these letter circulars.

TJnifoi'ni street and sanitation records.—The Committee on Uniform Street Sanitation Records has just

coni2Jleted, in Kenosha, Wis., the second of its demonstration installations Avhich it is making in A^arious

cities throughout the country. The iDuiqiose of this

installation is to demonstrate hoAV the standards and

records jjreiiared by the committee can be a^iplied in

cities betAveen 25,000 and 600,000 inhabitants. A comjjlete manual of this Kenosha installation, together

Avith the forms em^iloyed, is noAv being ^ire^Dared and

distributed to 1,600 city officials through the country

Avith the recommendation that they ado2)t all a^ipropriate j^ortions in their resjiective cities. Kenosha

Avas selected as the demonstration cit}^ in the 50,000

class because of the sjilendid administrative methods

employed. This city, in the o^iinion of the committee,

maintains one of the best, as Avell as one of the

simjjlest, general accounting systems in the country,

and already monthl}^ statements are being submitted

to deiiartment heads shoAving the exact condition of

each a^iprojiriation. Similarl}^ the j^urchasing sys- tem and central stores control Avas found to be a model one and required no changes whatever in the

installation.

British standard for road tar.—The British Engineering Standards Association has imblished a further siiecification for road tar. designated “ tar No. 3.” This specification, the draft of Avhich Avas ^irepared by

the British Road Tar Association, provides for a tar suitable for the manufacture of tarmacadam laid by

the hot or semihot jn’ocess, as an alternatiAT to tar No.

2, contained in sjjecification No. 76-1930, and the aus- cosity of tar No. 3 is higher tliau that of the former

tar. Tlie methods of testing and the sjAecifications for

ajAiiaratus, Avhich are giA'on as ajAiJendices, lun’e been

prepared by the Standardization of Tar Products

Tests Committee, and are based on this commiltee’s

lAublication, “Standard Methods for Testing Tar and

its Products.” The INIinister of Transiiort has decided

that tar prejAared in accordance Avith the neAv specification may be used on Avorks qualifying for grant

from the road fund. The precautions notified to local “A guide to the literature on rubherC—Letter Circular No. 305 of the National Bureau of Standards,
32 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1931

authorities in Circular No. 187A (Roads), dated May

5, 1923, respecting the use of tar, should, however, still be observed in the case of tar No. 3, where rain water

from road surfacings is likely to pass into streams con- taining fish or plant life.

Actions against misleading labels and advertising.

The Federal Trade Commission has obtained from a corporation manufacturing fiber products, including

insulating board, an agreement stipulating that it will no longer carry in advertisements any words or ex- pression suggesting that a bureau of the United States

Government had officially indorsed its products, or

that such bureau had stated or held that any such

product is the best insulation made, or is better than

any other similar product, when such is not the fact. From another corporation selling watches, the commission has obtained an agreement stipulating that it will no longer carry as a label words which would in- dicate that the watches are made in accordance with

Government specifications when such is not the fact, or use the picture of a military cadet in uniform, or words to indicate to the public that the watches have

been adopted by the War Department for use at the

West Point Military Academy, when this is not the

fact.

White-'pine labeling for yellow fine barred.—The

Federal Trade Commission has ordered 39 lumber producers to discontinue, in advertising and selling

yellow-pine lumber of the species Pinus fonderosa.^

the use of the word “ white ” in connection with the

word “ pine ” or with other words used in combination

with the word “ pine.” Pine trees have been divided

by wood technologists into two groups, the “ white

pine ” and the “ yellow pine.” In its decision the Federal Trade Commission pointed out that white pine

has a high degree of uniformity of lumber qualities,

averaging high in durability under exposure to weather, lightness of color and weight, softness and

evenness of texture, closeness and fineness of grain,

freedom from resinous content and from shrinkage,

and that white pine has great ability to stay in place

and exceptional ease of working. On the other hand,

said the announcement of the commission, the yellowpine products generally are harder, heavier, stronger, more subject to shrinkage and warping, darker in

color, more resinous, denser in fiber, coarser and more

difficult to work than members of the white-pine

group. Typical species of the yellow-pine group are valuable where structural strength of timber is re- quired. The white pines are not adapted to heavy

construction. In contrast with the white pines the

yellow pines vary widely.

o
J^ow is the best time

to Repair Your Home

To aid you

The U. S. Department of Commerce

Bureau of Standards

Division of Building and Housing

has issued a new handbook

Qare and Repair of the House

By V. B. PHELAN

A nail in time saves nine

Do you want—

To paint the walls, the down spouts,

and the window frames?

To repair the roof, and the cracks in

the plaster?

To fit new glass in the window frames,

and paint and hang the screens?

Popular edition

Paper bound

121 pages

30 illustrations

Siz,e approximately

6 by 9 inches

This new book tells how to repair all

parts of the house and equipment,

and maintain them in the most useful condition.

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents, United States Government Printing Ojfice

Washington, D. C.

It will enable the home owner to do much of

his own repair work. It suggests when he can

safely undertake the work, and when he

should call in a skilled mechanic. Price 20 cents

It should be useful to householders; to deal- ers in tools and materials; to all who are interested in making homes well equipped, thoroughly repaired, comfortable, and

attractive.

[For foreign countries

(other than Canada,

Cuba, Mexico, Newfoundland, and the

Republic of Panama)

add one-third.]

Pay 20 cents toward improving your home in

100 different ways.
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Claeence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attach4s, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyree, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamenSupervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: I9SI