NBSIR 75-741

Mechanistic Studies of

Triplienylpliospliine Oxide-Poly

(Ethylenetereplitlialate) and Related

Flame Retardant Systems

J. W. Hastie and C. L. McBee

Institute for Materials Research

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

August 1975

Final

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

NBSIR 75-741

MECHANISTIC STUDIES OF

TRIPHENYLPHOSPHINE OXIDE-POLY

(ETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE) AND RELATED

FLAME RETARDANT SYSTEMS

J. W. Hastie and C. L. McBee

Institute for Materials Research

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

August 1975

Final

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary

John K. Tabor, Under Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

MECHANISTIC STUDIES OF TRIPHENYLPHOSPHINE

OXIDE-POLY (ETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE) AND

RELATED FLAME RETARDANT SYSTEMS

J. W. Has tie and C. L. McBeet

Inorganic Chemistry Section

Institute for Materials Research

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

1. INTRODUCTION

Phosphorus in various forms has been used with increasing frequency

in recent years as a major constituent of flame retardant formulations

while phosphate salts, in powder form, have found commercial application

as fire extinguishants"'" ^. In particular, phosphorus additives have

proven useful in commercial and developmental flame resistant treatments

for thermoplastics. The need for these treatments to endure water exposure and melt processing has provided an impetus to the development of

novel durable organo-phosphorus compounds which lend themselves to

chemical bonding or to in situ polymerization with the thermoplastic

substrate.

As recently as 1972, bulk synthetic fibers, including polyesters,

acrylics and nylons, were stated as lacking an entirely satisfactory

commercial process for flame retardation^. However, more recently, many

processes have been claimed for the flame retardance of the popular

synthetic fibers of polyester and blends of polyester, involving the

7-10 incorporation of organo-phosphorus compounds . The annual production

of polyester is estimated to be in excess of a billion kilograms, much

of this going into the fabrication of children's garments and other

apparel. Approximately twenty percent of the burn injuries and up to

fifty percent of the fire-related deaths in the United States may be

related to flammable fabrics Obviously, an optimization of the flame

retardant efficiencies of organo-phosphorus or competitive compounds

would contribute to an alleviacion of the underlying hazard.
- 2 -

A rational approach to the optimum use of phosphorus as a flame

retardant requires an understanding of the chemical mechanism (s) by

which flame retardancy is effected. However, despite extensive research

and development on the use of phosphorus as a flame retardant* little is

12-14

17 8 10 11 known about the retardancy mechanisms ' ' ' ' , it appears that the

main retardancy action of phosphorus may occur either in the condensed

or the vapor phase"^^'"''^''^^—depending somewhat on the polymer type. For

the particular case of treated polyester/eel lulosic fiber blends, it

appears that the phosphorus retardant acts simultaneously both in the

condensed and vapor phase for the cotton and polyester components,

17 respectively . A multiphase mechanistic action is also likely in flex18 ible polyurethane foam systems . For the few cases where chemical

analyses have been performed on the char or sxabstrate-residue following

a flaming test on a synthetic polymer, it has been found that a major

fraction of the phosphorus additive was lost to the vapor phase.

In view of the apparently diverse action of phosphorus in its

mechanistic action in flame retardancy, we have selected for study a system where—by all available macroscopic criteria including oxygen

index and thermal analyses—a vapor phase mode of inhibition is believed

to be operating^*^. This system involves triphenylphosphine-oxide (TPPO) as a retardant for the polyester poly (ethyleneterephthalate) (PET), the

flame retardancy effectiveness of which is well established^ Our

primary objective, then, is to establish whether the flame retardancy

observed for this system can be explained solely in terms of a vapor

phase mechanistic action involving volatile phosphorus-containing species.

Also, from the mechanistic model developed, can we expect phosphorus

based retardants to be generally effective as vapor phase active flame

retardants? An affirmative conclusion would require revision of the

current seminal viewpoint to the effect that—"phosphorus is believed to

3 perform most of its flame retardant function in the condensed phase" ; or alternatively, for halogen containing systems, that phosphorus merely

1,18 serves as a carrier for a flame inhibiting halogen component
- 3 -

The present study combines observations on:

- pyrolysis of polyester (PET) systems incorporating TPPO

or similar P-additives.

- vaporization of pure flame retardant additives, and

- the effects of P-containing additives on the propagation

of atmospheric pressure conical or flat laminar premixed

flames

These observations provide the basic chemical kinetic, thermodynamic,

and gas-dynamic information necessary to the development of a mechanistic model for phosphorus-based flame retardant action in the gas phase.

The experimental techniques of mass and optical spectrometry have been

employed for the molecular characterization of pyrolyzing systems and

for the kinetic and molecular characterization of inhibited flames.

2. APPARATUS AND GENERAL PROCEDURES

2.1 Substrate Pyrolysis Studies

The substrate-system pyrolysis studies are conveniently made using an established Knudsen effusion mass spectrometric technique, as

19 20 described in greater detail elsewhere ' . The basic relation of this

technique is given by,

p = kIT,

where p is the species partial pressure, I the species mass spectral

positive ion intensity, T the sample temperature, and k an instrument

sensitivity constant. Usually k is obtained by vaporizing a known

weight of sample, for a given vaporization area, time, temperature, and

19 ion intensity . With this approach we are able to monitor, under welldefined conditions, the i-ndi^vidual vapor species and their partial

pressures as a function of temperature, time, and both substrate and

atmospheric composition.

In order to maintain free molecular effusion conditions it is

necessary, in practice, to limit the total pressure in the Knudsen cell

-4 -12

to about 10 atm. A lower pressure limit of about 10 atm is set by
- 4 -

the sensitivity of the mass spectrometer. Hence an exceptionally wide

pressure range is available with such a system. Even though the actual

atmospheric pressure condition of a "real-fire" pyrolysis is not attained,

the high sensitivity and wide dynamic pressure range allow the pertinent

chemical reactions to be monitored. Thus we can simulate the probable

"real-fire" pyrolysis chemistry and establish the likely flux of retardant to a flame front. In constrast to the results of commonly used

thermogravimetric analyses, the mass spectrometric technique establishes

the actual molecular identity of the retardant species as it enters the

vapor phase and flame system.

During the thermal degradation or pyrolysis of a polymer-retardant

mixture, such as PET-TPPO, the substrate composition may vary with time

and temperature due to the differing volatilities of the individual com- ponents. For PET-TPPO mixtures at temperatures of less than about 400''C,

TPPO is the major volatile component and the substrate mole fraction of

TPPO therefore decreases with the pyrolysis time. As will beccane evident

in later discussion, it is possible to selectively vaporize all of the

TPPO-component from the mixture.

In order to resolve the dependent effects of composition and temperature change we effectively monitor both the substrate composition and

temperature as a function of pyrolysis time. The composition, at any

specified time, is determined as follows. From chemical analyses, the

initial and final substrate compositions are established. Also, the

initial and final weights of polymer sample are determined gravimetrically. For a typical pyrolysis experiment, the polymer-retardant mixture

is heated at a constant rate until the retardant component is completely

lost by vaporization. The mass spectrometer monitors this release of

retardant as a function of time and temperature. Pyrolysis of the

polymer component is also monitored, though this is only significant

when relatively high temperatures are reached (> 400°C) . In most

instances, the weight change found at the completion of the pyrolysis

run corresponds to the known mass of retardant initially present.
- 5 -

For these cases, the sensitivity factor k can be determined from the

known rate of weight-loss for TPPO and the measured positive ion intensity for the parent ion (cj)) ^Po"*". This ion intensity constitutes more

than 90% of the total ion signal for the TPPO species. During the

pyrolysis procedure, measurement of the species partial pressures serves

to define the substrate composition at any stage, since the weight loss

of TPPO is related to its partial pressure p and the duration of vaporization by the relation

J = p/ [2. 2557x10"^ (T/M)^"^^],

2 where the flux J is in units of gm/cm -sec, p in atm, T in K and M the

gm molecular weight (of TPPO in this case) . The vaporization area in

this case is given simply by the area of the Knudsen effusion orifice

-3 2 which is 7.75x10 cm for our system.

As the partial pressure p and retardant mole fraction X are therefore defined at various temperatures then the retardant activity coefficient Y niay be derived from the relation

Y = p/p°X,

where p° is the vapor pressiire of pure retardant—as obtained from a separate vaporization experiment. A knowledge of y at various T serves

to define the thermodynamic character of the retardant-polymer mixture

which is in a liquid state for most of the thermal regime of interest.

This concept of a retardant activity coefficient assumes that thermodynamic equilibrium is established between TPPO vapor and the PET-TPPO

siabstrate.

2.2 Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Flames

For the analysis of flames and flame inhibition phenomena we utilize

a combination of mass and optical spectroscopic techniques which are

23 complementary in their capabilities . Details of the mass spectrometric

system, and its application to flame analysis, have appeared else21-23

where . Basically, the technique involves the extraction of a
- 6

-

nwlecular beam sample from a defined location in an atmospheric pressure

flame followed by mass analysis of the beam components. Hence, profiles

of species concentration versus distance along the flame axis may be

determined.

2.3 Optical Spectroscopic Analysis of Flames

While the mass spectrometric technique can provide data on radical

species flame profiles, the dete2nnination of H-atom profiles is more

conveniently and accvurately made using established optical spectroscopic

23-25 procedures . A schematic of our basic optical spectroscopic apparatus is given in Figure 1. This experimental arrangement is similar to

that used by other workers for the measurement of emission line intensities in flames. A quartz lens and two apertures were used to extract

and focus an optical image from the center of the inner flame at the

entrance slit ('V'lSOym) of a quarter meter monochromator (see Figure 1) . The chopping wheel allows for beam modulation and phase sensitive detection techniques to be used—providing greater sensitivity for weak signals.

26 The burner used is of a modified Sugden-type . The outer flame

compartment was constructed from brass with 1-mm holes to supply the

premixed gases to the flame. The inner flame compartment was constructed

from a silver soldered bundle of stainless steel hypodermic tvibing. This

arrangement provides a well-shielded virtually flat flame. The burner

system is mounted on a motor driven kinematic table. This allows any

part of the flame to be focused onto the monochromator entrance slit for

the determination of intensity versus distance profiles.

For the determination of H-atom concentrations we utilize the estab25 lished Li-technique . This is an indirect method based on the balanced

flame reaction,

Li + H^O = LiOH + H.

A vjeak solution of Li and Na salts (0.1 molar) is nebulized into the

flame using a pneumatic type device driven by the nitrogen gas supply.

- 'i

i
- 7 -

Sodium does not undergo a hydroxide forming reaction and is present as Na atoms. Comparison of the resonance emission intensities for Li and

Na then allows us to determine the concentration ratio of Li to LiOH.

Since the H^O concentration and equilibrium constant values for the above

reaction are known for any given flame temperature, the concentration of

hydrogen atoms can be deduced. The effect of flame retardant additives

on the concentration of H-atoms is used as a basis for our mechanistic

arguments presented later. These additives are introduced to the flames

by transpiration of the vapor (in the sample holder—see Figure 1) with

the combustion gases.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Substrate Degradation Studies

a. Vaporization of Pure Retardants

Preliminary to pyrolysis studies of polyester (PET) systems incorporating phosphorus retardant additives, it is necessary to obtain vapor

pressure data for the pure retardants. For the phosphorus compounds of

interest little or no vapor pressure data are available in the literature.

Given the vapor pressure of pure retardant and its partial pressure over

a PET-retardant mixture of known ccanposition, we can derive thermodynamic

activity coefficient and related data—as was indicated earlier. The

retardants of interest here include triphenylphosphine oxide (TPPO) -

(C^H_)^PO, diphenylphenylphosphonate (DPPP) - (C^H^O) ^ (C^H^) PO and the oDJ 55z5o

Lewis acid-base complex of [ (TPPO) ^SnCl^]

Figure 2 shows the measxired vapor pressures of TPPO and DPPP as a

27 function of temperature together with the limited data of Parts for

comparison. The vaporization of TPPO from the [ (TPPO) 2SnCl^] complex as

a function of temperature is given in Figure 3. The vapor phase composition above this compound was found to be particularly complex. In

addition to TPPO and SnCl^ as major species, SnCl2, HCl and decomposition

products of TPPO itself were also observed—particularly at temperatures

of greater than 225°C. This complexity of vaporization should not greatly
affect the overall degree of retardancy as the P, Sn and Cl components

are all eventually lost to the vapor phase, i.e.y no solid or char

remained after pyrolysis of the [ (TPPO) ^SnCl^] complex.

27 The vapor pressure data of Parts , given in Figure 2, were obtained

by a static method which ensures thermodynamic equilibrium for systems

that maintain their molecular integrity on vaporization, such as TPPO

and DPPP. That these data agree with the dynamic Knudsen effusion data

suggests the establishment of thermodynamic equilibrium in the Knudsen

experiments.

b. Polyester Substrate Degradation Studies

The poly (ethyleneterephthalate) siibstrate systems considered in

this work are indicated in Table I. These samples were in the form of a woven fabric with the phosphorus inhibitor compounds added to the polymer

melt prior to extrusion. As TPPO has a relatively high thermal stability

28 it is not likely to decompose during the spinning process . Our mass spectrometric observations of TPPO as the only P-containing species

released during pyrolysis of the PET samples verify this claim.

Pyrolysis studies of these samples were carried out under vacuum

conditions using the Knudsen reactor technique. The rate of release of

the phosphorus bearing species from the polymer was determined as a

f\inction of the dependent variables of temperature, time and composition.

Figures 4-7 summarize the experimental results. Note that the retardant

additive, TPPO or DPPP, is quantitatively released from the polymer to

the vapor without decomposition for these low pressure conditions. Also,

for conditions of low or medium heating rate, the measured total weight

change corresponds to the amount of TPPO initially present in the mixture. That is, a negligible decomposition of PET resulted for these

particular conditions. *

A separate pyrolysis ejcperiment was made under ambient atmospheric

conditions to ascertain the gross featiores of the release of TPPO under

"real-fire" conditions. This involved pyrolysis of the fabric sample
- 9

- Table I

Poly (ethyleneterephthalate) (PET) - Retardant

Mixtures Considered

Sample Composition^ %-Phosphorus®

A PET+1% TPPO^ 0.12

B PET+1% TPPO+1% Ny-e*^ 0.11

C PET+4% TPPO 0.43

D PET+4% TPPO+4% Ny-6 0.40

E PET+6% DPPP^ 0.55

^TPPO-containing samples were kindly supplied

by R. H. Barker, Clemson University and flammability and other tests have been reported

on by Bostic and Barker '^ for these samples.

Nominal composition is expressed in mole %

relative to '^'(CO)C H (C(]))OCH2CH20^ as the

repeating unit of PET.

^Triphenylphosphine oxide

•^Nylon-e

iphenyIphenyIphosphonate

^Composition as determined by actual elemental

analysis of the prepared substrate.
-10 -

by a focused CW-CO^ laser beam and the simultaneous sampling, at about

0.1 cm from the surface, of the vapor into the high pressure sampling mass spectrcaneter. Both TPPO and CH^CHO were identified as major pyroly

sis products with very little atmospheric oxygen being detected at the

sampling location.

It is well known that certain organic phosphorus retardants, includ

ing TPPO, are volatized during polymer processing at temperatiares in

29

excess of 200''C, e.^.j see Kushlefsky . This loss leads to an inefficient utilization of the retardant additive. The vaporization curves of

Figures 4-7 provide a quantitative measure of this effect. Note in the

Figures 4-6 the canparative effect of a small amount of nylon-6 on the

release of TPPO from the polymer substrate to the vapor phase. These

data indicate that the effect of the nylon-6 addition is to provide an enhanced retention of TPPO in the substrate such that the retardant is

released at relatively higher temperatures—approaching those at which

polymer decompositions occurs, i.e. ^ 400-450**C''"^. Similarly, frcan the

vaporization curves shown in Figure 7, it is apparent that the DPPP

retardant additive is also released at significantly higher temperatures

than for the TPPO case. It is generally believed that for a vapor phase

retardant to be effective, the retardant must be present as a vapor at

about the same time as combustible fuel is being generated by polymer

decomposition"^^. We should therefore expect systems containing TPPO in

the presence of nylon-6, or alternatively DPPP, to be more effective

vapor phase active flame retardants than those containing only TPPO as a retardant additive. This is known to be the case at least for the TPPOnylon-6 combination^.

Complexes of triphenylphosphine oxide with Lewis acids, such as SnCl^, are known to impart excellent flame retardant properties to a large variety of thermoplastic polymers including poly (ethyleneterephtha

29

late) . Moreover, their degree of effectiveness is greater than that

of the pure phosphine oxide—particularly under conditions of long-term

sample exposure to a flame. It is believed that the complexing reduces
-lithe tendency for the phosphine oxide to be vaporized prior to polymer

thermal degradation. Our "observed" vaporization curves given in Figure

8 support this viewpoint, since the complex would require about a 70°C

greater temperature than TPPO to achieve the same degree of volatilization from a PET substrate. Thus the early, and undesirable, release of some of the TPPO from PET siabstrates could be limited by the use of

(TPPO) 'SnCl rather than TPPO as the retardant additive. We surmise

8 that the known synergistic effect of benzil, or related additives, may

also be related to an enhanced retention of TPPO in the melt prior to

polymer degradation.

c. Activity Coefficients and Partial Pressures

The individual vaporization curves of Figures 4-7 represent conditions of variable temperature and retardant mole fraction within the

substrate. In order to show the effects of temperature and composition

separately, we utilize the information provided by the use of different

heating rates as follows. As shown by the comparison of curves in

Figures 4 and 6, a higher heating rate allows the partial pressure of

TPPO to be determined at a higher temperature but at the same substrate

composition. For instance, from Figures 6 and 4 for PET + 1% TPPO the

75% weight loss (of TPPO), corresponding to X(TPPO) equal to 0.0025

mole fraction, occurs at 320°C and 220°C for the fast and slow heating

rates, respectively. Hence, the activity coefficients y at these temperatures are given as

Y3200 = P/P°X(TPP0) = 0.05 and ^ 220'> "

Clearly, y is very temperature dependent for fixed X(TPPO) . For the case where T = 22000 and X(TPPO) = 0.005, Y2200 "^-l* Hence, y is relatively insensitive to composition for these relatively dilute mixtures.

Activity coefficient data, derived in this manner, are summarized in

Figure 9 where a reasonably linear dependence of log y on T is indicated,

as would be expected for a solution at thermodynamic equilibrium. The

slope of this curve (see Figure 9) is in fact a measure of the excess partial molar heat of vaporization of TPPO from the PET-TPPO solution-
- 12 - The main uncertainty in y arises from the fact that two pressure, and

hence k, determinations are needed for its calculation. We estimate an uncertainty of a factor of two for y. This uncertainty is reflected by

the scatter of data given in Figure 9.

From the general y-T relationship as given in Figure 9, we can express

the partial pressure of TPPO, above various PET-TPPO substrates, as a separate function of substrate TPPO mole fraction and temperature as shown in Figure 10. The upper solid curve at 450°C was constructed from

the established y value at 0.0075 mole fraction TPPO with the assumption

that

y a X

over the range X = 0.0075 - 1.0 and the relation,

p = p^yx.

By definition,

y = 1 for X = 1 /

and the small Y^^qoq value must necessarily increase with X for TPPO

concentrations greater than those studied here. The lower solid curve

of Figure 10 assumes y independent of X, which is only likely to be

valid for small values of X.

That y has values of greater than unity for relatively low temperature conditions (see Figure 9) is indicative of a low degree of binding

in the polymer solution as compared with the standard state crystalline

form of TPPO. However, the rapid decrease in y with increasing temperature indicates an enhanced chemical binding of TPPO by the polymer with

increased temperature. Perhaps at low temperatures, i.e., less than

200**C, TPPO is present as aggregates- (TPPO) ^; but at higher temperatures

these oligomers dissociate and the monomers become more dispersed in the

solvent, and are, in fact, chemically bound by the PET.

3.2 Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Flame Species

As triphenylphosphine oxide is a combustible species, it is not
- 13 -

likely to be stable in the hotter flame region and therefore should not

significantly enter into cyclic reactions involving flame radicals.

Hence, its products of decomposition are the most likely candidates for

participation in inhibition reactions leading to the loss of flame

radicals.

Figure 11 shows the decomposition of TPPO in the preflame region

{i.e. J negative distances relative to z) of a fuel rich CH^/O^/Ar flame

with the production of PO as a significant species in the region of the

flame reaction zone. In H^/O^/N^ flames, an additional species PN was

observed. Typical species concentration data resulting from the addition

of trimethylphosphate (TMP) to a H^/O^/N^ flame of molar composition

given by the ratios 3.1/1/4.0 are:

P0{20), PN(1.5), HPO2(0.4) and PO^, P^^ HPO Cx-0. 05) , -4

vdiere the partial pressures in units of 10 atm are given in the

parentheses. These measurements refer to a flame location equivalent to

1 ms time downstream from the reaction zone in a premixed conical flame.

Note that PO is generally the most significant species in these

and other flames considered. The species concentrations were calculated

from the mass spectral relative ion intensities and the known total con- centration of P-additive entering the flame—as determined by the known

vapor pressure of TPPO or TMP at the sample holder temperature. In

order to obtain data in the pre-flame region, the mass spectrometric

measurements were made using conical flames which are more accessible to

probing of the pre-flame region than the flat flames used for optical

spectroscopic studies.

3.3 C^tical Spectroscopic Analysis of Flame Species

Established optical spectroscopic techniques have been utilized in

the present work for monitoring the species H, PO and/or HPO in premixed

flat H^/O^/H^ flames. In this work, although the relative values of the

H-atom concentration [H] could be followed using the resonance emission
- 14 - 24 intensity of CuH, as described by other workers , it was found that

better reproducibility of data could be obtained using the comparative

Li/LiOH procedure mentioned earlier. Usually, the phosphorus-containing

additive was introduced only into the central flame of the burner system.

This was permissable since concentration diffusion effects between the

shield and central flames—resulting from a phosphorus induced depletion

of radicals in the inner flame—were found to be negligible

Two a^/O^/^^ flames, with compositions defined by the mole ratios

3.7/1/3 and 3.7/1/2.2, were investigated. Flame temperatures were found

to be 1900 K and 196 0±50 K, respectively, using the sodium-doublet line

reversal technique. These flame temperatures are well below the adiabatic values due to heat loss effects to the brass and steel watercooled burner. The resultant H-atom concentration levels were found to

compare reasonably well with those reported in the literature for similar H2-fueled flames. In fact, the H-atam versus time-from-reactionzone profiles were found to be consistent with existing kinetic data for

the post flame recombination processes.

When using the flat flame burner it was difficult to control the

concentration of TPPO reaching the flame on account of the elevated

temperature needed to maintain a suitable vapor pressure. Hence, the

more volatile additives of trimethylphosphate (TMP) - (CH^O) and

POCl^ were used in this case. Mass spectrometric experiments in conical

flames verified a similar decomposition and species production character

for TMP and TPPO. The effect of the separate addition of TMP and POCl^ on the H-atom concentration profile for the cooler Y[^/0^/ti^ flame are shown in Figure 12. Corollary experiments were performed with small

additions of methane gas to determine the possible reduction in H-atom

concentration due to the hydrocarbon content of TMP. This hydrocarbon

inhibitor effect was found to account for only about 8% of the total

reduction by TMP and this small correction has been applied to all of

the H-atom concentration data for TMP additions.

Two resonance emission lines at 525 and 554 nm, which have been
- 15 -

attributed in the literature to HPO, were also monitored"^*^' Their

emission intensity flame profiles, for various amounts of TMP, are shown

in Figure 13 for the two flame systems. As inay be deduced from the data

given in the Figure 13, these emission intensities show an approximate

linear variation with increasing TMP concentration for a fixed flame

location at burner distances of greater than about 1 cm.

4. MECHANISM OF FLAME RETARDANCY

4.1 Mass Transport of Retardant to Flame Front

Under conditions of actual flame spread across a polymer substrate,

the retardant and fuel are not necessarily released in proportion to

their initial mole fractions. For instance, Volans showed that the

concentration of released HBr, relative to fuel, could be as high as 21%

32 even though the substrate fraction was equivalent to only 2% HBr . We

consider that the actual flame concentration of inhibitor species under

"real-fire" conditions is determined by the local inhibitor concentration

at the substrate surface and the mass flux of inhibitor through a bound19

ary layer . The boundary layer, located between the substrate surface

and the bulk gas or flame, impedes the diffusional transport of retardant

species to the flame and it is necessary to consider whether sufficient

retardant will reach the flame to effect inhibition. The boundary layer

concept and its effect on retardant species concentration is indicated

schematically in Figure 14.

From the observed amount of TMP needed to cause dramatic reductions

in H-atom concentrations and btirning velocities for H^-fueled flames, a sufficient partial pressure of inhibitor in the flame would be about

-3

10 atm. However, we should keep in mind that hydrocarbon flames, which

are inherently weaker and contain far fewer H-atoms than H2-fueled

flames"^"^ , require correspondingly smaller amounts of inhibitor for retar-

-3

dation. Hence, even inhibitor pressures of less than 10 atm should

suffice for the suppression of a flame supported by polyester pyrolysis.

Consider the partial pressure of retardant at the si±>strate surface
needed to maintain about a 10 atm pressure of retardant at the flame

front. The relationship between surface partial pressure Ps and mass

flux J, in the presence of a boundary layer of thickness 6, is given by:

2

J(TPPO) = {DM/6RT) [Ps-Pb] g/cm -sec,

where Pb is the partial pressure of TPPO in the bulk gas or pre-flame

region, D the diffusion coefficient (of TPPO) in the gas medium, M the

gram molecular weight (of TPPO) , R the gas constant and T the absolute

temperature (K) . From our mass spectrometric observation of TPPOdepletion in the pre-flame region of premixed flames (e.g. , see Figure

11) we can assume Pb to be negligible, i.e. , the flame serves as a sink for TPPO. The boundary layer thickness for a typical bulk gas

velocity of 10 cra/sec has been previously estimated to be

6 = 0.2 cm,

19 see Hastie and McBee . A value of D can be calculated from hard sphere

gas kinetic theory. For an estimated TPPO collision diameter of 10 &

we calculate,

2 -1

D = 0.19 cm sec at 450''C.

-2

Therefore, for an assumed Ps of 10 atm, the flux is

J (TPPO) = 3.71xlO~^ g/cm^sec

-7 2 = 1.29x10 mol/cm sec at 450''C.

To determine the flame concentration resulting from this flux con- sider the corresponding fuel flux. For the case of PET pyrolysis we know that CH^CHO is the predominant fuel component. Under the stoichiometric combustion condition of

CH^CHO + 5/2 O2 = 200^ + 2H2O ,

the major flame component is (0.725 mole fraction). A high Ifl^ concentration can also be expected at the substrate surface. If we assume this to be 0.725 atm then the maximum fuel concentration at the

surface is 0.275 atm and the fuel flvx is calculated as : >
- 17 -

-5 2 J(CH^CHO) = 1.8x10 mol/cm sec at 450°C ,

2 -1

where D(CH^CHO) = 1.0 cm sec (using an estimated collision cross sec0 tion of 2.9 A). The relative molar flux of retardant to fuel is then

J(TPPO)/J(CH^CHO) = 7xl0~"^,

and for a stoichiometric flame condition where 0.078 mole fraction of

CH^CHO is required the corresponding TPPO concentration is calculated as

-4

TPPO in flame = 5.5x10 atm.

This inhibitor pressxire is of the correct order of magnitude for an effective degree of flame inhibition to occur. Hence, a substrate

-2

surface TPPO partial pressure of 10 atm should provide a suitably high

flux of retardant to the flame. From the Figure 10 we find that P(TPPO)

-2

= 10 atm at 450°C for a substrate TPPO mole fraction of about 0.3.

Hence, as the initial concentration is typically only 0.01 TPPO mole

fraction, a considerable preferential volatilization of PET is needed

before the activity of TPPO is sufficient to generate the desired vapor

concentration. However, this production of retardant vapor is most

likely supplemented by the release of TPPO ahead of the flame front and

prior to the polyester decomposition. For instance, from the partial

pressure isotherms given in Figure 10, the partial pressure of TPPO at

200°C is greater than that at 450°C for small TPPO mole fraction and an accumulation of TPPO could occur at cool regions ahead of the flame

front.

These estimates of retardant flux and flame species concentration

are probably lower limit values. Under conditions of substantial polymer pyrolysis it is likely that the passage of fuel gas through the meltsurface will disturb the adjacent gas boundary layer and result in a lower value of 6 than that estimated for the ideal quiescent-surface

laminar flow condition.

4.2 Action of P-Containing Species in Flame Inhibition

From the observed effect of phosphorus flame additions on the H-atom
" 18

"

concentration profiles, the following mechanism for inhibition is suggested.

For conditions where the flame processes are determined mainly by

the chain branching reaction

H + ©2 OH + O,

the burning velocity or flame speed can be expected to be proportional

to the H-atom concentration - [H] as a first order approximation, e.g.

see Fristrom and Sawyer"^^. This is demonstrated empirically in Figure 15

for the case of CH^ inhibition of a fuel rich n^/O^/l^i^ flame. A similar

correlation can be expected where phosphorus is the inhibitor. Hence,

a 50% reduction in H-atom concentration, for example, is equivalent to a dramatic reduction in burning velocity (see Figure 15) . From Figure 12

-4 we find that only 5.7x10 mole fraction P (as TMP) is needed to achieve

this degree of inhibition. As has been argued in more detail elsewhere,

only a catalytic involvement of P-species with the flame radicals can explain such a strong perturbation of the normal flame chemistry^^. The

catalytic processes must be more efficient than the normal radical depletion reactions of

H + OH + X ^- H^O + X (X is a third body, e.g.y H^O,

H + H + X-^H^ + X

which govern the loss of H-atoms in the post flame region. From the

known rates of these processes it can be shown that times of several

milliseconds, relative to the reaction zone, are required for these

recombinations to reduce the radical concentrations to the thermodynamic

equilibrium levels—see also Figure 12. This recombination time is

effectively reduced by the presence of inhibitors such as P, NO, SO^,

Sn, Ba and other metals"^^ . Apparently, species such as NO, SO^*

SnO, or BaOH, denoted below as M, are involved in a catalytic scheme

where the rate determining step

H + M (+X) HM (+X)
- 19 -

is many orders of magnitude faster than the normal H-atom recombination

processes. We suggest that PO is involved in an analogous process which

is essentially the fundamental basis of phosphorus-induced flame retardancy. Then the kinetically important reactions would be

PO + H (+X) HPO or POH (+X)

HPO (or POH) + H ^ H^ + PO.

Further studies are in progress to establish this reaction scheme for

phosphorus inhibited flames.

The slopes of [H] ^ versus time plots in the presence of the catalyst

provide a kinetic measure of the effectiveness of the catalytic process.

37 Figure 16 shows such plots for TMP and the similar SO2 data of Kallend

for comparison. The catalytic efficiency or figure of merit for an inhibitor, at a given concentration, has been proposed as the ratio of such a slope relative to that for the uninhibited flame. Table II lists the

derived catalytic efficiencies for several flames, together with the SO2

comparison data.

The emission intensity profiles for the HPO species also reflect the

presence of radical recombination processes involving this species (see

Figure 13) . Schemes such as

PO + H (+X) -> HPO* (+X)

PO + H^ + OH HPO* + HO 2 2

have been suggested as the source of the observed chemi luminescence '

Reactions such as these could explain the initial sharp decrease in

emission intensity downstream from the reaction zone since the H-atom

concentration profiles show a similarly sharp decrease for the same flame location. At distances of greater than about 1 cm, where the

intensities show an increase, it is likely that additional PO or excited

HPO is formed due to the temperature reduction and air entrainment that

occurs with increasing distance from the reaction zone. However, insufficient thermochemical data is presently available to allow a quantitative
Table II

Catalytic Efficiencies for Phosphorus (in comparison

with SO^) as a Flame Inhibitor

Flame Temperature Additive Mole % [P] Catalytic

(H^/O^/N^) K (mole fraction) Efficiency^

3.7/1/3 19 00 TMP 0.26 , 5.7x10-4 1.7

7/1 /"X 1 yuu u. /1 iivi 4 J.

Z. 1/1/2.

1980 TMP 0.3 6. 7xl0~4 1.6

3/1/4 2115 so/ 0.36 1.8x10-3 (S) 1.7

3/1/4 2115 so^ 0.71 3.5xlO"3 (S) 2.1

^The data is from Kallend"^^.

b

An inactive additive would yield a value of 1.0.
- 21 -

analysis of these species profiles.

5. CONCLUSIONS

We find that the TPPO or DPPP retardant additives can be quantitatively released to the vapor phase from poly (ethyleneterephthalate) substrates. However, the rate of release to the flame is strongly influenced by chemical thermodynamic and gas-dynamic factors such as

- the substrate temperature,

- the chemical form of the retardant additive, i.e. 3 whether the

active phosphorus component is present as TPPO, DPPP, or (TPPO) SnCl^,

- the synergistic presence of small amounts of nylon-6 in the

substrate

- the formation of a gas boundary layer at the polymer-preflame gas

interface, and

- the molecular weight and size of the vaporized retardant species,

which affect the diffusive flux through the boundary layer.

Consideration of the combined effect of these mass transport determining factors, for likely flame spread conditions, indicates that the

flux of retardant to the flame front will be reduced by 3 to 5 orders of

magnitude over that allowed by an ideal system—in the thermodynamic

sense. Even so, the amount of inhibitor species reaching the flame reac- tion zone is shown to be ample for a dramatic reduction in flame strength

to occur. A concentration of several hundred ppm-phosphorus in the flame

is sufficient to markedly reduce the H-atom population and concomitantly

the burning velocity or flame strength.

The observed degree of flame retardancy imparted by TPPO to PET

substrates can be adequately accounted for by a vapor phase mode of

flame inhibition—without recourse to argximents concerning modification

of the polymer physicochemical pyrolysis properties. This argxament is

consistent with an earlier observation that the presence of TPPO did not

affect the nature of PET decomposition"''^' For substrate systems with

suitable activity coefficient characteristics, of the type indicated here.
we can expect the observed vapor-phase mode of flame retardancy to be

generally effective. Given this basic requirement, this type of inhibition should provide a viable means of producing less flammable bulk

synthetic fibers and polymer svibstrates in general.

In conclusion, it is pertinent to note that the demonstrated flame

inhibiting action of phosphorus, in the absence of a halogen source, now

provides some insight as to the mechanism for the so-called synergism

found for phosphorus-halogen retardant formulations.
- 23 -

6. REFERENCES

t Present address. Science Policy Division, Congressional Research

Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. 20540

1. Lyons, J. W. , (1970) J. Fire and Flainmability, 1^,302.

2. Kuryla, W. C. and Papa, A. J., Eds., Flame Retardancy of Polymeric

Materials , Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, (1973).

3. Hilado, C. J., Flammability Handbook for Plastics , 2nd Ed.,

Technomic Print Co., Westport, Conn. (1974),

4. Tesoro, G. C. and Meiser, C. H. , Jr., (1970) Tex. Res. J., 40 , 430.

5. Gardner, J. H. , U. S. Patent No. 3,629,365 (1971).

6. Collins, J. R. (1972) , Plastics and Polymers, 40 , 283; see also

Baum, B. M. (1973) , Chem. Tech. July, 416.

7. Bostic, J. E. , Yeh, K. N. and Barker, R. H. , (1973), J. Appl.

Polymer Science, 17 , 471.

8. Juelke, C. V. and Trapasso, L. E. , U. S. Patent No 3,681,281

(1972).

9. Cleaver, R. F., (1973) Polymer, Paint and Colour J./ 107.

10. Bostic, J. E. and Barker, R. H. , "Pyrolysis and Combustion of

Polyester, Part II. Effect of Triphenylphosphine Oxide as a Flame Retardant", presented at a short covurse sponsored by the

Plastics Institute of America at Clemson Univ., Clemson, S. C.

(1974)

11. U. S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, "Studies of Death,

Injuries and Economic Losses Resulting from Accidental Burning

of Products, Fabrics or Related Materials (Sept. 1965- Feb. 1969)

First Report.

12. Vandersall, H. L. , (1971) J. Fire and Flammability, 2_, 97.

13. Hendrix, J. E. , Bostic, J. E. , Olson, E. S. and Barker, R. H.

(1970), J. Appl. Polymer Sci., 1£, 1701.

14. Drews, M. J. and Barker, R. H. (1973), Textilveredlung , £, 180.

15. Hastie, J. W. (1973), J. Res. NBS, A. Physics and Chemistry, 77A,

733.
- 24 -

16. Bostic, J. and Barker, R. , Ph. D. Thesis of Bostic, Clemson Univ.

(1972).

17. Penser, J. E. , Sello, S. B. , and Brenner, W. (1974), J. Fire and

Flammability, 5^, 227.

18. Benbow, A. W. and Cullis, S. F. (1975), Combust. Flame, 2£, 217.

19. Hastie, J. W. and McBee, C. L, in "The Mechanisms of Halogenated

Fire Suppressants", ACS Symposium Series, in press (1975).

20. Grimley, R. T. , "Mass Spectrometry" in The Characterization of

High Temperature Vapors , 195, Ed. J. L. Margrave, John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., New York, (1967). ,

21. Hastie, J. W. , (1973) Combust. Flame, 21_, 49.

22. Hastie, J. W. , (1973), Combust. Flame, 21, 187.

23. Hastie, J. W. (1975), Int. J. Mass Spec. Ion Physics, 16, 89.

24. Bulewicz, E. M. and Sugden, T. M. (1959), Trans. Faraday Soc,

52, 1475. ( V i,

25. Bulewicz, E. M. , James, C. G. and Sugden, T. M. (1956), Proc.

Roy. Soc. A255 , 89.

26. Padley, P. J. and Sugden, T. M. (1959), 7th Intl. Symp. Combustion,

Butterworths , London, 235.

27. Parts, L. , Thermal Stability of Some Phosphorus-and HalogenContaining Fire Retardants, (1973) , private communication.

28. Bailey, W. J., Muir, M. and Markesheffel , F., (1962), J. Org.

Chem. 27_, 4404. .

29. KushJefsky, B. G., U. S. Patent No. 3,660,350 (1972).

30. Fenimore, C. P., and Jones, G. W. , (1964), Combust. Flame 8, 133.

31. Lam Than My and Peyron, cited in The Spectroscopy of Flames , A. G. Gaydon, Chapman and Hall, London, (1974).

32. Volans, P., (1967), Trans. J. Plastics Inst. (Jan.), 47.

33. Fenimore, C. P., and Jones, G. W. , (1958), J. Phys. Chem. 62^, 693.

34. Fristrom, R. M. and Sawyer, R. F., Proc. AGARD Symp. Aircr. Fuels,

Lubricants, Fire Safety, 37th, The Hague (1971)
- 25 -

35. Miller, D. R. , Evers, R. L. , and Skinner, G. B. (1963), Combust.

Flame, 1_, 137.

36. Cotton, D. H. and Jenkins, D. R. (1971), Trans. Faraday Soc,

67, 730.

37. Kallend, A. S. (1972) Combust. Flame, 227.

38. Fenimore, C. P. and Jones, G. W. (1954), Combust. Flame 8_, 133.

39. Bulewicz, E. M. and Sugden. T. M. (1964) , Proc. Roy. Soc. A277 , 143.

40. Bulewicz, E. M. and Padley, P. J. (1971), 13th Intl. Symp. Com*-

bustion, 73.

41. Gilbert, P. T. , in Analytical Flame Spectroscopy , Ed.

R. Mavrodineanu, Springer-Verlag, New York, 238 (1970)

Figure Captions

1. Schematic of the optical spectroscopic apparatus for the determination of species emission intensity flame profiles.

2. Vapor pressures of triphenylphosphine oxide-TPPO (open circles) and

diphenylphenylphosphonate-DPPP (open squares) as a function of

reciprocal temperature. The closed circle and square data for TPPO

and DPPP, respectively, are from Parts (Ref . 27) ; the known melting

points for both compounds are also indicated.

3. Partial pressures of TPPO (open circles) released during thermal

degradation of the complex [SnCl^* 2TPP0] ; the vapor pressure curve of pure TPPO is also indicated for comparison.

4. Partial pressures of TPPO released during pyrolysis of the substrates

PET + 1% TPPO (open circles) and PET + 1% TPPO + 1% Ny-6 (closed

circles) ; the numbers indicate successive weight-% losses of the

TPPO additive. For this and subsequent similar data, the highest

temperature point represents a virtually complete depletion of

TPPO from the s\±)strate, i.e., 100% weight loss of TPPO. The heating

rate was maintained at 'vl °C/min.

5. Partial pressures of TPPO released during pyrolysis of the substrates,

PET + 1% TPPO (open circles) and PET + 1% TPPO + 1% Ny-6 (closed

circles) at a heating rate of 'v4 °C/min.

6. Partial pressures of TPPO released during pyrolysis of the substrates

PET + 1% TPPO (open circles) and PET + 1% TPPO + 1% Ny-6 (closed

I circles) at a heating rate of '^8 ®C/min.

7. Partial pressures of TPPO released from the substrates PET + 4% TPPO

(open circles) and PET + 4% TPPO + 4% Ny-6 (closed circles) , shown

in comparison with the partial pressures of DPPP over the substrate

PET + 6% DPPP (open squares) ; a heating rate of '^4 °C/min. was used.

8. Comparison of the release of TPPO and DPPP from the various PET

substrates given in Figure 7 and a hypothetical substrate of PET +

4% TPPO where TPPO is present as the complex [SnCl^* 2TPP0] and a unit activity coefficient for the complex in PET is assumed.

9. Activity coefficients of TPPO as a separate function of temperature

and composition in the PET substrates considered in Figs. 4-7; the

actual TPPO mole fraction cOTipositions at the indicated temperatures

are as follows:

0.0075 (closed circles); 0.0075 + 0.01 Ny-6 (open circles);

0.005 (closed squares); 0.005 + 0.01 Ny-6 (open squares);

0.0025 (open triangles); 0.0025 + 0.01 Ny-6 (closed triangles);

0.004 + 0.04 Ny-6 (semi-closed circle),'
10. Isotherms of TPPO partial pressure versus TPPO mole fraction in PET,

as calculated from the data of Figure 9. The upper curve at 450'»C

assumes y proportional to mole fraction X and the lower curves assume

Y independent of X.

11. Relative concentration profiles for (^3P0 (i.e.^ TPPO) and its decomposition products of PO and the 63±1 a.m.u. grouping of HP02> PO2

and P2 species. The position z represents the luminous reaction

zone location in the conical flame of unburnt gas of molar composition CH4 (3.3)/02 (2.5)/Ar (1.0).

12. H-atom concentration profiles as a function of time from the reaction

zone of a H2/O2/N2 = 3.7/1/3 flame at T -vigOO showing the effect

of S.TxlO""* mole fraction P as TMP (open circles) and 1.4xl0~4 mole

fraction P as POCI3 (open squares) additions; note that 1 ms time

corresponds to a distance of 1.8 cm in this flame.

13. Emission intensity versus di stance- from-burner profiles for the

discrete 525 and 554 nm spectral lines attributed to HPO; note that

the reaction zone for these flames lies within 'vQ.l cm distance

from the burner. For the curve sets (a) and (c) the mole fraction

amounts of P present are 5-7x10"'* (open squares), 9.5x10"^ (open

circles) and 2.1x10"-^ (closed circles), for sets (b) and (d) - 6.7x

10~4 (open squares), 1.1x10"-^ (open circles) and 2.5xlO~3 (closed

circles). The flames used are given by the mole ratios, H2/O2/N2 = 3.7/1/3 for sets (a) and (c) and 3.7/1/2.2 for sets (b) and (d)

14. Schematic of an idealized flame-spread system showing the presence

of a boundary layer between the substrate and flame and its qualitative effect on retardant (({i^PO) concentration; see the main text

for an explanation of symbols.

15. Relationship between flame speed and H^atom concentration at the

reaction zone for various amounts of CH4 (given in parentheses as mole-% added) in the H2/O2/N2 flame with composition 3/1/3.7. The

flame speed versus methane concentration data were interpolated

from the curves given by Miller et al (Ref . 35)

16. Variation of reciprocal H-atom concentration with time from reaction

zone for the flame systems indicated in Table II. The SO^ data are from Kallend (Ref. 37) . -
UJ

a.<oO

a. < OO -I O C/) X LL LL

UJ<DO

HI

UJ LU

DH
TEMPERATURE °C

FIGURE 2
TEMPERATURE °C

FIGURE 3

|/\iiv '3anss3ad iviiavd iNvaaviaa
I/\I1V 'HUnSSBUd WliUVd INVaUVlBU
i/\iiv '3unss3bid wiiuvd iNvauviay
'i/\iiv 'BunssBUd wimvd iNvauviau
TEMPERATURE °C

FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
(sjjun AjBJuqjB) NOIiVaiNaONOO 3Ali\n3a
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

TIME FROM REACTION ZONE, MSEC

FIGURE 12
DISTANCE FROM BURNER, cm DISTANCE FROM BURNER, cm

FIGURE 13
FLAME TRAVEL

FIGURE 14


NBS-l 14A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 75-7412. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Mechanistic Studies of Triphenylphosphine Oxide-Poly (Ethyleneterephthalate) and Related Flame Retardant Systems.

5. Publication Date AUQUS u. ±y / 3

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

J. W. Hastie and C. L. McBee

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 3130210

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Same as No. 9

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) A combination of mass spectrometric and optical spectroscopic studies has been

made to establish a mechanism for phosphorus controlled flame retardancy in thermoplastics. It is shown that a vapor phase mode of flame inhibition can account for the

known flame retardancy effect of triphenylphosphine-oxide in polyester substrates.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Flame retardancy; mass spectrometry; optical spec troscopy; phosphorus; polyester

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