U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5030

Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, 

and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, 

Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin,

1850−1999

In cooperation with the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin
Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, 

and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf 

River, Menominee Indian Reservation, 

Wisconsin, 1850−1999

By Faith A. Fitzpatrick

In cooperation with the Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin

Scientific Investigations Report 2005–5030

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

For more information about the USGS and its products:

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Cover art by Faith A. Fitzpatrick
iii

Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1

Purpose and Scope ..................................................................................................................... 2

Description of Study Area .......................................................................................................... 2

Methods.................................................................................................................................................. 6

Analysis of General Land Office Survey Notes ....................................................................... 6

Streamflow and Precipitation Data Analyses ......................................................................... 7

Transect Surveys and Sediment Coring ................................................................................... 8

Laboratory Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 8

Physical Characteristics and Organic-Matter Content ................................................ 8

Radiometric Dating and Sedimentation Rates ............................................................... 9

Sediment Chemistry ........................................................................................................... 9

Quality Control ................................................................................................................... 13

Streamflow Trends .............................................................................................................................. 13

Sedimentation Trends ........................................................................................................................ 18

Impounded Reach ...................................................................................................................... 18

Sandy Reach ............................................................................................................................... 27

Rocky Reach ............................................................................................................................... 35

Sediment-Chemistry Trends .............................................................................................................. 37

Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 43

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................. 44

References Cited................................................................................................................................. 45
iv

Figures

 1. Map showing location of valley transects, stream gages, and precipitation 

sites for the Wolf River, Wis., study area.. ....................................................................... 3

 2. Photos of A, Balsam Row Dam in 1998, looking upstream at dam, B, Keshena 

Falls Dam in 1950, and C, failed Keshena Falls Dam, Wis., in 1972. ............................. 4

 3. Longitudinal profile of the Wolf River through the Menominee Indian 

Reservation, Wis. ................................................................................................................. 5

 4. Boxplots of A, mean daily streamflow, and B, annual peak floods for the 

Wolf River near Shawano (the Balsam Row Dam), Wis., and the Wolf River at 

Keshena Falls, Wis. ........................................................................................................... 13

 5–7. Graphs showing:

 5. Annual peak streamflow from the Wolf River near Shawano (the Balsam 

 Row Dam), Wis. for 1907–1996: A, trend line for entire period of record, 

 and B, trend line for 1907–49 and 1950–96. ............................................................ 15

 6. Annual peak flow and trend lines for the Wolf River near Shawano, Wis., 

 and the Wolf River at Langlade, Wis., 1968–96. ..................................................... 16

 7. Annual precipitation and trend lines for Green Bay, Wis., 1912–49 and 

 1950–96. ........................................................................................................................ 17

 8. Map showing trace of the Wolf River, Wis., showing channel position in 1853

(before impoundment by the Balsam Row Dam). ......................................................... 19

 9. Detailed longitudinal profile of the Wolf River from Balsam Row Dam to 

Keshena Falls, Wis., showing pre-dam thalweg, 1999 thalweg, and 

approximate water surface at low flow. ........................................................................ 20

 10. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T1b, 

at 1,850 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ........................................................ 22

 11. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T1c, 

at 2,260 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ........................................................ 23

 12. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T2, 

at 2,790 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ........................................................ 24

 13. Data for 137CS, unsupported 210Pb, and 226Ra from core T2-1 from the 

Balsam Row Dam impoundment, Wolf River, Wis. ....................................................... 25

 14. Graph showing profiles for A, particle-size distribution, B, bulk density, and 

C, organic carbon concentration collected from a core at T2-1 in 2001 from 

the Balsam Row Dam impoundment, Wolf River, Wis. ................................................ 26

 15. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T3, 

at 7,050 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ........................................................ 30

 16. Valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4, at 

11,090 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). .......................................................... 31

 17. Partial valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4.2, 

at 14,930 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ...................................................... 32

 18. Partial valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4.5, 

at 15,380 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). ...................................................... 33

 19. Valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T7, at 

21,840 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). .......................................................... 34

 20. Valley transect through the rocky reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T9, at 

29,970 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9). .......................................................... 36

 21. Photo of ice damage on trees in flood plain near transect T9, April 1, 1998, 

Wolf River, Wis. .................................................................................................................. 37
v

22. Selected profiles of trace elements for core T2-1 from the Balsam Row Dam

impoundment, Wolf River, Wis.: A, chromium, lead, and zinc; B, arsenic, 

copper, and nickel; C, cadmium, mercury, and silver; and D, aluminum, 

titanium, and phosphorus ................................................................................................. 42

Tables

 1. U.S. Geological Survey stream gages used in the analyses of streamflow

 trends from the Wolf River, Wis. ...................................................................................... 6

 2. Description of valley transects and cores collected along the Wolf River 

from the Balsam Row Dam to Keshena Falls, Wis. ....................................................... 7

 3. Summary of core locations, water depths, penetration depths, samples, and 

types of cores collected from the Wolf River, Wis. ..................................................... 10

 4. Selected trend-test results for streamflow and precipitation in the Wolf River, 

Wis., study area, 1912–96 ................................................................................................. 14

 5. Water-weight percent, organic-matter content, and dry-bulk density for 

samples from the Wolf River, Wis., sediment core T2-1, 2001 .................................... 28

 6. Minor- and trace-element concentrations and particle size from core 

samples from the Wolf River, Wis., 1999 ........................................................................ 38
vi

Conversion Factors, Vertical Datum, and Abbreviated 

Units of Measurement

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

square foot (ft2

) 0.09290 square meter (m2)

square mile (mi2

) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)

Sedimentation and fl ow rates

foot per year (ft/y) 30.48 centimeter per year (cm/y)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Mass

ounce, avoidupois (oz)

pound, avoidupois (lb)

28.35

0.4536

gram (g)

kilogram (kg)

Density

pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3

) 16.02 kilogram per cubic meter

(kg/m3

)

Radioactivity

picocurie per liter (pCi/L) 0.037 becquerel per liter (Bq/L)

Hydraulic gradient

foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer (m/km)

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) can be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C = (°F-32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29). 

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Concentrations of minor and trace elements in sediment are given either in percent or 

micrograms per gram (μg/g).

Densities are given either as pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3

) or grams per cubic centimeter 

(g/cm3).
Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment 

Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian 

Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999

By Faith A. Fitzpatrick

Abstract

Historical trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and 

sediment chemistry of the Wolf River were examined 

for a 6-mile reach that flows through the southern part 

of the Menominee Indian Reservation and the northern 

part of Shawano County, Wis. Trends were examined in 

the context of effects from dams, climate, and land-cover 

change. Annual flood peaks and mean monthly flow for 

the Wolf River were examined for 1907–96 and compared 

to mean annual and mean monthly precipitation. Analysis of trends in sedimentation (from before about 1850 

through 1999) involved collection of cores and elevation 

data along nine valley transects spanning the Wolf River 

channel, flood plain, and backwater and impounded areas; 

radioisotope analyses of impounded sediment cores; and 

analysis of General Land Office Survey Notes (1853–91). 

Trends in sediment chemistry were examined by analyzing 

samples from an impoundment core for minor and trace 

elements. Annual flood peaks for the Wolf River decreased 

during 1907–49 but increased during 1950–96, most 

likely reflecting general changes in upper-atmospheric 

circulation patterns from more zonal before 1950 to more 

meridional after 1950. The decrease in flood peaks during 

1907–49 may also, in part, be due to forest regrowth. Mean 

monthly streamflow during 1912–96 increased for the 

months of February and March but decreased for June and 

July, suggesting that spring snowmelt occurs earlier in the 

season than it did in the past. Decreases in early summer 

flows may be a reflection earlier spring snowmelt and large 

rainstorms in early spring rather than early summer. These 

trends also may reflect upper-atmospheric circulation patterns. The Balsam Row Dam impoundment contains up to 

10 feet of organic-rich silty clay and has lost much of its 

storage capacity. Fine sediment has accumulated for 

1.8 miles upstream from the Balsam Row Dam. Historical 

average linear and mass sedimentation rates in the 

Balsam Row impoundment were 0.09 feet per year and 

1.15 pounds per square foot per year for 1927–62 and 

0.10 feet per year and 1.04 pounds per square foot per 

year for 1963–99. Sedimentation in the impoundment was 

episodic and was associated with large floods, especially 

the flood-related failure of the Keshena Falls Dam in 1972 

and a large flood in 1973. Sand deposition is common in 

the Wolf River upstream from the impounded reach for 

2.5 miles and is caused by the base-level increase associated with the Balsam Row Dam. Some sand deposition 

also may have been associated with logging and log drives 

in the late 1800s and the failure of the Keshena Falls 

Dam. In the upstream 1.5-mile part of the studied reach, 

the substrate is mainly rocky; however, about 2,000 feet 

downstream from Keshena Falls, the channel has narrowed 

and incised since the 1890s, likely related to human alterations associated with logging, log drives, and (or) changes 

in hydraulics and sediment characteristics associated with 

completion of the Keshena Falls Dam and head race in 

1908. Minor- and trace-element concentrations in sediment 

from Balsam Row impoundment and other depositional 

areas along the Wolf River generally reflect background 

conditions as affected by watershed geology and historical 

inputs from regional and local atmospheric deposition. 

Introduction

The Wolf River is a recreationally and economically 

important natural resource for the Menominee Indian 

Tribe of Wisconsin. A study was begun in 1998 by the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the 

Menominee Indian Tribe, to examine historical trends in 

streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry of a 

6-mi reach of the Wolf River as it flows through the 
southern part of the Menominee Indian Reservation and 

northern part of Shawano County, Wis. (fig. 1). For 24 mi 

upstream from Keshena Falls, the Wolf River was designated a Federal Wild and Scenic River in 1968. The State 

of Wisconsin also designated the river an Outstanding 

Resource Water in 1988.

Two dams, the Balsam Row Dam and the failed dam 

at Keshena Falls, form the lower and upper boundary of 

the studied reach and have affected channel characteristics 

in the reach (figs. 1–2). The Keshena Falls Dam failed in 

1972 (fig. 2C). Anecdotal evidence from local residents 

suggests that sedimentation rates in the impoundment 

above the Balsam Row Dam and sand deposition in the 

free-flowing reach upstream of the impoundment have 

accelerated in the last three decades, possibly coincident 

with the failure of the Keshena Falls Dam. Floodingrelated ice jams in winter also have been a problem in the 

town of Keshena after the failure of the Keshena Falls 

Dam (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995). 

The goals of this study were to (1) describe historical 

trends (for the last 100 years or more) in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment-chemistry characteristics for the 

Wolf River and (2) identify major factors affecting flooding, sedimentation, and sediment-chemistry characteristics. 

Data collected as part of this study were useful for determining long-term and upstream/downstream effects from 

dams on channel characteristics of the Wolf River. Data are 

useful for establishing baseline conditions in case of future 

changes in hydrology, sedimentation, or sediment chemistry. Results from the study also provide information for 

protection or management of available resources, including 

water quantity, water quality, and aquatic habitat.

Purpose and Scope

This report presents the results from the study of 

historical trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry for a 6-mi reach of the Wolf River between 

the Balsam Row Dam in Shawano County and Keshena 

Falls in the Menominee Reservation (fig. 1). Trends are 

described for annual flood peaks and mean monthly flow 

for the Wolf River based on about 90 years of combined 

data (1907–96) from two USGS stream gages—Keshena 

Falls and the Balsam Row Dam (near Shawano). Annual 

flood peaks during 1968–96 from the stream gage near 

Shawano were compared to flood peaks at an upstream 

gage on the Wolf River near Langlade, Wis. Precipitation 

data from three nearby precipitation stations for 1907–96 

are compared to the streamflow trends. Sedimentation patterns in channel, backwater, flood-plain, and impounded 

areas, historical sedimentation rates, and channel changes 

are described for a period from about 1850 (pre-European 

settlement) to 1999. Lastly, minor- and trace-element 

concentrations in impounded, backwater, and flood-plain 

sediment are described in terms of historical trends (about 

1850–1999) and spatial distribution. This report attempts 

to evaluate the effects of climate change, logging, forest 

regrowth, and dams on trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry over the historical period of 

interest.

Description of Study Area

The Wolf River upstream of the Balsam Row Dam 

has a drainage area of 816 mi2 and has a temperate, continental climate characterized by large seasonal changes in 

temperature but little variation in monthly precipitation. 

The Wolf River Basin is typified by an average annual 

temperature of 43°F, about 30 in. of annual precipitation, 

48 in. of annual snowfall, and 18 in. of annual evapotranspiration (Wendland and others, 1985; Olcott, 1968). 

The reach of the Wolf River included in this study 

(fig. 1) generally flows south through coarse-grained 

glacial deposits and outwash (Clayton and others, 1991; 

Milfred and others, 1967). These deposits are underlain by 

Precambrian granite and syenite rocks associated with the 

Wolf River Complex (Mudrey and others, 1982). Rocks 

associated with the Wolf River Complex crop out at Keshena Falls but are buried by glacial, outwash, and fluvial 

deposits to the south and through most of the study reach. 

Flood-plain soils near the Wolf River are characterized as loamy Fluvaquents or Fluvents and are underlain 

by coarse- and fine-grained deposits associated with outwash plains or glacial lakes (Gundlach and others, 1982). 

The flood-plain soils generally contain about an 8-in. 

thick organic surface layer, although some have as much 

as 15 in. of organic-rich loam at the surface. Upland soils 

near the studied reach are well-drained sandy or loamy 

Spodosols or Alfisols (Gundlach and others, 1982).

The slope of the Wolf River is highly variable 

through the Menominee Indian Reservation but flattens 

out considerably below Keshena Falls (fig. 3). Based on 

measurements of stream length and contour intervals from 

USGS 7.5-minute topographic maps, the average slope 

is 11.6 ft/mi from the headwaters to Big Smoky Falls, 

and the average slope from Big Smoky Falls to Keshena 

Falls is 4.9 ft/mi. In contrast, the average slope is 2.0 ft/mi 

downstream from Keshena Falls to the Balsam Row Dam. 

Land cover in the Wolf River Basin upstream from 

the Balsam Row Dam is mainly forest (72 percent of the 

2 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999
Introduction 3

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Figure 1. Location of valley transects, stream gages, and precipitation sites for the Wolf River, Wis., study area.
4 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999

Figure 2. Photos of A, Balsam Row Dam in 1998, looking upstream at dam, B, Keshena Falls Dam in 1950, and C, failed Keshena 

Falls Dam, Wis., in 1972. (Photos B and C from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Dam File No. 72.1, Madison, Wis.)

A

B

C
basin) and wetland (15 percent) as inferred from 1992–93 

satellite imagery (Reese and others, 2002). Cropland 

accounts for only 4 percent of the drainage area. Of the 

forested land, 78 percent is deciduous (mainly aspen and 

maple), 16 percent is mixed deciduous and conifer, and 

6 percent is conifer. Along the study reach, vegetation in 

the upland generally is categorized as pine plantation (Milfred and others, 1967). The Menominee Indian Tribe has 

used selective logging and sustainable forestry techniques 

on their lands since the reservation was established in 1854 

(Menominee Tribal Enterprises, 1997). The reservation 

covers the lower third of the Wolf River Basin (fig. 1). 

Most of the upper part of the basin was logged before 1900 

(Connor, 1978). The Wolf River and its tributaries were 

used for transportation of saw logs from the upper basin 

to Shawano and further downstream during the late 1800s 

(Oehmcke and Truax, 1964; Connor, 1978). Logging in the 

area peaked in 1873.

In the late 1800s the upper Wolf River had various small dams related to logging and log drives (Smith, 

1908; U.S. Department of Agriculture and the University 

of Wisconsin, 1961). Both the Keshena Falls Dam and 

the Balsam Row Dam were used for hydroelectric power 

generation. Neither dam has flood-control function. The 

presence of some sort of dam structure at Keshena Falls 

dates back to the 1870s and was related to logging, but the 

most recent dam was constructed in 1906–08 and failed in 

1972 (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Dam 

File No. 72.1, Madison, Wis.). The Keshena Falls Dam 

had about 16 ft of head. The dam consisted of two parts—a 

wooden apron that extended across the main channel of the 

Wolf River and four gates across a diversion canal (head 

race) for the powerplant (fig. 2B). The failure of the Keshena Falls Dam in 1972 happened after about 9 years of 

disrepair along the left side of the wooden spillway apron 

(Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Dam File 

No. 72.1, Madison, Wis.) (fig. 2C).

The Balsam Row Dam (fig. 2A) was constructed in 

1927 and there is no indication of any earlier version of a 

dam at Balsam Row before then (Smith, 1908). The Balsam Row Dam has six gates and about 14 ft of head. The 

powerhouse is on the east side of the dam embankment 

next to the gates. 

A general description of the surface-water and 

ground-water quality for the Menominee Indian Reservation was previously published in Krohelski and others 

(1994). Garn and others (2001) provide additional data on 

the quality of water, sediment, and selected benthic organisms from the Wolf River during 1986–98.

Introduction 5















         

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Figure 3. Longitudinal profile of the Wolf River through the Menominee Indian Reservation, Wis.
Methods

This study involved collecting and compiling historical records as well as collecting new field data. General 

Land Office Survey notes provided information on channel 

characteristics before and during European settlement, logging, and log drives in the mid to late 1800s.

Streamflow trend analyses involved statistical 

examination of trends in annual peak and average monthly 

flow data from a former USGS stream gage at the Balsam 

Row Dam near Shawano, Wis. (USGS station number 

04077400), with 93 years of data (1907–09, 1910–2001). 

The stream gage was moved from Keshena Falls to the 

Balsam Row Dam in 1985 (table 1). Mean daily flow data 

were examined before and after the site location changed 

to confirm that streamflow characteristics were the same 

at both locations. Annual peak data from the Shawano 

site also were compared to data from the Wolf River near 

Langlade, Wis. (USGS station number 04074950). The 

drainage area of the Wolf River at Langlade is about half 

that of the Wolf River near Shawano (table 1). Trend 

analysis was also done on annual and monthly precipitation from three nearby National Weather Service climate 

stations (Rhinelander, Shawano, and Green Bay, Wis.) over 

the same period to identify climatic effects on streamflow 

characteristics. 

Analysis of historical changes in sedimentation and 

sediment quality involved collection of cores and elevation 

data along nine valley transects spanning the Wolf River 

channel, flood plain, and impounded area above the Balsam Row Dam from February through June 1999 (table 2). 

Locations of transects are shown in figure 1. The number 

of cores collected along each transect varied because of 

differences in the number of depositional environments 

found along each transect. For example, transect T4.2 

was along a stretch of the Wolf River with no flood plain 

and a uniform sand channel bottom. In contrast, transect 

T7 intersected a longitudinal bar, a backwater channel, 

and flood-plain deposits and required more cores for an 

adequate description of the range of fluvial environments 

traversed. Sediment samples were selected from cores of 

the various environments and analyzed for sediment chemistry, radiometric age dating, and particle-size distribution. 

In November 2001, a second core was collected near core 

T2-1 to obtain additional information on water, organicmatter content, and dry-bulk density. 

Analysis of General Land Office Survey Notes

General Land Office (GLO) Surveys were done in the 

mid 1800s across Wisconsin to map and establish townships, ranges, and sections. In northern Wisconsin, these 

surveys usually were done before European settlement and 

were useful for characterizing stream conditions before 

widespread logging and burning coincident with European settlement in the late 1800s. Copies of original GLO 

survey notes were obtained from the State of Wisconsin, 

Board of Commissioners of Public Lands for two townships: Township 27 North, Range 15 East, and Township 

28 North, Range 15 East. The surveys were done from 

1845 through 1891, with notes for the south boundary of 

Township 28 from 1845, Township 27 from 1853, and 

Township 28 from 1891. 

Field notes from the GLO Surveys contain information on vegetation, soils, and the lay of the land, as well 

as the location, width, depth, substrate, swiftness of flow, 

and direction of streams at section-line crossings. These 

notes were used to determine the location of the Wolf 

River channel before the impoundment of water behind the 

Balsam Row Dam. Meander data for the Wolf River also 

were reported; these data described the location of both 

streambanks longitudinally.

Table 1. U.S. Geological Survey stream gages used in the analyses of streamflow trends from the Wolf River, Wis.

[mi2, square miles]

Station name

USGS station identification 

number (fig. 1) Period of record

Drainage area

(mi2)

Wolf River at Balsam Row Dam near Shawano, Wis. 04077400 1985–2001 816

Wolf River at Keshena/Keshena Falls, Wis. 04077000 1907–09,1910–85 788

Wolf River at Langlade, Wis. 04074950 1968–present 463

6 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999
Streamflow and Precipitation Data Analyses

Data from two USGS stream gages on the Wolf River 

were examined for trends in annual flood peaks and mean 

monthly flow: the Wolf River near Shawano (the Balsam 

Row Dam) and the Wolf River near Langlade (fig. 1, 

table 1). The gage near Shawano was moved from Keshena 

Falls to the Balsam Row Dam in 1985 and was operated 

at the Balsam Row Dam until 2001. Streamflow data for 

the two gages were combined and recorded under site 

04077400 in USGS databases because of similar drainage areas (table 1). Annual flood peaks for the combined 

record are available for 1907–09 and 1910–96. Mean 

monthly data are available for 1912–96. Mean daily 

flow and annual peaks from 1975–85 and 1985–95 were 

examined for differences by use of two-sample t-tests with 

log-transformed data and the nonparametric Wilcoxon 

rank sum test (Iman and Conover, 1983). Gebert and Krug 

(1996) also combined data from the Balsam Row Dam and 

Keshena Falls gages and examined trends in annual flood 

peaks and low flow for the period of record 1931–91.

Tests for normal distributions of the data were performed and log transformations were used to normalize the 

data. The log-transformed data were analyzed for trends by 

use of the least squares method for linear regression (Iman 

and Conover, 1983). Slopes in the trend lines were conTable 2. Description of valley transects and cores collected along the Wolf River from the Balsam Row Dam to Keshena Falls, Wis. 

[Distances are curvilinear channel distances; ft, feet]

Transect

(fig. 1) Description

Distance 

upstream 

of Balsam 

Row Dam (ft)

Distance along 

longitudinal 

profile 

(ft) (fig. 9)

Number of 

cores

collected

Number of 

duplicate 

cores

collected

Cores 

sampled for 

laboratory 

analyses

T1b Impoundment 450 1,850 3 0 None

T1c Impoundment 860 2,260 3 0 None

T2 Impoundment 1,390 2,790 4 1 T2-1

T3 Cedar wetland, rice beds, water 

impounded but some current

5,650 7,050 4 0 None

T4 County line, large backwater 

area on left side

9,690 11,090 10 4 T4-7, T4-9

T4.2 Sand deposition in channel 13,530 14,930 4 0 None

T4.5 Sand deposition in channel 13,980 15,380 1 0 None

T51 Sand deposition in channel 15,200 16,600 3 0 None

T61 Sand deposition in channel 17,500 18,900 2 0 None

T7 Large depositional bar on right 

side of channel

20,440 21,840 17 4 T7-2, T7-3,

T7-12

T9 Wide flood plain 28,570 29,970 12 7 T9-2

1

 No valley transect surveys were done for T5 and T6.

sidered statistically significant if p-values were less than 

0.10. Trend analyses were done on annual peak flow and 

mean monthly data for 1907–96 and also divided into preand post-1950 periods because hemispheric-scale climate 

change is thought to have occurred around 1950 (Knox 

and others, 1975; Kalnicky, 1974). Although highly variable and season-dependent, upper atmospheric circulation 

patterns generally changed from more zonal (west-east) 

before 1950 to more meridional (north-south) after 1950. 

Changes in upper atmospheric circulation in Wisconsin 

affect the frequency, intensity, and seasonality of precipitation (Knox and others, 1975). Meridional patterns tend 

to produce more floods on an annual basis than any other 

circulation pattern. Zonal patterns tend to produce mild 

weather in the Great Lakes region (Eichenlaub, 1979).

Annual precipitation data from three long-term 

climate stations (Rhinelander, Shawano, and Green Bay, 

fig. 1) were obtained from the State Climatologist’s Office 

in Madison, Wisconsin. The stations are operated by the 

National Weather Service. The Rhinelander station had 

data beginning in 1908. Precipitation records for Shawano 

began in 1923 and for Green Bay began in 1912. Trend 

analyses (least squares method for linear regression) were 

done on average annual and average monthly precipitation 

data in the same fashion as was done with the streamflow 

data.

Methods 7
Transect Surveys and Sediment Coring

Data collected from valley transect surveys and sediment coring were used to determine historical sedimentation rates and historical trends in sediment chemistry. A 

reconnaissance trip was done in October 1998 along the 

Wolf River from Keshena Falls to the Balsam Row Dam to 

identify possible transects for sediment coring. Nine transects (fig. 1; table 2) were selected along the study reach 

and numbered in upstream order, the starting point being 

at the Balsam Row Dam. Transects were located in reaches 

with a flood plain and with depositional zones within the 

channel. Transects were surveyed in May and June 1999 

by use of an auto level. A global positioning system was 

used to verify the location of each transect. Elevation data 

were tied into U.S. Army Corps of Engineers reference 

marks from a flood-plain delineation study done in 1995 

(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995). Soft- and hardbottom elevations for transect T1b, T1c, T2, T3, and T4 

were collected by use of a sounding pole in unwadeable 

areas. Hard-bottom elevations are assumed to be elevations 

of pre-dam sediment surfaces (streambed, streambank, 

backwater, or flood plain). No valley-transect surveys were 

done at T5 and T6; only exploratory cores from channel 

deposits were collected during the reconnaissance trip.

The thickness, texture, chemistry, and age of sediment in the flood plain, backwater areas, impoundment, 

and modern channel were examined by sediment coring 

and sampling with four devices, including a 1-in.-diameter 

hand-held soil probe, a geoprobe, and two types of piston 

corers—the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources 

(WDNR) corer (3-in. diameter) and the modified Livingston corer (2-in. diameter) (table 3). The hand-held 

soil probe was useful for quick exploratory coring of 

flood-plain deposits and field sediment descriptions. The 

geoprobe is a tapping-type coring device that was mounted 

on a four-wheel all-terrain vehicle and was used to collect 

cores from the impounded reach when it was frozen and 

from accessible flood-plain areas. The WDNR corer is 

limited to depths less than about 2 m and was used to collect cores from inundated areas. The modified Livingston 

was used to collect multiple cores at depth from finegrained deposits (Wright, 1967).

Cores were collected along transects T1b, T1c, and 

T2 with the geoprobe and the piston corers in February 

and March 1999 while the impoundment was frozen. 

Elevations of pre-dam surfaces identified in the cores were 

compared to elevations of the hard bottom determined 

with the sounding pole. The remainder of the coring was 

done in May and June 1999 by use of a boat or by wading. Backwater, channel, and impoundment deposits were 

cored with the WDNR and Livingston piston corer. The 

WDNR corer was used first, and then the Livingston 

corer was used to collect cores at deeper intervals. Before 

coring, potential sites were submitted to the Environmental Services Department, Menominee Indian Tribe for 

checking against known archeological sites. No cores were 

collected from known archeological sites. 

All cores were described for texture and color in the 

field by use of the U.S. Department of Agriculture textural 

triangle and color chart (Munsell Color, 1975; Soil Survey 

Staff, 1951). Field grading of texture was done by rubbing 

soil between the fingers (Milfred, 1967). Recovery ratios 

were recorded for all coring devices. Sediment samples 

from a subset of cores were analyzed for water content, 

organic matter, particle size, chemistry, and radiometric 

dating (table 2). County-level soil survey data also were 

used to verify the lateral extent of deposits observed in the 

cores (unpublished Menominee County Soil Survey, about 

1999; Gundlach and others, 1982). 

Buried soils are commonly found in flood-plain 

deposits and can be good indicators of flood-plain surface 

stability. Buried soils represent older flood-plain surfaces 

(Birkland, 1984; Retallick, 1985). In general, modern 

flood-plain soils are usually poorly developed because 

of the possibility of a fast rate of burial, high water table, 

and anthropogenic disturbance. Many buried flood-plain 

surfaces will have the beginnings of an A horizon or only 

a thin layer of organic matter and remnants of vegetation. 

The A horizon is a dark zone at the surface of the soil 

caused by accumulation of decomposing organic matter. 

The buried flood-plain surfaces can be recognized by one 

or more of the following characteristics: presence of an 

A horizon, organic matter accumulation from flood-plain 

vegetation, lateral extent (a buried surface is parallel to 

the land surface and may truncate geologic bedding), root 

traces, and soil structure (Birkland, 1984; Retallick, 1985). 

Sometimes, part of a buried soil will be removed by scour 

activity associated with flooding, channel migration, or 

channel avulsion. 

Laboratory Analysis

Physical Characteristics and Organic-Matter 

Content

Physical characteristics measured included waterweight percent, particle size, and organic-matter content 

(loss on ignition). Water-weight percent and organic-mat8 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999
ter content were analyzed at the USGS, Middleton, Wis., 

for 47 samples collected from core T2-1. Water-weight 

percent was measured by use of standard American 

Society for Testing and Materials Procedure D2216-92 

(1992), except that sample sizes were less than 20 g wet 

weight because of the numerous samples from the single 

core. Water-weight percent was determined by measuring weight loss after 24 hours at 105°C. Organic-matter 

content was determined by weight loss after ashing (loss 

on ignition, or LOI) at 550°C for 1 hour (Dean, 1974). 

Dry-bulk density was estimated by use of the formula

where ρ is dry-bulk density (g/cm3), x is depth in the core, 

D is proportion dry weight of unit wet volume, I is inorganic proportion of dry material (assuming a density of 

2.5 g/cm3), and C is organic proportion of dry material 

(assuming a density of 1.6 g/cm3) (Håkanson and Jansson, 

1983). The density of water is assumed to be 1.00 g/cm.

Twenty-six samples were analyzed for particle size 

at the USGS Cascades Volcano Laboratory at Vancouver, 

Wash. Samples were analyzed for percent sand, silt (four 

size fractions), and clay by the sieve-pipet method (Guy, 

1969). 

Radiometric Dating and Sedimentation Rates

Analyses of 137Cs, 210Pb, and 226Ra were done on 

twelve 3-in. intervals from core T2-1, which contained 

84 in. (7 ft) of post-dam sediment, and eight 0.1-ft intervals from core T7-2, which contained 1 ft of post-dam 

sediment. Analyses were done at Quanterra Analytical 

Services, Richland, Wash. Activity concentrations of 210Pb, 

226Ra, and 137Cs were determined from gamma spectroscopy counting. The profile for 137Cs is used to compare 

sedimentation rates before and after 1963. In 1945, 137Cs 

was first detected, and in 1954 the first increase occurred 

in the Northern Hemisphere, corresponding to increased 

nuclear weapons testing (Krishnaswami and Lal, 1978). 

In 1960 a minimum occurred, followed by a maximum 

in 1963. With the signing of the atmospheric nuclear test 

ban treaty, atmospheric contributions have dropped off 

substantially (Olsson, 1986). A date of 1963 was assigned 

to the sample with the highest 137Cs activity. Mass and 

linear sedimentation rates were determined for 1927–63 

and 1963–99, from dam construction to the time the cores 

were collected.

The 210Pb dating technique is based on the escape 

of radon from the Earth and the subsequent decay of this 

radioactive gas into 210Pb. This technique is most suitable 

for dating within the last 150 years because the half-life 

of 210Pb is about 22 years (Olsson, 1986). To account for 

some of the variability associated with possible fluctuation in the sources of lead or inhomogeneous sediment, 

226Ra also was analyzed in each of the samples. Optimally, 

samples from sediment more than 150 years old are collected to measure local background concentrations of 210Pb 

supplied to the sediment from decay of uranium minerals 

(Olsson, 1986). Unsupported (excess) 210Pb activity was 

estimated by subtracting the average 226Ra activity for all 

sampled intervals in a core from total 210Pb activity. For 

the constant initial concentration model, the amount of 

unsupported 210Pb activity in the uppermost sediment layer 

is assumed to be constant through time; thus, a profile 

of 210Pb activity exhibits a log-linear decrease with depth 

(Goldberg, 1963; Krishnaswami and others, 1971; and 

Robbins, 1978).

Wood or organic material was collected from backwater and impoundment cores from transects T4, T7, and T9 

and nine samples were radiocarbon dated (14C). Radiocarbon analyses can be useful for dating carbon-rich samples 

from about 200 to 40,000 years old (Bowman, 1990; 

Libby, 1946). Two types of radiocarbon analyses were 

done. Two samples were large enough for conventional 

radiocarbon techniques, which use beta particle counting 

from decaying 14C atoms to estimate the age of the sample. 

Seven samples weighed less than 3 g and required the use 

of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). All samples 

were analyzed at Beta Analytic, Inc., Miami, Fla. Calendar calibrated age ranges were calibrated by the Pretoria 

calibration procedure (Talma and Vogel, 1993; Stuiver and 

others, 1998).

Sediment Chemistry

Twenty-eight samples from six cores were submitted 

to the USGS National Water-Quality Laboratory, Denver, 

Colo., to be analyzed for 26 minor and trace elements. 

Plastic equipment (Teflon, polypropylene, or polyethylene) was used to subsample cores. The WDNR piston core 

tube was composed of Lexane, and the geoprobe cores 

had plastic liners. The Livingston core tube was composed 

of stainless steel. Samples were not sieved. Laboratory 

methodology is detailed in Arbogast (1996) and Briggs 

and Meier (1999). Total digestions were done. 

Methods 9

R $)

X

#X 		

$
$	)

X

#X 		
Core Description

Water depth

(ft)

Penetration depth

(ft)

Samples 

saved

Sample 

analyses Type of core

Site file 

established

Transect T1b

1 138 feet west of LB, impoundment 4.9 4.9 no no WDNR piston no2 276 feet west of LB, impoundment 6.6 5.1 no no WDNR piston no3 414 feet west of LB, impoundment 6.0 12.1 no no WDNR piston, 

Livingston

no

Transect T1c

1 150 feet west of LB, impoundment 4.9 13.4 no no WDNR piston, 

Livingston

no

2 300 feet west of LB, impoundment 6.6 8.4 no no WDNR piston, 

Livingston

no

Transect T2

1 150 feet west of LB, impoundment 6.2 8 te, cs, ps te, cs, ps WDNR piston, 

geoprobe, Livingston

Feb-99

2 300 feet west of LB, impoundment 2.3 4.2 yes no WDNR piston no3 450 feet west of LB, impoundment 5.2 4.9 yes no WDNR piston no4 600 feet west of LB, impoundment 8.05 3.1 yes no WDNR piston no

Transect T4

1 200 feet right of RP1, hayfield, terrace 0 29 core no Geoprobe no2 100 feet right of RP1, hayfield, terrace 0 22 core no Geoprobe no3 10.5 feet right of RP1, hayfield, flood plain 0 29 core no Geoprobe no4 300 feet right of RP1, hayfield, base of terrace slope 0 8 core no Geoprobe no5 400 feet right of RP1, hayfield, base of terrace slope 0 8 core no Geoprobe no6 186 feet right of LEW, center channel 6.2 1.7 no no WDNR piston no7 40 feet right of LEW, backwater 1.4 3.6 no no WDNR piston Sep-997a 40 feet right of LEW, backwater 1.4 3.4 te, ps, peat te, ps, wd WDNR piston no7b 40 feet right of LEW, backwater 1.4 3.4 ps, peat, wd ps, wd WDNR piston no7c 40 feet right of LEW, backwater 1.6 3.5-5.1 wd no Livingston no8 80 feet right of LEW, backwater .8 3.6 no no WDNR piston no9 120 feet right of LEW, backwater .4 3.1 no no WDNR piston Sep-999a 120 feet right of LEW, backwater .3 3.2 te, wd te, wd WDNR piston no9b 120 feet right of LEW, backwater .4 3.4 ps, wd ps WDNR piston no

10 ~80 feet u.s. of T4-7, backwater 1.85 1.8 no no WDNR piston no

Table 3. Summary of core locations, water depths, penetration depths, samples, and types of cores collected from the Wolf River, Wis.[ft, feet; LB, left bank; WDNR, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; te, minor and trace elements; cs, 137Cs and 210Pb radiometric dating; ps, particle size; RP1, Reference point (survey stake) for transect endpoint; LEW, left edge of water; u.s., upstream; wd, radiocarbon; --, not measured]

10 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999
Core Description

Water depth

(ft)

Penetration depth

(ft)

Samples 

saved

Sample 

analyses Type of core

Site file 

established

Transect T4.2

4.2-1 111 feet right of LEW, channel 2.7 2.05 no no WDNR piston no4.2-2 150 feet right of LEW, channel 2.7 1.4 no no WDNR piston no4.2-3 90 feet right of LEW, channel 3.8 2.8 no no WDNR piston no4.2-4 60 feet right of LEW, channel 4.1 .15 no no WDNR piston no

Transect T4.5

4.5-1 150 feet right of LEW, channel 0.5 2.35 no no WDNR piston no4.5-2 170 feet right of LEW, channel 1.1 2.7 no no WDNR piston no

Transect T5

1 paleochannel 0.0 4.0 no no Oakfield soil probe no2 right side, thalweg -- .3 no no Oakfield soil probe no3 left side, channel -- 1.75 no no Oakfield soil probe no

Transect T6

1 right side, channel margin, backwater 0.3 2.5 no no Oakfield soil probe no2 right side, channel -- .5 no no Oakfield soil probe no

Transect T7

1 460 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.5 3.2 wd no WDNR piston no2 430 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.9 2.1 ps ps WDNR piston Sep-99

2a 430 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.9 1.1 te, cs te, cs WDNR piston no

2b 430 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.9 3.1-4.4 wd wd Livingston no

3 418 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.8 2.2 wd no WDNR piston no

3a 418 feet right of RP1, backwater channel 0.8 2.2-2.9 wd wd Livingston no

4 85 feet right of RP1, main channel 3.7 1.9 wd no WDNR piston no5 105 feet right of RP1, main channel 3.5 1 wd no WDNR piston no6 125 feet right of RP1, main channel 3.2 0.8 wd no WDNR piston no7 150 feet right of RP1, main channel 3 0.6 wd no WDNR piston no8 175 feet right of RP1, main channel 1.2 2.0 no no WDNR piston no9 200 feet right of RP1, main channel 0.5 0.8 no no WDNR piston no

10 225 feet right of RP1, island 0 5.2 no no Oakfield soil probe no

11 250 feet right of RP1, island 0 7.2 no no Oakfield soil probe no

Table 3. Summary of core locations, water depths, penetration depths, samples, and types of cores collected from the Wolf River, Wis.—Continued[ft, feet; LB, left bank; WDNR, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; te, minor and trace elements; cs, 137Cs and 210Pb radiometric dating; ps, particle size; RP1, Reference point (survey stake) for transect endpoint; LEW, left edge of water; u.s., upstream; wd, radiocarbon; --, not measured]

Methods 11
Table 3. Summary of core locations, water depths, penetration depths, samples, and types of cores collected from the Wolf River, Wis.—Continued

[ft, feet; LB, left bank; WDNR, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; te, minor and trace elements; cs, 137Cs and 210Pb radiometric dating; ps, particle size; RP1, Reference point (survey stake) for transect endpoint; LEW, left edge of water; u.s., upstream; wd, radiocarbon; --, not measured]

12 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999 Core Description Water depth (ft) Penetration depth (ft) Samples saved Sample analyses Type of core Site file established Transect T7—Continued 12 305 feet right of RP1, island 0 5 wd wd Oakfield soil probe Sep-99 12a 305 feet right of RP1, island 0 2 te, wd te, wd Oakfield soil probe no 12b 305 feet right of RP1, island 0 2 ps ps Oakfield soil probe no 13 370 feet right of RP1, island 0 6 no no Oakfield soil probe no 13a 370 feet right of RP1, island 0 2 core no Oakfield soil probe na 14 615 feet right of RP1, right flood plain 0 2 no no Oakfield soil probe no 15 715 feet right of RP1, right low terrace 0 1 no no Oakfield soil probe no 16 at RP3, terrace slope 0 1 no no Oakfield soil probe no 17 565 feet right of RP1, right flood plain 0 1.8 no no Oakfield soil probe no Transect T9 1 140 feet left of RP1, flood plain between chute and side channel 0 2.5 no no Oakfield soil probe no 2 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 2.5 no no Oakfield soil probe no 2 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 31 wd wd Geoprobe Sep-99 2a 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 4 cores te Geoprobe no 2b 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 4 cores te Geoprobe no 2c 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 4 cores ps Geoprobe no 2d 0 feet from RP1, flood plain 0 4 cores ps Geoprobe no 2.3 20 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 2.8 no no Oakfield soil probe no 2.5 center of flood chute 0 1.2 no no Oakfield soil probe no 2.8 100 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 3 no no Oakfield soil probe no 3 200 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 3 no no Oakfield soil probe no 3 200 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 31 cores no Geoprobe no 3.5 300 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 1.5 no no Oakfield soil probe no 4 400 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 2 no no Oakfield soil probe no 4 400 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 33 cores no Geoprobe no 5 600 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 4 no no Oakfield soil probe no 5.5 650 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 ~4 no no Oakfield soil probe no 6 700 feet left of RP1, flood plain 0 3.5 no no Oakfield soil probe no 7 770 feet left of RP1, terrace 0 3 no no Oakfield soil probe no
Quality Control

Quality-control procedures included collecting and 

analyzing samples from duplicate cores and about 15 percent replicate samples to assess within-site and analytical 

variance. Quality-control measures at the USGS laboratories included comparisons to standard reference materials, 

spikes, and duplicates (Pirkey and Glodt, 1998).

Streamflow Trends

Results from two-sided t-tests indicate no statistically significant differences for streamflow between the 

Balsam Row Dam and Keshena Falls stream gages for 

either mean daily flows or annual peaks over the period 

1975–96. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests for the same data 

yielded similar results. Boxplots illustrate the absence of 

difference between the sites in mean daily flow and annual 

flood peaks (fig. 4). These results indicate that combining 

data from both sites for analyses of streamflow trends was 

appropriate. Hereafter, streamflow trends from the combined records are referred to as the record from the Wolf 

River near Shawano. 

Annual flood peaks from the Wolf River near Shawano for the entire period of record (1907–96) showed 

no statistically significant trend based on linear regression on log-transformed discharge data (table 4; fig. 5A). 

These results are similar to those found by Gebert and 

Krug (1996) for the period 1931–91. However, when the 

annual flood peaks are divided into two periods before and 

after 1950, there is a statistically significant downtrend in 

annual flood peaks for 1907–49 and an uptrend for 1950–

96 (fig. 5B). During 1907–49, only three large floods with 

a recurrence interval of about 25 years occurred—those in 

1912, 1922, and 1929. (The recurrence interval is based 

on the entire record from 1907–96.) The 1912 flood was 

in September and the 1922 and 1929 floods were in April. 

During 1950–96, four large floods occurred with recurrence intervals of 50–100 years: those in 1960 (75-year), 

1973 (greater than 100-year), 1976 (50-year), and 1986 

(50-year). These floods were in March–May and resulted 

from a combination of snowmelt and intense rainfall. In 

general, these trends are similar to results found for floods 

in the Upper Mississippi Valley, where upper atmospheric 

circulation patterns were mainly zonal before 1950 and 

meridional after 1950 (Knox and others, 1975). Meridional 

(north-south) patterns tend to produce more floods on an 

annual basis than other circulation types. 

Data collection at the Langlade stream gage on the 

Wolf River began in 1968, much later than at the Shawano 

gage (table 1). A comparison of annual flood peaks from 

Langlade and Shawano for 1968–96 showed no significant 

trend in annual flood peaks for the period (fig. 6). The 

records are somewhat similar, but large floods in the lower 

Wolf (Shawano) did not always correspond to large floods 

in the upper Wolf (Langlade). Four of the six major floods 

above 3,000 ft3

/s at Shawano (1973, 1976, 1986, and 

1996) corresponded to similarly large floods at Langlade 

(fig. 6). Examination of the time of year for the floods 

indicates that spring snowmelt coupled possibly with 

frontal-type precipitation (large extent, low intensity, long 

Streamflow Trends 13



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Figure 4. Boxplots of A, mean daily streamflow, and B, annual peak floods for the Wolf River near Shawano (Balsam Row Dam), 

Wis., and the Wolf River at Keshena Falls, Wis. The stream gage was moved from Keshena Falls to Balsam Row Dam in 1985.
duration) caused large floods in both the upper and lower 

Wolf River. However, convectional precipitation (summer 

thunderstorms with limited extent, high intensity, and short 

duration) resulted in more localized flooding, as indicated 

by June floods in 1969 and 1993 for the lower Wolf River 

but not the upper Wolf River.

Similar to annual flood peaks, annual precipitation data for the entire period of record did not show 

any significant trends (p > 0.10) for the three precipitation sites (table 4). For 1912–49, the Green Bay site had 

a downtrend in annual precipitation (fig. 7), similar to 

the downtrend in annual flood peaks (fig 5B). However, 

data from the Rhinelander site had an uptrend that was 

not statistically significant, and the Shawano site had a 

nonsignificant downtrend (table 4). The Rhinelander and 

Shawano sites are closer to the Wolf River Basin than the 

Green Bay site is (fig. 1). Annual precipitation data from 

all three sites showed a nonsignificant uptrend during 

14 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999

Table 4. Selected trend-test results for streamflow and precipitation in the Wolf River, Wis., study area, 1912–96.

[A negative t-statistic reflects a decreasing trend and a positive t-statistic reflects an increasing trend. Statistically significant trends (p-values < 0.10) 

are in bold.]

Type of data Time period Regression t-statistic P-value for regression

Wolf River near Shawano, Wis.—streamflow (log-transformed)

Annual flood peak 1907–96 0.50 0.62

Annual flood peak 1907–49 -1.72 .094

Annual flood peak 1950–96 2.03 .049

January mean monthly 1912–96 1.56 .12

February mean monthly 1912–96 1.96 .054

March mean monthly 1912–96 1.91 .059

April mean monthly 1912–96 -.24 .80

May mean monthly 1912–96 -1.64 .10

June mean monthly 1912–96 -2.10 .038

July mean monthly 1912–96 -1.71 .09

August mean monthly 1912–96 -.71 .48

September mean monthly 1912–96 -.23 .82

October mean monthly 1912–96 .29 .77

November mean monthly 1912–96 .15 .89

December mean monthly 1912–96 1.12 .27

July mean monthly 1912–49 -1.95 .058

Green Bay, Wis.—precipitation (monthly log-transformed)

Annual 1912–96 1.03 .31

Annual 1912–49 -1.76 .085

Annual 1950–96 1.22 .22

February mean monthly 1912–96 -2.55 .013

March mean monthly 1912–96 .55 .58

June mean monthly 1912–96 -1.02 .31

July mean monthly 1912–96 .72 .48

July mean monthly 1912–49 -3.25 .0025

Shawano, Wis.—precipitation 

Annual 1923–96 .32 .75

Annual 1923–49 -.43 .67

Annual 1950–96 .61 .55

Rhinelander, Wis.—precipitation

Annual 1908–96 .68 .50

Annual 1908–49 .19 .85

Annual 1950–96 1.33 .19
Streamflow Trends 15

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Figure 5. Annual peak streamflow from the Wolf River near Shawano (the Balsam Row Dam), Wis. for 1907–1996: A, trend line 

for entire period of record, and B, trend line for 1907–49 and 1950–96.
1950–96 (table 4, fig. 7). Therefore, trends in annual flood 

peaks for the Wolf River may be related to trends in annual 

precipitation, but the relations are confounded. In general, 

zonal circulation patterns tended to decrease precipitation, 

whereas meridional circulation patterns tended to increase 

precipitation in the upper Mississippi Valley (Knox and 

others, 1975). Perhaps annual precipitation data are not 

sensitive enough to determine frequency of rainstorms 

that produce large floods, especially spring floods that are 

related to a combination of snowmelt and rainstorms. 

Trends in mean monthly flow at the Wolf River 

near Shawano were observed for some months for the 

entire record (1912–96) and during 1912–49. During 

1912–96, mean monthly flow for February and March 

increased, whereas mean monthly flow for June and July 

decreased (table 4). These results also were found during 1912–90 for the same gage (Peters, 1997). July mean 

streamflow also decreased significantly during 1912–49 

(table 4). 

In contrast to the trends at the Wolf River near Shawano, no trends in monthly precipitation at Green Bay 

were found for March, June, or July for 1912–96, and February precipitation for 1912–96 decreased. Only decreasing July precipitation during 1912–49 matched decreasing July mean monthly flow during 1912–49 (table 4). 

Therefore, the uptrend during 1912–96 in mean monthly 

flow for February and March indicates that snowmelt is 

occurring earlier. An earlier snowmelt also may cause an 

apparent decrease in streamflow during the early summer 

months because low-flow conditions may start earlier in 

the summer season. The downtrend in July precipitation 

and streamflow during 1912–49 may indicate a decrease in 

the occurrence of summer storms during that period. 

A secondary cause for decreases in early summer 

monthly flow over the period of record may be related to 

forest regrowth. Most of the old growth forests of northeastern Wisconsin were logged and burned after European 

settlement in the late 1800s. Widespread logging and burning continued in the region until the late 1920s (Connor, 

1978; Fries, 1951), although the Menominee Indian Tribe 

practiced selective cutting techniques on their land since 

1854 (Menominee Tribal Enterprises, 1997). In northern 

Wisconsin, property taxes were based on the amount of 

board feet per acre up until 1927, which promoted repeated 

cutting and burning after the initial logging. It is worthwhile to include a description of logging in the Wolf River 

Basin as described by Samuel Shaw on December 9, 1886, 

in the “Forest Republican”. He states, “The Upper Wolf 

16 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999















       

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Figure 6. Annual peak flow and trend lines for the Wolf River near Shawano, Wis., and the Wolf River at Langlade, Wis., 1968–96.
River is stripped clean of pine. The Lower Wolf River is 

bare. There is nothing to tempt a lumberman to lift an ax 

or draw a saw” (Connor, 1978). By the late 1970s, 

second- and third-generation forest covered much of the 

Upper Wolf River Basin (Connor, 1978). Much of the land 

in the basin in 1999 was owned by the Menominee Tribe, 

the U.S. Forest Service, counties, or private lumber companies. 

Flood peaks would be expected to decrease during 

forest regrowth as surface runoff is decreased or slowed 

because of increases in interception, hydraulic roughness, 

and infiltration (Fitzpatrick and others, 1999). Base flow 

also would be expected to decrease because of an increase 

in evapotranspiration, especially during summer. Forest 

evapotranspiration reduces the amount of water available 

for ground-water recharge and base flow (Sartz, 1972).

Annual flood peaks and runoff volumes from three 

watersheds near the Wolf River with similar logging histories also have shown relations to both precipitation and 

forest-cover change (Fitzpatrick, 1993; Rayburg, 1999). 

The Pike and Oconto Rivers are to the east of the Wolf 

River (fig. 1), and annual flood peaks and runoff volumes 

for those streams decreased starting in about 1930 (Fitzpatrick, 1993). The Pike River Basin (257 mi2

) is smaller 

than the Wolf River Basin and is directly east of the 

Rhinelander climate station. However, no downtrend was 

observed in annual precipitation at Rhinelander for 1912–

49, suggesting that streamflow in the Pike River was more 

likely affected by forest regrowth than by precipitation. In 

contrast, trends in annual flood peaks and runoff volumes 

for the Oconto River Basin (737 mi2

) corresponded more 

closely to precipitation at the Oconto precipitation site. 

Historical streamflow trends in the Prairie River Basin 

(181 mi2

), about 50 mi northwest of the Wolf River study 

reach, primarily were attributed to land cover and secondarily to climate change (Rayburg, 1999). Mean monthly 

flow increased in the Prairie River during the winter, but 

total annual flow decreased. Reduction in flow volumes 

occurred in the Prairie River during the growing season. 

In summary, three large floods occurred on the Wolf 

River near Shawano between 1912 and 1929, followed by 

no large floods during 1930–59. Four large floods occurred 

between 1960 and 1986. The trends toward smaller annual 

flood peaks during 1908–49 compared to larger annual 

flood peaks during 1950–96 appear to be related to precipitation and upper atmospheric circulation patterns. The 

trend toward smaller annual flood peaks during 1908–49 

may secondarily be related to forest regrowth. During 

Streamflow Trends 17

YX


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Figure 7. Annual precipitation and trend lines for Green Bay, Wis., 1912–49 and 1950–96.
1908–96, floods became more common in early spring, 

and mean monthly flows decreased in June and July. The 

flood records for the lower Wolf River (near Shawano) 

and the upper Wolf River (Langlade) are similar, but large 

floods in the lower Wolf did not always correspond to 

large floods in the upper Wolf. Snowmelt coupled with 

frontal-type precipitation caused large floods in both parts 

of the basin, whereas floods from intense summer rainstorms were more localized.

Sedimentation Trends

Coring, sounding, and survey data from nine transects provided the information necessary to reconstruct the 

sedimentation history of the Wolf River through the study 

reach. Transect locations and number of cores collected at 

each transect are listed in table 2, and water depth, penetration depth, and type of sample analyses for the cores collected along each transect are summarized in table 3. 

The GLO notes (from 1853 for the lower part) 

describe the reach as having a swift current and in places 

rapids. Banks were generally high. The channel bottom 

was composed of sand and rocks, and water depths were 

from 1 to 3 ft. The river was reported to be navigable for 

steamboats at high stages (Oehmcke and Truax, 1964). 

The GLO notes describe the presence of rapids or falls just 

below the county line with a 10- to 12-ft drop over 400 ft 

of channel length. Evidence of the rapids has disappeared 

after that part of the reach was covered with impounded 

water and sediment associated with the Balsam Row Dam. 

The GLO notes also provided data on the location and 

planform of the Wolf River through the study reach 

(fig. 8). These data were compared to the coring and 

sounding data and used to confirm the pre-dam location of 

the Wolf River in the impounded reach. 

A detailed longitudinal profile of the Wolf River 

thalweg (deepest part of the channel) in 1999 and before 

the construction of the Balsam Row Dam was created from 

the 1999 coring, sounding, and survey data from the nine 

valley transects and supplemented with information from 

the GLO notes, 1998 exploratory cores from the two 

sites (T5 and T6) with no valley cross-section surveys 

(table 3), and data from the 1995 U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers (USACE) flood-plain delineation study (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1995). Distances along the 

longitudinal profile (fig. 9) are curvilinear channel distances; these are the same distances used by the USACE 

study, which are listed in table 2 along with the upstream 

distance of each transect from the Balsam Row Dam. 

The longitudinal profile was divided into three 

reaches on the basis of sedimentation history and streambed characteristics. The impounded reach extends from 

the dam to the county line and encompasses the part of the 

study reach with silty clay deposition. The sandy reach, 

from the county line to the Fairground Road Bridge, 

encompasses the part that has noticeable sand deposition. 

The upper reach, from the Fairground Road Bridge to Keshena Falls, has predominantly rocky/gravel substrate and 

little deposition of sand, silt, or clay.

The following three-part description of sedimentation 

history for the study reach is based on the above substrate 

conditions. This description proceeds from the downstream 

boundary to the upstream boundary of the study reach. 

Geologic sections are shown in figures 10–12 and in figures 15–20 for each transect looking south (downstream). 

Impounded Reach

The impounded reach extends from about 1,400 to 

11,000 ft (1.8 mi) along the longitudinal profile, from the 

Balsam Row Dam to the county/reservation boundary 

(fig. 9). About 5 to 10 ft of organic-rich silty clay (muck) 

was deposited in the impoundment from 1927 to 1999. The 

normal water-surface elevation at the dam is about 15 ft 

above its pre-dam elevation. The bulk of the sediment was 

deposited in the 9,000-ft reach between the dam and the 

buried falls downstream of the county line. The impounded 

reach varies in width from about 400 to 700 ft.

Transects T1b, T1c, and T2 represent typical conditions in the impounded reach (figs. 10–12). Post-dam 

deposits are composed of organic-rich stratified clay and 

silty clay, with interbedded layers of abundant woody 

debris, leaf debris, pine needles, and rootlets. These layers 

of organic debris are thought to represent deposits from 

large floods. As stated earlier, five floods with a recurrence interval of 25 years (greater than 4,100 ft3

/s) or more 

occurred after the dam was constructed in 1927 (fig. 5B). 

Four of the five floods were between 1960 and 1986, and 

two were within 4 years of each other (1973 and 1976). 

The layers of organic debris were common in the upper 

part of the impounded deposits and were especially

noticeable in cores from transect T1b (fig. 10). There was 

less organic debris in the impounded sediment on the east 

side of the impoundment through its widest stretch at T2 

(fig. 12). Most of the organic debris settled out in the narrow parts of the impoundment or toward the west side of 

the impoundment, where it widens (fig. 12).

The pre-dam (pre-1927) channel through the 

impounded reach was identified by the presence of a gravel 

18 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999
Sedimentation Trends 19

lag deposit and relative elevation interpreted from core 

and sounding data. The pre-dam flood-plain surface was 

identified by the presence of a buried A horizon, abundant 

root remnants, grass remnants, and the presence of loam 

or sand. The 1927 channel was at the same location as the 

1853 channel as reconstructed from the GLO notes 

(fig. 8). Upstream from the dam at transect T1b, the predam channel was on the west side of the impoundment 

(fig. 10). Further upstream, at transects T1c and T2, the 

pre-dam channel was on the east side of the impoundment 

(figs. 11–12). In contrast, most of the flow throughout the 

length of the impoundment in 1999 was on the west side 

because the dam gates were usually open on the west side. 

Profiles for 137Cs and 210Pb from core 

T2-1 were used to distinguish linear and 

mass sedimentation rates for the impoundment (fig. 13). The undisturbed 137Cs profile 

from core T2-1 with a sharp peak indicates 

no bioturbation or postdepositional mixing 

in this core. The 137Cs profile shows a sharp 

peak at 3.6 ft, which is assumed to correspond to the peak fallout of 137Cs in 1963. 

The expected monotonic decay curve for 

the 210Pb profile shows a break from about 

2.6 to 3.1 ft. This break may be the input of 

older sediment stored behind the Keshena 

Falls Dam (1908–72) and transported to the 

Balsam Row impoundment after the failure 

of the Keshena Falls Dam. Based on core 

data, the 1927 surface was at 7.0 ft. Linear 

sedimentation rates, based on the 137Cs peak 

and the 1927 surface, are similar before 

1963 and after 1963, at about 0.09 ft/y and 

0.10 ft/y, respectively.

Data for particle size, dry-bulk density, 

and organic-carbon content from core 

T2-1 indicate that the source of sediment 

to the impoundment most likely changed 

over time and that deposition probably 

was episodic (fig. 14; table 5). Impounded 

sediment averaged about 51 percent clay, 

43 percent silt, and 6 percent sand. An 

increase in sand at about 2.2 ft (mid-1970s) 

is followed by an increase in silt upcore 

from 2.2 to 1.7 ft. This shift in composition may reflect input of sediment from 

behind the Keshena Falls Dam that was 

likely transported downstream during the 

1972 dam failure and the 1973 flood (largest flood on record). The slight increase in silt, increase in 

bulk density, and decrease in organic carbon at about 4.0 ft 

(about 1960) may reflect an increase in coarser sediment 

delivered during the 1960 flood, which was the first large 

flood to occur after 31 years of relatively small floods 

between 1929 and 1960 (fig. 5B). Also, during the 1960 

flood, an earth-fill wall near the powerplant at the Keshena 

Falls dam was dynamited to relieve pressure on the dam 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 1961). This action also may have 

caused a pulse of more coarse-grained sediment to the 

Balsam Row impoundment. Low concentrations of organic 

carbon in sediment cores from impoundments in the Upper 

Mississippi River Basin also were attributed to large floods 

(Juracek, 2004).

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(before impoundment by the Balsam Row Dam).
20 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999            342%!-$)34!.#%).&%%4

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surface at low flow.
Sedimentation Trends 21























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surface at low flow—Continued.
22 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999



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Sedimentation Trends 23

        



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24 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999                   &INESAND &INESAND 

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Figure 12. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T2, at 2,790 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
Taking into account the dry bulk density of the sediment, which ranged from 6 lb/ft3

 at the top of the core to 

about 12 lb/ft3 with depth (fig. 14B), mass sedimentation 

rates after 1963 (1.04 lb/ft2/y) are slightly lower than mass 

sedimentation rates before 1963 (1.15 lb/ft2/y). Assuming 

constant sedimentation rates, the natural log of unsupported 210Pb activity would be a linear curve when plotted 

against cumulative mass. The unsupported 210Pb profile for 

T2-1 is linear except for a slight change in the curve from 

2.6 to 3.1 ft (profile not shown). The 210Pb profile also 

indicates that sources of sediment and sedimentation rates 

may have fluctuated in the 1960s–1970s.

Valley transect T3 represents depositional conditions 

within the upper part of the impounded reach (fig. 15). 

About 5 ft of silty clay was deposited in the channel at 

this location after construction of the Balsam Row Dam in 

1927. The sounding data indicated two possible channel 

locations before 1927. The 1853 GLO survey plotted the 

active channel in the west channel position (fig. 8); however, the east channel thalweg is about 3 ft below the west 

channel thalweg. It is possible that the channel changed 

position between 1853 and 1927, perhaps coincident 

with the extensive log drives on the Wolf River in the late 

1800s. Pre-dam channel deposits are assumed to be gravel 

on the basis of soundings.

Transect T3 intersects a unique flood-plain environment on the west side, characterized by vegetation of 

alder/willow near the river and white cedar along the slope 

to the upland. The 1999 flood-plain surface was about 

0.8 ft above the normal water level in the impoundment 

and within the 100-year floodway (U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, 1995). Inundated sediment near the west edge 

of the water is composed of about 1.4 ft of organic-rich 

silt loam underlain by 0.4 ft of loam. In the alder/willow 

wetland, about 1.5–2.0 ft of peaty silt is underlain by about 

1.0 ft of sand near the channel. Proceeding inland, the sand 

layer thins and is replaced by about 0.3 ft of blue clay and 

0.1 ft of sandy clay loam. Continuing upslope, the change 

in vegetation from alder/willow to white cedar marks a 

subsurface change in texture from peaty silt deposits to 

loam and sand deposits (fig. 15). The peaty silt deposits 

represent deposition of fines during floods and steady 

deposition of organic matter from the flood-plain and 

wetland vegetation. These peaty deposits appear to have 

formed after the water level was raised for the Balsam 

Row Dam. Farther upslope, the clay loam and coarse sand 

are representative of Holocene fluvial deposits or possibly 

Sedimentation Trends 25



















      

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Figure 13. Data for 137Cs, unsupported 210Pb, and 226Ra from core T2-1 from the Balsam Row Dam impoundment, Wolf River, Wis.
26 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999         /2'!.)##!2"/.).0%2#%.4       $29"5,+$%.3)49 ).0/5.$30%2#5")#&//4   



     

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Figure 14. Profiles for 

A, particle-size distribution, 

B, bulk density, and 

C, organic carbon concentration collected from a core at T2-1 in 2001 from the Balsam Row Dam 

impoundment, Wolf River, Wis.
Sedimentation Trends 27

pre-Holocene outwash deposits. The steep east bank at T3 

is more typical of banks along the impounded reach.

In summary, as much as 10 ft of organic-rich silty 

clay was deposited in the impounded reach of the Wolf 

River during 1927–99. Average mass sedimentation rates 

during 1963–99 were slightly lower than during 1927–63, 

as inferred from the 137Cs profile from core T2-1. However, 

variations in the profiles of particle size, bulk density, and 

organic-carbon content from core T2-1 indicate that sedimentation was episodic, with relatively large amounts of 

coarse sediment and organic debris deposited during large 

floods in 1960 (earth wall dynamited at the Keshena Falls 

Dam) and 1973 (after failure of the Keshena Falls Dam in 

1972). The impounded reach has lost much of its storage 

capacity. If the Balsam Row Dam was removed, upstream 

head-cutting and incision through the impounded sediment 

most likely would happen as far as the buried rapids near 

the county line. 

Sandy Reach

Upstream of the impounded reach, the channel of the 

Wolf River is dominated by sand deposition and bar formation. This reach of the Wolf River extends from about 

11,000 to 24,000 ft (2.5 mi) on the longitudinal profile 

(fig. 9) and includes data from valley transects and cores 

from T4, T4.2, T4.5, T5, T6, and T7 (figs. 16–19). The 

channel of the Wolf River is about 200 ft wide through this 

reach, and thalweg depth is about 4 ft. The channel width 

at the section line crossing near T5 at 15,200 ft along the 

longitudinal profile is similar to that recorded in the 1853 

GLO notes, which indicates that the post-dam channel 

width through the reach is similar to the pre-dam width. 

However, sedimentation in this reach is affected by the 

presence of the Balsam Row Dam (fig. 9). The depositional setting can be thought of as the upstream part of an 

elongate in-channel delta plane, part of the upper zone of 

a developing delta that formed behind the Balsam Row 

Dam. Near the boundary between the sandy reach and the 

impounded reach, velocities are reduced, the channel widens, and deposition is dominated by silt, clay, and organic 

debris, as illustrated in the backwater area on the east side 

of the channel at transect T4 (fig. 16). Sand deposition and 

bar formation are evident in transects T4.2, T4.5, and T7 

(figs. 17–19). 

The shallow backwater area along the east side of 

the channel at T4 is covered by about 1 to 2 ft of water. In 

1999, only a remnant of the wild rice beds was growing 

in the backwater, in contrast to observations of extensive 

wild rice beds in 1997. Deposits generally are composed 

of about 1 ft of organic-rich silty clay underlain by a 1-ftthick woody debris layer, which is underlain by 1–2 ft of 

peat or organic- and wood-rich silty clay or loam (fig. 16). 

A 1-ft fine-grained sand loam layer underlies the peaty/

organic layer. In core T4-7, a 2-ft peat layer underlies the 

sand loam. 

Wood from core T4-7 from the lower peat layer had 

a calibrated radiocarbon age of A.D. 1600±50, and wood 

from the bottom of the upper peat layer had a calibrated 

radiocarbon age of A.D. 1510±70 to 1860±40. Comparatively, wood in the sand loam layer in core T4-9 had a calibrated radiocarbon age of A.D. 1940±50. Ages from these 

wood samples indicate that 3–4 ft of sediment was deposited in the backwater area along T4 after 1853. The deposition of the sand loam and overlying peat and fine-grained 

sediment in the backwater area most likely resulted from 

logging/log drives during the late 1800s, floods in the early 

1900s, and (or) the Balsam Row Dam. The younger date 

(modern) from wood in the sand loam at T4-9 indicates 

that sediment near the 1999 channel thalweg is more likely 

to be disturbed (from processes of scour and deposition) 

than sediment farther away from the thalweg. This disturbance may have resulted from scour during the failure of 

the Keshena Falls Dam in 1972 followed by the 1973 flood 

and deposition from 1973 to 1999 of sediment that would 

have been trapped behind the Keshena Falls Dam before 

its failure. 

On the west side of the river at transect T4, the 100-

year flood plain is about 150 ft wide (fig. 16). A 1.5-ft 

layer of organic-rich poorly sorted clay loam extends 

about 100 ft west of the right bank. This is the only 

organic-rich and fine-grained deposit recorded in cores on 

the west flood plain and probably represents deposition 

after settlement and dam construction. The fine-grained 

deposits are underlain by sand and gravel. Older fluvial deposits, composed of sand and gravel, are beneath 

the fine-grained deposits in the flood plain and are also 

beneath the low terrace. These deposits, which were oxidized, were devoid of organic material and wood, probably 

because organic material is not preserved well in oxidized 

environments. Organic material and wood are preserved in 

the inundated backwater area where deposits are oxygen 

poor. The absence of fine-grained deposits at depth below 

the flood-plain surface indicates that deposition of finegrained sediment is relatively recent, probably caused by 

either logging or dam construction or a combination of 

both. The flood-plain surface is about 2.5 ft above baseflow stage in the Wolf River; based on stage-discharge 

relations from the Keshena Falls stream gage, floods with 
28 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999

Interval top 

(ft)

Interval bottom 

(ft)

Water weight 

(percent)

Organic-matter content 

(percent)

Dry-bulk density 

(lb/ft3

)

0.0 0.1 90.91 38.76 5.96

.1 .2 85.55 37.99 9.78

.2 .3 84.03 39.52 10.90

.3 .4 83.65 36.91 11.20

.4 .5 83.85 37.54 11.04

.5 .6 84.68 38.95 10.42

.6 .7 83.88 38.51 11.02

.7 .8 84.18 38.20 10.80

.8 .9 84.68 37.82 10.42

.9 1.0 84.33 36.87 10.69

1.0 1.1 85.83 38.33 9.57

1.1 1.2 85.25 38.06 10.00

1.2 1.3 85.83 37.75 9.57

1.3 1.4 84.72 36.80 10.40

1.4 1.5 84.66 36.98 10.44

1.5 1.6 86.36 37.48 9.19

1.6 1.7 87.93 37.59 8.06

1.7 1.8 85.92 37.98 9.51

1.8 1.9 84.98 37.55 10.20

1.9 2.0 84.16 37.02 10.82

2.0 2.1 85.12 37.63 10.10

2.1 2.2 85.24 37.93 10.01

2.2 2.3 83.89 37.16 11.01

2.3 2.4 84.00 36.29 10.94

2.4 2.5 83.92 37.68 10.99

2.5 2.6 85.19 38.41 10.05

2.6 2.7 84.56 37.96 10.51

2.7 2.8 84.51 37.46 10.55

2.8 2.9 83.83 37.40 11.06

2.9 3.0 84.75 37.32 10.37

3.0 3.1 84.79 36.93 10.34

3.1 3.2 84.36 37.08 10.66

3.2 3.3 84.27 37.49 10.73

3.3 3.4 84.00 37.24 10.93

3.4 3.5 83.34 37.10 11.43

3.5 3.6 82.95 36.81 11.72

Table 5. Water-weight percent, organic-matter content, and dry-bulk density for samples from Wolf River, Wis., 

sediment core T2-1, 2001.

[ft, feet; lb, pound]
Sedimentation Trends 29

T5 and 16,600 ft on the longitudinal profile, about 1.5 ft of 

sand overlies gravel substrate. At T6 and 18,900 ft on the 

longitudinal profile, about 0.5 ft of sand overlies gravel in 

the main channel, and 2–2.5 ft of silt/organic material is 

present in a small backwater area on the west side of the 

channel.

At about 22,000 ft along the longitudinal profile, the 

Wolf River widens and contains a longitudinal island/bar 

and backwater slough on the west side within the 100-year 

flood plain at transect T7 (fig. 1; fig. 9). Coring efforts for 

T7 were concentrated along the island/bar and backwater slough (fig. 19) to determine the character and age of 

sediment beneath these surfaces. Two wood samples from 

about 3.5 ft below the surface of the island and backwater 

channel had calibrated radiocarbon ages of 1940±50 and 

1940±40, indicating that much of the sediment deposition on the island and in the backwater is relatively recent, 

either after logging/log drives and (or) after construction of 

the Balsam Row Dam. The lead/cesium profiles for T7-2 

(not illustrated) also indicate that the fine-grained deposits 

in the backwater zone have been disturbed or mixed and 

the core is not suitable for estimating sedimentation rates. 

An older calibrated radiocarbon age of 1790±40 also was 

Interval top 

(ft)

Interval bottom 

(ft)

Water weight 

(percent)

Organic-matter content 

(percent)

Dry-bulk density 

(lb/ft3

)

3.6 3.7 83.65 35.94 11.20

3.7 3.8 84.83 36.08 10.32

3.8 3.9 84.20 35.95 10.79

3.9 4.0 83.80 36.94 11.08

4.0 4.1 83.37 36.97 11.41

4.1 4.2 83.08 36.65 11.63

4.2 4.3 83.18 37.07 11.55

4.3 4.4 81.36 35.12 12.95

4.4 4.5 81.64 36.54 12.72

4.5 4.6 82.31 36.32 12.21

4.6 4.7 81.75 36.14 12.64

1.51 1.6 85.52 38.31 9.81

3.01 3.1 85.10 36.96 10.12

4.51 4.6 82.19 36.46 12.30

1 Replicate samples.

a recurrence interval of about 25 years are needed to inundate this surface. 

From about 13,500 to 20,000 ft along the longitudinal 

profile, channel deposits are predominantly sand (fig. 9). 

At transect T4 at 11,090 ft, the thalweg was characterized 

by gravel, and little sand was present in the main channel 

(fig. 16). In contrast, at 13,600 ft, about 1 ft of sand 

overlies gravel in the thalweg. At 14,200 ft, channel 

deposits consist of typically greater than 1.5 ft of sand. 

Partial transects T4.2 and T4.5 at 14,930 and 15,380 ft, 

respectively, along the longitudinal profile (figs. 17 and 

18), illustrate how extensive the sand is and how it covers 

older gravel and large woody debris. For example, on the 

west side of T4.5, about 2 ft of coarse sand and fine gravel 

cover a 1-ft-thick deposit of wood and bark pieces with a 

diameter of up to 2.5 in (fig. 18). The wood and bark-rich 

deposit may represent remnants of woody debris deposited during the log drives, thus indicating that widespread 

sand deposition in this reach occurred sometime in the 

last 100 years. Whether the sand deposition began soon 

after the log drives or whether it is associated with the 

Balsam Row Dam construction or the Keshena Falls Dam 

failure in 1972 and record flood in 1973 is unknown. At 

Table 5. Water-weight percent, organic-matter content, and dry-bulk density for samples from Wolf River, Wis., 

sediment core T2-1, 2001—Continued.

[ft, feet; lb, pound]
30 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999 0EATYSILT ,OAMSAND                   0RE
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Figure 15. Valley transect through the impounded reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T3, at 7,050 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
Sedimentation Trends 31



        

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Figure 16. Valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4, at 11,090 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
32 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999            

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Figure 17. Partial valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4.2, at 14,930 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
Sedimentation Trends 33





     

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Figure 18. Partial valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T4.5, at 15,380 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
34 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999 7OODS 7OODS 7OODS &INE SAND LOAM                 



 

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Figure 19. Valley transect through the sandy reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T7, at 21,840 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
Sedimentation Trends 35

obtained from wood about 3 ft down in core T7-3, near 

the transition from bar to backwater slough. This older age 

likely reflects reworking of older wood, probably related to 

logging and log drives. 

Based on stage-discharge relations at the Keshena 

Falls stream gage, the elevation of the top of the island/bar 

represents about the 2-year flood or bankfull stage. Therefore, the island/bar is frequently inundated and probably is 

subject to episodic scour and deposition related to both frequent and infrequent floods. However, the general character of the islands along the Wolf River did not change after 

the Keshena Falls Dam failure, based on aerial photograph 

comparisons (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1993).

In the backwater slough along T7, a coarse sand-andgravel layer underlies the sandy loam, silt, peaty silt, and 

woody debris at about 4–5 ft in depth (fig. 19). This gravel 

most likely represents the substrate of an older channel 

that occupied this position sometime before log drives and 

construction of the Balsam Row Dam. The elevation of 

this gravel is similar to the elevation of the 1999 channel 

thalweg.

There is little flood plain on the west side of the river 

at T7, and the land surface quickly rises onto a terrace 

(fig. 19). The terrace is composed of more than 2 ft of silt 

loam or fine sand loam overlying a gravel layer. The gravel 

most likely represents the location of an older channel 

(most likely Holocene or postglacial). The 1999 thalweg 

and buried gravel in the backwater slough are 7 ft lower 

than the gravel under the west terrace, indicating that this 

reach was naturally down-cutting before 1853. 

In summary, it appears that most of the sand deposition in the sandy reach resulted from the impoundment 

effects of the Balsam Row Dam. Sand overlying gravel 

and woody debris at every transect in this reach, regardless of the geomorphic setting of the transect or whether 

the transect was in a meander or straightway, indicates that 

the sand is ubiquitous and not a product of local lateral 

migration or position within a meander. Therefore, the 

construction of the Balsam Row Dam has likely altered 

channel conditions for a 4-mi reach upstream from the 

dam. There also is some evidence that sand deposition may 

have increased during or after the failure of the Keshena 

Falls Dam. 

Rocky Reach

From about 24,000–31,000 ft (1.5 mi) along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9), the general character of channel 

substrate in the Wolf River changes from mainly sand to 

cobble, gravel, and sand. The channel is 200–250 ft wide 

through this reach. Transect T9 is at 29,970 ft along the 

longitudinal profile and is about 3,000 ft downstream from 

Keshena Falls (fig. 9). This transect bisects an island and 

is in the widest expanse of flood plain (about 900 ft) along 

the entire 6-mi study reach (fig. 20). 

The main channel and side channel at transect T9 are 

characterized by gravel, cobble, and boulder (fig. 20). The 

island between the main and side channel is wooded and 

composed of about 4 ft of loam or sand over gravel. The 

elevation of the island is in the range of the stage of a 2- to 

5-year flood. The area of flood plain between the side and 

flood channel is at the same elevation and also wooded. 

Tree trunks in this zone are scarred from ice jams and are 

evidence that water levels reach 5 ft above the flood-plain 

surface from ice-jam-related winter floods (fig. 21). The 

winter floods inundate the entire flood plain along the 

transect and are different than precipitation- or snowmeltgenerated floods in that they cause ice damage and may 

be of longer duration. The ice-jam floods have occurred 

only after the failure of the Keshena Falls Dam. The jams 

occur at about 20,000 ft along the longitudinal profile and 

are caused by the flattening of the water-surface slope at 

this location (fig. 9). The slope flattens at this location 

because of impoundment effects from the Balsam Row 

Dam. Ice that formerly built up behind the Keshena Falls 

Dam before it failed now is able to move downstream and 

accumulates in the area where the slope flattens. 

The core and survey data from transect T9 and GLO 

notes indicate that the river has narrowed and incised at 

this location since the late 1800s (fig. 20). Transect T9 

bisects the section line between sections 22 and 27, 

T. 28 N., R. 15 E. The 1999 channel was about 200 ft 

wide, including the island. In 1891, the east side of the 

river was recorded in the GLO notes as being a perpendicular bluff 75 ft above the river; the channel width was 

685 ft, and the right bank was 70 ft west of its location in 

1999 (fig. 20). There is no mention of islands in the GLO 

notes. At T9-2, large wood pieces 2.5 ft below the floodplain surface had calibrated radiocarbon ages of 1740±70, 

evidence of post-settlement burial of the west part of the 

channel. Based on depth of gravel in cores T9-1, T9-2, 

T9-2.5, T9-2.3 and T9-2.8, the 1891 channel bottom was 

about 2 ft higher than the 1999 channel bottom. Transect 

T9 is about 2,000 ft downstream from Keshena Falls and 

immediately downstream from a bedrock outcrop (fig. 9). 

The channel at this location was likely in a downstream 

scour zone related to locally decreased sediment inputs, 

a result of sediment capture behind the Keshena Falls 

Dam while it was in operation. Also, loggers may have 
36 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999               7OODS 7OODS 7OODS 7OODS /PENWOODS HERBS 3HRUBSHERBS /PENMARSHY 7OODS 7OODS /PENHERBSGRASS CHANNELWIDTH 3AND

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Figure 20. Valley transect through the rocky reach of the Wolf River, Wis., T9, at 29,970 feet along the longitudinal profile (fig. 9).
Sediment-Chemistry Trends 37

dynamited and deepened the channel at this location for 

easier passage of logs. 

The higher area of flood plain west of core T9-3.5 

represents the pre-1891 flood-plain surface (fig. 20). 

Gravel was found in cores T9-5 and T9-5.5 at the same 

elevation as in the 1891 channel (as inferred from cores 

T9-1 through T9-3), likely indicating that the pre-1891 

channel migrated laterally but did not aggrade or incise. 

The 1999 thalweg is deeper than any gravel related to 

relict channels, indicating that incision during the last 

100 years probably relates to logging, log drives, and (or) 

the Keshena Falls Dam construction. GLO notes indicated 

that the area surrounding the transect had been clear-cut 

before the survey and that in 1891 the vegetation consisted 

of a dense growth of alder along the right bank and aspen 

brush and birch in the flood plain and upland, with scatterings of white and Norway pine. 

In summary, channel characteristics in the rocky 

reach are not affected by the Balsam Row Dam but are 

likely affected by a combination of historical human disturbance related to logging and log drives and downstream 

scour resulting from the Keshena Falls Dam. The river 

width at transect T9 narrowed considerably after 1891 and 

incised 2 ft. Part of the 1891 channel is filled with about 

2 ft of organic-rich loam. The exact cause for the narrowing is not known. Ice jams cause flooding in the wide flood 

plain at T9. The effects of this flooding on flood-plain 

vegetation are not known.

Sediment-Chemistry Trends

Selected intervals from six cores from 

transect T2, T4, T7, and T9 were analyzed 

for minor- and trace-element concentrations 

(tables 3 and 6). Detailed profiles of minor 

and trace elements for impounded sediment 

were constructed from 12 samples from core 

T2-1 over a range in depth that included one 

pre-dam sample (fig. 22). Samples of backwater sediment from the east side of transect 

T4 (cores T4-7 and T4-9) (fig. 16) and the 

west side of transect T7 (core T7-2) (fig. 19) 

were analyzed, as well as island sediment 

from transect T7 (core T7-12) (fig. 19) and 

flood-plain sediment from transect T9 (core 

T9-2) (fig. 20). All sediment sampled was 

deposited after the 1870s, based on interpretations of sedimentation rates and sediment 

sources discussed in the previous section. Concentrations 

of lead, mercury, and zinc were low in samples from 1.1 

to 1.2 ft in core T4-7, from 0.5 to 0.8 ft in core T7-2, and 

from 1.9 to 2.8 ft in core T9-2. Samples from core T7-2 

and T9-2 generally were more coarse-grained than other 

samples from backwater and impounded areas, which partially explains the low concentrations (table 6); many trace 

elements have an affinity for clay minerals and organic 

matter and are found in higher concentrations in organicrich, fine-grained sediment compared to coarse-grained 

sediment (Horowitz, 1991). 

The sample from T4-7 in the 1.0–1.2 ft interval was a 

mix of sand, silt, and clay in similar percentages as the surficial sample (0–0.2 ft) from core T7-12, and both samples 

had similar concentrations of organic carbon (table 6). 

However, concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and 

mercury in the surficial T7-12 sample are near or more 

than twice those in the T4-7 sample from 1.0 to 

1.2 ft. Concentrations of chromium, copper, and nickel 

were similar in the two samples. This similarity suggests, 

as does the sedimentation history presented earlier, that the 

sand loam in core T4-7 between the peat layer most likely 

was deposited about the time of logging or log drives. This 

sample is indicative of background concentrations (preEuropean settlement) for relatively coarse-grained fluvial 

deposits (44 percent sand, 29 percent silt, and 28 percent 

clay) with high amounts of organic matter (17 percent 

organic carbon) for the Wolf River. 

Minor- and trace-element concentration profiles from 

core T2-1 from the Balsam Row Dam impoundment are 

Figure 21. Ice damage on trees in flood plain near transect T9, April 1, 

1998, Wolf River, Wis. (Photo by Herbert Garn.)
38 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999 Table 6. Minor- and trace-element concentrations and particle size from core samples from the Wolf River, Wis., 1999. [USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; ft, feet; pct, percent; μg/g, micrograms per gram; na, not analyzed; <, less than. Threshold and probable effect concentrations are from MacDonald and others (2000). Concentrations above the threshold effect concentration are listed in bold.] Core number USGS site number Interval top (ft) Interval bottom (ft) Date collected Calcium (pct) Magnesium (pct) Potassium (pct) Sodium (pct) Sulfur (pct) Phosphorus (pct) T2-1 445022088373500 0.0 0.25 2/17/1999 2.0 0.77 0.97 0.51 0.44 0.19 T2-1 445022088373500 .75 1.0 2/17/1999 1.9 .74 1.0 .51 .41 .17 T2-1 445022088373500 1.5 1.75 2/17/1999 1.9 .71 .96 .48 .48 .15 T2-1 445022088373500 2.0 2.25 2/17/1999 1.9 .74 1.0 .50 .50 .18 T2-1 445022088373500 2.25 2.5 2/17/1999 1.8 .76 1.0 .50 .52 .16 T2-1 445022088373500 2.25 2.5 2/17/1999 1.7 .69 .95 .45 .51 .14 T2-1 445022088373500 2.5 2.75 2/17/1999 1.9 .76 1.1 .52 .55 .13 T2-1 445022088373500 3.0 3.25 2/17/1999 1.8 .72 1.1 .51 .56 .12 T2-1 445022088373500 3.25 3.5 2/17/1999 1.7 .68 1.0 .48 .49 .12 T2-1 445022088373500 3.5 3.75 2/17/1999 1.6 .68 1.0 .50 .47 .12 T2-1 445022088373500 4.5 4.75 2/17/1999 1.7 .71 1.0 .48 .49 .13 T2-1 445022088373500 5.75 6.0 2/17/1999 1.7 .68 1.0 .46 .51 .13 T2-1 445022088373500 7.0 7.25 2/17/1999 1.5 .60 .91 .42 .50 .11 T4-7 445126088383400 .0 .1 6/21/1999 2.3 .59 .66 .31 1.1 .10 T4-7 445126088383400 1.1 1.2 6/21/1999 1.6 .52 1.0 .53 .39 .06 T4-9 445125088383400 .0 .1 6/21/1999 2.0 .79 1.2 .57 .36 .06 T4-9 445125088383400 .1 .25 6/21/1999 1.9 .76 1.2 .58 .41 .07 T7-2 445244088380500 .0 .1 6/23/1999 1.7 .59 1.1 .53 .38 .10 T7-2 445244088380500 .5 .6 6/23/1999 1.5 .75 1.6 .77 .06 .04 T7-2 445244088380500 .7 .8 6/23/1999 1.5 .82 1.5 .70 <.05 .03 T7-12 445242088380500 .0 .2 6/23/1999 1.8 .56 .96 .47 .25 .17 T7-12 445242088380500 .7 1.0 6/23/1999 1.6 .59 1.5 .74 .13 .12 T7-12 445242088380500 1.8 2.0 6/23/1999 1.7 .84 1.7 .80 .12 .07 T9-2 445306088391900 .0 .2 6/11/1999 1.3 .40 1.3 .66 .14 .08 T9-2 445306088391900 .5 .7 6/11/1999 1.4 .48 1.6 .80 .11 .09 T9-2 445306088391900 1.2 1.4 6/11/1999 1.3 .57 1.7 .82 .06 .09 T9-2 445306088391900 1.9 2.1 6/11/1999 1.4 .51 1.6 .77 .21 .07 T9-2 445306088391900 2.6 2.8 6/11/1999 1.3 .50 1.5 .79 .12 .04 Threshold effect concentration na na na na na na Probable effect concentration na na na na na na Wolf River surficial sediment, 1996–98 (Garn and others, 2001) 1.8–1.9 0.66–0.73 0.79–0.98 0.37–0.56 0.29–0.37 0.19–0.23
Sediment-Chemistry Trends 39

Table 6. Minor- and trace-element concentrations and particle size from core samples from the Wolf River, Wis., 1999—Continued[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; ft, feet; pct, percent; μg/g, micrograms per gram; na, not analyzed; <, less than. Threshold and probable effect concentrations are from MacDonald and others (2000). Concentrations above the threshold effect concentration are listed in bold.]

Core 

number

Interval

top

(ft)

Interval

bottom

(ft)

Inorganic 

carbon

(pct)

Total

carbon

(pct)

Organic

carbon

(pct)

Aluminum 

(pct)

Arsenic

(μg/g)

Barium

(μg/g)

Cadmium

(μg/g)

Chromium 

(μg/g)

T2-1 0.0 0.25 0.20 18.0 18.0 3.0 9.6 280 0.9 67T2-1 .75 1.0 .20 18.0 17.5 3.0 9.1 300 1.0 66T2-1 1.5 1.75 .24 17.0 17.2 2.9 8.4 270 1.0 63T2-1 2.0 2.25 .17 17.0 17.0 3.1 9.0 280 1.2 69T2-1 2.25 2.5 .17 17.0 17.0 3.2 8.8 290 1.3 69T2-1 2.25 2.5 .01 16.9 16.9 2.8 8.6 290 1.2 68T2-1 2.5 2.75 .18 17.0 16.7 3.2 9.0 290 1.3 69T2-1 3.0 3.25 .18 17.0 16.6 3.2 9.1 300 1.4 68T2-1 3.25 3.5 .14 17.0 16.5 3.0 9.1 300 1.3 66T2-1 3.5 3.75 .15 16.0 15.6 3.0 8.4 280 1.2 62T2-1 4.5 4.75 .12 16.0 16.0 3.2 8.6 270 1.3 67T2-1 5.75 6.0 .12 16.0 16.1 3.1 9.0 300 1.3 67T2-1 7.0 7.25 .11 16.0 16.4 2.6 7.7 270 1.2 65T4-7 .0 .1 .10 28.0 28.0 1.9 7.8 200 .8 40T4-7 1.1 1.2 .02 17.0 17.0 2.8 4.3 300 .4 77T4-9 .0 .1 .30 16.0 16.0 2.7 5.5 330 .7 46T4-9 .1 .25 .20 14.0 14.0 3.1 6.7 340 .8 55T7-2 .0 .1 .15 14.0 13.0 3.1 8.0 380 .8 56T7-2 .5 .6 .28 5.0 4.7 3.4 2.2 410 .1 36T7-2 .7 .8 .43 3.2 2.7 3.0 2.7 370 .1 30T7-12 .0 .2 .13 16.0 16.0 2.6 9.5 340 .7 56T7-12 .7 1.0 .13 8.1 8.0 3.4 10.0 430 .7 50

T7-12 1.8 2.0 .28 4.3 4.0 3.6 4.4 450 .3 47T9-2 .0 .2 .06 9.2 9.2 2.8 6.3 370 .3 37T9-2 .5 .7 .04 6.4 6.4 3.6 8.3 450 .6 49T9-2 1.2 1.4 .05 3.9 3.8 4.1 14.0 500 .6 55

T9-2 1.9 2.1 .02 8.7 8.7 3.6 4.4 390 .1 50T9-2 2.6 2.8 .16 7.1 7.0 3.0 2.6 390 .1 34

Threshold effect concentration na na na na 9.79 na 0.99 43.4Probable effect concentration na na na na 33.0 na 4.98 111Wolf River surficial sediment, 1996–98 0.26–0.31 11.9–13.8 11.6–13.5 2.3–2.8 11.0–17.0 340–350 0.56–0.70 45–59
40 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999 Table 6. Minor- and trace-element concentrations and particle size from core samples from the Wolf River, Wis., 1999—Continued [USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; ft, feet; pct, percent; μg/g, micrograms per gram; na, not analyzed; <, less than. Threshold and probable effect concentrations are from MacDonald and others (2000). Concentrations above the threshold effect concentration are listed in bold.] Core number Interval top (ft) Interval bottom (ft) Copper

(μg/g)

Iron

(μg/g)

Lead

(μg/g)

Manganese 

(μg/g)

Mercury

(μg/g)

Nickel

(μg/g)

Selenium 

(μg/g)

Silver

(μg/g)

T2-1 0.0 0.25 20 2.7 28 1,400 0.14 11 2.6 0.5T2-1 .75 1.0 20 2.6 32 1,200 .15 12 2.6 .4T2-1 1.5 1.75 20 2.4 37 860 .14 11 2.6 .3

T2-1 2.0 2.25 22 2.7 47 860 .15 13 2.6 .2

T2-1 2.25 2.5 23 2.6 55 760 .16 13 2.7 .2

T2-1 2.25 2.5 21 2.4 52 670 .17 12 2.7 .2

T2-1 2.5 2.75 23 2.5 56 680 .15 13 2.7 .2

T2-1 3.0 3.25 22 2.5 65 660 .16 13 2.6 .2

T2-1 3.25 3.5 21 2.3 71 600 .17 12 2.7 .2

T2-1 3.5 3.75 20 2.1 59 580 .17 11 2.6 .1

T2-1 4.5 4.75 21 2.4 49 680 .15 12 2.6 <.1

T2-1 5.75 6.0 22 2.5 49 670 .18 13 2.7 .2

T2-1 7.0 7.25 20 2.1 43 560 .17 11 2.6 .1

T4-7 .0 .1 16 1.3 26 140 .19 8.0 2.3 .7T4-7 1.1 1.2 17 1.1 5.0 170 .09 10 2.9 .2T4-9 .0 .1 16 1.7 18 270 .15 10 1.7 .3T4-9 .1 .25 28 1.8 27 270 .17 11 1.8 .3T7-2 .0 .1 40 2.3 27 1,100 .28 12 1.9 2.3T7-2 .5 .6 12 1.8 9.0 470 .03 10 .8 .5T7-2 .7 .8 10 1.4 7.0 350 .03 9.0 .4 .2T7-12 .0 .2 20 2.6 19 2,800 .16 11 2.0 .5T7-12 .7 1.0 17 2.8 26 2,400 .11 11 1.6 .6T7-12 1.8 2.0 16 2.3 15 530 .07 12 .9 .5T9-2 .0 .2 11 2.0 14 1,700 .10 8.0 1.3 .3T9-2 .5 .7 15 2.7 29 1,900 .13 11 1.6 .5T9-2 1.2 1.4 16 3.5 17 4,300 .13 14 1.8 .5T9-2 1.9 2.1 17 1.7 9.0 540 .09 11 1.6 .5T9-2 2.6 2.8 9.0 1.0 7.0 270 .07 7.0 1.1 .2

Threshold effect concentration 31.6 na 35.8 na 0.18 22.7 na naProbable effect concentration 149 na 128 na 1.06 48.6 na naWolf River surficial sediment, 1996–98 13.8–18.0 2.7–3.0 23.0–26.0 2,800–3,500 0.08–0.1 9.6–12.0 1.6–1.8 0.20–0.44
Sediment-Chemistry Trends 41

Table 6. Minor- and trace-element concentrations and particle size from core samples from the Wolf River, Wis., 1999—Continued[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; ft, feet; pct, percent; μg/g, micrograms per gram; na, not analyzed; <, less than. Threshold and probable effect concentrations are from MacDonald and others (2000). Concentrations above the threshold effect concentration are listed in bold.

Core

number

Interval

top

(ft)

Interval

bottom

(ft)

Strontium

(μg/g)

Titanium

(μg/g)

Uranium 

(μg/g)

Zinc

(μg/g)

Sand

(pct)

Silt

(pct)

Clay

(pct)

T2-1 0.0 0.25 76 0.15 4.6 110 8.9 39.5 51.6T2-1 .75 1.0 79 .16 5.3 120 9.0 41.4 49.6T2-1 1.5 1.75 71 .16 5.4 120 5.3 58.3 36.4T2-1 2.0 2.25 76 .16 5.6 140 9.4 39.7 50.9

T2-1 2.25 2.5 77 .16 6.5 140 6.8 37.2 56.0

T2-1 2.25 2.5 72 .19 6.4 140 na na na

T2-1 2.5 2.75 79 .16 6.4 150 4.2 46.0 49.8

T2-1 3.0 3.25 78 .16 6.0 150 3.9 38.4 57.7

T2-1 3.25 3.5 75 .20 6.4 150 4.0 39.4 56.6

T2-1 3.5 3.75 73 .17 5.6 140 na na na

T2-1 4.5 4.75 74 .16 5.9 140 3.2 48.9 47.9

T2-1 5.75 6.0 76 .18 6.1 150 4.5 43.8 51.7

T2-1 7.0 7.25 66 .18 5.5 130 74.3 14.9 10.8

T4-7 .0 .1 52 .12 12 53 12.5 44.0 43.5T4-7 1.1 1.2 71 .19 4.4 74 43.8 28.5 27.7T4-9 .0 .1 79 .19 5.4 90 67.7 17.3 15.0T4-9 .1 .25 79 .18 5.0 120 na na naT7-2 .0 .1 75 .21 5.6 100 29.3 41.8 28.9T7-2 .5 .6 95 .22 2.6 48 77.8 17.5 4.7T7-2 .7 .8 83 .18 2.4 40 95.9 2.8 1.3T7-12 .0 .2 76 .17 5.4 110 44.6 33.7 21.7T7-12 .7 1.0 98 .23 4.3 98 79.1 12.6 8.3T7-12 1.8 2.0 100 .25 3.8 71 78.1 15.8 6.1T9-2 .0 .2 82 .18 4.9 64 85.1 9.8 5.1T9-2 .5 .7 98 .24 5.0 91 80.1 14.0 5.9T9-2 1.2 1.4 100 .27 5.1 83 76.1 17.6 6.3T9-2 1.9 2.1 100 .25 9.0 50 77.3 19.2 3.5T9-2 2.6 2.8 89 .17 5.5 43 86.7 7.4 5.9

Threshold effect concentration na na na 121 na na naProbable effect concentration na na na 459 na na naWolf River surficial sediment, 1996–98 70–81 0.14–0.20 2.4–3.6 82–89 na na na
42 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999



















  

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Figure 22. Selected profiles of trace elements for core T2-1 from the Balsam Row Dam impoundment, Wolf River, Wis.:

A, chromium, lead, and zinc; B, arsenic, copper, and nickel; C, cadmium, mercury, and silver; and D, aluminum, titanium, and 

phosphorus.
Summary and Conclusions 43

representative of fine-grained deposits (generally greater 

than 50 percent clay) with relatively high amounts of 

organic matter (15.6–18.0 percent organic carbon) 

(fig. 22). Profiles of cadmium, lead, and zinc are similar, with peak concentrations at about 3.2 ft (late 1960s), 

decreasing concentrations upcore from 3.2 to 1.8 ft (1970–

90), and concentrations in the top 1 ft (1990s) less than the 

pre-1960 concentrations. The range of concentrations in 

the profiles for these elements is greater than withinsample variability, as evidenced by low variability in concentrations for these elements in the duplicate sample for 

core interval 2.25–2.5 (table 6). 

Subsurface peaks in lead concentrations also have 

been dated from the 1960s to early 1970s in other lakes 

and impoundments (Callender and Van Metre, 1997; Fitzpatrick and others, 2003). Decreasing concentrations of 

lead in the late 1970s were expected because of the reduction of air emissions of particulate lead after the passage of 

the Clean Air Act in 1970. Lead concentrations in the top 

of core T2-1 are lower than concentrations in the pre-dam 

sample; this may be due to dilution by higher percentages 

of organic matter at the top of the core (fig. 14C). This 

pattern also was seen in a sediment core from a bay of Lac 

Courte Oreilles, in northwestern Wisconsin (Fitzpatrick 

and others, 2003).

Cadmium and zinc concentrations may reflect historical regional air emissions from smelters in northern 

Wisconsin. However, the elevated concentrations are in 

the same range of the core where physical characteristics 

and radiometric dating indicate input of sediment from 

the Keshena Dam impoundment. Perhaps sediment stored 

behind the Keshena Dam historically had higher concentrations of atmospherically or watershed-derived trace elements than more locally derived sediment that would have 

been deposited in the Balsam Row Dam Impoundment 

when the Keshena Dam was functioning.

Aluminum and titanium are considered conservative 

elements that are associated with the mineral component of 

the sediment, and the profiles for these elements for core 

T2-1 (fig. 22D) show unchanging concentrations along the 

entire length of core. There is no evidence in the profile 

for a change in conservative element concentrations from 

input of sediment from the Keshena Falls Dam Impoundment after the dam failure. 

Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, 

copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc in sediment from 

all sampled locations and core intervals were all below 

consensus-based probable effect concentrations (PEC), 

above which harmful effects on aquatic life are likely 

to be observed (table 6) (MacDonald and others, 2000). 

Two samples from flood-plain sediment were above the 

consensus-based threshold effect concentration (TEC) 

for arsenic (MacDonald and others, 2000). (No harmful effects on aquatic life are expected for concentrations 

below the TEC.) Only samples from the impoundment 

core T2-1 were above the TEC for cadmium, lead, and 

zinc. Chromium concentrations were generally above the 

TEC from all deposition zones except for older sediment 

deposited before European settlement or during logging 

or log drives. Only one sample from surficial backwater 

sediment at transect T7 had a copper concentration above 

the TEC. The highest mercury concentration (slightly 

above the TEC) was from surficial backwater sediment at 

transect T7; one sample of surficial sediment at T4 also 

had a mercury concentration just above the TEC. Nickel 

concentrations in all samples were below the TEC. 

Concentrations of minor and trace elements are 

similar to concentrations from sieved surficial sediment 

collected during 1996–98 near the Fairground Road Bridge 

(USGS identification number 04077100, fig. 1) at about 

24,000 ft on the longitudinal profile (fig. 9, table 6) (Garn 

and others, 2001). Concentrations also were in the range of 

sieved surficial-sediment concentrations found by Scudder 

and others (1997) for western tributaries to Lake Michigan. However, arsenic, mercury, and selenium concentrations in Wolf River sediment from the impoundment were 

greater than the national median, and cadmium and lead 

concentrations were greater than the 75th percentile based 

on sieved sediment concentrations from 541 streams across 

the Nation (Rice, 1999). Arsenic and selenium concentrations most likely reflect contributions from bedrock 

sources. Mercury concentrations reflect contributions from 

wetlands in the watershed. 

In summary, minor- and trace-element concentrations in sediment from depositional areas in impoundment, 

backwater, and flood-plain environments generally reflect 

background conditions as influenced by watershed geology 

and historical inputs from regional and local atmospheric 

deposition. All samples had concentrations below the PEC. 

Concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead, and zinc 

were above the TEC in sediment from the Balsam Row 

impoundment. Some samples from backwater sediment 

from the sandy reach exceeded the TEC for copper and 

mercury.

Summary and Conclusions

The USGS and the Menominee Indian Tribe examined historical trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and 
44 Trends in Streamflow, Sedimentation, and Sediment Chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850–1999

sediment chemistry for the Wolf River as it flows through 

a 6-mi reach through the southern part of the Menominee 

Indian Reservation. This study was done to determine the 

upstream effects of the Balsam Row Dam on channel characteristics of the Wolf River and to distinguish long-term 

(from about 1850–1999) changes in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry from land cover or climate 

changes.

 Results from trend analyses of historical streamflow 

and precipitation data indicate that annual flood peaks 

decreased during 1907–49 but increased during 1950–96; 

this pattern likely reflects mainly changes in precipitation (upper air circulation patterns) for both pre- and 

post-1950 and possibly forest regrowth during 1907–49. 

Mean monthly streamflow during 1912–96 decreased for 

February and March but increased for June and July. These 

trends indicate that spring snowmelt is occurring earlier 

in the spring. Decreases in early summer flows also may 

be affected by increased evapotranspiration from forest 

regrowth. 

Results from analysis of sediment cores along nine 

valley transects indicate that an increase in water-surface 

elevation of 15 ft associated with Balsam Row Dam has 

caused changes in channel conditions for about 4.3 mi 

upstream. The Balsam Row impoundment extends for 

1.8 mi and contains up to 10 ft of silty clay. The impoundment has lost much of its storage capacity. Historical average linear sedimentation rates in the impoundment were 

similar during 1927–63 (0.09 ft/y) and 1963–1999 

(0.10 ft/y). The average mass sedimentation rate during 

1927–63 is 1.15 lb/ft2

/y, slightly higher than the average 

mass sedimentation rate during 1963–99 of 1.04 lb/ft2/y. 

However, sedimentation in the impoundment during 

1963–99 has been episodic and associated with large 

floods, especially the record flood in 1973 that occurred 

one year after the Keshena Falls Dam failure. 

Sand deposition is common in the Wolf River channel 

upstream from the impounded reach for 2.5 mi. Sand in 

the channel overlies gravel substrate and abundant woody 

debris assumed to be associated with logging and log 

drives in the late 1800s. Most of the sand deposition can 

be associated with slope changes in the water surface from 

the Balsam Row impoundment, but some sand deposition 

may also may have been caused by logging, log drives, and 

the failure of the Keshena Falls Dam. 

In the upstream 1.5-mi part of the studied reach, the 

substrate is mainly rocky. About 2,000 ft downstream from 

Keshena Falls, the channel has narrowed and incised since 

the 1890s. The narrowing and incision at this location were 

likely related to human alterations associated with logging, 

log drives, or scour related to the Keshena Falls Dam. 

Results from analyses of minor and trace elements 

from selected core samples indicate that concentrations 

generally reflect background conditions as affected by 

watershed geology and historical inputs from regional and 

local atmospheric deposition. All samples had concentrations below the PEC. Concentrations of cadmium, chromium, lead, and zinc were above the TEC in sediment 

from the Balsam Row impoundment. Backwater sediment 

from the sandy reach had some samples above the TEC for 

copper and mercury.

Acknowledgments 

Douglas Cox, Heather Pyatskowit, and Jeremy 

Pyatskowit of the Menominee Indian Tribe, Environmental 

Services, were invaluable at providing field assistance for 

coring and surveying, and use of their boat was greatly 

appreciated. The author also is thankful to the landowners 

along the Balsam Row impoundment who gave access for 

the transect surveys, especially Clarence Neitzel, Stanley 

and Sandra Keonig, Len Pubanz, and the Menominee 

Logging Museum. James Rauman (USGS, Middleton, 

Wis.), Ty Sabin (formerly USGS, Middleton, Wis.) and 

Faye Blondin (formerly USGS, Middleton, Wis.) were 

indispensable for geoprobe coring in extremely cold, wet, 

remote, hilly, and wooded conditions.

Many thanks also are in order for the technical guidance received. John Attig (Wisconsin Geological and 

Natural History Survey, Madison, Wis.) gave guidance on 

glacial history. Professor James Knox (University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wis.) gave guidance on fluvial 

geomorphic processes. Ted Callender (USGS, Reston, Va.) 

gave guidance on sediment chemistry. Dale Robertson 

(USGS, Middleton, Wis.) assisted with trend analysis. William Krug (USGS, Middleton, Wis.) helped with streamflow data retrievals. Herbert Garn (USGS, Middleton, 

Wis.), Douglas Cox, and Kyle Juracek (USGS, Lawrence, 

Kans.) greatly improved the content of this report through 

their thorough technical reviews. Michael Eberle (USGS, 

Columbus, Ohio) did the editorial review. Manuscript 

illustrations and tables were made possible through Marie 

Peppler (USGS, Middleton, Wis.), Heather Schwar (formerly USGS, Middleton, Wis.), and Amanda Bell (USGS, 

Middleton, Wis.). Michelle Greenwood and Susan Jones 

(USGS, Middleton, Wis.) completed the final layouts.
References Cited 45

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