Balloon Flying Handbook

U.S. Department of Transportation

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Flight Standards Service

2008
ii
iii

This Balloon Flying Handbook introduces the basic pilot knowledge and skills that are essential for piloting balloons. 

It introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. This 

handbook is for student pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates.

Student pilots learning to fly balloons, certificated pilots preparing for additional balloon ratings or who desire to improve 

their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge, and commercial balloon pilots teaching balloon students how to fly 

should find this handbook helpful. This book introduces the prospective pilot to the realm of balloon flight and provides 

information and guidance to all balloon pilots in the performance of various balloon maneuvers and procedures.

This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA). There are different ways of teaching, as well as performing flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations 

in the explanations of aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept to flying 

balloons. The discussions and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally, the word 

“must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to 

add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

It is essential for persons using this handbook also to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and 

the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Performance standards for demonstrating competence required for pilot 

certification are prescribed in the appropriate balloon practical test standard.

This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-11, Balloon Flying Handbook, dated 2001.

This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from the FAA website, www.faa.gov.

This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman 

Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:

AFS630comments@faa.gov

Preface
iv
v

This handbook was produced as a combined Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), industry, and individual contributor 

effort. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following individual and corporate contributors:

Aerostar International, Inc. for the performance planning chart in Chapter 3 and the burner ratings sidebar on page 7-2

FireFly Balloons for imagery provided in Chapter 2

Lindstrand Balloons Ltd for the imagery in Chapter 2

J. Neils Enterprises, Inc. for imagery provided in Chapter 2

Lindan Hot Air Service Center for imagery provided in Chapter 2

Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, for many images used in Chapter 4

Art Rangno, Sky Guide, for many of the cloud illustrations used in Chapter 4

Gordon Schwontkowski, author of Hot Air Balloon Crewing Essentials, for editorial content and contribution of material 

relating to the role of the ground crew in ballooning

Mike Bauwens, of Balloon the Rockies, for many of the maneuver descriptions and original graphics used in Chapters 6 

and 7

Chapter 11, The Gas Balloon, was a collaborative effort of Peter Cuneo and Barbara Fricke, Andy Cayton, and Kevin 

Knapp.

Individual content and editorial contributions by: Raymond Bair, Philip Bryant, Stephen Turner, Jim Barnett, Kay West, 

Marian Deeney, Laura Hoeve, Tom Hamilton (for the False Lift discussion, originally printed in Balloon Life Magazine, 

and reprinted here in Chapter 6), Pat Cannon (for the pibal plotting procedure originally printed in Ballooning Magazine, 

and reprinted here in Chapter 3), Andrew and Barbara Ziolo, Chris Krowchuck, and Stuart Enloe

Individual photographic contributions have been made by Jane English (multiple lenticular cloud in Figure 4-23), Candy 

Ecker (Figure 3-15), and C. Tina Orvin (Figure 8-7).

The FAA acknowledges with appreciation the contributions of the Balloon Federation of America for technical support 

and input. 

Acknowledgements
vi
vii

Preface ...................................................................iii

Acknowledgements ................................................v

Table of Contents .................................................vii

Chapter 1

Introduction to Balloon Flight Training .............1-1

Purpose of Balloon Flight Training ...............................1-1

Role of the FAA ............................................................1-2

Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) ..............1-3

Role of the Flight Instructor ...........................................1-3

Sources of Flight Training .............................................1-4

Practical Test Standards .................................................1-4

Flight Safety Practices ..................................................1-5

Collision Avoidance ..................................................1-5

Runway Incursion Avoidance ...................................1-6

Use of Checklists .......................................................1-6

Positive Transfer of Controls .....................................1-6

Aeronautical Decision-Making .....................................1-7

Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes ............................1-7

Learning How To Recognize and Cope With Stress ..1-7

Developing Risk Assessment Skills ...........................1-7

Evaluating ADM Skills ..............................................1-8

Crew Resource Management ......................................1-8

Single-Pilot Resource Management ...........................1-8

Human Resources .......................................................1-8

Risk Management .......................................................1-9

Situational Awareness ..............................................1-10

The Decision-Making Process ....................................1-10

Defining the Problem ..............................................1-10

Choosing a Course of Action ..................................1-10

Implementing Decisions and Evaluating Outcomes 1-11

The DECIDE Model .................................................1-11

Balloon Certificate Eligibility Requirements ...............1-12

Aeronautical Knowledge, Private Pilot .................1-12

Flight Proficiency, Private Pilot ............................1-12

Aeronautical Knowledge, Commercial Pilot. .......1-14

Flight Proficiency, Commercial Pilot. ..................1-14

Introduction to Integrated Airman Certification and/or 

Rating Application (IACRA) .......................................1-15

Chapter Summary ........................................................1-15

Chapter 2

Hot Air Balloon Design, Systems, and Theory .2-1

Introduction ...................................................................2-1

History ........................................................................2-1

Physics ...........................................................................2-2

Why Do Balloons Fly? ...............................................2-2

Balloon Components ......................................................2-3

Envelope ....................................................................2-4

Special Shape Balloons ...........................................2-4

Thermal Airships ........................................................2-5

Heater System ............................................................2-5

Basket .........................................................................2-6

Instruments .................................................................2-7

Fuel Tanks ...................................................................2-7

Inflation Fans .........................................................2-9

Transport/Chase Vehicle .........................................2-9

Quick/Safety Release ...........................................2-10

Miscellaneous Items .............................................2-10

Aircraft Documents ......................................................2-11

Airworthiness Certificate .........................................2-11

Certificate of Aircraft Registration ...........................2-12

Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities ................2-12

Aircraft Maintenance ...................................................2-13

Balloon Inspections ..................................................2-13

Annual Inspection .................................................2-13

100 Hour Inspection .............................................2-13

Preflight Inspections .............................................2-13

Preventative Maintenance ........................................2-13

Repairs and Alterations ............................................2-14

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ..................................2-14

Choosing a Balloon .....................................................2-14

Advantages of Balloon Sizes ....................................2-14

Selecting a New or Used Balloon ............................2-15

Balloon Brands .........................................................2-15

Chapter Summary ........................................................2-15

Table of Contents
viii

Chapter 3

Preflight Planning ................................................3-1

Introduction ...................................................................3-1

Purpose of Flight ............................................................3-2

Weather ..........................................................................3-2

Navigation ......................................................................3-4

Performance Planning ....................................................3-8

Special Conditions .......................................................3-10

Cold Weather Flying ................................................3-10

Mountain Flying ......................................................3-11

The Ground Crew .......................................................3-11

Flying in New Territory ............................................3-12

Equipment ................................................................3-12

Personal Preparation ................................................3-13

Chapter Summary ........................................................3-13

Chapter 4

Weather Theory and Reports .............................4-1

Introduction ....................................................................4-1

The Atmosphere .............................................................4-2

Composition ...............................................................4-2

The Standard Atmosphere ..........................................4-2

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure ......................4-3

Temperature ....................................................................4-3

Temperature Scales .....................................................4-3

Temperature Variations ...............................................4-4

Temperature Variations with Topography ...............4-4

Temperature Variation with Altitude .......................4-4

Heat Transfer ..............................................................4-4

Radiation .................................................................4-4

Conduction ..............................................................4-4

Convection ..............................................................4-5

The Adiabatic Process ............................................4-5

Air Masses .....................................................................4-5

Characteristics ............................................................4-5

Pressure Systems .......................................................4-6

Fronts .............................................................................4-7

Types of Fronts ...........................................................4-7

Cold Front ...............................................................4-7

Stationary Front ......................................................4-9

Occluded Front .......................................................4-9

Surface Fronts .......................................................4-10

Winds and Currents .....................................................4-10

Atmospheric Circulation ..........................................4-10

Coriolis Force ......................................................4-11

Pressure Gradient ..................................................4-11

Surface Friction .....................................................4-12

Wind Patterns ...........................................................4-12

Convective Currents .................................................4-13

The Jet Stream .........................................................4-13

Local and Small-Scale Winds .................................4-14

Gradient Winds .....................................................4-14

Orographic Winds .................................................4-14

Anabatic Winds ....................................................4-14

Katabatic Winds ...................................................4-15

Clouds ..........................................................................4-15

Cloud Formation .......................................................4-15

Ceilings and Visibilities ...........................................4-18

Ceiling ...................................................................4-18

Visibility ...............................................................4-18

Temperature/Dew Point Relationship ...........................4-18

Fog ............................................................................4-18

Fog Formation .......................................................4-19

Fog Types and Characteristics ..............................4-19

Atmospheric Stability and Instability ..........................4-20

Types of Stability ......................................................4-20

Effects of Stable and Unstable Air ...........................4-21

Weather Hazards ..........................................................4-21

Turbulence ...............................................................4-21

Thermal .................................................................4-21

Mechanical ............................................................4-22

Frontal ...................................................................4-22

Wind Shear ...........................................................4-22

Obstructions and Wind .............................................4-23

Mountain Wave .....................................................4-23

Rotors ....................................................................4-24

Thunderstorms ..........................................................4-24

Structure of Thunderstorms ..................................4-25

Stages in Thunderstorm Development ..................4-25

Minimum Factors .................................................4-27

Summary ..................................................................4-27

How to Obtain Weather Information ...........................4-28

Sources for Weather Information ............................4-28

FAA Flight Service Stations (FSS) ......................4-28

Internet Sources ....................................................4-28

Interpreting Weather Charts and Reports .................4-29

Surface Analysis Chart .........................................4-29

Weather Depiction Chart ......................................4-31

Radar Summary Chart (SD) ..................................4-31

Composite Moisture Stability Chart .....................4-32

Stability/Lifted Index Chart ..................................4-32

Constant Pressure Analysis Charts ......................4-33

Significant Weather Prognostic Charts .................4-34

Additional Weather Information ..............................4-34

Skew-T Plots .........................................................4-34

Velocity Azimuth Display (VAD)Winds ..............4-35

Aviation Forecasts ...................................................4-36

Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast .................4-36
ix

Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) ........4-37

Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) ..................4-38

Area Forecasts (FA) ..............................................4-39

Inflight Weather Advisories ..................................4-39

Significant Meteorological Information ...............4-40

Convective Significant Meteorological Information 

(WST) ...................................................................4-40

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) ...........................4-40

Chapter Summary ........................................................4-41

Chapter 5

The National Airspace System ...........................5-1

Introduction ....................................................................5-1

Airspace Classification ..................................................5-2

Uncontrolled Airspace ................................................5-2

Class G Airspace .....................................................5-2

Controlled Airspace ....................................................5-3

Class E Airspace .....................................................5-3

Class D Airspace .....................................................5-4

Class C Airspace .....................................................5-4

Class B Airspace .....................................................5-5

Class A Airspace .....................................................5-5

Special Use Airspace ..................................................5-5

Prohibited Areas .....................................................5-6

Restricted Areas ......................................................5-6

Military Operation Areas ........................................5-7

Alert Areas ..............................................................5-7

Controlled Firing Areas ..........................................5-8

Other Airspace Areas .................................................5-8

Airport Advisory Areas ..........................................5-8

Military Training Routes (MTRs) ...........................5-8

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) ....................5-8

National Security Areas ..........................................5-9

Radio Communications ..................................................5-9

Phonetic Alphabet ....................................................5-10

Radio Procedures ......................................................5-10

When Departing a Nontowered Airport ...............5-10

When Approaching a Nontowered Airport ...........5-10

When Transiting a Nontowered Facility ...............5-10

When Approaching Controlled Airspace ..............5-10

Chapter Summary ........................................................5-11

Chapter 6

Layout To Launch ................................................6-1

Introduction ....................................................................6-1

Preflight Operations .......................................................6-1

Checklists ...................................................................6-2

Preflight Inspection Checklist .................................6-2

Emergency Checklist ..............................................6-2

Weather Brief .................................................................6-3

Performance Planning/Fuel Planning .............................6-4

The Chase Crew .............................................................6-4

Number of Crewmembers ..........................................6-4

Clothing ......................................................................6-4

Types of Flight ............................................................6-4

Direction of Flight ......................................................6-5

The Crew Briefing ......................................................6-5

The Crown Line .........................................................6-5

Launch Site ....................................................................6-6

Location and Obstacles ..............................................6-6

Landing Sites ..............................................................6-8

Launch Site Surface ...................................................6-8

Balloon Placement and Wind Direction .........................6-8

Removing the Balloon from the Vehicle ....................6-8

Assembly ....................................................................6-9

Basket .....................................................................6-9

Burner and Fuel System ..........................................6-9

Instrument Checks ................................................6-10

Layout ..........................................................................6-10

Spread Layout ..........................................................6-10

Strip Layout ..............................................................6-11

Progressive Fill .........................................................6-11

Inflator Fan Placement .............................................6-11

Safety Restraint/Quick-Release ................................6-12

Passenger Briefing ....................................................6-12

Inflation ........................................................................6-12

Inflation Styles .........................................................6-12

The Inflation .............................................................6-13

Prelaunch Check .......................................................6-14

Launch .........................................................................6-14

Uncommanded (False) Lift .......................................6-15

False Lift ...................................................................6-15

False Heavy (Downward Lift) ..................................6-15

Diminished Capacity ................................................6-16

Landowner Relations ...................................................6-17

Chapter Summary ........................................................6-17

Chapter 7

In-flight Maneuvers ..............................................7-1

Introduction ....................................................................7-1

The Standard Burn .........................................................7-2

Straight and Level Flight ...............................................7-3

Ascents and Descents .....................................................7-4

Ascents .......................................................................7-4

Descents .....................................................................7-6

Rapid/Steep Descents .............................................7-6

Maneuvering ..................................................................7-7

Winds Below ..............................................................7-7

Direction .....................................................................7-8
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Contour Flying ...............................................................7-8

Minimum Safe Altitude Requirements .......................7-8

Contour Flying Techniques ......................................7-10

Contour Flying Cautions—Aborted Landings .....7-11

Use of Instruments ...................................................7-12

InFlight Emergencies ...................................................7-12

Loss/Malfunction of Vent or Deflation Line ...........7-12

Loss/Malfunction of Pilot Light ..............................7-12

Fuel Leak .................................................................7-12

Tethering/Mooring .......................................................7-13

InFlight Crew Management .........................................7-15

Crew Behavior ..........................................................7-15

Pilot/Crew Communications ....................................7-15

Use of a Very High Frequency (VHF) Radio ...........7-15

Landowner Relations ...................................................7-16

Identification of Animal Populations .......................7-16

Chapter Summary ........................................................7-17

Chapter 8

Landing and Recovery ........................................8-1

Introduction ....................................................................8-1

The Approach .................................................................8-2

Step-Down Approach .................................................8-5

Low Approach ............................................................8-5

Obstacles and Approach Angles ................................8-5

Some Basic Rules of Landing ........................................8-7

Congested Areas .........................................................8-7

Practice Approaches ...................................................8-7

Thermal Flight ............................................................8-8

Landings .........................................................................8-9

Landing Considerations .............................................8-9

High-Wind Landing ....................................................8-9

Water Landings ...........................................................8-9

Passenger Briefings and Management .........................8-10

Stand in the Appropriate Area of the Basket ...........8-10

Face the Direction of Travel .....................................8-10

Place Feet and Knees Together, with Knees Bent ...8-10

Hold On Tight in Two Places ...................................8-10

Stay in the Basket .....................................................8-10

Recovery ......................................................................8-11

Landowner Relations ...............................................8-11

Packing the Balloon ..................................................8-11

Refueling ..................................................................8-13

Logging of Flight Time ............................................8-13

Pilot’s Log ............................................................8-13

Aircraft Log Books ...............................................8-14

Crew Responsibilities ..............................................8-14

Chapter Summary ........................................................8-15

Chapter 9

Aeromedical Factors ...........................................9-1

Introduction ....................................................................9-1

Environmental and Health Factors Affecting Pilot 

Performance ...................................................................9-2

Hypoxia ......................................................................9-2

Hypoxic Hypoxia ....................................................9-2

Hypemic Hypoxia ...................................................9-2

Stagnant Hypoxia ....................................................9-2

Histotoxic Hypoxia .................................................9-2

Symptoms of Hypoxia ................................................9-2

Hyperventilation .........................................................9-3

Middle Ear and Sinus Problems .................................9-3

Spatial Disorientation and Illusions ...........................9-4

Motion Sickness .........................................................9-5

Stress ..........................................................................9-5

Fatigue ........................................................................9-6

Dehydration and Heatstroke .......................................9-7

Alcohol .......................................................................9-7

Drugs ..........................................................................9-8

Scuba Diving ..............................................................9-8

Vision in Flight ..............................................................9-9

Night Vision .............................................................9-10

Chapter Summary ........................................................9-11

Chapter 10

The Instructional Process ................................10-1

Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities .10-2

Instructor Responsibilities ........................................10-2

Helping Students Learn ........................................10-2

Providing Adequate Instruction ............................10-3

Standards of Performance .....................................10-3

Emphasizing the Positive ......................................10-3

Flight Instructor Responsibilities .............................10-3

Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability .................10-3

Student Pilot Supervision .....................................10-4

Practical Test Recommendations ..........................10-4

Self-Improvement .................................................10-4

Sincerity ................................................................10-4

Acceptance of the Student ....................................10-4

Personal Appearance and Habits ..........................10-5

Demeanor .............................................................10-5

Safety Practices and Accident Prevention ............10-5

Proper Language ...................................................10-6
xi

The Learning Process ...................................................10-6

Definition of Learning ..............................................10-6

Characteristics of Learning ......................................10-6

Principles of Learning ..............................................10-6

How People Learn ....................................................10-7

Perceptions ...........................................................10-7

Factions Which Affect Perception ........................10-7

Insight ...................................................................10-8

Motivation .............................................................10-8

Levels of Learning ...................................................10-8

Transfer of Learning ................................................10-9

Habit Formation .......................................................10-9

Theories of Forgetting .............................................10-9

Disuse ...................................................................10-9

Interference ...........................................................10-9

The Teaching Process .................................................10-10

Preparation .............................................................10-10

Performance-Based Objectives ...........................10-11

Presentation ............................................................10-11

Review and Application .........................................10-11

Teaching Methods ......................................................10-12

Organizing Material ...............................................10-12

Introduction ............................................................10-12

Attention .............................................................10-12

Motivation ...........................................................10-12

Overview .............................................................10-12

Development ..........................................................10-12

Conclusion ..............................................................10-13

Lecture Method ..........................................................10-13

Demonstration-Performance Method .........................10-13

Computer-based Training .......................................10-14

Techniques of Flight Instruction ................................10-14

The Telling-and-Doing Technique ..........................10-14

Instructor Tells-Instructor Does ..........................10-15

Student Tells-Instructor Does ..............................10-15

Student Tells-Student Does .................................10-15

Student Does-Instructor Evaluates .....................10-15

Critique and Evaluation .............................................10-16

Purpose of a Critique ..............................................10-16

Methods of Critique ...............................................10-16

Student-Led Critique ..............................................10-16

Self-Critique ...........................................................10-16

Ground Rules for Critiquing ...................................10-16

Characteristics of an Effective Critique .................10-17

Evaluation ...............................................................10-18

Oral Quizzes ...........................................................10-18

Characteristics of Effective Questions ...................10-18

Answering Questions from Students ..................10-19

Written Tests ...........................................................10-19

Characteristics of a Good Test ............................10-19

Test Development ...................................................10-19

Presolo Knowledge Tests ....................................10-19

Performance Tests ...............................................10-19

Planning Instructional Activities ................................10-20

Course of Training ..................................................10-20

Objectives and Standards .......................................10-20

Blocks of Learning .................................................10-20

Training Syllabus ....................................................10-20

Syllabus Format and Content .................................10-21

How to Use a Training Syllabus .............................10-22

Lesson Plans ...........................................................10-22

Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson ..............10-23

How to Use a Lesson Plan Properly .......................10-25

Lesson Plan Formats ..............................................10-25

Chapter Summary ......................................................10-25

Chapter 11

The Gas Balloon ................................................11-1

Introduction ..................................................................11-1

The History of Gas Ballooning ................................11-2

Balloon Systems ..........................................................11-2

Netted Balloon Systems ...........................................11-3

Quick Fill Balloon Systems ......................................11-3

Lifting Gases ............................................................11-3

Components of the Gas Balloon ..................................11-4

Envelope ...................................................................11-4

Gondola ...................................................................11-4

Support Cabling ........................................................11-4

Equipment ................................................................11-5

Theory of Gas Ballooning ............................................11-5

Physics of Gas Ballooning .......................................11-5

Lift at Sea Level ...................................................11-5

Lift at Altitude ......................................................11-5

Pressure Ceiling ....................................................11-6

Additional Factors That Affect Lift ......................11-6

Weather Considerations ...............................................11-6

Meteorological Differences ......................................11-6

Meteorological Flight Planning ................................11-7

Flying in Inversions ..............................................11-7

The Practice of Gas Ballooning ...................................11-8

Gas Balloon Regulations ..........................................11-8

Flight Planning .........................................................11-9

Layout and Inflation .................................................11-9

Launch ....................................................................11-10

Inflight Procedures .................................................11-10

Solar Heating ......................................................11-10

Purity of Lifting Gas ...........................................11-11

Landing, Retrieval and Packup ...............................11-11

The America’s Challenge Race, 2006 ....................11-12

Chapter Summary ......................................................11-15
xii

Appendix A ..........................................................A-1

Vapor Pressures of LP Gases

Appendix B ..........................................................B-1

Pibal Plotting Grid

Appendix C ..........................................................C-1

Balloon Flight Checklists

Appendix D ..........................................................D-1

Pibal Velocity Versus Size

Appendix E ..........................................................E-1

Log Book Endorsement Formats

Appendix F .......................................................... F-1

Lift Table for Helium and Hydrogen Standard 

Temperatures and Pressures

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1
xiii
xiv
1-1

Purpose of Balloon Flight Training 

As outlined in this handbook, the purpose of balloon training 

is to learn, develop, and refine basic balloon flight skills. 

These skills include:

• Knowledge of the principles of flight;

• The ability to launch, operate, and land a balloon with 

competence and precision; and 

• The use of good judgment that leads to optimal 

operational safety and efficiency. 

Introduction to 

Balloon Flight 

Training

Chapter 1
1-2

Figure 1-1. Atlanta Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

Learning to fly a balloon requires a specific set of motor 

skills: 

• Coordination—the ability to take physical action in the 

proper sequence to produce the desired results while 

launching, flying, and landing the balloon. 

• Timing—the application of muscle coordination at 

the proper time to make the flight, and all maneuvers 

incident to it, a constant smooth process. 

• Control touch—the ability to interpret, evaluate, and 

predict the actions and reactions of the balloon with 

regard to attitude and speed variations, by interpreting 

and evaluating varying visual cues and instrument 

readings.

• Situational awareness—the ability to sense instantly 

any reasonable variation of altitude, airspeed, and 

directional change, as well as a constant perception 

of relative position to ground-based structures and 

planned flight track.

A skilled pilot becomes one with the balloon and learns to 

assess a situation quickly and accurately. He or she also 

develops the ability to select the proper procedure to follow 

in a situation, to predict the probable results of the selected 

procedure, and to exercise safe practices. In addition, a skilled 

pilot learns to gauge the performance of the balloon being 

flown and to recognize not only personal limitations, but also 

the limitations of the balloon. This knowledge helps the pilot 

to avoid reaching personal or machine critical points. 

Developing the skills needed to fly a balloon requires time 

and dedication on the part of the student pilot, as well as the 

flight instructor. Each balloon has its own particular flight 

characteristics, and it is not the purpose of balloon flight 

training to learn how to fly a particular model balloon. The 

purpose of balloon flight training is to develop skills and 

safety habits that can be transferred to any balloon. The pilot 

who acquires the necessary flight skills during training, and 

demonstrates these skills by flying with precision and safe 

flying habits, easily transitions to different model balloons. 

Student pilots should also remember that the goal of flight 

training is to develop a safe and competent pilot. To that end, 

it is important for the flight instructor to insure the student 

pilot forms the proper flying habits by introducing him or her 

to good operating practices from the first training flight.

Role of the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) 

The United States Congress has empowered the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA) to promote aviation safety 

by establishing safety standards for civil aviation. The 

FAA accomplishes this goal through the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR). Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 pertains to the certification 

of pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR 

part 61 defines the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flight 

proficiency, as well as training and testing requirements for 

each type of pilot certificate issued. 

14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight rules. 

The section is broad in scope and provides general guidance 

in the areas of general flight rules, visual flight rules (VFR), 

instrument flight rules (IFR), aircraft maintenance, and 

preventive maintenance and alterations. 

Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service promotes safe 

air transportation by setting the standards for certification 

and oversight of airmen, air operators, air agencies, and 

designees. It also promotes safety of flight of civil aircraft 

and air commerce by:

• Accomplishing certification, inspection, surveillance, 

investigation, and enforcement;

• Setting regulations and standards; and

• Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft 

and all airmen records.

The focus of interaction between the FAA Flight Standards 

Service and the aviation community and general public is 

the Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). [Figure 1-1]

The FAA has approximately 130 FSDOs. These offices 

provide information and services for the aviation community. 

FSDO phone numbers are listed in the blue pages of the 

telephone directory under United States Government 

Offices, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation 

Administration. Another convenient method of finding a local 

office is to use the FSDO locator available on the Regulatory 

Support Division’s website: http://www.faa.gov/about/

office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600.

In addition to accident investigation and the enforcement of 

aviation regulations, the FSDO is also responsible for the 
1-3

certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, 

flight schools and/or training centers, and airmen including 

pilots and flight instructors. Each FSDO is staffed by aviation 

safety inspectors (ASIs) who play a key role in making the 

United States aviation system safe. They administer and 

enforce safety regulations and standards for the production, 

operation, maintenance, and/or modification of aircraft 

used in civil aviation. They also specialize in conducting 

inspections of various aspects of the aviation system, such 

as aircraft and parts manufacturing, aircraft operation, 

aircraft airworthiness, and cabin safety. ASIs must complete 

a training program at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City 

which includes airman evaluation and pilot testing techniques 

and procedures. Inspectors also receive extensive on-the-job 

training and they receive recurrent training on a regular basis. 

The FAA has approximately 3,700 inspectors located in its 

FSDO offices. All questions concerning pilot certification 

(and/or requests for other aviation information or services) 

should be directed to the local FSDO. 

Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner 

(DPE) 

Among other duties, ASIs are responsible for administering 

FAA practical tests for pilot and flight instructor certificates 

and associated ratings. The administration of these tests is 

normally carried out at the FSDO level, but the agency’s 

highest priority is making air travel safer by inspecting 

aircraft that fly in the United States. To satisfy the need for 

pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates 

certain responsibilities to private individuals who are not FAA 

employees, but designated pilot examiners (DPEs).

A DPE is an individual, appointed in accordance with 14 

CFR part 183, section 183.23, who meets the qualification 

requirements of FAA Order 8710.3, Pilot Examiner’s 

Handbook, and who:

• Is technically qualified;

• Holds all pertinent category, class, and type ratings 

for each aircraft related to their designation;

• Meets the requirements of 14 CFR part 61, sections 

61.56, 61.57, and 61.58, as appropriate;

• Is current and qualified to act as pilot-in-command 

(PIC) of each aircraft for which they are authorized;

• Maintains at least a third-class medical certificate, if 

required; and

• Maintains a current flight instructor certificate, if 

required.

Designated as a representative of the FAA Administrator 

to perform specific pilot certification tasks on behalf of 

the FAA, a DPE may charge a reasonable fee. Generally, 

a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting applications and 

conducting practical tests leading to the issuance of specific 

pilot certificates and/or ratings. The majority of FAA 

practical tests at the private and commercial pilot level 

are administered by FAA DPEs, following FAA-provided 

practical test standards (PTSs). 

Only highly qualified individuals are accepted as DPEs. 

DPE candidates must have good industry reputations for 

professionalism, integrity, a demonstrated willingness 

to serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and 

procedures in certification matters. The FAA expects the 

DPE to administer practical tests with the same degree of 

professionalism, using the same methods, procedures, and 

standards as an FAA ASI. 

Since there are few DPEs for balloon pilot certification, it is 

important to determine early in flight training the availability 

of a DPE in a particular area. It may be necessary to make 

arrangements through the local FSDO for an appropriately 

rated FAA ASI to administer the test for a pilot certificate.

Role of the Flight Instructor

Unlike the rest of the aviation community, ballooning 

has no certificated flight instructor. This role is filled by 

commercially rated balloon pilots who choose to instruct 

and meet the provisions of 14 CFR part 61, Commercial 

Pilot Privileges and Limitations for a Balloon. In this 

discussion, the term “flight instructor” is understood to mean 

a commercial balloon pilot who provides instruction.

The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation safety 

and the FAA places full responsibility for student training 

on the authorized flight instructor. It is the job of the 

instructor to train the student pilot in all the knowledge 

areas and teach the skills necessary for the student pilot 

to operate safely and competently as a certificated pilot in 

the National Airspace System (NAS). The training includes 

airmanship skills, pilot judgment and decision-making, and 

good operating practices. 

A pilot training program depends on the quality of the 

ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. The 

flight instructor must possess a thorough understanding of 

the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of 

teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the 

student pilot. He or she uses a syllabus and teaching style 

that embodies the “building block” method of instruction. In 

this method, the student progresses from the known to the 

unknown via a course of instruction laid out in such a way 

that each new maneuver embodies the principles involved 

in the performance of maneuvers previously learned. Thus, 

with the introduction of each new subject, the student not only 
1-4

Figure 1-2. FAA-approved pilot school certificate.

learns a new principle or technique, but also broadens his or 

her application of those principles or techniques previously 

learned. Insistence on correct techniques and procedures from 

the beginning of training by the flight instructor ensures that 

the student pilot develops proper flying habit patterns. Any 

deficiencies in the maneuvers or techniques must immediately 

be emphasized and corrected. 

A flight instructor serves as a role model for the student pilot 

who observes the flying habits of his or her flight instructor 

during flight instruction, as well as when the instructor 

conducts other pilot operations. Thus, the flight instructor 

becomes a model of flying proficiency for the student who, 

consciously or subconsciously, attempts to imitate the 

instructor. For this reason, a flight instructor should observe 

recognized safety practices, as well as regulations during all 

flight operations. 

The student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training program 

commits considerable time, effort, and expense to achieve a 

pilot certificate. Many times a student judges the effectiveness 

of the flight instructor and the success of the pilot training 

program based on his or her ability to pass the requisite 

FAA practical test. A competent flight instructor stresses to 

the student that practical tests are a sampling of pilot ability 

compressed into a short period of time. The goal of a flight 

instructor is to train the “total” pilot. 

Sources of Flight Training 

Flight training in the United States is conducted by FAAapproved pilot schools and training centers, non-certificated 

(14 CFR part 61) flying schools, and independent flight 

instructors. There are a limited number of part 141 balloon 

training programs in the United States with most balloon 

flight training being conducted by certificated commercial 

balloon pilots authorized to instruct under the authority of 

14 CFR section 61.133 (a)(2)(ii)(a).

FAA-approved schools are flight schools certificated 

by the FAA as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. 

[Figure 1-2] Application for certification is voluntary 

and the school must meet stringent requirements for 

personnel, equipment, maintenance, and facilities; and 

teach an established curriculum which includes a training 

course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. A list of FAA 

certificated pilot schools and their training courses can be 

found in Advisory Circular (AC) 140-2, FAA Certificated 

Pilot School Directory. 

As noted above, the major source of balloon flight training 

in the United States is conducted by certificated commercial 

balloon pilots. Many of these individuals offer excellent 

training and meet or exceed the standards required of FAAapproved pilot schools, but not all flight instructors are equal. 

It is important for a student pilot to choose a flight instructor 

wisely, because a balloon flight training program is dependent 

upon the quality of the ground and flight instruction the 

student pilot receives. 

Practical Test Standards (PTS) 

The FAA has developed Practical Test Standards [Figure 1-3]

for FAA pilot certificates and associated ratings. These 

practical tests are administered by FAA ASIs and DPEs. 

14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which 

knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant. 

Since the FAA requires that all practical tests be conducted 

in accordance with the appropriate PTSs and the policies set 

forth in the introduction section of the PTS book, the pilot 

applicant should become familiar with this book during 

training.

The PTS book is a testing document and not intended to be 

a training syllabus. An appropriately rated flight instructor 

is responsible for training the pilot applicant to acceptable 

standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and 

maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to 

perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference 

and teaching documents, such as this handbook. A list of 

reference documents is contained in the introduction section 

of each PTS book. 
1-5

Figure 1-3. Figure 1-3. PTS books. Practical Test Standards.

The PTS for lighter-than-air aircraft are the FAA-S-8081-

17 (Private Pilot) and FAA-S-8081-18 (Commercial Pilot). 

Copies may be obtained by:

• Downloading from the Regulatory Support Division, 

AFS-600, website at http://afs600.faa.gov. 

• Purchasing printed copies from the Superintendent 

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, DC 20402. 

The official online bookstore web site for the United States 

Government Printing Office is http://bookstore.gpo.gov. 

Flight Safety Practices 

In the interest of safety and the development of good flight 

habits, the flight instructor and student pilot should follow 

certain basic flight safety practices and procedures in every 

flight operation. These include, but are not limited to, 

collision avoidance procedures including proper scanning 

techniques, use of checklists, runway incursion avoidance 

and other airspace operations, positive transfer of controls, 

and workload management. 

Collision Avoidance 

All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair collision and 

near midair collisions. The general operating and flight rules 

in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the concept of “See and Avoid.” 

This concept requires that vigilance shall be maintained at all 

times, by each person operating an aircraft. Pilots should also 

keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining 

a vigilant lookout regardless of the type of balloon being flown 

and the purpose of the flight. Most midair collision accidents 

and reported near midair collision incidents occur in good 

VFR weather conditions and during the hours of daylight. 

With regards to balloon operations, the argument can be 

made that any discussion of collision avoidance applies when 

dealing with operations close to the ground. When contour 

flying, or during an approach to a landing site, the potential 

of collision with trees, power lines, and other obstacles is 

increased. [Figure 1-4] The techniques used in collision 

avoidance can be extremely valuable, particularly in the 

evolution of a balloon flight, as the pilot is perhaps exposed 

more to the dangers of collision than any other aircraft. 

The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge of the 

limitations of the human eye, and the use of proper visual 

scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations. 

The importance of, and the proper techniques for, visual 

scanning should be taught to a student pilot at the very 

beginning of flight training. The competent flight instructor 

should be familiar with the visual scanning and collision 
1-6

Figure 1-9. Avoid collision. Figure 1-4. When flying or landing, always be aware of the potential 

for collision with trees, powerlines, and other obstacles.

avoidance information contained in AC 90-48, Pilot’s Role 

in Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical Information 

Manual (AIM). 

Runway Incursion Avoidance 

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving 

an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that 

creates a collision hazard with an aircraft taking off, landing, 

or intending to land. 

Most balloon flight operations are conducted away from an 

airport or at airports without an operating control tower. There 

may be circumstances that require the use of airport property, 

either for launch or landing and recovery of the balloon. 

These activities can be safely conducted at an airport, if the 

balloon pilot remains aware of the movement and location 

of other aircraft and ground vehicles, and also complies with 

standard operating procedures and practices. The absence of 

an operating airport control tower creates a need for increased 

vigilance on the part of any pilot operating at those airports. 

Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational 

awareness during airport surface operations reduces the 

potential for surface incidents. Safe balloon operations can 

be accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is 

properly trained early on and, throughout his or her flying 

career, complies with standard operating procedures and 

practices when operating on airport property. This requires 

the development of the formalized teaching of safe operating 

practices during ground operations. The flight instructor is the 

key to this teaching. The flight instructor should instill in the 

student an awareness of the potential for runway incursion. 

Use of Checklists 

Checklists are the foundation of pilot standardization and 

safety. Checklists aid the memory and help ensure that critical 

items necessary for the safe operation of the balloon are not 

overlooked or forgotten. Checklists have no value if they are 

not used. Pilots who fail to use checklists at the appropriate 

times are relying instead on memory, become complacent, 

and increase the odds of making a mistake.

The consistent use of checklists in primary flight training 

establishes habit patterns that will serve the pilot well 

throughout his or her flying career. It is important that the 

flight instructor promote a positive attitude toward the use 

of checklists so the student pilot recognizes their importance. 

At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the 

following phases of flight:

• Crew Briefing and Preparation

• Layout and Assembly

• Preflight Inspection 

• Inflation 

• Passenger Briefing 

• Prelaunch Check 

• Emergency Procedures 

• Postlanding

• Recovery, Deflation, and Packing 

Checklists are covered in greater detail in Chapter 6, Layout 

to Launch.

Positive Transfer of Controls 

It is imperative that a clear understanding exists between 

the student and flight instructor of who has control of the 

balloon during flight training. The flight instructor should 

conduct a briefing prior to any dual training flight that 

includes the procedure for the exchange of flight controls. 

The following three-step process for the exchange of flight 

controls is highly recommended. 

1. When a flight instructor wishes the student to take 

control of the balloon, he or she should say “You have 

the flight controls.” 
1-7

Taking

chances is 

foolish.

Follow the 

rules. They are 

usually right.

It could 

happen to me.

Not so fast. 

Think first.

I'm not 

helpless.

I can make a 

difference.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES ANTIDOTES

Macho—Brenda often brags to her friends 

about her skills as a pilot and wants to 

impress them with her abilities. During her 

third solo flight she decides to take a friend 

for a balloon ride.

Anti-authority—In the air, she thinks “It’s 

great to be up here without an instructor

criticizing everything I do. His 

do-it-by-the-book attitude takes all of the fun 

out of flying.”

Invulnerability—Brenda soon realizes that 

the winds are much stronger than she had 

thought and in a different direction than 

forecast. But she feels confident that her 

skill will still allow a long flight from the 

launch site so she can show her friend the 

countryside. She thinks, “It’s no more 

difficult than many of the flights with my

instructor.”

Impulsivity—While flying low over a 

neighborhood preparing to land, Brenda 

notices a number of adults and children in 

the middle of the street watching the 

balloon pass overhead. She decides to 

descend even lower, to rooftop level, to

impress both the spectators and Sarah, her 

passenger. As she levels out, she notices 

the power lines running just below the 

treetops and narrowly misses one of them.

Resignation—At the end of a local flight, 

Brenda does not adequately plan for a fast, 

hard landing. She fails to vent sufficiently on 

touchdown, and ends up draping the 

balloon envelope over the trees on the far 

edge of the landing area, with no damage. 

As she and her passenger exit the balloon, 

she says to herself, “Oh well, it’s all part of 

learning to fly."

Figure 1-6. Hazardous Attitudes.

Figure 1-5. A pilot must be able to identify hazardous attitudes and 

apply the appropriate antidote when needed.

2. The student acknowledges immediately by saying, “I 

have the flight controls.” 

3. The flight instructor confirms transfer of controls by 

saying, “You have the flight controls.” 

Both the flight instructor and student pilot should make a 

visual check to ensure the designated person actually has the 

flight controls. When the student pilot wishes to return the 

controls to the flight instructor, he or she follows the same 

procedure and stays on the controls until the flight instructor 

says, “I have the flight controls.” There should never be any 

doubt as to who is in control of the balloon. The establishment 

of positive transfer of control during initial training ensures 

the formation of a good flying habit. 

Aeronautical Decision-Making 

Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) is a systematic 

approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently 

determine the best course of action in response to a given set 

of circumstances. Learning effective ADM skills can help a 

pilot offset the one unchanging factor that remains despite all 

the changes in improved flight safety—the human factor. It 

is estimated that 90 percent of balloon accidents are human 

factors related. 

ADM builds on the foundation of conventional decisionmaking, but enhances the process to decrease the probability 

of pilot error. ADM provides a structure to analyze changes 

that occur during a flight and determine how these changes 

might affect a flight’s safe outcome. This process includes 

identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight, 

learning to recognize and cope with stress, developing risk 

assessment skills, and evaluating the effectiveness of one’s 

ADM skills.

Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes

A hazardous attitude, which contribute to poor pilot judgment, 

can be effectively counteracted by redirecting that hazardous 

attitude so that correct action can be taken. Recognition of a 

hazardous thought is the first step toward neutralizing it. After 

recognizing a thought as hazardous, the pilot should label 

it as hazardous, then state the corresponding antidote. The 

antidotes for each hazardous attitude should be memorized so 

it automatically comes to mind when needed. Each hazardous 

attitude with its appropriate antidote or learning modification 

is shown in Figure 1-5.

Learning How To Recognize and Cope With 

Stress

An important component of the ADM system is the ability to 

recognize stress. Stress is a term used to describe the body’s 

nonspecific response to demands placed on it. Stress can be 

emotional, physical, or behavioral, and it is important for 

a pilot to become knowledgeable about stress and how to 

cope with it. 

Developing Risk Assessment Skills

An examination of the National Transportation Safety Board 

(NTSB) reports and other accident research can help a pilot 

to assess risk more effectively. For example, studies indicate 

the types of flight activities that are most likely to result in 

the most serious accidents. For balloons, landing accidents 

consistently account for over 90 percent of the total number 

of accidents in any given year. 

These accidents consistently account for the majority of 

injury to pilots and damage to balloons. Accidents are more 

likely during landing because the tolerance for error is greatly 

diminished and opportunities for pilots to overcome errors 
1-8

Illness—Do I have any symptoms?

Medication—Have I been taking prescription or 

over-the-counter drugs?

Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from

the job? Worried about financial matters, health

problems, or family discord?

Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours? 

Within 24 hours?

Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?

Eating—Am I adequately nourished?

I’M SAFE CHECKLIST

y y p

g

g p p

j ,

p y g p

g

p , y

g

g q y

Figure 1-6 Figure 1-5. Safe checklist. . Prior to flight, a pilot should assess personal fitness, 

just as he or she evaluates the balloon’s airworthiness.

in judgment and decision-making become increasingly 

limited, particularly in high wind conditions. The most 

common causal factors for landing accidents include collision 

with obstructions in the intended landing area. Prior to a 

flight, a pilot should assess personal fitness. The “I’m Safe 

Checklist” helps a pilot determine his or her ability to fly. 

[Figure 1-6] 

Evaluating ADM Skills

The “What If” discussions an instructor pilot has with a 

student pilot are designed to accelerate development of 

decision-making skills by posing situations for the trainee to 

ponder. Research has shown that these types of discussions 

help build judgment and offset low experience. Once a 

student pilot has obtained his or her certification, it is 

important that he or she continue to evaluate flight decisions. 

To self-evaluate:

• Pose an open-ended question about the situation 

encountered during flight,

• Examine the decision made,

• Explore other ways to solve the problem, and

• Evaluate whether or not the best solution was used.

Crew Resource Management

ADM originated with the airline industry in an attempt 

to reduce human factors in aircraft accidents. The airlines 

developed a training program for flight crews called Crew 

Resource Management (CRM). It focuses on the effective use 

of all available resources to prevent accidents. While CRM 

focuses on pilots operating in crew environments, many of 

the concepts apply to single-pilot operations, but are not a 

“best fit” for balloon operations. 

Single-Pilot Resource Management

A variant of the CRM model that may be of more practical 

application to the balloon pilot is Single-Pilot Resource 

Management (SRM), which may be defined as “the art and 

science of managing all resources (both from on-board and 

external sources) available to the single-pilot (prior to and 

during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.” 

Virtually all ballooning is done as a single-pilot operation; 

there is no “crew resource” available from the perspective of 

having a co-pilot to assist in workload management. 

For any single pilot, the primary emphasis of SRM is to 

integrate the underlying thinking skills needed by the pilot 

to consistently determine the best course of action to take 

in response to a given set of circumstances. SRM integrates 

the following concepts:

• Human Resources

• Risk Management

• Situational Awareness

• Training

• Decision-Making Process

Human Resources

Balloons differ from general aviation aircraft in the balloon 

pilot’s reliance on diverse human resources for flight. 

Human resources include all groups working with pilots 

to ensure flight safety. A safe balloon flight includes, but 

is not limited to, a crew chief and ground crew, weather 

briefers, volunteers, spectators, “locals” with current 

and often unpublished information on roads and landing 

sites, landowners, and others who contribute assistance or 

information. Balloons differ from airplanes in their reliance 

on unlicensed, non-FAA-certified/recognized, and even first 

time volunteers to assemble and support ground handling 

of the balloon. Crew action—or inaction—at any stage of 

flight can contribute as much or more to flight safety than 

pilot input. Balloon flight safety often relies on many people 

beyond those onboard.

For example, a routine inflation on most balloons requires 

several sets of hands; moderate winds can quickly mean more 

help is needed. Having someone to handle a drop line offers 

a pilot landing site options inaccessible through onboard 

maneuvering. Added weight or “hands on” allows a pilot to 

choose a smaller landing site than when landing unassisted, or 

it can mean avoiding trees, power lines, or other obstacles.

Crew members make important information contributions to 

flight safety because crew can access real time flight related 
1-9

Figure 1-7. The Perceive-Process-Perform model.

• Accept—do benefits outweigh risk?

• Mitigate—can the risk be reduced?

During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events 

that involve interactions between the four risk elements—the 

pilot in command, the aircraft, the environment, and the 

operation. [Figure 1-8] One of the most important decisions a 

pilot in command makes is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating 

each of these risk elements can help a pilot decide whether a 

flight should be conducted or continued. Below is a review of 

the four risk elements and how they affect decision-making.

• Pilot—a pilot must continually make decisions about 

his or her competency, condition of health, mental 

and emotional state, level of fatigue, etc. For example, 

a pilot may plan for an early morning flight after an 

all night drive, which means little sleep. Tired, achy, 

congested from the beginnings of a cold, is that pilot 

safe to fly? 

• Balloon—a pilot frequently bases decisions on the 

evaluations of the balloon, such as performance, 

equipment, or airworthiness. A pilot is on an afternoon 

flight in a rural area. Landing areas are becoming sparse 

because the terrain is mostly swampland. The wind 

is decreasing and sunset is only half and hour away. 

Should he or she continue to fly over this terrain? 

• Environment—this encompasses many elements not 

pilot or balloon related. It includes, but is not limited 

to, such factors as weather, terrain, launch and landing 

areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one 

element that can change drastically over time and 

information before a pilot. For example, precipitation is often 

visible on the chase vehicles long before it compromises a 

balloon’s inflight performance or gains a pilot’s attention. 

The crew can also warn a pilot who is contour flying into 

the sun of power lines downwind or of livestock behind trees 

or buildings. A crew report on the current state of variable 

surface conditions can alert a pilot who is descending or 

landing into winds different from those of launch or flight. 

Crew action can easily mean the difference between a safe 

flight and an accident.

The essential and decisive roles crew and other human 

resources play in ballooning also create an ironic dilemma/

dynamic between legal and operational realities. 14 CFR 

part 91 requires a pilot to act as the sole and final authority 

regarding operation of the balloon, yet every pilot must rely 

on crew who are not trained, certified, or even recognized 

by any governing body for a flight to occur. Each pilot thus 

requires and leads this integral, yet legally invisible team 

on each flight. Overlooking, minimizing, or dismissing the 

crew’s role opens the door to mishaps. Safety often lies in 

recognizing how the crew’s skill, knowledge, and experience 

complement and enhance the pilot’s own. While all final 

decisions and the responsibility for safety still rest with the 

pilot, this broader than usual SRM model recognizes the 

human resources upon which every pilot relies for safe flight 

planning and decision-making.

Risk Management

Flying involves risk. To stay safe, a pilot needs to know 

how to judge the level of risk, how to minimize it, and 

when to accept it. The risk management decision path is 

best seen through the Perceive-Process-Perform model 

[Figure 1-7] which offers a structured way to manage risk.

Perceive hazards by looking at:

• Pilot experience, currency, condition;

• Aircraft performance, fuel;

• Environment (weather, terrain); and

• External factors.

Process risk level by considering:

• Consequences posed by each hazard,

• Alternatives that eliminate hazards,

• Reality (avoid wishful thinking), and

• External factors (get-home-itus).

Perform risk management:

• Transfer—can someone be consulted?

• Eliminate—can hazards be removed?
1-10

To maintain situational awareness, an accurate 

perception must be attained of how the pilot, balloon, 

environment, and operation combine to affect the flight.

Situation

RISK ELEMENTS

Pilot Aircraft Environment Operation

Factors, such as weather and 

airport conditions, must be 

examined.

The balloon performance, 

limitations, equipment, and 

airworthiness must be determined.

The purpose of the flight is a 

factor which influences the 

pilot’s decision on undertaking 

or continuing the flight.

The pilot’s fitness to fly must 

be evaluated including competency in the balloon, currency, 

and flight experience.

Figure 1-8. When situationally aware, a pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant Figure 1-4. Risk elements.

factor.

because of their base of experience, but newer pilots can 

compensate for lack of experience with the appropriate 

fundamental core competencies acquired during initial 

and recurrent flight training. SRM training helps the pilot 

maintain situational awareness, which enables the pilot 

to assess and manage risk and make accurate and timely 

decisions. To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills 

involved in ADM are used. 

The Decision-Making Process 

Understanding the decision-making process provides a 

foundation for developing the necessary ADM skills. Some 

situations, such as an extinguished pilot light, require an 

immediate response using established procedures. While 

pilots are well trained to react to emergencies, they are not 

as prepared to make decisions that require a more reflective 

response. The ability to examine any changes that occur 

during a flight, gather information, and assess risk before 

reaching a decision constitutes the steps of the decisionmaking process. 

Defining the Problem 

Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making 

process. Defining the problem begins with recognizing a 

change has occurred or an expected change did not occur. 

A problem is perceived first by the senses and then is 

distinguished through insight and experience. This “gut” 

reaction, coupled with an objective analysis of all available 

information, determines the exact nature and severity of 

the problem. 

Choosing a Course of Action 

After the problem has been identified, the pilot must evaluate 

the need to react to it and determine the actions that need 

distance. During an afternoon flight with an indefinite 

ceiling, slight precipitation and the rumble of thunder 

is encountered. Should the pilot stay aloft, trusting 

the weather briefing’s assertion that “there is no 

precipitation in the area,” or land at the first available 

site as soon as possible? 

• Operation—the interaction between the pilot, the 

balloon, and the environment is greatly influenced 

by the purpose of each flight operation. The pilot 

must evaluate the three previous elements to decide 

on the desirability of undertaking or continuing the 

flight as planned. It is worth asking why the flight is 

being made, how critical it is to maintain the original 

intent, and if the continuation of the flight is worth 

the risks?

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is the accurate perception and 

understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four 

fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, 

and after the flight. To maintain situational awareness, a 

pilot needs to understand the relative significance of these 

factors and their future impact on the flight. When a pilot 

is situationally aware, he or she has an overview of the 

total operation.

Some obstacles to maintaining situational awareness include 

(but are not limited to) fatigue, stress, and work overload; 

complacency; and classic behavioral traps such as the 

drive to meet or exceed flight goals. Situational awareness 

depends on the ability to switch rapidly between a number of 

different, and possibly competing, information sources and 

tasks while maintaining a collective view of the environment. 

Experienced pilots are better able to interpret a situation 
1-11

Detect the fact that a change has occurred.

Estimate the need to counter or react to the change.

Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight.

Identify actions which could successfully control the change.

Do the action necessary to adapt to the change.

Evaluate the effect of the action.

DECIDE MODEL

Figure 1-7. Decide model. Figure 1-9. The DECIDE Model can provide a framework for 

effective decision-making.

Figure 1-8. The Observation, Orientation, Decision, Action (OODA Loop).

ACT

OBSERVE

ORIENT

DECIDE

Figure 1-10. The four nodes of OODA Loop decision-making.

to be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. 

The expected outcome of each possible action should be 

considered and the risks assessed before deciding on a 

response to the situation. 

Implementing Decisions and Evaluating the 

Outcomes 

Although a decision may be reached and a course of action 

implemented, the decision-making process is not complete. 

It is important to think ahead and determine how the decision 

could affect other phases of the flight. As the flight progresses, 

a pilot must continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision 

to ensure that it is producing the desired result. 

The DECIDE Model

A common approach to decision-making for the last decade 

has been the rational choice model. This concept holds that 

good decisions result when a pilot gathers all the information 

related to a particular scenario, reviews it, analyzes the options 

available, and decides on the best course of action to follow. 

The DECIDE Model, a six-step process intended to provide 

the pilot with a logical way of approaching decision-making, 

is an example of this concept. The six elements of the 

DECIDE Model represent a continuous loop process to 

assist a pilot in decision-making. If a pilot uses the DECIDE 

Model in all decision-making, it becomes natural and results 

in better decisions being made under all types of situations. 

[Figure 1-9] 

The OODA Loop

Colonel John Boyd, USAF (Retired), coined the term and 

developed the concept of the “OODA Loop” (Observation, 

Orientation, Decision, Action). [Figure 1-11] The ideas, 

words, and phrases contained in Boyd’s briefings have 

penetrated not only the United States military services, but 

the business community and academia around the world. 

The OODA Loop is now used as a standard description of 

decision-making cycles.

The OODA Loop is an interlaced decision model which 

provides immediate feedback throughout the decisionmaking process. For SRM purposes, an abbreviated version 

of the concept [Figure 1-10] provides an easily understood 

tool for the balloon pilot.

The first node of the OODA Loop, Observe, reflects the need 

for situational awareness. A balloon pilot must be aware of 

those things around him or her that may impact the flight. 

Continuous monitoring of wind, weather, ground track, balloon 

responses, and so forth provide a constant reference point by 

which the pilot knows his or her starting point on the loop. This 

permits the ability to immediately move to the next step. 

Orient, the second node of the OODA Loop, focuses the 

pilot’s attention on one or more discrepancies in the flight. 

For example, while contour flying over trees, the balloon 

passes the edge of the tree line and begins a gradual descent. 

The pilot is aware of this deviation and considers available 

options in view of potential hazards to continued flight. 

The pilot then moves to the third node, Decide, in which he 

or she determines the action to create a specific desired effect. 

That decision is made based on experience and knowledge of 

potential results of a particular action. The pilot then Acts on 

that decision, making a physical input to cause the balloon 

to react in the desired fashion. 

Once the OODA Loop has been completed, the pilot is once 

again in the Observe position. Assessment of the resulting 

action is added to the previously perceived aspects of the 
1-12

Figure 1-8. The Observation, Orientation, Decision, Action (OODA Loop).

Dave has received his weather information 

for an afternoon flight, and finds the winds 

are forecast to stay above 7 mph until just 

before sunset. He goes ahead with planning 

the flight, believing the winds will decrease, 

and will soon be going out to the launch site 

to start preparations for launch.

In this example, Dave is in the Observe

part of the decision cycle. He will continue 

to Observe until he detects a condition that 

would cause him to cancel the flight. Dave

has completed a full cycle of the OODA 

Loop, but has returned to the Observe

node to continue to monitor the weather.

Upon reaching the launch site, Dave checks 

the winds using a pibal and finds that winds 

are decreasing. He believes a flight can be 

safely conducted, and goes ahead with his 

launch plans. After launch, Dave finds that 

the winds are in a direction that is not quite 

what was forecast, and are taking him into

an area with few good landing areas. He 

continues the flight, and watches the 

direction closely to detect any further 

change of direction.

In this example, Dave has completed an

OODA decision-making cycle, and has 

returned to the Orient node. He will 

continue to monitor the situation, being 

aware of changes, and is prepared to make 

a decision when the situation warrants.

Twenty minutes into the flight, Dave notices 

frost forming on the outside of the fuel fitting 

leading to the burner. Since he cannot 

tighten the fitting (it is a fixed fitting), he 

decides to shut off the fuel on that side, vent 

the line, and land as soon as practicable in 

accordance with the established “emergency” procedure.

Here, Dave has completed an entire 

Decision cycle in a very short time due to 

the circumstances of the situation. He will 

now move to the Act node, and will take 

action to resolve the issue before it causes 

danger to him or his passenger.

While making an approach to land, Dave’s

passenger, Pat, alerts him to powerlines 

running across the near side of the small 

field. Dave evaluates his approach and 

Acts to land accordingly, knowing that 

winds may shift somewhat as he descends. 

He touches down well past the powerlines, 

never having put him or his passenger at 

risk, and has an uneventful deflation.

Dave again completed an OODA Loop 

decision-making cycle. Had there been an

indication that the approach could not be 

safely completed, Dave could have made a 

decision to abort the landing (Decide), and 

then performed an Act to effect a change.

ACT

OBSERVE

ORIENT

DECIDE

OBSERVE

ORIENT

DECIDE

ACT

ORIENT

DECIDE

ACT

OBSERVE

DECIDE

ACT

OBSERVE

ORIENT

Figure 1-11. Using the OODA Loop as a model, it is possible to have multiple decision-making cycles in progress, in different stages 

of completion. While these examples show a sequence, this is not always the case; the OODA Loop cycles may overlap in any stage of 

execution.
1-13

flight to further define the flight’s progress. The advantage 

of the OODA Loop Model is that it may be cumulative. 

Also, multiple cycles in different stages of completion may 

be occurring at any given point in the flight.

Balloon Certificate Eligibility 

Requirements

To be eligible to fly a balloon solo, an applicant must be at 

least 14 years of age and demonstrate satisfactory aeronautical 

knowledge on a test developed by a flight instructor. Flight 

training must be received and logged for the maneuvers and 

procedures in 14 CFR part 61 that are appropriate to the 

make and model of aircraft to be flown. Only after all of 

these requirements are met can a flight instructor endorse a 

student's certificate and logbook for solo flight. 

To be eligible for a sport pilot certificate with a balloon 

endorsement, an applicant must be at least 16 years of age, 

complete the specific training and flight time requirements 

described in 14 CFR part 61, pass a knowledge test, 

and successfully complete a practical test. A sport pilot 

certificate with balloon endorsement authorizes piloting 

a balloon with a maximum takeoff gross weight of 1,320 

pounds or less. Satisfactory proficiency and safety must 

also be demonstrated.

To be eligible for a private pilot certificate with a balloon 

rating, an applicant must be at least 16 years of age, complete 

the specific training and flight time requirements described 

in 14 CFR part 61, pass a knowledge test, and successfully 

complete a practical test. A private pilot certificate allows 

a pilot to carry passengers, but he or she may not receive 

compensation. The FAA has specified the aeronautical 

knowledge and flight proficiency that must be demonstrated 

to earn a private certificate as listed below.

Aeronautical Knowledge, Private Pilot, 14 CFR 

Part 61, Section 61.105.

(a) General. A person who is applying for a private 

pilot certificate must receive and log ground training 

from an authorized instructor or complete a homestudy course on the aeronautical knowledge areas of 

paragraph (b) of this section that apply to the aircraft 

category and class rating sought.

(b) Aeronautical knowledge areas.

1. Applicable Federal Aviation Regulations of this 

chapter that relate to private pilot privileges, 

limitations, and flight operations;

2. Accident reporting requirements of the National 

Transportation Safety Board;

3. Use of the applicable portions of the Aeronautical 

Information Manual and FAA Advisory 

Circulars;

4. Use of aeronautical charts for VFR navigation 

using pilotage, dead reckoning, and navigation 

systems;

5. Radio communication procedures;

6. Recognition of critical weather situations from the 

ground and in flight, windshear avoidance, and 

the procurement and use of aeronautical weather 

reports and forecasts;

7. Safe and efficient operation of aircraft, including 

collision avoidance, and recognition and 

avoidance of wake turbulence;

8. Effects of density altitude on takeoff and climb 

performance;

9. Weight and balance computations; 

10. Principles of aerodynamics, powerplants, and 

aircraft systems;

11. Stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin 

recovery techniques for the airplane and glider 

category ratings; 

12. Aeronautical decision-making and judgment; 

and

13. Preflight action that includes—

i. How to obtain information on runway 

lengths at airports of intended use, data 

on takeoff and landing distances, weather 

reports and forecasts, and fuel requirements; 

and

ii. How to plan for alternatives if the planned 

flight cannot be completed or delays are 

encountered.

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. (1997, July 30). 14 

CFR part 61, section 61.105. Retrieved on 19 January 2007 

from http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies.

Flight Proficiency, Private Pilot, 14 CFR Part 61, 

Section 61.107

(a) General. A person who applies for a private pilot 

certificate must receive and log ground and flight 

training from an authorized instructor on the areas 

of operation of this section that apply to the aircraft 

category and class rating sought.

(b) Areas of operation.
1-14

NOTE: Steps 1–7 have been omitted from this reference. To 

view these steps, reference the manual listed in the title of 

the section text. 

8. For a lighter-than-air category rating with a 

balloon class rating:

i. Preflight preparation;

ii. Preflight procedures;

iii. Airport operations;

iv. Launches and landings;

v. Performance maneuvers;

vi. Navigation;

vii. Emergency operations; and

viii. Postflight procedures.

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. (1997, July 30). 14 

CFR part 61, section 61.107. Retrieved on 19 January 2007 

from http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies.

To be eligible for a commercial pilot certificate with a balloon 

rating, an applicant must be 18 years of age, complete the 

specific training requirements described in 14 CFR part 

61, pass the required knowledge tests, and pass another 

practical test. 

The FAA has specified the aeronautical knowledge and flight 

proficiency that must be demonstrated to earn a commercial 

certificate as listed below.

Aeronautical Knowledge, Commercial Pilot, 

14 CFR Part 61, Section 61.125.

(a) General. A person who applies for a commercial 

pilot certificate must receive and log ground training 

from an authorized instructor, or complete a homestudy course, on the aeronautical knowledge areas of 

paragraph (b) of this section that apply to the aircraft 

category and class rating sought.

(b) Aeronautical knowledge areas.

1. Applicable Federal Aviation Regulations of this 

chapter that relate to commercial pilot privileges, 

limitations, and flight operations;

2. Accident reporting requirements of the National 

Transportation Safety Board;

3. Basic aerodynamics and the principles of 

flight;

4. Meteorology to include recognition of critical 

weather situations, windshear recognition and 

avoidance, and the use of aeronautical weather 

reports and forecasts;

5. Safe and efficient operation of aircraft;

6. Weight and balance computations;

7. Use of performance charts;

8. Significance and effects of exceeding aircraft 

performance limitations;

9. Use of aeronautical charts and a magnetic 

compass for pilotage and dead reckoning;

10. Use of air navigation facilities;

11. Aeronautical decision-making and judgment;

12. Principles and functions of aircraft systems;

13. Maneuvers, procedures, and emergency operations 

appropriate to the aircraft;

14. Night and high-altitude operations;

15. Procedures for operating within the National 

Airspace System; and

16. Procedures for flight and ground training for 

lighter-than-air ratings.

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. (1997, July 30). 14 

CFR part 61, section 61.125. Retrieved on 19 January 2007 

from http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies.

Flight Proficiency, Commercial Pilot, 14 CFR 

Part 61, Section 61.127.

(a) General. A person who applies for a commercial pilot 

certificate must receive and log ground and flight 

training from an authorized instructor on the areas 

of operation of this section that apply to the aircraft 

category and class rating sought.

(b) Areas of operation.

8. For a lighter-than-air category rating with a 

balloon class rating:

i. Fundamentals of instructing;

ii. Technical subjects;

iii. Preflight preparation;

iv. Preflight lesson on a maneuver to be 

performed in flight;

v. Preflight procedures;

vi. Airport operations;

vii. Launches and landings;

viii. Performance maneuvers;

ix. Navigation;

x. Emergency operations; and

xi. Postflight procedures.
1-15

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. (1997, July 30). 14 

CFR part 61, section 61.127. Retrieved on 19 January 2007 

from http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies.

NOTE: A commercial pilot with a balloon category and 

class rating may instruct, and is authorized to do so under 

the provisions of his or her certificate. 

If a pilot currently holds a pilot certificate for a powered 

aircraft and wants to add a balloon category rating on that 

certificate, he or she is exempt from the knowledge test, 

but must satisfactorily complete the flight training and 

practical test. Certificated balloon pilots are not required 

to hold an airman medical certificate to operate a balloon 

within the United States. Flights in foreign countries fall 

under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 

regulations, and a medical certificate is generally required. 

For private pilots working toward the commercial pilot 

certificate, the regulatory requirement is ten additional hours 

of flight training, per the provisions of 14 CFR part 61. 

Flight time logged as instructional time towards the initial 

certification may not, under most circumstances, be counted 

towards that time which must be accumulated toward the 

commercial rating. 

Introduction to Integrated Airman 

Certification and/or Rating Application 

(IACRA)

The Integrated Airman Certification and/or Rating 

Application (IACRA) is an online application system that 

allows for the issuance of student, private, and commercial 

certificates without generating paperwork; all certificate 

application and approval is done through the use of electronic 

signatures. IACRA interfaces with multiple databases to 

validate data and verify specific fields of information, and 

upon completion of the approval process, forwards the data 

automatically to the Airman Certification Branch. 

In order to utilize the system, an applicant must first register 

at http://acra.faa.gov/iacra/. This registration process results 

in the issuance of an FAA Tracking Number (FTN). This 

number becomes the applicant’s registration number for all 

future utilization of the system, so it is important to keep it 

for future reference and action.

Upon completion of all training requirements, the student 

pilot (which refers to both the student applying for a private 

certificate, as well as the private pilot upgrading to the 

commercial certificate) makes application through the IACRA 

web site. The FAA Form 8710-1 is completed online in several 

steps. When complete, the form is submitted to the central 

server at the FAA Airman Certification Branch in Oklahoma 

City. If the form is accepted at the server, the applicant is issued 

an application ID number for future reference. 

The instructor, who has previously enrolled in the IACRA 

system as a recommending instructor, uses the applicant’s 

FTN to retrieve the application for review. It is also the 

responsibility of the instructor to attach the results of the 

student’s written test to the IACRA file, using the Exam 

ID, which is usually found in the upper right portion of 

the printed results. Once the recommending instructor has 

reviewed the application, and the results are attached, the 

application is again sent to the central server at the Airman 

Certification Branch. 

At the appropriate time, the examiner retrieves the applicant’s 

application from the central server, verifies the individual’s 

identification, and administers the practical test. IACRA has 

provisions for the issuance of a temporary airman certificate, 

notice of discontinuance, or notice of disapproval. When the 

evaluation is completed, and the examiner has completed 

the appropriate processing, the file is again returned to the 

Airman Certification Branch. Upon successful completion, the 

permanent certificate is prepared and forwarded to the pilot.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the FAA, the flight 

instructor, and DPE’s roles in the qualification and licensing 

of lighter-than-air pilots. Additionally, the regulatory 

requirements for both ground and aeronautical training have 

been outlined.

The reader has also been given some basic information and 

techniques concerning flight safety practices and aeronautical 

decision-making. This information is not exhaustive; the 

student pilot would be well advised to avail himself or 

herself of other materials published by the FAA and other 

organizations. 
1-16
2-1

Introduction 

This chapter presents an introduction to the history of flying 

balloons, the physics of balloon flight, balloon components, balloon 

terminology, support equipment, and how to choose a balloon.

History

Hot air balloons are the oldest successful human flight 

technology. The first recorded manned balloon flight was made 

on November 21, 1783 in a hot air balloon developed by the 

Montgolfier brothers of France. [Figure 2-1] Flown by Pilatre de 

Rozier and the Marquis d’Arlandes, the flight lasted 23 minutes 

and covered 5.5 miles. Although the Montgolfiers are given credit 

for the first documented flight, there are some earlier claims. The 

Chinese are credited with using manned kites, and perhaps hot 

air balloons, some 2,000 years ago, and the Nazcas of Peru may 

have used smoke-filled balloons.

Hot Air Balloon Design, 

Systems, and Theory

Chapter 2
2-2

Figure 2-1. Model of the Montgolfier brothers balloon.

Ten days after the successful flight of the Montgolfier balloon, 

a young physicist, Professor Jacques Charles flew the first 

gas balloon made of a varnished silk envelope filled with 

hydrogen. His flight lasted two hours and covered 27 miles, 

reaching an altitude of 9,000 feet. Begun as an attempt to 

duplicate and validate the achievements of the Montgolfier 

brothers, Charles based his experiment on misinformation. He 

mistakenly believed the Montgolfier brothers used hydrogen 

to inflate their balloon, so he used hydrogen. Thus, the two 

kinds of balloons flown today—hot air and gas—were 

developed in the same year. 

Gas ballooning became a sport for the affluent and flourished 

on a small scale in Europe and the United States. Since 

ballooning drew crowds, one way to offset the cost of a 

flight was to charge admission. Ballooning was a perilous 

undertaking that drew male and female daredevils eager to 

court danger. The parachute, invented by balloonist Andre 

Garnerin in 1797 as the means of performing a daring stunt, 

is probably ballooning’s most significant contribution to 

flight.

At the turn of the century, the smoke balloon (a canvas 

envelope heated by fire on the ground) was a common county 

fair opening event. As the smoke balloon ascended, a man or 

woman rider balanced on a trapeze attached to the balloon. 

After the initial climb (about 3,000 feet per minute (fpm)) 

the hot air cooled and the rider separated from the balloon, 

deploying a parachute to return to earth.

Balloons also found a home with the military. Napoleon 

used anchored observation balloons in some of his battles 

and considered using balloons to ferry troops in his proposed 

invasion of England. During the American Civil War, both 

the North and South used tethered observation balloons. In 

Europe, balloons were used during the 1870 siege of Paris 

(Franco-Prussian War) to carry messages and important 

people out of Paris. World War I saw balloons used by 

both sides for artillery spotting. By World War II, airplanes 

had replaced balloons for observation and reconnaissance 

purposes although barrage balloons (several large balloons 

tethered close together) were often used to discourage low 

level bombers or dive bombers. The United States Navy 

contracted with the General Mills Company in the 1950s to 

develop a small hot air balloon for military purposes. The 

Navy never used the balloon, but the project created the 

basis for the modern hot air balloon. With the use of modern 

materials and technology, hot air ballooning has become an 

increasingly popular sport.

Physics

In concept, the balloon is the simplest of all flying machines. 

It consists of a fabric envelope filled with a gas that is lighter 

than the surrounding atmosphere. Since air in the envelope 

is less dense than its surroundings, it rises, taking the basket 

filled with passengers or payload with it. A balloon is distinct 

from other aircraft in that it travels by moving with the 

wind and cannot be propelled through the air in a controlled 

manner.

There are two main types of balloons, hot air and gas, but 

other specialty type balloons are also flown. The Rozier 

balloon is an example of a less common balloon. A hybrid 

balloon that utilizes both heated and unheated lifting gases 

for long distance record flights, a Rozier was flown by Steve 

Fossett in his record-setting first solo circumnavigation in 

2002. A recent addition to the hot air balloon field is the solar 

balloon, which uses heat radiation from the sun to provide 

lift. This handbook primarily covers hot air balloons. 

Why Do Balloons Fly?

The physics of balloon flight is based on the principles of 

fluid dynamics and associated theorems. Therefore, it is 

helpful to think of the air, the medium of balloon flight, as a 

fluid when discussing the concept of “buoyancy” as applied 

to balloon flight. In physics, buoyancy is the upward force 

of an object produced by the surrounding fluid (i.e., liquid 

or gas) in which it is fully or partially immersed, due to the 

pressure difference of the fluid between the top and bottom 
2-3

Figure 2-1. Basic balloon terms.

Deflation port

Envelope

Horizontal load tapes

Vertical load tapes

Basket

Crown line

Heating system

Skirt or scoop Mouth/Throat

Figure 2-3. Basic balloon terms.

Figure 2-2. The air inside the balloon envelope is heated to create 

buoyancy.

of the object. The net upward buoyancy force is equal to the 

magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the object. This 

force enables the object to float or at least to appear lighter. 

An object must make room for its own volume by pushing 

aside, or displacing, an equal volume of liquid. For example, 

an aircraft carrier exerts downward force on the water and 

the water exerts upward force on the aircraft carrier. A solid 

object floats when it has displaced just enough water, or air 

in the case of a balloon, to equal its own original weight.

To create the necessary buoyancy for flight, the air inside the 

balloon envelope is heated which causes the air to expand, 

making it less dense. [Figure 2-2] Once the interior air weighs 

less than the non-heated ambient air (air that surrounds an 

object), the balloon becomes lighter in weight and rises in an 

effort to find a level where the interior air density matches 

that of the exterior air density. The envelope is carried along 

“for the ride,” as it does little more than contain the heated 

air mass. The balloon rises to a point where the lift created 

by the action of heating the air is equal or greater than that of 

the balloon itself. The balloon rises because it has reached a 

state of “positive buoyancy” and the amount of lift is greater 

than the weight of the balloon.

The greater the heat differential between the air inside the 

envelope and the ambient air, the faster the balloon rises. Hot 

air is constantly being lost from the top of the envelope by 

leaking through the fabric, seams, and deflation port. Heat is 

also lost by radiation. Only the best and newest fabrics are 

nearly airtight. Some fabrics become increasingly porous 

with age and some colors radiate heat faster than others 

do. Under certain conditions, some dark colored envelopes 

may gain heat from the sun. To compensate for heat loss, 

prolonged flight is possible only if fuel is carried on board 

to make heat. 

The internal temperature of the air in the envelope is raised 

or lowered to change altitude. To climb, the temperature in 

the envelope is raised by heating the air which creates more 

lift. To descend, the air in the envelope is allowed to cool. 

Cooling of the envelope is also possible by allowing hot air 

to escape through a vent. This temporary opening closes 

and seals automatically, due to the upward pressure, when 

it is not in use. 

A balloon’s weight when in flight is not only the figure as 

stated in the flight manual, but also includes the weight of 

the air within the inflated envelope, the balloon components 

and equipment, as well as the pilot and passengers. The 

average 77,000 cubic foot hot air balloon contains an air mass 

that weighs over 3,000 pounds. By adding all these factors 

together, it is easy to understand how weight influences the 

balloon’s response to pilot actions during flight maneuvers. 

The weight and sheer momentum of a balloon in flight make 

it difficult for a pilot to effect rapid changes. 

Balloon Components

A hot air balloon consists of three main components: 

envelope, heater system, and basket. In addition, flight 

instruments, fuel tanks, and other support equipment are 

needed for a safe balloon flight. [Figure 2-3] The most 

common ballooning terms are used in the following text, in 
2-4

Figure 2-5. Special shape balloons.

Figure 2-2. Parachute value.

Overlap for air seal

Actuation line 

(deflation/vent)

Figure 2-4. Deflation system.

the generic illustrations, and are also listed in the glossary 

which contains balloon and aeronautical terminology. Some 

terms and names used by manufacturers are also included. 

Envelope 

The envelope is usually made of light-weight and strong 

synthetic fabrics such as ripstop nylon or Dacron®. The 

material is cut into panels which are sewn together in vertical 

rows that are called gores due to their triangular shape. 

The traditional envelope shape is a teardrop. The gores 

are reinforced with sewn-in webbing called horizontal and 

vertical structural load tapes which are continuous to the 

top center of the balloon where they are sewn into a load 

ring. Galvanized, stainless steel, or Kevlar® cables transfer 

basket loads to load tapes which in turn support the load. 

The nylon “skirt” at the base of the envelope is coated with 

special fire resistant material to keep the flame from igniting 

the balloon. 

The deflation port is located at the top of the envelope and 

allows for the controlled release of hot air. It is covered by 

the deflation panel sometimes called a top cap, parachute 

top, or spring top. [Figure 2-4] In a balloon with a parachute 

top, partial opening of the parachute valve is the normal way 

to cool the balloon. Balloons with other types of deflation 

panels may have a cooling vent in the side or the top. Many 

balloons are also equipped with turning vents, which allow 

for the pilot to turn the balloon on its vertical axis while in 

flight. Turning vents help a pilot align the basket for landing, 

or in the case of commercial balloons, align the balloon’s 

logo toward the crowd.

Special Shape Balloons

Balloons that do not have a traditional “teardrop” shape are 

called special shape balloons. [Figure 2-5] They may be 

completely engineered systems which have been designed to 

resemble cans, sports balls, cartoon characters, cars, etc. 

Some balloons have appendages added to the envelope. 

Appendages are pieces added to a balloon envelope in order 

to create a particular shape or rendition, not necessarily 

keeping with a standard shape balloon. To be designated 

an appendaged envelope, less than 10 percent of the total 

capacity of the balloon is contained within the appendage. 

While the appendaged envelope has the same general flight 

characteristics as a standard balloon shape, there are some 

differences. For example, the added weight of the appendage 

may cause the overall envelope to weigh significantly more 

than teardrop balloons of equal size. Appendage balloons 

also have the tendency to rotate during aggressive climbs 

and descents. 

A special shape envelope requires a substantial amount of 

engineering to ensure the envelope is properly stressed, 

and the balloon has no undesirable flight characteristics 

due to the shape. Special shape balloons built in the United 

States or the United Kingdom are normally issued Standard 

Airworthiness Certificates, but special shape balloons 

imported from other manufacturers in other countries may 

be issued an Experimental Airworthiness Certificate. A 

balloon with an Experimental Airworthiness Certificate 

usually may not be flown for compensation or hire, which 

negates the marketability of such a balloon. Additionally, an 

experimental balloon may not be flown over congested areas, 
2-5

Figure 2-3. Typical double burners configuration.

BURNER CAN

COIL ASSEMBLY

LIQUID FIRE JET ASSEMBLY

IGNITOR ASSEMBLY

PILOT LIGHT ASSEMBLY

COIL POST

LIQUID FIRE VALVE ASSEMBLY

HANDLE TUBE

MAIN VALVE ASSEMBLY

SWIVEL ASSEMBLY

GIMBAL BLOCK CAP LOWER

GIMBAL BLOCK CAP UPPER

PRESSURE GAUGE ASSEMBLY

GIMBAL TENSION ADJUSTMENT SCREW

GIMBAL MOUNTING SCREW

6

5

4

3

2

1

12

11

10

15

14

13

9

8

7

13

12

11

10

2

1

8 9

15

7

14

3

4 5

6

DOUBLE BURNERS CONFIGURATION

Figure 2-6. Typical single heater (burner).

VALVE BLOCK 

ASSEMBLY

BURNER CAN

COIL ASSEMBLY 6

5

4

3

2

1

4 1

6

5

4 3

2

1

6

5

SINGLE BURNER CONFIGURATION

LIQUID FIRE JET 

ASSEMBLY

IGNITOR ASSEMBLY

PILOT LIGHT ASSEMBLY

Figure 2-7. Typical double heater (burner).

per Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) 

part 91, section 91.319. Experimental balloons also require 

specific documentation when flown outside of an area of 50 

miles from its home port. Pilots of special shape balloons with 

an Experimental Airworthiness Certificate should coordinate 

their activities with their local Flight Service District Office 

to avoid problems.

Thermal Airships

A thermal airship combines the characteristics of a hot air 

balloon, with respect to lifting force, and an airship, with 

respect to its capacity of being steered while in flight. To 

develop proficiency in this aircraft, knowledge is required 

of not only hot air balloon operations and physics, but also 

of airship operations. It is estimated that there are currently 

less than 10 of these aircraft in the United States, and there 

is no specific pilot certificate for thermal airships. These 

aircraft are extremely expensive to purchase, and have some 

significant operating limitations with reference to winds. Any 

further discussion is outside the scope of this handbook. 

Heater System

The heater system consists of propane burners (one or more), 

fuel tanks that store liquid propane, and fuel lines that carry 

the propane from the tanks to the burners. The burners convert 

ambient air into hot air, which in turn provides the lift required 

for flight. [Figures 2-6 and 2-7] 
2-6

Figure 2-9. Representative sport basket configuration.

Figure 2-4. Fuel system schematic.

TANK

200

140 120 100

0 250 PSI

0

40

60

80 160

180

Pilot valve

Pressure gauge

Pilot light

Liquid valve

Blast valve

Nozzle

Heat exchangers

Figure 2-8. Fuel system schematic.

Propane fuel is used to heat the air which generates buoyancy 

for flight. The propane is stored in one or more fuel tanks 

located in the basket. A withdrawal tube attached to the liquid 

tank valve permits liquid propane to be drawn from the bottom 

of the fuel tanks. The liquid propane is supplied to the burner 

assembly through the fuel hoses that connect the fuel tanks to 

the heater assembly (commonly referred to as the burner). The 

fuel system also provides propane to the pilot light. 

There are two types of pilot light systems: liquid and vapor. 

In a liquid pilot light system, liquid propane is diverted from 

the main supply line at the heater via a pilot shut-off valve. 

The fuel goes through a vapor converter and regulator, and 

is distributed through a pilot head. A piezo-electric system 

ignites the vapor at inflation for most heaters, but many 

balloonists choose to use a striker.

In a vapor pilot light, a second fuel hose is used to supply 

vapor to the heater assembly pilot light from the pilot light 

tank valve located on top of the fuel tank. A regulator is used 

to decrease the pressure of the propane vapor for proper pilot 

operation. A pilot light valve located on the heater controls 

the flow of propane vapor to the pilot light. 

The main liquid tank valve controls the flow of liquid propane 

to the burner, while the blast valve controls fuel flow at the 

heater. With the liquid tank valve open, opening the burner 

blast permits liquid propane to enter the heat exchange coil 

where it is either completely or partially vaporized. After 

exiting the heat exchange coil through the orifices in the 

lower portion of the coil, the propane is ignited by the pilot 

light. [Figure 2-8]

To meet redundancy requirements, heaters have a secondary 

system which allows for operation at a reduced efficiency 

should a problem develop with the main blast valve. These 

backup, or bypass systems generally have proprietary names 

unique to the individual manufacturers. Pilots should consult 

individual flight manuals for an explanation of their use.

The heaters typically have an output of approximately 20 

million British thermal units (BTU) in use. There is a power 

loss associated with altitude, generally considered to be four 

percent per thousand feet of altitude. This is particularly 

important when dealing with higher density altitudes. 

Pilots accustomed to flying at lower altitudes are frequently 

surprised by the decreased performance of their balloon upon 

their first flight at a higher altitude.

Basket

Wicker is the preferred material for the passenger compartment 

basket of a hot air balloon because it is sturdy, flexible, and 

relatively lightweight. [Figure 2-9] The flexibility of wicker 
2-7

Figure 2-6. Typical fuel tank (vertical).

MAIN LIQUID VALVE

FUEL QUANTITY GAUGE

LIQUID LEVEL VALVE

LIQUID LEVEL PICK-UP

LIQUID PICK-UP (DIP TUBE)

6 QUANTITY FLOAT

5

4

3

2

1

1

6

2

3

5

4

TYPICAL FUEL TANK (VERTICAL)

Figure 2-10. Typical fuel tank.

helps with balloon landings and cushions some of the 

impact force at landing. The basket contains the fuel tanks, 

instruments, pilot, and passengers. 

Aluminum, stainless steel, or flexible nylon poles (in 

conjunction with stainless steel cables) located on the upper 

portion of the structure transfer the basket load to the envelope 

attachment points and support the burner assembly. Quick 

pins or aircraft bolts connect the support tubes, with nylon 

rods usually inserted into the sockets, and the cables attached 

around them. Lower frame tubes support the floor, permitting 

the floor load to be transferred to the lower frames. Oak 

skids, usually affixed to the floor, add rigidity and provide a 

point of abrasive resistance to the floor. Rattan sidewalls of 

varying thickness, design, and color surround and protect the 

passengers, equipment, and fuel tanks. Larger baskets, usually 

found on large ride balloons, may have padded basket dividers 

to form passenger compartments.

Instruments

As required by 14 CFR part 31, balloons are equipped with 

an altimeter, a rate of climb indicator, fuel quantity gauges, 

and an envelope temperature gauge. Many newer balloons use 

some type of electronic instrument system, but older balloons 

may still be equipped with traditional, pressure driven analog 

instruments.

The most common arrangement of instruments is a small 

pod or package which includes the altimeter, rate of climb 

indicator (variometer or vertical speed indicator), and the 

envelope temperature gauge (pyrometer). A cable is plugged 

into the instrument package during the preflight or layout 

process which connects to a sensor located in the top of the 

balloon and operates the envelope temperature gauge. Fuel 

quantity gauges, located on the top portion of each fuel tank, 

provide a reference for the quantity of fuel remaining in the 

tank. As these gauges are mechanical, they are sometimes 

inaccurate, and in most configurations do not read from 0 to 

100 percent. This needs to be taken into consideration during 

the flight planning process. 

In recent years, many manufacturers have added a wireless 

system that transmits the temperature signal to a receiver in 

the basket via a radio or infrared signal. This eliminates the 

necessity of a wire being located in the balloon envelope. 

These instrument systems are popular, but have reliability 

issues because radio interference or the thermal “plume” from 

the burner can degrade the signal transmission. 

Fuel Tanks

Balloons generate heat through the use of propane. The 

propane is contained in aluminum or stainless steel tanks 

mounted inside the basket. These tanks may be either 

vertical or horizontal, and contain 10, 15, or 18 gallons of 

propane. Larger tanks are available for larger ride balloons. 

[Figure 2-10]

The tanks, sometimes referred to as pressure vessels, are 

commonly equipped with a service valve (or main liquid 

valve), a fixed maximum liquid level gauge (or “spit valve”), 

a float gauge, and a pressure relief valve. The service valve 

regulates the flow of the liquid propane to the heater. The fixed 

maximum liquid level gauge provides an indication that the 

tank is filled to its maximum design quantity, or 80 percent 

of the total capacity of the tank. The float gauge provides a 

reading of the remaining capacity of the tank in a percentage. 

The pressure relief valve allows for the release of propane 

from the tank should the tank exceed the maximum design 

pressure. A pressure relief valve normally releases at 375 

pounds per square inch (psi). Figure 2-11 provides additional 

information on propane management.
2-8

Figure 2-11. Propane primer. (Propane pressures at different temperatures are listed in Appendix A.)

Propane Primer

Propane is a liquefied petroleum gas. Propane is preferred over butane and other hydrocarbons in balloon design 

because propane has a lower boiling point (propane -44 °F, butane 32 °F), and, therefore, a consistently higher vapor 

pressure for a given temperature. Under ideal circumstances, a gallon of propane produces 91,600 BTU of heat. 

In its gaseous form, propane is odorless. However, an odorant (a strong smelling chemical compound) is added to 

propane to indicate the leakage of even small quantities of gas. The odorant normally added to propane, ethyl mercaptan, 

loses its odor when burned. Tanks should never be stored in an enclosed area, or near a heater and/or a device with 

a pilot light. Propane vapor is heavier than air, and will collect in low areas. Concentrated propane vapor constitutes 

an explosive hazard. 

There is a popular misconception that propane is always at -44 °F when stored. This is incorrect—the propane, in the 

tank, is the same temperature as the ambient air. Propane turns cold when vaporizing, due to heat exchange.

The combustion of propane yields carbon dioxide and water.

The balloonist should be aware of the large volume of combustible mixture that will result from the escape of a small 

amount of liquid propane. As a rough approximation, a given volume of liquid propane produces a combustible mixture 

6,800 times the original liquid propane volume. 

The propane cylinder raises the boiling point of propane by trapping the pressure built up by the vaporized propane. 

Any given temperature will produce a specific pressure within the propane cylinder. This balance between temperature 

and pressure is referred to as the point of equilibrium. As long as the propane cylinder is neither completely full nor 

completely empty of the liquefied fuel, and no foreign substance such as air is present, the pressure within the cylinder 

is dependent upon the prevailing temperature of the liquid, and not upon the amount of liquid propane within the 

cylinder. Therefore, maintaining a proper propane temperature is necessary to supply sufficient fuel pressure to the 

burner. The temperature-pressure point of equilibrium is only applicable to containers containing vapor over the liquid. 

While propane vapor is easily compressible, propane liquid is practically incompressible. 

Butane-propane mixtures can be a problem. At certain times of the year in certain areas, butane will be mixed with 

propane to increase its boiling point. A butane-propane mixture will produce a more yellow, sooty flame, may tend to 

go out when the blast valve is pulled, and the pressure available for a given temperature will be less.

Burners commonly used in hot air balloons are vaporizer burners. A vaporizer burner combines a vaporizer with 

a burner into a single unit where burner heat is used to vaporize the liquid propane being fed into the burner. The 

vaporizer normally consists of a coil in direct contact with the burner flame. If there is no fuel flow through one of the 

coils during burner operation, the coil may be damaged as a result of overheating.

The heat output of a burner is one of the parameters that indicate how a given balloon will perform in flight. A long 

sustained burn will produce a lower rating that the same time increment broken up into short burns. The lower output 

for a sustained burn is due to the inertia of the fuel, the friction hindering fuel flow, and pressure decay due to the 

withdrawal of liquid propane from the cylinder. 

Periodic inspections of the airborne heating system should include a visual inspection of the hoses and fittings, and a 

high pressure leak check with a test gauge adaptor.

Source: Saum, Nick. “Propane and Fuel Management.” 

Joint publication of the Safety and Education Committees of the Balloon Federation of America, 1991.
2-9

Figure 2-12. Balloon inflation using a typical inflation fan.

Support Equipment 

Standard support equipment for ballooning includes an inflation 

fan, transport/chase vehicle, and small miscellaneous items, 

such as igniters, drop lines, gloves, spare parts, and helmets. 

Inflation Fans 

The inflation fan is one of the most dangerous pieces of 

equipment in ballooning.[Figure 2-12] Keep this fact in mind 

when purchasing and operating any inflation fan. Fan blades 

have been known to shatter or break, throw rocks at high 

velocity, and inadequate cages or guards fail to protect fingers 

and hands. Any fan considered for purchase by a prospective 

pilot should be evaluated for potential safety hazards. Also, 

remember that the blade spinning at high revolutions per 

minute (rpm) generates a significant gyroscopic effect. Fans 

should not be moved while running. If the fan must be moved, 

it should be shut off, repositioned, and restarted. 

Fans come in different styles and sizes. Personal finances, 

style of inflation, and size of the balloon determines the best 

fan. Points to consider in selecting a fan are: 

• Weight—someone has to lift the fan into and out of 

the transport vehicle. Wheels help one person move 

the fan, but they add to the weight and are not helpful 

on soft ground. One person can carry a small fan, but 

a larger fan may require two people. 

• Safety—fan blades today can be wood, aluminum, 

fiberglass, or composite, with wood being the 

most popular. Wood or aluminum blades designed 

specifically for balloon fan use are best. The fan should 

have a cowling of fiberglass or metal because a cage 

or grill alone is not sufficient to stop rocks or pieces 

of blade from being thrown. 

• Transport—available space in a pickup truck, the back 

of a van, or on a trailer may determine the size of the 

fan. 

• Cubic feet per minute (CFM)—fan blade design, duct 

design, and engine speed determine the amount of air 

moved in a given time. Do not confuse engine size with 

CFM. Larger engines do not necessarily push more 

air. The volume of air moved is primarily a function 

of blade design and performance. Moving a high 

volume of air is not necessarily the ultimate goal in fan 

performance. Some people prefer a slower cold inflation 

to accommodate a thorough preflight inspection. 

• Fuel—gasoline degrades in storage. Do not store 

gasoline in the fan due to fire hazard and the formation 

of varnish, which can clog fuel passages. 

• Fan maintenance—a good fan requires little maintenance 

and should be easy to maintain. Check the oil 

periodically and change it once a year. Check hub bolts 

and grill screws for tightness on a regular basis. 

Transport/Chase Vehicle

Balloon ground transportation varies. [Figure 2-13] The most 

common vehicles are a van with the balloon carried inside, a 

pickup truck with the balloon carried in the bed, or a van or 

pickup truck with a small trailer (flatbed or covered). Some 

considerations in selecting a transport/chase vehicle are: 

• Finances—if costs are an issue, a trailer hitch on the 

family sedan and a small flatbed trailer may work 

just fine. 

• Convenience—for ease of handling the balloon, a small 

flatbed trailer low to the ground makes the least lifting 

demands on the pilot and crew. One consideration is 

that volunteer crew members may have little or no 

experience in backing a small trailer. 

• Number of crew members—if the number of crew 

members is small, handling the balloon should be 

made as easy as possible. If the number of crew 

members is large, the size of the chase vehicle and 

other factors may be more important. 

• Storage—some balloonists, who do not have room for 

inside storage and want security on the road, choose 

an enclosed trailer. If an enclosed trailer is used for 

storage of the balloon, the trailer should be a light color 

to help reduce the heat inside. Keeping the trailer cool 

keeps the tank pressure within reasonable limits (so 

as not to aggravate a potential fuel leak), and reduces 

the vaporization of gasoline in the fan tank (the fumes 
2-10

Figure 2-13. This is an example of a transport vehicle which carries 

a small balloon, three adults, a 20-inch inflation fan, and all other 

necessary equipment.

It is also important to insure that all personnel involved with 

the inflation, whether pilot, crew or spectator, be aware of 

the dangers of a safety restraint. The quick release rates 

with the inflation fans as one of the most hazardous pieces 

of equipment on the launch field. Early release under load, 

or breaking of the safety restraint may cause serious injury. 

All personnel involved should be briefed and made aware 

of the potential hazards. 

Miscellaneous Items

• Radios—most pilots use some kind of two-way radio 

for air to ground communication. There are many 

choices available, ranging from Family Radio Service 

(FRS) and General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS) 

radios, which are relatively low cost, to the more 

sophisticated FM business band systems, which can 

be expensive. 

 The GMRS and FM radios require licensing by 

the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). 

FRS radios do not. Using cell phones for air-ground 

communications is a violation of FCC rules. 

• Igniters—most manufacturers provide at least two 

sources of ignition on board. The best igniter is the 

simple welding striker. Nearly all balloons have builtin piezo ignition systems. 

• Fueling adapter—adapters are required to connect 

the balloon fuel tanks to the propane source. Pilots 

should carry their own adapters to ensure the adapters 

are clean and not worn. Dirty and worn adapters may 

damage a fuel system. 

• Compass—compasses are used to track pibals, check 

map orientations, and navigate the balloon. While 

almost any good quality compass will do, the best 

kind to use is probably the sighting compass. 

• Fire extinguisher—most balloons now come equipped 

with small fire extinguishers affixed to the basket. If 

one is present, it will be inspected during the annual 

inspection. These fire extinguishers are often too small 

to extinguish grass fires or serious basket fires caused 

by a propane leak. In the case of a propane-leak fire, 

turning off a valve usually extinguishes the fire. This 

is a better use of pilot time than fumbling for a fire 

extinguisher that might not extinguish the fire. 

• First aid kit—the location and contents of first aid kits 

vary. Some pilots keep a small first aid kit in their 

balloon; some keep one in the chase vehicle. A frequent 

topic at Safety Seminars, the contents of the kit often 

depend on the area of the country in which the balloon 

is flown. 

can attack the composition of the balloon’s fabric and 

render it unairworthy). 

• Vehicle suitability—terrain, vehicle road clearance, 

and number of chase crew members are factors that 

determine the suitability of a transport/chase vehicle. 

Quick/Safety Release 

Safety restraints, referred to as “quick releases” or “safety 

tie downs,” are used in balloon inflations. They are designed 

to restrain the balloon from movement in breezy or windy 

conditions.

There are several different types of safety restraints available, 

but none are part of the aircraft certification process. This 

lack of aircraft certification has led to controversy over the 

use of safety restraints among ballooning enthusiasts. Since 

event participation often requires their use for safety reasons, 

the use of safety restraints is now recommended for balloon 

launches. Each type of restraint has its own advantages and 

disadvantages which a pilot can learn via observation and 

discussion with an instructor and/or other balloon pilots. 

When a pilot decides to utilize a safety restraint, it is important 

to follow the balloon manufacturer’s recommendations on 

how to attach it to the balloon superstructure. Many balloons 

have been seriously damaged by using an improperly attached 

restraint in excessive winds. 
2-11

Figure 2-14. Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

• Spares—the following are recommended spares to carry 

in the chase vehicle or to have on hand:

* Local and aeronautical maps

* Helium tank and pibals (pilot balloons)

* Quick pins and carabiners

* Gloves and helmets

* Envelope fabric and/or patches

* Refueling adapters

* Spare tire for the trailer

* Extra fuel for the fan

* Extra strikers/igniters

Aircraft Documents

Airworthiness Certificate

An Airworthiness Certificate is issued by a representative 

of the FAA after the balloon has been inspected, is found to 

meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 31, and is in condition 

for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certificate must be 

displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers 

and crew whenever it is operated. [Figure 2-14] The 

Airworthiness Certificate is transferred with the aircraft 

except when it is sold to a foreign purchaser.

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for aircraft type 

certificated in the normal category for manned free balloons. 

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect as 

long as the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is 

properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies, 

• Drop line—drop lines allow ground crew to assist the 

pilot in landing in a confined area, or to move the balloon 

to an area better suited for deflation and retrieving. A 

good drop line has a quick release provision; is easy to 

deploy, recover and store; and is easy for a person on 

the ground to handle. Webbing is a popular drop line 

material because it is strong. Webbing is hard to roll 

up, but easy to store. Half-inch nylon braid is strong 

and is easily rolled into a ball and put in a bag. 

• Gloves—pilots and crew members should develop 

the habit of wearing gloves anytime they handle the 

balloon and associated equipment. A well fitting pair 

of gloves can reduce the injuries that occur while 

handling balloon equipment, such as rope, cables, 

bag handles, etc. In the case of a small fuel leak at 

a burner fitting, gloves can minimize a potentially 

disastrous situation.

 Gloves should be made of light colored smooth leather 

to reflect/deflect propane, and gauntlet style to cover 

the wrist. Avoid synthetic material which melts in 

heat and ventilated gloves which let in flame or gas. 

A second pair of gloves, of appropriate rubberized 

material and looser fit, can be used to conduct 

refueling operations. 

• Helmets—balloon manufacturers usually mandate 

protective headgear be worn, especially in high wind 

conditions to protect heads from impact injury. Store 

helmets in a bag that can be carried inside or outside 

the basket, depending on number of passengers and 

available room.
2-12

REGISTRATION NOT TRANSFERABLE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION - FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

CERTIFICATE OF AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION

NATIONALITY AND

REGISTRATION MARKS

AIRCRAFT

SERIAL NO.

This certificate

must be in aircraft when operated.

MANUFACTURER AND MANUFACTURER’S DESIGNATION OF AIRCRAFT

ICAO Aircraft Address Code:

I

S

S

U

E

D

T

O

It is certified that the above described aircraft has been entered on the register of the Federal

Aviation Administration, United States of America, in accordance with the Convention on

International Civil Aviation dated December 7, 1944, and with the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, and

regulations issued thereunder.

DATE OF ISSUE

AC Form 8050-3 (11/93) Suspersedes previous editions

ADMINISTRATOR

U.S. Department

of Transportation

Federal Aviation

Administration

This certificate is

issued for registration

purposes only and is

not a certificate of title.

The Federal Aviation

Administration does 

not determine rights of 

ownership as between

private persons.

N63308 RX-8-3094

Aerostar RX-8

John A. Doe

900 ELM St.

Anytown, AL

12345

February 1, 1994

Figure 2-15. Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

in part, on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined 

by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair 

stations, or manufacturers who meet specific requirements. 

A Special Airworthiness Certificate is issued for all aircraft 

certificated in other than the Standard classifications, such 

as Experimental or Restricted. When purchasing an aircraft 

classified as other than Standard, it is recommended that 

the local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) be 

contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness 

requirements and the limitations of such a certificate.

Certificate of Aircraft Registration

Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered 

with the FAA Civil Aviation Registry. The Certificate of 

Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence 

of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times. 

[Figure 2-15] The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot 

be used for operations when:

• The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign 

country.

• The aircraft’s registration is canceled at the written 

request of the holder of the certificate.

• The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped.

• The ownership of the aircraft is transferred.

• The holder of the certificate loses United States 

citizenship.

When one of the events listed in 14 CFR part 47, section 

47.41 occurs, the previous owner must notify the FAA by 

filling in the back of the Certificate of Aircraft Registration, 

and mailing it to:

Federal Aviation Administration

Civil Aviation Registry, AFS-750

P.O. Box 25504

Oklahoma City, OK 73125

After compliance with 14 CFR part 47, section 47.41, the 

pink copy of the application for a Certificate of Aircraft 

Registration is authorization to operate an unregistered 

aircraft for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft 

is unregistered, it cannot be operated outside the United 

States until a permanent Certificate of Aircraft Registration 

is received and placed in the aircraft.

NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft 

Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact 

the nearest FSDO.

Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities

The registered owner/operator of an aircraft is responsible 

for certain items, such as:

• Having a current Airworthiness Certificate and a 

Certificate of Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.
2-13

• Maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition, 

including compliance with all applicable Airworthiness 

Directives.

• Assuring that maintenance is properly recorded.

• Keeping abreast of current regulations concerning the 

operation and maintenance of the aircraft.

• Notifying the FAA Civil Aviation Registry immediately 

of any change of permanent mailing address, or 

the sale or export of the aircraft, or the loss of the 

eligibility to register an aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR 

part 47, section 47.41.)

Aircraft Maintenance

Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection, 

overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement 

of parts. A properly maintained aircraft is a safe aircraft. 

In addition, regular and proper maintenance ensures that 

an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness 

throughout its operational life. Although maintenance 

requirements vary for different types of aircraft, experience 

shows that aircraft need some type of preventive maintenance 

every 25 hours of flying time or less, and minor maintenance 

at least every 100 hours. This is influenced by the kind 

of operation, climatic conditions, storage facilities, age, 

and construction of the aircraft. Manufacturers provide 

maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, and other service 

information that should be used in maintaining the aircraft.

Balloon Inspections

14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner or 

operator for maintaining a balloon in an airworthy condition. 

Certain inspections must be performed on the balloon, and 

the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the balloon 

during the time between required inspections by having any 

defects corrected. This typically means that fabric damage 

outside the maximum allowable damage limits specified by 

the manufacturer must be repaired before the envelope can 

be deemed airworthy and returned to service. 

Annual Inspection

Any balloon flown for business or pleasure and not flown 

for compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least 

annually. The inspection must be performed by a certificated 

and appropriately rated repair station, by the manufacturer, or 

by a certificated airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic 

who holds an Inspection Authorization (IA). The aircraft 

may not be operated unless the annual inspection has been 

performed within the preceding 12 calendar months. A period 

of 12 calendar months extends from any day of a month to 

the last day of the same month the following year. 

100-Hour Inspection

All balloons used to carry passengers for hire must have 

received a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 

hours of time in service and have been approved for return 

to service. Additionally, an aircraft used for flight instruction 

for hire, when provided by the person giving the flight 

instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. 

This inspection must be performed by an appropriately rated 

FAA certificated repair station, the aircraft manufacturer, or by 

an FAA certificated A&P mechanic. An annual inspection, or 

an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness Certificate, 

may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection. 

Preflight Inspections

The preflight inspection is a thorough and systematic means 

by which a pilot determines if the aircraft is airworthy 

and in condition for safe operation. The balloon’s Flight 

Manual contains a section devoted to a systematic method 

of performing a preflight inspection. For balloons, this 

inspection is usually a part of the layout and inflation process, 

and is greatly aided by the use of a checklist. Again, the 

pilot must also be aware of maximum damage limitations 

as published by the manufacturer.

Preventative Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is considered to be simple or 

minor preservation operations and the replacement of small 

standard parts, not involving complex assembly operations. 

Certificated pilots may perform preventive maintenance on 

any balloon that is owned or operated by them. According to 

14 CFR part 43, appendix A, preventive maintenance may be 

performed by the owner/operator of an aircraft who holds at 

least an FAA Private Pilot Certificate with a balloon rating. 

The following is a partial list of preventive maintenance that 

may be performed by the owner/operator of a balloon:

• Replacing defective safety wiring or cotter keys.

• Lubrication not requiring disassembly.

• The making of small fabric repairs to envelopes 

(as defined in, and in accordance with, the balloon 

manufacturers’ instructions) not requiring load tape 

repair or replacement.

• Refinishing decorative coating of the basket when 

removal or disassembly of any primary structure or 

operating system is not required.

• Applying preservative or protective material to 

components where no disassembly of any primary 

structure or operating system is involved and where 

such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to 

good practices.
2-14

Choosing a balloon.

AX5 900–1,200 1 31,779–42,372

AX6 1,200–1,600 1–2 42,372–56,372

AX7 1,600–2,200 2–4 56,496–77,682

AX8 2,200–3,000 4–7 77,682–105,930

AX9 3,000–4,000 6–10 105,930–141,240

FAI

Category

Cubic Meters Cubic Feet Number

of People

Figure 2-16. Popular balloon size ranges.

• Repairing upholstery and decorative furnishings of 

the balloon basket interior when the repairing does 

not require disassembly of any primary structure or 

operating system or interfere with an operating system 

or affect primary structure of the aircraft.

• Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts 

approved for the aircraft, not involving disassembly 

of any primary structure or operating system.

• Replacing prefabricated fuel lines.

• Replacing and servicing batteries.

• Cleaning of balloon burner pilots and main nozzles in 

accordance with balloon manufacturers’ instructions.

• Replacement or adjustment of nonstructural standard 

fasteners incidental to operations.

• The interchange of balloon baskets and burners on 

envelopes when the basket or burner is designated 

as interchangeable in the balloon Type Certificate 

Data Sheet (TCDS), and the baskets and burners 

are specifically designed for quick removal and 

installation.

Repairs and Alterations

Repairs and alterations are classified as either major or minor. 

14 CFR part 43, appendix A, describes the alterations and 

repairs considered major. Major repairs or alterations shall 

be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337, Major 

Repair and Alteration, by an appropriately rated certificated 

repair station, an FAA certificated A&P mechanic holding 

an Inspection Authorization, or a representative of the 

Administrator. Minor repairs and minor alterations may 

be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the 

maintenance records by an appropriately certificated repair 

station or FAA certificated A&P mechanic.

For modifications of experimental aircraft, refer to the 

operating limitations issued to that aircraft. Modifications 

in accordance with FAA Order 8130.2, Airworthiness 

Certification of Aircraft and Related Products, may require 

the notification of the issuing authority.

Airworthiness Directives (ADs)

A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction 

of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, 

propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are 

likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. 

The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, 

maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39, Airworthiness 

Directives (ADs), define the authority and responsibility 

of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective 

action. ADs are the means used to notify aircraft owners and 

other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify 

the conditions under which the product may continue to be 

operated. ADs may be divided into two categories:

1. Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate 

compliance prior to further flight.

2. Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance 

within a specified period of time.

ADs are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a 

specific exemption is granted. It is the aircraft owner or 

operator’s responsibility to ensure compliance with all 

pertinent ADs. 14 CFR part 91, section 91.417 requires 

a record to be maintained that shows the current status of 

applicable ADs, including the method of compliance; the AD 

number and revision date, if recurring; the time and date when 

due again; the signature; kind of certificate; and certificate 

number of the repair station or mechanic who performed 

the work. For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a 

chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in the back of their 

aircraft maintenance records. 

Choosing a Balloon 

Many companies manufacture balloons that are typecertificated by the FAA. A type-certificated balloon has passed 

many tests, has been approved by the FAA, and conforms to 

the manufacturer’s TCDS. Balloon size is rated by envelope 

volume with categories defined in metric units. Figure 2-16

illustrates the most popular size ranges in use today (volumes 

are provided in cubic meters, as well as cubic feet).

Advantages of Balloon Sizes

Different balloon sizes offer different advantages. The size 

of the balloon purchased should be determined according to 

planned use(s). Most pilots think smaller balloons are easier to 

handle, fly, and pack up. Bigger balloons use less fuel, operate 

cooler, and last longer. Higher elevations or hotter climates or 

passengers indicate a larger balloon. Balloon competitions and 

sport flying require a smaller balloon. [Figure 2-17]
2-15

50'

49'

54K

57'

55'

77K

60'

57'

90K

63'

60'

105K

69'

66'

141K

AX6

AX7

AX8

AX8

AX9

Figure 2-17. Comparison of balloon sizes.

Selecting a New or Used Balloon

The cost is the most obvious difference between new and 

used balloons. Some new pilots buy a used balloon to gain 

proficiency, and then purchase a new balloon when they have 

a better idea of what they want or need. 

Prior to purchasing any used balloon, it is important to 

ensure that the balloon is airworthy, to avoid purchasing an 

aircraft which may be nearing, or perhaps past, its useful life. 

Most balloon envelopes are constructed of fabrics that last 

well into the 300–400 hour range, with some newer fabrics 

exceeding that life span. It would be prudent to have the 

balloon inspected by a reputable repair station or qualified 

inspector prior to purchase. 

Balloon Brands

The level of after sales service available—locally and from 

the manufacturer—is an important criterion in deciding which 

brand of balloon to purchase. Talk to local pilots and ask 

questions. How does the local balloon repair station feel about 

different brands? Do they stock parts for only one brand? 

Does the manufacturer ship parts and fabric for balloons 

already in the field, or do they reserve these parts and fabric 

for new production? Do they ground older model balloons 

for lack of materials while new balloons are being built? 

There are other criteria that could be considered, such as 

altitude at which the balloon will be flying, climate, and 

interchangeability of components, to give some examples. 

Before making the final decision, talk to people with different 

kinds of balloons who do different kinds of flying. Crewing 

for different balloons is an excellent way to learn about 

balloons and can help in the decision on what first balloon 

to purchase. 

Chapter Summary

This chapter gives the reader common terminology for use 

in the ballooning community. Many times, confusion exists 

between the student pilot and the instructor, due to differences 

in terminology used, and it is hoped that the discussions 

here resolve those issues. The reader also should have an 

understanding of the physics of hot-air ballooning, as well 

as a good understanding of the support equipment involved 

with ballooning activities.

Propane information has also been included in this chapter, 

and it is recommended that all pilots review this on a recurring 

basis, perhaps as part of a yearly safety seminar. Additionally, 

proper documentation, and inspection requirements have 

been covered. Each pilot should become knowledgeable in 

these areas.
2-16
3-1

Introduction 

Flight planning starts long in advance of the few hours before 

the launch. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) 

part 91, section 91.103 states: “Each pilot in command (PIC) 

shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available 

information concerning that flight...(to include) weather reports 

and forecasts, fuel requirements...(and) other reliable information 

appropriate to the aircraft, relating to aircraft performance under 

expected values of airport elevation,...aircraft gross weight, and 

wind and temperature.” 

Preflight Planning

Chapter 3
3-2

Figure 3-1. National Weather Service Office, Falcon Field, 

Peachtree City, Georgia.

The practical test standards (PTS), for both Private and 

Commercial certificates, indicate a number of items that must 

be considered, evaluated, and planned in the execution of a 

safe flight. Some of these items are the use and interpretation 

of weather data to plan a flight, the use and interpretation of 

aeronautical charts and local area maps, and performance and 

limitation of the balloon.

Weather Theory and Reports will be covered in some detail 

in Chapter 4 and The National Airspace System (NAS) will 

be reviewed in Chapter 5. The following discussions assume 

familiarity with both subjects, and will introduce a number 

of other new subjects. 

Purpose of Flight

Preflight planning will vary according to the flight’s 

purpose. For example, if a training flight is planned, more 

detailed attention to map work and performance planning 

may be appropriate. If a passenger-carrying flight is being 

undertaken, a meeting point for the passengers and crew 

will need to be designated, and refreshments will need to be 

planned. If the flight is to participate in an organized rally, 

particular attention must be paid to weather trends and wind 

plotting, to ensure the pilot is able to reach the intended target 

and score points. These type of considerations are part of the 

initial balloon preflight planning process.

Weather

A good balloon pilot studies the weather several days before 

the day of the flight in order to understand the weather trends, 

cycles, and the correlation of weather report information with 

the actual weather in a particular flying area. Most, if not 

all, weather reporting information is computed for a large 

regional area, whereas balloon flying is generally conducted 

in an area about 15 square miles. When a balloon pilot makes 

the correlation between the weather outlooks and forecasts, 

and how that will impact winds and environment in the local 

flying area, he or she is well on the way to understanding 

the effects of weather on preflight planning, as well as the 

balloon flight.

Particular attention should be paid to the location and 

movement of pressure systems and the jet stream, frontal 

activity, temperatures in front of and behind frontal zones, 

and winds. As the proposed flight date draws closer, a 

reasonable prediction of possible weather can be forecast, but 

a pilot must remember that a weather forecast more than 72 

hours prior to a flight is not an absolute. It is also worthwhile 

to watch local and nationally televised weather broadcasts to 

gain insights on the weather systems that may be affecting 

the desired flying area at the time of the flight. 

Unofficial sources of weather information can also prove 

helpful for obtaining weather information about a particular 

area. It is beneficial to contact balloon pilots who fly in the 

area of intended flight to learn of nuances in the weather 

patterns, especially during initial training or when flying in 

a new area. Another source of information for weather is 

pilots who fly other types of aircraft in the proposed flight 

area. They can be located through the local airport’s fixed 

base operator (FBO). People who make their living outside, 

particularly farmers, have a unique perspective on local 

weather. They often offer weather information on local 

weather that is unavailable through a commercial source. 

When possible, it is valuable for a balloon pilot to 

visit the local National Weather Service (NWS) office. 

[Figure 3-1] NWS provides information and sources for a 

number of weather products, which must be considered in 

the weather planning process. A visit to the NWS office also 

gives a balloonist the opportunity to talk with the individuals 

who provide the weather information used in the briefings. 

NWS can provide the balloonist with a clear explanation 

of what products and information are required to make an 

intelligent flight decision.

The night before a flight is anticipated (or in the morning, in 

the event of an afternoon flight), a call should be made to the 

Flight Service Station (FSS) for an outlook briefing. These 

are generally available 6 hours or more before a specific 

flight period. (There are three different types of briefings 

available: standard, abbreviated, and outlook. They will be 

discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, Weather Theory and 

Reports). This briefing information is used to make tentative 

decisions regarding the flight, such as go/no-go, and potential 

directions of travel. Additionally, a pilot should pay particular 

attention to local and regional forecasts in the media, as they 

may provide information specific to the area of flight. 
3-3

Figure 3-2. Preparing to release a pibal.

Prior to flight, a standard briefing should be obtained 

from the FSS. This briefing will contain the most recent 

weather information and data, and will serve either to verify 

information obtained through other sources, or validate the 

possibility of a go/no-go decision. It is also helpful to check 

one or more automated weather reporting sites, such as the 

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or Automatic 

Weather Observing System (AWOS) that are close to the 

intended flying area. ATIS and AWOS provide the advantage 

of a real-time, immediate information source. They may 

be contacted by telephone, or often monitored by aviation 

radio. Phone numbers for the ATIS and AWOS systems may 

be found in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). Radio 

frequencies for the ATIS and AWOS are shown on aviation 

sectional charts.

Gathering weather information en route to the launch site 

can be done by searching for indications of current winds. 

For example, observe how the leaves on a tree move, track 

the smoke from a factory smokestack, or notice the direction 

a flag blows. All of these signs give good indications of the 

current winds, both on the ground and at low altitude. Once 

at the launch site, or possible launch site, most experienced 

pilots inflate and release a pibal (pilot balloon) to assess on 

site wind speeds and direction. [Figure 3-2]

Many pilots develop historical data on weather conditions in 

their home flying areas. When shared with the beginning pilot, 

this weather data provides a wealth of information on trends 

and cycles. The comparison of individual predictions with 

actual weather experienced offers understanding and insight 

into micro-area weather conditions. Comparison of weather 

reports from nearby weather reporting stations with the actual 

weather experienced is also be an excellent learning tool. This 

exercise provides insight into the weather patterns common in 

a particular flying area. See Appendix A for a sample weather 

briefing checklist that may be used as a guide to develop 

personal forms for recording weather briefings.

There are numerous sources of weather information available 

on the Internet. These include but are not limited to web sites 

operated by the NWS (www.nws.noaa.gov), Intellicast (www.

intellicast.com), and Unisys (www.weather.unisys.com). Web 

sites devoted to weather and ballooning include but are not 

limited to Blastvalve.com (www.blastvalve.com/weather), US 

Airnet.com (www.usairnet.com), and the Balloon Federation 

of America (BFA) at www.bfa.net. Ballooning enthusiast 

Ryan Carlton has developed a wind forecasting site that is 

located at ryancarlton.com/wind.php. All of these sites provide 

resources and reference information on weather.

It should be remembered that none of these web sites provide 

an official weather briefing. It is necessary to call the FSS, 

or use an on-line briefing service such as Direct User Access 

Terminal System (DUATS) to receive an official briefing. 

Failure to receive a proper briefing may create a liability issue 

for a pilot in the event of an incident or accident.

 

Some weather related tips are:

• Forecasts are a good place to start, but are not the 

end of weather planning. Unforecast events happen 

continuously. Proficiency in understanding small area 

weather is necessary, and can only be developed with 

practice and experience. 

• Balloons generally fly early in the morning, within 

the first two hours after sunrise, to avoid unstable 

conditions, which may prove to be hazardous to 

balloon flights and operations. It may be possible 

to fly in the late afternoon, within an hour or two of 

sunset, when thermal effects are calming down and 

winds are usually decreasing. 

• Almost all balloon flying is done in relatively benign 

weather conditions and mild winds. Most pilots prefer 

to launch and fly in winds less than 7 knots. While 

balloon flying is performed in higher winds, pilots 

accept that the faster the winds, the more they are 

exposed to risk and injury. Balloon flight manuals list 

the maximum launch winds for a particular balloon; 

this information, as well as personal limitations, are 

considerations for any pilot.

• Balloons do not fly in significant (or unstable) weather. 

A balloon should not be launched in the face of a squall 

line, or during a tornado warning or watch. 

• Flying in precipitation is a bad practice. Rainwater 

(or any frozen precipitation) on the balloon causes it 
3-4

Figure 3-3. Sectional chart depicting the Atlanta-Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport Class B airspace.

to get wet and become heavier, often to the point of 

being unable to maintain altitude without exceeding 

temperature limitations of the envelope. A wet 

envelope heated to flight temperatures can be seriously 

damaged because the heat often causes fabric coatings 

and treatments to degrade, decreasing the life of the 

fabric. If a balloon gets wet, it should never be dried out 

by the application of heat to the point of equilibrium, 

or neutral buoyancy. 

• Precipitation also often causes the atmosphere to 

become increasingly unstable. Downdrafts, wind 

gusts, and the possibility of hail and lightning follow. 

The pilot may be the last one to know that it is raining 

because the balloon will shield him or her from the 

precipitation. Ground crew can detect the slightest 

trace of precipitation before a pilot does, and need 

to communicate this information immediately to the 

pilot. In the face of possible precipitation, cancellation 

of the flight is the best plan.

Navigation

Navigation of a balloon is unlike that of any other aircraft 

because it cannot be steered in the conventional sense. 

Directional control is achieved through the use of differing 

wind directions at different altitudes. With effort, study, and 

some practice, it is possible for a balloon pilot to determine 

a point on the ground at some distance, and fly to it with 

relative ease and accuracy. 

The first step in learning balloon navigation is understanding 

the maps used in balloon flight. Two types of maps are 

used: sectional aeronautical charts and local topographical 

maps. Both have their uses and each has advantages and 

disadvantages. Another type of map may be available to 

the balloon pilot. This is a local area map developed by 

the local balloon club which shows prohibited zones and 

sensitive areas.

Sectional aeronautical charts (or sectionals) are published on 

a routine basis by the National Aeronautical Charting Office 

(NACO), a division of the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA). [Figure 3-3] These charts are at a scale of 1:500,000 

(one inch representing 500,000 inches on the ground, or 

about 7.9 miles), are similar to an automobile road map, 

and provide useful information to a balloon pilot flying 

under visual flight rules (VFR). Charts are generally named 

for the most prominent city contained within the area of the 

sectional chart.

There are also sectional charts with a smaller scale, 

1:250,000, to represent the areas immediately surrounding 

Class B airspace, which is the airspace surrounding major air 

traffic facilities in the United States. Airspace is discussed 

in detail in Chapter 5, The National Airspace System. These 

charts (commonly referred to as terminal area charts) show a 

significantly increased level of detail, and, if available, may 

be of more value than a standard sectional.
3-5

Figure 3-4. Detailed topological map.

Sectionals depict many different things, including controlled 

and uncontrolled airspace, airports, major roads and highways, 

cities and small towns, etc. They also indicate obstacles to 

flight, such as major transmission lines, radio, TV, and water 

towers, smokestacks, and other items. The legend of the 

sectional provides a means to identify these landmarks. A 

more detailed explanation of sectionals and the information 

they contain, is found in the FAA Aeronautical Chart User’s 

Guide, a publication of the NACO. This publication may be 

found at many pilot supply stores where sectionals are sold, 

or may be purchased online, along with the maps themselves, 

at www.naco.faa.gov.

Pilots review the sectional chart and familiarize themselves 

with the airspace they may be using when flying in a new 

area or refreshing their memory of a frequently flown area. 

The sectional helps a pilot determine obstacles to flight 

(towers, powerlines, etc), as well as locating landmarks for 

use during the flight. While sectionals offer much valuable 

information on an area, their lack of resolution on a small 

scale means they do not provide enough information for a 

balloon flight. The length of the average balloon flight is 

6 to 8 miles. On the sectional, this equates to the distance 

between the first joint and tip of one’s thumb. This lack of 

significant detail is a disadvantage for navigation in a balloon, 

but sectionals are useful as a source of general information 

about a given area.

A good topographic chart, such as the commercially available 

United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps offer more 

value to the balloon pilot. These maps depict information on 

a relatively small scale and are more useful to the balloon 

pilot. They show individual terrain features such as roads 

and road networks, built up areas, schools and churches, 

and will indicate wooded areas, as well as open pastureland. 

[Figure 3-4]

With any map, it is important to insure the map is current and 

has an accurate depiction of north. To check the orientation 

of a map, select one particular road or feature with a specific 

directional orientation. Then orient the map to that feature, 

matching the direction of the road with the map. Place a 

compass (preferably a sighting compass) on the map to 

determine the azimuth. Use the same compass that will be 

used for computing the flight path. Ensure that nothing is 

affecting the compass reading. It is important to distinguish 

“true north,” used by most cartographers, and “magnetic 

north,” as indicated on the compass. Once the azimuth is 

established, sketch a compass rose, or place a “stick-on” type 

compass rose on the map.

Once the map is oriented and aligned to north, fill in other 

information as necessary as reminders. For example, airspace 

that may preclude balloon operations, local no-fly areas, or 

areas with potential landowner relations problems should be 

marked. If the pilot is flying competitively, he or she may elect 

to mark designated “targets” on the map for ease in identifying 

them at a later time.

Perhaps the most underutilized use of maps is predicting 

likely flight paths, landmarks, and potential landing sites. 

Using the simple technique outlined below, this field 

technique allows pilots accurate real time and on-site weather 

data for flight planning information. A pilot needs to know 

where he or she is going in order to plan how to get there. 

This is a necessary part of flight planning, and learning the 

basic skills and knowledge required to plot this information 

improves the flight experience.

Pat Cannon, a former BFA National Champion and 

competitive pilot, developed a technique derived from a NWS 

procedure (that was later modified) to plot the information 

obtained from a pibal reading. This procedure requires a 

pencil, large square graph paper, an aviation plotter, pibals, 

the compass used to calibrate the map, and a watch with a 

sweep second hand. Two assumptions are made with this 

procedure. First, most pibals rise at an average rate of 300 

feet per minute (fpm). (A chart of pibal climb rates can be 

found in Appendix B.) Therefore, after 30 seconds, a pibal 

will be approximately 150 feet above ground level (AGL). 
3-6

Figure 3-1C. Plotting your course.

3rd pibal reading 450 feet

A

B

C D

Figure 3-8. Third pibal plot showing 330° at 1:30 minutes.

Figure 3-1A. Plotting your course.

1st pibal reading 150 feet

A

B

Figure 3-6. First pibal plot showing 300° at 30 seconds.

Figure 3-5. A method for determining wind speed.

Winds more than

5 kts. Winds less than 5 kts.

0° to

45° 45° to 90°

Figure 3-1B. Plotting your course.

2nd pibal reading 300 feet

A

B

C

Figure 3-7. Second pibal plot showing 310° at 1 minute.

Second, for the purposes of this exercise, the winds do not 

have any significant speed changes.

Prior to starting the plot, a scale depicting the wind speed 

must be established. In this example illustrated, two squares 

on the graph paper will represent a wind speed of 5 miles per 

hour (mph). In the absence of a wind meter, or other accurate 

wind reading, a rough estimate of the wind speed may be 

made using the technique shown in Figure 3-5. 

To begin plotting the pibal recording information, release the 

pibal and track it with the compass. After 30 seconds, take 

a reading and make a mark on the graph paper to represent 

the start point. Make a second mark to represent the direction 

plotted. In Figure 3-6, a track of 300° at 5 mph is depicted. 

Label the first two points “A” and “B.” [Figure 3-6]

At 1 minute, take a second reading. The pibal will be at 

approximately 300 feet AGL. In this example, the reading 

taken is 310°. Using the plotter, draw a line 10° off the 

original azimuth (the A-B line), and make another mark 

approximately two squares away from the mark labeled 

“B.” For clarity, this is be labeled “C”. See the example in 

Figure 3-7. (NOTE: The angles in the successive graphics 

are exaggerated for clarity.)

At 1:30 minutes, take another reading. The pibal will be at 

approximately 450 feet. Using the plotter, draw a line 30° off 

the original azimuth (the A-B line), and make another mark 

approximately two squares away from the mark labeled “C.” 

This mark may be labeled “D” for clarity. [Figure 3-8]
3-7

Figure 3-10. Practice pibal plots. These exercises are designed to 

assist the student pilot in devleoping proficiency in using the pibal 

plotting method. (answers on next page)

Figure 3-1D. Plotting your course. 300°

310°

True track at 450 feet

330°

your location

A

D

B

C

Figure 3-9. A line drawn through the last two plots provides a basis 

to measure the angle and determine the wind at that altitude. In 

this case, it is 450 feet.

Although plotting can be continued as long as the pibal remains in 

sight, only the three points marked will be used for this exercise. 

Figure 3-9 illustrates the results of the above sequence.

To determine the wind directions at different altitudes, extend 

lines between the plotted points as shown in Figure 3-9 back 

through the initial azimuth. Using the plotter, measure the 

angle between the lines (the angle between the A-B line 

and the C-D line). That angle, added to the original azimuth 

heading, gives a good approximation of the winds at that 

altitude. For the example shown in this sequence, the true 

track at 450 feet AGL is 005°. A grid appropriate for this 

computation is located in Appendix B.

This exercise demonstrates a practical method for determining 

approximate wind directions using items readily available 

to most pilots. It does not require expensive handheld 

calculators, laptop computers, or a theolodite that costs 

thousands of dollars. There is some error inherent in this 

process that can be lessened with experience and practice, 

but the readings obtained by this method can offer real 

time, on site weather data no forecast or briefer can provide. 

[Figures 3-10 and 3-11] 

The information on basic surface winds and winds aloft 

readings gathered by this method can be used by a pilot 

to project a flight path and anticipated landing sites with 

a sectional or topographic map. This plot will form a “V,” 

with the cone beginning at the launch site. The two legs will 

represent the extremes of the plotted measurements. The 

difference between these two extremes is called steerage. 

Flying higher will track the flight path closer to the winds 

aloft reading, while contour flying will put the balloon closer 

to the ground track leg. Varying altitude will allow the pilot 

to fly down the middle of the “v.” Accuracy will depend 

on the consistency of the conditions, but flight paths and 

landing sites may be predicted, after practice, with a high 

degree of reliability.

The balloon pilot, more than pilots who fly other types of 

aircraft, must have the capability of visualizing the winds 

aloft in three dimensions. Continued spatial awareness 

(how the balloon is moving through the air), is important 

for maintaining control of the balloon and navigating to the 

desired point on the ground. Every other safety measure 

taken is compromised by inflating a balloon and taking off 

without proper planning and an understanding of the winds 

and terrain to be navigated. [Figure 3-12]
3-8

Figure 3-12. As the balloon ascends, the flightpath inclines to the 

right. Correlate this visualization to a map to determine the ground 

track of the balloon during flight.

Figure 3-11. Additional practice pibal plots. 

Performance Planning

Prior to a discussion of performance planning, a number of 

terms must be defined.

Maximum Allowable Gross Weight is that maximum amount 

of weight that the balloon may lift, under standard conditions. 

This figure is usually stipulated in design criteria, and 

addressed in the Type Certificate Data Sheet pertaining to that 

balloon. It can also be found on the weight and balance page 

of the flight manual for that particular balloon. An average of 

1,000 cubic feet of air, when heated, will lift 20 pounds.

Useful lift (load) in aviation is the potential weight of the pilot, 

passengers, equipment, and fuel. It is the basic empty weight 

of the aircraft (found in the flight manual for each balloon) 

subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight. This 

term is frequently confused with payload, which in aviation is 

defined as the weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.

Density altitude is defined in the Pilot’s Handbook of 

Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) as “pressure 

altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.” Density 

altitude is determined by first finding pressure altitude, and 

then correcting this altitude for nonstandard temperature 

variations. For example, when set at 29.92, the altimeter may 

indicate a pressure altitude of 5,000 feet. Under standard 

temperature conditions (59 °F), this may allow for a useful 

load of 1,050 pounds. However, if the temperature is 20° 

above standard, the expansion of the air raises the density 

altitude level (the air is less dense, thereby mimicking the 

density of the air at a higher altitude). Using temperature 

correction data from tables or graphs, it may be found that 

the density level is above 8,000 feet, and the useful load is 

then reduced to 755 pounds. This definition, however, has a 

tendency to confuse many new (and some not-so-new) pilots, 

so a more thorough explanation is justified.

The AIM explains density altitude as being nothing more 

than a way to comparatively measure aircraft performance. 

Paragraph 7-5-6 states, in part, “Density altitude is a measure 

of air density. It is not to be confused with pressure altitude, 

true altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a height 

reference, but as a determining criteria [sic] in the performance 

capability of an aircraft.” With respect to ballooning, this is a 

more useful definition of the term.

How does density altitude affect balloon performance? 

Density altitude affects balloon performance in two ways. 

First and more important, as a balloon gains altitude, it loses 

capacity, insofar as its lifting capability is concerned. This 

means a balloon capable of lifting 1,400 pounds at sea level 

may only be able to lift 1,150 pounds or less at 4,000 feet. For 

a pilot who seldom leaves the local area, this rarely causes a 

problem. For the pilot who travels from the low area of the 

Southeast to fly in the mile-high altitudes of Albuquerque, 
3-9

0

1

2

3 4 5 10 15

70° 90° 110° 130° 150° 170° 190° 210° 230°

250°

275°

-10

10

30

50

70

90

110

1,435

1,400

1,300

1,200

1,100

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

Envelope Temperature

Pressure Altitude

Pressure Altitude (x1,000 ft)

Ambient Temperature (°F) Gross Lift (lb)

Data Base: Calculated

Sample Calculation: Ambient Temperature 60 °F

Envelope Temperature 190 °F

Pressure Altitude 1,500 ft

1. Enter the chart with ambient temperature (Point ).

2. Trace right to the desired envelope temperature (Point ).

3. Trace down to the pressure altitude (Point ).

4. Trace left to read GROSS LIFT (Point = 1,120 lb)

A

B

C

D

A

B

C

D

EXPECTED GROSS LIFT

Figure 3-13. Typical performance chart for a 77,000 cubic foot balloon.

New Mexico, the changes in balloon capability and decrease 

in burner performance are important considerations while 

planning for the flight.

Second, heater performance is degraded at a rate of 4 

percent per 1,000 feet of altitude. This means on a standard 

reference day, a particular heater will have lost 12 percent of 

its efficiency at 3,000 feet, or be performing at 88 percent of 

its capability. This is due to the loss of the partial pressure of 

oxygen, a necessary component of combustion.

 Preflight planning requires consideration of balloon loading 

and performance with respect to altitude and expected 

temperatures. Balloon manufacturers have provided the 

information necessary to determine these factors in the 

form of a performance chart in the flight manual. Referred 

to as nomographs or nomograms, performance charts are 

simple to use and provide excellent planning information. 

[Figure 3-13]

If three of the above factors are known, a fourth may be 

determined. The performance charts may be used in many 

ways to determine performance of the balloon on a given day. 

This process does not have to be computed at the beginning of 

each flight. Many pilots develop a listing of possible weights, 

temperatures, and altitudes, depending on the average flying 

conditions for their home area. This is an acceptable practice 
3-10

as long as the information is available and consulted when 

appropriate.

Using the chart in Figure 3-13, determine the maximum 

gross lift that may be expected on a 60 °F day, with decisions 

not to exceed 190 °F envelope temperature and 1,500 feet 

pressure altitude. In this example, the established parameters 

equate what many pilots consider when doing performance 

planning. They decide they do not want to exceed a given 

altitude or envelope temperature.) To determine the maximum 

gross lift available, the nomograph should be entered at point 

A, at the ambient temperature of 60 °F. Move right, to the 

line indicating an envelope temperature of 190 °F (point B). 

Then, move down vertically to a point equidistant between 

the lines denoting altitude of 1,000 and 2,000 feet (point C). 

Then, move horizontally to the left to the gross lift axis of 

the chart and read the result (point D). In the illustrated 

example, this computation results in a maximum gross lift 

of 1,120 pounds. 

Using the chart again in Figure 3-13, determine the maximum 

altitude to which the balloon may climb, given the same 

maximum gross lift figure of 1,150 pounds. In this example, 

it is simply a matter of extending the lines appropriately. The 

A-B line would be extended to the diagonal line indicating 

a maximum temperature of 250 °F (which is the maximum 

continuous operating temperature for most balloons). Then, 

a perpendicular line would be drawn from that intersection 

point. After that line is drawn, extend the C-D line to the 

right, and the intersection of those two lines will indicate the 

maximum altitude. In this example, this computation results 

in a maximum altitude of 10,000 feet. 

Special Conditions

Most balloon flying is done in non-hostile terrain and benign 

weather. There are, some instances in which the terrain may 

be more difficult, both for the pilot and the chase crew, and the 

weather may become a significant factor. With proper preflight 

planning, the problems inherent in mountain flying and cold 

weather flying can be resolved. While somewhat riskier than 

normal flying, this type of flying can be safely conducted.

Cold Weather Flying

Some pilots prefer flying in cold weather, which offers the 

advantages of more stable air and less fuel consumption to 

maintain flight. This means long, gentle flights for the pilot. 

There are two main disadvantages to cold weather flying: 

the need to maintain adequate pressure in the balloon’s fuel 

system and the difficulty of keeping the pilot, crew, and 

passengers warm.

As propane gets colder, it has less vapor pressure. (See chart of 

propane and butane partial pressures, Appendix C). To ensure 

adequate pressure in cold weather, follow the manufacturer’s 

recommended method, which will be described in the flight 

manual. Many manufacturers recommend the use of nitrogen, 

an inert gas that may be added to the fuel tanks by means of a 

regulator. This is perhaps the easiest way to pressurize tanks, 

as it may be done on site, and with little or no prior planning. 

It does require the use of a nitrogen tank and a two-stage 

regulator. These items must be available to the pilot before 

the flight. If the flight is cancelled after pressurization, and 

the anticipated rise in temperature is expected to be more than 

30°, the pressure will need to be bled off by using the fixed 

liquid level gauge.

Balloon systems using a vapor feed pilot system may not 

be able to use nitrogen as it can result in an unreliable pilot 

light. Those systems commonly use heat tapes or heated tank 

covers in order to warm the propane. Heat tapes, similar to 

those used to prevent water pipes from freezing, are reliable. 

They do require frequent inspection, as normal wear and 

tear may cause an electrical short, with potential danger of 

damage to the fuel tanks. Among the aftermarket types of heat 

tapes, the ones with an internal thermostat will cycle once a 

particular temperature is reached, reducing the possibility of 

overheating the tanks.

Use tank heaters and heat tapes with extra caution. Tanks must 

not be heated in an area within 50 feet of an open flame, near 

an appliance with a pilot light, or in a closed area without 

natural ventilation.

Pilots, as well as crew, should be dressed appropriately 

for the environment. Layered clothing that entraps warm 

air is standard cold weather gear. Note that cold weather 

environments commonly promote static electricity. It is 

important that clothing of natural fibers be used, rather 

than synthetics. A hat is important, as significant body heat 

escapes from the head. Warm gloves and footwear are a must. 

Remember that certain types of hypoxia, or lack of oxygen 

to the brain (discussed in Chapter 9, Aeromedical Factors), 

may be aggravated by exposure to continued cold. Pilots and 

crew should be aware of the symptoms of hypothermia and 

frostbite, guard against them, and have a plan in place to deal 

with potential medical emergencies.

From an equipment standpoint, the balloon requires no special 

preparation, other than insuring proper pressure in the fuel 

system. Pilots should be aware that seals and O-rings may 

shrink somewhat or become brittle in cold weather. This may 

cause a propane leak, and special caution should be taken 
3-11

Figure 3-14. Mountain flying.

Communications in mountainous terrain can be a significant 

factor because most radios used by balloonists are line of 

sight, and will not work well, if at all, in particularly hilly or 

mountainous terrain. Cell phones may be used after landing, 

but again may be limited by the lack of cell towers and general 

reception problems. A good communications plan between 

pilot and ground crew includes a “lost balloon” contact with 

a common phone number that both parties call in order to find 

where the other is. This could possibly be a person at home, 

willing to relay the information as necessary, or perhaps an 

answering machine from which both the pilot and crew may 

retrieve messages. 

Mountain flying that involves long distances requires 

appropriate clothing. Refer to the earlier paragraph on dressing 

for cold weather flying, which also applies to mountain 

flying. Good preflight planning will ensure that the pilot 

and passengers are prepared for a cold weather flight. It also 

prepares for the possibility of remaining out in the cold while 

the ground crew locates the balloon, since following a balloon 

can be difficult in mountainous terrain. Some pilots carry 

additional equipment in the balloon that they do not carry 

on flatland flights. Suggested provisions and equipment are 

water, additional warm clothing or a sleeping bag, a strobe, 

a radio, a compass, a lightweight shelter (a Mylar® sheet can 

be made into a simple tent, for example), and a good map or 

maps of the area. 

The Ground Crew 

As ground crew have no legal status or authority within 

14 CFR, it is easy to overlook or downplay their role in 

the preflight process, as well as flight safety. Ground crew 

knowledge and skill bring both the brains and brawn necessary 

at every stage of a flight—from equipment set-up and flight 

path plotting to taking inflight wind readings and assisting 

challenging landings. Without sufficient crew, a pilot becomes 

rushed, distracted, uninformed, or in the midst of hazardous 

conditions. Ground crews serve not only as physical help and 

assistance, but also serve as a form of redundancy for a pilot’s 

eyes, muscles, and mind. [Figure 3-15]

While crew requirements may vary from flight to flight, 

consider the following during the preflight process:

• Two crew members to assist is a good starting point. 

During the chase phase, one may drive while the other 

navigates; two may handle emergencies better than 

one. Words of caution: more is not always better. In 

some cases, passengers on board the balloon may be 

able and willing to help pack and unpack equipment. 

Another factor may be the capacity of the chase 

vehicle.

during the equipment preflight process to ensure that this 

will not be an issue. The pilot and chase crew should also be 

careful not to pack snow in the envelope, particularly if the 

balloon will be stored for a long period of time before the 

next flight. With respect to the chase vehicle, remember to 

have antifreeze in the cooling system. It is advisable to carry 

chains, a shovel, and a windshield wiper/scraper if there is a 

possibility of snow.

Mountain Flying 

Flying in mountainous terrain can provide one of the most 

exhilarating flights imaginable, but there are numerous 

planning factors that must be considered. [Figure 3-14]

Weather, with its associated phenomena, is perhaps the most 

important to understand of the many factors involved in 

mountain flying. When inflating a balloon, drainage winds 

(a form of orographic wind) may cause the envelope to move 

from its planned position, and may even roll back over the 

basket, pilot, and crew. As most weather forecasts do not 

address this issue, consult with local pilots regarding these 

wind’s formation, strength, and onset. In flight, winds flowing 

across mountain terrain set up features, such as rotors and 

standing waves (discussed in Chapter 4, Weather) which may 

cause a complete loss of control of the balloon. Other less 

violent winds may cause the balloon to proceed in unplanned 

directions, and require adjustments to landing and retrieval 

plans. It is important that any pilot contemplating flight in 

mountainous terrain be aware of these potential conditions, 

and plan to minimize their effects.
3-12

Figure 3-16. It is important to check that all equipment is in proper 

working condition prior to flight.

Figure 3-15. Equipment set-up with a ground crew.

Flying in New Territory

When planning a flight in a new or unfamiliar area, it is 

important to insure that balloonists are welcome. If possible, 

talk to local balloonists who may be familiar with the area, 

and who may be able to point out local no-fly areas, potential 

launch and landing sites, and potential landowner problem 

areas. To locate local balloonists:

• Call the nearest Flight Standards District Office 

(FSDO) and ask for the name of a balloon pilot 

examiner or FAA Safety team member.

• Look in the local telephone book under “Balloons—

Manned.”

• Check for local balloon clubs in the area.

• Check the BFA membership roster online at www.bfa.

net.

If there are no balloonists in the local area, talk to other aircraft 

pilots or local law enforcement offices. Let them know that a 

balloon flight is being planned and ask for advice. 

Equipment

Pack all equipment; have it ready and double checked the 

night before a flight. New pilots should create and follow a 

checklist that covers all of the home station preparations for the 

chase vehicle and equipment. Simple tasks, such as ensuring 

that radios and cell phones are properly charged, can easily 

be overlooked. Check to see that the balloon, fan, and vehicle 

are fueled; vehicle tires are inflated; required documentation 

is in the balloon; and all necessary maps, radios, and other 

equipment are loaded in the chase vehicle. [Figure 3-16] 

• At least one crew member should be familiar with 

the balloon, the pilot’s flight planning and routines, 

emergency procedures, vehicle operations (liftgate 

operations, trailer backing, etc.) and the local area. If 

out of town, a local person who knows the area and 

roads can prove to be invaluable.

• A crew chief should be designated early in the preflight 

planning process to avoid conflicts or communications 

breakdowns later. This person oversees all ground 

operations, under the direction of the pilot, directs 

other crew members, and speaks on behalf of the pilot 

when meeting landowners.

• The crew should be free of major disabilities 

(pre-existing back conditions, severe allergies/

respiratory conditions), capable of lifting/moving 

heavy equipment, and in good physical shape.

• A meeting place should be designated well in advance 

of the launch time. It is prudent to err on the early 

side, as being late causes all other facets of the flight 

process to be rushed, increasing the potential for risks. 

If the meeting site is to serve also as the launch site, 

there should be a secondary location available in case 

of relocation.

• Crew members who are healthy, rested, and focused 

perform best. Minimize conditions or distractions that 

compromise these items.

While most crew members participate in ballooning for the 

fun and friendship it offers, it is essential they are committed 

to their ongoing role in flight safety. Preflight planning 

requires that a pilot consider how crew will help each flight 

unfold safely.
3-13

Personal Preparation 

The most important single element in preflight preparation is 

the pilot. A pilot anticipating a flight should do a quick selfanalysis to ensure that he or she is mentally and physically 

capable and competent to perform. It is not uncommon to see 

pilots and crews drive all night to get to an event, and, without 

sleep or perhaps suffering from a cold or other ailment, go 

ahead and fly. Allow enough time and resources to remain 

healthy, rested, and focused enough to make wise flight 

preparations and decisions that maximize flight safety. 

It is a good policy to do an individual “preflight,” using the 

“I’M SAFE” evaluation checklist as illustrated in Chapter 1, 

Introduction to Balloon Flight Training, Figure 1-5. 

Chapter Summary

Flying a hot air balloon requires extensive preflight planning 

which depends upon a knowledge of meteorology applied to 

local weather conditions, the ability to navigate using charts 

and maps, familiarity with the equipment used in ballooning, a 

good support ground crew, and a dash of common sense. Safe 

flight experiences for a pilot in ballooning or any other aircraft 

depend upon continuing education and experience.
3-14
4-1

Introduction

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time 

and place, with respect to temperature, moisture content, 

turbulence, and cloudiness. These factors interact to form 

the following five major meteorological elements:

• Atmospheric pressure (high or low),

• Air temperature (heat or cold),

• Wind (calm or storm),

• Clouds (clearness or cloudiness), and

• Precipitation (rain, sleet, snow).

A solid understanding of weather theory provides the tools 

necessary to understand the reports and forecasts obtained 

from a Flight Service Station (FSS) weather specialist and 

other aviation weather services. No other means of aviation 

relies more heavily on knowledge and understanding of 

weather for its safety than ballooning. It is important to note, 

however, that there is no substitute for experience.

Weather Theory

and Reports

Chapter 4
4-2

1%

21%

78%

Nitrogen Oxygen Trace gases

Figure 4-1. Composition of the atmosphere.

There are many excellent texts and online sources available 

for learning more about weather that are referenced 

at the appropriate point in this chapter. Much of the 

following information can be found in the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 00-06A, 

Aviation Weather For Pilots and Flight Operations Personnel, 

and AC 00-45E, Aviation Weather Services, both of which 

may be found at the FAA’s Regulatory and Guidance Library 

(RGL) located online at rgl.faa.gov.

Other online sources for weather information are also helpful. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) offers a weather tutorial at www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/

jetstream/. Developed to meet the needs of educators, weather 

professionals, and others interested in learning more about 

weather, it provides a number of concise explanations of 

weather theory. Additionally, ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/

home.rxml is a site developed as part of the Weather World 

2010 project by the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at 

the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 

This chapter is designed to give balloon pilots a basic 

knowledge of weather principles, acquaint them with the 

weather information available for flight planning, and help 

them develop sound decision-making skills as they prepare 

for and execute a safe flight.

The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the envelope of air that surrounds the 

Earth. Approximately one-half of the air, by weight, is within 

the lower 18,000 feet. The remainder of the air is spread over 

a vertical distance in excess of 1,000 miles. No definite outer 

atmospheric boundary exists, but the air particles become 

less numerous with increasing altitude until they gradually 

overcome Earth’s gravity and escape into space. In addition 

to the rotation of the air with the rotation of the Earth, another 

type of air movement occurs within the atmosphere. This 

movement of air around the surface of the Earth is called 

atmospheric circulation.

Composition

The atmosphere is a blanket of air composed of a mixture 

of gases that surrounds the Earth and reaches over 560 

kilometers (km), 348 miles, from the surface. This blanket 

of gases provides protection from ultraviolet rays, as well as 

supporting human, animal, and plant life. Nitrogen accounts 

for 78 percent of the gases comprising the atmosphere, 

while oxygen makes up 21 percent. [Figure 4-1] Argon, 

carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases make up the 

remaining 1 percent. Within this envelope of gases, there 

are several recognizable layers of the atmosphere as defined 

by altitude. 

The first layer, known as the troposphere, extends from sea 

level up to 20,000 feet (8 km) over the northern and southern 

poles and up to 48,000 feet (14.5 km) over the equatorial 

regions. The vast majority of weather, clouds, storms, and 

temperature variances occur within this first layer of the 

atmosphere. 

At the top of the troposphere is a boundary known as the 

tropopause, which traps moisture and the associated weather 

in the troposphere. The altitude of the tropopause varies with 

latitude and with the season of the year which causes it to 

take on an elliptical shape, as opposed to round. Location 

of the tropopause is important because it is commonly 

associated with the location of the jet stream and possible 

clear air turbulence.

The Standard Atmosphere

To provide a common reference when discussing weather, 

the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been 

established. To arrive at the standard atmosphere, conditions 

throughout the atmosphere with respect to latitudes, seasons, 

and altitudes were averaged. The standard reference point is 

59 °F or 15 °C, and 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) or 1013.2 

millibars (mb). Pressure does not decrease linearly with 

altitude, but for the first 10,000 feet, 1 "Hg for each 1,000 

feet approximates the rate of pressure change. There is also 

a standard temperature lapse rate of 3.5 °F or 2 °C per 1,000 

feet of altitude, up to 36,000 feet. 

At sea level, the atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth at 

a force of 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). This means a 

column of air one inch square, extending from the surface up 

to the upper atmospheric limit, weighs about 14.7 pounds. 
4-3

Water boils

Water freezes

Dry ice (solid CO2)

Liquid air

Absolute zero

Fahrenheit Celsius

212 °F

98.6 °F

32 °F

–40 °F

–108 °F

–312 °F

–459 °F

100 °C

50 °C

0 °C

–40 °C

–78 °C

–200 °C

–273 °C

Figure 4-2. Comparison of Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature 

scales.

A person standing at sea level also experiences the pressure 

of the atmosphere, but the pressure is a force of pressure 

over the entire surface of the skin. The actual pressure at a 

given place and time will differ with altitude, temperature, 

and density of the air. These conditions also affect balloon 

performance, especially with regard to useful load and burner 

performance. 

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

Constant pressure charts and hurricane pressure reports 

are written using millibars (mb). Since weather stations 

are located around the globe, all local barometric pressure 

readings are converted to a sea level pressure to provide a 

standard for records and reports. To achieve this, each station 

converts its barometric pressure by adding approximately 

1 "Hg for every 1,000 feet of elevation gain. For example, 

a station at 5,000 feet above sea level, with a reading of 

24.92 "Hg, reports a sea level pressure reading of 29.92 

"Hg. Using common sea level pressure readings helps ensure 

aircraft altimeters are set correctly, based on the current 

pressure readings. In order to compensate for pressure 

variations due to different station elevations, all observations 

are mathematically corrected to mean sea level (MSL). 

Altimeter settings are obtained by mathematically reducing 

station pressure to MSL. This enables the pilot to read MSL 

altitudes on the altimeter. 

When charting atmospheric pressures over various areas of the 

Earth, the meteorologist is primarily interested in the pressure 

difference per unit of distance—the pressure gradient. 

The MSL pressure is plotted in mb at each reporting station 

on a surface weather map. The isobars outline pressure areas 

in somewhat the same manner that contour lines outline 

terrain features on contour maps. Standard procedure on 

surface weather maps in North America is to draw isobars 

spaced at four mb of pressure apart, with intermediate two 

mb spacing when appropriate. Although the isobar patterns 

are never the same on any two weather maps, they do show 

patterns of similarity.

By tracking barometric pressure trends across a large area, 

weather forecasters can more accurately predict movement 

of pressure systems and the associated weather. For example, 

tracking a pattern of rising pressure at a single weather station 

generally indicates the approach of fair weather. Conversely, 

decreasing or rapidly falling pressure usually indicates 

approaching bad weather and possibly severe storms.

Temperature

Temperature is a measurement of the amount of heat and 

expresses a degree of molecular activity. Since different 

substances have different molecular structures, equal amounts 

of heat applied to equal volumes of two different substances 

will result in unequal heating. Every substance has its own 

unique specific heat. For example, a land surface becomes 

hotter than a water surface when equal amounts of heat are 

added to each. The degree of “hotness” or “coldness” of a 

substance is known as its temperature, and is measured with 

a thermometer. 

The Earth’s surface is heated during the day by the sun. 

This incoming solar radiation is called insolation, while 

heat radiated from the Earth by outgoing radiation is called 

terrestrial radiation. The cooling that occurs at night is 

terrestrial radiation. 

Temperature Scales

Two temperature scales are important to the balloon pilot: 

Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C). On the Fahrenheit scale, 

the freezing point is 32° and the boiling point is 212°, a 

difference of 180°. On the Celsius scale, the freezing point is 

0° and the boiling point is 100°. For many years, the Celsius 

scale was the choice for technicians and those countries and 

organizations utilizing the metric system. In recent years, 

the United States has transitioned to almost exclusive use of 

the Celsius scale in weather reports, primarily because of the 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) convention 

agreements. [Figure 4-2]

A quick and easy way to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius is to 

subtract 30, and divide the number by two. To convert Celsius 

to Fahrenheit, double the number, and add 30. These formulas 

give a good approximation for most calculations in ballooning. 

Conversion charts are also available on the Internet. 
4-4

Temperature Variations

The amount of solar radiation (insolation) received by any 

region varies with the time of day, with seasons, and with 

latitude. These differences in insolation create temperature 

variations. Temperatures also vary with differences in 

topographical surface and with altitude. These temperature 

variations create forces that drive the atmosphere in its 

motion. Simply stated, heat and, therefore, temperature 

differences cause weather. 

Diurnal variation is the change in temperature from day 

to night brought about by the daily rotation of the Earth. 

The Earth receives heat during the day by insolation, but 

continually loses heat by terrestrial radiation. Warming 

and cooling depend on an imbalance of insolation and 

terrestrial radiation. During the day, insolation exceeds 

terrestrial radiation and the surface becomes warmer. At 

night, insolation ceases, but terrestrial radiation continues 

and cools the surface. Cooling continues after sunrise until 

insolation again exceeds terrestrial radiation. Minimum 

temperature usually occurs after sunrise, sometimes as much 

as one hour after. The continued cooling after sunrise is one 

reason that fog sometimes forms shortly after the sun is 

above the horizon.

Temperature Variations with Topography

Temperature variations are also induced by water and terrain. 

Water absorbs and radiates heat energy with less temperature 

change than does land. Large, deep water bodies tend to 

minimize temperature changes, while large land masses 

induce major temperature changes. Wet soil, such as that 

found in swamps and marshes, is almost as effective as 

water in suppressing temperature changes. Thick vegetation 

tends to control temperature changes since it contains some 

water and also insulates against heat transfer between the 

ground and the atmosphere. Arid, barren surfaces generate 

the greatest temperature changes.

These topographical influences are both diurnal and seasonal. 

For example, the difference between a daily maximum and 

minimum may be 10° or less over water, near a shore line, 

or over a swamp or marsh, while a difference of 50° or more 

is common over rocky or sandy deserts.

Abrupt temperature differences develop along lake and ocean 

shores. These variations generate pressure differences and 

local air flows or winds, which may become a consideration 

in the balloon pilot’s study of the air mass.

Prevailing wind is also a factor in temperature control. In 

an area where prevailing winds are from large water bodies, 

temperature changes are rather small. Most islands enjoy 

fairly constant temperatures. On the other hand, temperature 

changes are more pronounced where prevailing wind is from 

dry, barren regions.

Temperature Variation with Altitude

Temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude 

throughout the troposphere. This decrease of temperature 

with altitude is defined as lapse rate. The standard lapse rate 

seldom exists. In fact, temperature sometimes increases with 

height. An increase in temperature with altitude is defined 

as an inversion. 

An inversion often develops near the ground on clear, cool 

nights when wind is light. The ground radiates and cools 

much faster than the overlying air. Air in contact with the 

ground becomes cold, while the temperature a few hundred 

feet above changes very little. Thus, temperature increases 

with height. Inversions may also occur at any altitude when 

conditions are favorable. For example, a current of warm 

air aloft overrunning cold air near the surface produces an 

inversion aloft. 

Low level inversions, which are usually of most interest to 

the balloon pilot, generally dissipate as the air mixes with 

insolation. 

Heat Transfer

The heat source for this planet is the sun; energy from the sun 

is transferred through space and the Earth’s atmosphere to 

the Earth’s surface. As this energy warms the Earth’s surface 

and atmosphere, some of it is or becomes heat energy. Heat 

is transferred into the atmosphere in three ways: radiation, 

conduction, and convection.

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. 

No medium of transfer is required between the radiator 

and the body being irradiated (receiving the radiation). 

Heat waves, a form of this electromagnetic energy, may be 

reflected. In meteorology, the principal reflectors are the 

Earth’s surface, water vapor in the air, and particulate matter 

in the atmosphere.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat energy from one substance 

to another or within a substance. As with electricity, 

some materials are good conductors while others are poor 

conductors. Poor conductors are considered to be insulators. 

Air is one of the poorest conductors of heat in comparison 

to silver, one of the best conductors. Silver will pass 20,000 

times more heat than an equal mass of air across a similar 

temperature difference during a fixed period of time. 

Conduction in the atmosphere is considered to be a significant 
4-5

method of heat exchange only at the Earth’s surface, where 

the lowest few centimeters of the atmosphere are actually in 

contact with the ground or water.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat energy in a fluid. This type 

of heating is most commonly seen in the kitchen when a liquid 

boils. This type of heat transfer occurs in the atmosphere 

when the ground is heated by the sun. The warm ground heats 

the air above it by radiation and conduction, causing the warm 

air to rise. Meanwhile, the dense cooler air aloft moves in to 

take the warm ground air’s place to be heated.

Heat can be transferred by convection in either a vertical or 

a horizontal direction. In meteorology, “advection” is the 

term used for the horizontal transport of heat by wind. It is 

important to differentiate between the vertical and horizontal 

paths of convection. In the atmosphere, the amount of heat 

transferred horizontally over the surface of the Earth by 

advection is about 1,000 times greater than that transferred 

by convection.

The Adiabatic Process

The adiabatic process is the change of the temperature 

of air without transferring heat. In an adiabatic process, 

compression results in warming, and expansion results in 

cooling. The adiabatic process takes place in all upward and 

downward moving air. When air rises into an area of lower 

pressure, it expands to a larger volume. As the molecules 

of air expand, the temperature of the air lowers. As a result, 

when a parcel of air rises, pressure decreases, volume 

increases, and temperature decreases. When air descends, 

the opposite is true.

Since air is composed of a mixture of gases subject to heating 

when compressed and cooling when expanded, air will rise, 

seeking a level where the pressure of the body of air is equal 

to the pressure of the air that surrounds it. Whatever the 

cause of the lifting, the air rises, and the pressure decreases, 

allowing the “parcel of air” to expand. This continues until 

it reaches an altitude similar in pressure and density to its 

own. As it expands, it cools through the adiabatic process 

and no heat is added or withdrawn from the system in which 

it operates. As air rises, it is cooled because it is expanding 

by moving to an altitude where pressure and density is less. 

This is adiabatic cooling. When the process is reversed and 

air is forced downward, it is compressed, causing it to heat 

by a process called adiabatic heating.

Air Masses

An air mass is a large body of air (usually 1,700 kilometers 

or more across) whose physical properties (temperature and 

humidity) are horizontally uniform. The weather is a direct 

result of the continuous alternation of the influences of warm 

and cold air masses. Warm air masses predominate in the 

summer, and cold air masses predominate in the winter. 

However, both cold and warm air, alternately, may prevail 

almost anywhere in the temperature zone at any season. The 

basic characteristics of any air mass are temperature and 

humidity. These properties are relatively uniform throughout 

the air mass, and it is by measurement of these properties that 

the various types of air masses are determined. 

Characteristics

Air masses acquire the characteristics of the surrounding 

area, or source region. The characteristics of an air mass 

consist of the basic properties of moisture and temperature, 

which include:

• Stability,

• Cloud types,

• Sky coverage,

• Visibility,

• Precipitation,

• Icing, and

• Turbulence.

The terrain surface underlying the air mass is the primary 

factor in determining air mass characteristics.

A source region is typically an area in which the air remains 

relatively stagnant for a period of days or longer. During 

this time of stagnation, the air mass takes on the temperature 

and moisture characteristics of the source region. Areas of 

stagnation can be found in polar regions, tropical oceans, 

and dry deserts. Air masses are classified by region of 

origination:

• Polar or tropical

• Maritime or continental

A continental polar air mass forms over a polar region and 

brings cool, dry air with it. Maritime tropical air masses 

form over warm tropical waters like the Caribbean Sea and 

bring warm, moist air. As the air mass moves from its source 

region and passes over land or water, the terrain it passes 

over modifies its qualities, and thus modifies the nature of 

the air mass. 

An air mass passing over a warmer surface will be warmed 

from below, and convective currents form, causing the air 

to rise. This creates an unstable air mass with good surface 

visibility. Moist, unstable air causes cumulus clouds, 

localized showers, and turbulence to form. Conversely, an air 

mass passing over a colder surface does not form convective 
4-6

1016

1008

1004

1000

1012

1008

1012

Ridge line

Trough line

Figure 4-3. High and low pressure systems.

currents, but instead creates a stable air mass with poor 

surface visibility. The poor surface visibility is due to the fact 

that moisture, smoke, dust, and other particles cannot rise out 

of the air mass and are instead trapped near the surface. A 

stable air mass can produce low stratus clouds and fog.

Pressure Systems 

The differences that occur with heating and cooling the 

atmosphere in the lower levels also cause density variations. 

These variations cause small horizontal pressure differences 

that are only about one ten-thousandth of the magnitude of the 

normal change of pressure with altitude, but they significantly 

impact atmospheric circulation and most weather phenomena. 

[Figure 4-3]

A low or cyclone is a pressure system in which the barometric 

pressure decreases towards the center and the wind flow 

around the system is counterclockwise in the Northern 

Hemisphere. Unfavorable flying conditions in the form of 

low clouds, restricted visibility by precipitation and fog, 

strong and gusty winds, and turbulence are common in low 

pressure systems. Thermal low pressure systems caused by 

intense surface heating and resulting low air density over 

barren continental areas are relatively dry with few clouds and 

practically no precipitation. Thermal lows are stationary and 

predominate over continental areas in the summer. General 

airflow in a low pressure system, since the atmosphere is 

attempting to achieve equilibrium, is in (towards the center 

of the low pressure system), and up. This tendency can affect 

the overall dynamic of the low pressure system.

A high is a pressure system in which the barometric pressure 

increases toward the center and the wind flow around the 

system is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Flying 

conditions are generally more favorable in highs than in 

lows because of fewer clouds, light or calm winds, and 

less concentrated turbulent areas. But, in some situations, 

visibility may be reduced due to early morning fog, smog, or 

haze at flight levels. High pressure systems predominate over 

cold surfaces where the air is dense. General airflow in a high 

pressure system, in reverse of the low pressure dynamic, is 

out (away from the center of the pressure system) and down. 

Again, these airflow tendencies can affect the dynamic of the 

high pressure system, much like the low.

In the Northern Hemisphere, a general cycle of highs and 

lows moves through the temperate zones from west to east. 

The movement of the pressure systems is more rapid in 

the winter season when the low pressure systems are most 

intense and the high pressure systems extend farthest to the 

south. [Figure 4-4]

A trough is an elongated area of low pressure, with the lowest 

pressure along the trough line. The weather in a trough is 

commonly violent. Also, troughs can be slow moving.

A ridge is an elongated area of high pressure with highest 

pressure along the ridge line. The weather in a ridge is 

generally favorable for flying.
4-7

Hill of air

Hill of air

1016

1008

1004

1000

1012

996

1008

1004

1000

1012

996

Depression or valley of air

2,000 FT

1,500 FT

1,000 FT

500 FT

Figure 4-4. A cross-section of the pressure systems depicted in Figure 4-3.

Fronts

Fronts are the boundaries between two air masses and are 

classified as to which type of air mass (cold or warm) is 

replacing the other. For example, a cold front demarcates 

the leading edge of a cold air mass displacing a warmer 

air mass. A warm front is the leading edge of a warmer air 

mass replacing a colder air mass. Fronts are also transition 

zones (boundaries) between air masses that have different 

densities. The density of air is controlled primarily by the 

temperature of the air. Therefore, fronts in temperate zones 

usually form between tropical and polar air masses, but 

they may also form between arctic and polar air masses. A 

typical surface weather map shows air mass boundary zones 

at ground level. Designs on the boundary lines indicate the 

type of front and its direction of movement. On weather 

maps in local weather stations, fronts may also be indicated 

by colored lines. A working knowledge of fronts and their 

accompanying weather hazards is important to pilots.

Types of Fronts

The four major frontal types are:

• Cold,

• Warm,

• Stationary, and

• Occluded.

A front type is determined from the movement of the air 

masses involved.

Cold Front

A cold front is the leading edge of an advancing mass of cold 

air. A cold front occurs when a mass of cold, dense, and stable 

air advances and replaces a body of warmer air. Cold fronts 

move more rapidly than warm fronts, generally progressing 

at a rate of 25 to 30 miles per hour (mph). However, extreme 

cold fronts have been recorded moving at speeds of up to 60 

mph. A typical cold front moves in a manner opposite that 

of a warm front. Because it is so dense, it stays close to the 

ground and acts like a snowplow, sliding under the warmer 

air and forcing the less dense air aloft. [Figure 4-5] The 

rapidly ascending air causes the temperature to decrease 

suddenly, forcing the creation of clouds. The type of clouds 

that form depends on the stability of the warmer air mass. A 

cold front in the Northern Hemisphere is normally oriented 

in a northeast to southwest manner and can extend for several 

hundred miles, encompassing a large area of land. Prior to 

the passage of a typical cold front, cirriform or towering 

cumulus clouds are present, and cumulonimbus clouds are 

possible. Rain showers and haze are possible due to the rapid 

development of clouds. The wind from the south-southwest 

helps to replace the warm temperatures with the relative 

colder air. A high dew point and falling barometric pressure 

are indicative of imminent cold front passage. 

As the cold front passes, towering cumulus or cumulonimbus 

clouds continue to dominate the sky. [Figure 4-6] Depending 

on the intensity of the cold front, heavy rain showers form 

and might be accompanied by lightning, thunder, and/or hail. 

More severe cold fronts can also produce tornadoes. During 

cold front passage, the visibility is poor, with winds variable 

and gusty, and the temperature and dew point drop rapidly. A 

quickly falling barometric pressure bottoms out during frontal 

passage, then begins a gradual increase. After frontal passage, 

the towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds begin to 

dissipate to cumulus clouds, with a corresponding decrease in 

the precipitation. Good visibility eventually prevails with the 

winds from the west-northwest. Temperatures remain cooler 

and the barometric pressure continues to rise.
4-8

St. Louis Indianapolis

200 miles

Columbus

400 miles

Pittsburgh

600 miles

WARM AIR

COLD AIR

CUMULONIMBUS

Figure 4-6. A cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air. Clouds are cumuliform with possible showers or thunderstorms near 

the surface position of the front. Convective clouds often develop in the warm air ahead of the front. The warm, wet ground behind the 

front generates low-level convection and fair-weather cumulus in the cold air.

St. Louis Indianapolis

200 miles

Columbus

400 miles

Pittsburgh

600 miles

COLD AIR

WARM AIR

NIMBOSTRATUS

ALTOSTRATUS

CIRROSTRATUS

CIRRUS

Figure 4-5. A cold front underrunning warm, moist, stable air. Clouds are stratified and precipitation continuous. Precipitation induces 

stratus in the cold air.

Fast-Moving Cold Front

Fast-moving cold fronts are pushed by intense pressure 

systems far behind the actual front. The friction between the 

ground and the cold front retards the movement of the front 

and creates a steeper frontal surface. This results in a very 

narrow band of weather concentrated along the leading edge 

of the front. [Figure 4-7] If the warm air being overtaken by 

the cold front is relatively stable, overcast skies and rain may 

occur for some distance ahead of the front. If the warm air 

is unstable, scattered thunderstorms and rain showers may 

form. A continuous line of thunderstorms, or squall line, 

may form along or ahead of the front. Squall lines present 

a serious hazard to pilots as squall type thunderstorms are 

intense and move quickly. Behind a fast-moving cold front, 

the skies usually clear rapidly and the front leaves behind 

gusty, turbulent winds and colder temperatures.

Warm Front

A warm front is actually the trailing edge of a retreating 

mass of cold air. A warm front occurs when a warm mass 

of air advances and replaces a body of colder air. Warm 

fronts move slowly, typically 10 to 25 mph. The slope of 

the advancing front slides over the top of the cooler air and 

gradually pushes it out of the area. Warm fronts contain warm 

air that often has very high humidity. As the warm air is lifted, 

the temperature drops and condensation occurs. Prior to the 

passage of a warm front, cirriform or stratiform clouds, along 

with fog, can be expected to form along the frontal boundary. 

[Figure 4-8] In the summer months, cumulonimbus clouds 

(thunderstorms) are likely to develop. Light to moderate 

precipitation is probable, usually in the form of rain, sleet, 

snow, or drizzle, punctuated by poor visibility. The wind 

blows from the south-southeast, and the outside temperature 
4-9

St. Louis Indianapolis

200 miles

Columbus

400 miles

Pittsburgh

600 miles

WARM UNSTABLE AIR COLD AIR

Figure 4-7. A fast-moving cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air. Showers and thunderstorms develop along the surface 

position of the front.

St. Louis Indianapolis

200 miles

Columbus

400 miles

Pittsburgh

600 miles

WARM STABLE AIR

Figure 4-8. A warm front with overrunning moist, stable air. Clouds are stratiform and widespread over the shallow front. Precipitation 

is continuous and induces widespread stratus in the cold air.

is cool or cold, with increasing dew point. Finally, as the 

warm front approaches, the barometric pressure continues 

to fall until the front passes completely.

During the passage of a warm front, stratiform clouds are 

visible and drizzle may be falling. The visibility is generally 

poor, but improves with variable winds. The temperature rises 

steadily from the inflow of relatively warmer air. Usually, 

the dew point remains steady and the pressure levels off. 

After the passage of a warm front, stratocumulus clouds 

predominate and rain showers are possible. The visibility 

eventually improves, but hazy conditions may exist for a 

short period after passage. The wind generally blows from 

the south-southwest. With warming temperatures, the dew 

point rises and then levels off. There is generally a slight rise 

in barometric pressure, followed by a decrease in barometric 

pressure.

Stationary Front

When an air mass boundary is neither advancing nor 

retreating along the surface, the front is called a stationary 

front. Although there is no movement of the surface 

position of a true stationary front, an uplift of air may 

occur along the frontal boundary. If the uplifted air is stable 

and saturated, stratiform clouds may occur. Intermittent 

drizzle may occur, and if lifted above the freezing level, 

icing conditions and frozen precipitation will exist. If the 

uplifted air is conditionally unstable and saturation occurs, 

predominately cumuliform clouds will form, possibly 

generating thunderstorm activity.

Occluded Front

An occluded front occurs when a fast-moving cold front 

catches up with a slow-moving warm front. As the occluded 
4-10

Winds and Currents 

Pressure and temperature changes produce two kinds of 

motion in the atmosphere—vertical movement of ascending 

and descending currents, and horizontal movement in the 

form of wind. Both types of motion in the atmosphere are 

important as they affect the takeoff, landing, and inflight 

operations. More important, however, is that these motions 

in the atmosphere, otherwise called atmospheric circulation, 

cause weather changes.

Understanding wind and current circulation patterns is 

important for a balloon pilot because balloons are maneuvered 

solely through interaction with the different layers of wind 

and current. By using knowledge of the Coriolis force, 

pressure gradient force, and surface friction, it is possible to 

predict with a high degree of accuracy the potential track over 

the countryside and land at a predetermined point. This skill 

is the mark of a competent, safety conscious balloon pilot. 

Atmospheric Circulation

Three forces cause the wind to move as it does: the Coriolis 

force, the pressure gradient force, and surface friction. All 

three forces work together at the same time.

As defined earlier, atmospheric circulation is the movement 

of air around the surface of the Earth caused by the uneven 

heating of the Earth’s surface that upsets the equilibrium 

of the atmosphere, creates changes in air movement, and 

affects atmospheric pressure. Because the Earth has a curved 

surface that rotates on a tilted axis while orbiting the sun, the 

equatorial regions of the Earth receive a greater amount of 

heat from the sun than the polar regions. The amount of sun 

heating the Earth depends upon the time of day, time of year, 

and the latitude of the specific region. All of these factors 

affect the length of time and the angle at which sunlight 

strikes the surface. 

In general atmospheric circulation theory, areas of low 

pressure exist over the equatorial regions, and areas of high 

pressure exist over the polar regions due to a difference in 

temperature. Solar heating causes air to become less dense 

and rise in equatorial areas. The resulting low pressure allows 

the high pressure air at the poles to flow along the planet’s 

surface toward the equator. As the warm air flows toward the 

poles, it cools, becoming more dense, and sinks back toward 

the surface. [Figure 4-9] This pattern of air circulation is 

correct in theory, but the circulation of air is modified by 

other forces. 

front approaches, warm front weather prevails, but is 

immediately followed by cold front weather. There are two 

types of occluded fronts that can occur, and the temperatures 

of the colliding frontal systems play a large part in defining 

the type of front and the resulting weather. A cold front 

occlusion occurs when a fast-moving cold front is colder 

than the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front. When 

this occurs, the cold air replaces the cool air and forces the 

warm front aloft into the atmosphere. Typically, the cold 

front occlusion creates a mixture of weather found in both 

warm and cold fronts, if the air is relatively stable. A warm 

front occlusion occurs when the air ahead of the warm front 

is colder than the air of the cold front. When this is the case, 

the cold front rides up and over the warm front. If the air 

forced aloft by the warm front occlusion is unstable, the 

weather will be more severe than the weather found in a cold 

front occlusion. Embedded thunderstorms, rain, and fog are 

likely to occur.

Surface Fronts

The air mass boundaries indicated on a surface weather map 

are called surface fronts. A surface front is the position of a 

front at the Earth’s surface. The weather map shows only the 

location of fronts on the surface, but these fronts also have 

vertical extent. For example, the colder, heavier air mass 

tends to flow under the warmer air mass. The underrunning 

mass produces the lifting action of warm air over cold air, 

causing clouds and associated frontal weather.

The vertical boundary between the warm and cold air masses 

is a frontal surface, and slopes upward over the colder air 

mass. The frontal surface lifts the warmer air mass and 

produces frontal cloud systems. The slope of the frontal 

surface varies with the speed of the moving cold air mass, 

and the roughness of the underlying terrain. Under normal 

conditions, the angle of inclination (slope ratio) between the 

frontal surface and the Earth’s surface is greater with cold 

fronts than with warm fronts. The approximate height of 

the frontal surface over any station is determined from the 

analysis of upper air observations.

Frontal passage (FROPA) affects ballooning activities 

because it can generate precipitation, wind shifts, significant 

changes in temperature, and many other conditions hazardous 

to ballooning. Balloon pilots usually do not fly in the face 

of an approaching front; in fact, many have a rule that they 

do not fly within 18 to 24 hours prior to frontal passage, 

particularly if the approaching front has any significant 

strength associated with it. The FSS often can advise of the 

time a cold front will pass a given reporting station, which 

assists in flight planning.
4-11

• Expands

• Decreases density

• Rises

Air Heated

• Flows toward Earth

• Flows back to equator

Air Cooled

Figure 4-9. General circulation theory.

Figure 4-10. Three cell circulation pattern caused by the rotation 

of the Earth.

30° and 60° latitude, and between 60° and the poles. This 

circulation pattern results in the prevailing westerly winds 

in the conterminous United States. 

Circulation patterns are further complicated by seasonal 

changes, differences between the surfaces of continents and 

oceans, and other factors such as frictional forces caused 

by the topography of the Earth’s surface which modify 

the movement of the air in the atmosphere. For example, 

within 2,000 feet of the ground, the friction between the 

surface and the atmosphere slows the moving air. The wind 

is diverted from its path because the frictional force reduces 

the Coriolis force. Thus, the wind direction at the surface 

varies somewhat from the wind direction just a few thousand 

feet above the Earth.

Coriolis Force 

The Coriolis force is not perceptible to humans as they walk 

around because humans move slowly and travel relatively 

short distances compared to the size and rotation rate of 

the Earth. However, the Coriolis force significantly affects 

bodies that move over great distances, such as an air mass 

or body of water. 

The Coriolis force deflects air to the right in the Northern 

Hemisphere, causing it to follow a curved path instead of a 

straight line. The amount of deflection differs depending on 

the latitude. It is greatest at the poles, and diminishes to zero 

at the equator. The magnitude of Coriolis force also differs 

with the speed of the moving body—the faster the speed, 

the greater the deviation. In the Northern Hemisphere, the 

rotation of the Earth deflects moving air to the right and 

changes the general circulation pattern of the air.

Pertinent facts about the Coriolis force:

• The Coriolis force deflection is perpendicular to the 

flow of air.

• The Coriolis force will deflect air to the right in the 

Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern 

Hemisphere.

• The Coriolis force is strongest at the Poles and 

decreases to zero at the Equator.

• The Coriolis force is zero with calm winds and 

increases in magnitude as wind speed increases.

• Coriolis force, in combination with other forces 

involved, will determine the different circulation 

patterns over the Earth.

Pressure Gradient

Pressure gradient is the difference in pressure between high 

and low pressure areas. It is the rate of change in pressure in 

The speed of the Earth’s rotation causes the general flow 

to break up into three distinct cells in each hemisphere. 

[Figure 4-10] In the Northern Hemisphere, the warm air at 

the equator rises upward from the surface, travels northward, 

and is deflected eastward by the rotation of the Earth. By 

the time it has traveled one-third of the distance from the 

equator to the North Pole, it is no longer moving northward, 

but eastward. This air cools and sinks in a belt-like area at 

about 30° latitude, creating an area of high pressure as it 

sinks toward the surface. Then, it flows southward along 

the surface back toward the equator. Coriolis force bends 

the flow to the right, thus creating the northeasterly trade 

winds that prevail from 30° latitude to the equator. Similar 

forces create circulation cells that encircle the Earth between 
4-12

1020

1016

1012

Isobars

• The wider the pressure gradient,

the weaker the wind.

Weak or Flat Pressure Gradient

• The closer the spacing of isobars, 

the stronger the pressure gradient.

• The stronger the pressure gradient,

the stronger the wind.

Strong or Steep Pressure Gradient

Figure 4-11. Principles of pressure gradients.

1020

1016

HIGH

LOW

Surface Wind

Gradient Wind 1,000 Feet

Gradient Wind 2,000 Feet

Gradient Wind 3,000 Feet

Figure 4-12. Examples of variations of wind direction with height.

a direction perpendicular, or across the isobars. Wind speed is 

directly proportional to the pressure gradient. This means the 

strongest winds are in the areas where the pressure gradient 

is the greatest. Since pressure applied to a fluid is exerted 

equally in all directions throughout the fluid, a pressure 

gradient exists in the horizontal (along the surface), as well 

as in the vertical (with altitude) plane in the atmosphere. 

[Figure 4-11] 

The horizontal pressure gradient is steep or strong when the 

isobars determining the pressure gradient are close together. 

It is flat or weak when the isobars are far apart. If isobars 

are considered as depicting atmospheric topography, a high 

pressure system represents a hill of air, and a low pressure 

system represents a valley of air. The vertical pressure 

gradient always indicates a decrease in pressure with altitude, 

but the rate of pressure decrease (gradient) varies directly 

with changes in air density with altitude. The vertical cross 

section through a high and a low depicts the surface pressure 

gradient. 

The pressure gradient force is a force that tries to equalize 

pressure differences. This is the force that causes high 

pressure to push air toward low pressure. Thus, air would 

flow from high to low pressure if the pressure gradient force 

was the only force acting on it.

Surface Friction

Friction is the third component that determines the flow of 

wind. Because the surface of the Earth is rough, it not only 

slows the wind down, it also causes the diverging winds from 

highs and converging winds near lows. Since the Coriolis 

force varies with the speed of the wind, a reduction in the 

wind speed by friction means a reduction of the Coriolis 

force. This results in a momentary disruption of the balance. 

When the new balance (including friction) is reached, the 

air flows at an angle across the isobars from high pressure 

to low pressure. This angle varies from 10° over the ocean 

to more than 45° over rugged terrain. Frictional effects on 

the air are greatest near the ground, but the effects are also 

carried aloft by turbulence. Surface friction is effective in 

slowing the wind up to an average altitude of 2,000 feet above 

the ground. Above this level, the effect of friction decreases 

rapidly and may be considered negligible. Air above 2,000 

feet above the ground normally flows parallel to the isobars. 

[Figures 4-12 and 4-13]

Wind Patterns

Since air always seeks out lower pressure, it flows from areas 

of high pressure into those of low pressure. In the Northern 

Hemisphere, this flow of air from areas of high to low 

pressure is deflected to the right and produces a clockwise 

circulation around an area of high pressure known as anticyclonic circulation. The opposite is true of low pressure 
4-13

1028

1024

1020

1016

HIGH

LOW

Increases with velocity

Coriolis Force

Depends on spacing of isobars

Pressure Gradient Force

Depends on curvature of isobars

Centrifugal Force

Gradient wind

Pressure

Gradient Force Centrifugal & Coriolis Force

Equal and opposite

Figure 4-13. Gradient winds.

areas; the air flows toward a low and is deflected to create a 

counter-clockwise or cyclonic circulation.

High pressure systems are generally areas of dry, stable, 

descending air. Good weather is typically associated with 

high pressure systems for this reason. Conversely, air flows 

into a low pressure area to replace rising air. This air tends 

to be unstable, and usually brings increasing cloudiness and 

precipitation. Thus, bad weather is commonly associated 

with areas of low pressure. 

Convective Currents

Convection currents refer to the upward moving portion of 

a convection circulation, such as a thermal or the updraft 

in cumulus clouds. The uneven heating of the air, due to 

different surfaces radiating heat in varying amounts, create 

small areas of local circulation. For example, plowed ground, 

rocks, sand, and barren land give off a large amount of 

heat, while water, trees, and other areas of vegetation tend 

to absorb and retain heat. Convective currents cause the 

bumpy, turbulent air sometimes experienced when flying at 

lower altitudes during warmer weather. On a low altitude 

flight over varying surfaces, updrafts are likely to occur over 

pavement or barren places, and downdrafts often occur over 

water or expansive areas of vegetation like a group of trees. 

Typically, these turbulent conditions can be avoided by flying 

at higher altitudes.

Convective currents are particularly noticeable in areas with 

a land mass directly adjacent to a large body of water, such 

as an ocean, large lake, or other appreciable area of water. 

During the day, land heats faster than water, so the air over the 

land becomes warmer and less dense. It rises and is replaced 

by cooler, denser air flowing in from over the water. This 

causes an onshore wind, called a sea breeze. Conversely, at 

night land cools faster than water, as does the corresponding 

air. In this case, the warmer air over the water rises and is 

replaced by the cooler, denser air from the land, creating an 

offshore wind called a land breeze. This reverses the local 

wind circulation pattern. Convective currents can occur 

anywhere there is an uneven heating of the Earth’s surface. 

[Figure 4-14] 

Convection currents close to the ground can affect a pilot’s 

ability to control the balloon. On final approach, for example, 

the rising air from terrain devoid of vegetation sometimes 

produces a ballooning effect that can cause a pilot to overshoot 

the intended landing spot. On the other hand, an approach 

over a large body of water or an area of thick vegetation 

tends to create a sinking effect that can cause an unwary 

pilot to land short of the intended landing spot. This could 

prove particularly hazardous to a balloon landing in a small, 

confined area, as the “undershoot” of the approach could 

potentially put the balloon into the trees or power lines. 

The Jet Stream 

The jet stream refers to relatively strong winds concentrated 

in a narrow stream in the atmosphere. These winds are 

normally horizontal, high altitude winds. The position and 

orientation of jet streams vary from day to day. General 

weather patterns (hot/cold, wet/dry) are related closely to 

the position, strength, and orientation of the jet stream (or jet 

streams). A jet stream at low levels is known as a low level 

jet stream. Since it is of interest primarily to high level flight, 

further discussion is not necessary. 
4-14

Warm

Cool

Return flow

Land breeze

Warm

Cool

Return flow

Sea breeze

Figure 4-14. Land-sea breezes.

Local and Small-Scale Winds 

Gradient Winds

Pressure gradients initiate the movement of air and as soon 

as the air acquires velocity, the Coriolis force deflects it to 

the right in the Northern Hemisphere. As the speed of the air 

along the isobars increases, the Coriolis force becomes equal 

and opposite to the pressure gradient force. After a period of 

time, the air moves directly parallel to the curved isobars if 

there is no frictional drag with the surface. The air no longer 

moves toward lower pressure because the pressure gradient 

force is completely neutralized by the Coriolis force and the 

centrifugal force.

Orographic Winds

The term “orographic” has multiple meanings, when placed 

in the context of weather phenomena. In a general sense, 

according to the American Meteorological Society, wind 

flows that are caused, affected, or influenced by mountains 

may be said to be orographic winds flows. The term has 

come to mean any winds that are affected by terrain, not just 

mountains; this definition is probably the most frequently 

used, when discussing balloon flight.

As a specific term, “orographic lifting” is defined as an 

ascending air flow caused by mountains. The mechanisms 

that produce the orographic lifting fall into two broad 

categories:

1. The upward deflection of horizontal large-scale air 

flow by the terrain acting as an obstacle or barrier, 

or

2. The daytime heating of mountain surfaces to produce 

an anabatic flow (see below) along the slopes and 

updrafts in the vicinity of mountain peaks. 

This definition, while strictly referring only to lifting by 

mountains, is sometimes extended to include the effects 

of hills or long sloping terrain. When sufficient moisture 

is present in the rising air, Orographic fog or clouds may 

form. 

Anabatic Winds 

Anabatic winds are those that blow up a steep slope or 

mountain side. It is sometimes referred to as an upslope flow. 

These winds typically occur during the daytime in calm, 
4-15

International Cloud Classification

Abbreviations and Weather Map Symbols

Base Altitude Cloud Type Abbreviation Symbol

Bases of high

clouds usually

above 18,000

feet

Cirrus CI

Cirrocumulus CC

Cirrostratus CS

Altocumulus AC

Altostratus AS

* Cumulus CU

* Cumulonimbus Cb

Nimbostratus NS

Stratocumulus SC

Stratus St

Bases of middle

clouds range

from 6,500 feet

to 18,000 feet

Bases of low

clouds range

from surface

to 6,500 feet

* Cumulus and cumulonimbus are clouds with vertical 

development. Their bases are usually below 6,500 feet, but 

may be slightly higher. The tops of the cumulonimbus some 

times exceed 60,000 feet.

18,000 FT

6,500 FT

Surface

Figure 4-15. Cloud classification per international agreement.

sunny weather. A hill or mountaintop may be warmed by 

the sun, which in turn heats the air just above it. As that air 

rises through convection, it creates a low pressure region, 

into which the air at the bottom of the slope flows, and 

causes winds. 

Katabatic Winds 

Katabatic winds are the reverse of anabatic winds; that is, 

they flow down slope, and most frequently at night. They are 

created by the effect of the air near the ground losing heat 

thru radiational cooling at a faster rate than air at a similar 

altitude over the surrounding land mass.

Clouds

Clouds are weather signposts in the sky. They provide the 

balloon pilot with visible evidence of the atmospheric motion, 

water content, and degree of stability. In this sense, clouds 

are of significant importance to the aeronaut. However, when 

they become too numerous or widespread, form at low levels, 

or show extensive vertical development, they present weather 

hazards to ballooning.

Clouds are visible condensed moisture, consisting of droplets 

of water or crystals of ice. They are supported and transported 

by air movements as slow as one-tenth of a mile per hour. 

Cloud formation is the direct result of saturation producing 

processes which take place in the atmosphere. A pilot should 

be able to identify cloud formations that are associated with 

weather hazards. Knowledge of cloud types will also assist 

the pilot in interpreting weather conditions from weather 

reports and existing weather.

Cloud Formation

Clouds are often indicative of future weather. For clouds to 

form, there must be adequate water vapor and condensation 

nuclei (miniscule particles of matter like dust, salt, and 

smoke), as well as a method by which the air can be cooled. 

When the air cools and reaches its saturation point, the 

invisible water vapor changes into a visible state. Through 

the processes of sublimation and condensation, moisture 

condenses or sublimates onto condensation nuclei. The nuclei 

are important because they provide a means for the moisture 

to change from one state to another.

Cloud type is determined by its height, shape, and behavior. 

They are classified according to the height of their bases as 

low, middle, or high clouds, as well as clouds with vertical 

development. The International Cloud Classification is 

designed to provide a uniform cloud classification system. 

[Figure 4-15] Within this system, cloud types are usually 

divided into four major groups and further classified in terms 

of their forms and appearance. 

The four major groups are:

• Low clouds,

• Middle clouds,

• High clouds, and

• Clouds with vertical development.

Cloud classification can be further broken down into specific 

cloud types according to the outward appearance and cloud 

composition. Knowing these terms can help identify visible 

clouds. The following is a list of cloud classifications:

• Cumulus—heaped or piled clouds

• Stratus—formed in layers

• Cirrus—ringlets, fibrous clouds, also high-level clouds 

above 20,000 feet

• Castellanus—common base with separate vertical 

development, castle-like

• Lenticularus—lens shaped, formed over mountains in 

strong winds

• Nimbus—rain-bearing clouds

• Fracto—ragged or broken

• Alto—meaning high, also middle-level clouds existing 

at 5,000 to 20,000 feet
4-16

Figure 4-16. Stratus clouds.

Figure 4-17. Stratocumulus clouds. Figure 4-18. Altocumulus clouds.

Low clouds are those that form near the Earth’s surface. The 

low cloud group consists of stratus and stratocumulus clouds. 

[Figures 4-16 and 4-17] Clouds in this family create low 

ceilings, hamper visibility, and can change rapidly. Because 

of this, they influence flight planning and can make visual 

flight rules (VFR) flight impossible. The bases of these 

clouds can start near the surface, with the top extending 

to 6,500 feet or more above the terrain. Low clouds are of 

great importance to the balloon pilot, as they can create low 

ceilings and poor visibility. The heights of the cloud bases 

may change rapidly. If low clouds form below 50 feet, they 

are classified as fog, and may completely blanket landmarks 

and landing fields.

Middle clouds form around 6,500 feet above ground level 

(AGL) and extend up to 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of 

water, ice crystals, and supercooled water droplets. The middle 

cloud group consists of altocumulus [Figure 4-18], altostratus, 

and nimbostratus [Figure 4-19] clouds. Altocumulus clouds, 

which usually form when altostratus clouds are breaking 

apart, also may contain light turbulence and icing. Altostratus 

clouds can produce turbulence and may contain moderate 

icing. The altocumulus has many variations in appearance and 

formation, whereas the altostratus varies mostly in thickness, 

from very thin to several thousand feet. Bases of the middle 

clouds start as low as 6,500 feet and tops can range as high as 

20,000 feet above the terrain. These clouds may be composed 

of ice crystals or water droplets (which may be supercooled). 

Altocumulus rarely produces precipitation, but altostratus 

usually indicates the proximity of unfavorable flying weather 

and precipitation.

High clouds form above 20,000 feet AGL and usually form 

only in stable air. The high cloud group consists of cirrus, 

cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus clouds. The mean base level of 

these three cloud types starts at 18,000 feet or higher above 

terrain. Cirrus clouds [Figure 4-20] may give indications of 

approaching weather changes. Cirriform clouds are composed 

of ice crystals, are generally thin, and the outline of the sun 

or moon may sometimes be seen through them, producing 

a halo or corona effect. High clouds are generally of no 

interest to the balloon pilot, other than they may indicate 

future conditions. 
4-17

Figure 4-19. Nimbostratus clouds.

Figure 4-20. Cirrus clouds.

Clouds with extensive vertical development are cumulus 

clouds that build vertically into towering cumulus or 

cumulonimbus clouds, often developing into thunderstorms. 

The bases of these clouds form in the low to middle cloud 

region, but can extend into high altitude cloud levels. 

Towering cumulus clouds indicate areas of instability in the 

atmosphere, and the air around and inside them is turbulent. 

These clouds generally have their bases below 6,500 feet 

above the terrain and tops sometimes extend above 60,000 

feet. Clouds with extensive vertical development are caused 

by lifting action, such as convective currents, orographic lift, 

or frontal lift. 

Scattered cumulus or isolated cumulonimbus clouds seldom 

present a flight problem, since these clouds can usually be 

circumnavigated without difficulty. However, these clouds 

may rapidly develop in groups or lines of cumulonimbus. 

They may also become embedded and hidden in stratiform 

clouds, resulting in hazardous flight conditions. 

Within the high, middle, and low cloud groups are two main 

subdivisions. These are:

• Clouds formed when localized vertical currents carry 

moist air upward to the condensation level. These 

vertical development clouds are characterized by 

their lumpy or billowy appearance, and are designated 

cumuliform type clouds, meaning “accumulation” or 

“heap.” Turbulent flying conditions usually exist in, 

below, around, and above cumuliform clouds.

• Clouds formed when complete layers of air are cooled 

until condensation takes place. These clouds are 

stratiform type clouds, meaning “layered out,” since 

they lie mostly in horizontal layers or sheets. Flight 

in stratiform cloud conditions is usually smooth.

In addition to the two main subdivisions discussed above, 

is the word nimbus, meaning “rain cloud.” These clouds 

normally produce heavy precipitation, either liquid or solid. 

For example, a stratiform cloud producing precipitation is 

referred to as nimbostratus, and a heavy, swelling cumulus 

cloud that has grown into a thunderstorm is referred to as 

cumulonimbus. 

Cumulonimbus clouds contain large amounts of moisture 

and unstable air, and usually produce hazardous weather 

phenomena such as lightning, hail, tornadoes, gusty winds, 

and wind shear. These extensive vertical clouds can be 

obscured by other cloud formations and are not always visible 

from the ground or while in flight. When this happens, these 

clouds are said to be embedded, hence the term, embedded 

thunderstorms.

To pilots, the cumulonimbus cloud is perhaps the most 

dangerous cloud type. It appears individually or in groups and 

is known as either an air mass or orographic thunderstorm. 

Heating of the air near the Earth’s surface creates an air mass 

thunderstorm; the upslope motion of air in the mountainous 

regions causes orographic thunderstorms. Cumulonimbus 

clouds that form in a continuous line are nonfrontal bands 

of thunderstorms or squall lines.

Knowledge of principal cloud types and the factors that affect 

them helps the pilot visualize expected weather conditions, 

and to recognize potential weather hazards.
4-18

Ceilings and Visibilities

Ceilings and visibilities have an important role in the 

classification of sky conditions, and are critical for the 

definition of flight restrictions. It is necessary to define these 

terms to make those distinctions clear for the balloon pilot.

Ceiling

For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of clouds 

reported as being broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility 

into an obscuration like fog or haze. 

Observations are made using the concept of the “celestial 

dome,” the hemisphere of sky which can be seen from a 

specific point on the ground. Cloud coverage is reported 

as the total cloud cover at and below a specific layer, and 

is reported in one-eighth increments (octals). A ceiling is 

reported as broken when five-eighths to seven-eighths of the 

sky is covered with clouds. Overcast means the entire sky is 

covered with clouds.

Current ceiling information is reported by the aviation routine 

weather report (METAR) and automated weather stations of 

various types. Ceilings are reported in height AGL.

Visibility

Closely related to cloud cover and reported ceilings is 

visibility information. Visibility refers to the greatest 

horizontal distance at which prominent objects can be 

viewed with the naked eye. Visibilities reported in standard 

weather reports are horizontal surface visibilities and are 

generally considered linear. Predominant visibility is the 

greatest horizontal distance over which objects can be seen 

and identified over at least half of the horizon. In the United 

States, prevailing visibilities are reported in statute miles 

and portions thereof. 

Since prevailing visibility is used for reporting purposes, 

three miles visibility does not mean that a pilot must have 

one and one half miles visibility in front of and behind the 

balloon, but that the predominant visibility in most quadrants 

must be three miles. 

Current visibility is reported in METAR and other aviation 

weather reports, as well as automated weather stations. 

Visibility information is available during a preflight weather 

briefing.

Temperature/Dew Point Relationship

The relationship between dew point and temperature defines 

the concept of relative humidity. The dew point, given in 

degrees, is the temperature at which the air can hold no 

more moisture. When the temperature of the air is reduced 

to the dew point, the air is completely saturated and moisture 

begins to condense out of the air in the form of fog, dew, 

frost, clouds, rain, hail, or snow.

As moist, unstable air rises, clouds often form at the altitude 

where temperature and dew point reach the same value. When 

lifted, unsaturated air cools at a rate of 5.4 °F per 1,000 feet 

and the dew point temperature decreases at a rate of 1 °F 

per 1,000 feet. This results in a convergence of temperature 

and dew point at a rate of 4.4 °F. A pilot can determine the 

height of the cloud base by applying the convergence rate 

to the reported temperature and dew point in the following 

manner:

Temperature (T) = 85 °F

Dew point (DP) = 71 °F

Convergence Rate (CR) = 4.4°

T – DP = Temperature Dew Point Spread (TDS)

TDS ÷ CR = X

X x 1,000 feet = height of cloud base AGL

Example:

85 °F – 71 °F = 14 °F

14 °F ÷ 4.4 °F = 3.18

3.18 x 1,000 = 3,180 feet AGL

The height of the cloud base is 3,180 feet AGL.

Explanation:

With an outside air temperature (OAT) of 85 °F at the surface, 

and dew point at the surface of 71 °F, the spread is 14 °F. 

Divide the temperature dew point spread by the convergence 

rate of 4.4 °F, and multiply by 1,000 to determine the 

approximate height of the cloud base.

This relationship is useful in determining the height 

of the overlying cloud base when completing preflight 

preparations.

Fog

Fog is a cloud that begins within 50 feet of the surface. It 

typically occurs when the temperature of air near the ground 

is cooled to the air’s dew point. At this point, water vapor in 

the air condenses and becomes visible in the form of fog. Fog 

is classified according to the manner in which it forms and 

is dependent upon the current temperature and the amount 

of water vapor in the air.

Fog is composed of minute droplets of water or ice crystals 

suspended in the atmosphere with no visible downward 

motion. It is one of the most common and persistent weather 

hazards encountered by balloonists. Similar to stratus clouds, 

the base of fog is at the Earth’s surface while the base of 
4-19

a cloud is at least 50 feet above the surface. Fog may be 

distinguished from haze by its dampness and gray color. It is 

hazardous during takeoffs and landings, as well as the inflight 

process, because it restricts surface visibility. Knowledge of 

fog formation and dissipation processes, as well as types of 

fog help the balloon pilot plan a flight more accurately.

Fog Formation

Since neither condensation nor sublimation occurs unless 

the relative humidity is near 100 percent, a high relative 

humidity is of prime importance in the formation of fog. The 

natural conditions which bring about a high relative humidity 

(saturation) are also fog-producing processes, such as the 

evaporation of additional moisture into the air or cooling of the 

air to its dew point temperature. A high relative humidity can 

be estimated, from hourly sequence reports, by determining the 

spread (difference in degrees) between the temperature and dew 

point. Fog rarely occurs when the spread is more than 2.2 °C. 

It is most frequent when the spread is less than 1.1 °C.

A light wind is generally favorable for fog formation. It causes 

a gentle mixing action, which spreads surface cooling through 

a deeper layer of air and increases the thickness of the fog.

Although most regions of the Earth have sufficient 

condensation nuclei to permit fog formation, the amount of 

smoke particles and sulphur compounds in the vicinity of 

industrial areas is pronounced. In these regions, persistent 

fog may occur with above average temperature-dew point 

spreads.

Fog tends to dissipate when the relative humidity decreases. 

During this decrease, the water droplets evaporate or ice 

crystals undergo sublimation, and the moisture is no longer 

visible. Either strong winds or heating processes may cause 

the decrease in relative humidity.

Some Fog Types and Characteristics

Radiation Fog

Radiation fog forms after the Earth has radiated back to the 

atmosphere the heat gained during daylight hours. By early 

morning, the temperature at the surface may drop more than 

11 °C. Since the dew point temperature (moisture content) of 

the air normally changes only a few degrees during the night, the 

temperature-dew point spread will decrease as the air is cooled 

by contact with the cold surface. If the radiational cooling is 

sufficient, and other conditions are favorable, radiation fog 

will form. Radiation fog is most likely when the: 

• Sky is clear (maximum radiational cooling).

• Moisture content is high (narrow temperature-dew 

point spread).

• Wind is light (less than 7 knots).

Advection Fog 

The movement of warm moist air over a colder surface creates 

advection fog which is common along coastal regions where 

the temperature of the land surface and the water surface 

contrasts. The southeastern area of the United States provides 

ideal conditions for advection fog formation during the winter 

months. If air flows (advection) from the Gulf of Mexico or 

the Atlantic Ocean over the colder continent, this warm air 

is cooled by contact with the cold ground. If the temperature 

of the air is lowered to the dew point temperature, fog will 

form. Advection fog, forming under these conditions, may 

extend over larger areas of the nation east of the Rockies. It 

may persist throughout the day or night until replaced by a 

drier air mass.

If advection fog forms over water, it is often referred to as 

sea fog. Cold ocean currents, such as those off the coast of 

California, may cool and saturate moist air coming from the 

warmer areas of the open sea. Sea fog is often dense offshore, 

as well as onshore.

As advection fog moves inland during the winter, the colder 

land surface often causes sufficient contact cooling to keep 

the air saturated. The fog may then persist during the day or 

with a wind speed of 10 to 15 knots.

Valley Fog

During the evening hours, cold dense air will drain from 

areas of higher elevation into low areas of valleys. As the 

cool air accumulates in the valleys, the air temperature may 

decrease to the dew point temperature, causing a dense 

formation of valley fog. While higher elevations may often 

remain clear throughout the night, the ceiling and visibility 

become restricted in the valley.

Evaporation Fog

Fog formed by the addition of moisture to the air is called 

evaporation fog. The major types of evaporation fog are 

frontal fog and steam fog.

Frontal fog is normally associated with slow-moving winter 

frontal systems. Frontal fog forms when liquid precipitation, 

falling from the maritime tropical air above the frontal 

surface, evaporates in the polar air below the frontal surface. 

Evaporation from the falling drops may add sufficient water 

vapor to the cold air to raise the dew point temperature to the 

temperature of the air. The cold air will then be saturated, 

and frontal fog will form. Frontal fog is common with active 

warm fronts during all seasons. It occurs ahead of the surface 

front in an area approximately 100 miles wide. It is, therefore, 

frequently mixed with intermittent rain or drizzle. When fog 

forms ahead of the warm front, it is called prefrontal fog. 

A similar fog formation may occur in the polar air along a 
4-20

stationary front. Occasionally, a slow-moving winter cold 

front with light wind may generate fog. This fog forms 

in the polar air behind the surface front and is known as 

postfrontal fog.

Steam fog forms when cold stable air flows over a nonfrozen 

water surface that is several degrees warmer than the air. The 

intense evaporation of moisture into the cold air saturates the 

air and produces fog. Conditions favorable for steam fog are 

common over lakes and rivers in the fall and over the ocean 

in the winter when an offshore wind is blowing.

Atmospheric Stability and Instability

A stable atmosphere resists upward or downward movement, 

and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear. 

An unstable atmosphere allows an upward or downward 

disturbance to grow into a vertical or convective current 

allowing small vertical air movements to become larger, 

resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity. 

Instability can lead to significant turbulence, extensive 

vertical clouds, and severe weather.

Rising air expands and cools due to the decrease in air 

pressure as altitude increases. The opposite is true of 

descending air; as atmospheric pressure increases, the 

temperature of descending air increases as it is compressed. 

This adiabatic process (heating or cooling) takes place in all 

upward and downward moving air. 

When air rises into an area of lower pressure, it expands 

to a larger volume. As the molecules of air expand, the 

temperature of the air lowers. As a result, when a parcel of air 

rises, pressure decreases, volume increases, and temperature 

decreases. When air descends, the opposite is true. 

Since water vapor is lighter than air, moisture decreases air 

density, causing it to rise. Conversely, as moisture decreases, 

air becomes denser and tends to sink. Since moist air cools 

at a slower rate, it is generally less stable than dry air since 

the moist air must rise higher before its temperature cools 

to that of the surrounding air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate 

(unsaturated air) is 3 °C (5.4 °F) per 1,000 feet. The moist 

adiabatic lapse rate varies from 1.1 °C to 2.8 °C (2 °F to 5 °F) 

per 1,000 feet. The combination of moisture and temperature 

determine the stability of the air and the resulting weather. 

Cool, dry air is very stable and resists vertical movement, 

which leads to good and generally clear weather. The greatest 

instability occurs when the air is moist and warm, as it is in 

the tropical regions in the summer. Typically, thunderstorms 

appear on a daily basis in these regions due to the instability 

of the surrounding air.

The normal flow of air tends to be horizontal. If this flow 

is disturbed, a stable atmosphere will resist any upward or 

downward displacement. It will tend to return quickly to 

normal horizontal flow. An unstable atmosphere, on the other 

hand, will allow these upward and downward disturbances 

to grow, resulting in rough (turbulent) air. An example is the 

towering thunderstorm which grows as a result of large and 

intensive vertical movement or air. It climaxes in lightning, 

thunder, and heavy precipitation, sometimes including hail. 

Atmospheric resistance to vertical motion, called stability, 

depends upon the vertical distribution of the air’s weight at 

a particular time. The weight varies with air temperature and 

moisture content. In comparing two parcels of air, warmer air 

is lighter than colder air, and moist air is lighter than dry air. 

If air is relatively warmer or moister that its surroundings, 

it is forced to rise and would be unstable. If the air is colder 

or dryer than its surroundings, it will sink until it reaches its 

equilibrium, and would be stable. The atmosphere can be at 

equilibrium only when light air is above heavier air.

Temperature has a significant effect on the stability or 

instability of the air mass. Air heated near the Earth’s surface 

on a hot summer day will rise. The speed and vertical extent 

of its travel depends on the temperature distribution of the 

atmosphere. Vertical air currents, resulting from the rise of 

air, can vary from the severe downdraft and compensating 

downdraft associated with thunderstorms to the closely 

spaced upward and downward bumps that are felt on warm 

days when flying at low levels. Since the temperature of air 

is an indication of its density, a comparison of temperatures 

from one level to another can approximate the degree of the 

atmosphere’s stability, or how much it will tend to resist 

vertical motion. 

Types of Stability

The five types of atmospheric stability are:

• Absolute stability

• Absolute instability

• Conditional instability

• Neutral stability

• Convective stability

Absolute stability occurs when the actual lapse rate in a 

layer of air is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate; that 

air is absolutely stable regardless of the amount of moisture 

it contains. A parcel of absolutely stable air which is lifted 

becomes cooler than the surrounding air and sinks back to 

its original position as soon as the lifting force is removed. 
4-21

Similarly, if forced to descend, it becomes warmer than the 

surrounding air; like a cork in water, it rises to its original 

position upon removal of the outside force.

Absolute instability exists when the actual lapse rate in 

a layer of air is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate; 

that air is absolutely unstable regardless of the amount of 

moisture it contains. A parcel of air lifted even slightly will 

immediately be warmer than its surroundings, and, as with 

a hot air balloon, will be forced to rise.

Conditional instability exists when the temperature lapse rate 

of the air involved lies between the moist and dry adiabatic 

rates of cooling. Before the displaced air actually becomes 

unstable, it must be lifted to a point where it is warmer than 

the surrounding air. When this point has been reached, the 

relatively warmer air continues to rise freely until, at some 

higher altitude, its temperature has cooled to the temperature 

of the surrounding air. In the instability process, numerous 

variables tend to modify the air. One of the most important 

of these variables is the process called entrainment. In this 

process, air adjacent to the cumulus or mature thunderstorm 

is drawn into the cloud primarily by strong updrafts within 

the cloud. The entrained air modifies the temperature of the 

air within the cloud as the two become mixed.

Neutrally stable air is air with the same temperature, and there 

is no parcel to rise or descend. For example, the surface area 

in contact with that air is of the same temperature.

The term convective instability refers to a condition in 

which the air becomes unstable after lifting. From a physical 

standpoint, it closely resembles a conditionally unstable 

air mass, but has the mechanical lifting of thermal activity 

impacting on the overall characteristics of the air.

Effects of Stable and Unstable Air

The degree of stability of the atmosphere helps to determine 

the type of clouds formed, if any. For example, if very 

stable air is forced to ascend a mountain slope, clouds will 

be layer-like with little vertical development and little or no 

turbulence. Unstable air, if forced to ascend the slope, would 

cause considerable vertical development and turbulence in 

the cumulus-type clouds.

If air is subsiding (sinking), the heat of compression 

frequently causes an inversion of temperature which increases 

the stability of the subsiding air. When this occurs, as in 

winter high pressure systems, a surface inversion formed 

by radiational cooling is sometimes already present. The 

subsidence-produced inversion, in this case, will intensify 

the surface inversion, placing a strong “lid” above smoke and 

haze. Poor visibility in the lower levels of the atmosphere 

results, especially near industrial areas. Such conditions 

frequently persist for days, notably in the Great Basin region 

of the western United States.

Weather Hazards

Turbulence 

Turbulence is the irregular motion of the atmosphere as 

indicated by gusts and lulls in the wind. Since turbulence is 

associated with many different weather situations, knowledge 

of its causes and its behavior will help a balloon pilot avoid 

or minimize its effects.

Turbulence can be divided into four categories according to 

the specific causes:

• Thermal—caused by localized convective currents due 

to surface heating or unstable lapse rates and cold air 

moving over warmer ground or water

• Mechanical—resulting from wind flowing over 

irregular terrain or obstructions

• Frontal—resulting from the local lifting of warm air 

by cold air masses, or the abrupt wind shift (shear) 

associated with most cold fronts

• Wind shear—marked gradient in wind speed and/or 

direction due to general vibrations in the temperature 

and pressure fields aloft

Two or more of the above causative factors often work 

together. In addition, turbulence is produced by manmade 

phenomena.

Thermal

A thermal is simply the updraft in a small-scale convective 

current. Convective currents (vertical or horizontal air 

movements) develop in air, which is heated by contact with 

a warm surface. This heating from below occurs when either 

cold air is advected (moved horizontally) over a warmer 

surface or the ground is strongly heated by solar radiation.

The strength of convective currents depends in part on the 

extent to which the Earth’s surface has been heated, which 

depends upon the nature of the surface. Barren surfaces, such 

as sandy or rocky wasteland and plowed fields, are heated 

more rapidly than surfaces covered in vegetation. Thus, 

barren surfaces generally cause stronger convection currents. 

In comparison, water surfaces are heated more slowly. 

When air is very dry, convective currents may be present 

although convective-type clouds (cumulus) are absent. The 

general upper limits of the convective currents are often 

marked by the tops of cumulus clouds, which form in them 

when the air is moist, or by haze lines. However, turbulence 
4-22

Figure 4-21. Surface obstructions cause eddies and other irregular 

air movements.

may extend beyond this boundary. Varying types of surfaces, 

and the resultant thermal conditions, can affect a balloon to 

a considerable extent. 

The balloon pilot caught in a thermal will recognize the 

condition by an increase in altitude without application of 

heat from the balloon’s heater. This ascent can be rapid and 

may exceed the maximum rate of climb limitations in the 

balloon’s flight manual. Since the air mass is also rising with 

the balloon, there is no significant pressure against the top 

of the balloon. Thus, the top cap will not be pushed open 

(commonly referred to as “floating the top”). 

Depending on their size, some thermals may have a rotative 

motion similar to a small low pressure system. This motion 

draws the balloon in and forces it to fly in an uncontrolled 

circle. For balloons caught in a thermal, remember the adage 

“altitude is your friend.” First, the pilot should insure there 

is sufficient altitude to clear potential obstacles. Second, 

maintain the temperature in the balloon appropriate for level 

flight. Many pilots attempt to descend immediately, but this 

may put the balloon, as well as the passengers, at risk of an 

uncontrolled descent with possible injury. Most thermals 

have a short lift span. In almost all cases, the thermal will 

“spit” the balloon out the top after a short time, and the pilot 

may descend and land as necessary.

Mechanical

When the air near the surface of the Earth flows over 

obstructions, such as irregular terrain, (bluffs, hills, 

mountains) and buildings, the normal horizontal wind flow 

is disturbed. As a result, it is transformed into eddies or 

other irregular air movements. Figure 4-21 shows how the 

buildings or other obstructions near a launch site or landing 

field can cause turbulence. 

The strength and magnitude of mechanical turbulence 

depends on: 

• The speed of the wind,

• The nature of the obstruction,

• The stability of the air, and

• The angle at which the wind moves over the 

obstacle.

Stability seems to be the most important factor in 

determining the strength and vertical extent of the mechanical 

turbulence.

Frontal

Frontal turbulence is cause by the lifting of warm air by a 

frontal surface, leading to instability and/or the mixing or 

shear between the warm and cold air masses. The vertical 

currents in the warm air are strongest when the warm air 

is moist and unstable. The most severe cases of frontal 

turbulence are generally associated with fast moving cold 

fronts. In these cases, mixing between the two air masses, 

as well as the differences in wind speed and/or direction add 

to the intensity of the turbulence. 

Wind Shear

Wind shear is a relatively steep gradient in wind velocity 

along a given line of direction (either vertical or horizontal) 

and produces churning motions (eddies) which result in 

turbulence. The greater the change of wind speed and/or 

direction in the given direction, the greater the shear and 

associated turbulence. 

Clear-air turbulence (CAT), or sudden severe turbulence 

that occurs in cloudless regions, is associated with wind 

shear, particularly between the core of a jet stream and the 

surrounding air. CAT is not limited to the vicinity of the jet 

stream and may occur in isolated regions of the atmosphere. 

For example, the turbulence in a mountain wave can also 

be classified as CAT because the identifying clouds in the 
4-23

wave do not necessarily have to occur for the turbulence to 

be present.

Sometimes during a climb or descent, a balloon encounters a 

narrow zone of wind shear with its accompanying turbulence 

at the top of a temperature inversion. These inversions occur 

anywhere from just above the surface to the tropopause.

Strong inversions near the ground are an extreme form of 

wind shear that adversely affect balloon takeoffs and landings. 

For example, a pocket of calm, cold air forms in a valley as a 

result of nighttime cooling, but the warmer air moving over 

it has not been affected appreciably. Due to the difference 

between the two bodies of air, a narrow layer of very turbulent 

air may form. A balloon climbing or descending through this 

zone will usually encounter considerable turbulence, as well 

as changes in lift.

Low Level Wind Shear

Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in windspeed and/or 

direction over a very small area. Wind shear can subject a 

balloon to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt 

changes to the horizontal movement of the balloon. While 

wind shear can occur at any altitude, low level wind shear is 

especially hazardous due to the proximity of a balloon to the 

ground. Directional wind changes of 180° and speed changes 

of 50 knots or more are associated with low level wind shear. 

Low level wind shear is commonly associated with passing 

frontal systems, thunderstorms, and temperature inversions 

with strong upper level winds (greater than 25 knots).

Wind shear is hazardous to a balloon for several reasons. 

The rapid changes in wind direction and velocity changes 

the wind’s relation to the balloon disrupting the normal flight 

attitude and performance of the balloon.

Obstructions and Wind

As mentioned earlier, obstructions on the ground affect 

the flow of wind and can be an unseen danger, causing yet 

another atmospheric hazard for pilots. For example, ground 

topography and large buildings can break up the flow of the 

wind and create wind gusts that change rapidly in direction 

and speed. Obstructions range from manmade structures, such 

as hangars, to large natural obstructions, such as mountains, 

bluffs, or canyons. A safe pilot is vigilant when flying in or 

out of launch or landing sites that have large buildings or 

natural obstructions located near them.

The intensity of the turbulence associated with ground 

obstructions depends on the size of the obstacle and the 

primary velocity of the wind. This can affect the takeoff 

and landing performance of a balloon, and can present a 

very serious hazard. During the landing phase of flight, a 

balloon may “drop in” due to the turbulent air and be too 

low to clear obstacles during the approach. Disrupted airflow 

often extends horizontally as much as ten times the height 

of the object, if the winds are in the eight to ten knot range. 

Balloon pilots should be aware of this, and make adjustments 

accordingly when attempting to launch next to an obstruction, 

or when landing just past one. 

This same condition is even more noticeable when flying 

in mountainous regions. While the wind flows smoothly up 

the windward side of the mountain and the upward currents 

help to carry an aircraft over the peak of the mountain, the 

wind on the leeward side does not act in a similar manner. 

As the air flows down the leeward side of the mountain, 

the air follows the contour of the terrain and is increasingly 

turbulent. This tends to push an aircraft into the side of a 

mountain. The stronger the wind, the greater the downward 

pressure and turbulence become.

Due to the effect terrain has on the wind in valleys or canyons, 

downdrafts may be severe. Thus, a prudent balloonist is well 

advised to seek out another balloon pilot with mountain flying 

experience and get a mountain “checkout” before conducting 

a flight in or near mountainous terrain.

Mountain Wave

A mountain wave is the wavelike effect, characterized by 

updrafts and downdrafts, that occurs above and behind 

a mountain range when rapidly flowing air encounters 

the mountain range’s steep front. The characteristics of a 

typical mountain wave are represented in Figure 4-22 which 

illustrates how air flows with relative smoothness in its lifting 

component as the wave current moves along the windward 

side of the mountain. Wind speed gradually increases, 

reaching a maximum near the summit. On passing the crest, 

the flow breaks into a much more complicated pattern, with 

downdrafts predominating. 

An indication of the possible intensities in the mountain wave 

is reflected in verified records of sustained downdrafts and 

updrafts in excess of 3,000 feet per minute (fpm). Turbulence 

in varying degrees can be expected, with particularly severe 

turbulence in the lower levels. Proceeding downwind 5 to 

10 miles from the summit, the airflow begins to ascend as 

part of a definite wave pattern. Additional waves, generally 

less intense than the primary wave, may form downwind. 

This event is much like the series of ripples that form 

downstream from a rock submerged in a swiftly flowing 

river. The distance between successive waves (wavelength) 

usually ranges from 2 to 10 miles, depending on existing 

wind speed and atmospheric stability, although waves up to 

20 miles apart have been reported. 
4-24

Figure 4-23. Multiple lenticular clouds over Mount Shasta, 

California.

Rotor turbulence

Breaking wave

Figure 4-22. Characteristics of a mountain wave.

Characteristic cloud forms peculiar to wave action provide 

the best means of identification. Lenticular clouds, formed by 

mountain waves, are smooth in contour. [Figure 4-23] These 

clouds may occur alone or in layers at heights above 20,000 

feet MSL, and be quite ragged when the airflow at that level 

is turbulent. The roll cloud forms at a lower level, generally 

near the height of the mountain ridge. The cap cloud must 

always be avoided in flight because of turbulence, concealed 

mountain peaks, and strong downdrafts on the lee slope. The 

lenticulars, like the roll and cap clouds, are stationary. They 

are constantly forming on the windward side and dissipating 

on the lee side of the mountain wave. 

Rotors

Rotors or eddies can also be found embedded in mountain 

waves. Formation of rotors can also occur as a result of down 

slope winds. Their formation usually occurs where wind 

speeds change in a wave or where friction slows the wind 

near the ground. These rotors are often experienced as gusts 

or wind shear. Clouds may also form within a rotor.

Research on mountain waves and rotors or eddies continues, 

but there is no doubt that pilots need to be aware of these 

phenomena and take appropriate precautions. Although 

mountain wave activity is normally forecast, many local 

factors may affect the formation of rotors and eddies. When 

planning a flight, a pilot should take note of the winds and 

terrain to assess the likelihood of waves and rotors. There may 

be telltale signs in flight, including disturbances on water or 

wheat fields and the formation of clouds, provided there is 

sufficient humidity to allow cloud formation.

Thunderstorms

A thunderstorm is a local storm produced by a cumulonimbus 

cloud and accompanied by lightning and thunder. 

Thunderstorms and cumulonimbus clouds contain many 

of the most severe atmospheric hazards for the balloon 

pilot. They are almost always accompanied by strong gusty 

winds, severe turbulence, heavy rain showers, and lightning. 

These hazards may extend well away from the central core 

of the thunderstorm mass, sometimes as much as 30 miles 

or more.

Ceilings and visibility in the precipitation areas under the 

thunderstorms are normally poor. Because of the heavy 

precipitation, the ceiling reported is at best an estimate 

of where the pilot may break out into visual contact with 

the surface. The weather observer determines the vertical 

visibility into the precipitation, which may be significantly 

different from the slant-range of the pilot. 

Potentially hazardous turbulence, as well as many other 

hazards associated with thunderstorms, make a thunderstorm 

a dangerous weather formation. The safe balloon pilot avoids 

any conditions that may expose him or her to potential 

thunderstorm activity. He or she exercises discretion and good 

judgment when potential thunderstorm conditions exist.
4-25

Figure 4-24. Congestive cumulus cloud.

Figure 4-25. Mature thunderstorm.

Structure of Thunderstorms

Convective Cells

The fundamental structural element of the thunderstorm is 

the unit of convective circulation known as a convective cell. 

A mature thunderstorm contains one or more of these cells 

in different stages of development, each varying in diameter 

from one to five miles. By radar analysis and measurement 

of drafts, it has been determined that each cell is generally 

independent of surrounding cells in the same storm. Each 

thunderstorm progresses through a life cycle from 1 to 3 

hours, depending upon the number of cells contained and 

their stage of development. In the initial stage (cumulus), the 

cloud consists of a single cell. As the development progresses, 

however, new cells may form as older cells dissipate.

Stages in Thunderstorm Development

The life cycle of each thunderstorm cell consists of three 

distinct stages:

• Cumulus,

• Mature, and

• Dissipating.

Cumulus Stage

Although most cumulus clouds do not become thunderstorms, 

the initial stage of a thunderstorm is always a cumulus cloud. 

[Figure 4-24] The chief distinguishing feature of the cumulus 

or building stage is an updraft that prevails throughout the 

entire cell. This updraft may vary from a few feet per second 

to as much as 6,000 fpm (65 knots) in mature cells. As an 

updraft continues through the vertical extent of the cell, water 

droplets grow in size and raindrops are formed. 

Mature Stage

The beginning of surface rain and adjacent updrafts and 

downdrafts initiates the mature stage. [Figure 4-25] By this 

time, the average cell has attained a height of 25,000 feet. As 

the drops begin to fall, the surrounding air begins a downward 

motion because of frictional drag. This descending air will be 

colder that its surroundings and its rate of downward motion 

is accelerated, forming the downdraft. The downdraft reaches 

maximum speed a short time after rain begins to fall in the 

cloud. Downdrafts occur at all levels within the storm, and 

their speed ranges from a few feet per minute to about 2,500 

fpm (25 knots). Significant downdrafts never extend from 

the top of the cell because moisture is not sufficient in the 

upper levels for raindrops to form. At these high levels, only 

ice crystals, snowflakes, and supercooled water are present. 

Therefore, their rate of fall is insufficient to cause appreciable 

downdrafts. The mature cell generally extends far above 

25,000 feet—in some cases up to 70,000 feet. In the middle 

levels, around 14,000 feet, strong updrafts and downdrafts are 

adjacent to each other. A shear action exists between these 

drafts and produces strong and frequent gusts. 

Dissipating or Anvil Stage

Throughout the life span of the mature cell, more and more 

air aloft is entrained by the falling raindrops. Consequently, 

the downdraft spreads out to take the place of the weakening 

updrafts. As this process progresses, the entire lower 

portion of the cell becomes an area of downdraft. Since 

updrafts are necessary to produce condensation and release 

latent heat energy, the entire structure begins to dissipate. 
4-26

Figure 4-26. Dissipating thunderstorm.

[Figure 4-26] The strong winds aloft carry the upper section 

of the cloud into the familiar anvil form (cumulonimbus 

cloud). However, the appearance of the anvil does not always 

indicate that the thunderstorm is dissipating.

A significant thunderstorm hazard is the rapid change in 

wind direction and wind speed immediately prior to storm 

passage at the surface. These strong winds are the result of 

the horizontal spreading of the storm’s downdraft current 

as they approach the surface of the earth. This initial wind 

surge, as observed at the surface, is known as a first gust. The 

speed of this first gust may exceed 75 knots and vary 180° in 

direction from the previously prevailing surface winds. Firstgust speeds average about 15 knots over prevailing velocities, 

and average an approximately 40° change in the direction of 

the wind. First gusts usually precede the heavy precipitation, 

and strong gusts may continue for approximately 5 to 10 

minutes with each thunderstorm cell. First gusts are not 

limited to the area ahead of the storm’s movement. They 

may be found in all sectors, including the area back of the 

storm’s movement.

During the passage of a thunderstorm, rapid and marked 

surface variations generally occur. These variations usually 

occur in a particular sequence characterized by: 

• An abrupt fall in pressure as the storm approaches.

• An abrupt rise in pressure associated with rain showers 

as the storm moves on and the rain ceases.

All thunderstorms are similar in physical makeup, but for 

purposes of identification they are divided into two general 

groups: frontal and air mass. This division gives the balloon 

pilot an indication of the method by which the storms are 

formed and the distribution of the clouds over the area. The 

specific nomenclature of these thunderstorms depends upon 

the manner in which the lifting action occurs.

Frontal Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms may occur within the cloud system of any front: 

warm, cold, stationary, or occluded. Frontal thunderstorms 

are caused by the lifting of warm, moist, conditionally 

unstable air over a frontal surface. Thunderstorms may also 

occur many miles ahead of a rapidly moving cold front, and 

are called prefrontal or squall line thunderstorms. 

Warm front thunderstorms are caused when warm, moist, 

conditionally unstable air is forced aloft over a colder, denser 

shelf of retreating air. Because the frontal surface is shallow, 

the air is lifted gradually. The lifting condensation level is 

normally reached long before the level of free convection, 

thus producing stratiform clouds. The level of free convection 

is normally reached in isolated areas along the frontal surface. 

This is the area where the greatest amount of water vapor is 

present in the warm air being lifted. Therefore, warm front 

thunderstorms are generally scattered. When the level of free 

convection is reached, warm front thunderstorms may form. 

These thunderstorms may prove particularly hazardous, as 

they are frequently obscured by the surrounding stratiform 

clouds. 

Cold front thunderstorms are caused by the forward motion of 

a wedge of cold air under a mass of warm, moist, conditionally 

unstable air (cold front), increasing the possibility for 

thunderstorms to develop. The slope of a typical cold frontal 

surface is relatively steep, so the lifting condensation level 

and the level of free convection are usually near the same 

altitude. Cold front thunderstorms are typically positioned 

along the frontal surface in what appears to be a continuous 

line. These storms are easily recognized from the air, because 

they are partly visible from the front and rear of the storm 

line. However, if the slope of the frontal surface is shallow, 

the lifting action is not sufficient to produce thunderstorms in 

lines (line squalls). With a shallow front, the thunderstorms 

form behind the surface front and are widely scattered. Such 

storms may be concealed by the surrounding cloud layers.

Lines of thunderstorms frequently develop ahead of rapidly 

moving cold fronts. These are known as prefrontal squall 

lines, and frequently form parallel to the cold front. Prefrontal 

squall line thunderstorms are usually more violent than cold 

front thunderstorms. They are most active between noon 

and midnight. The cold front cloud system usually weakens 

during the period of the greatest prefrontal squall line activity 

because the warm air displaced by the frontal surface has 
4-27

lost its moisture and energy in the prefrontal thunderstorms. 

In the United States, tornadoes are frequently associated 

with strong prefrontal squall lines. Pre-frontal squall line 

thunderstorms are indicated on a surface weather map by an 

alternate dash-dot-dash line (display).

The distribution of stationary front thunderstorms is 

controlled by the slope of the frontal surface. Steeply sloped 

stationary fronts tend to have lines of storms, whereas shallow 

stationary fronts tend to have widely scattered storms.

Occluded front thunderstorms are associated with the 

two types of occluded fronts (warm front and cold front 

occlusions), and are usually cold front thunderstorms that 

have been moved into the area of warm frontal weather by 

the occlusion process. They are found along the upper front, 

and are normally strongest for a distance of 50 to 100 miles 

north of the peak of the warm sector. 

Air Mass Thunderstorms

The two types of air mass thunderstorms are locally convective 

and orographic. Both types form within air masses, and are 

randomly distributed throughout the air mass. 

Convective thunderstorms are often caused by solar heating 

of the land, which provides heat to the air, thereby resulting in 

thermal convection. Relatively cool air flowing over a warmer 

water surface may also produce sufficient convection to cause 

thunderstorms. The land-type convective thunderstorms 

normally form during the afternoon hours, after the Earth 

has gained maximum heating from the sun. If cool, moist, 

conditionally unstable air is passing over this land area, 

heating from below will cause convective currents, thereby 

resulting in towering cumulus or thunderstorm activity. 

Dissipation usually occurs during the early evening hours, as 

the land begins to lose its heat to the atmosphere. Although 

convective thunderstorms form as individual cells, they may 

become so numerous over a particular geographical area that 

continued flight cannot be maintained. 

Thunderstorms over the ocean are most common during the 

night and early morning. They frequently occur offshore 

when a land breeze is blowing toward the water. The cool 

land breeze is heated by the warmer water surface, which 

results in sufficient convection to produce thunderstorms. 

After sunrise, heating of the land surface reverses the airflow 

(sea breeze). The thunderstorms then dissipate over the water, 

but they may re-form over the warmer land surface. As an 

example, the air mass weather that exists in Florida combines 

both types of convective thunderstorms. Circulation around 

a semipermanent high pressure system off the southeastern 

United States (Bermuda high) carries moist ocean air over 

the warm land surface of the Florida Peninsula. At night, 

thunderstorms off the Florida Coast are caused by the warm 

water of the Gulf Stream heating the surface air, while the 

upper air is cooling by radiation to space. This heating from 

below produces thermal convection over the water. When 

the sun rises, the heat balance necessary to maintain storm 

formation over the water is destroyed. By day, the storms 

appear to move inward over the land areas, but actually 

dissipate off the coast and re-form over the hot landmass. 

The heated land surface sets up an unstable lapse rate over 

the Peninsula and causes storm development to continue until 

nocturnal cooling occurs. Usually, convective type storms 

are randomly distributed and easily recognized. 

Orographic thunderstorms will form on the windward side 

of a mountain if conditionally unstable air is lifted above the 

level of free convection. The storm activity is usually scattered 

along the individual peaks of the mountains. Occasionally, 

however, this activity may form a long unbroken line of 

storms similar to a squall line. The storms persist as long as 

the circulation causes upslope motion. From the windward 

side of the mountains, identification of orographic storms 

may sometimes be difficult because the storm clouds are 

obscured by other clouds (usually stratiform). Almost without 

exception, orographic thunderstorms enshroud mountain 

peaks or hills. 

Minimum Factors 

The minimum factors essential to the formation of a 

thunderstorm are conditionally unstable air with relatively 

high moisture content and some type of lifting action. Lifting 

of warm air will not necessarily cause free convection. The 

air may be lifted to a point where the moisture condenses 

and clouds form. These cloud layers, however, will be 

stable if the level of free convection has not been reached 

by the lifting. Conversely, it is possible for dry heated air 

to rise convectively without the formation of clouds. In this 

condition, turbulence might be experienced in perfectly 

clear weather. Cumulonimbus cloud formations require a 

combination of conditionally unstable air, some type of lifting 

actions, and high moisture content. Once a cloud has formed, 

the latent heat of condensation released by the change of state 

from vapor to liquid tends to make the air more unstable. 

Some type of external lifting action is necessary to bring 

the warm surface air to the point where it will continue to 

rise freely (the level of free convection). For example, an air 

mass may be lifted by thermal convection, terrain, fronts, or 

convergence. 

Summary

By no means is the information contained here a complete 

discussion of all the weather information and factors affecting 

balloon flight. There are many resources available, both 
4-28

Figure 4-27. This map can be used to gather hourly AWOS and ASOS 

type weather information from various sites in each state.

through government and private agencies, which may be of 

value to the pilot in planning a flight. A pilot should take the 

time to explore the internet, read weather books, and gain a 

complete understanding of the myriad of weather information 

and products that are available. 

The second section of this chapter will expose the reader 

to some of the weather reporting products available, both 

through FSS briefings and Internet searches. With the 

knowledge gained from the first half of this chapter, the pilot 

will be able to make a good interpretation of the reports, and 

determine how present and future conditions will affect the 

decision to fly. 

How to Obtain Weather Information

An integral part of flight preparation for any pilot is checking 

the weather conditions expected to occur during the flight. 

FAA regulations place the responsibility for flight planning 

on the pilot. To effectively plan a flight, a pilot needs to 

understand what weather information is available, how to 

obtain it, and how it can be applied to a flight.

While weather forecasts are not 100 percent accurate, 

meteorologists, through careful scientific study and computer 

modeling, have the ability to predict the weather patterns, 

trends, and characteristics with increasing accuracy. Through 

a complex system of weather services, government agencies, 

and independent weather observers, pilots and other aviation 

professionals receive the benefit of this vast knowledge base 

in the form of up-to-date weather reports and forecasts. 

These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed 

decisions regarding weather and flight safety. 

Sources for Weather Information 

There are many sources available for today’s pilot when 

gathering information about weather prior to a flight. A 

review of pertinent weather reports and information is 

required by FAA regulations and the following sources 

provide excellent weather information. For the balloon pilot, 

experience and study helps him or her determine the preferred 

sources for weather information.

FAA Flight Service Stations (FSS) 

The FAA FSS is the primary source for preflight weather 

information. FSS can be contacted by calling 1-800-

WXBRIEF. It also logs pilot contacts to provide background 

information in the event of an accident or incident, as well as 

substantiating workload statistics. It is one of the two sources 

of an official weather briefing.

Although there are currently 44 FSS operations, the FAA 

plans to automate the service and reduce the physical 

locations eventually to three. Due to this, occasional extended 

wait times can occur, particularly during periods of marginal 

or severe weather. To facilitate the process, inform the briefer 

prior to the start of the briefing of the information needed.

Internet Sources

A wealth of internet sources exist for the balloon pilot seeking 

information about current weather conditions. 

• Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS) (www.

duats.com—probably the most well-known of the 

many internet based weather sites, DUATS provides 

an on-line “official” briefing service at no cost to the 

aviation community. The site is a contracted function 

of the FAA, and is available to anyone who registers. 

Besides the normal briefing that can be received 

from the FSS, there are a number of graphic products 

available that enhance the user’s understanding of 

current and forecast weather.

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) (www.noaa.gov)—NOAA operates the 

National Weather Service (NWS) at www.nws.noaa.

gov which provides access to weather information 

collected on a continuing basis throughout the 

country. 

 NOAA also offers pilots an interactive page at www.

weather.gov/view/largemap.php that is activated on 

a state-by-state basis and provides hourly weather 

observations at selected points. [Figure 4-27] This 

weather information helps a pilot determine trends 

in winds and pressure systems, which are prime 

indicators of general conditions for balloon pilots. 
4-29

• National Center for Atmospheric Research and the 

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research 

(www.ucar.edu)—a collaborative effort of research 

centers, universities, and weather offices around the 

United States, this site provides numerous real-time 

and forecast weather products and graphics.

• Aviation Digital Data Services (ADDS) (www.

aviationweather.gov)—the Aviation Digital Data 

Service (ADDS) makes text, digital and graphical 

forecasts, analyses, and observations of aviationrelated weather variables available to the aviation 

community. The ADDS graphics and charts are often 

easier to interpret than those of the AWC website. 

• Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) 

Weather Display (www.weather.aero/hems)—the 

ADDS development team created an experimental tool 

designed to show weather conditions for short-distance 

and low-altitude flights common for the helicopter 

emergency medical services (HEMS) community at 

the request of the FAA. [Figure 4-28] This interactive 

site allows the user to determine ceiling and visibility 

and winds (at 500 foot increments) for an area as small 

as 5k2. While not specifically targeted nor designed for 

the balloon pilot’s use, the information obtained from 

this site is helpful to the pilot planning a flight at some 

distance from a normal weather reporting facility.

Interpreting Weather Charts and Reports

A weather chart is any chart or map that presents data and 

analysis that describe the state of the atmosphere over an 

extended region at a given time. Weather charts provide a 

picture of the overall movement of major weather systems 

and fronts and are used in flight planning. 

Three useful weather charts for balloon pilots are: surface 

analysis, weather depiction, and radar summary charts. These 

three charts present current weather information and provide 

“big picture” information for weather systems across the 

United States. The composite moisture stability chart, constant 

pressure analysis charts, and significant weather prognostic 

charts provide additional information for flight planning. 

Knowledge of all these weather charts, reports, and forecasts 

may not be necessary for the pilot planning a local flight, but 

an understanding of large scale weather patterns and systems 

bring a greater understanding of how those systems affect 

local weather. It is important to gain an understanding of the 

primary charts used, and develop interpolation skills to be 

able to perform safe, adequate flight planning. 

Surface Analysis Chart

The surface analysis chart is computer-generated, covers the 

contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas, and is transmitted 

every 3 hours with an analysis of the current surface 

weather. It shows the areas of high and low pressure, fronts, 

temperatures, dew points, wind directions and speeds, local 

weather, and visual obstructions. [Figure 4-29]

Surface weather observations for reporting points across the 

United States are also depicted on this chart. Each of these 

reporting points is illustrated by a station model. 

• Type of observation—a round model indicates an 

official weather observer made the observation. A 

square model indicates the observation is from an 

automated station. Stations located offshore give data 

from ships, buoys, or offshore platforms.

• Sky cover—the station model depicts total sky cover 

and will be shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, 

or obscured/partially obscured.

• Clouds—cloud types are represented by specific 

symbols. Low cloud symbols are placed beneath the 

station model, while middle and high cloud symbols 

are placed directly above the station model. Typically, 

only one type of cloud will be depicted with the station 

model.

• Sea level pressure—sea level pressure given in three 

digits to the nearest tenth of a mb. For 1,000 mb or 

greater, prefix a ten to the three digits. For less than 

1,000 mb, prefix a nine to the three digits.

• Pressure change/tendency—pressure change in tenths 

of mb over the past 3 hours. This is depicted directly 

below the sea level pressure.

• Precipitation—a record of the precipitation that has 

fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest hundredth 

of an inch.

• Dew point—dew point is given in degrees 

Fahrenheit.

• Present weather—over 100 different weather symbols 

are used to describe the current weather.

• Temperature—temperature is given in degrees 

Fahrenheit.

• Wind—true direction of wind is given by the wind 

pointer line, indicating the direction from which the 

wind is coming. A short barb is equal to five knots of 

wind, a long barb is equal to ten knots of wind, and a 

pennant is equal to 50 knots.
4-30

Figure 4-28. Example of the information found on the Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) weather display site.

Figure 4-29. Example of a section of a surface analysis chart with station model legend (inset).
4-31

Figure 4-30. Weather depiction chart. 

Weather Depiction Chart

A weather depiction chart details surface conditions as 

derived from METAR and other surface observations. It 

is prepared and transmitted by computer every 3 hours 

beginning at 0100 Zulu time (0100Z), and is valid at the time 

of the plotted data. Designed to be used for flight planning, 

it gives an overall picture of the weather across the United 

States. [Figure 4-30]

The weather depiction typically displays major fronts or 

areas of high and low pressure. It also provides a graphic 

display of Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), VFR, and marginal 

VFR (MVFR) weather. Areas of IFR conditions (ceilings 

less than 1,000 feet and visibility less than 3 miles) are 

shown by a hatched area outlined by a smooth line. MVFR 

regions (ceilings 1,000 to 3,000 feet, visibility 3 to 5 miles) 

are shown by a non-hatched area outlined by a smooth line. 

Areas of VFR (no ceiling or ceiling greater than 3,000 feet 

and visibility greater than 5 miles) are not outlined. Weather 

depiction charts show a modified station model that provides 

sky conditions in the form of total sky cover, cloud height or 

ceiling, weather, and obstructions to visibility, but does not 

include winds or pressure readings like the surface analysis 

chart. A bracket ( ] ) symbol to the right of the station 

indicates the observation was made by an automated station. 

A detailed explanation of a station model is depicted in the 

previous discussion of surface analysis charts.

Radar Summary Chart (SD)

A radar summary chart [Figure 4-31] is a computer-generated 

graphical display of a collection of automated radar weather 

reports (SDs). The chart is published hourly, 35 minutes 

past the hour. It displays areas of precipitation as well as 

information regarding the characteristics of the precipitation. 

An SD chart includes:

• No information—if information is not reported, the 

chart will read “NA.” If no echoes are detected, the 

chart will read “NE.”

• Precipitation intensity contours—intensity can be 

described as one of six levels and is shown on the 

chart by three contour intervals.

• Height of tops—the heights of the echo tops are given 

in hundreds of feet MSL.

• Movement of cells—individual cell movement is 

indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of 

movement. The speed of movement in knots is the 

number at the top of the arrow head. “LM” indicates 

little movement.
4-32

Figure 4-31. Radar summary chart.

• Type of precipitation—the type of precipitation is 

marked on the chart using specific symbols.

• Echo configuration—echoes are shown as areas, cells, 

or lines.

• Weather watches—severe weather watch areas for 

tornadoes and severe thunderstorms are depicted by 

boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines.

A valuable tool for preflight planning, the SD chart has 

several limitations. Since it depicts only areas of current 

precipitation, it will not show areas of clouds and fog with no 

appreciable precipitation, or the height of the tops and bases 

of the clouds. SD charts should be used in conjunction with 

current METAR and weather forecasts.

Composite Moisture Stability Chart

The composite moisture stability chart is a chart composed 

of four panels depicting stability, precipitable water, 

freezing level, and average relative humidity conditions. 

This computer-generated chart contains data obtained from 

upper-air observations, is updated twice a day, and shows 

the relative stability of the air mass and the potential for 

thunderstorms or thermal activity. 

Stability/Lifted Index Chart

A subdisplay of the composition moisture stability chart is 

the stability or lifted index (LI) chart, a valuable tool for 

determining the stability of the atmosphere. The stability 

or LI chart is the upper left hand panel of the composite 

moisture stability chart. Two indexes represent the moisture 

and stability of the air: the K index (KI) and the LI, with 

these numbers composing a fraction. KI (denominator of the 

fraction) provides moisture and stability information. Values 

range from high positive values to low negative values. A 

high positive KI indicates moist, unstable air. KI values are 

considered high when at or above +20, and low when less 

than +20. [Figure 4-32]

The LI (numerator of the fraction) is a common measure of 

atmospheric stability. It is calculated by hypothetically lifting 

a parcel of air to the 500 mb level, approximately 18,000 feet 

MSL, and analyzing its stability at that level. A positive LI 

indicates that a particular parcel of air is stable and resists 

further upward motion. Large positive values (+8 or greater) 

would indicate very stable air. Conversely, a negative LI 

means that a lifted surface parcel of air is unstable, and more 

likely to rise. Large negative values (–6 or more) indicate 

very unstable air. 
4-33

Figure 4-32. Lifted index chart.

Figure 4-33. Constant pressure analysis chart.

decision regarding the likelihood of thermal and potential 

thunderstorms, and if a safe flight can be conducted. 

Constant Pressure Analysis Charts 

A constant pressure analysis chart or isobaric chart is a 

weather map representing conditions on a surface of equal 

atmospheric pressure. [Figure 4-33] For example, a 500 mb 

chart will display conditions at the level of the atmosphere at 

which the atmospheric pressure is 500 mb. The height above 

sea level at which the pressure is that particular value may 

vary from one location to another at any given time, and also 

varies with time at any one location, so it does not represent 

a surface of constant altitude/height.

Constant pressure charts provide the pilot with a clearer 

picture of how the atmosphere behaves at different altitudes 

and pressures. For example, a low pressure system that seems 

insignificant based on surface observations may prove to be 

a major factor in the weather at five or ten thousand feet.

Constant pressure charts are prepared for selected values of 

pressure and present weather information at various altitudes. 

Standard charting values are at 850 mb (approximately 5,000 

feet MSL), 700 mb (approximately 10,000 feet MSL), 500 

mb (approximately 18,000 feet MSL), as well as higher and 

lower altitudes. Charts with higher pressure altitudes present 

The KI and LI can be used together to determine the moisture 

and stability characteristics of a particular air mass. The 

air masses may be classified as moist and stable, moist 

and unstable, dry and stable, or dry and unstable. This 

determination allows the balloon pilot to make an informed 
4-34

Figure 4-34. Significant weather prognostic chart.

information at lower altitudes, and charts with lower pressure 

altitudes present information at higher altitudes. 

Symbology on the constant pressure analysis chart is 

the same as that of the surface analysis chart. This chart 

depicts the information at a specific pressure altitude. When 

compared with the surface analysis of the same time frame, 

a three-dimensional concept of the atmosphere can be 

conceptualized, and the pilot can gain a greater understanding 

of the atmospheric dynamics involved in weather patterns. 

Significant Weather Prognostic Charts

Significant weather prognostic charts [Figure 4-34] display 

the observed or forecast significant weather phenomena at 

different flight levels that may affect the operation of aircraft. 

They are available for low-level significant weather from the 

surface to FL 240 (24,000 feet), also referred to as the 400 

mb level, and high-level significant weather from FL 250 to 

FL 600 (25,000 to 60,000 feet). This discussion involves the 

low-level significant weather prognostic chart. 

The low-level chart comes in two forms: the 12- and 24-hour 

forecast chart, and the 36- and 48-hour surface only forecast 

chart. The first chart is a four-panel chart that includes 12- and 

24-hour forecasts for significant weather and surface weather. 

Charts are issued four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 

and 1800Z. The valid time for the chart is printed on the lower 

left corner of each panel. The upper two panels show forecast 

significant weather, which may include nonconvective 

turbulence, freezing levels, and IFR or MVFR weather. Areas 

of moderate or greater turbulence are enclosed in dashed 

lines. Numbers within these areas give the height of the 

turbulence in hundreds of feet MSL. Figures below the line 

show the anticipated base, while figures above the line show 

the top of the zone of turbulence. Also shown on this panel 

are areas of VFR, IFR, and MVFR. IFR areas are enclosed by 

solid lines, MVFR areas are enclosed by scalloped lines, and 

the remaining, unenclosed area is designated VFR. Zigzag 

lines and the letters “SFC” (surface) indicate freezing levels 

in that area are at the surface. Freezing level height contours 

for the highest freezing level are drawn at 4,000 foot intervals 

with dashed lines.

Additional Weather Information 

Skew-T Plots

Most weather information is derived from radiosondes, or 

weather balloons, that are released from over 100 stations in 

the United States twice daily (00Z and 12Z). The observations 

of temperature and humidity at various pressure altitudes are 

transmitted back to the releasing station; the radiosondes are 

also tracked by radar in order to determine wind speed and 

direction. This information is plotted to create a diagram 

known as a Skew-T/Log-P plot, commonly referred to as a 

Skew-T. These plots can be found at many different online 
4-35

Figure 4-35. Example of a Skew-T plot.

weather sites; perhaps the easiest to use is rucsoundings.noaa.

gov. The appropriate plot for any of the reporting sites can 

be found by typing in the closest reporting station identifier 

(usually an airport), and allowing the graphic to load. 

There is a wealth of information that may be derived from 

the Skew-T plot (or “sounding,” as it may be referred to), but 

this discussion will be limited to those features of immediate 

interest to the average balloon pilot.

Some of the information that may be derived from the SkewT, using the example in Figure 4-35:

• The two lines running vertically through the center 

of the graphic (red and blue) show the temperature 

and dew point at ascending pressure altitudes. The 

temperature is always plotted to the right of the dew 

point because temperature is almost always greater 

than the dew point temperature. 

• The right side margin shows wind speed and direction, 

using the standard “barbed” system common in 

weather reporting. The scale (in this case, 0 to 40 

knots) can be changed, but this setting provides the 

best resolution. 

• The left margin of the chart indicates the pressure 

altitude for a particular reading. Pressure altitude 

readings correspond generally to certain altitudes. For 

example, the reading at 850 mb equates roughly to an 

altitude of 5,000 feet above MSL. That may not appear 

to be useful; however, this is where the dynamics 

of the application come into play. If the computer 

cursor is moved over the graphic part of the diagram, 

indicators as to the specific information for that 

altitude may be seen (not depicted in Figure 4-35). 

A pilot may be able to get information for varying 

altitudes as close at 125 feet apart, depending on the 

resolution of the original sounding information.

There is a tutorial available to fully explain the data 

interpretation of the Skew T plot at www.met.tamu.edu/class/

ATMO151/tut/sound/soundmain.html.

Velocity Azimuth Display (VAD)Winds

Velocity Azimuth display (VAD) winds are derived from 

the output of the 160 WSR-88 radar sites located throughout 

the United States. These radar systems are used by weather 

professionals to produce many different products, including 

the weather radar depictions found on many of the web sites 

previously discussed, as well as various television station 

weather reporting. [Figure 4-36]

The WSR-88 radar systems can be configured to produce 

radar returns from dust and other particulate matter that may 

be in the air. These radar returns can be processed to indicate 

wind direction and speed at different altitudes. VAD winds 

are generally reported in 1,000 foot increments, although at 
4-36

Figure 4-36. VAD wind graphic.

times reports may be as small as 150 feet between altitudes. 

Standard “wind barb” depictions are used to represent the 

wind direction and speed at different altitudes.

Plymouth State University in Plymouth, New Hampshire 

operates a Weather Center with a website for locating VAD 

winds. This user-friendly website offers pilots a convenient 

selection of reporting stations at http://vortex.plymouth.

edu/lnids_conus.html. 

Aviation Forecasts 

Observed weather condition reports are often used in the 

creation of forecasts for the same area. A variety of different 

forecast products are produced and designed to be used in 

the preflight planning stage. Pilots need to be familiar with 

the following printed forecasts: wind and temperature aloft 

forecasts (FD reports), the terminal aerodrome forecast 

(TAF), aviation area forecast (FA), and inflight weather 

advisories (SIGMET, AIRMET).

Wind and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD Report) 

Wind and temperature aloft forecasts provide wind and 

temperature forecasts for specific locations in the contiguous 

United States, plus network locations in Hawaii and Alaska. 

The forecasts are made twice a day based on the radiosonde 

upper air observations taken at 0000Z and 1200Z. Up through 

12,000 feet are true altitudes; at and above 18,000 feet are 

pressure altitudes. Wind direction is always in reference to 

true north, and wind speed is given in knots. The temperature 

is given in degrees Celsius; no winds are forecast when 

a given level is within 1,500 feet of the station elevation. 

Similarly, temperatures are not forecast for any station 

within 2,500 feet of the station elevation. If the wind speed is 

forecast to be greater than 100 knots but less than 199 knots, 

the computer adds 50 to the direction and subtracts 100 from 

the speed. A sample FD report is shown in Figure 4-37.

To decode this type of data group, the reverse process must 

be accomplished. For example, when the data appears as 

“731960,” subtract 50 from the 73 and add 100 to the 19; 

the wind would be 230° at 119 knots with a temperature of 

–60°C. If the wind speed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, 

the wind group is coded as 99 knots. When the data appears 

as “7799,” subtract 50 from 77 and add 100 to 99; the wind 

is 270° at 199 knots or greater. When the forecast wind speed 

is calm or less than 5 knots, the data group is coded “9900,” 

which means light and variable.

Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)

METAR is an observation of current surface weather reported 

in a standard international format. While the METAR code 

has been adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make 
4-37

Figure 4-37. Sample FD report.

modifications to the code. This discussion of METAR will 

cover elements used in the United States.

Example: 

METAR KGGG 161753Z AUTO 14021G26 3/4SM +TSRA 

BR BKN008 OVC012CB 18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR

A typical METAR report contains the following information 

in sequential order:

1. Type of report—the first of two types of METAR 

reports is the routine METAR report that is transmitted 

every hour. The second is the aviation selected special 

weather report (SPECI). This is a special report that 

can be given at any time to update the METAR for 

rapidly changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, 

or other critical information.

2. Station identifier—each station is identified by a fourletter code as established by the International Civil 

Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 48 contiguous 

states, a unique three-letter identifier is preceded by 

the letter “K.” For example, Gregg County Airport in 

Longview, Texas, is identified by the letters “KGGG,” 

K being the country designation and GGG being 

the airport identifier. In other regions of the world, 

including Alaska and Hawaii, the first two letters of 

the four-letter ICAO identifier indicate the region, 

country, or state. Alaska identifiers always begin with 

the letters “PA” and Hawaii identifiers always begin 

with the letters “PH.” A list of station identifiers can 

be found at an FSS or NWS office or online at www.

eurocontrol.int/icaoref/.

3. Date and time of report—are depicted in a six-digit 

group (e.g., 161753Z). The first two digits of the sixdigit group are the date. The last four digits are the time 

of the METAR, which is always given in Coordinated 

Universal Time (UTC). A “Z” is appended to the end 

of the time to denote the time is given in Zulu time 

(UTC) as opposed to local time.

4. Modifier—denotes that the METAR came from an 

automated source or that the report was corrected. 

If the notation “AUTO” is listed in the METAR, the 

report came from an automated source. It also lists 

“AO1” or “AO2” in the remarks section to indicate 

the type of precipitation sensors employed at the 

automated station. When the modifier “COR” is used, 

it identifies a corrected report sent out to replace an 

earlier report that contained an error (for example: 

METAR KGGG 161753Z COR).

5. Wind—reported with five digits (e.g., 14021) unless 

the speed is greater than 99 knots, which requires 

six digits. The first three digits indicate the direction 

the wind is blowing in tens of degrees. If the wind is 

variable, it is reported as “VRB.” The last two digits 

indicate the speed of the wind in knots (KT) unless 

the wind is greater than 99 knots, which requires three 

digits. If the winds are gusting, the letter “G” follows 

the wind speed. After the letter “G,” the peak gust 

recorded is provided (e.g., 21G26). If the wind varies 

more than 60° and the wind speed is greater than 6 

knots, a separate group of numbers, separated by a “V,” 

will indicate the extremes of the wind directions.

6. Visibility—the prevailing visibility (e.g., 3/4 SM) 

is reported in statute miles as denoted by the letters 

“SM.” It is reported in both miles and fractions of 

miles. At times, runway visual range (RVR) is reported 

following the prevailing visibility. RVR is the distance 

a pilot can see down the runway in a moving aircraft. 

When RVR is reported, it is shown with an R, then the 

runway number followed by a slant, then the visual 

range in feet. For example, when the RVR is reported 

as R17L/1400FT, it translates to a visual range of 1,400 

feet on runway 17 left.
4-38

7. Weather—broken down into two different categories: 

qualifiers and weather phenomenon (e.g., +TSRA 

BR). First, the qualifiers of intensity, proximity, 

and the descriptor of the weather will be given. The 

intensity may be light (–), moderate ( ), or heavy 

(+). Proximity depicts only weather phenomena 

that are in the airport vicinity. The notation “VC” 

indicates a specific weather phenomenon is in the 

vicinity of 5 to 10 miles from the airport. Descriptors 

are used to describe certain types of precipitation 

and obscurations. Weather phenomena may be 

reported as being precipitation, obscurations, and 

other phenomena such as squalls or funnel clouds. 

Descriptions of weather phenomena as they begin or 

end, and hailstone size are also listed in the remarks 

sections of the report. 

8. Sky condition—always reported in the sequence of 

amount, height, and type or indefinite ceiling/height 

(vertical visibility) (e.g., BKN008 OVC012CB). 

The heights of the cloud bases are reported with a 

three-digit number in hundreds of feet above the 

ground. Clouds above 12,000 feet are not detected 

or reported by an automated station. The types of 

clouds, specifically towering cumulus (TCU) or 

cumulonimbus (CB) clouds, are reported with their 

height. Contractions are used to describe the amount 

of cloud coverage and obscuring phenomena. The 

amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the 

sky from horizon to horizon. 

9. Temperature and dew point—always given in degrees 

Celsius (e.g., 18/17). Temperatures below 0 °C are 

preceded by the letter “M” to indicate minus.

10. Altimeter setting—reported as inches of mercury in 

a four-digit number group, and is always preceded 

by the letter “A” (e.g., A2970). Rising or falling 

pressure may also be denoted in the remarks sections 

as “PRESRR” or “PRESFR” respectively.

11. Remarks—comments may or may not appear in this 

section of the METAR. The information contained in 

this section may include wind data, variable visibility, 

beginning and ending times of particular phenomenon, 

pressure information, and various other information 

deemed necessary. An example of a remark regarding 

weather phenomenon that does not fit in any other 

category would be: OCNL LTGICCG. This translates 

as occasional lightning in the clouds, and from cloud 

to ground. Automated stations also use the remarks 

section to indicate the equipment needs maintenance. 

The remarks section always begins with the letters 

“RMK.”

Example: 

METAR BTR 161753Z 14021G26 3/4SM -RA BR BKN008 

OVC012 18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR

Explanation:

Type of Report Routine METAR

Location: Baton Rouge, Louisiana

Date: 16th day of the month

Time: 1753 Zulu

Modifier: None shown

Wind Information: 140° at 21 kts gusting to 26 kts

Visibility: 3/4 statute mile

Weather: light rain and mist

Sky Conditions: Broken 800 ft, overcast 1,200

Temperature: 18 °C, dew point 17 °C

Altimeter: 29.70 "Hg

Remarks: Barometric pressure is falling.

Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)

A terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) is a report established 

for the five statute mile radius around an airport. TAF reports 

are usually given for larger airports. Each TAF is valid for a 

24-hour time period, and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 

0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. TAF utilizes the same descriptors 

and abbreviations as used in the METAR report.

The terminal forecast includes the following information in 

sequential order:

1. Type of report—TAF can be either a routine forecast 

(TAF) or an amended forecast (TAF AMD).

2. ICAO station identifier—The station identifier is the 

same as that used in a METAR.

3. Date and Time of Origin—reported in a six-digit code. 

The first two indicate the date, the last four indicate 

the time. Time is always given in UTC as denoted by 

the “Z” following the number group.

4. Valid period date and time—the valid forecast time 

period is reported in a six-digit number group. The 

first two numbers indicate the date, followed by the 

two-digit beginning time for the valid period, followed 

by the two digit ending time.

5. Forecast Wind—the wind direction and speed forecast 

are reported in a five-digit number group. The first 

three digits indicate the direction of the wind in 

reference to true north. The last two digits state the 

windspeed in knots, as denoted by the letters “KT.” 
4-39

As in the METAR, winds greater than 99 knots are 

given in three digits.

6. Forecast visibility—reported in statute miles, in whole 

numbers or fractions. If the forecast visibility is greater 

than 6 miles, it will be coded as “P6SM.”

7. Forecast significant weather—weather phenomenon 

is coded in the TAF reports in the same format as the 

METAR. If no significant weather is expected during 

the forecast time period, the denotation “NSW” will 

be included in the “becoming” or “temporary” weather 

groups.

8. Forecast sky condition—reported in the same manner 

as the METAR. Only cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are 

forecast in this portion of the TAF report as opposed 

to CBs and towering cumulus in the METAR.

9. Forecast change group—for any significant weather 

change forecast to occur during the TAF time period, 

the expected conditions and time period are included 

in this group. This information may be shown as 

From (FM), Becoming (BECMG), and Temporary 

(TEMPO). “From” is used when a rapid and 

significant change, usually within an hour, is expected. 

“Becoming” is used when a gradual change in the 

weather is expected over a period of no more than 2 

hours. “Temporary” is used for temporary fluctuations 

of weather, expected to last for less than an hour.

10. Probability forecast—a given percentage that describes 

the probability of thunderstorms and precipitation 

occurring in the coming hours. This forecast is not 

used for the first 6 hours of the 24-hour forecast.

Example:

TAF KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090 

TEMPO 1214 5SM BR

FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM SCT040 BKN250

FM0000 14012KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 

0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB

FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO0408 

3SM TSRA OVC030CB

BECMG 0810 32007KT=

Explanation:

 Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota on the 11th day 

of the month, at 1130Z valid for 24 hours from 1200Z 

on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th wind from 150° at 

12 knots visibility greater than 6 statute miles, broken 

clouds at 9,000 feet, temporarily, between 1200Z and 

1400Z, visibility 5 statute miles in mist.

 From 1500Z, winds from 160° at 15 knots, gusting to 

25 knots, visibility greater than 6 statute miles, clouds 

scattered at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000 feet.

 From 0000Z wind from 140° at 12 knots; visibility 

greater than 6 statute miles, clouds broken at 8,000 

feet, overcast at 15,000 feet between 0000Z and 

0400Z, there is 40 percent probability of visibility 3 

statute miles thunderstorm with moderate rain showers 

clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus 

clouds. 

 From 0400Z winds from 140°at 8 knots visibility 

greater than 6 miles clouds at 4,000 scattered and 

overcast at 8,000 temporarily between 0400Z and 

0800Z visibility 3 miles, thunderstorms with moderate 

rain showers clouds overcast at 3,000 feet with 

cumulonimbus clouds.

 Becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z wind from 320° 

at 7 knots end of report (=).

Area Forecasts (FA)

The aviation area forecast (FA) gives a picture of clouds, 

general weather conditions, and visual meteorological 

conditions (VMC) expected over a large area encompassing 

several states. There are six areas for which area forecasts 

are published in the contiguous 48 states. Area forecasts are 

issued three times a day and are valid for 18 hours. This type 

of forecast gives information vital to en route operations as 

well as forecast information for smaller airports that do not 

have terminal forecasts.

Inflight Weather Advisories

Inflight weather advisories are forecasts provided to en route 

aircraft, and detail potentially hazardous weather. These 

advisories are also available to pilots prior to departure for 

flight planning purposes. 

Airman’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET)

AIRMETs (report type designator WA) are issued every 

6 hours with intermediate updates issued as needed for a 

particular area forecast region. The information contained 

in an AIRMET is of operational interest to all aircraft, 

but the weather section concerns phenomena considered 

potentially hazardous to light aircraft and aircraft with limited 

operational capabilities. An AIRMET includes forecast of 

moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds 

of 30 knots or greater, widespread areas of ceilings less than 

1,000 feet and/or visibilities less than 3 miles, and extensive 

mountain obscurities. Each AIRMET bulletin has a fixed 

alphanumeric designator, and is numbered sequentially for 

easy identification, beginning with the first issuance of the 

day. SIERRA is the AIRMET code used to denote IFR and 
4-40

mountain obscuration; TANGO is used to denote turbulence, 

strong surface winds, and low-level wind shear; and ZULU 

is used to denote icing and freezing levels.

Example:

DFWT WA 241650

AIRMET TANGO UPDT 3 FOR TURBC... STG SFC 

WINDS AND LLWS VALID UNTIL 242000 AIRMET 

TURBC... OK TX...UPDT FROM OKC TO DFW TO SAT 

TO MAF TO CDS TO OKC OCNL MDT TURBC BLO 60 

DUE TO STG AND GUSTY LOW LVL WINDS. CONDS 

CONTG BYD 2000Z

Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)

SIGMETs (report type designator WS) are inflight advisories 

concerning nonconvective weather that is potentially 

hazardous to all aircraft. They report weather forecasts that 

include severe icing not associated with thunderstorms, 

severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) 

not associated with thunderstorms, dust storms, or sandstorms 

that lower surface or inflight visibilities to below 3 miles, and 

volcanic ash. SIGMETs are unscheduled forecasts that are 

valid for 4 hours, but if the SIGMET relates to hurricanes, 

it is valid for 6 hours.

A SIGMET is issued under an alphabetic identifier, from 

November through Yankee, excluding Sierra and Tango. 

The first issuance of a SIGMET is designated as a UWS, 

or Urgent Weather SIGMET. Re-issued SIGMETs for the 

same weather phenomenon are sequentially numbered until 

the weather phenomenon ends.

Example:

SFOR WS 100130 SIGMET ROME02 VALID UNTIL

100530 OR WA FROM SEA TO PDT TO EUG TO SEA 

OCNL MOGR CAT BTN 280 AND 350 EXPCD DUE TO 

JTSTR. CONDS BGNG AFT 0200Z CONTG BYD 0530Z.

Convective Significant Meteorological Information 

(WST)

A Convective SIGMET (WST) is an inflight weather advisory 

issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety 

of every flight. Convective SIGMETs are issued for severe 

thunderstorms with surface winds greater than 50 knots, hail 

at the surface greater than or equal to 3⁄4 inch in diameter, or 

tornadoes. They are also issued to advise pilots of embedded 

thunderstorms, lines of thunderstorms, or thunderstorms with 

heavy or greater precipitation that affect 40 percent or more 

of a 3,000 square foot or greater region.

Convective SIGMETs are issued for each area of the 

contiguous 48 states but not Alaska or Hawaii. Convective 

SIGMETs are issued for the eastern (E), western (W), and 

central (C) United States. Each report is issued at 55 minutes 

past the hour, but special reports can be issued during the 

interim for any reason. Each forecast is valid for 2 hours. 

They are numbered sequentially each day from 1-99, 

beginning at 00 Zulu time. If no hazardous weather exists, 

the Convective SIGMET will still be issued; however, it will 

state “CONVECTIVE SIGMET.... NONE.”

Example:

MKCC WST 221855 CONVECTIVE SIGMET 21C VALID

UNTIL 2055 KS OK TX

VCNTY GLD-CDS LINE NO SGFNT TSTMS RPRTD 

LINE TSTMS DVLPG BY 1955Z WILL MOV EWD 30-35 

KT THRU 2055Z HAIL TO 2 IN PSBL

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)

Pilot weather reports (PIREPs) provide valuable information 

regarding the conditions as they actually exist in the air, 

and cannot be gathered from any other source. Pilots can 

confirm the height of bases and tops of clouds, locations of 

wind shear and turbulence, and the location of inflight icing. 

If the ceiling is below 5,000 feet, or visibility is at or below 

5 miles, ATC facilities are required to solicit PIREPs from 

pilots in the area. When unexpected weather conditions are 

encountered, pilots are encouraged to make a report to an 

FSS or ATC. When a pilot weather report is filed, the ATC 

facility or FSS will add it to the distribution system to brief 

other pilots and provide inflight advisories.

PIREPs are easy to file, and a standard reporting form outlines 

the manner in which they should be filed. Figure 11-4 shows 

the elements of a PIREP form. Item numbers 1 through 5 are 

required information when making a report, as well as at least 

one weather phenomenon encountered. PIREPs are normally 

transmitted as an individual report, but may be appended to 

a surface report. Pilot reports are easily decoded and most 

contractions used in the reports are self-explanatory.

Example: 

UA/OV GGG 090025/ M 1450/ FL 060/ TP C182/ SK 080

OVC/ WX FV 04R/ TA 05/ WV 270030/ TB LGT/ RM 

HVY RAIN

Explanation:

Type: Routine pilot report

Location: 25 NM out on the 090° radial, 

 Gregg County VOR

Time: 1450 Zulu

Altitude or Flight Level: 6,000 feet

Aircraft Type: Cessna 182

Sky Cover: 8,000 overcast
4-41

Visibility/Weather: 4 miles in rain

Temperature: 5° Celsius

Wind: 270° at 30 knots

Turbulence: Light

Icing: None reported

Remarks: Rain is heavy

Chapter Summary

A thorough understanding of the weather is a “make or break” 

item for the balloon pilot; without a complete picture of the 

weather, a pilot may make an ill-advised decision to launch 

that may result in injury, damage to the balloon, or worse. 

It is imperative that a pilot use as many resources as he can, 

understanding the variables potentially affecting flight, and 

making an informed decision to conduct a safe flight.

Perhaps the most valuable point to be made is that the balloon 

pilot must use and exercise common sense. When flying a 

balloon, the most desirable conditions are good visibility, 

light winds, and no precipitation. Anything other than that 

scenario should be reason to pause and consider the possible 

outcome of a launch. There is never an absolute requirement 

to fly—there is always the possibility of making the decision 

to try again another day. 
4-42
5-1

Introduction

The National Airspace System (NAS) is the network of 

all components regarding airspace in the United States. 

This comprehensive label includes air navigation facilities, 

equipment, services, airports or landing areas, aeronautical 

charts, information/services, rules, regulations, procedures, 

technical information, manpower, and material. Many of these 

system components are shared jointly with the military. To 

conform to international aviation standards, the United States 

adopted the primary elements of the classification system 

developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO). This chapter provides a general discussion of airspace 

classification. Detailed information on the classification of 

airspace, operating procedures, and restrictions is found in 

the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). 

The National 

Airspace System

Chapter 5
5-2

Basic VFR Weather Minimums

Airspace Flight visibility Distance from clouds

Class G 1,200 feet or less above the surface 1 statute mile clear of clouds

 (regardless of MSL altitude). 

 More than 1,200 feet above the 1 statute mile 1,000 feet above

 surface but less than 10,000 feet MSL. 500 feet below

 2,000 feet horizontal 

Class E At or above 10,000 feet MSL 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above

 1,000 feet below

 1 statute mile horizontal

 Less than 10,000 feet MSL 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

 500 feet below

 2,000 feet horizontal

Class D 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

 500 feet below

 2,000 feet horizontal

Class C 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above

 500 feet below

 2,000 feet horizontal

Class B 3 statute miles Clear of clouds

Figure 5-1. Basic weather minimums for balloon operations in the different classes of airspace.

This handbook departs from the conventional norm, in that 

the airspace discussions are presented in reverse order, in 

the belief that it is much easier to learn the airspace from 

least complicated to most complicated; also, the information 

presented for basic visual flight rules (VFR) weather minimums 

is only that necessary for balloon operations. [Figure 5-1]

Other information, specifically for instrument flight rules (IFR) 

flying or night flight, has been omitted, as it has little or no 

value to the balloon pilot. For a complete discussion of these 

issues, the balloon pilot should refer to the AIM, or FAA-H8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.

Airspace Classification

The two categories of airspace are regulatory and nonregulatory. Within these two categories, there are four types: 

uncontrolled, controlled, special use, and other airspace. 

Figure 5-2 presents a profile view of the dimensions of 

various classes of airspace. It will be helpful to refer to this 

figure as this chapter is studied, as well as remembering that 

almost all sport balloon operations are conducted in Class 

E or G airspace. 

Uncontrolled Airspace

Class G Airspace

Class G or uncontrolled airspace is the portion of the airspace 

that has not been designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. 

Class G airspace extends from the surface to the base of the 

overlying Class E airspace. Although air traffic control (ATC) 

has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic within 

Class G airspace, pilots should remember there are VFR 

minimums which apply while operating in it. Class G airspace 

is essentially uncontrolled by ATC except when associated 

with a temporary control tower. [Figures 5-2 and 5-3]

In the eastern half of the United States, most Class G airspace 

is overlaid with Class E airspace, beginning at either 700 or 

1,200 feet above ground level (AGL). In the western half of 

the United States, much of the Class G airspace goes up to 

14,500 feet before the Class E airspace begins. The pilot is 

advised to consult the appropriate sectional chart to ensure 

that he or she is aware of the airspace limits prior to flight 

in an unfamiliar area.

Most balloon operations are conducted in Class G airspace. 

There are no communications requirements to operate in Class 

G airspace. If operations are conducted at an altitude of 1,200 
5-3

14,500' MSL

Nontowered

airport with

instrument 

approach

Nontowered

airport with 

no instrument 

approach

700'

AGL 700'

AGL

18,000' MSL

FL 600

1,200'

AGL

700'

AGL

1,200'

AGL 1,200'AGL

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

Class E

Class G

Class G Class G Class G

Figure 5-2. Dimensions of various classes of airspace.

Class G

Minimum Pilot Qualifications

VFR Visibility Minimum

VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds

Student certificate

1 statute mile

Clear of clouds

Figure 5-3. Class G airspace.

Class E

Minimum Pilot Qualifications

VFR Visibility Minimum

VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds

Student certificate

3 statute miles

500' below, 1,000' above,

2,000' horizontal

Figure 5-4. Class E airspace.

feet or less AGL, the pilot must remain clear of clouds, and 

there must be one statute mile of visibility. If the operations 

are conducted more than 1,200 feet AGL, but less than 

10,000 feet mean sea level (MSL), visibility requirements 

remain at one statute mile, but cloud clearances are 1,000 feet 

above, 500 feet below, and 2,000 feet horizontally from any 

cloud(s). A popular mnemonic tool used to remember basic 

cloud clearances is “C152,” a popular fixed-wing training 

aircraft. In this case, the mnemonic recalls, “Clouds 1,000, 

500, and 2,000.”

Controlled Airspace

Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different 

classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within 

which ATC service is provided in accordance with the 

airspace classification. Controlled airspace consists of:

• Class E

• Class D

• Class C

• Class B

• Class A

Class E Airspace

Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and 

is controlled airspace, then it is Class E airspace. Class 

E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a 

designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled 

airspace. [Figures 5-2 and 5-4] Also in this class are federal 

airways and airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet 

AGL used to transition to and from the terminal or en route 

environment. Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class 

E airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over the United States, 

including that airspace overlying the waters within 12 

nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous states 

and Alaska, up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, and 

the airspace above FL 600.

There are no specific communications requirements 

associated with Class E airspace; however, some Class E 

airspace locations are designed to provide approaches for 

instrument approaches, and a pilot would be prudent to 

ensure that appropriate communications are established when 

operating near those areas.
5-4

Figure 5-7. Example of Class C airspace on a sectional.

Class D

Entry Requirements

Minimum Pilot Qualifications

Two-Way Radio Communications

VFR Visibility Minimum

VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds

Prior two-way communications

Student certificate

Yes

3 statute miles

500' below,1,000' above,

2,000' horizontal

Figure 5-5. Class D airspace.

Class C

Entry Requirements

Minimum Pilot Qualifications

Two-Way Radio Communications

VFR Visibility Minimum

VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds

Prior two-way communications

Student certificate

Yes

3 statute miles

500' below,1,000' above,

2,000' horizontal

Figure 5-6. Class C airspace.

Visibility and cloud clearances for operations conducted in 

Class E airspace are similar to those of the Class G airspace. 

If balloon operations are being conducted below 10,000 feet 

MSL, visibility is three statute miles and the basic VFR cloud 

clearance requirements of 1,000 feet above, 500 feet below, 

and 2,000 feet horizontal (remember the C152 mnemonic). 

Operations above 10,000 feet MSL require visibility of five 

statute miles and cloud clearance of 1,000 feet above, 1,000 

feet below, and one statute mile horizontally.

Class D Airspace

Class D is that airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet AGL 

(but charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have 

an operational control tower. [Figures 5-2 and 5-5] The 

configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually 

tailored. When instrument procedures are published, the 

airspace is normally designed to contain the procedures. 

Unless otherwise authorized, each aircraft must establish 

two-way radio communications with the ATC facility 

providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace 

and thereafter maintain those communications while in the 

airspace. Balloon pilots approaching Class D airspace should 

call the ATC facility at a point where, if entry is denied, a safe 

landing can still be executed. It is important to understand 

that if the controller responds to the initial radio call without 

using the balloon’s call sign, radio communications have not 

been established, and the balloon may not enter the Class D 

airspace. Many airports associated with Class D airspace do 

not operate on a 24-hour-a-day basis. When not in operation, 

the airspace will normally revert to Class E or G airspace, 

with no communications requirements. In either case, balloon 

pilots are reminded that, in the absence of an emergency 

situation, there is no absolute requirement to land at the 

airport associated with the Class D airspace. In most cases, 

the first radio call will be made at a distance of five statute 

miles from the airport. 

Balloon pilots operating in the vicinity of an airport should 

exercise discretion. While balloons indeed have the right of 

way over all powered aircraft as stated in Title 14 of the Code 

of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.113, a 

pilot would cause less disruption by landing well short of 

the airport. This is nothing more than common courtesy 

and common sense. The visibility requirement for Class 

D airspace is three statute miles; cloud clearances are the 

standard VFR 1,000/500/2,000.

Class C Airspace

Class C airspace normally extends from the surface to 4,000 

feet above the airport elevation surrounding those airports 

having an operational control tower, that are serviced by a 

radar approach control, and with a certain number of IFR or 

passenger operations. [Figures 5-2 and 5-6] This airspace 

is charted in feet MSL, and is generally of a five NM radius 

surface area that extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above 

the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius area that extends 

from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. 

There is also a noncharted outer area with a 20 NM radius, 

which extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above the 

primary airport, and this area may include one or more 

satellite airports. [Figure 5-7]
5-5

Class B

Entry Requirements

Minimum Pilot Qualifications

Two-Way Radio Communications

VFR Visibility Minimum

VFR Minimum Distance from Clouds

ATC clearance

Private or student certification

Local restrictions apply

Yes

3 statute miles

Clear of clouds

Figure 5-8. Class B airspace.

Balloon operations in Class C airspace, while technically 

feasible, are usually not advisable. To fly an aircraft in Class 

C airspace requires not only a two-way radio to establish and 

maintain contact with ATC, but also an encoding transponder. 

Very few balloons carry a transponder in normal operations. 

As a practical matter, under certain circumstances and with 

prior coordination, it is possible to enter or depart Class C 

airspace without an operational transponder, but the practice 

is generally discouraged. It is possible to fly in the vicinity of 

a Class C airport; for example, under the lower lateral limits 

of the outer layer, without needing to penetrate the inner 

circle. Again, a balloon pilot is well advised to remain clear 

of the controlled airspace, as a matter of common courtesy 

and good public relations.

Cloud clearances in Class C airspace are the same as Class D 

airspace: visibility of three statute miles and a distance from 

clouds of 1,000/500/2,000.

Class B Airspace

Class B airspace is generally airspace from the surface to 

10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports 

in terms of airport operations. [Figures 5-2 and 5-8] The 

configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually 

tailored, consists of a surface area and two or more layers 

(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding 

cakes). An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to 

operate in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive 

separation services within the airspace.

As a general rule, balloons do not freely operate within Class 

B airspace. Equipment requirements are the same as for Class 

C airspace; however, due to air traffic congestion, the balloon 

pilot requesting entry to Class B airspace will likely be denied 

entry, as ballooning operations inside the Class B airspace 

constitute a potential traffic conflict. Most traffic transiting 

the Class B airspace is being flown under an IFR flight plan, 

or, in the very least, provide a radar signature which allows 

ATC to provide traffic separation. Due to their construction, 

balloons do not provide a radar return much larger than a 

small flock of birds (and are frequently mistaken as such). 

Should it become necessary for operational reasons to fly 

through Class B airspace, that flight should be coordinated 

at least one hour prior, as provided for by 14 CFR section 

91.215. It is permissible, and perfectly legal, to operate 

a balloon under the lateral limits of the Class B airspace. 

Balloon pilots operating in the vicinity of Class B airspace 

are encouraged to be familiar with the airspace, including 

visual ground reference points when conducting flight under 

the lateral limits to avoid inadvertently encroaching on Class 

B airspace. Since aircraft operating in Class B airspace are 

under radar control, there is a slight difference in the cloud 

clearance requirements. Visibility remains three statute miles, 

but the only cloud clearance requirement is that the pilot 

remain clear of clouds. 

Class A Airspace

Class A airspace is generally the airspace from 18,000 feet 

MSL up to and including FL 600, including the airspace 

overlying the waters within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 

contiguous states and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, 

all operations in Class A airspace are conducted under IFR. 

For that reason, balloons do not utilize the Class A airspace, 

unless operated on a waiver or are conducting some special 

operation, such as a record attempt. 

Special Use Airspace

Special Use Airspace (or Special Area of Operation) is the 

designation for airspace in which certain activities must be 

confined, or where limitations may be imposed on aircraft 

operations that are not part of those activities. Certain special 

use airspace areas can create limitations on the mixed use of 

airspace. The special use airspace depicted on sectional charts 

includes the area name or number, effective altitude, time and 

weather conditions of operation, the controlling agency, and 

the chart panel location. On National Aeronautical Charting 

Group (NACG) sectional charts, this information is available 

on one of the end panels.

Special use airspace usually consists of:

• Prohibited areas

• Restricted areas

• Warning areas

• Military operation areas (MOAs)

• Alert areas

• Controlled firing areas
5-6

Figure 5-11. Specific information about a restricted area can be 

found on the back of the sectional chart.

Figure 5-9. An example of a prohibited area is Crawford, Texas.

Figure 5-10. Restricted areas on a sectional chart.

Prohibited Areas

Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined dimensions 

within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas 

are established for security or other reasons associated with 

the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal 

Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts. The area 

is charted as a “P” followed by a number (e.g., “P-49”). 

[Figure 5-9] Examples of prohibited areas include Camp 

David and the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the 

White House and Congressional buildings are located.

Restricted Areas

Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to 

nonparticipating aircraft and contain airspace within which 

the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject 

to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be confined 

because of their nature, or limitations may be imposed upon 

aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or 

both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often 

invisible, hazards to aircraft (e.g., artillery firing, aerial 

gunnery, or guided missiles). Penetration of restricted areas 

without authorization from the using or controlling agency 

may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants. 

ATC facilities apply the following procedures: 

1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released 

to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the 

ATC facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the 

restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance 

for it to do so.

2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released 

to the FAA, the ATC facility will issue a clearance 

which will ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted 

airspace.

Restricted areas are charted with an “R” followed by a number 

(e.g., “R-4401”) and are depicted on the sectional charts.

[Figure 5-10] Restricted area information can be obtained 

on the back of the chart. [Figure 5-11]

Warning Areas

Warning areas consist of airspace which may contain hazards 

to nonparticipating aircraft in international airspace. The 

activities may be much the same as those for a restricted 

area. Warning areas are established beyond the three mile 

limit and are depicted on aeronautical charts. Warning Areas 

are also defined on the backside of the appropriate sectional 

chart. [Figure 5-11]
5-7

Figure 5-12. Camden Ridge MOA is an example of a military operations area.

Figure 5-13. Additional information found on the sectional chart for Camden Ridge MOA.

Military Operation Areas

Military operation areas (MOA) consist of airspace of 

defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose 

of separating certain military training activity from IFR 

traffic. There is no restriction against a pilot operating 

VFR in these areas; however, a pilot should be alert 

since training activities may include acrobatic and abrupt 

maneuvers. MOAs are depicted by name and with defined 

boundaries on sectional, VFR terminal area, and en route 

low altitude charts and are not numbered (e.g., “Camden 

Ridge MOA”). [Figure 5-12] However, the MOA is also 

further defined on the back of the sectional chart with times 

of operation, altitudes affected, and the controlling agency. 

[Figure 5-13]

Alert Areas

Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts with 

an “A” followed by a number (e.g., “A-211”) to inform 

nonparticipating pilots of areas that may contain a high 

volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity. 

Pilots should exercise caution in alert areas. All activity 

within an alert area shall be conducted in accordance with 

regulations, without waiver, and pilots of participating 

aircraft, as well as pilots transiting the area, shall be equally 

responsible for collision avoidance. [Figure 5-14]
5-8

Figure 5-15. Military training routes (MTR) chart symbols.

Figure 5-14. Alert area (A-211).

Controlled Firing Areas

Controlled firing areas contain military activities, which, 

if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be 

hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The difference 

between controlled firing areas and other special use airspace 

is that activities must be suspended when a spotter aircraft, 

radar, or ground lookout position indicates an aircraft might 

be approaching the area.

Other Airspace Areas

“Other airspace areas” is a general term referring to the 

majority of the remaining airspace. It includes:

• Airport advisory areas

• Military training routes (MTR)

• Temporary flight restrictions (TFR)

• National security areas

Airport Advisory Areas

An airport advisory area is an area within 10 statute miles 

(SM) of an airport where a control tower is not operating, 

but where a flight service station (FSS) is located. At these 

locations, the FSS provides advisory service to arriving and 

departing aircraft.

Military Training Routes (MTRs)

Military Training Routes (MTRs) are routes used by military 

aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical flying. These routes 

are usually established below 10,000 feet MSL for operations 

at speeds in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may 

be defined at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity. 

Routes are identified as IFR (IR), and VFR (VR), followed by 

a number. MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet AGL are 

identified by four number characters (e.g., IR1206, VR1207). 

MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500 feet 

AGL are identified by three number characters (e.g., IR206, 

VR207). IFR Low Altitude En Route Charts depict all IR 

routes and all VR routes that accommodate operations above 

1,500 feet AGL. IR routes are conducted in accordance with 

IFR regardless of weather conditions.

MTR are usually indicated with a blue line on the sectional 

chart. A balloon pilot flying in the area of numerous VRs or 

IRs should question the briefer during the weather brief to 

find out if any of the routes are in use, and a possible time 

frame for opening and closing. While it is true that the balloon 

pilot has the right of way, the balloon will generally come out 

worse in a midair conflict with a fast-moving military aircraft. 

MTRs, such as the example depicted in Figure 5-15, are also 

further defined on the back of the sectional charts.

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)

Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) are put into effect 

when traffic in the airspace would endanger or hamper air or 

ground activities in the designated area. For example, a forest 

fire, chemical accident, flood, or disaster-relief effort could 

warrant a TFR, which would be issued as a Notice to Airmen 

(NOTAM). The NOTAM begins with the phrase “FLIGHT 

RESTRICTIONS” followed by the location of the temporary 

restriction, effective time period, area defined in statute miles, 

and altitudes affected. The NOTAM also contains the FAA 

coordination facility and telephone number, the reason for the 

restriction, and any other information deemed appropriate. The 

pilot should check the NOTAMs as part of flight planning.

The reasons for establishing a temporary restriction are:

• Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface 

from an existing or imminent hazard;

• Provide a safe environment for the operation of 

disaster relief aircraft;

• Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft 

above an incident or event, which may generate a high 

degree of public interest;
5-9

Figure 5-16. A temporary flight restriction (TFR) imposed at 

Boston’s Logan Airport to general aviation and restricting 

operations at surrounding airports.

• Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian 

reasons;

• Protect the President, Vice President, or other public 

figures; and

• Provide a safe environment for space agency 

operations.

Since the events of September 11, the use of TFRs has 

become much more common. There have been a number 

of incidents of aircraft incursions into TFRs, which have 

resulted in pilots undergoing security investigations, and 

certificate suspensions. It is a pilot’s responsibility to be 

aware of TFRs in their proposed area of flight. One way to 

check is to visit the FAA’s web site, at www.tfr.faa.gov, and 

verify that there is not a TFR in the area. [Figure 5-16]

Another TFR issue that the balloon pilot needs to be aware 

of are the restrictions imposed under 14 CFR part 91, section 

91.145. In this regulation, the FAA has codified restrictions 

against the overflight of major outdoor events, such as the 

World Series, the Rose Bowl, and NASCAR events. Several 

years ago, it was relatively common to see hot air balloons 

promoting products or services being flown over these events, 

providing exposure for the commercial sponsor. Now, there 

are significant distance and altitude restrictions for such 

events, and any operations inside the TFR area must be 

conducted under the provisions of a waiver. Should such an 

operation be contemplated, the balloon pilot should consult 

with the local Flight Service District Office (FSDO) well in 

advance of the event.

National Security Areas

National security areas (NSAs) consist of airspace with 

defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at 

locations where there is a requirement for increased security 

and safety of ground facilities. Flight in NSAs may be 

temporarily prohibited by regulation under the provisions 

of 14 CFR part 99, and prohibitions will be disseminated 

via NOTAM.

Radio Communications

When utilizing the NAS, there are many occasions when it is 

necessary to communicate with a control tower, a controlling 

agency, or another aircraft. Balloon pilots should have a 

working knowledge of correct radio procedures in order 

to properly exercise their privileges, and not interfere with 

other aviation traffic.

Aviation very-high-frequency (VHF) radios may be used 

for communications between the balloon pilot and towers, 

pilot to FSS, air to air (pilot to pilot), air to ground in 

some circumstances, and to get information from weather 

facilities and automated stations. VHF radios are not to be 

used as a “telephone service” or in a Citizen’s Band-type of 

operation; this use is specifically prohibited by the Federal 

Communications Commission (FCC), and may result in 

monetary fines.

There is no license requirement for a pilot operating in the 

United States; however, a pilot who may be operating outside 

the country is required to hold a restricted radiotelephone 

permit issued by the FCC. There is also no station license 

requirement for a handheld radio used in a balloon, as 

it is not permanently mounted. A station license may be 

required when a balloon is operated outside the country; it 

is best to check with the appropriate local authorities before 

contemplating such an operation.

The single most important aspect of radio communication is 

clarity. Keeping one’s transmissions brief, and using correct 

terminology and phraseology when operating an aircraft 

radio is imperative. All frequencies are shared with others; a 

pilot’s idle chatter to a chase crew could inadvertently block 

another pilot’s emergency transmission at an airfield many 

miles away. A good pilot will minimize radio requirements, 

and think before speaking.
5-10

0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Z

Y

X

W

V

U

T

S

R

Q

P

O

N

M

L

K

J

I

H

G

F

E

D

C

B

A

Character Telephony Phonic (Pronunciation)

Figure 5-17. Phonetic alphabet.

Radio Procedures

The Pilot/Controller Glossary (found in the AIM) contains 

correct language for communications between a pilot at ATC 

facilities. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark 

of a conscientious pilot. Jargon, slang, and “CB” codes should 

not be used in radio communications.

A pilot should listen to the radio before transmitting. Do not 

clutter the frequency with inappropriate requests or irrelevant 

information. Most pilots will think before keying their radio, 

and keep the transmission as brief as possible. The pilot 

should be occupied with control of the balloon and should 

not be spending time on the radio.

When Departing a Nontowered Airport

A balloon pilot departing a nontowered airport should make 

a call on the field’s UNICOM or CTAF (Common Traffic 

Advisory Frequency), both of which are generally shown on 

the appropriate sectional chart. The pilot should state his or 

her location and intentions, as a “self-announce” advisory, so 

that other air traffic in the area is aware of the operation.

Example: “Williamson traffic, balloon 3584 Golf departing 

the grass near hanger 12 to the east.”

When Approaching a Nontowered Airport

If an approach to a nontowered airport is conducted, with 

the intent to land, the pilot should again “self-announce” on 

the appropriate UNICOM frequency or CTAF. The current 

location should be stated, as well as the pilot’s intentions.

Example: “Air Acres traffic, balloon 3584 Golf approaching 

from the west for landing at the departure end of the 

runway.”

When Transiting a Nontowered Facility

If flight in the vicinity of a nontowered airport is likely, with 

no intent to land at the airfield, it is appropriate to let other 

aircraft in the area know the intentions, particularly if there 

is the possibility of interfering with the traffic pattern. 

Example: “Enterprise traffic, balloon 7510 Delta at 700 feet, 

transiting from east to west along the north boundary of the 

field, no landing.” 

When Approaching Controlled Airspace

When approaching controlled airspace, and it appears that 

entry into the airspace is likely (or desired), the balloon 

pilot should contact the appropriate approach control with 

enough time to execute a landing, should entry be denied. 

Remember that a balloon usually does not have the option 

of turning around.

Phonetic Alphabet

The ICAO, of which the United States is a member, has 

adopted a phonetic alphabet, which should be used in radio 

communications as necessary. When communicating with 

air traffic control facilities, pilots should use this alphabet 

to identify their aircraft. [Figure 5-15]
5-11

Light Gun Signals

Color and type of signal Aircraft on the ground Aircraft in flight

Steady green

Steady red

Flashing red

Alternating red and green

Cleared for takeoff

Stop

Taxi clear of the runway in use

Exercise extreme caution

Cleared to land

Give way to other aircraft and

continue circling

Airport unsafe, do not land

Exercise extreme caution

Figure 5-18. Light gun signals.

Many balloon pilots fly for years without using a radio of any 

kind. Using an aircraft radio is not a difficult task, and, with 

practice, can provide a more enjoyable flight. Most ATCs 

express an interest in balloons, and go out of their way to 

assist balloon pilots in accomplishing their flight safely. 

Chapter Summary

At first glance, the NAS appears to be a complex arena 

in which to operate such a simple aircraft. This chapter 

simplifies the airspace to the reader, and makes it readily 

apparent that it is possible to operate a hot air balloon safely, 

without causing conflict.

Simple courtesy and common sense goes a long way in 

airspace operations. A complete and thorough understanding 

of the airspace, combined with good decision-making, will 

allow the pilot to do what he or she wishes, with recognition 

of the needs of other users of the sky. 

Example: “Huntsville Approach, balloon 903 Hotel Delta, 

at 3,000.”

The approach control facility (in this example, Huntsville 

Approach) will either reply by saying, “Aircraft calling 

Huntsville Approach, standby”, in which case the balloon 

pilot does not have a clearance to enter the airspace; or, 

approach will reply, saying “Balloon 903 Hotel Delta, 

Huntsville, standby.” In this case, the aircraft call sign 

was used, and the pilot may enter the airspace. Further 

communication may continue until the balloon has either 

landed or cleared the airspace.

In the event that radio communication has failed, or that no 

radio is available in the balloon, and continued flight into 

the immediate vicinity of an towered airport facility cannot 

be avoided, control towers have a “light gun” available. 

This device, which looks like an oversized flare gun, allows 

tower personnel to “shoot” a directed beam of light at an 

approaching aircraft, and may signal field availability options 

to the approaching balloon. [Figure 5-16]
5-12
6-1

Introduction

This chapter introduces inflation and launch of the balloon. 

It also provides useful information on checklists, crew and 

crew management, false lift, and landowner relations.

Preflight Operations

The preflight, as an aeronautical term, is generally agreed 

to be the airworthiness check of an aircraft immediately 

before flight. In the broadest sense, preflight is everything 

accomplished in preparation for a flight. In this chapter, 

preflight operations occur at the balloon launch site, up to 

and including the preflight inspection.

Layout To Launch

Chapter 6
6-2

Figure 6-1. Using a checklist.

Checklists

The value of using a checklist is well known to the airlines and 

the military. Regulations require air carrier pilots and military 

pilots to use checklists. Also, Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) practical tests require pilot certificate applicants to 

use checklists. Checklists are effective and contribute to safe 

flying because routine and familiarity breed complacency. 

Like military and airline pilots, balloonists who fly every day 

need a checklist to ensure nothing is omitted. For example, 

professional balloon ride operators are subject to distractions 

and interruptions during their preflight, layout, assembly, and 

inspection. Infrequent balloon flyers, which include most 

balloonists, need checklists because long periods of inactivity 

create memory lapses. A typical balloonist may make only 

25 to 30 flights per year or less. A checklist does not replace 

proficiency, but it helps. [Figure 6-1]

A checklist can also save time. By arranging the layout, 

assembly, and inspection in a logical order, and accomplishing 

more than one task at a time, duplication and wasted time 

is minimized. For instance, a properly arranged preflight 

checklist includes many tasks that are performed while the 

fan is running, so people are not just standing around waiting 

for the envelope to inflate. Also, a checklist eliminates 

needless walking. Students and new pilots need checklists 

because they are forming habit patterns, and need prompting 

to reinforce training and confirm good habits.

There are two theories regarding checklists. One popular 

procedure is the “call-and-response” method. One person 

reads the checklist, and the pilot responds that the item is 

in the proper configuration. This is rather time consuming, 

and probably not appropriate for ballooning activities. At the 

other extreme are large groupings of components and items 

to check with a casual glance to confirm that those items look 

correct. Perhaps the best methodology suited for ballooning 

is smaller groupings (i.e., basket, burner and fuel system, 

instruments, envelope security) and using the checklist as 

an outline to ensure that each item is checked. It may be 

appropriate to create a habit pattern of physically touching 

particular items to ensure security and proper operation. 

Pilots are cautioned that a checklist is not necessarily a “todo” list. Flight training should emphasize proper procedures 

and habits, with a checklist used to confirm that tasks have 

been completed.

Preflight Inspection Checklist

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) and the 

practical test standards (PTS) for balloon pilot certification 

require the pilot to inspect the balloon by systematically 

utilizing an appropriate checklist prior to each flight. Most 

balloon manufacturers include a preflight inspection checklist 

in the flight manual. This may be used as the basis for a 

personalized preflight checklist. Each balloon manufacturer 

lists maximum allowable damage with which a balloon may 

fly and still be considered airworthy. Balloon pilots should 

be familiar with the manufacturer’s maximum allowable 

damage rules for their balloon and abide by them.

Using a written checklist, the pilot should make certain that 

the balloon is correctly laid out for inflation, all control 

lines are attached, the fuel system is operating correctly, 

maximum allowable damage limits are not exceeded, and all 

components are ready for flight. The pilot is responsible for 

all aspects of flight, including preflight operations. 

The best checklist is one each pilot develops for his or her 

individual balloon. A good source for checklist items is the 

manufacturer of the balloon. Also, checklists from other 

pilots and manufacturers may be incorporated into a personal 

checklist. Remember, a checklist is a living document that 

changes when modifications or additions are appropriate.

Emergency Checklist

Carefully study and memorize emergency checklists. Do 

not try to read a checklist during an emergency; that is 

for an aircraft with two- or three-person crews and at high 

altitude. During an emergency, take prompt action to resolve 

the problem, and when the situation permits, refer to the 

balloon’s flight manual to ensure all necessary items have 

been accomplished. The single most important action in an 

emergency is to continue to fly the balloon and regain control 

of the situation. Appendix C contains sample checklists that 

may be used or modified to meet specific requirements for 

a particular balloon system or flight operation. 
6-3

Smoke begins drifting off of vertical at 2–3 mph

Most deciduous tree leaves begin rustling above 4–5 mph 

(except aspens, birch, and other broadleaf trees, which

respond at lower wind speeds)

Twigs sway and flags extend around 7–8 mph

Dust and paper kick up off the ground above 12 mph

Wires and ropes whistle above 20 mph

Simple Wind Observations

Figure 6-2. Simple wind observations.

Figure 6-3. Checking wind velocity with a handheld wind meter.

Weather Brief

As previously discussed, a weather brief must be obtained 

prior to flight; as a procedural matter, the information from 

the briefing sets the parameters for the flight (launch site, 

flight track, and potential landing areas). 

All electronic sites and briefings represent the starting point 

for how weather affects the flight. A balloon pilot should 

not make the mistake of gathering weather data, getting 

a forecast, deciding to fly, and then paying less attention 

to actual weather cues. Weather monitoring is an ongoing 

process that starts on the drive to the launch field and 

continues until the balloon is packed after landing. Continue 

gathering weather data for the flight until safely back on the 

ground.

Despite using the most current and complete electronic 

weather data available to consider before driving out for 

the flight, each pilot must never lose sight of the fact that 

hot air balloons are visual flight rules (VFR) aircraft. Many 

pilots lose all access to unlimited or even selected electronic 

weather information en route to or at the launch site. Unless 

the launch site is a reporting station for any weather service, 

a pilot is required to visually interpret and evaluate weather 

data specific to the launch site. Local surface conditions—

particularly winds below 500'–800'—show the greatest 

variability of both speed and direction. These winds are 

perhaps of greatest importance in determining the conditions 

and risks for launch and landing. A number of simple 

observations enable the balloon pilot to gather this data at the 

launch site, as well as during the flight. [Figure 6-2]

The balloon can sometimes provide valuable weather 

information provided the pilot knows what to look for. Fabrics 

on a laid-out envelope begin rippling around eight miles per 

hour (mph), while 10–12 mph sends small bubbles of air past 

a closed throat and up along the load tapes. Such information, 

perhaps unavailable or inaccurate elsewhere, can prove 

invaluable, especially during the initial phase of flight.

Each pilot must sharpen his or her ability to read and interpret 

local surface conditions for one primary reason: up to 1 

hour may elapse between gathering weather data online and 

laying out at the launch site. Weather patterns can change 

in far less time than this, and local conditions can change 

almost instantly.

Some pilots choose to rely on a portable weather station 

or handheld wind meter to monitor local conditions at the 

launch site. Cost, size, portability, and features vary among 

brands, but each can provide useful information on wind 

speed/direction, maximum gusts, and other weather data. 

These can range from a small $100 handheld wind meter 

to a $500 weather station with 15" mast and dashboard data 

display. [Figure 6-3]

Perhaps the cheapest yet most valuable launch site weather 

aid is the pibal or pilot balloon, a 10–14" helium-filled 

balloon released at the launch site for visual weather cues 

and forecast confirmation. Some pibal actions clearly mean 

cancel the flight: rolling along the ground, not clearing 

obstacles, climbing then diving, or dramatic speed/direction 

changes (which indicate wind shears). To read and confirm 

winds at different altitudes, release several pibals at 10–20 

second intervals. Fill the first with 100 percent helium, the 

second with mostly helium and a breath of air from your 

mouth, and the third with helium and two breaths. This 

creates different rates of ascent which helps gain a better 

perspective of the low level winds. Every pilot benefits from 

having pibals in their vehicle and using them before launch. 

Appendix D lists various rates of climb for different sizes 

of pibals; using this knowledge, the pilot can determine the 

altitudes at which the winds change. 
6-4

Every pilot and crewmember can build a mental database of 

visual cues that report weather data. More important than prelaunch weather is inflight weather, which is further removed 

in time from forecast conditions (electronic or briefings) 

but can change just as fast and dramatically. Wind speed 

or direction changes can signal developing rain or frontal 

movement. Radar returns require human interpretation and 

can miss developing conditions or provide false echoes off 

birds or buildings. Weather-savvy pilots and crew gather 

weather information from whatever source is available to 

them anywhere, at any time.

Performance Planning/Fuel Planning

The good balloon pilot checks the balloon’s performance 

charts, considering that day’s conditions, and comes to a 

reasonable conclusion regarding the limitations of the balloon 

for that particular flight. Prior to flight (and perhaps even prior 

to layout), fuel gauges should be checked to ensure there is 

sufficient fuel on board to conduct the planned flight. 

The Chase Crew

Generally, there are two different areas of responsibility for 

a crew: inflation/launch and chase/recovery. Both are usually 

referred to as ground crew. Passengers often serve as inflation 

crew, become passengers for the flight, and crew again after 

the balloon has landed. Before the noise and activity make 

discussion difficult, the pilot should give the crew briefing 

and discuss any requirements before inflation.

Number of Crewmembers

The number of crewmembers is a matter of individual 

preference and depends upon the size of the balloon, purpose 

of the flight, terrain, and other factors. When using a small 

balloon for instruction, a crew of three people, including 

the instructor, student, and one crew, may be sufficient. 

For passenger flights in large balloons, a larger number 

of crewmembers are generally required. Having too many 

people in the chase vehicle may be a distraction for the driver. 

The recommended minimum crew for the vehicle is two: 

one person to drive and the other to navigate and serve as a 

balloon “spotter.” This is perhaps the safest method. 

The optimum size inflation crew for a sport balloon is four 

people—the pilot operating the burner, two people holding the 

mouth open, and one person on the crown line. Some pilots opt 

to have a fifth person serve as a fan operator; this is a matter 

of technique and personal preference. Many pilots prefer a 

larger number of crewmembers; however, it is important to 

be aware that too many crewmembers may often be working 

against each other due to lack of coordination. In windy or 

crowded situations, it is important to have a person holding 

the crown line. If inflation requires more crew than usual, 

due to the windy conditions, consideration should be given to 

canceling the flight. Although the balloon may get airborne, 

chances are that flying out of one’s comfort zone and having 

to prepare for a very windy landing may impair concentration. 

The distraction may hinder safe, enjoyable flying.

Clothing

Crewmembers, as well as the pilot, should be clothed for safety 

and comfort. Cover or restrain long hair. Scarves, hanging 

jewelry, or loose eyeglasses can interfere with smooth setup, 

and can potentially be very dangerous, particularly near the 

inflation fan. Long sleeves and long trousers made of cotton 

instead of synthetic material are recommended. Try to wear 

clothes in layers since temperatures can change quite a bit 

from before sunrise to the recovery. Proper clothing protects 

participants from burns, poison oak/ivy, and other harmful 

plants.

All crewmembers should wear gloves, preferably smooth 

leather, loose fitting, and easy to remove. Wear comfortable 

and protective footwear. If it becomes necessary to walk or 

hike from a landing site inaccessible by the chase vehicle, 

proper clothing and footwear make the task easier and less 

hazardous.

Types of Flight

Knowing the function or purpose of a flight is important to 

the crew, so they know the goals of the operation; possible 

time aloft; probable direction(s) of flight; probable altitudes; 

communications, if any, to be used; and useful maps or 

charts. Balloon flights can be classified into several different 

types: paid passenger, instruction, race, rally, advertising/

promotion, and fun.

Many commercial balloon pilots defray the cost of the sport 

by offering paid passenger rides. The crew should know 

that these passengers are paying for the privilege, and may 

have been promised a certain type and length of flight. 

Instructional flights require the crew follow the direction 

of the instructor, so the student may see and participate as 

much as possible. The crew should work closely with the 

instructor and student and not take over any portion of the 

operation, thus denying the student the opportunity to learn. 

For competitions, crew responsibilities may be different. 

The pilot may have only a single goal in mind and focus 

on that goal. The crew’s job is always to help the pilot, but 

in the case of the competition flight, the crew should try to 

relieve the pilot of some of the routine tasks so he or she may 

concentrate on the goals. Regardless of the type of flight, the 

crew is there to support the pilot in conducting a safe and 

successful flight operation. 
6-5

Figure 6-4. Crew briefing.

Direction of Flight

The first element of the flight the chase crew must know is the 

direction the balloon is going. It is important to understand 

that the balloon’s direction is very difficult to detect from 

a moving vehicle. Many pilots recommend the chase crew 

drive the chase vehicle away from the launch site only far 

enough to get the vehicle out of the way of the balloon (and 

other balloons) and to be clear of any possible spectator 

crowds. As soon as the crew is sure they are clear of other 

traffic, they should park in a suitable place with a good view 

of the balloon, and determine the balloon’s direction of 

flight. There is no point in rushing after the balloon until the 

direction it is going is known. The balloon changes direction 

shortly after launch if the winds aloft are different from the 

surface winds.

After a while, the crew should proceed to a point estimated 

to be in the balloon’s path. In other words, get in front of 

the balloon so it flies over the chase vehicle. If the balloon is 

moving at five knots, the chase crew need drive only a short 

time to get in front of the balloon. The direction of flight is 

much easier to determine if the balloon is floating directly 

toward the vehicle rather than flying parallel to the vehicle’s 

path. If a radio is not being used, as the balloon flies over 

the chase vehicle, the pilot and crew can communicate by 

voice or with hand signals. In this instance, the crew should 

be outside the vehicle with the engine turned off.

The Crew Briefing

Crew briefings vary from a few last minute instructions (to 

an experienced, regular crew), or a long, detailed discourse 

on how to layout, assemble, inflate, chase, recover, and pack 

a balloon. [Figure 6-4] A pilot can give crew briefings by 

telephone the night before, or in the chase vehicle on the 

way to the launch site, but most crew briefings are done at 

the launch site prior to the flight. It is important for the pilot 

to remember who is ultimately responsible for the entire 

operation and that the crew is the pilot’s representative on 

the ground. 

Whether this is the crewmembers’ first time or one-hundredth 

time crewing, they should be briefed before each flight. 

Instructions contained in the briefing may be less detailed 

for an experienced crew. The following instructions should 

be given for each flight:

• Estimated length of flight and any information that 

aids the chase and recovery

• Anticipated direction of flight

• Position and duties during inflation

• Duties once the balloon has reached equilibrium

A typical flight briefing may be “I intend to make a 1 hour 

flight and I have about 2 hours of fuel on board. From 

my weather briefing and the pibal, I should travel in a 

southeasterly direction; but if I go west, I will land before 

getting to the freeway. I will probably do a lot of contour 

flying, but may go up to 2,000 feet to look around. Let’s 

use channel six on the radio. There is a county road map on 

the front seat.”

“Patricia, you will be the crew chief for today’s flight, as 

well as the driver. The keys to the van are in the ignition, 

and there is a spare set in the console. I would like you and 

Bob to do the mouth this morning. Bob, you will be on the 

side away from the fan. Pat will show you what needs to be 

done, and I will double check you during the inflation. You 

will also be navigating, so we will have a look at the map 

together in a minute. Susan, you will be on the fan. Be sure 

to keep people away from the plane of the fan, and please do 

not move the fan while it is running. Leslie, you are on the 

crown line today. You have done it before, so I know that 

you know the procedures, but as a reminder, do not wrap any 

lines around your hand, arm, or body. I will check with you 

a couple of times during the inflation to make sure you are 

positioned properly.”

“Any questions? Good. Sleeves down, gloves on, and let’s 

go!”

The Crown Line

The duty of the crown line crewmember is to hold the end of 

the line, lean away from the envelope, and use body weight to 

stabilize the envelope. As the air is heated and the envelope 

starts to rise, the crewmember holding the crown line should 

allow the line to pull him or her towards the basket, putting 

only enough resistance on the line to keep the envelope from 

swaying or moving too fast. Release the tension slowly after 

the envelope is vertical. [Figure 6-5]
6-6

End of crown line

Basket

Figure 6-5. Crew can often stabilize a rolling envelope by taking a 

single crown line 45° off of downwind and walking directly upwind 

on stand-up.

Figure 6-6. Double crown lines forming a 90° or wider angle offer 

the greatest inflation stability provided crew walk them directly 

upwind on stand-up.

The crown line varies in length. Some pilots let the line 

hang straight down; some pilots connect the end of the line 

to the basket or burner frame. Other pilots keep the line only 

long enough to assist with a windy inflation, or deflation in 

a confined area. Usually, there are no knots in the crown 

line, but you might find a type of loop attached to it. Some 

pilots put knots in their line, or attach flags or other objects. 

These may snag in trees and cause problems. Lines tied to 

the basket form a huge loop that may snag a tree limb and 

should be secured with a light, breakaway tie.

To improve control, some pilots use a double crown line 

during very windy conditions. This technique, as shown in 

Figure 6-6, allows for better control of the envelope when 

winds may be gusting, but still within reasonable flight limits, 

as may be present in an afternoon launch. Many pilots launch 

in afternoon winds, knowing that winds generally decrease 

significantly as sunset approaches. One advantage of this 

technique is that the balloon can be kept stable in fairly gusty 

winds, even if held on the ground for an extended period of 

time. This may be helpful for the pilot who may be doing 

a static (non-flying) tether, or perhaps during an evening 

“balloon glow” when winds may remain gusty until well 

after sunset. 

Launch Site

When selecting a launch site, factors to consider are obstacles 

in direction of flight (powerlines, buildings, towers, etc.), 

available landing sites, and the launch site surface. 

Location and Obstacles

The launch site is selected based on surface winds and 

winds aloft, in conjunction with the desires of the balloon 

pilot. Consideration is given to what type of flight is being 

made and to the overall goal of the flight. Upon arriving at 

a particular launch site, most pilots release another pibal to 

verify the wind direction, and ensure that the forecasts or 

earlier readings have not changed significantly. 

Ideally, the launch site should be a large, open grassy area. 

Obstacles in the flight path are a consideration. As a general 

rule, the balloon should be placed as far as possible upwind 

of any obstructions to flight (powerlines, trees, buildings, 

etc.), using a minimum of 100 feet of clearance for each knot 

of wind. [Figure 6-7]
6-7

Figure 6-7. Examples of good (top) and poor (bottom) launch sites. In the top picture, the pilot would have adequate clearance above 

the power lines at the far end of the field, as well as more than adequate area to layout the envelope. In the bottom picture, the pilot 

would have a very short area to lay out. There are obvious obstacles, such as the trees and cell phone tower, which create hazards to a 

safe launch.
6-8

Figure 6-8. Unloading the basket and moving the vehicle forward 

minimizes equipment carrying.

Landing Sites

The best launch site is of little use if there are no appropriate 

landing sites downwind. Many pilots examine their flight path 

from the perspective of the landing area, particularly in an 

area of few landing fields, and “reverse plan” their launch 

site in order to make the appropriate choice of launch sites. 

Occassionally, this may require using a launch site that may 

be somewhat less than desirable. As long as the launch can 

be made safely, with appropriate obstacle clearance, this is 

perfectly acceptable. 

Launch Site Surface

After determining the flight direction, the next condition 

that determines the details of the balloon layout is the actual 

launch site surface. Of course, all pilots want to lay out their 

balloon on clean, dry, short, green grass. Most pilots are not 

that fortunate unless they have their own launch site and never 

fly from different places. Wise pilots modify their techniques 

according to available conditions, or they have more than one 

layout procedure to adapt to various launch sites.

Whether flying from a regular launch site, a brand new 

location, or from an assigned square at a rally, check the 

ground for items that may damage or soil the balloon. Look 

for and remove nails, sharp rocks, twigs, branches, and other 

foreign objects. If there are patches of oil or other substances, 

cover them with pieces of carpet, floor mats from the chase 

vehicle, tarps, or the envelope bag. Some pilots cover the 

ground where they lay out their balloon with a large tarp 

every time they fly.

Unless flying at a known site, do not assume it is all right to 

drive the chase vehicle directly onto the launch area. There 

are some locations (a soft athletic field, for example) where 

it is necessary to carry the balloon onto the launch area. If 

using private property, it is necessary to get permission to 

use the property for flight activities. This may be the first 

experience with landowner relations, and the considerate 

pilot takes action to minimize his or her impact on the 

landowner’s property. Landowner relations are an important 

part of ballooning, and are discussed in greater detail later 

in this chapter.

Balloon Placement and Wind Direction

Consider the wind direction before the balloon is unloaded 

from the chase vehicle. Take into account the surface wind at 

the time of cold inflation to avoid carrying a heavy balloon 

bag and basket around. A “Murphy’s Law” type of rule is that 

the wind always changes during inflation. Local knowledge 

is invaluable. If other balloons are around, check with the 

most experienced local pilot.

A wind change at or shortly after sunrise is normal in many 

places. If the balloon is laid out prior to sunrise, a wind change 

is likely. If flying in a new area, it is beneficial to watch the 

local pilots, as they have knowledge of local conditions and 

idiosyncrasies. Some general trends are that air usually flows 

downhill or down valley first thing in the morning, and air 

usually flows from cold to warm in the morning. The air 

drainage may stop very shortly after the sun rises and starts 

heating the ground. The early morning wind may come from 

a different direction than the prevailing or predicted wind. 

Some local pilots may lay their balloons out in a direction 

that does not match the airflow at the time, but that corrects 

15 to 30 minutes later when the sunrise change occurs and 

the inflation starts. 

Removing the Balloon from the Vehicle

Once the specific location on the launch field has been 

determined, the balloon should be removed from the 

vehicle, or unloaded from its trailer, and prepared for flight. 

[Figure 6-8] Good procedures and habit patterns formed here 

minimize the amount of lifting of balloon components, and 

reduces the wear and tear on the crew and the pilot, as well as 

the equipment itself. Despite being a lighter-than-air aircraft, 

the packed balloon and basket are heavy; the average sport 

balloon system can weigh over 550 pounds.

One method is for the pilot to establish the specific location 

and direction of layout, and direct that the basket be placed 

there. The transport vehicle maneuvers to allow the basket 

to be removed and placed at the pilot’s discretion, and then 

pulls forward about 15 or 20 feet to allow for the envelope bag 

and inflator fan to be removed and placed on the ground. The 

vehicle may then be removed from the launch site, or moved 
6-9

Figure 6-9. Burner installation on a Lindstrand.

to the back of the basket to serve as a tie-off point for the 

balloon’s quick-release system. This method minimizes the 

amount of lifting and carrying of heavy components. When 

used in reverse, it allows for the system to be packed up at 

the end of the flight, and kept ready for a future flight.

Assembly

If the basket is disassembled for transport and handling, it 

must be assembled in accordance with the flight manual prior 

to layout. The pilot, using the checklist, should either perform 

these functions or carefully supervise them.

Basket

Once the basket is appropriately placed, it is necessary to 

attach the uprights and burner frame (as appropriate). Each 

brand of balloon is slightly different, and the balloon’s flight 

manual should be checked for the specific procedures. Some 

balloon baskets must be placed on their side to install the 

uprights and burner, while some may be left standing upright. 

Either way, after the components are installed, they should 

be checked for installation, integrity, security, and general 

condition.

Burner and Fuel System

If not accomplished in the previous step, the burner(s) (or 

heater) should be mounted and connected. Retaining pins, 

as applicable, must be mounted, and fuel lines connected 

between the burner and the tanks. The practice of using 

an adjustable wrench on fuel line fittings is discouraged; 

while convenient, these wrenches usually cause excessive 

wear on the fittings over time, and may result in damage or 

early replacement. It is usually better to use the correct size 

open-end wrench. Fittings do not need to be heavily torqued 

into place; this is a common error with newer pilots. A good 

fitting usually seals with little more than finger-tight force. 

Anything more may indicate corrosion or a damaged flange 

seal in the fitting. [Figure 6-9]

It is appropriate to check for leaks in the fuel system at this 

point; this should be a checklist item. The pilot opens the 

fuel tank valves and checks each connection, at both tank and 

burner, by using a “sniff test.” The odorant in propane, ethyl 

mercaptan, has a very distinctive odor and is relatively easy 

to detect. The burner should also be examined to ensure that 

no fuel is leaking from fittings, pressure gauges, or interior 

plumbing. Once satisfied that there are no leaks, the fuel may 

be turned off and the pressure bled off. The basket should 

then be placed in a vertical position to prepare for the next 

function check.

Burner Check

Most manufacturers require burner checks as a necessary 

part of an equipment function check and are indicative of 

good habit patterns. Each system has a specific procedure, 

appropriate to that particular system, which is outlined in 

the flight manual for that model of balloon. In general, each 

burner, including the pilot light, is checked individually 

for correct operation to ensure that the burner is working 

properly. Each burner is checked using each fuel tank, and all 

backup systems should also be checked for correct function 

and operation.

As an example, assume a single burner balloon with three 

tanks connected into a common fuel line (tanks in parallel). 

The pilot would first light the pilot lights and check for 

correct operation. Then, one tank would be opened, and the 

blast valve activated. The pilot checks for correct operation, 

smooth blast valve movement, and for pressure in the fuel 

system, as excessive loss of pressure may be indicative of a 

fuel tank or line problem. This procedure should be repeated 

for each tank, closing off the first tank when moving to the 

second, and so on. After all tanks are checked, then the 

backup system (Fire2TM, WhispervalveTM, Liquid FireTM, 

Metering Valve, etc.) should also be tested. Once all systems 

are checked for functionality, then the tanks should be closed, 

pressure released from the fuel system by burning off the fuel, 

and the basket placed on its side in preparation for attaching 

the envelope. (NOTE: At no time should all of the tanks in 

a parallel-plumbed system be opened at once. In the event 
6-10

Figure 6-10. The altimeter should be set to barometric pressure, if 

available, or to the field elevation.

or missing sheathing (found on Kevlar® suspension cables). 

Once the envelope is attached, the hardware should be 

checked for security and the envelope laid out for inflation.

Layout

There are many variations of laying out a balloon and 

preparing it for inflation. The manufacturer of the balloon or 

the way the balloon is assembled sets some of these inflation 

styles. The launch site surface, the order in which the balloon 

is assembled, and how the balloon is removed from the chase 

vehicle have a bearing on the way the preflight layout and 

inspection proceeds. There is no one best way to lay out 

a balloon, as there is no one best way to inflate a balloon. 

The two most common ways to prepare the balloon for cold 

inflation are to spread it out or inflate from a long strip.

The pilot should be mindful of current conditions prior to 

removing the envelope from its bag. It is wise to take a 

moment and walk around the launch site to check the surface 

for any debris that may damage the balloon.

As a cautionary note, do not drag the envelope bag along the 

ground when pulling the envelope out. Many envelopes have 

holes and tears caused by being dragged over sharp objects 

while getting the envelope out of the bag. Lift the bag clear 

of the ground and carry it unless the launch surface is perfect 

with no sharp objects or dirty spots.

Spread Layout

The spread layout method for inflation is the most widely 

used method. By handling the envelope with the load tapes, 

the fabric is pulled away from the center until the envelope 

takes its normal shape while still flat on the ground. Exercise 

of a fuel leak or ruptured hose, there are three or more tanks 

feeding the leak. This is an extremely hazardous practice.) 

Pilots should also note that there is a growing trend towards 

the use of inflation, or “pony” tanks, used to supplement onboard fuel for inflation. Use of an inflation tank allows the 

pilot to launch with completely full tanks, as the additional 

tank is either temporarily plumbed into the balloon’s fuel 

system by the use of a quick-disconnect fitting, or hoses 

are switched around at the burner fitting. There is no 

manufacturer’s written procedure available for the use of an 

inflation tank, and the procedure is strongly discouraged. Of 

perhaps greater concern is the mindset that the one or two 

gallon advantage this gives the pilot, is of greater concern 

than the safety aspect of the procedure. If a pilot consistently 

requires these one or two gallons of fuel to safely conduct 

a flight, then there are possibly other performance planning 

factors being neglected. 

Most pilots conduct a burner check at the beginning of each 

flight. Others, if conducting multiple flights over a relatively 

short period of time (a weekend balloon rally, for example), 

may do a full burner check for the first flight only, and then 

only check for leaks on each remaining flight. This practice, 

while common, may violate the manufacturer’s operations 

manual and invites problems; it is best avoided. 

Instrument Checks

It is appropriate to check the instruments at this point. 

Virtually all instrument systems currently in use require 

battery power; it is wise to check the instruments, and 

ensure that the batteries provide sufficient power to operate 

them. There is nothing more frustrating than being ready to 

fly and finding that the instruments do not work. After the 

instruments are checked for operation, they may be mounted 

in the basket. Some pilots choose to set the altimeter at this 

time; the barometric pressure should be set according to the 

information gathered during the weather briefing. In the 

absence of a barometric pressure setting, the altimeter should 

be set to the appropriate field elevation. The only time that 

the altimeter may be set to zero is when the balloon is being 

flown from an ocean beach; 14 CFR part 91, section 91.121 

provides clarification on this requirement. This is necessary 

to avoid airspace issues. [Figure 6-10]

At this point, the basket is on its side with the instruments 

mounted and ready for the envelope to be attached. The 

pilot and crew should open the envelope bag, remove the 

suspension cables and attachment hardware (carabiners, 

“A-blocks,” or toggles), and attach the bottom of the 

envelope to the basket superstructure in accordance with the 

manufacturer’s instructions. Care should be taken that cables 

are not twisted and are free of damage, kinks, loose wires, 
6-11

Figure 6-11. A spread layout.

Figure 6-12. A strip layout.

basket according to the manufacturer’s instructions. This 

method minimizes handling the fabric on a rough or dirty 

surface. It requires more diligence by the ground crew to 

ensure it deploys correctly.

Progressive Fill

Inflation out of the bag is a coordinated technique in which 

the envelope is cold inflated directly out of the bag. With 

the envelope suspension connected to the basket, it is pulled 

progressively out of the bag as the fan is running, inflating 

the envelope as the crew slowly, with pauses, carries the 

balloon bag away from the basket while the envelope fills. 

Another variation, the progressive fill, has the crew holding 

the envelope in their arms, gradually releasing more and more 

of the envelope, from mouth to top, until the very top of the 

envelope is released for filling. The progressive fill packs the 

lower portion of the envelope with cold air, and exposes less 

of the fabric to the ground. This method generally results in 

a faster inflation, but may create problems with attaching a 

parachute top or ensuring that lines are not tangled. 

Inflator Fan Placement

The type of inflator fan needed for different layout techniques 

depends primarily on the amount of work required. The 

strip layout method requires a large, strong fan to force the 

envelope into shape, while the spread layout method requires 

less fan energy.

Fan placement and techniques are as varied as the pilots who 

fly. It may appear that every pilot has a slightly different 

technique for placement and use of the fan, but the general 

principle is the same. The fan should be placed to the side of 

the basket [Figure 6-13], with the air flow directed into the 

mouth of the balloon to inflate the envelope, but far enough 

care when sliding the fabric across the ground to avoid 

causing damage.

All balloons have an even number of load tapes. By using the 

number on the load tape when spreading the envelope, the 

envelope can be arranged in a proper position for inflation. 

With one crewmember on each side of the envelope fabric, 

start at the mouth and travel the length of the appropriate load 

tape, pulling the fabric taut up to the equator. This allows the 

bottom to be laid out flat. Be careful to handle only the load 

tapes when positioning the envelope because pulling on the 

fabric could cause damage. Holding a load tape and flapping 

up and down gently helps avoid tears and other damage while 

spreading the envelope. This action traps a small bubble of air 

which floats, rather than drags fabric and keeps the balloon 

cleaner and easier to pull. [Figure 6-11]

Check the deflation system at this time and properly position 

it in accordance with the balloon flight manual. While the 

envelope is filling with air, the crew can assist the process 

by lifting upward on the load tapes, allowing more cold air to 

pack the envelope. This method allows the envelope to deploy 

smoothly and easily, even with a small inflation fan.

Strip Layout

When inflating on pavement or a small or narrow launch site, 

many pilots prefer not to deploy the envelope on the ground. 

Instead, they prefer to pull the envelope straight out from 

the basket, making sure the top gore is on top its full length, 

and to inflate the envelope entirely with the fan. This may 

require a larger fan, depending on the size of the balloon and 

envelope material. [Figure 6-12]

Once the balloon is stretched out, ensure the control lines 

(deflation, cooling, or rotating) are correctly attached to the 
6-12

Figure 6-14. Determining correct inflation fan placement. Note that 

the strips of tape are generally pointing into the mouth. In this case, 

the pilot would do well to incline the fan slightly towards the right 

side of the mouth, in order to better “seal” the envelope opening, 

and get a more efficient inflation. 

Figure 6-13. Placement of the inflation fan.

back to allow the airflow to “seal” the throat. This allows 

the most efficient use of the fan. 

A method pilots use to determine the best placement of the 

fan is to attach small pieces of fabric or surveying tape on 

the lower portion of the mouth, using safety pins in such a 

manner as to not create damage or holes. Then, the crew holds 

the mouth of the balloon open with the fan running; if all 

pieces of the tape are pointing into the envelope, then the fan 

is properly placed; however, if any of the tapes are fluttering 

back out the mouth of the envelope, this demonstrates that the 

airflow is going into the envelope and coming back out again. 

This does not allow for a good inflation, and the fan should 

be adjusted to correct this deficiency. This demonstration 

should be done without use of the burner, as the pilot may 

inadvertently cause damage or start a fire. [Figure 6-14]

It is generally better to pack the balloon full of cold air. This 

makes a tighter mouth, which avoids burning fabric, and 

the balloon may be less affected by a light wind when it is 

round and tight. 

Safety Restraint/Quick-Release

The quick-release or safety restraint should be secured, with 

little or no slack in the line, to prevent possible damage or 

injury in the event of a break or premature release. Every 

major balloon manufacturer specifies the approved method 

for tying off. Balloon baskets, suspensions, load plates, and 

burner supports have been destroyed by improper tie-off in 

light winds. When tying down for inflation, reference the 

balloon’s flight manual for the recommended procedures and 

techniques. The use of a safety restraint is a recommended 

procedure for enhanced safety.

Passenger Briefing

Prior to inflation, a pilot should give passengers their first 

briefing for behavior during the flight and landing. Inform 

passengers that during the landing they should stand in the 

rear of the basket where shown by the pilot (based on wind 

conditions), facing the direction of flight, with feet and knees 

together, knees slightly bent, and holding tightly to the sides 

of the basket. They are not to exit the basket until instructed 

by the pilot to do so. This procedure allows the passengers 

to see the landing sequence, and is generally accepted 

throughout the ballooning community. In larger balloons, 

which usually have compartmentalized baskets, some pilots 

encourage the passengers to face away from the direction of 

flight. Either procedure is acceptable, as long as it is briefed 

prior to flight, and reinforced prior to landing. 

The balloon is ready for inflation when the preflight 

preparation is complete. Excess equipment is stowed in the 

basket and chase vehicle, and a radio check is completed. 

Inflation

The inflation procedure takes the balloon envelope from a pile 

of fabric to an aircraft capable of lifting a load. The pilot’s 

goal should be a smooth, controlled inflation that does not 

damage the environment, balloon, or harm the crew. At the 

end of the inflation, the balloon should be upright, close to 

equilibrium, and ready to fly.

Inflation Styles

There are many different styles of inflation. Some pilots use 

one or two large fans to inflate the balloon fast and get it tight. 

Some pilots prefer to fill the envelope slowly to give them 

time for preflight preparation. Some use many crewmembers; 
6-13

some use only a few crewmembers. Balloon size, available 

crew, weather, location, and personal preference are factors 

that determine procedures and number of crewmembers.

The Inflation

After the balloon is correctly laid out, place the inflation 

fan to the side of the basket within arm’s reach of the pilot, 

facing into the center of the envelope mouth, making sure the 

fan blades are not in line with the pilot, crew, or spectators. 

If the fan is well designed and maintained, it will not move 

around or require constant attention during operation. Exact 

fan placement depends on the type of fan, burner, and size 

of the envelope, as previously discussed. Pump air into the 

envelope and not under, over, or to the side of the mouth.

A crewmember should be placed at each side of the mouth of 

the balloon to lift the material and create an opening for air 

to enter the envelope. During cold inflation (i.e., with the fan 

only) hold the mouth open wide enough to admit the airflow 

from the inflator fan. It is best to inflate the balloon as full as 

possible. At a minimum, inflate the balloon to approximately 

75 percent full of cold air.

As the envelope inflates, the pilot should check to see that 

control lines are correctly deployed and the deflation panel 

is correctly positioned. This can all be done through or in 

the vent or from the top; it is not necessary to walk on the 

fabric. During this phase of the inflation, the envelope should 

also be checked again for damage that would disqualify the 

balloon from flight. 

Once the preflight inspection and cold inflation are complete, 

and the pilot is satisfied that the envelope contains enough 

ambient air to begin hot inflation, the two crewmembers 

at the mouth should hold it open as wide and as tall as 

possible to keep the fabric away from the burner flame. The 

crewmembers should face away from the burner. At this 

point, fan speed may be reduced to approximately one-half 

or two-thirds full throttle and the pilot may light the burner’s 

pilot lights in preparation for inflation. Before activating 

the blast valve, the pilot should make eye contact with each 

crewmember at the mouth and make sure each is ready. 

Crew readiness is paramount. The crew at the mouth of the 

envelope must be aware the burner is about to be used. 

Allow the fan to run at a reduced speed until the balloon 

mouth lifts off the ground and is no longer receiving air. If the 

fan is turned off too soon, envelope air comes back out of the 

mouth and the backwash distorts the flame at the beginning 

and end of each blast. Do not hurry to turn off the fan. Some 

pilots elect to shut off the fuel to the inflator fan, which 

accomplishes two things. This procedure normally allows 

a fan to continue running for about a minute, which should 

be long enough to inflate the balloon, and also allow fuel in 

the fan’s carburetor to be used, eliminating the likelihood 

of gas fumes should the fan be stored in an enclosed space 

during transport. 

The first burn or blast of the burner should be a short one 

to confirm the correct direction of the flame and to check 

the readiness of the mouth crew. If they are startled by the 

flame or noise and drop the fabric, the short burn prevents 

or minimizes damage. To reduce discomfort of the crew, 

it is best to inflate the balloon with a series of short burns 

and pauses, rather than one continuous blast. Inflate using 

standard burns, with short pauses of about 2 or 3 seconds 

between burns. The pauses give the fabric and skin a chance 

to cool and allow communication between the pilot and the 

crew, if necessary. Under some circumstances, contraction 

and inflation of the balloon mouth may be seen. Burns should 

be timed to match the expansion of the mouth. These mouth 

movements are called “breathing”; burns should be timed to 

match the open time to avoid damaging the fabric.

Some pilots prefer to inflate the balloon with one long blast 

of the burner. The advantage of this type of inflation is that 

the balloon inflates a few seconds faster and the mouth 

tends to stay fully open during the process. There are several 

disadvantages. Voice communication is nearly impossible 

due to the noise of the burner. Anyone or anything within a 

few feet of the burner may get burned. Also, some burners 

could be discolored or damaged by long burns. 

The next step is to continue the burn-and-pause routine until 

the balloon is nearly ready to leave the ground. The crew 

should be standing by the basket ready to hold the balloon 

(“hands on” or “weight on”), in case of a miscalculation, 

allowing the balloon to start lifting off the ground before 

the pilot is ready. The use of the safety harness prevents 

unplanned departures.

Many pilots fail to achieve equilibrium or neutral buoyancy 

immediately after inflation. If equilibrium is not achieved, the 

balloon is much more susceptible to wind. For example, if the 

envelope is not full, a slight wind can cave in a side causing 

a spinnaker effect. If the balloon is standing, but not ready 

to fly, the pilot has only one option should the balloon start 

to move horizontally; the pilot must deflate. If the balloon is 

only 5 or 10 seconds of heat away from lifting off, the pilot 

has the choice of deflation or launch. 

The inflation is the first action of ballooning that requires 

a pilot in command (PIC). The inflation should be safe and 

efficient. Now, the balloon is almost ready to launch.
6-14

Figure 6-15. The balloon below has the right of way while ascending. 

The pilot of the higher balloon should, as a courtesy and in the 

interest of safety, yield the right of way to the ascending balloon, 

as that pilot is probably unable to see the balloon above.

Prelaunch Check

After the balloon is inflated and upright, the pilot should 

perform a pre-launch check. Ensure that loose equipment 

is properly stowed and secured. For balloons using multiple 

tanks, it may be appropriate to shut off the tank that was used 

for inflation, and open the tank that will be used first for 

flight. Some pilots make another quick check of the burner 

to ensure that there are no leaks or deficiencies present. The 

top cap should be activated to release the tabs (as necessary), 

and ensure that the mechanism is functioning properly. The 

altimeter, if not previously set, should be set to the proper 

barometric pressure or field elevation, and the temperature 

indicating system should be checked for a proper reading. 

If used, radios should be turned on and secured. The pilot 

should note the time of inflation, and quickly check the fuel 

level in each tank to ensure that there is sufficient fuel for 

the planned flight. This pre-launch check should be brief and 

verified through the use of a pre-launch checklist. 

Launch

If carrying passengers, now is the time to invite them in the 

basket. Immediately compensate for the additional weight 

with sufficient heat to regain equilibrium. The passengers 

have already been briefed on the correct landing procedure. 

Brief them again on behavior in the basket. Advise passengers 

not to touch any control lines, take care of their possessions, 

stay within the confines of the basket, and, above all, to obey 

the PIC.

At least one crewmember should remain near the basket in 

case the pilot or passengers need assistance. This is a good 

time to give the crew a final briefing regarding the expected 

distance and length of the flight, radio channels, and other last 

minute instructions. If other balloons are launching from the 

same area, ask a crewmember to step back from the balloon 

to check that it is clear above.

Two or three standard burns in a row from equilibrium 

usually provide a slow departure from the ground. If there 

are no nearby, downwind obstacles to clear, a slow ascent 

rate is preferred to test wind direction and detect subtle wind 

changes. Climbing at a slow rate is the best way to avoid 

running into balloons above. There is an unwritten rule in 

ballooning (not regulatory) that the balloon below has the 

right of way (due to lack of visibility above). Although 

the balloon below has the right of way, the higher balloon 

needs time to climb out of the way, if necessary. Pilots must 

maintain awareness of other balloons operating near them, 

particularly in crowded or rally situations. [Figure 6-15]

A fast ascent rate from launch is only to avoid ground 

obstacles or to pass quickly through an adverse wind, and 

only when it is clear above. Should circumstances require a 

fast ascent rate, the pilot should set up for the lift off by having 

the ground crew put their weight on the basket by hanging 

their arms over the side, not holding on. The pilot should 

then heat the balloon to a temperature beyond that needed for 

equilibrium; 20° above the neutral buoyancy point may be a 

good starting point. After getting a check of possible traffic 

above the balloon, the pilot instructs the crew, “weight off,” 

and the crew responds by removing their weight from the 

basket. It is imperative that the crew clears the basket, and 

that no crewmembers are left hanging outside. The balloon 

then rises at a fairly rapid ascent rate. The pilot must be aware 

that the balloon is marginally under control at this point, 

and that too excessive a climb rate may result in a condition 

known as “floating the top.” This is a scenario where the air 

pressure created by the climb may push the top cap of the 

balloon down, causing an out-of-control descent. Maximum 

climb rates are specified in the operating limitations section 

of the balloon’s flight manual.

It is very easy to be distracted during launch and make an 

unintentional descent. Make sure all ground business is taken 

care of, such as instructing the chase crew and stowing all 

equipment correctly, before leaving the ground. 
6-15

Lift

Wind

Low pressure area

Figure 6-16. False lift dynamics.

The pilot should be aware of the possibility of uncommanded 

lift (often referred to as “false lift”) and the possibility of an 

unplanned descent caused by surface wind or an ascent from 

a sheltered launch site. Pay attention to people and obstacles, 

including the chase vehicle, fences, and particularly to 

powerlines. Realize where all powerlines are and visually 

locate them as soon as possible.

Uncommanded (False) Lift

One consideration that must be made at the outset of any 

balloon flight is the possibility of experiencing phenomena 

variously referred to as “false lift,” “false heavy,” or 

“uncommanded buoyancy.” These terms all describe an 

onset of various factors and conditions, which, despite 

the differences in terminology, all relate to the result of 

air moving over or under the balloon. The most important 

thing to remember is a balloon encountering one or more of 

these factors is not under the full and complete control of 

the pilot, and is therefore a hazard. Pilots should be aware 

of these conditions, avoid them if possible, and be aware 

of procedures and practices to minimize their effect on the 

balloon’s flight.

Three areas of focus warrant discussion:

• False lift

• False heavy (air flow under the lower portion of 

balloon, creating downward lift)

• Envelope distortion causing diminished capacity

It is important to understand the total physics involved. While 

the balloon is at neutral buoyancy on the ground, there are 

two lift forces at work. The first is from the heating of the air, 

creating buoyancy inside the envelope. The second is the flow 

of air over the top. The lift from these two elements combine 

to create the lift necessary to be at equilibrium. The addition 

of a small amount of heat, through a short burn, increases the 

total lift and allows the balloon to rise.

False Lift

During initial flight training, pilots are taught about the effects 

of air flowing over the top of the envelope. While the balloon 

is static on the ground, the shape of the top forces the flow 

of air to compress over the top creating a low pressure area. 

[Figure 6-16] This low pressure area creates lift in much the 

same way an airplane wing does. There are two components 

of lift: heated air inside the envelope and the lift created by 

the air passing over the top. As the balloon takes off and 

accelerates to the speed of the air mass, the flow of air over 

the top diminishes, thus any lift created by it is no longer 

available. If the balloon is at equilibrium at launch, and there 

is not some response by the pilot to add more heat, there will 

not be sufficient lift to stay in the air, as a portion of the total 

lift has diminished.

Pilots are usually taught that the lift created by air flow over 

the top is to be considered “false lift,” because it was not 

created by applying heat to the envelope. The lift is real; 

as long as the speed of the air flow and the balloon remain 

sufficiently different, the lift continues to be generated. As 

the balloon accelerates, the lift created by the air flow is lost 

and more heat must be added to maintain the same rate of 

ascent. 

The same condition can exist when descending through a 

low level wind shear or jet. As the balloon penetrates the 

lower boundary of the wind shear, the top of the balloon is 

momentarily in a faster moving layer of air which increases the 

air flow lift component of the total lift generated. For a short 

period, there may be equilibrium with the two components of 

lift, heat and air flow. As the descent continues, the top of the 

balloon moves out of the faster moving air (the value of one 

of the lift components), and air flow is diminished. The rate 

of descent increases, unless the pilot takes action to increase 

the buoyancy portion of the total lift by making a burn. Some 

pilots, when experiencing this, believe it to be a “false heavy” 

situation, an incorrect perception.

False Heavy (Downward Lift)

False heavy is a condition which is the exact opposite of the 

false lift scenario described above, except that it is happening 

at another part of the balloon and the force generated has a 

downward component.
6-16

Wind

Lift

Low pressure area

Figure 6-17. False heavy dynamics.

This phenomenon occurs when descending into a faster 

moving air mass or wind shear. The lower half of the balloon 

enters the shear and the surface of the balloon allows the air 

flow to generate lift. This lift is tangent to the surface of the 

balloon. Because it is below the equator, where the tangent 

line points in a downward direction, the lift has a downward 

component. This downward component of lift pulls the 

balloon down. [Figure 6-17]

This effect is more severe on a fully loaded balloon than 

a lightly loaded one, by reasons of skin tension. A lightly 

loaded balloon has more slack in the fabric on the lower 

portion of the balloon. On a heavily loaded balloon, the fabric 

below the equator has greater tension providing a surface 

where a low pressure can develop.

A scenario having much less impact is fast moving air across 

the mouth of the balloon. This creates a dynamic low pressure, 

similar to a venturi, which may cause the air to be pulled out of 

the envelope. As the air moves over the mouth of the balloon, 

it creates the dynamic low pressure, which pulls the static 

air inside the envelope out. Of all the possibilities discussed 

here, this point has the least impact on the lifting capability 

of the balloon, but is important when standing on the ground 

following the initial inflation to equilibrium.

Diminished Capacity

Another way in which a wind shear can increase the rate of 

descent is by diminishing the capacity of the envelope. For 

example, when descending, below is a low level wind shear 

with the air near the surface moving much faster or slower 

than the air mass in which the balloon is traveling. As the 

balloon enters the lower air mass, the side of the balloon 

is pushed in, decreasing the capacity of the envelope and 

pushing the air out the mouth. The larger the difference 

between the speed of the two air masses, the greater the effect. 

The lift created by buoyancy is decreased and the balloon 

starts to descend. If this happens at a low altitude, and the 

pilot has not responded in a timely manner, this may result 

in a hard landing.

If a balloon descends abruptly from a 30 mph wind into a 

15 mph wind, it experiences an effective abrupt increase 

in wind across its surface from no wind to a 15 mph wind. 

This removes the boundary layer on its surface and greatly 

increases heat lost by conduction, while causing distortion in 

the form of a “dish.” This condition is very dangerous to the 

low level flight of a fully loaded balloon. It should be noted 

that as the envelope lowers into the slower wind and begins 

to distort and slow-up, the effective wind speed over the top 

begins to increase. Air moving over the top of an envelope 

produces false lift. Combined with diminished capacity, this 

again presents a hazardous condition which may result in an 

extremely hard landing.

“Dishing” usually does not affect the flight path of a 

lightly loaded balloon as much as a more heavily loaded 

balloon because no internal lifting heat is dumped; it is only 

redistributed inside the distorted envelope. To understand 

what a “dish” can do to lift, the balloon pilot needs to 

understand how the “heat line” fluctuates under different 

loading conditions. A balloon “floats” in the air because the 

hot air inside it weighs less than the volume of air it displaces. 

Usually the bottom of the heated air is down close to its 

mouth. Notice that a normal two-second single burn on a 

heavily loaded balloon adds only a small percentage of heat 

compared to its total required hot air volume. The same burn 

in a lightly loaded balloon adds a much larger percentage of 

lifting heat compared to its total required hot air volume. This 

is a simple way to visualize responsiveness. 

If a heavily loaded envelope experiences a major “dish,” 

important lifting heat can be squeezed out. This condition is 

extremely serious if on a final approach to landing because 

there is not enough time and altitude to add enough heat. 

Remember, not only must the heat loss be replaced to make 

the balloon neutrally buoyant, but more must be added to 

stop any downward momentum. 

Heat loss can change the slope of the approach and, pilot 

unaware, make it steeper. The stronger the shear, the greater 

the change in slope. Knowledge of this and the importance 

of adding heat quickly could prevent an excessively hard 

landing or an accident.

Some signs of shear to watch for are any movement of crown 

lines, handling lines, throat ropes, skirt, or even basket 

movement. It is important to realize that as the balloon lowers 
6-17

into the slower moving air, distorts, and starts slowing, the 

effect of heat loss can be masked by false lift. Even if the 

shear is a mild one, false lift momentarily exists. When 

the balloon slows enough and exits the faster moving air, 

the hidden false lift and dishing disappear and the balloon 

descends out of control. 

Some pilots intentionally create a situation of diminished 

capacity when making a high performance descent. In 

low or stable wind conditions, this can be successfully 

executed. However, in the presence of strong wind shears, 

this technique can prove disastrous.

If a pilot is in a false lift scenario, the first action should be 

to continue to fly the balloon. If the situation is encountered 

during lift-off, or is believed to exist, the pilot should maintain 

a positive rate of climb until the false lift dissipates. If the 

false heavy scenario exists during the landing, the pilot 

must be prepared for an acceleration in the descent rate. An 

appropriate action would be to add heat to slow the descent, 

unless a steep approach to landing is desired. 

In reality, there is nothing false about any of these situations. 

They are real and may create hazardous flight dynamics. In 

many cases, more than one of these elements is at work. It 

is important for the pilot to be aware of them, their effects, 

and consider what actions are necessary when they are 

encountered. The best prevention is anticipating these 

conditions and maintaining situational awareness. If the 

conditions are extreme, it may be said that the best and first 

consideration is staying on the ground. 

Landowner Relations

An otherwise perfect flight can be marred without the 

use of the proper relationship skills needed to foster good 

landowner relations. Often neglected, these skills provide 

the balloon pilot the locations necessary to inflate, launch, 

and land. Without these properties, ballooning would be 

severely limited. Taking the time to explain one’s actions to 

a landowner, or dealing with a farmer whose livestock have 

been spooked by an ill-timed contour flight, can create lasting 

impressions that have tremendous long-term negative impact 

on the continued evolution of the sport.

During the launch phase of a flight, building/landowner 

relations is an easy task. The pilot should select launch sites 

that avoid flight paths and landings around sensitive areas, 

such as livestock, expensive crops, nature preserves, etc. 

Once a launch site is selected, the pilot should make an effort 

to identify the property as public or private. Generally, school 

fields and local parks may be used without further inquiry 

unless there have been previous problems with balloons. In 

such a case it would be appropriate to check with the local 

authorities for the use of these facilities.

Private property, however, is another issue. A balloon pilot 

and crew should never assume the right to use a private 

location to launch or recover a balloon. To do so exhibits 

a degree of arrogance that has no place in ballooning 

and subjects everyone participating to trespass laws. The 

landowner usually lives on the property and has paid for 

that right. In the event that no one is immediately available, 

the pilot should either select another launch site or perhaps 

inquire of neighbors who may be able to inform you of the 

landowner’s location. Finding the landowner and obtaining 

permission to use a particular field may be one of the most 

important tasks of the launch process for the crew chief, if 

one is assigned. Undoubtedly, the one time the pilot does 

not have appropriate authorization for use of a launch site 

and uses another’s property, someone will be watching and 

problems later ensue. 

The positive side of this is that most landowners welcome 

the balloon pilot and his crew, want to learn a little about 

balloons, and gladly allow the use of their property for 

the launch. Many see this as an opportunity and actively 

participate in the process. Others may grant permission, but 

stand back from the activity. Whichever type of landowner 

is encountered, they usually respond positively to a pilot and 

crew that respect rights and protects landowner interests.

Chapter Summary

It is frequently said that every pilot sets up equipment and 

prepares for flight in a different manner. The purpose of this 

chapter is not to emphasize those differences, but rather to 

illustrate the underlying similarities and procedures that every 

balloon pilot must follow to safety begin a flight. 
6-18
7-1

Introduction

This chapter discusses various aspects of inflight maneuvers. 

It covers the standard burn, level flight, ascents and descents, 

maneuvering and lateral control, and contour flying. This 

chapter also includes information on chase crew management, 

landowner relations, and tethering. 

Inflight 

Maneuvers

Chapter 7
7-2

Burner Ratings

During any discussions of burner output, talk usually turns to 

the issue of “burner ratings”; that is, the amount of heat actually 

produced by a specific burner. Invariably, the talk turns into a “my 

burner is better than yours” type of exchange. In reality, there 

is virtually no difference between the burners produced by the 

major manufacturers and their respective output.

A pilot needs to understand the concept of British Thermal Units, 

or BTU, as a measurement of output. A BTU is defined as the 

quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound 

of water by one degree Fahrenheit. While not particularly relevant 

to heating air, this has come to be a generally accepted form of 

measure for burner output. Of the four major manufacturers, 

three rate their burners at 18 to 19 million BTU output; the fourth 

at 43.9 million (with the caveat that that is produced at a supply 

line pressure of 200 PSI, well above the pressures that most 

balloonists use). A pilot needs to be aware that BTU output in a 

balloon burner equates to the amount of propane that is burned in 

an hour; BTU output is usually computed on this basis. Referring 

to the Propane Primer in Chapter 2, propane has a nominal value 

of 91,600 BTU per gallon under ideal circumstances. A simple 

mathematical calculation indicates that the average burner (a 

18.5 million BTU rating) consumes approximately 202 gallons 

of fuel per hour. (18.5 million BTU divided by 91,600 BTU per 

gallon of propane = 201.96 gallons of fuel)

However, balloon burners are not used for an hour at a time; 

instead, they are used for very short periods of time, as discussed 

on page 7-2. If the numbers above are recalculated, it can be 

said that the standard burn of four seconds, as described in this 

section, puts approximately 5,139 BTU of heat into the balloon’s 

envelope. Remember, this is a theoretical statement of heat 

available, as no burner is 100 percent efficient.

There are numerous factors involved in burner design, such 

as volume backpressures, restrictions in the internal plumbing 

design, and more, all of which contribute to the final output rating. 

It is helpful to remember that the mathematics of burner design 

reveals the fact that output is a linear equation, when compared 

to pressure input; there is a direct correlation between the fuel 

line pressure and the burner’s output. This is not the case with 

the noise output of the burner, as the noise output increases 

exponentially as the pressure is increased. Reduction of burner 

noise represents the next hurdle in burner design; perhaps 

someday it will be possible to enjoy an almost silent balloon 

flight.

—Mark West and Martin Harns, Aerostar International, Inc.

Figure 7-1. Burner ratings and calculations.

The Standard Burn

To fly with precision, the balloon pilot needs to know how 

much heat is going into the envelope at any given time and 

how that heat affects the balloon’s performance. Balloon 

pilots have few outside sources, instruments, or gauges to 

help them fly. When a balloon pilot uses the burner, there is 

no direct way of knowing exactly how much lift is increased. 

Because there are few mechanical aids to help balloon pilots 

fly, some methodology must be devised to standardize a 

pilot’s input action, so the outcomes of those actions are 

predictable and the balloon is controllable. The standard burn 

is one way to gauge in advance the balloon’s reaction to the 

use of the burner. [Figure 7-1]

The standard burn is an attempt to calibrate the amount of 

heat being used, and is defined as a burn of four seconds. If 

each burn can be made identical, the balloon pilot can think 

and plan, in terms of number of burns, rather than just using 

random, variable amounts of heat with an unknown effect. 

The standard burn is based on using the blast valve or trigger 

valve found on most balloon burners. Some brands use a valve 

that requires only a fraction of an inch of movement between 

closed and open, and some require moving the blast valve 

handle 90°. While the amount of motion required to change 

the valve from fully closed to fully open varies, the principle 

remains the same—make each burn identical to another.

The inexperienced pilot should begin with the premise that the 

average balloon requires one standard burn of four seconds 

every 25 to 40 seconds in order to maintain level flight. 

Experience determines the exact length of time between burn 

intervals, and how other variables such as weight and ambient 

air temperature affect those intervals. The primary goal is to 

determine the rhythm of burns necessary to maintain level 

flight. All other maneuvers, then, become a departure from 

this point. The burn begins with the brisk, complete opening 

of the blast valve and ends with the brisk, complete closing of 

the valve at the end of the burn. During their training, some 

pilots count “one, one thousand; two, one thousand; three, 

one thousand; four, one thousand” to develop the timing. 

The standard burn does not mean a burn that is standard 

between pilots, but rather, it is an attempt for the individual 

pilot to make all burns exactly the same length. The goal is 

not only to make each burn exactly the same length, but also 

to make each burn exactly the same. The pilot must open and 

close the valve exactly the same way each time. Most balloon 

burners were designed to operate with the blast valve fully 

open for short periods of time. When the blast valve is only 

partially opened, two things happen: 

1. The burner does not operate at full efficiency, and 

2. The pilot is not sure how much heat is being 

generated. 
7-3

Figure 7-2. Activated burner.

A partially opened valve is producing a fraction of the heat 

available, but there is no way of knowing what the fraction 

is. [Figure 7-2]

Another advantage of briskly opening and closing the valve 

is to minimize the presence of a yellow, soft flame. During 

inflation, for instance, a strong, narrow, pointed flame that 

goes into the mouth opening without overheating the mouth 

fabric or crew is desirable. A partial-throttle flame is wide 

and short and subject to distortion by wind or the inflation 

fan. If less than a full burn is desired, shorten the time the 

valve is open and not the amount the valve is open. Due to 

burner design (and the inefficiency of a partially opened 

valve), four 1-second burns do not produce as much heat as 

one 4-second burn.

If the mechanical aspects of flying can be learned, the 

systematic cadence can be converted into a rhythm that is 

smooth and polished. With practice, the rhythm becomes 

second nature and pilots fly with precision, without thinking 

about it. Using the standard burn, pilots can better predict the 

effect of each burn, minimize the potential danger of a burn 

to the envelope, and have a better flame pattern. The standard 

burn is referred to when discussing specific maneuvers.

Straight and Level Flight

Level flight, or equilibrium, is probably the most important 

of all flight maneuvers, as it serves as a baseline from which 

all other maneuvers are derived. A good pilot maintains level 

flight with a series of standard burns. 

Level flight is achieved when lift exactly matches weight 

and the balloon neither ascends nor descends, but remains 

at one altitude. For every altitude, there is an equilibrium 

temperature. If a pilot is flying at 500 feet mean sea level 

(MSL) and wants to climb to 1,000 feet MSL, the balloon 

temperature must be increased. This is not only to attain 

equilibrium at the new (higher) altitude, but some excess 

temperature must also be created to overcome inertia and 

get the balloon moving. 

Theoretically, if a pilot were to hold a hot air balloon at a 

constant temperature, the balloon would float at a constant 

altitude. However, there is no practical way to hold the 

envelope air temperature constant. Each time the pilot burns, 

the balloon tends to climb. The air in the envelope is always 

cooling and the balloon tends to descend. If the subsequent 

burns are perfectly timed, the balloon flies in a series of very 

shallow sine waves. [Figure 7-3, Line A] Of course, any 

variable changes the balloon flight. A heavier basket load, 

higher ambient temperature, or sunny day all require more 

fuel (by shortening the interval between burns) to maintain 

level flight. 

In discussions of level flight, the terms “flying light” and 

“flying heavy” are sometimes used and bear explanation. 

A balloon is said to be “flying light” when the sine wave 

being described in the air is predominately on the high side 

of the desired altitude [Figure 7-3, Line B]. Many new or 

inexperienced pilots tend to fly light, and use the vent line 

in order to return to the desired altitude; this may create a 

situation where the pilot gets into a constant overcontrolling 

exercise and is best avoided. “Flying heavy” can be described 

as a scenario where the sine wave is predominately on the 

low side of the desired altitude [Figure 7-3, Line C]; if the 

balloon is left alone, it tends to fall. Flying heavy can be 

hazardous when contour flying. A balloon pilot must use all 

visual cues available and exercise a “finesse” type of control 

when contour flying (described later in this chapter).

Through experimentation, standards can be established that 

may be used as a basis for all flights. With practice and using 

the second hand of a wristwatch, a new pilot can fly almost 

level. The exercise of learning the pattern of burns (each day 

and hour is different) is an interesting training exercise, but 

not a practical real-life technique. The ability to hold a hot air 

balloon at a given altitude for any length of time is a skill that 
7-4

A

B

C

Figure 7-3. Example of normal flight (Line A), flying light (Line B), and flying heavy (Line C).

comes only with serious practice. Unfortunately, most pilots 

do not spend enough time practicing level flight. During the 

practical test, given a choice of altitudes, it is easier to fly 

level at a lower altitude, due to the ease of acquiring visual 

references. However, the pilot must exercise care not to 

violate minimum safe altitude requirements (explained later 

in this chapter), and must be constantly alert for obstacles 

such as power lines in the flightpath. 

Ascents and Descents

The temperature of the air inside the envelope controls 

balloon altitude. A balloon that is neither ascending nor 

descending is in equilibrium. To cause the balloon to ascend, 

increase the temperature of the air inside the envelope. If the 

temperature is increased just a little, the balloon seeks an 

altitude only a little higher and/or climb at a very slow rate. 

If the temperature is increased significantly, the balloon seeks 

a much higher altitude and/or climbs faster. If the balloon is 

allowed to cool or hot air is vented, the balloon descends.

Even without the input action by the pilot, it must be 

remembered that the air inside the envelope is dynamic. 

The air mass is constantly moving within the confines of the 

envelope, attempting to seek a level of equalization. While it 

varies with each envelope, input action by the balloon pilot 

can take from 6 to 15 seconds to be realized as a reaction by 

the balloon. Planning the maneuver, anticipating the reaction 

time, inputting the proper burn, and observing the reaction 

must result in smooth and natural movement by the pilot. 

Ascents

Using evenly spaced, identical standard burns to fly level, a 

pilot needs to make only two consecutive burns to have added 

excess heat to make the balloon climb. For example, if the 

pilot can maintain level flight with a standard burn every 35 

seconds, and then makes two burns in succession instead of 

one, the balloon has an extra burn and climbs. How fast the 

balloon climbs depends on how much extra heat has been 

added. Under nominal conditions, if the standard burn has 

been made to hold the balloon at level flight and a second 

burn is within a few seconds (not waiting the 35 seconds), 

the average balloon starts a slow climb. Three consecutive 

burns results in a faster climb.

Once the desired climb rate is established, return to the level 

flight routine to hold the balloon at that rate. The higher the 

altitude, or the faster the rate of climb, the shorter the interval 

between burns. In an average size balloon (usually a 77, 000 
7-5

A

B

C

Figure 7-4. Ascent schematic.

or 90,000 cubic foot envelope) at 5,000 feet, the pilot may be 

required to make a standard burn every 15 to 20 seconds to 

keep the balloon climbing at 500 feet per minute (fpm). At 

sea level, the same rate may require burning only every 30 

to 40 seconds. Burn rates cannot be predicted in advance, but 

practice provides a basis to begin with and experimentation 

finds the correct burn rate for a particular day’s ambient 

temperature, altitude, envelope size, and balloon weight.

Another skill to develop in ascents is knowing when to stop 

burning so the balloon will slow and level at the chosen 

altitude. The transition from a climbing mode to level flight 

involves estimating the momentum and coasting up to the 

desired or assigned altitude. One methodology is illustrated 

in Figure 7-4. During this flight, the pilot has decided to 

leave his current altitude (A) and climb to another (C). While 

climbing, the pilot adjusts burn times to be at a 100 fpm rate 

of climb by the time he or she is at a point 100 feet below the 

desired altitude (B). Under most circumstances, the balloon 

“coasts” the additional 100 feet and rounds out, or resumes 

level flight, at the desired altitude. It may be necessary to 

use the vent for a short time to stop the ascent with caution 

not to vent excessively, thereby causing the balloon to go 

into a descent. The balloon pilot must remember that each 

manufacturer has a specific interval that the vent can be 

opened while in flight. Should that interval be exceeded, it 

can have a disastrous result. With practice and application, 

the pilot can learn this skill without the use of the vent, not 

only conserving fuel, but also flying a much more controlled 

flight. 

Generally, to achieve a smooth transition to the new altitude, 

the rate of ascent should not exceed the distance to the new 

altitude. For example, if the balloon pilot is 500 feet below 

the desired new altitude, the rate of climb should not exceed 

500 fpm. When the pilot is 300 feet below the desired altitude, 

the rate of climb should not exceed 300 fpm. An ascent of 

200 to 300 fpm is slow enough to detect wind changes at 

different altitudes, which is helpful in maneuvering. Above 

500 fpm, it is possible to fly through small, narrow wind 

bands or wind with very small direction changes without 

noticing. It is a good idea to launch and climb at a slow 

speed (100 to 200 fpm) to make an early decision regarding 

which direction to fly.
7-6

A

B

D

C

Figure 7-5. Descent schematic.

Descents

The only direct control of the balloon the pilot has is vertical 

motion; the pilot can make the balloon go up by adding heat. 

Therefore, the pilot can make it come down by venting or 

not adding heat. For horizontal or lateral motion, a balloon 

pilot must rely on wind, which may or may not be going in 

the desired direction. A good pilot learns to control vertical 

motion precisely and variably for maximum lateral choice.

To start a descent from level flight, skip one burn, and then 

return to the level flight regimen to hold the descent at a 

constant rate. Alternatively, hot air balloons are equipped 

with a vent. When opened, the vent releases hot air from the 

envelope and draws cooler air in at the mouth, thus reducing 

the overall temperature and allowing the balloon to descend. 

A pilot should learn to calibrate the use of the vent, as well 

as the burners, and know how much air is being released in 

order to know what effect to expect. For predictability, time 

the vent openings and open the vent precisely. Parachute 

vent balloons usually have a manufacturer’s limitation on 

how long the vent may be open. Use the vent sparingly; it 

should not be used instead of patience, unless a rapid change 

in altitude is needed. 

A new pilot can learn the classic balloon flare by matching the 

vertical speed indicator (VSI) to the altimeter, i.e., descend 

500 fpm from 500 feet above ground level (AGL), 400 fpm 

from 400 feet AGL. Below 200 feet, a pilot should not use 

instruments, but look below for obstacles, especially power 

lines. This maneuver is illustrated in Figure 7-5. Departing 

from the altitude indicated at “A,” the pilot allows the balloon 

to start a descent. During the descent, the pilot maintains a 

reasonable rate of descent, slowing to a rate of 200 fpm at 

B. By the time the balloon reaches C, the pilot should have a 

rate of descent of 100 fpm, and by using one or two standard 

burns, should be able to level off (“round out”) at the desired 

new altitude.

Rapid/Steep Descents

A rapid, or steep, descent in a balloon is a relative term. A 

700 fpm descent started at 3,000 feet AGL is not necessarily 

rapid; however, if started at 300 feet AGL, it is rapid and may 

be critical. Rapid descents should be made with adequate 

ground clearance and distance from obstacles.

To execute a steep descent, the balloon pilot must be well 

aware of the balloon’s response times and have sufficient 

altitude for the maneuver. In Figure 7-6, the pilot has initiated 
7-7

Figure 7-6. Steep descent schematic (not to scale).

A

B

D

C

a steep descent at Point A. For this discussion, assume that 

altitude is 1,500' AGL. The descent may be initiated either 

through the use of the vent or by holding two or three burns. 

By the time the balloon reaches the point indicated at B, it 

may be descending in excess of 500 fpm; the pilot should 

make a standard burn at this point, as the air passing over the 

envelope fabric accelerates cooling. A standard burn ensures 

that the balloon maintains a temperature sufficient to keep 

it under control throughout the maneuver. This burn should 

not slow the descent. 

At a point halfway between the ground and the previous 

burn [Figure 7-6, Point C], the pilot should make a long 

(twice standard length) burn; if there is no reaction from the 

balloon, then the pilot should do another burn. Immediately 

upon sensing a reaction from the balloon, the pilot should 

stop the burn and allow the balloon to descend to a proper 

pullout altitude. [Figure 7-6, Point D] If done properly, the 

deceleration burns stops the balloon’s descent just above 

the desired altitude or the ground. This maneuver requires 

experience and practice; timing is critical. 

During the initial stages of learning this maneuver, the pilot 

should set a “floor” (altitude lower limit) to practice with. 

As the pilot gains more skill, as well as confidence, that 

“floor” may be lowered until the pilot is able to execute the 

maneuver to ground level. 

Maneuvering

The art of controlling the horizontal (lateral) direction of a 

free balloon is the highest demonstration of ballooning skill. 

The balloon is officially a nonsteerable aircraft. Despite 

the fact that balloons are nonsteerable, some pilots seem 

to be able to steer their balloons better than others. Being 

knowledgeable of the wind at various altitudes, both before 

launch and during flight, is the key factor for maneuvering.

Maneuvering, or steering, comes indirectly from varying 

one’s time at different altitudes and different wind directions. 

The pilot must have knowledge of the winds at different 

levels, as previously discussed in Chapter 3, Preflight 

Planning, as well as being able to determine the balloon’s 

direction in flight.

Winds Below

When in flight, winds below can be observed in many ways. 

Observe smoke, trees, dust, flags, and especially ponds 

and lakes to see what the wind is doing on the ground. To 
7-8

determine what is happening between the balloon and the 

ground, watch other balloons, if any.

Another means of checking winds below is to drop a very 

light object and watch it descend to the ground. However, 

exercise caution with this method. Title 14 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 allows objects to be 

dropped from the air that will not harm anything below. 

14 CFR section 91.15, Dropping Objects, states “No pilot 

in command of a civil aircraft may allow any object to be 

dropped from that aircraft in flight that creates a hazard to 

persons or property. However, this section does not prohibit 

the dropping of any object if reasonable precautions are taken 

to avoid injury or damage to persons or property.”

Some items that may dropped without creating a hazard are 

small, air-filled toy balloons, small balls made of a single 

piece of tissue, or a small glob of shaving cream from an 

aerosol can. A facial tissue, about 8" x 8", rolled into a 

sphere about the size of a ping-pong ball works well. These 

balls fall at about 350 fpm, can be seen for several hundred 

feet, and are convenient to carry. Counting as the tissue ball 

descends, a pilot can estimate the heights of wind changes 

by comparing times to the ground with the altimeter reading. 

Experiment by dropping some of these objects, practice 

reading the indications, and plan accordingly.

Direction

There are several methods of accurately determining the 

balloon’s direction at any given moment, particularly with 

the advent of low-cost hand-held global positioning system 

(GPS) units. However, the pilot should be familiar with 

“old-school” methods, as GPS units break or fall overboard, 

and batteries fail.

The pilot should first be positioned in the front of the basket, 

relative to the direction of flight. Then, the pilot should create 

a “sight picture,” using part of the basket’s superstructure, 

making an allowance for any possible spin of the basket, and 

then select a landmark along the route of flight. This process 

takes a few seconds if the landmark does not change position 

in relation to the “sight picture.” Then, the line that may be 

drawn between the balloon’s current position and the selected 

landmark is the ground track of the balloon. It is important 

that the pilot maintain a constant altitude while performing 

this evaluation; any change in altitude may put the balloon 

into a different wind flow, which requires the evaluation to 

be performed again. 

It can be helpful to carry a magnetic sighting compass on 

the flight. Identifying the bearings to a couple of distant 

landmarks and comparing this to the ground track can provide 

useful information to the balloon pilot. 

Examine Figure 3-12 in Chapter 3. If the pilot can make 

the mental extrapolation between known wind directions 

at different altitudes and the desired direction of travel, 

maneuvering the balloon becomes a simple exercise in direct 

control, that is, vertical movement. 

Contour Flying

Contour flying may be the most fun and most challenging, 

but, at the same time, may also be the most hazardous and 

misunderstood of all balloon flight maneuvers. A good 

definition of contour flying is flying safely at low altitude, 

while obeying all regulations, considering persons, animals, 

and property on the ground. Safe contour flying means never 

creating a hazard to persons in the basket or on the ground, 

or to any property, including the balloon. [Figure 7-7] 

At first glance, the definition is subjective. One person’s 

hazard may be another person’s fun. For instance, a person 

who has never seen a balloon before may think a basket 

touching the surface of a lake is dangerous, while the pilot 

may think a splash-and-dash is fun.

Minimum Safe Altitude Requirements

Legal contour flying has a precise definition. While the 

FAA has not specifically defined contour, it has specified 

exactly what minimum safe altitudes are. 14 CFR part 91, 

section 91.119, refers to three different areas: anywhere, 

over congested areas, and over other than congested areas, 

including open water and sparsely populated areas.

More balloonists are issued FAA violations for low flying 

than for any other reason. Many pilots do not understand the 

minimum safe altitude regulation. Many balloonists believe 

the regulation was written for heavier-than-air aircraft and 

that it does not apply to balloons. That is a false belief; the 

regulation was written to protect persons and property on 

the ground and it applies to all aircraft, including balloons. 

Since this regulation is so important to balloonists, the 

following is the applicable portion of 14 CFR part 91, section 

91.119—Minimum safe altitudes: General.

“Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person 

may operate an aircraft below the following altitudes:

(a) Anywhere. An altitude allowing, if a power unit 

fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to 

persons or property on the surface.

(b) Over congested areas. Over any congested area of a 

city, town, or settlement, or over any open air assembly 

of persons, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest 

obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the 

aircraft.
7-9

Figure 7-7. Contour flying.

(c) Over other than congested areas. An altitude of 500 

feet above the surface, except over open water or 

sparsely populated areas. In those cases, the aircraft 

may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any 

person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.”

14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(a) requires a pilot to fly 

at an altitude that allows for a power unit failure and/or 

an emergency landing without undo hazards to persons or 

property. All aircraft should be operated so as to be safe, even 

in worst-case conditions. Every good pilot is always thinking 

“what if...,” and should operate accordingly. This portion of 

the regulation can be applied in the following way. When 

climbing over an obstacle, a pilot can make the balloon just 

clear the obstacle, fly over it with room to spare, or give the 

obstacle sufficient clearance to account for a problem or 

miscalculation. An obstacle can be overflown while climbing, 

descending, or in level flight. Descending over an obstacle 

gives the greatest opportunity to misjudge clearance over an 

obstacle. In level flight, the danger is reduced. Hazards are 

minimized by climbing. Most instructors teach minimizing 

the hazard by climbing when approaching an obstacle, thus 

giving room to coast over the obstacle in case of a burner 

malfunction.

14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(b) concerns flying over 

congested areas, such as settlements, towns, cities, and 

gatherings of people. There is no standard definition of 

“congested area” or “open air assembly of persons” but case 

law has indicated that a subdivision or homes, constitute a 

congested area, as does a small rural town. 

A balloon pilot must stay 1,000 feet above the highest 

obstacle within a 2,000-foot radius of the balloon. This is 

a straightforward regulation and easy to understand. Note 

that the highest obstacle is probably an antenna, tower, or 

some other tall object, not the rooftops. Two thousand feet is 

almost one-half mile. This portion of the regulation is often 

forgotten or ignored. [Figure 7-8]

A conscientious pilot includes livestock of any form—dairy 

cows, horses, poultry—in the 1,000-feet above rule. Domestic 

animals, while not specifically mentioned in the regulations, 

are considered to be property; and experienced pilots know 

that almost all poultry, exotic birds, swine, horses, and cows 

may be spooked by the overflight of a balloon. Livestock in 

large fields seem to be less bothered by balloons; however, 

it is always a good idea to stay at least 1,000 feet away from 

domestic animals. This is discussed in detail on page 7-16.
7-10

Figure 7-9 Minimum safe altitude over a sparsely populated 

area.

1,000' Antenna Tower

1,000'

2,000'

Figure 7-8 Minimum safe altitudes over a congested area.

500 feet

500 feet

500 feet

500 feet

500 feet

In those cases, the balloon may not be operated closer than 

500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure. This is 

an easy to understand regulation that requires compliance 

from all pilots. 

Contour Flying Techniques

Aside from the legal aspects, contour flying is probably the 

most difficult flying to perform. The balloon pilot must see all 

obstacles on or near the balloon path, remember their location, 

and maintain situational and spatial awareness. Terrain or 

obstacle height must be estimated and allowed for, and the 

pilot must always be prepared for an unexpected situation. 

A relationship must be established between the balloon 

altitude and the terrain or obstacle height. All these mental 

calculations must occur in a few seconds, in a continuous 

cycle, as the pilot executes a complicated flight profile.

The balloon practical test standards (PTS) asks the applicant 

to demonstrate contour flying by using all flight controls 

properly to maintain the desired altitude based on the 

appropriate clearance over terrain and obstacles, consistent 

with safety. The pilot must consider the effects of wind gusts, 

wind shear, thermal activity and orographic conditions, and 

allow adequate clearance for livestock and other animals.

Since most contour flying is done in unpopulated areas, the 

balloon is rarely higher than 300 feet AGL and frequently 

much lower; therefore, the balloon’s flight instruments are 

seldom observed. Because mechanical instruments have 

several seconds lag and electronic instruments are very 

sensitive, pilots must rely on their observation and judgment. 

14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(c) refers to two area types: 

sparsely populated and unpopulated. Here, the pilot must stay 

at least 500 feet away from persons, vehicles, vessels, and 

structures. “Away from” is the key to understanding this rule. 

The regulation specifies how high above the ground the pilot 

must be and also states the pilot may never operate closer 

than 500 feet. There exists a possibility for misunderstanding 

in interpreting the difference between congested and other 

than congested, as neither of these terms are defined by the 

FAA regulations. As an example, operating below 1,000 feet 

AGL within 2,000 feet of a congested area is in violation of 

14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(b), even though the bordering 

area may be used only for agricultural purposes. Therefore, 

when flying over unpopulated land near a housing tract, the 

balloon must fly either above 1,000 feet AGL or be 2,000 

feet away from the houses.

To stay 500 feet away from an isolated farmhouse, imagine 

a 1,000-foot diameter clear hemisphere centered over the 

building. [Figure 7-9] If the balloon is 400 feet away from 

the structure on the horizontal plane, the balloon pilot only 

need fly about 300 feet AGL to be 500 feet away from it. If 

the balloon passes directly over the building, then there must 

be a minimum of 500 feet above the rooftop, chimney, or 

television antenna to be legal.

In summary, regulations require: 

1. Flying high enough to be safe if a problem occurs; 

2. 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a 2,000-

foot radius above a congested area; and 

3. An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except over 

open water or sparsely populated areas. 
7-11

Figure 7-10 The movement of the power lines either up or down in 

the pilot’s field of vision can indicate whether or not the balloon 

has sufficient obstacle clearance.

Some favorite sighting objects are a power pole as the near 

object and the line of a road, field, or orchard as the far 

object—lines may be observed moving up and down the 

poles. Water towers with checkerboard or striped markings 

are also good sighting objects. Vigilance is required for 

constant scanning of the terrain along the flightpath, and 

the pilot must be alert to avoid becoming fixated on sighting 

objects. Again, the pilot should look where he or she is going, 

not where he or she has been. When flying in proximity to 

other balloons, particularly at lower altitudes, it is easy to 

become fixated on the other balloon(s) and attempt to follow 

their lead. The balloon pilot should remember to fly his or 

her balloon and let the other pilots fly theirs. 

The particular pleasures of contour flying can best be enjoyed 

in a balloon. It is wonderful to fly at low level over the trees, 

drop down behind an orchard, float across a pond just off 

the water, watch jackrabbits scatter—see sights up close. 

No other aircraft can perform low level contour flying as 

safely as in a balloon, and in no other aircraft is the flight 

as beautiful. Contour flying can be great fun, but remember 

that the balloon should always be flown at legal, safe, and 

considerate altitudes.

Contour Flying Cautions—Aborted Landings

The line between contour flying and unsafe, inconsiderate, 

and misunderstood practices can sometimes be very fine.

Observers often misinterpret aborted landings on the ground 

as buzzing or rude flying. Sometimes landing sites seem to be 

elusive. A typical situation is the pilot descending to land at an 

appropriate site, but miscalculating the winds below and the 

balloon turns away from the open field toward a farmhouse. 

The farmer sees the balloon descend, turn towards the house, 

and, with noisy burners roaring, zoom back into the air and 

proceed. The pilot was not being rude or inconsiderate, just 

inexperienced. The pilot did not mean to swoop down to buzz 

the house; the wind had changed. If the pilot had watched 

something drop from the basket to gauge the winds below or 

been more observant, the pilot would have known the balloon 

would turn towards the house as it descended. A squirt of 

shaving foam from an aerosol can or a small piece of rolled 

up tissue could have alerted the pilot of the different wind 

at lower altitudes.

Two or three of these swoops over a sparsely populated area, 

and people on the ground may not only think the pilot is 

buzzing houses, some people may think the pilot is having 

a problem and is in trouble. That is when the well-meaning 

landowner calls the police to report a “balloon in trouble.” 

Flying too close to a house (a friend’s house, for example) 

to say hello, dragging the field, or giving people a thrill by 

flying too low over a gathering are examples of buzzing, 

which is illegal and can be hazardous.

When flying at low altitude, the pilot must be vigilant for 

obstacles, especially powerlines and traffic, and not rely 

solely on instruments inside the basket. The pilot should 

always face the direction of travel, especially at low altitude. 

The pilot’s feet and shoulders should be facing forward. The 

pilot should turn only his or her head from side to side (not 

the entire body) to gauge altitude and to detect or confirm 

climbs and descents. Facing the direction of flight cannot 

be overemphasized; there are many National Transportation 

Safety Board (NTSB) and FAA accident reports describing 

balloon contacts with ground obstacles because the pilot was 

looking in another direction.

Contour flying requires somewhat shorter burns than 

the standard burn. To fly at low altitudes requires half or 

quarter burns. One disadvantage in using small burns is the 

possibility of losing track of the heat being created. Precise 

altitude control requires special burner techniques. Another 

hazard of a series of too small burns is the accumulation 

of added heat before the effects of the last burn have been 

evaluated. The balloon actually responds to a burn 6 to 15 

seconds after the burner is used. 

One technique to determine if the balloon is ascending, 

flying level, or descending is to sight potential obstacles in 

the flightpath of the balloon, such as the power lines shown 

in Figure 7-10. As the balloon approaches the wires, the pilot 

should determine how the wires (or other obstacles) are moving 

in his or her field of vision relative to the background. If they 

are moving up in the pilot’s field of vision (shown by the red 

arrow), or staying stationary, then the balloon is on a descent 

that may place the pilot and passengers at risk. Conversely, 

if the wires are moving down in the pilot’s field of vision (as 

indicated by the green arrow), then the balloon is either in level 

flight or ascending, and able to clear the obstacle. 
7-12

Use of Instruments

14 CFR part 31 and the balloon manufacturers’ equipment 

lists specify certain instruments to be in the balloon. However, 

most pilots find they use instruments less and less as they 

gain experience and familiarity with the balloon.

For instance, while the VSI and the altimeter can be used to 

execute a smooth descent and transition to level flight, the 

experienced pilot refers only occasionally to the instruments 

during maneuvers. This is especially so in maneuvers 

involving descents where more reliance is placed on sight 

pictures and visual references.

Some beginner pilots become fixated on the instruments 

and forget to scan outside for obstacles. If a pilot spends too 

much time looking at the flight instruments, the instructor 

may cover the instrument pack with a spare glove or a hand 

to try to break the formation of a bad habit. Instruments are 

required and useful, but should not distract the pilot from 

obstacle avoidance. Always practice see-and-avoid.

InFlight Emergencies

An emergency is a sudden, unexpected situation or 

occurrence that requires immediate action. In aviation, an 

emergency is a critical, possibly life-threatening or propertythreatening occurrence that may require outside assistance. 

In an emergency, the pilot may violate any regulation as 

necessary to safely resolve the emergency, but must be 

prepared to justify his or her actions.

Because of its basic simplicity, there are few catastrophic 

failures or emergencies in a hot air balloon. Virtually all 

emergency situations involving balloons can be grouped 

into three categories:

• Loss/malfunction of vent or deflation line

• Loss/malfunction of pilot light

• Fuel leak

Loss/Malfunction of Vent or Deflation Line 

This is usually thought of as a loss of the envelope valve 

control line. This could occur after a particularly windy 

inflation, during which the pilot has inadvertently burned 

through the control line and failed to notice it prior to launch. 

Another variation could be a control line stuck in a guide 

pulley, preventing the pilot from being able to control the 

parachute vent.

Regardless of the reason, loss of a control line must be 

handled. A pilot experiencing this problem must be prepared 

to land the balloon with a minimal amount of control, as he or 

she has use only of the burner to affect the descent. The pilot 

should maintain minimum altitudes and land in the largest 

area possible. If a high wind landing is expected, the pilot 

should anticipate rebound and dragging after touchdown; 

the pilot also needs to consider the prospect of deliberately 

landing the balloon in a less than desirable area in order to 

avoid potential power line contacts.

Loss/Malfunction of Pilot Light 

Hot air balloon burner pilot lights are extremely reliable; 

however, they do fail at times. This is usually caused by a 

failure in the valve controlling the pilot light, or clogging of 

the orifice in the pilot regulator due to contamination in the 

fuel supplying the pilot light. 

In a dual burner system, the failure of a pilot light is not a 

serious issue, as the balloon can still be controlled through the 

use of the second burner. The pilot may attempt to relight the 

pilot light by using both burners at the same time. To some 

extent, the pilot may be able to utilize this procedure to fly 

the balloon until able to land in a suitable location, should 

the extinguished pilot light not relight. 

Pilot light failure in a single burner balloon is of more 

concern, as the pilot’s options for continued flight are 

reduced. The pilot needs to take immediate action to relight 

the pilot light, either through the use of a piezoelectric igniter 

(if equipped), or by using a striker or other ignition source. 

Many balloon burners are not designed to be conveniently 

relit while standing in the basket; this should be practiced 

on a periodic basis by the pilot, at a minimum during flight 

reviews. Should the pilot light not relight immediately, many 

burners can still be utilized by “cracking” the main blast 

valve very slightly, and then lighting the fuel stream from the 

burner’s jets. Other sources may include the backup system 

fitted in that particular balloon. The pilot may slightly open 

the valve controlling the backup system, and attempt to light 

that stream of propane. In any case, a landing as soon as 

practical is probably the best course of action

Fuel Leak 

Fuel leaks in flight have the potential for catastrophic results 

and must be acted upon immediately. Because of the design 

of most balloon fuel systems, there are numerous potential 

“leak points” which may be the source for a fuel leak. Fuel 

lines and fuel line fittings, tank valves, and blast valves all 

have the potential for failure, and the balloon pilot must be 

aware of the various circumstances, and be prepared to deal 

with them.

Virtually all in-flight fuel leak emergencies in a balloon can 

be dealt with by shutting off the fuel source. Small fires 

from leaks around a fuel line fitting may be extinguished 

by shutting off the fuel source and then wrapping a gloved 
7-13

Wind direction

Figure 7-11 Layout schematic for a balloon tether.

hand around the fitting and “snuffing” out the flame before 

it can spread further.

Because of the variety of systems, valve types, and differences 

in operations, a pilot should review the flight manual for his 

or her particular balloon system, and be familiar with and 

regularly practice the emergency procedures. The previously 

listed information is general in nature, and is not specific to 

any particular type of balloon, nor should it be taken as a 

specific procedure to be followed in the event of an in-flight 

emergency. In all cases, the information contained in the 

manufacturer’s flight manual should be followed.

In all emergencies, it is imperative that the pilot maintain 

control of the balloon. Many minor problems can quickly 

become major problems if the pilot fails to continue to fly 

the balloon. Additionally, the use of a checklist for in-flight 

emergencies is not appropriate. First, the pilot must resolve 

the situation, and then refer to an appropriate checklist or the 

balloon’s flight manual to verify the appropriate action. 

Tethering/Mooring

Tethering a hot air balloon, despite its apparent simplicity, 

is perhaps the most demanding and stressful operation in 

ballooning, both in terms of equipment and the pilot. Balloons 

are designed to be free flown, not tied to the ground, and 

tethering incurs forces on a balloon that can, under certain 

circumstances, exceed design limits. The pilot conducting 

a tether is often called upon to conduct two or three hours 

of precise, “finesse” flying, which many times he or she is 

not prepared for. The crew must endure 2 to 3 hours of nonstop handling to manage this complex and often exhausting 

operation. Safe conditions fall within narrow ranges and a 

safe tether often demands more attention and management 

than flying in marginal conditions.

Every tether situation is unique enough to require tailoring 

the operation to specific needs and equipment. However, 

the idea of a “simple” tether should not lure the pilot into 

underestimating the very real demands and risks that come 

with it. A skilled and knowledgeable crew allows a pilot to 

take advantage of the many benefits tethering offers. Under 

suitable conditions, a well planned multi-hour commercial 

tether can last for hours, reach a media audience of millions, 

and offer several hundred people their first brief balloon 

ride. Regardless of the reasons for tethering a balloon, all 

forms of tethering require the same basic preparations and 

guidelines for safety.

The balloon pilot contemplating a tether operation should 

remember that the requirements of 14 CFR Part 91, General 

Operating and Flight Rules, apply to all operations conducted 

with a type-certified hot air balloon. There is a popular 

misconception that tether operations are conducted under 

the provisions of 14 CFR Part 101, Applicability; this is an 

incorrect assumption. Tether operations must be conducted by 

a certificated pilot, and may not, under any circumstances, be 

performed by an individual not in possession of an airman’s 

certificate.

Laying out the balloon for a properly executed tether operation 

requires a little more preparation than a normal launch layout. 

Initial planning needs to take into consideration the winds, 

both current and forecast, for the period of time the tether is 

to be conducted. The tether site should be at least twice, and 

preferably three times, the size of a normal launch area for that 

particular balloon. It may be surrounded by trees, buildings, 

and other obstacles. Under certain circumstances, this may 

work to the pilot’s advantage, as these may block low-level, 

lower velocity winds. Higher winds may create turbulence 

that significantly affects the balloon. [Figure 7-11]

There are two primary methods of tethering, the three-line 

method and the six-line method. In the three-line method, 

lateral lines are attached at the top of the basket, generally 

to the suspension of the balloon, to transfer stress loads from 

the balloon directly to the lateral lines, and not through the 

basket’s superstructure. In the six-line method, three vertical 

“bridle” lines are connected from the top of the balloon to the 

top of the basket’s superstructure and three additional lines 
7-14

Figure 7-12 A six-line tether.

(laterals) are attached to the vertical bridles. [Figure 7-12]

The six-line system is preferable in windier conditions, as 

it allows the balloon to move within the framework created 

by the bridles and laterals, but keeps the balloon upright 

and confined to a relatively small area. The specific setup 

required is dependent on the intent of the tether and whether 

rides are being offered. 

In almost all cases, the manufacturer’s flight manual specifies 

procedures and techniques for tethering the balloon, and 

the prudent pilot is aware of these instructions and possible 

limitations prior to conducting a tether.

Tether safety often depends more on flight team skills and 

preparation than anything else. The following tethering safety 

tips are drawn from the book, Hot Air Balloon Crewing 

Essentials, by Gordon Schwontkowski, and is an excellent 

reference text for balloon pilots as well as crew.

• Whether you use a commercially available tether 

system or your own quality ropes matters less than 

how well and how thoroughly you prepare. Securely 

attach two or three tether lines minimum to load rings, 

envelope carabiners, or other brand specific point on 

your equipment. 

• Triangulated wind protection is the goal. Attach 

tether lines to secure objects such as parked vehicles 

so that two lines always distribute wind loads. This 

protects you on all sides from turbulence and potential 

downdrafts from buildings.

• Focus! Constantly watch weather conditions and line 

tensions for changes or needed adjustments. Listen 

to the crew for feedback and instruction. Direct 

spectators and participants according to your needs 

and their safety rather than chatting with them.

• Note and adjust for weather changes. Weather places 

great unnatural stresses on tethered balloons. Be 

prepared to suspend or cancel a tether at any moment 

due to changing weather. Allow extra time for packing 

lines and other tether equipment when considering 

whether to shut down. 

• Plan for any one line to fail or come untied with no 

notice. Create a backup plan you can implement 

immediately to maintain control and safety.

• Watch for spectators and children who want to hang 

onto tether lines and ride them off the ground. Keep 

all noncrew away from lines; suddenly tight or rising 

lines pose risks for all concerned. At NO TIME should 

any crew member ever leave the ground (riding or 

hanging on the basket, holding ropes, etc.).

• Devote one crew member exclusively to organizing 

passengers in a line far back from the balloon and 

tether lines. Select groups by number, weight, age, 

or an appropriate combination of factors.

• Adding weight is necessary on landing and during 

passenger switches, giving many opportunities for 

someone’s toes or a foot to slip beneath a fully loaded 

basket. Keep everyone similarly clear of lines running 

to the basket or lower envelope.

• Inspect lines frequently to ensure they are attached 

securely at both ends, particularly under heavy loads 

or in stronger wind conditions.
7-15

Figure 7-13 This crew chief has stopped safely off the road to 

talk to her pilot. Communications are important, but safety is 

paramount.

Inflight Crew Management

The balloon chase crew does much more during the flight than 

merely drive and wait for the balloon to land. As an integral 

part of the flight team, the crew can often have a significant 

impact on flight safety. Rather than passively follow behind 

the balloon’s perceived route, a knowledgeable chase crew 

can assist in the execution of the flight and play a large role 

in flight safety and management.

Immediately after the launch, the crew should promptly load 

equipment and prepare to leave the launch field. At a large 

fun fly of local pilots, or perhaps a competitive event, there 

may be a temptation for the crew to remain on the field and 

socialize; a crew on the field is of little or no use to a pilot 

who may be in difficulty. The crew chief, in conjunction with 

the pilot, should have a planned route off the launch site and 

a methodology for conducting the chase. Some pilots prefer 

for the chase crew to be ahead of the balloon, while other 

pilots have the chase crew follow the balloon throughout 

the entire flight. This is a matter of personal preference and 

may have an impact on the comfort level of the pilot. Either 

way is acceptable, as long as the pilot and crew remain in 

contact, and there is a plan in place for the eventual recovery 

of the balloon.

Chasing the balloon is, at times, grossly oversimplified. The 

crew should always bear in mind that they may have to plan 

on how to be in one of two places at any given moment: 

where the balloon currently is and where it appears to be 

heading in the next few minutes. A good rule during the first 

half of the planned flight is to leapfrog ahead of the balloon, 

let the balloon catch up, and then repeat the process. Even 

in familiar flying areas, the crew should frequently check 

maps to determine the flightpath, likely landing areas, and 

the best routes to get there. The crew must constantly be 

aware of changing conditions that may affect the flight; winds 

increasing, decreasing, or changing directions, or perhaps 

traffic situations that affect how the crew gets to the balloon 

after landing. 

Crew Behavior

During the chase, the crew should remember to drive 

legally and politely. Driving at high rates of speed with no 

justification creates a sense of emergency where there is not 

one, and can draw unwanted attention to the chase crew. The 

chase crew is useless to the pilot if they have been stopped 

by the authorities.

While chasing, the crew should observe all “No Trespassing” 

and “Keep Out” signs, and stay on public, paved roads. 

Vehicular trespass is common and the laws are very restrictive 

regarding vehicles on private property. Pilots and their chase 

crews should adhere to local trespass laws.

If possible, the chase crew should try to keep the chase vehicle 

in sight of the balloon. The pilot needs to know the crew is 

nearby and not stuck in a ditch or off somewhere changing a 

flat tire. When the vehicle is stopped at the side of the road, 

park it so the entire vehicle is visible to the balloon pilot.

Pilot/Crew Communications

Radio communications between the balloon and the chase 

vehicle are fairly common. If radios are used, obey all Federal 

Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Use call 

signs, proper language, and keep transmissions short. Many 

balloonists prefer not to use radios to communicate with their 

chase vehicle because it can be distracting to both pilot and 

chase vehicle driver. In any case, it is a good idea to agree 

on a common phone number before a flight in case the chase 

crew loses the balloon. [Figure 7-13]

Use of a Very High Frequency (VHF) Radio

There is confusion among pilots regarding frequencies that 

may be used from air-to-ground, balloon-to-chase crew, for 

instance. Many balloonists use 123.3 and 123.5 for air-toground (pilot-to-chase crew), as these frequencies are for 

glider schools and not many soaring planes are in the air 

at sunrise. Since all users of the airwaves must have an ID 

or call, ground crews may identify themselves by adding 

“chase” to the aircraft call sign. For example, the chase call 

for “Balloon 3584 Golf” would be “3584 Golf Chase,” or 

perhaps simply “84 Golf Chase.”

The air-to-air frequency is 122.75. Remember that everyone 

in the air is using this frequency; transmissions should be 

kept brief. A balloon pilot trying to contact a circling airplane 

would try 122.75 first. 
7-16

Figure 7-14 Flight in areas of horse activity requires caution and 

consideration.

Figure 7-15 While cattle in a field may appear undisturbed, they 

can spook and stampede at the least provocation.

Weather information is available on VHF radio. A balloon 

pilot could obtain nearby weather reports by tuning to 

the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). The 

appropriate frequency is listed on the cover of the sectional 

chart and in the airport information block printed on the chart 

near the appropriate airport.

Landowner Relations

Identification of Animal Populations

Balloonists must learn how to locate and identify animals on 

the ground. Even though it may be legal to fly at a certain 

low altitude, animals do not know the laws—nor do most of 

their owners. If a pilot causes dogs to bark, turkeys to panic, 

or horses to run, even while flying legally, it may provide 

legitimate cause for complaint.

Horses and ponies can be anywhere from the smallest 

paddock and roughest fields to the largest pasture. Boarding 

stables and breeding farms are easily identified by their 

painted wooden fences, stacked bales of hay and straw, and 

horse trailers. Assume all horses are valuable: race horses, 

breeders, and those privately boarded. While horses generally 

behave the same way when frightened, each one’s alarm level 

differs. Anything from the glow of the back-up burner to the 

balloon’s shadow can spook them. In a pasture, they may 

buck, neigh, or even charge; in extreme cases, they might try 

to jump the fence and may injure themselves. As horses are 

accustomed to hearing human voices, talking to them may 

help calm them down. [Figure 7-14]

Cattle need more space than horses, about one acre per cow. 

Dairy cows tend to stay near the barn; corn near the pasture 

and a muddy yard usually means milk production. If they 

are out in more remote pastures, they are probably beef 

producers. When startled, cattle usually bunch together to 

face a threat but can just as easily panic and run. A stampede 

can break down a fence or locked gate. Once out, cattle can 

be herded by driving them from behind where they need 

to go by blocking sideways means of escape (with people 

or vehicles). Brood cows can be unpredictable, especially 

during breeding, and are capable of damaging a truck. As 

with horses, the sound of human voices may help calm cattle. 

[Figure 7-15]

Pigs are perhaps the most difficult livestock for farmers 

to raise. Easily disturbed, it is best to avoid them at all 

costs. When frightened, they bunch together and bolt, and 

are virtually unstoppable, almost impossible to catch, and 

potentially dangerous (especially boars). Pigs run until 

they are exhausted; rounding them up can take days. Pork 

prices fluctuate dramatically, and monetary claims against 

a balloonist who upsets pigs can be quite high.

Poultry (chickens and turkeys) are more often raised in 

confinement buildings than free range. A long windowless 

building with fans on the ends and atop the roof usually 

indicates a poultry production facility. With the lights and 

fans off, tens of thousands of birds can be amazingly quiet. 

Any disruption of this tightly controlled environment, 

however, can severely affect production. A sudden blast 

of a balloon’s burner can start an all-out panic; birds trying 

to flock in a confined space trample and crush each other, 

leading to mass-scale suffocation. Ducks and geese raised 

outside average about 200 birds per pen. When panicked, they 

also tend to flock which can lead to injury and death. 

Livestock will appear along a balloon’s flightpath, as well 

as landing sites. Follow these livestock tips to minimize 

disruptions during these encounters:

• Always watch for signs of livestock: barns, sheds, 

silos, fences, muck heaps, tractors, trailers, stacked 

bales of straw and hay, and mudded areas all point to 

some form of livestock nearby.
7-17

• Stay away from barns and building clusters – livestock 

are most likely inside or nearby.

• Livestock are most active in the morning and early 

evening. When hot, they seek shade near buildings 

or under trees. When cold, they gather together to 

conserve heat and seek shelter from wind anywhere.

• Livestock breaking out of their field or enclosures 

as the balloon flies by demands immediate attention. 

A cow in the road can total a car; the driver will not 

do well either. The chase crew should either find the 

farmer or take steps to contain or protect the livestock 

without endangering themselves. 

• The sound of a human voice can often calm agitated 

or frightened livestock—talk to them. Use calm and 

easy tones.

• Horses with riders warrant particular caution. A highly 

visible wave from the basket to the rider acknowledges 

their presence and says that all possible care is being 

taken.

Chapter Summary

As with the previous chapter, this chapter explains techniques 

and procedures that have come to be generally accepted 

throughout most of the ballooning community. They are by 

no means an exhaustive explanation of “how to fly.” Some of 

the procedures may seem unduly complex, but with practice 

and experience, these maneuvers come naturally.

A good pilot observes other pilots and incorporates techniques 

that are safe and acceptable. New pilots sometimes fly with 

different instructors, in order to gain a perspective on “how 

the other guy does it”; other, more experienced pilots fly with 

another commercial pilot during a flight review. Almost all 

flight methodology, as long as it is safely conducted, and with 

a plan and purpose behind it, is acceptable for use as long as 

the performance requirements of the PTS can be met. 
7-18
8-1

Introduction

No other aircraft has as many different types of landings as 

a balloon. Rarely are two landings in a balloon the same, 

and each has its own unique characteristics. The prime 

consideration in any balloon landing is the safety of the pilot 

and passengers. While accessibility, ease of recovery, and 

possible damage to the balloon are certainly considerations 

in any balloon landing, these do not override the simple fact 

that preventing injury to occupants must be the primary goal 

of any balloon pilot.

Landing 

and Recovery

Chapter 8
8-2

Figure 8-1. Horizontal approach path as normally visualized and performed.

Accident statistics indicate that the landing sequence is the 

portion of flight in which the most injuries occur. 

The Approach

An axiom of ballooning is “the best altitude for landing is 

the lowest altitude.” Anyone can land from one foot above 

the ground; it takes skill to land from 100 feet. The pilot’s 

ultimate goal in making the approach is to set himself up to 

make a smooth, gentle landing in the best possible location 

without causing damage to the balloon or injury to the 

passengers.

Conventional wisdom indicates three types of approaches 

to landing in ballooning—stair step, straight line, and steep 

(previously discussed in Chapter 7, Inflight Maneuvers). 

In reality, the stair step and straight line approaches are 

considered the same type of approach, a controlled approach, 

while the steep approach is viewed as an accelerated 

approach. Any approach is considered to be a variation of 

one of these two or perhaps a combination. 

Of more importance, and a point frequently missed by 

newer or inexperienced pilots, is that the approach is being 

performed in two different planes or dimensions. Pilots are 

accustomed to thinking of the approach in vertical terms, but 

frequently discount the fact that the approach is also being 

performed on the horizontal plane. 

Refer to Figure 8-1. This is the approach path to the selected 

landing site for this pilot. Most pilots presume that this 

will happen after making a determination of lower level 

winds, evaluating obstacle clearance, noting the presence 

of powerlines, and making the decision to commit to the 

landing. After that, the primary focus becomes making 

the descent without further consideration of the lateral or 

horizontal movement. 

In Figure 8-2, the pilot has determined the winds below, and 

has set up for the same approach ensuring obstacle clearance, 

powerline considerations, and making the commitment to 

land. The difference here is that the pilot has a higher level 
8-3

340° 600' AGL

320° 450' AGL

305° 300' AGL

290° 150' AGL

270° 100' AGL

Figure 8-2. The horizontal plane’s “reality” approach to landing.

of situational awareness and understands the horizontal 

component, and therefore begins the approach with many 

more options available. In this example, if the pilot is tending 

more towards the road, he or she can “extend” the approach 

to remain in more favorable winds, and then continue the 

descent when the turn is more advantageous to the landing. 

The vertical component of the landing profile is represented 

in Figure 8-3. This may be referred to as a “natural” descent 

profile. For example, the pilot may see a large field in the 

distance ahead and elect to initiate a shallow or low profile 

approach. The pilot would let the balloon cool naturally until 

it reached the point depicted as Point A in Figure 8-3. A 

normal descent rate at that point would project the balloon 

out on a line tangent with the descent curve at that moment. 

From that point, the pilot must maintain that line much like 

the control necessary for contour flying.

If, however, the winds are somewhat lighter or the landing 

site is tight, conducting the approach from Point B, Figure 8-3

might be more appropriate. Again, the pilot should wait until 

the tangent of the descent curve aligns with the targeted 
8-4

A

B

C

Figure 8-3. Vertical profile for landing.

landing site. At that point, the pilot should make a half burn 

and the balloon will follow the desired path. 

As a final illustration, steep descents, as previously discussed 

in Chapter 7, are usually initiated and controlled from the point 

or area depicted as C in Figure 8-3. The pilot must take both 

planes of movement, the horizontal as well as the vertical, 

into consideration when making the approach.

Again, the balloon pilot must visualize the landing by 

imagining the path through the air and across the ground. 

Constant scanning in all directions while on the desired 

approach is imperative. Target fixation can cause a pilot to 

miss potentially dangerous objects or situations. Look for 

obstacles, especially powerlines, near the imagined track. 

Note surface wind velocity and direction by looking for 

smoke, dust, flags, moving trees, and anything else that 

indicates wind direction. Do not be influenced too much by 

a wind indicator at a distance from the proposed site if there 

is a good indicator closer.

As an example, imagine flying level at 700 feet above ground 

level (AGL) and it is time to land. Checking the fuel, there 

is 30 percent remaining in each of the two 20-gallon tanks. 

The balloon’s track across the ground is toward the southeast, 

but a farmer’s tractor is observed making a column of dust 

that is traveling nearly due east. The dust cloud rises from 

the ground at about a 45° angle. From this information, it is 

believed that the balloon turns left as it descends. This means 

the pilot is looking to the left of the line the balloon now 

travels. By dropping small tissue balls, the pilot determines 

that the wind changes about halfway to the ground and 

continues to turn left about 45°. As an initial plan, visualize 

the descent being no faster than about 500 feet per minute 

(fpm) initially and slowing to about 300 fpm about 400 feet 

AGL where the turn to the left can be expected. Because 

the balloon loses some lift from the cooling effect of the 

wind direction change, the rate of descent should be closely 

monitored during the turn.

With this imagined descent in mind, the pilot searches for an 

appropriate landing site. The next fallow field to the left of the 

present track is blocked by tall powerlines. The landing site is 

rejected as unsuitable. The next field that seems appropriate 

is an unfenced grain stubble field bordered by dirt roads with 

a 30-foot high power line turning along the west side to the 

left and parallel to the balloon’s present track. Under the 

powerlines is a paved road with a row crop of sugar beets to 

the right and directly in the balloon’s ground track. 

The pilot selects a landing site at the intersection of the two 

dirt roads at the southeast corner of the field. The planned 

path would be across the field diagonally giving the greatest 

distance from the powerlines. Extending the final approach 

line back over the powerlines and into the sugar beet field, 

the pilot selects a point where the balloon is likely to begin 

its surface wind turn. Then, reverse planning from that point, 

a point should be determined in order to begin the initial 

descent.

Now, the balloon pilot performs the descent, turn, and landing 

that is visualized. If all goes as planned, the balloon cools 

and accelerates to about 500 fpm. The pilot applies some 

heat to arrest the descent while approaching the imagined 

turning point over the beets, levels off (or actually climbs 

a bit) while crossing over the power lines (about 100 feet 

above), and allows the balloon to cool again while setting 

up another descent across the stubble field. Due to the seven 

mile per hour (mph) estimated wind, the pilot allows the 

basket to touch down about 150 feet away from the dirt road 

intersection to lose some momentum as the basket bounces 

and skids over to the road, just as planned.

Imagine, how the landing might have occurred not knowing 

the surface wind was different from that of the flight path. 

Perhaps a less considerate pilot would plan on landing in the 
8-5

Figure 8-4. The step-down approach. 

beets, believing the crop would not be hurt and the farmer 

would not care. Unfortunately, the balloon turns unexpectedly 

toward the power lines, causing the pilot to make several 

burns of undetermined amount, setting up a climb that 

prevents the pilot from landing on the dirt road. The road 

is directly in line with the balloon’s track but disappearing 

behind the balloon. Another good landing site becomes 

unusable because of the lack of planning.

The prudent pilot makes a nice landing on a dirt road with 

25 percent fuel remaining, while the unprepared pilot dives, 

turns, climbs, and is now back at 600 feet in the air looking 

for another landing site. For the next attempt, the pilot has less 

fuel and is under more pressure, all because of not noticing 

the power lines to the left and not checking the wind on the 

ground before making the descent. 

Step-Down Approach

The step-down approach method involves varying descent 

rates. This procedure is used to determine lower level wind 

velocities and directions so that options may be considered 

until beginning the final descent phase to landing. There 

are other methods to evaluate lower level wind conditions, 

such as dropping strips of paper, small balloons, etc. While 

the descent path can be varied and sometimes quite shallow, 

it is important to avoid long, level flight segments below 

minimum safe altitudes without intending to land. Level flight 

at low altitudes could lead an observer to believe that the pilot 

has discontinued the approach and established level flight at 

less than a minimum safe altitude. [Figure 8-4]

Low Approach

The second type of approach is a low or shallow approach. If 

there are no obstacles between the balloon and the proposed 

landing site, a low or shallow approach allows a pilot to check 

the wind closer to the surface. The closer the balloon is to the 

surface, the easier it is to land. Low approaches are suitable 

in open areas with a wide field of view and few obstacles.

Obstacles and Approach Angles

Most good landing areas are not very large and generally have 

obstacles somewhere close by. The classic approach requires 

the balloon pilot to fly the balloon at a descent angle that clears 

the highest obstacle in its path to the intended landing site. 

However, if the pilot allows the balloon to descend below 

that angle, a rapid adjustment of that angle is necessary to 

avoid the top of the obstacle. In many cases, the attempt to 

miss an obstacle by a close margin may result in a period of 

overcontrolling or excessive burns and vents. 
8-6

A

B

Figure 8-5. In this approach, the pilot has elected to clear the obstacle at a minimal distance. Any overcontrol after Point A is likely to 

send the balloon past the intended landing area, and a very close clearance will be necessary over the obstacle at Point B in order to 

preserve the desired approach angle.

Figure 8-6. This approach is virtually the same as the one in Figure 8-5, but with subtle differences. In this case, the pilot has aimed for 

a location above the obstacle at Point B with appropriate obstacle clearance. Minor deviations after Point A on the approach path, if 

compensated for, still allow the pilot to make the intended landing area.

A

B

The inexperienced pilot usually misses the intended landing 

site and is forced to find another or has an undesirably hard 

landing, if the pilot manages to make the landing site. See 

Figure 8-5 for an illustration of this effect.

This type of approach is helpful by keeping the intended 

landing area in focus so that the descent results in the balloon 

touching down precisely where intended. Benefits to this 

methodology are straight line control and immediate visual 

feedback from the landing site. The disadvantage of using 

this specific methodology is that, again, any deviation from 

the depicted flight path may result in overcontrol or, at best, 

a “close shave” over the obstacle at Point B to preserve the 

approach.

Figure 8-6 illustrates the same vertical profile but with a 

few subtle and important differences. The initial approach 

is identical, but the initial target is different. Rather than 

focusing on the landing site past the barn requiring a clearance 

of two or three feet, this pilot has elected to “aim” for a point 

of safe obstacle clearance of the barn (about ten feet above the 

silo), knowing that a short vent on the other side “sharpens” 

the descent. It is clear that the balloon drops into the landing 

site somewhat closer to the obstacle, the conscientious pilot 

having already evaluated that possibility prior to committing 

to the landing. This methodology minimizes the possibility 

of overcontrolling and dramatically increases the chances of 

a successful landing. 
8-7

Figure 8-7. A good landing is something to watch.

To summarize, if there is an obstacle between the balloon and 

the landing site, the following are the three safe choices.

1. Give the obstacle appropriate clearance and drop in 

from altitude.

2. Reject the landing and look for another landing site.

3. Fly a low approach to the obstacle, fly over the 

obstacle allowing plenty of room, and then make the 

landing.

The first choice is the most difficult, requiring landing from 

a high approach and then a fast descent at low altitude. 

The second choice is the most conservative, but may not 

be available if the pilot is approaching the last landing site. 

The third choice is preferable. Flying toward the site at 

low altitude provides an opportunity to check the surface 

winds. By clearing the obstacle while ascending—always 

the safest option—the pilot ends up with a short, but not too 

high, approach.

Some Basic Rules of Landing

When a landing site is being considered, a balloon pilot 

should first think about the suitability of the site. “Is it safe, 

is it legal, and is it polite?” 

Plan the landing early enough so that fuel quantity is not a 

distraction. Always plan on landing with enough fuel so that 

even if the first approach to a landing site is unsuccessful, 

there is enough fuel to make a couple more approaches.

The best landing site is one that is bigger than the balloon 

needs and has alternatives. If the balloon has three prospective 

sites in front of it, the pilot should aim for the one in the 

middle in case the surface wind estimate was off. If the 

balloon has multiple prospective landing sites in a row along 

its path, the pilot should take the first one and save the others 

for a miscalculation. Unless there is a 180° turn available, 

all the landing sites behind are lost. Before beginning the 

approach, the pilot should plan to fly a reasonable descent 

path to the landing site using the step-down approach, the 

low (shallow) approach, or a combination of the two. 

Congested Areas

Making an approach in a congested area, and subsequently 

discovering the site to be impossible or inappropriate, is 

another example of a situation in which a pilot could be 

falsely accused of low flying. There are some inconsiderate 

pilots who fly too low in congested areas without reason, 

but they are rare. Every pilot has an occassional aborted 

landing situation. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.119, a balloon 

may fly closer to the ground than the minimum altitude, if 

necessary for landing. For example, during the approach the 

balloon turns away from the obviously preferred landing site, 

but there is another possible site only one-half mile in the 

proper direction. The pilot has two choices: (1) go back up 

to a legal altitude and try again, or (2) stay low in the wind 

that the balloon pilot is sure will carry the balloon to a good 

site and try to make the second landing site.

In making the first choice, the pilot could be accused of 

intentionally flying too low. However, with the second 

choice, he or she flies lower for a longer period of time, 

which might appear to be a blatant violation of the minimum 

altitude regulation. This is not an argument in favor of either 

technique. Many pilots prefer the second choice on the “once 

the pilot goes down to land, he or she had better land” theory. 

[Figure 8-7]

Practice Approaches

Approaching from a relatively high altitude with a high 

descent rate down to a soft landing is a very good maneuver 

to practice periodically, regardless of the experience level 

of the pilot. This is used when landing over an obstacle 

and maneuvering to the selected field is possible only from 

a higher than desired altitude. This maneuver can also be 

used when, due to inattention or distractions, the pilot is at 

a relatively high altitude approaching the last appropriate 

landing site. Practicing this type of approach should take 
8-8

Figure 8-8. Anatomy of a thermal. A thermal is created by the uneven heating of the surface of the Earth by solar radiation (insolation). 

As the sun heats the ground, the ground in turn warms the air above it. Warmer air is less dense, and therefore rises; as it rises, it cools 

due to expansion. This heating/cooling pattern sets up a cycle, whereby a downward flow is created outside the thermal column one the 

air has cooled to a temperature equal to that of the surrounding air. This can create a hazardous situation for a balloon pilot; the best 

action is to maintain buoyancy, and wait for the column to dissipate.

place in an uninhabited area and the obstacle should be a 

simulated obstacle.

A drop-in landing or steep approach to landing is another good 

maneuver to practice. Being able to perform this maneuver 

can get the balloon into that perfect field that is just beyond 

the trees or just the other side of the orchard. A pilot that is 

able to drop quickly, but softly, into the fallow field between 

crops is more neighborly than making a low approach over 

the orchard. Being able to avoid frightening cattle or other 

animals during an approach is a valuable skill.

Having the skill to predict the balloon’s track during the 

landing approach, touching down on the intended landing 

target, and stopping the balloon basket in the preferred place 

can be very satisfying. It requires a sharp eye trained to spot 

the indicators of wind direction on the ground. Dropping bits 

of tissue, observing other balloons, smoke, steam, dust, and 

tree movement are all ways to predict the balloon track on its 

way to the landing site. During the approach, one of the pilot’s 

most important observations is watching for power lines.

In ballooning, approaches can be practiced more often than 

landings. A good approach usually earns a good landing.

Thermal Flight

The experience of being caught in a thermal can certainly 

occur at any altitude, but is more common during the landing 

phase of balloon flight. This is primarily due to the balloon’s 

proximity to the ground and being exposed to the conditions 

that cause thermals. [Figure 8-8]

There are indicators of thermal conditions that may be 

visible to the pilot, such as “dust devils” or small tornados 

visible from the ground. An uncommanded ascent, usually 

at a significant climb rate, may be experienced, or perhaps 

significant changes in direction. In the extreme, a balloon 

caught in a tight (compact) thermal may even create small 

horizontal circles in the sky.

There are two rules to thermal flight. First, the pilot must 

continue to fly the balloon. Many pilots are distracted by the 

thermal flight experience and may forget that the balloon is 

cooling at a faster than normal rate. The pilot should ensure 

that the temperature of the balloon’s envelope is kept at or 

above that required to maintain normal flight, and under 

no circumstance should the pilot allow the balloon to cool. 

The temperature noted at equilibrum should be a minimum 

temperature to maintain. Additionally, the pilot should not 
8-9

vent in an effort to descend and land; if the balloon falls out 

of the thermal, the pilot may not have sufficient altitude to 

recover control.

The second rule of thermal flight is the axiom, “altitude is 

your friend.” Thermals are usually short-lived phenomena 

and dissipate after a brief period of time. If the pilot keeps 

the balloon at flight temperature, the thermal usually “spits” 

the balloon out at a higher altitude. When this happens, the 

balloon can again be controlled by the pilot and a safe landing 

may be executed.

Landings

Landing Considerations

When selecting a landing site, three considerations in order 

of importance are: safety of passengers, as well as persons 

and property on the ground; landowner relations; and ease 

of recovery.

Some questions the pilot should ask when evaluating a 

landing site are:

• Is it a safe place for my passengers and the balloon?

• Would my landing create a hazard for any person or 

property on the ground?

• Will my presence create any problems (noise, startling 

animals, etc.) for the landowner?

High-Wind Landing

When a high-wind landing is likely, the pilot should explain 

to the passengers that a high-wind landing follows. It is better 

to alert them than allow them to be too casual. Passengers 

should be briefed again on the correct posture and procedures 

for a high-wind landing, to include wearing gloves and 

helmets, if available or required. Some pilots with dual 

burner systems elect to leave one burner operational through 

the landing process, in the event that heat must be applied to 

climb out of a bad approach. This decision should be made 

with a view towards the intensity of the impact; a pilot must 

also be aware that, instinctively, he or she may grab the burner 

handle during a rough landing. This could result in burner 

activation, damaging the balloon fabric.

The pilot should fly at the lowest safe altitude to a large field 

and check that the deflation line is clear and ready. Obstacles 

should be avoided and the pilot should ideally make an 

approach to the near end of the field. When committed to the 

landing, brief passengers again, turn off fuel valves, drain 

fuel lines, and turn off pilot lights.

Depending on the landing speed and surface, open the 

deflation vent at the appropriate time to control ground travel. 

The passengers should be closely monitored to ensure they are 

properly positioned in the basket and holding on tightly.

Deflate the envelope and monitor it until all the air is 

exhausted. Be alert for fire, check the passengers, and prepare 

for recovery.

When faced with a high wind landing, the balloon pilot must 

remember that the distance covered during the balloon’s 

reaction time is markedly increased. This situation is 

somewhat analogous to the driver’s training maxim of “do 

not overdrive your headlights.” For example, a balloon 

traveling at 5 mph covers a distance of approximately 73 

feet in the 10 seconds it takes for the balloon to respond to 

a burner input—a distance equal to a semi-truck and trailer 

on the road. However, at a speed of 15 mph, the balloon 

covers a distance of 220 feet, or a little more than two-thirds 

of a football field. A pilot who is not situationally aware 

and fails to recognize hazards and obstacles at an increased 

distance may be placed in a dangerous situation with rapidly 

dwindling options.

Water Landings

Landing in water requires modification to the passenger 

briefing. In a ditching, make sure the passengers get clear of 

the basket in case it inverts due to fuel tank placement. Advise 

the passengers to keep a strong grip on the basket because it 

becomes a flotation device. Predicting the final disposition of 

the basket in water is difficult. If the envelope is deflated, the 

pilot and passengers can expect the envelope to sink, as it is 

heavier than water. Fuel tanks float because they are lighter 

than water, even when full. If the envelope retains air, and 

depending on fuel-tank configuration, the balloon basket may 

come to rest, at least for a while, on its side.

If the water landing is done on a river, the balloon may be 

dragged down river in the current. Generally, staying with 

the basket is the best course of action unless the balloon 

has landed close to the bank and those aboard are strong 

swimmers. 
8-10

Figure 8-9. Landing with passengers.

3. The passengers are less likely to fall out of the front 

of the basket.

In a high-wind landing, passengers should stand in the front 

of the basket because if the basket makes surface contact and 

tips over, passengers fall a shorter distance within the basket 

and are not pitched forward. They are more likely to remain 

in the basket, minimizing the risk of injury.

Face the Direction of Travel

Feet, hips, and shoulders should be perpendicular to the 

direction of flight. Impact with the ground while facing the 

side puts a sideways strain on the knees and hips, which do 

not naturally bend that way. Facing the opposite direction 

is more appropriate under certain conditions. Recall the 

discussion on passenger briefings on page 6-12.

Place Feet and Knees Together, with Knees Bent 

To some people this may not seem to be a natural ready 

position; however, it is very appropriate in ballooning. The 

feet and knees together stance allows maximum flexibility. 

With the knees bent, one can use the legs as springs or shock 

absorbers in all four directions. With the feet apart, sideways 

flexibility is limited and knees do not bend to the side. With 

legs apart fore and aft, one foot in front of the other, there 

is the possibility of “doing the splits” and a likelihood of 

locking the front knee. Avoid using the word brace as in 

“brace yourselves,” as that gives the impression that knees 

should be locked or muscles tensed. Legs should be flexible 

and springy at landing impact.

“Hold On Tight” in Two Places

This is probably the least followed of the landing instructions. 

Up to this point, the typical balloon flight has been relatively 

gentle, and most passengers are not mentally prepared for the 

shock that can occur when a 7,000 pound balloon contacts 

the ground. Passengers should be reminded to hold on tight. 

The pilot should advise the passengers of correct places to 

hold, whether they are factory-built passenger handles or 

places in the balloon’s basket the pilot considers appropriate. 

The pilot should obey his or her own directions and also 

hold on firmly.

Stay in the Basket

Some passengers, believing the flight is over as soon as 

the basket makes contact with the ground, start to get out. 

Even a small amount of wind may cause the basket to 

bounce and slide after initial touchdown. If a 200-pound 

passenger decides to exit the basket at this point, the balloon 

immediately begins to ascend. All passengers should stay in 

the basket until individually told by the pilot to exit.

Passenger Briefings and Management

Prior to landing, the pilot should explain correct posture and 

procedure to the passengers. Many balloon landings are gentle, 

stand-up landings. However, the pilot should always prepare 

passengers for the possibility of a firm impact. The prelanding 

briefing should instruct passengers to do the following:

• Stand in the appropriate area of the basket.

• Face the direction of travel.

• Place feet and knees together, with knees bent.

• “Hold on tight” in two places.

• Stay in the basket.

Stand in the Appropriate Area of the Basket 

Passengers and the pilot normally position themselves toward 

the rear of the basket. [Figure 8-9] This accomplishes three 

things. 

1. The leading edge of the basket is lifted as the floor 

tilts from the occupant weight shift, so the basket 

is less likely to dig into the ground and tip over 

prematurely.

2. With the occupants in the rear of the basket and the 

floor tilted, the basket is more likely to slide along the 

ground and lose some speed before tipping.
8-11

widest possible selection of landing sites. The pilot should 

ensure that the crew is trained to respect the land, obey traffic 

laws, and be polite to everyone they come in contact with. 

The crew should always get permission for the balloon to 

land and the chase vehicle to enter private property.

Each pilot should learn the trespass laws of his or her home 

area. In some states, it is very difficult for the balloon pilot 

and passengers to trespass, but very easy for the chase vehicle 

and crew to trespass. If the balloon lands on the wrong side of 

a locked gate or fence, the first thing the chase crew should 

do is try to find the landowner or resident to get permission 

to enter. If no one can be found, it may be necessary to carry 

the balloon and lift it over the fence.

Do not cut or knock down fences, as it is probably considered 

trespassing. In some places, even the possession of fencecutting and fence-repairing tools may be interpreted as 

possession of burglary tools, creating liabilities. Pilot and 

crew should have a clear understanding of what is acceptable 

and what is not acceptable.

Sometimes local law enforcement officials arrive at the scene 

of a balloon landing site. Someone may have called them or 

they may have seen the balloon in the air. They may just be 

interested in watching the balloon (which is usually the case), 

or they may think a violation of the law has occurred. If law 

enforcement officials approach the balloon, the pilot should 

always be polite. Most emergency responders probably do not 

know much about federal law regarding aviation. However, 

even if they are wrong and the pilot knows they are wrong, 

there is no point in antagonizing them with a belligerent 

attitude. It is better to listen than to end up in court.

There is a wealth of information on landowner relations issues 

available from the Balloon Federation of America (BFA), as 

well as the British Balloon and Airship Club (BBAC). The 

BBAC web site, www.bbac.org, has an excellent video that 

was produced solely to deal with the issues of landowner 

relations in the United Kingdom. Despite being tailored for 

that country, it is worth viewing by the pilot and crew in the 

United States.

Packing the Balloon

After the crew has obtained the necessary landowner clearance 

to enter the landing site, the process of packing the balloon 

begins. Despite being the end of the flight, many pilots, as well 

as crew, consider this the point when the real work begins.

Deflating the balloon is the reverse of the inflation process. 

The crewmember designated to handle the crown line should 

secure the free end of the crown line and move downwind. 

The pilot should turn off the burner’s pilot light and main 

Monitoring of passengers is important because, after the 

balloon first touches down, passengers may forget everything 

they have been told. A typical response is for the passenger to 

place one foot in front of the other and lock the knee. This is 

a very bad position as the locked knee is unstable and subject 

to damage. Pilots should observe their passengers and order 

“feet together,” “front (back) of the basket,” “knees bent,” 

“hold on tight,” and “do not get out until I tell you.” The pilot 

should be a good example to passengers by assuming the 

correct landing position. Otherwise, passengers may think, 

“If the pilot does not do it, why should we.”

It is very important that the passenger briefing be reinforced 

more than once. Some balloon ride companies send an 

agreement to their passengers in advance which includes 

the landing instructions. Passengers are asked to sign a 

statement that they have reviewed, read, and understand the 

landing procedure. Many pilots give passengers a briefing 

and landing stance demonstration on the ground before the 

flight. This briefing should be given again as soon as the 

pilot has decided to land.

The pilot is very busy during the landing—watching the 

passenger’s actions and reactions, closing fuel valves, 

draining fuel lines, cooling the burners, and deflating 

the envelope. The better the passengers understand the 

importance of the landing procedure, the better the pilot 

performs these duties and makes a safe landing.

Recovery

Landowner Relations 

The greatest threat to the continued growth of ballooning 

is poor landowner relations. The emphasis should be to 

create and maintain good relations with those who own and 

work the land that balloonists fly over and land on. Balloon 

pilots must never forget that, at most landing sites, they are 

unexpected visitors. Balloonist may think the uninvited visit 

of a balloon is a great gift to individuals on the ground. The 

balloon pilot may not know the difference between a valuable 

farm crop and uncultivated land. A balloonist may not notice 

grazing cattle. A chase vehicle driver may drive fast down 

a dirt road, raising unnecessary dust. A crewmember may 

trample a valuable crop.

There are several situations where a balloon pilot or crew 

may anger the public. When people are angered, they demand 

action from the local police, county sheriff, Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA), or an attorney. The FAA does not 

initiate an investigation without a complaint. The balloonist 

is the one who initiates a landowner relations problem.

A balloonist can ease the effect he or she has on people on 

the ground. First, the pilot should develop skills to allow the 
8-12

Figure 8-11. Packing the balloon. This pilot has elected to position 

the envelope bag near the basket and is bringing the balloon to the 

bag, rather than picking up the bag each time to move it towards 

the basket. Some pilots prefer this method, as it means less lifting 

for the crew.

Figure 8-10. Walking the balloon out with a “Squeeze-EZ.”

fuel valves on the fuel tanks, and vent the fuel system. Once 

the fuel system has been shut off, and there is no risk of 

fire, the vent line can be activated to start the deflation. The 

crown line crewperson pulls on the crown line to assist in 

the deflation process and to help lay the balloon out in the 

desired direction. The pilot and crew should remember that 

it is virtually impossible to lay a balloon down against the 

wind. Other crewmembers may be stationed on the sides 

to keep fabric from draping over trees, bushes, and assist 

the balloon in coming down. Once the envelope is on its 

side, the crown line crewmember may move to the top of 

the balloon, and maintain slight tension on the load ring in 

order to continue the deflation. This crewmember should be 

reminded to leave gloves on, as the load ring is hot and may 

take some time to cool. 

At this point, the balloon is ready to be “walked out,” or 

“squeezed,” meaning that the remaining air in the balloon 

is removed in preparation for repacking the envelope in the 

appropriate bag. The most common method is for the pilot or 

a crewmember to gather the envelope together at the throat, 

and, keeping their arms around the fabric, walk towards the 

top of the envelope squeezing the air out as they go. There is 

ample opportunity during this process to injure one’s back. 

The person walking the envelope out should take care to not 

put excessive strain on their lower back during this process. 

There are some mechanical devices available to help in this 

process, and some pilots elect to use one of these, rather than 

put an individual’s well being at risk. [Figure 8-10] 

After the envelope is walked out and the crown line is 

secured, either in a separate bag or by folding it in half 

down the length of the envelope (which prevents tangling), 

the envelope is ready to be packed in its bag. The envelope 

bag, regardless of manufacturer, has a “flap” of fabric across 

the top. Some pilots prefer to pack the envelope so the flap 

is towards the balloon, while others prefer that the flap be 

away from the balloon. At first glance, this appears to be a 

random choice but there is sound reasoning behind it. If the 

balloon is usually launched from grassy, smooth fields, then 

it would be normal to have the flap away from the balloon. 

If, however, the balloon is laid out for inflation in areas 

with rocks, stubble, and other objects which may potentially 

damage the envelope, it is an accepted practice to pack the 

balloon with the envelope flap facing towards the balloon. 

Then, when the balloon is laid out on the next flight, it passes 

over the flap before contact with the ground and minimizes 

the risk of damage. [Figure 8-11] 

Crewmembers should be stationed on opposite sides of the 

bag at a 90° angle to the balloon. The pilot or designated 

crewmember lifts a section of the balloon and, with the 

crewmembers lifting the bag and bringing it to the envelope, 

place it in the envelope bag. This process continues until the 

envelope is almost completely packed and only the suspension 

cables are out. The suspension system is removed from the 

basket superstructure and secured, and placed in the envelope 

bag. The bag is closed and loaded on the chase vehicle.

Actions at this point are performed in the reverse order of the 

layout procedure. Generally, the envelope is secured onto the 

chase vehicle, the basket and burners are disassembled and 

secured on the vehicle, and a final check of the landing site 

is made to ensure that no loose items are left at the landing 
8-13

Figure 8-12. Refueling. Note that this pilot is exercising safety 

precautions with sleeves down and gloves on.

site. A final check with the landowner is usually appropriate. 

After a quick “thank you,” the flight is officially “one for 

the books.”

Refueling

Most pilots choose to refuel as soon after a flight as possible. 

This is probably appropriate for most circumstances, as this 

is one less issue to resolve when the time comes for the next 

flight. [Figure 8-12]

Each balloon has its own refueling procedures, which may 

be found in the appropriate flight manual for that balloon. 

Refueling involves connecting a supply line to the balloon’s 

fuel lines, opening the refueling tank’s main valve, opening a 

fixed liquid level gauge (“spit” valve) on the respective fuel 

tank in the balloon basket, and then opening the main supply 

valve on that tank. When the fixed liquid level gauge begins 

to “spit” liquid propane, the tank is full. Shut off the main tank 

valve first, then close the “spit valve,” then close the main 

supply line, and then bleed the lines. This is a generalized 

description of the process; under all circumstances, the pilot 

should follow the procedure as outlined in the balloon’s 

flight manual.

Safety during refueling is of paramount importance. While 

specific refueling procedures may vary, safety procedures do 

not. Propane vapor is a highly flammable and, under certain 

circumstances, explosive gas. There are many instances of 

accidents during refueling that have resulted in property 

damage, personal injury, and even death. The following 

safety rules serve the balloon pilot well to remember:

• No smoking around the balloon while refueling. This 

is an absolute.

• Never conduct refueling procedures from inside the 

basket. 

• Disable strikers in the basket. Turn off cell phones 

and pagers. Synthetic clothing may also provide a 

source of ignition (static electricity) under certain 

circumstances. 

• The chase vehicle should be shut off. Do not leave 

the engine running during the refuel process. In larger 

chase vehicles, such as RV conversions, water heater 

pilot lights must be shut off. 

• Persons conducting the refueling should wear gloves 

at all times, preferably loose ones that can be removed 

quickly.

• Never refuel inside a closed trailer or inside a van. The 

vapor can quickly build up to a potentially combustible 

level. The basket should be moved to open air, as 

propane vapor is heavier than air. 

For further safety recommendations, a pilot should consult 

with the propane supplier or see the appropriate section of the 

Hot Air Balloon Crewing Essentials publication previously 

cited in this handbook.

Logging of Flight Time

At some time subsequent to the flight, it is necessary for the 

pilot to make entries regarding the flight in their personal 

logbook, as well as the aircraft’s logbook. It is an accepted 

practice in aviation that flight time is logged in tenths of 

a hour, as opposed to using hours and minutes. A tenth of 

an hour is represented by a 6-minute increment; remaining 

minutes are rounded up. This practice is used for both 

individuals and aircraft.

Pilot’s Log

A pilot’s flight time is required to be logged under the 

provisions of 14 CFR section 61.51. That section states, in 

part, that ...“(1) Each person must document and record the 

following time...(a) training and aeronautical experience used 

to meet the requirements for a certificate, rating, or flight 

review of this part. (2) The aeronautical experience required for 

meeting the recent flight experience requirements of this part.” 

(in this case, referring to currency requirements as stipulated 

under section 61.57) This is a relatively simple requirement 

and usually does not present issues for the pilot. 
8-14

Figure 8-13. Aircraft log books or maintenance records are for 

aircraft time and not for passenger names and flight experiences.

There are certain definitions relating to solo time, pilot 

in command (PIC) time, and instruction time, which are 

explained within the regulation. Pilots are advised that since 

they alone are responsible for maintaining the log books, 

knowledge of these definitions is necessary. Reviewing 

section 61.51 is appropriate. Should questions arise, a pilot 

should consult with the local Flight Standards District Office 

(FSDO) for interpretation.

Aircraft Log Books

14 CFR section 91.417 addresses the requirement for aircraft 

maintenance records (commonly referred to as a log book), 

and what the record must contain. All time recorded on the 

aircraft must be reflected in the maintenance record, and it 

is the responsibility of the owner or operator of the aircraft 

to ensure that the records are correctly maintained. 

Flight time in a balloon is defined as that time beginning 

when the balloon is first made buoyant and lasts until the 

balloon is deflated. Balloons do not have a hour meter, as an 

airplane or other aircraft does, and the pilot must consider 

the fact that burner activation on inflation would equate to 

an engine start on an airplane. [Figure 8-13]

There are some pilots who do not, for whatever reason, record 

aircraft time conducted while on tether. This is an incorrect 

practice. A balloon on tether is in flight, or more precisely, 

in a flight configuration, and conducting operations under 

the provisions of part 91. All inflated time of a certificated 

balloon should be noted in the maintenance records to ensure 

that inspection times are met.

Crew Responsibilities 

The general theory regarding expectations of crew help at 

landing is if the pilot cannot land the balloon without help, he 

or she should not be flying. It is not always possible for the 

chase crew to be at the landing site, so plan to land without 

assistance.

Most balloon pilots have strong opinions regarding whether or 

not the crew must be present for a landing. Those who do not 

see a need for crew to be present have some solid reasons.

• It is not always possible for crew to be there. Traffic, 

wrong turns, and pilot decisions to land early or fly 

on can thwart their best efforts.

• With no formal training, enthusiastic crew might 

interfere with the landing or do the wrong thing and 

create a problem where none would have existed. 

• Crew racing to every potential landing site may drive 

inconsiderately and even recklessly, endangering 

everyone on the road and creating a poor impression 

for ballooning.

Pilots who favor crew being on hand have a number of equally 

convincing arguments. 

• In any branch of aviation, takeoff and landing are 

the most critical maneuvers. In ballooning, landing 

is number one. The vast majority of ballooning 

accidents and injuries occur on landing. A mistake 

during inflation or launch usually means calling a 

repair station; burned throat fabric is the leading 

repair nationwide. A mistake during landing often 

means calling the insurance agent. One insurance 

survey found accidents involving bodily injury on hard 

landings occur twice as often as damage to equipment 

or even power line strikes. This trend clearly identifies 

a need to improve safety at the end of every flight.

• The leading factor in accidents is wind. Highly 

variable surface winds often speed up, slow down, 

stop, turn, and even go backward. Crew onsite can 

radio the pilot regarding surface wind speeds and 

directions prior to landing, which factor into landing 

at a particular site, if at all.

• Landing approaches put the balloon at its closest to 

power lines, trees, buildings, and the ground. Potential 

risks increase, and the closest first responders able to 

handle the balloon and trouble are most likely to be 

the crew.

• When flying low or into the sun, a pilot may not 

see hidden power lines, antennas, or other obstacles 

which crew can easily spot while assessing the landing 

site.

• Crew can confirm the quality of a landing site. From 

a distance, a pilot cannot see what may rule the site 

out: livestock gathered under a tree, standing water, 
8-15

a newly planted crop, another balloon deflating in the 

field, etc. The crew may find a site the pilot might not 

have seen from the air.

• Many pilots ask crew to get landowner permission 

before committing to a site or actually landing. This 

is often a crew’s top priority. Finding the landowner 

can take a few minutes; one crewmember can do 

this while another walks out to assist the pilot. If it 

is a “no,” time and fuel might have been better spent 

searching for the next suitable option.

• Landings create a workload challenge for the pilot. 

Consider all the tasks in the seconds before and after 

landing: flying the balloon, making an approach, 

briefing passengers, watching for obstacles, bracing 

for landing, deciding to move closer to a road or 

driveway, shutting down tanks, bleeding fuel lines, 

radioing crew, directing passenger unloading, 

deflating the envelope, keeping the envelope off 

obstacles, dealing with a hostile landowner or dog, and 

more. A single oversight, distraction, or poor decision 

can compromise safety. Extra hands may be required 

to protect everyone onboard and on the ground

• Crew serve as a pilot’s redundancy and work to 

minimize flight risks of any nature. The FAA and 

every balloon manufacturer know the safety value 

of redundancy and the greatest risks (accidents and 

injuries) come at landing. There is no better time 

for crew to promote safety than in the flight’s last 

minutes.

While crew-assisted landings may make some pilots 

uncomfortable, the reality is they happen all the time. This 

crew role can perhaps have more impact on flight safety than 

any regulation, equipment, or technique, provided the pilot 

and crew decide this before the flight. 

Sometimes the best landing assistance may be none at all. 

Every pilot is trained to land without help from their crew. 

The balloon pilot may have chosen a landing site—fully 

visible from the air, with no obstacles, and perfect as is—early 

in the flight. Conditions are often smooth enough for safe 

landings. An unassisted landing often gives the pilot a better 

feel for the balloon’s equilibrium. Letting the ground absorb 

the balloon’s energy by touching and/or dragging might 

be the safest option of all. The landowner might greet the 

pilot in person even before the crew arrives, and passengers 

may have equipment disassembled and packed before the 

crew arrives. Many of these conditions frequently occur. A 

thoroughly prepared crew is one that is trained and ready for 

the many occasions that they are needed.

Chapter Summary

Among the many adages in aviation is “takeoffs are optional, 

landings are mandatory.” For every flight, there must be a 

landing, and the balloon pilot should be prepared to execute 

a landing with skill and precision at any time during the 

flight.

In the early days of ballooning, it was common to see pilots 

“stick” the balloon (execute a hard landing) on a routine 

basis as burner systems were generally inadequate to slow 

the balloon during a rapid descent. With newer systems, 

the balloon can be better controlled and a smooth, graceful 

landing is a routine result, provided the pilot has planned 

ahead and understands the mechanics and concepts of the 

landing process. The information contained here is by no 

means all inclusive, but illustrates certain methodologies to 

good landing techniques.
8-16
9-1

Introduction

As a pilot, it is important to stay aware of the psychological 

and physical standards required for the type of flying 

performed. This chapter provides information on medical 

certification and on aeromedical factors related to flying 

activities.

Most pilots must have a valid medical certificate to exercise 

the privileges of their airman certificates. Balloon pilots are 

not required to hold a medical certificate. 

Some operations conducted outside the United States may 

require the balloon pilot to have a medical certificate. For 

example, United States certificated balloon pilots participating 

in events in Canada may be required to carry a second class 

medical certificate in order to carry passengers. In this case, 

it would be wise to check with the appropriate authorities to 

determine the requirements for specific operations. Title 14 

of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 covers 

medical certification of pilots. Aviation medical examiners 

(AMEs) may be found by using a local telephone book, or 

contacting the local Flight Service District Office (FSDO).

Aeromedical 

Factors

Chapter 9
9-2

Environmental and Health Factors 

Affecting Pilot Performance

A number of health factors and physiological effects can be 

linked to flying. Some are minor, while others are important 

enough to require special consideration to ensure safety of 

flight. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inflight emergencies. Some important medical factors that a 

pilot should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, 

middle ear and sinus problems, motion sickness, stress and 

fatigue, dehydration, and heatstroke. Other subjects include 

the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen 

in the blood after scuba diving.

Hypoxia

Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.” 

Although any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long 

enough, the main concern is usually with getting enough 

oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to 

oxygen deprivation. Any reduction in mental function while 

flying can result in life-threatening errors. Hypoxia can be 

caused by several factors, including an insufficient supply of 

oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability 

of the body tissues to use oxygen. Four forms of hypoxia 

based on their causes are: hypoxic hypoxia, hypemic hypoxia, 

stagnant hypoxia, and histotoxic hypoxia.

Hypoxic Hypoxia

Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen available 

to the body as a whole. A blocked airway and drowning are 

obvious examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen, 

but the reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude 

is an appropriate example for pilots. Although the percentage 

of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant, its partial pressure 

decreases proportionately as atmospheric pressure decreases. 

As the aircraft ascends during flight, the percentage of each 

gas in the atmosphere remains the same; however, there are 

fewer molecules available at the pressure required for them 

to pass between the membranes in the respiratory system. 

This decrease in number of oxygen molecules at sufficient 

pressure can lead to hypoxic hypoxia.

Hypemic Hypoxia

Hypemic hypoxia occurs when the blood is not able to take 

up and transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells 

in the body. Hypemic means “not enough blood.” This type 

of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood, 

rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen, and can be caused by a 

variety of factors. It may be because there is not enough blood 

volume (due to severe bleeding), or may result from certain 

blood diseases, such as anemia. More often it is because 

hemoglobin, the actual blood molecule that transports 

oxygen, is chemically unable to bind oxygen molecules. The 

most common cause of hypemic hypoxia is carbon monoxide 

poisoning. Hypemic hypoxia can also be caused by the loss 

of blood from a blood donation. While the volume of blood 

is restored quickly following a donation, normal levels of 

hemoglobin can require several weeks to return. Although 

the effects of the blood loss are slight at ground level, there 

are risks when flying during this time.

Stagnant Hypoxia

Stagnant means “not flowing.” Stagnant hypoxia results 

when the oxygen-rich blood in the lungs is not moving, for 

one reason or another, to the tissues that need it. One form of 

stagnant hypoxia is an arm or leg “going to sleep” because 

the blood flow has accidentally been shut off. This kind of 

hypoxia can also result from shock, the heart failing to pump 

blood effectively, or a constricted artery. Cold temperatures 

can also reduce circulation and decrease the blood supplied 

to extremities. 

Histotoxic Hypoxia

The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen is defined 

as histotoxic hypoxia. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and 

“toxic” means poison. In this case, plenty of oxygen is being 

transported to the cells that need it, but they are unable to 

make use of it. This impairment of cellular respiration can 

be caused by alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics and 

poisons. Research has shown that drinking one ounce of 

alcohol can equate to an additional 2,000 feet of physiological 

altitude. There are other issues concerning the use of alcohol 

in relation to flying in general; those will be discussed later 

in this chapter.

Symptoms of Hypoxia

High altitude flying can place a pilot in danger of becoming 

hypoxic. Oxygen starvation causes the brain and other vital 

organs to become impaired. One noteworthy attribute of 

the onset of hypoxia is that the first symptoms are euphoria 

and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, 

the extremities become less responsive and flying becomes 

less coordinated. The symptoms of hypoxia vary with the 

individual, but common symptoms include:

• Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips),

• Headache,

• Decreased reaction time,

• Impaired judgment,

• Euphoria,

• Visual impairment,

• Drowsiness,

• Lightheaded or dizzy sensation,
9-3

• Tingling in fingers and toes, and

• Numbness.

As hypoxia worsens, the field of vision begins to narrow, 

and instrument interpretation can become difficult. Even 

with all these symptoms, the effects of hypoxia can cause 

a pilot to have a false sense of security and be deceived 

into believing that everything is normal. The treatment for 

hypoxia includes descending to lower altitudes and/or using 

supplemental oxygen. Supplemental oxygen is required for 

certain operations above 12,500 feet mean sea level (MSL). 

(See 14 CFR part 91, section 91.211.)

All pilots are susceptible to the effects of oxygen starvation, 

regardless of physical endurance or acclimatization. When 

flying at high altitudes, it is paramount that oxygen be used 

to avoid the effects of hypoxia. The term “time of useful 

consciousness” describes the maximum time the pilot has 

to make rational, life-saving decisions and carry them out at 

a given altitude without supplemental oxygen. As altitude 

increases above 10,000 feet, the symptoms of hypoxia 

increase in severity, and the time of useful consciousness 

rapidly decreases. Many pilots have established an altitude 

lower than the required 12,500 MSL as their personal “do 

not exceed without oxygen” limit. All pilots are well advised 

to personalize their performance at altitude.

Since symptoms of hypoxia can be different for each 

individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be greatly 

improved by experiencing and witnessing the effects of it 

during an altitude chamber “flight.” The Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) provides this opportunity through 

aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the FAA 

Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI) and at many 

military facilities across the United States. To attend an 

aviation physiology course at CAMI, call (405) 954-4837 

or write:

Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center

Airman Education Program

CAMI (AAM-400)

P.O. Box 25082

Oklahoma City, OK 73125

Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation occurs when an individual is experiencing 

emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and 

depth increase, although the carbon dioxide level in the 

blood is already at a reduced level. The result is an excessive 

loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to 

unconsciousness due to the respiratory system’s overriding 

mechanism to regain control of breathing.

Pilots encountering an unexpected stressful situation may 

subconsciously increase their breathing rate. If flying at 

higher altitudes, either with or without oxygen, a pilot may 

have a tendency to breathe more rapidly than normal, which 

often leads to hyperventilation.

Since many of the symptoms of hyperventilation are similar 

to those of hypoxia, it is important to correctly diagnose and 

treat the proper condition. If using supplemental oxygen, 

check the equipment and flow rate to ensure the symptoms 

are not hypoxia related.

Common symptoms of hyperventilation include:

• Headache;

• Decreased reaction time;

• Impaired judgment;

• Euphoria;

• Visual impairment;

• Drowsiness;

• Lightheaded or dizzy sensation;

• Tingling in fingers and toes;

• Numbness;

• Pale, clammy appearance; and

• Muscle spasms.

Hyperventilation may produce a pale, clammy appearance and 

muscle spasms compared to the cyanosis and limp muscles 

associated with hypoxia. The treatment for hyperventilation 

involves restoring the proper carbon dioxide level in the 

body. Breathing normally is both the best prevention and 

the best cure for hyperventilation. In addition to slowing the 

breathing rate, breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud 

helps to overcome hyperventilation. Recovery is usually rapid 

once the breathing rate is returned to normal.

Middle Ear and Sinus Problems

Ascents and descents can sometimes cause ear or sinus 

pain and a temporary reduction in the ability to hear. The 

physiological explanation for this discomfort is a difference 

between the pressure of the air outside the body and that of 

the air inside the middle ear and nasal sinuses.

The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of the 

skull. It is closed off from the external ear canal by the 

eardrum. Normally, pressure differences between the middle 

ear and the outside world are equalized by a tube leading 

from inside each ear to the back of the throat on each side, 

called the eustachian tube. These tubes are usually closed, 
9-4

Figure 9-1. The eustachian tube allows air pressure to equalize in 

the middle ear.

Opening to Throat

Middle Ear

Outer Ear

Auditory Canal

Eustachian Tube

Eardrum

but open during chewing, yawning, or swallowing to equalize 

pressure. Even a slight difference between external pressure 

and middle ear pressure can cause discomfort. 

In a similar way, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with 

the ambient or outside pressure through small openings 

that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages. An upper 

respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal 

allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an 

opening to slow equalization. As the difference in pressure 

between the sinus and the ambient atmosphere increases, 

congestion may plug the opening. This “sinus block” occurs 

most frequently during descent. Slow descent rates can reduce 

the associated pain. A sinus block can occur in the frontal 

sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary 

sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce 

excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus 

block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus 

may discharge from the nasal passages.

Sinus block can be avoided by not flying with an upper 

respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate 

protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays 

or drops to reduce congestion around the sinus openings. 

Oral decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot 

performance. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after 

landing, a physician should be consulted. [Figure 9-1] 

During a climb, middle ear air pressure may exceed the 

pressure of the air in the external ear canal, causing the 

eardrum to bulge outward. Pilots become aware of this 

pressure change when they experience alternate sensations 

of “fullness” and “clearing.” During descent, the reverse 

happens. While the pressure of the air in the external ear 

canal increases, the middle ear cavity, which equalized with 

the lower pressure at altitude, is at lower pressure than the 

external ear canal. This results in the higher outside pressure, 

causing the eardrum to bulge inward.

This condition can be more difficult to relieve due to the 

fact that the partial vacuum tends to constrict the walls of 

the eustachian tube. To remedy this often painful condition, 

which also causes a temporary reduction in hearing 

sensitivity, pinch the nostrils shut, close the mouth and lips, 

and blow slowly and gently in the mouth and nose. This is 

commonly referred to as the Valsalva procedure.

The Valsalva procedure forces air through the eustachian tube 

into the middle ear. It may not be possible to equalize the 

pressure in the ears if a pilot has a cold, an ear infection, or 

sore throat. A flight in this condition can be extremely painful, 

as well as damaging to the eardrums. If a pilot experiences 

minor congestion, nose drops or nasal sprays may reduce the 

risk of a painful ear blockage. 

Spatial Disorientation and Illusions

Balloon pilots rarely experience issues with spatial 

disorientation while in flight, as virtually all balloon 

operations are conducted under visual flight rules (VFR) 

conditions. Knowledge of these conditions, however, is 

important in the event of unusual circumstances or situations, 

such as inadvertently being caught in fog, or perhaps in areas 

of low visibility. The balloon pilot should have an awareness 

of these issues, so that appropriate actions may be taken as 

necessary.

Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of 

orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement 

of an aircraft in space. The body uses three integrated systems 

working together to ascertain orientation and movement in 

space. The eye is by far the largest source of information. 

Kinesthesia refers to the sensation of position, movement, and 

tension perceived through the nerves, muscles, and tendons. 

The vestibular system is a very sensitive motion-sensing 

system located in the inner ears. It reports head position, 

orientation, and movement in three-dimensional space.

All this information comes together in the brain and, most 

of the time, the three streams of information agree, giving 

a clear idea of where and how the body is moving. Flying 

can sometimes cause these systems to supply conflicting 

information to the brain, which can lead to disorientation. 

During flight in visual meteorological conditions (VMC), 

the eyes are the major orientation source and usually prevail 

over false sensations from other sensory systems. When 

these visual cues are removed, as they are in instrument 

meteorological conditions (IMC), false sensations can cause 

a pilot to become quickly disoriented.
9-5

Figure 9-2. The semicircular canals lie in three planes, and sense motions of roll, pitch, and yaw.

YAW

ROLL

YAW

PITCH

PITCH

ROLL

The semicircular tubes are arranged 

at right angles to each other in the roll, 

pitch, and yaw axes. Vestibular Nerve

Endolymph Fluid

Ampulla of Semicircular Canal

Hair Cells

Cupola

Semicircular Canal

Otolith Organ

The vestibular system in the inner ear allows the pilot 

to sense movement and determine orientation in the 

surrounding environment. In both left and right inner ears, 

three semicircular canals are positioned at approximate right 

angles to each other. [Figure 9-2] Each canal is filled with 

fluid and has a section full of fine hairs. Acceleration of the 

inner ear in any direction causes the tiny hairs to deflect, 

which in turn stimulate nerve impulses, sending messages to 

the brain. The vestibular nerve transmits the impulses from 

the utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals to the brain to 

interpret motion. 

The postural system sends signals from the skin, joints, and 

muscles to the brain that are interpreted in relation to the 

Earth’s gravitational pull. These signals determine posture. 

Inputs from each movement update the body’s position to the 

brain on a constant basis. “Seat of the pants” flying is largely 

dependent upon these signals. Used in conjunction with visual 

and vestibular clues, these sensations can be fairly reliable. 

However, the body cannot distinguish between acceleration 

forces due to gravity and those resulting from maneuvering 

the aircraft, which can lead to sensory illusions and false 

impressions of an aircraft’s orientation and movement.

Again, under normal flight conditions, most balloon pilots 

and passengers do not experience spatial disorientation (or 

vertigo) while flying. 

Motion Sickness

Motion sickness, or airsickness, is caused by the brain 

receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body. A 

pilot may experience motion sickness during initial flights, but 

it generally goes away within the first few lessons. Anxiety 

and stress, which may be experienced at the beginning of 

flight training, can contribute to motion sickness. Symptoms 

of motion sickness include general discomfort, nausea, 

dizziness, paleness, sweating, and vomiting. Generally, under 

normal flight conditions, motion sickness is not an issue for 

balloon pilots or passengers.

Stress

Stress is defined as the body’s response to physical and 

psychological demands placed upon it. The body’s reaction 

to stress includes releasing chemical hormones (such as 

adrenaline) into the blood, and increasing metabolism to 

provide more energy to the muscles. Blood sugar, heart rate, 

respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration all increase. The 

term “stressor” is used to describe an element that causes 

an individual to experience stress. Examples of stressors 

include physical stress (noise or vibration), physiological 

stress (fatigue), and psychological stress (difficult work or 

personal situations).

Stress falls into two broad categories: acute (short term) and 

chronic (long term). Acute stress involves an immediate 

threat that is perceived as danger. This is the type of stress that 

triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual, whether 

the threat is real or imagined. Normally, a healthy person can 

cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload. However, 

ongoing acute stress can develop into chronic stress.

Chronic stress can be defined as a level of stress that presents 

an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual 

to cope, and causes individual performance to fall sharply. 

Unrelenting psychological pressures, such as financial 

worries, difficult relationships, or work problems can produce 

a cumulative level of stress that exceeds a person’s ability 

to cope with the situation. When stress reaches these levels, 
9-6

Figure 9-3. This pilot drove all night to make an event, but still will 

not be able to fly.

performance falls off rapidly. Pilots experiencing this level 

of stress are not safe and should not exercise their airman 

privileges. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from chronic 

stress should consult a physician.

Fatigue

Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of 

the effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and 

concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability 

to communicate. These factors can seriously influence the 

ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue can result 

from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as 

stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can 

result in mental fatigue. 

Like stress, fatigue also falls into two broad categories: acute 

and chronic. Acute fatigue is short term and is a normal 

occurrence in everyday living. It is the kind of tiredness 

people feel after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or 

lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and 8 hours of sound sleep 

ordinarily cures this condition.

A special type of acute fatigue is skill fatigue. This fatigue 

can be readily seen in the balloon pilot who, for example, 

has driven most or all of the night in order to attend an 

event, or perhaps was up for most of the previous night. 

[Figure 9-3]

This type of fatigue has two main effects on performance:

• Timing disruption—appearing to perform a task as 

usual, but the timing of each component is slightly off. 

This makes the pattern of the operation less smooth, 

because the pilot performs each component as though 

it were separate, instead of as a part of an integrated 

activity.

• Disruption of the perceptual field—concentrating 

attention upon movements or objects in the center of 

vision and neglecting those in the periphery. This may 

be accompanied by loss of accuracy and smoothness 

in control movements. 

Acute fatigue has many causes, but the following are among 

the most important to the pilot:

• Mild hypoxia (oxygen deficiency),

• Physical stress,

• Psychological stress, and

• Depletion of physical energy resulting from 

psychological stress.

Sustained psychological stress accelerates the glandular 

secretions that prepare the body for quick reactions during 

an emergency. These secretions make the circulatory and 

respiratory systems work harder, and the liver releases energy 

to provide the extra fuel needed for brain and muscle work. 

When this reserve energy supply is depleted, the body lapses 

into generalized and severe fatigue.

Acute fatigue can be prevented by proper diet and adequate 

rest and sleep. A well-balanced diet prevents the body from 

consuming its own tissues as an energy source. Adequate 

rest maintains the body’s store of vital energy.

Chronic fatigue, extending over a long period of time, usually 

has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is 

sometimes responsible. Continuous high stress levels, for 

example, can produce chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue is 

not relieved by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep, and 

usually requires treatment by a physician. An individual may 

experience this condition in the form of weakness, tiredness, 

palpitations of the heart, breathlessness, headaches, or 

irritability. Sometimes chronic fatigue even creates stomach 

or intestinal problems and generalized aches and pains 

throughout the body. When the condition becomes serious 

enough, it can lead to emotional illness.
9-7

Figure 9-4. Hydration is important both before and after participating 

in outdoor activities. While for obvious reasons during hot weather, 

an individual can dehydrate during cold weather, too.

If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground. If fatigue 

occurs in the basket, no amount of training or experience 

can overcome the detrimental effects. Getting adequate 

rest and nutrition is the only way to prevent fatigue from 

occurring. Avoid flying without a full night’s rest, after 

working excessive hours, or after an especially exhausting 

or stressful day. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from 

chronic fatigue should consult a physician.

Dehydration and Heatstroke

Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from 

the body. The first noticeable effect of dehydration is fatigue, 

which in turn makes top physical and mental performance 

difficult, if not impossible. As a pilot, flying for long periods 

in hot summer temperatures or at high altitudes increases the 

susceptibility of dehydration since the dry air at altitude tends 

to increase the rate of water loss from the body. If this fluid 

is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, 

nausea, tingling of hands and feet, abdominal cramps, and 

extreme thirst. [Figure 9-4]

Heatstroke is a condition caused by inability of the body 

to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be 

recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but it has also 

been recognized only by complete collapse.

To prevent these symptoms, it is recommended that a pilot 

carry an ample supply of water to drink at frequent intervals 

on any long flight, whether thirsty or not. 

Alcohol

Alcohol impairs the efficiency of the human body. Studies 

have proven that drinking and performance deterioration 

are closely linked. Pilots must make hundreds of decisions, 

some of them time critical, during the course of a flight. 

The safe outcome of any flight depends on the ability to 

make the correct decisions and take the appropriate actions 

during routine occurrences, as well as abnormal situations. 

The influence of alcohol drastically reduces the chances of 

completing a flight without incident. Even in small amounts, 

alcohol can impair judgment, decrease sense of responsibility, 

affect coordination, constrict visual field, diminish memory, 

reduce reasoning power, and lower attention span. As little 

as one ounce of alcohol can decrease the speed and strength 

of muscular reflexes, lessen the efficiency of eye movements 

while reading, and increase the frequency at which errors are 

committed. Impairments in vision and hearing can occur after 

consuming only one alcoholic drink.

The alcohol consumed in beer and mixed drinks is ethyl 

alcohol, a powerful central nervous system depressant. It 

acts on the body much like a general anesthetic. The “dose” 

is generally much lower and more slowly consumed in the 

case of alcohol, but the basic effects on the body are similar. 

Alcohol is easily and quickly absorbed by the digestive tract. 

The bloodstream absorbs about 80 to 90 percent of the alcohol 

in a drink within 30 minutes on an empty stomach. The body 

requires about 3 hours to rid itself of all the alcohol contained 

in one mixed drink or one beer.

When experiencing a hangover, a pilot is still under the 

influence of alcohol. Although a pilot may think that he 

or she is functioning normally, motor and mental response 

impairment is still present. Considerable amounts of alcohol 

can remain in the body for over 16 hours, so pilots should be 

cautious about flying too soon after drinking.

Altitude multiplies the effects of alcohol on the brain. When 

combined with altitude, the alcohol from two drinks may have 

the same effect as three or four drinks. Alcohol interferes 

with the brain’s ability to utilize oxygen, producing a form 

of histotoxic hypoxia. The effects are rapid because alcohol 

passes quickly into the bloodstream. In addition, the brain is a 

highly vascular organ that is immediately sensitive to changes 

in the blood’s composition. For a pilot, the lower oxygen 

availability at altitude and the lower capability of the brain 

to use available oxygen add up to a deadly combination.

Intoxication is determined by the amount of alcohol in the 

bloodstream. This is usually measured as a percentage by 

weight in the blood. 14 CFR part 91, section 91.17 requires 

that blood alcohol level be less than 0.04 percent and that 8 

hours pass between drinking alcohol and piloting an aircraft. 

A pilot with a blood alcohol level of 0.04 percent or greater 

after 8 hours cannot fly until the blood alcohol falls below that 

amount. Even though blood alcohol may be well below 0.04 

percent, a pilot cannot fly sooner than 8 hours after drinking 
9-8

alcohol. Although the regulations are quite specific, it is a 

good idea to be more conservative than the regulations.

Drugs

Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both 

prescription and over-the-counter medications, as well as 

by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many 

medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain 

relievers, and cough suppressants have primary effects that 

may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, 

vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others, such 

as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, 

and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness have 

side effects that may impair the same critical functions. 

Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as 

sedatives, tranquilizers, or antihistamines can make a pilot 

more susceptible to hypoxia.

Painkillers can be grouped into two broad categories: 

analgesics and anesthetics. Analgesics are drugs that reduce 

pain, while anesthetics are drugs that deaden pain or cause 

loss of consciousness.

Over-the-counter analgesics, such as acetylsalicylic acid 

(aspirin), acetaminophen (e.g., Tylenol), and ibuprofen (e.g., 

Advil) have few side effects when taken in the correct dosage. 

Although some people are allergic to certain analgesics or 

may suffer from stomach irritation, flying usually is not 

restricted when taking these drugs. However, flying is almost 

always precluded while using prescription analgesics, such 

as drugs containing propoxyphene (e.g., Darvon), oxycodone 

(e.g., Percodan), meperidine (e.g., Demerol), and codeine 

since these drugs may cause side effects such as mental 

confusion, dizziness, headaches, nausea, and vision problems. 

Anesthetic drugs are commonly used for dental and surgical 

procedures. Most local anesthetics used for minor dental and 

outpatient procedures wear off within a relatively short period 

of time. The anesthetic itself may not limit flying so much 

as the actual procedure and subsequent pain.

Stimulants are drugs that excite the central nervous 

system and produce an increase in alertness and activity. 

Amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine are all forms of 

stimulants. Common uses of these drugs include appetite 

suppression, fatigue reduction, and mood elevation. Some 

of these drugs may cause a stimulant reaction, even though 

this reaction is not their primary function. In some cases, 

stimulants can produce anxiety and mood swings, both of 

which are dangerous when flying.

Depressants are drugs that reduce the body’s functioning in 

many areas. These drugs lower blood pressure, reduce mental 

processing, and slow motor and reaction responses. There are 

several types of drugs that can cause a depressing effect on the 

body, including tranquilizers, motion sickness medication, 

and some types of stomach medication, decongestants, and 

antihistamines. The most common depressant is alcohol.

Some drugs, which can be classified as neither stimulants 

nor depressants, have adverse effects on flying. For example, 

some forms of antibiotics can produce dangerous side effects, 

such as balance disorders, hearing loss, nausea, and vomiting. 

While many antibiotics are safe for use while flying, the 

infection requiring the antibiotic may prohibit flying. In 

addition, unless specifically prescribed by a physician, do not 

take more than one drug at a time, and never mix drugs with 

alcohol because the effects are often unpredictable.

The dangers of illegal drugs also are well documented. 

Certain illegal drugs can have hallucinatory effects that occur 

days or weeks after the drug is taken. Obviously, these drugs 

have no place in the aviation community.

14 CFR part 65 prohibits pilots from performing crewmember 

duties while using any medication that affects the body in 

any way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as a 

crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to 

do so by the FAA. If there is any doubt regarding the effects 

of any medication, consult an AME before flying.

Scuba Diving

Scuba diving subjects the body to increased pressure, which 

allows more nitrogen to dissolve in body tissues and fluids. 

The reduction of atmospheric pressure that accompanies 

flying can produce physical problems for scuba divers. 

Reducing the pressure too quickly allows small bubbles of 

nitrogen to form inside the body as the gas comes out of 

solution. These bubbles can cause a painful and potentially 

incapacitating condition called “the bends.” (An example 

is dissolved gas forming bubbles as pressure decreases by 

slowly opening a transparent bottle of carbonated beverage.) 

Scuba training emphasizes how to prevent the bends when 

rising to the surface, but increased nitrogen concentrations 

can remain in tissue fluids for several hours after a diver 

leaves the water. The bends can be experienced from as low as 

8,000 feet MSL, with increasing severity as altitude increases. 

As noted in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), 

the minimum recommended time between scuba diving on 

nondecompression stop dives and flying is 12 hours, while 

the minimum time recommended between decompression 

stop diving and flying is 24 hours. [Figure 9-5]
9-9

Figure 9-5. The reduction of atmospheric pressure that accompanies 

flying can produce physical problems for scuba divers.

Figure 9-6. The human eye.

The rods and 

cones (film) of

the retina are 

the receptors

which record 

the image and 

transmit it

through the 

optic nerve to

the brain for interpretation.

Rods and

Cones

Fovea

(All Cones)

The pupil (aperture) is the opening at 

the center of the iris. The size of the 

pupil is adjusted to control the amount 

of light entering the eye.

PUPIL

Light passes through the cornea (the

transparent window on the front of the 

eye) and then through the lens to

focus on the retina.

CORNEA

Lens

Iris

Rod Concentration

Retina

Optic Nerve

for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the 

front of the eyeball, travels through the lens, and falls on the 

retina. The retina contains light sensitive cells that convert 

light energy into electrical impulses that travel through nerves 

to the brain. The brain interprets the electrical signals to form 

images. There are two kinds of light-sensitive cells in the 

eyes: rods and cones. [Figure 9-6]

The cones are responsible for all color vision, from 

appreciating a glorious sunset to discerning the subtle shades 

in a fine painting. Cones are present throughout the retina, but 

are concentrated toward the center of the field of vision at the 

back of the retina. There is a small pit called the fovea where 

almost all the light sensing cells are cones. This is the area 

where most “looking” occurs (the center of the visual field 

where detail, color sensitivity, and resolution are highest).

While the cones and their associated nerves are well suited 

to detecting fine detail and color in high light levels, the rods 

are better able to detect movement and provide vision in 

dim light. The rods are unable to discern color but are very 

sensitive at low light levels. However, a large amount of light 

overwhelms the rods, and they take a long time to “reset” 

and adapt to the dark again. There are so many cones in the 

fovea that the very center of the visual field has virtually no 

rods at all. Therefore, the middle of the visual field is not 

very sensitive in low light. Farther from the fovea, the rods 

are more numerous and provide the major portion of night 

vision.

Vision in Flight

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. 

Most of the things perceived while flying are visual or heavily 

supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is, 

vision is subject to some limitations, such as illusions and 

blind spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and 

how they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively 

and compensate for potential problems.

The eye functions much like a camera. Its structure includes 

an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface 
9-10

Figure 9-8. Night blind spot.

Cones active

Rods active

Night blind spot

Figure 9-7. The eye’s blind spot.

center can help compensate for this night blind spot. Along 

with the loss of acuity (sharpness) and color at night, depth 

perception and judgment of size may be lost.

Balloon pilots, while not normally conducting flight 

operations at night, can experience similar issues when flying 

in low light conditions, particularly if there is haze or reduced 

visibility. In those instances where the balloon is operated at 

night, such as during a night “glow” or tether, night vision 

can be immediately destroyed by the light from the burner. 

It may take several minutes for the pilot to recover his or 

her vision, time in which complete awareness of his or her 

The area where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no rods 

or cones, leaving a blind spot in the field of vision. Normally, 

each eye compensates for the other’s blind spot. Figure 9-7

provides a dramatic example of the eye’s blind spot. Cover 

the right eye and hold this page at arm’s length. Focus the left 

eye on the X in the right side of the windshield, and notice 

what happens to the balloon while slowly bringing the page 

closer to the eye.

Empty-Field Myopia

Another problem associated with flying at night or in reduced 

visibility is empty-field myopia, or induced nearsightedness. 

With nothing on which to focus, the eyes automatically focus 

on a point just slightly ahead of the aircraft. Searching out 

and focusing on distant light sources, no matter how dim, 

helps prevent the onset of empty-field myopia. 

Night Vision

It is estimated that once fully adapted to darkness, the rods are 

10,000 times more sensitive to light than the cones, making 

them the primary receptors for night vision. Since the cones 

are concentrated near the fovea, the rods are also responsible 

for much of the peripheral vision. The concentration of cones 

in the fovea can make a night blind spot in the center of the 

field of vision. To see an object clearly at night, the pilot must 

expose the rods to the image. This can be done by looking 5° 

to 10° off center of the object to be seen. This can be tried in 

a dim light in a darkened room. When looking directly at the 

light, it dims or disappears altogether. [Figure 9-8]

When looking slightly off center, it becomes clearer and 

brighter. Refer to Figure 9-8. When looking directly at an 

object, the image is focused mainly on the fovea, where detail 

is best seen. At night, the ability to see an object in the center 

of the visual field is reduced as the cones lose much of their 

sensitivity and the rods become more sensitive. Looking off 
9-11

surroundings is lost. If those surroundings include people, 

a potentially dangerous situation can ensue. Closing one 

eye during a burn and not looking at the burner flame will 

minimize this momentary blindness.

Diet and general physical health have an impact on how well 

a pilot can see in the dark. Deficiencies in vitamins A and C 

have been shown to reduce night visual acuity. Other factors, 

such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, certain 

drugs, and a lack of oxygen also can greatly decrease night 

vision.

Chapter Summary

Balloon pilots and glider pilots are unique in that they “selfcertify” they are physically fit to conduct flight duties. This 

is an individual responsibility and must not be abused. The 

ability to “self-certify” becomes particularly problematic 

after the balloon pilot has had a major medical issue arise, 

such as a heart attack, angina, major surgery, and other items 

in this category. While they may be perfectly capable of 

piloting a balloon after triple bypass surgery, for example, 

it may not be the recommended course of action. 

The best recommendation is to be aware of the provisions 

of 14 CFR part 61. If a medical issue may be medically 

disqualifying for other pilots, the balloon pilot would be well 

advised to consult with an AME, and obtain recommendations 

on how best to proceed. 
9-12
10-1

As previously discussed in Chapter 1, commercially rated 

balloon pilots have the additional responsibility and privilege 

of providing instruction to aspiring student pilots, without the 

benefit of having a certified flight instructor (CFI) rating. This 

is unique to balloon pilots, as all other aircraft pilots require 

instruction by a CFI in order to achieve their certificate.

Flight training, whether in an airplane, helicopter, or a 

balloon, should be conducted in a complete and thorough 

manner in order to prepare the student pilot to safely conduct 

flight operations throughout the entire spectrum of scenarios. 

An ill-prepared instructor can produce only an ill-prepared 

student. A well-prepared instructor produces a well-prepared 

student, and he or she reaps the additional benefit of showing 

the student how instruction should be conducted. That pilot, 

in later stages, reflects on his or her own training and probably 

conducts future training in the same manner. 

The flight instructor is the central figure in aviation training 

and is responsible for all phases of required training. The 

instructor must be fully qualified as an aviation professional; 

however, the instructor’s ability must go far beyond this if 

the requirements of professionalism are to be met. Although 

the word “professionalism” is widely used, it is rarely 

defined. In fact, no single definition can encompass all of the 

qualifications and considerations that must be present before 

true professionalism can exist.

The Instructional 

Process

Chapter 10
10-2

Figure 10-1. The four main responsibilities for flight instructors.

Helping students learn

Providing adequate instruction

Demanding adequate standards of performance

Emphasizing the positive

When discussing professionalism, most conversations omit 

any reference to the accountability of the instructor. An 

individual who takes on the responsibility of providing 

flight instruction must realize that they have a significant 

influence on the habits and actions of the student as a pilot. 

All of the student’s impressions and perceptions towards the 

flight experience, balloon operations, and, most importantly, 

safety is drawn from the instructor’s methods. It becomes 

imperative that the instructor understand that he or she, 

by default, actively and passively contributes to the future 

actions of the student and should make every effort to provide 

the most thorough training experience possible. It can be said 

that many students become “clones” of their instructor.

Though not all inclusive, the following list gives some major 

considerations and qualifications that should be included in 

the definition of professionalism.

• Professionalism exists only when a service is 

performed for someone or for the common good.

• Professionalism is achieved only after extended 

training and preparation.

• True performance as a professional is based on study 

and research.

• Professionalism requires the ability to make good 

judgment decisions. Professionals cannot limit 

their actions and decisions to standard patterns and 

practices.

• Professionalism demands a code of ethics. Professionals 

must be true to themselves and to those they serve. 

Anything less than a sincere performance is quickly 

detected by the student and immediately destroys 

instructor effectiveness.

• Professionalism requires that the individual instructor 

be able to conduct a self-assessment. A true professional 

must be able to critique his or her own performance 

with objectivity. 

Flight instructors should carefully consider this list. Failing to 

meet these qualities may result in poor performance by both 

instructor and student. Preparation and performance as an 

instructor with these qualities in mind commands recognition 

as a professional in aviation instruction. Professionalism 

includes an instructor’s public image.

A more complete discussion of the information contained 

in this chapter may be found in FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation 

Instructor’s Handbook. There have been some minor changes 

in this chapter to address the specific aspects of balloon 

flight training. For expanded discussions of the areas of 

operation covered in the Commercial Pilot Practical Test 

Standards (PTS), (FAA-S-8081-18), the Aviation Instructor’s 

Handbook is required reading. Commercial pilots who wish 

to excel at the instruction process may consider taking the 

Fundamentals of Instruction knowledge test administered 

through the FAA’s knowledge testing program. While not a 

mandatory requirement, it is believed that the study necessary 

to successfully complete this exam assists the pilot/instructor 

in acquiring the knowledge necessary to plan and perform 

proper aviation training. 

For the remainder of this chapter, it should be understood that 

the term “flight instructor” is meant to define those individuals 

who hold a commercial pilot certificate with a free balloon 

category rating. This chapter also makes the presupposition 

that virtually all balloon flight training is performed “one on 

one,” and not as part of a group environment.

Flight Instructor Characteristics and 

Responsibilities

Students look to flight instructors as authorities in their 

respective areas. It is important that flight instructors not 

only know how to teach, but they also need to project a 

knowledgeable and professional image. In addition, flight 

instructors are on the front lines of efforts to improve the 

safety record of the industry. This section addresses the 

scope of responsibilities for flight instructors and enumerates 

methods they can use to enhance their professional image 

and conduct.

Instructor Responsibilities

The job of a flight instructor, or any instructor, is to teach. 

The learning process can be made easier by helping students 

learn, providing adequate instruction, demanding adequate 

standards of performance, and emphasizing the positive. 

[Figure 10-1] 
10-3

Helping Students Learn

Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making 

each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the 

instructor can maintain a high level of student motivation. 

This does not mean the instructor must make things easy for 

the student or sacrifice standards of performance to please 

the student. The student experiences satisfaction from doing 

a good job or from successfully meeting the challenge of a 

difficult task.

Learning should be interesting. Knowing the objectives, 

in clear and concise terms, of each period of instruction 

gives meaning and interest to the student, as well as the 

instructor. Not knowing the objective of the lesson often 

leads to confusion, disinterest, and uneasiness on the part 

of the student.

Learning to fly should be a habit-building period during 

which the student devotes his or her attention, memory, and 

judgment to the development of correct habits. Any objective 

other than to learn the right way is likely to make students 

impatient. The instructor should keep the students focused 

on good habits both by example and by a logical presentation 

of learning tasks.

Providing Adequate Instruction

The flight instructor should attempt to carefully and correctly 

analyze the student’s personality, thinking, and ability. No 

two students are alike, and no one method of instruction can 

be equally effective for each student. The instructor must talk 

with a student at some length to learn about the student’s 

background interests, temperament, and way of thinking. 

The instructor’s methods also may change as the student 

advances through successive stages of training.

An instructor who has not correctly analyzed a student may 

soon find that the instruction is not producing the desired 

results. For example, this could mean that the instructor does 

not realize that a student is actually a quick thinker, but is 

hesitant to act. Such a student may fail to act at the proper time 

due to lack of self-confidence, even though the situation is 

correctly understood. In this case, instruction would obviously 

be directed toward developing student self-confidence, rather 

than drill on flight fundamentals. In another case, too much 

criticism may completely subdue a timid person, whereas 

brisk instruction may force a more diligent application to the 

learning task. A student may require instructional methods 

that combine tact, keen perception, and delicate handling. If 

such a student receives too much help and encouragement, 

a feeling of incompetence may develop. 

Standards of Performance

Flight instructors must continuously evaluate their own 

effectiveness and the standard of learning and performance 

achieved by their students. The desire to maintain pleasant 

personal relationships with the students must not cause 

the acceptance of a slow rate of learning or substandard 

flight performance. It is a fallacy to believe that accepting 

lower standards to please a student produces a genuine 

improvement in the student-instructor relationship. An 

earnest student does not resent reasonable standards that are 

fairly and consistently applied.

Emphasizing the Positive

Flight instructors have a tremendous influence on their 

students’ perception of aviation. The way instructors conduct 

themselves, the attitudes they display, and the manner in 

which they develop their instruction all contribute to the 

formation of either positive or negative impressions by their 

student. The success of a flight instructor depends, in large 

measure, on the ability to present instruction so that a student 

develops a positive image of aviation. 

Most new instructors tend to adopt those teaching methods 

used by their own instructors. These methods may or may 

not have been good. The fact that one has learned under one 

system of instruction does not mean that this is necessarily the 

best way it can be done, regardless of the respect one retains 

for the ability of their original instructor. Some students 

learn in spite of their instruction, rather than because of it. 

Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results 

in positive learning.

Flight Instructor Responsibilities

All flight instructors shoulder an enormous responsibility 

because their students ultimately fly an aircraft. Flight 

instructors have some additional responsibilities including 

the responsibility of evaluating student pilots and making a 

determination of when they are ready to solo. Other flight 

instructor responsibilities are based on Title 14 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 and advisory circulars 

(ACs). [Figure 10-2]

Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability

Evaluation is one of the most important elements of 

instruction. In flight instruction, the instructor initially 

determines that the student understands the procedure or 

maneuver. Then the instructor demonstrates the maneuver, 

allows the student to practice the maneuver under direction, 

and finally evaluates student accomplishment by observing 

their performance. 
10-4

Figure 10-2. The flight instructor has many additional 

responsibilities.

Evaluation of student 

piloting ability

Pilot supervision

Practical test 

recommendations

Flight instructor 

endorsements

Additional training 

and endorsements

Pilot proficiency

Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight instruction 

must be based upon established standards of performance, 

suitably modified to apply to the student’s experience and 

stage of development as a pilot. The evaluation must consider 

the student’s mastery of all the elements involved in the 

maneuver, rather than merely the overall performance. 

Correction of student errors should not include the practice 

of taking the controls away from students immediately when 

a mistake is made. Safety permitting, it is frequently better 

to let students progress part of the way into the mistake 

and find their own way out. It is difficult for students to 

learn to do a maneuver properly if they seldom have the 

opportunity to correct an error. On the other hand, students 

may perform a procedure or maneuver correctly and not fully 

understand the principles and objectives involved. When 

the instructor suspects this, students should be required to 

vary the performance of the maneuver slightly, combine 

it with other operations, or apply the same elements to 

the performance of other maneuvers. Students who do not 

understand the principles involved probably are not able to 

do this successfully.

Student Pilot Supervision

Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance 

and restraint with respect to the solo operations of their 

students. This is by far the most important flight instructor 

responsibility because the instructor is the only person in a 

position to make the determination that a student is ready for 

solo operations. Before endorsing a student for solo flight, the 

instructor should require the student to demonstrate consistent 

ability to perform all of the fundamental maneuvers. 

Practical Test Recommendations

Provisions are made on the airman certificate or rating 

application form for the written recommendation of the flight 

instructor who has prepared the applicant for the practical 

test involved. Signing this recommendation imposes a serious 

responsibility on the flight instructor. A flight instructor 

who makes a practical test recommendation for an applicant 

seeking a certificate or rating should require the applicant 

to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge and skill level 

required for that certificate or rating. This demonstration 

should in no instance be less than the complete procedure 

prescribed in the applicable PTS. 

A practical test recommendation based on anything less risks 

the presentation of an applicant who may be unprepared for 

some part of the actual practical test. In such an event, the 

flight instructor is logically held accountable for a deficient 

instructional performance. This risk is especially great in 

signing recommendations for applicants who have not been 

trained by the instructor involved. For balloons, 14 CFR part 

61 requires a minimum of two training flights of one hour 

each with an authorized instructor within 60 days preceding 

the date of the test for a private or commercial certificate. 

The instructor signing the endorsement is required to have 

conducted the training in the applicable areas of operation 

stated in the regulations and the PTS, and certifies that the 

person is prepared for the required practical test. In most 

cases, the conscientious instructor has little doubt concerning 

the applicant’s readiness for the practical test. 

FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners rely on flight 

instructor recommendations as evidence of qualification 

for certification, and proof that a review has been given of 

the subject areas found to be deficient on the appropriate 

knowledge test. Recommendations also provide assurance 

that the applicant has had a thorough briefing on the 

practical test standards and the associated knowledge areas, 

maneuvers, and procedures. If the flight instructor has trained 

and prepared the applicant competently, the applicant should 

have no problem passing the practical test. 

The recommended format for log book endorsements may 

be found in the current version of AC 61-65; an extract 

of those relevant to balloon instruction may be found in 

Appendix E.

Self-Improvement

Professional flight instructors must never become complacent 

or satisfied with their own qualifications and abilities. 

They should be constantly alert for ways to improve their 

qualifications, effectiveness, and the services they provide 

to students. Flight instructors are considered authorities on 

aeronautical matters and are the experts to whom many pilots 

refer questions concerning regulations, requirements, and 

new operating techniques. 
10-5

Figure 10-3. The flight instructor should always present a professional appearance.

Sincerity

The professional instructor should be straightforward and 

honest. Attempting to hide some inadequacy behind a 

smokescreen of unrelated instruction makes it impossible 

for the instructor to command the respect and full attention 

of a student. Teaching an aviation student is based upon 

acceptance of the instructor as a competent, qualified teacher 

and an expert pilot. Any facade of instructor pretentiousness, 

whether it is real or mistakenly assumed by the student, 

immediately causes the student to lose confidence in the 

instructor and learning is adversely affected.

Acceptance of the Student

With regard to students, the instructor must accept them as 

they are, including all their faults and problems. The student 

is a person who wants to learn, and the instructor is a person 

who is available to help in the learning process. Beginning 

with this understanding, the professional relationship of 

the instructor with the student should be based on a mutual 

acknowledgement that the student and the instructor are 

important to each other, and that both are working toward 

the same objective.

Personal Appearance and Habits

Personal appearance has an important effect on the 

professional image of the instructor. Today’s aviation 

customers expect their instructors to be neat, clean, and 

appropriately dressed. Since the instructor is engaged in a 

learning situation, the attire worn should be appropriate to a 

professional status. [Figure 10-3]

Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional 

image. The exercise of common courtesy is perhaps the most 

important of these. 

Demeanor 

The attitude and behavior of the instructor can contribute 

much to a professional image. The professional image 

requires development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, 

but not somber, demeanor.

The instructor should also present an attitude of enthusiasm, 

with respect to the training conducted, whether ground 

or flight. The enthusiasm expressed by the instructor is 

normally reflected in the student’s response to the training, 

and makes it a much more enjoyable experience for all parties 

concerned. 

Safety Practices and Accident Prevention

The safety practices emphasized by instructors have a long 

lasting effect on students. Generally, students consider their 

instructor to be a model of perfection whose habits they 
10-6

Figure 10-4. Effective learning shares several common 

characteristics.

Purposeful

Result of experience

Multifaceted

Active process

Characteristics of Learning attempt to imitate, whether consciously or unconsciously. The 

instructor’s advocacy and description of safety practices mean 

little to a student if the instructor does not demonstrate them 

consistently. For this reason, instructors must meticulously 

observe the safety practices being taught to students. A good 

example is the use of a checklist before takeoff. If a student 

pilot sees the flight instructor layout, inflate, and take off 

in a balloon without referring to a checklist, no amount of 

instruction in the use of a checklist convinces that student to 

faithfully use one when solo flight operations begin.

To maintain a professional image, a flight instructor must 

carefully observe all regulations and recognized safety 

practices during flight operations. An instructor who is 

observed to fly with apparent disregard for loading limitations 

or weather minimums creates an image of irresponsibility that 

many hours of scrupulous flight instruction can never correct. 

Habitual observance of regulations, safety precautions, and 

the precepts of courtesy enhances the instructor’s image of 

professionalism. Moreover, such habits make the instructor 

more effective by encouraging students to develop similar 

habits.

Proper Language

In aviation instruction, as in other professional activities, the 

use of profanity and obscene language leads to distrust or, 

at best, to a lack of complete confidence in the instructor. 

To many people, such language is actually objectionable to 

the point of being painful. The professional instructor must 

speak normally, without inhibitions, and develop the ability 

to speak positively and descriptively without excesses of 

language.

Also consider that the beginning aviation student is being 

introduced to new concepts and experiences and encountering 

new terms and phrases that are often confusing. At the 

beginning of the student’s training, and before each lesson 

during early instruction, the instructor should carefully define 

the terms and phrases to be used during the lesson. The 

instructor should then be careful to limit instruction to those 

terms and phrases, unless the exact meaning and intent of 

any new expression are explained immediately. In all cases, 

terminology should be explained to the student before it is 

used during instruction.

The Learning Process

To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may 

involve a change in attitude or behavior. Pilots need to acquire 

the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability 

to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for 

the flight instructor is to understand how people learn, and 

more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the 

learning environment. [Figure 10-4]

Definition of Learning

The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human 

characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout 

a person’s lifetime. To define learning, it is necessary to 

analyze what happens to the individual. Thus, learning can 

be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. 

This can be physical and overt, or it may involve complex 

intellectual or attitudinal changes which affect behavior 

in more subtle ways. In spite of numerous theories and 

contrasting views, psychologists generally agree on many 

common characteristics of learning.

Characteristics of Learning

Flight instructors need a good understanding of the general 

characteristics of learning in order to apply them in a 

learning situation. If learning is a change in behavior as a 

result of experience, then instruction must include a careful 

and systematic creation of those experiences that promote 

learning. This process can be quite complex because, among 

other things, an individual’s background strongly influences 

the way that person learns. To be effective, the learning 

situation should contain the following four points: 

1. Learning is purposeful. Most people have definite 

ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Their 

goals are sometimes short term, involving a matter of 

days or weeks, while others may have goals carefully 

planned for a career or a lifetime. Each student, then, 

has specific intentions and goals. Learning, then, 

becomes a means to those goals.

2. Learning is a result of experience. A student can learn 

only from personal experience; therefore learning and 

knowledge cannot exist apart from a person. Even 

when observing or performing the same procedures, 

two people can react differently; they learn different 
10-7

Figure 10-5. Most learning occurs through sight, but the 

combination of sight and hearing accounts for about 99 percent 

of all perception.

75%

13%

6% 3% 3%

things from it, according to the manner in which the 

event affects their individual needs.

3. Learning is multifaceted. The learning process 

includes verbal elements, emotional elements, and 

problem-solving elements all taking place at once. 

4. Learning is an active process. The individual who 

wishes to be proficient at a particular task or skill 

should understand that they never stop learning. 

Principles of Learning

Over the years, educational psychologists have identified 

several principles which seem generally applicable to the 

learning process. They provide additional insight into what 

makes people learn most effectively.

• Readiness—individuals learn best when they are 

ready to learn. However, they do not learn well if 

they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready 

to learn is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If 

students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and 

a definite reason for learning something, they make 

more progress than if they lack motivation. 

• Exercise—the principle of exercise states that those 

things most often repeated are best remembered. It is 

the basis of drill and practice. The human memory 

is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, 

and apply new concepts or practices after a single 

exposure. Students learn by applying what they have 

been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, 

learning continues. The instructor must provide 

opportunities for students to practice and, at the same 

time, make sure that this process is directed toward a 

goal.

• Effect—based on the emotional reaction of the 

student. It states that learning is strengthened when 

accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and 

that learning is weakened when associated with an 

unpleasant feeling. Experiences that produce feelings 

of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility 

are unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an 

instructor attempts to teach precision maneuvering 

during the first flight, the student is likely to feel 

inferior and be frustrated.

• Primacy—the state of being first, often creates a 

strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the 

instructor, this means that what is taught must be right 

the first time. For the student, it means that learning 

must be right. “Unteaching” is often more difficult 

than teaching. Every student should be started right. 

The first experience should be positive, functional, 

and lay the foundation for all that is to follow.

• Intensity—a vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning 

experience teaches more than a routine or boring 

experience. A student is likely to gain greater 

understanding of steep approaches or short-field, high 

wind landings by performing them rather than merely 

reading about them. The principle of intensity implies 

that a student learns more from the real thing than from 

a substitute. 

• Recency—things most recently learned are best 

remembered. Conversely, the further a student is 

removed in time from a new factor in understanding, 

the more difficult it is to remember. Instructors 

recognize the principle of recency when they carefully 

plan a summary for a ground school lesson, a flight 

period, or a postflight critique. 

How People Learn

Initially, all learning comes from perceptions which are 

directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: 

sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Psychologists 

have also found that learning occurs most rapidly when 

information is received through more than one of the senses. 

[Figure 10-5]
10-8

Perceptions 

Perceiving involves more than the reception of stimuli from 

the five senses. Perceptions result when a person gives 

meaning to sensations. People base their actions on the way 

they believe things to be. 

Real meaning comes only from within a person, even though 

the perceptions which evoke these meanings result from 

external stimuli. The meanings which are derived from 

perceptions are influenced not only by the individual’s 

experience, but also by many other factors. Knowledge of the 

factors which affect the perceptual process is very important 

to the flight instructor because perceptions are the basis of 

all learning.

Factions Which Affect Perception

There are several factors that affect an individual’s ability 

to perceive. Some are internal to each person and some are 

external.

• Physical organism—provides individuals with the 

perceptual sensors for perceiving the world around 

them. 

• Basic need—a person’s basic need is to maintain and 

enhance the organized self. A person’s most pressing 

need is to preserve and perpetuate the self. To that end, 

an instructor must remember that anything asked of 

the student that may be interpreted by the student as 

endangering the self is resisted or denied.

• Goals and values—perceptions depend on one’s 

goals and values. The precise kinds of commitments 

and philosophical outlooks which the student holds 

are important for the instructor to know, since this 

knowledge assists in predicting how the student 

interprets experiences and instructions.

• Self-concept—a powerful determinant in learning. If 

a student’s experiences tend to support a favorable 

self-image, the student tends to remain receptive 

to subsequent experiences. A negative self-concept 

inhibits the perceptual processes which tend to keep 

the student from perceiving, effectively blocking the 

learning process.

• Time and opportunity—it takes time and opportunity 

to perceive. Learning some things depends on other 

perceptions which have preceded these learnings, and 

on the availability of time to sense and relate these 

new things to the earlier perceptions. Thus, sequence 

and time are necessary. 

• Element of threat—does not promote effective 

learning. When confronted with a perceived threat, 

students tent to limit their attention to the threatening 

object or condition. 

Insight

Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful 

groups of understanding. Creating insight is one of the 

instructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure that this does 

occur, it is essential to keep each student constantly receptive 

to new experiences and to help the student realize the way 

each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of 

the task to be learned.

As perceptions increase in number and are assembled by the 

student into larger blocks of learning, they develop insight. 

As a result, learning becomes more meaningful and more 

permanent. Forgetting is less of a problem when there are 

more anchor points for tying insights together. It is a major 

responsibility of the instructor to organize demonstrations and 

explanations, and to direct practice, so that the student has 

better opportunities to understand the interrelationship of the 

many kinds of experiences that have been perceived. Pointing 

out the relationships as they occur, providing a secure and 

nonthreatening environment in which to learn, and helping 

the student acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept are 

key steps in fostering the development of insight.

Motivation

Motivation is probably the dominant force governing the 

student’s progress and ability to learn. Motivation may 

be positive or negative, tangible or intangible, subtle and 

difficult to identify, or it may be obvious.

Positive motivation is provided by the promise or achievement 

of rewards. These rewards may be personal or social; they 

may involve financial gain, satisfaction of the self-concept, 

or public recognition. Motivation which can be used to 

advantage by the instructor includes the desire for personal 

gain, the desire for personal comfort or security, the desire 

for group approval, and the achievement of a favorable 

self-image.

Negative motivation may engender fear, and be perceived 

by the student as a threat. While negative motivation may 

be useful in certain situations, characteristically it is not 

as effective in promoting efficient learning as positive 

motivation.

Positive motivation is essential to true learning. Negative 

motivation in the form of reproofs or threats should be 

avoided with all but the most overconfident and impulsive 

students. Slumps in learning are often due to declining 

motivation. Motivation does not remain at a uniformly 

high level. It may be affected by outside influences, such as 

physical or mental disturbances or inadequate instruction. 

The instructor should strive to maintain motivation at the 
10-9

learning of skill A helps to learn skill B, positive transfer 

occurs. If learning skill A hinders the learning of skill B, 

negative transfer occurs. It should be noted that the learning 

of skill B may affect the retention or proficiency of skill A, 

either positively or negatively. While these processes may 

help substantiate the interference theory of forgetting, they 

are still concerned with the transfer of learning.

Many aspects of teaching profit by this type of transfer. 

It may explain why students of apparently equal ability 

have differing success in certain areas. Negative transfer 

may hinder the learning of some; positive transfer may 

help others. This points to a need to know a student’s past 

experience and what has already been learned. In lesson and 

syllabus development, instructors should plan for transfer of 

learning by organizing course materials and individual lesson 

materials in a meaningful sequence. Each phase should help 

the student learn what is to follow.

Habit Formation

The formation of correct habits from the beginning of any 

learning process is essential to further learning and for correct 

performance after the completion of training. Remember that 

primacy is one of the fundamental principles of learning. 

Therefore, it is the instructor’s responsibility to insist on 

correct techniques and procedures from the outset of training 

to provide proper habit patterns. It is much easier to foster 

proper habits from the beginning of training than to correct 

faulty ones later.

Due to the high level of knowledge and skill required 

in aviation for pilots, training has traditionally followed 

a building block concept. This means new learning and 

habits are based on a solid foundation of experience and/or 

old learning. As knowledge and skill increase, there is an 

expanding base upon which to build for the future.

Theories of Forgetting 

A consideration of why people forget may point the way to 

help them remember. Several theories account for forgetting, 

including disuse and interference. 

Disuse

The theory of disuse suggests that a person forgets those 

things which are not used. The high school or college 

graduate is saddened by the lack of factual data retained 

several years after graduation. Since the things which are 

remembered are those used on the job, a person concludes 

that forgetting is the result of disuse. But the explanation 

is not quite so simple. Experimental studies show that a 

hypnotized person can describe specific details of an event 

which normally is beyond recall. Apparently the memory is 

highest possible level. In addition, the instructor should be 

alert to detect and counter any lapses in motivation.

Levels of Learning

Levels of learning may be classified in any number of ways. 

Four basic levels have traditionally been included in flight 

instructor training:

• Rote—the ability to repeat something back which 

was learned but not understood. An example of this 

may be the student who reads and can repeat back 

the applicable provision of 14 CFR section 91.119, 

Minimum Safe Altitudes, but has no concept of how 

this may affect their flight.

• Understanding—to comprehend or grasp the nature or 

meaning of something. Once a student has received 

proper instruction on performing a steep descent, 

and has some experience controlling the balloon in 

straight and level flight, he can consolidate those 

old and new perceptions into an insight on how to 

make a steep approach. At this point, the student has 

developed an understanding of the procedure for the 

steep approach.

• Application—the act of putting something to use that 

has been learned and understood. When the student 

understands the procedure for entering and performing 

a steep approach to the ground, has had the maneuver 

demonstrated, and has practiced the approach until 

consistency has been achieved, the student has 

developed the skill to apply what has been learned. 

This is a major level of learning, and one at which the 

instructor is too often willing to stop.

• Correlation—associating what has been learned, 

understood, and applied with previous or subsequent 

learning. The correlation level of learning, which 

should be the objective of aviation instruction, is that 

level at which the student becomes able to associate an 

element which has been learned with other segments 

or blocks or learning. 

Most training is conducted in such a manner that the student 

never progresses past the rote and understanding levels. This 

is an unacceptable procedure, as practical testing requires the 

student to perform at the application and correlation levels. 

Failing to bring the student to those levels is incomplete 

instruction, and does not provide a complete training 

experience. 

Transfer of Learning 

During a learning experience, the student may be aided by 

things learned previously. On the other hand, it is sometimes 

apparent that previous learning interferes with the current 

learning task. Consider the learning of two skills. If the 
10-10

Figure 10-6. The teaching process consists of four basic principles.

times it is acquired only through long, patient study and 

diligent practice. The teaching process, on the other hand, 

can be divided into steps. Although there is disagreement 

about the number of steps, examination of the various 

lists of steps in the teaching process reveals that different 

authors are saying essentially the same thing: the teaching 

of new material can be reduced to preparation, presentation, 

application, and review and evaluation. [Figure 10-6] 

When beginning the teaching process, it may be helpful if 

the instructor remembers that in order to provide a “holistic,” 

or complete, approach to aviation training, it is necessary 

to teach more than just the “how-to” of flying. Too many 

times, the entire focus of flight training is spent on the 

mechanical aspects of performing a maneuver; it may be a 

better approach to also include and discuss the “why” of an 

action, to assist the student in gaining a better understanding 

of the flight process.

Preparation 

For each lesson or instructional period, the instructor must 

prepare a lesson plan. Traditionally, this plan includes a 

there, locked in the recesses of the mind. The difficulty is 

summoning it up to consciousness.

Interference

The basis of the interference theory is that people forget 

something because a certain experience has overshadowed 

it, or that the learning of similar things has intervened. 

This theory might explain how the range of experiences 

after graduation from school causes a person to forget or to 

lose knowledge. In other words, new events displace many 

things that had been learned. From experiments, at least two 

conclusions about interference may be drawn. First, similar 

material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar 

material; and second, material not well learned suffers most 

from interference.

The Teaching Process

Effective teaching is based on principles of learning which 

have been previously discussed in this chapter. The learning 

process is not easily separated into a definite number of steps. 

Sometimes, learning occurs almost instantaneously, and other 
10-11

Figure 10-7. Performance-based objectives are made up of a 

description of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria.

Description of the Skill or Behavior— desired outcome of training stated in concrete terms that can be measured.

Conditions—

the framework under 

which the skill or

behavior will

be demonstrated.

Criteria—

the standards 

which will be 

used to measure

the accomplishment

of the objective.

statement of lesson objectives, the procedures and facilities 

to be used during the lesson, the specific goals to be attained, 

and the means to be used for review and evaluation. The 

lesson plan should also include home study or other special 

preparation to be done by the student. The instructor should 

make certain that all necessary supplies, materials, and 

equipment needed for the lesson are readily available and that 

the equipment is operating properly. Preparation of the lesson 

plan may be accomplished after reference to the syllabus or 

practical test standards (PTS), or it may be in a preprinted 

form as prepared by a publisher of training materials. These 

documents list general objectives that are to be accomplished. 

Objectives are needed to bring the unit of instruction into 

focus. The instructor can organize the overall instructional 

plan by writing down the objectives and making certain that 

they flow in a logical sequence from beginning to end. The 

objectives allow the instructor to structure the training and 

permit the student to see clearly what is required along the 

way. 

Performance-Based Objectives

One good way to write lesson plans is to begin by formulating 

performance-based objectives. The instructor uses the 

objectives as listed in the syllabus or the appropriate PTS 

as the beginning point for establishing performance-based 

objectives. These objectives are very helpful in delineating 

exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each 

lesson. Once the performance-based objectives are written, 

most of the work of writing a final lesson plan is completed. 

One useful thought is the utilization of the “DAM principle”; 

objectives, as well as goals, should be difficult, attainable, 

and measurable. 

Performance-based objectives are used to set measurable, 

reasonable standards that describe the desired performance 

of the student. This usually involves the term behavioral 

objective, although it may be referred to as a performance, 

instructional, or educational objective. All refer to the same 

thing, the behavior of the student.

Performance-based objectives consist of three parts: 

description of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria. 

Each part is required and must be stated in a way that 

leaves every reader with the same picture of the objective, 

how it is performed, and to what level of performance. 

[Figure 10-7]

Use of performance-based objectives also provides the 

student with a better understanding of the big picture, as well 

as knowledge of exactly what is expected. This overview 

can alleviate a significant source of frustration on the part 

of the student.

Presentation

Instructors have several methods of presentation from 

which to choose. The nature of the subject matter and the 

objective in teaching it normally determine the method of 

presentation. 

The lecture method is suitable for presenting new material, 

for summarizing ideas, and for showing relationships 

between theory and practice. For example, it is suitable for 

the presentation of a ground school lesson on performance 

planning. This method is most effective when accompanied 

by instructional aids and training devices. In the case of a 

discussion on performance planning, a chalkboard, a marker 

board, or flip chart could be used effectively.

The demonstration-performance method is desirable for 

teaching a skill, such as instruction on most flight maneuvers. 

Showing a student pilot how to perform a steep descent, for 

example, would be appropriate for this method. The instructor 

would first demonstrate the maneuver, and then have the 

student attempt the same maneuver. 

Another form of presentation is the guided discussion 

which is used in a classroom situation. It is a good method 

for encouraging active participation of the students. It is 

especially helpful in teaching subjects such as safety and 

emergency procedures where students can use initiative and 

imagination in addressing problem areas. 
10-12

Figure 10-8. The introduction prepares the students to receive the 

information in the lesson.

Introduction

Attention • Establish common ground between instructor 

 and student

 • Capture and hold the attention of the class

 • Specify benefits the student can expect from 

 the lesson

Motivation • Establish receptive attitude toward lesson

• Create smooth transition into lesson

Overview • Indicate what is to be covered and relate this 

 information to the overall course

Element Purpose

Review and Application

Application is where the student uses what the instructor 

has presented. After a classroom presentation, the student 

may be asked to explain the new material. The student also 

may be asked to perform a procedure or operation that has 

just been demonstrated. In most instructional situations, the 

instructor’s explanation and demonstration activities are 

alternated with student performance efforts. The instructor 

makes a presentation and then asks the student to try the same 

procedure or operation.

Usually the instructor has to interrupt the student’s efforts 

for corrections and further demonstrations. This is necessary, 

because it is very important that each student perform the 

maneuver or operation the right way the first few times. This 

is when habits are established. Faulty habits are difficult to 

correct and must be addressed as soon as possible. Flight 

instructors in particular must be aware of this problem since 

students do a lot of their practice without an instructor. Only 

after reasonable competence has been demonstrated should 

the student be allowed to practice certain maneuvers on solo 

flights. Then, the student can practice the maneuver again and 

again until correct performance becomes almost automatic. 

Periodic review and evaluation by the instructor is necessary 

to ensure that the student has not acquired any bad habits.

Teaching Methods

The information presented in previous sections has been 

largely theoretical, emphasizing concepts and principles 

pertinent to the learning process, human behavior, and 

effective communication in education and training programs. 

This knowledge, if properly used, enables instructors to be 

more confident, efficient, and successful. The discussion 

which follows departs from the theoretical with some specific 

recommendations for the actual conduct of the teaching 

process. Included are methods and procedures which have 

been tested and found to be effective.

Personal computers are a part of every segment of our 

society today. Since a number of computer-based programs 

are currently available from publishers of aviation training 

materials, a brief description of new technologies and how 

to use them effectively is provided near the end of this 

section.

Organizing Material

Regardless of the teaching method used, an instructor must 

properly organize the material. Lessons do not stand alone 

within a course of training. There must be a plan of action 

to lead instructors and their students through the course in 

a logical manner toward the desired goal. Usually the goal 

for students is a certificate or rating. A systematic plan of 

action requires the use of an appropriate training syllabus. 

Generally, the syllabus must contain a description of each 

lesson, including objectives and completion standards. 

Although instructors may develop their own syllabus, in 

practice many instructors use a group-developed syllabus 

such as that developed and available through the Balloon 

Federation of America. Thus, the main concern of the 

instructor usually is the more manageable task of organizing a 

block of training with integrated lesson plans. The traditional 

organization of a lesson plan is: introduction, development, 

and conclusion.

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for everything to come. 

Efforts in this area pay great dividends in terms of quality 

of instruction. In brief, the introduction is made up of three 

elements—attention, motivation, and an overview of what 

is to be covered. [Figure 10-8] 

Attention

The purpose of the attention element is to focus each student’s 

attention on the lesson. The instructor may begin by telling a 

story, making an unexpected or surprising statement, asking 

a question, or telling a joke. Any of these may be appropriate 

at one time or another. Regardless of which is used, it 

should relate to the subject and establish a background for 

developing the learning outcomes. Telling a story or a joke 

that is not related in some way to the subject can only distract 

from the lesson. The main concern is to gain the attention of 

everyone and concentrate on the subject. 

Motivation

The purpose of the motivation element is to offer the student 

specific reasons why the lesson content is important to know, 

understand, apply, or perform. For example, the instructor 

may talk about an occurrence where the knowledge in the 
10-13

Figure 10-9. Instructors should try a dry run with another instructor 

to get a feel for the lecture presentation.

lesson was applied. Or the instructor may remind the student 

of an upcoming test on the material. This motivation should 

appeal to each student personally and engender a desire to 

learn the material.

Overview

Every lesson introduction should contain an overview that 

explains what is to be covered during the period. A clear, 

concise presentation of the objective and the key ideas gives 

the students a road map of the route to be followed. A good 

visual aid can help the instructor show the students the path 

that they are to travel. The introduction should be free of 

stories, humor, or incidents that do not help the students focus 

their attention on the lesson objective. Also, the instructor 

should avoid a long apologetic introduction, because it only 

serves to dampen the students’ interest in the lesson.

Development

Development is the main part of the lesson. Here, the 

instructor develops the subject matter in a manner that helps 

the students achieve the desired learning outcomes. The 

instructor must logically organize the material to show the 

relationships of the main points. The instructor usually shows 

these primary relationships by developing the main points 

in one of the following ways: from past to present, simple 

to complex, known to unknown, and most frequently used 

to least frequently used.

Under each main point in a lesson, the subordinate points 

should lead naturally from one to the other. With this 

arrangement, each point leads logically into, and serves as a 

reminder of, the next. Meaningful transitions from one main 

point to another keep the students oriented, aware of where 

they have been, and where they are going. This permits 

effective sorting or categorizing chunks of information in 

the working or short-term memory. Organizing a lesson so 

the students grasp the logical relationships of ideas is not 

an easy task, but it is necessary if the students are to learn 

and remember what they have learned. Poorly organized 

information is of little or no value to the student because it 

cannot be readily understood or remembered.

Conclusion

An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of 

the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review and 

wrap-up of ideas reinforces student learning and improves 

the retention of what has been learned. New ideas should not 

be introduced in the conclusion because at this point they are 

likely to confuse the students.

By organizing the lesson material into a logical format, the 

instructor has maximized the opportunity for students to retain 

the desired information. However, each teaching situation is 

unique. The setting and purpose of the lesson determines 

which teaching method—lecture, guided discussion, 

demonstration-performance, cooperative or group learning, 

computer-based training, or a combination—is used.

Lecture Method

The lecture method is the most widely used form of 

presentation. Every instructor should know how to develop 

and present a lecture. [Figure 10-9] Lectures are used for 

introduction of new subjects, summarizing ideas, showing 

relationships between theory and practice, and reemphasizing 

main points. The lecture method is adaptable to many 

different settings, including either small or large groups. 

Lectures also may be used to introduce a unit of instruction 

or a complete training program. Finally, lectures may be 

combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning 

and direction.

The lecture method of teaching needs to be very flexible 

since it may be used in different ways. For example, there 

are several types of lectures such as the illustrated talk where 

the speaker relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to 

the listeners. With a briefing, the speaker presents a concise 

array of facts to the listeners who normally do not expect 
10-14

Figure 10-10. The instructor must continually monitor student 

performance when using CBT, as with all instructional aids.

elaboration of supporting material. During a formal lecture, 

the speaker’s purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain 

with little or no verbal participation by the students. When 

using a teaching lecture, the instructor plans and delivers an 

oral presentation in a manner that allows some participation 

by the students and helps direct them toward the desired 

learning outcomes.

Demonstration-Performance Method

This method of teaching is based on the simple, yet sound 

principle that we learn by doing. Students learn physical 

or mental skills by actually performing those skills under 

supervision. An individual learns to write by writing, and 

to fly a balloon by actually performing flight maneuvers. 

Students also learn mental skills, such as speed reading, by 

this method. Skills requiring the use of tools, machines, and 

equipment are particularly well suited to this instructional 

method. 

Every instructor should recognize the importance of student 

performance in the learning process. Early in a lesson that 

is to include demonstration and performance, the instructor 

should identify the most important learning outcomes. Next, 

explain and demonstrate the steps involved in performing the 

skill being taught. Then, allow students time to practice each 

step, so they can increase their ability to perform the skill.

The demonstration-performance method of teaching has five 

essential phases:

• Explanation Phase—explanations must be clear, 

pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson to 

be presented, and based on the known experience and 

knowledge of the student. In addition to the necessary 

actions to be performed, the instructor should describe 

the end result of these efforts.

• Demonstration Phase—the instructor must show the 

student the actions necessary to perform a skill.

• Student Performance and Instructor Supervision 

Phases—these two phases, which involve separate 

actions, are performed concurrently, and are thus 

described under a single heading. The first action 

is the performance by the student of the physical 

or mental skill that had been explained. The second 

is the instructor’s supervision, insuring that errors 

are immediately corrected to standards already 

prescribed.

• Evaluation Phase—in this final phase, the instructor 

judges student performance. The student performs 

whatever competence has been attained, and the 

instructor evaluates and discovers just how well the 

skill has been learned. Form this measurement of 

student achievement, the instructor determines the 

effectiveness of the instruction.

Computer-based Training

Many new and innovative training technologies are available 

today. One of the most significant is computer-based training 

(CBT)—the use of the personal computer as a training device. 

[Figure 10-10] CBT is sometimes called computer-based 

instruction (CBI). The terms CBT and CBI are synonymous 

and may be used interchangeably.

Common examples of CBT with specific application to 

balloon flight training include the computer versions of the 

test prep study guides which are useful for preparation for 

the FAA knowledge tests. These programs typically allow 

the students to select a test, complete the questions, and find 

out how they did on the test. The student may then conduct a 

review of questions missed. An excellent resource for balloon 

training is the web site webexams.com; this provides the 

student with the ability to take practice exams, which assists 

in determining weaknesses in training.
10-15

Figure 10-11. Comparison of steps in the teaching process, the demonstration-performance method, and the telling-and-doing technique. 

This comparison shows the similarities, as well as some differences. The main difference in the telling-and-doing technique is the important 

transition, student tells—instructor does, which occurs between the second and third step.

Preparation

Instructor tells

Instructor does

Student tells

Student does

Student does

Instructor evaluates

Teaching Process Demonstration Performance

Method Telling-and-Doing Technique

Student tells Instructor

does

Preparation Explanation

Presentation Demonstration

Application Student performance supervision

Review and evaluation Evaluation

While computers provide many training advantages, they 

also have limitations. Improper or excessive use of CBT 

should be avoided. Computer-based training should not be 

used by the instructor as stand-alone training any more than a 

textbook or video. Like video or a textbook, CBT is an aid to 

the instructor. The instructor must be actively involved with 

the students when using instructional aids. This involvement 

should include close supervision, questions, examinations, 

quizzes, or guided discussions on the subject matter.

Techniques of Flight Instruction

In this section, the demonstration-performance method is 

applied to the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction, 

as well as the integrated technique of flight instruction.

The Telling-and-Doing Technique

This technique has been in use for a long time and is very 

effective in teaching physical skills. Flight instructors find 

it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The 

telling-and-doing technique is actually a variation of the 

demonstration-performance method. In the telling-and-doing 

technique, the first step is preparation. This is particularly 

important in flight instruction because of the introduction 

of new maneuvers or procedures. The flight instructor 

needs to be well prepared and highly organized if complex 

maneuvers and procedures are to be taught effectively. The 

student must be intellectually and psychologically ready for 

the learning activity. The preparation step is accomplished 

prior to the flight lesson with a discussion of lesson objectives 

and completion standards, as well as a thorough preflight 

briefing. [Figure 10-11]

Instructor Tells-Instructor Does

Presentation is the second step in the teaching process. It 

is a continuation of preparing the student, which began in 

the detailed preflight discussion, and now continues by a 

carefully planned demonstration and accompanying verbal 

explanation of the procedure or maneuver. It is important that 

the demonstration conforms to the explanation as closely as 

possible. In addition, it should be demonstrated in the same 

sequence in which it was explained to avoid confusion and 

provide reinforcement. 

Student Tells-Instructor Does

This is a transition between the second and third steps in the 

teaching process. It is the most obvious departure from the 

demonstration-performance technique, and may provide the 

most significant advantages. In this step, the student actually 

plays the role of instructor, telling the instructor what to do 

and how to do it. Two benefits accrue from this step. First, 

being freed from the need to concentrate on performance of 

the maneuver and from concern about its outcome, the student 

should be able to organize his or her thoughts regarding the 

steps involved and the techniques to be used. In the process 

of explaining the maneuver as the instructor performs it, 

perceptions begin to develop into insights. Mental habits 

begin to form with repetition of the instructions previously 

received. Second, with the student doing the talking, the 

instructor is able to evaluate the student’s understanding of 

the factors involved in performance of the maneuver.

Student Tells-Student Does

Application is the third step in the teaching process. This is 

where learning takes place and where performance habits 

are formed. If the student has been adequately prepared 

(first step) and the procedure or maneuver fully explained 

and demonstrated (second step), meaningful learning occurs. 

The instructor should be alert during the student’s practice to 

detect any errors in technique and to prevent the formation 

of faulty habits.
10-16

At the same time, the student should be encouraged to think 

about what to do during the performance of a maneuver, until 

it becomes habitual. In this step, the thinking is done verbally. 

This focuses concentration on the task to be accomplished, 

so that total involvement in the maneuver is fostered. 

Student Does-Instructor Evaluates

The fourth step of the teaching process is review and 

evaluation. In this step, the instructor reviews what has 

been covered during the instructional flight and determines 

to what extent the student has met the objectives outlined 

during the preflight discussion. Since the student no longer 

is required to talk through the maneuver during this step, 

the instructor should be satisfied that the student is well 

prepared and understands the task before starting. This last 

step is identical to the final step used in the demonstrationperformance method. The instructor observes as the student 

performs, then makes appropriate comments.

At the conclusion of the evaluation phase, record the student’s 

performance and verbally advise each student of the progress 

made toward the objectives. Regardless of how well a skill 

is taught, there may still be failures. Since success is a 

motivating factor, instructors should be positive in revealing 

results. When pointing out areas that need improvement, offer 

concrete suggestions that help. The instructor should make 

every effort to end the evaluation on a positive note. 

Critique and Evaluation

Since every student is different and each learning situation is 

unique, the actual outcome may not be entirely as expected. 

The instructor must be able to appraise student performance 

and convey this information back to the student. No skill is 

more important to an instructor than the ability to analyze, 

appraise, and judge student performance. The student quite 

naturally looks to the instructor for guidance, analysis, 

appraisal, as well as suggestions for improvement and 

encouragement. This feedback from instructor to student is 

called a critique.

In most cases, a critique should be conducted in private. It 

should come immediately after a student’s performance, 

while the details of the performance are easy to recall. An 

instructor may critique any activity which a student performs 

or practices to improve skill, proficiency, and learning. 

Two common misconceptions about the critique should be 

corrected at the outset. First, a critique is not a step in the 

grading process. It is a step in the learning process. Second, 

a critique is not necessarily negative in content. It considers 

the good along with the bad, the individual parts, relationships 

of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A 

critique can, and usually should, be as varied in content as 

the performance being critiqued.

Purpose of a Critique

A critique should provide the student with something 

constructive upon which he or she can work or build. It 

should provide direction and guidance to raise their level of 

performance. Students must understand the purpose of the 

critique; otherwise, they are unlikely to accept the criticism 

offered and little improvement will result.

Methods of Critique

The critique of student performance is always the instructor’s 

responsibility, and it can never be delegated in its entirety. 

The instructor can add interest and variety to the criticism 

through the use of imagination and by drawing on the talents, 

ideas, and opinions of others. There are several useful 

methods of conducting a critique, two of which have specific 

application to balloon flight instruction.

Student-Led Critique

The instructor asks a student to lead the critique. The 

instructor can specify the pattern of organization and the 

techniques or can leave it to the discretion of the student 

leader. Because of the inexperience of the participants in the 

lesson area, student-led critiques may not be efficient, but 

they can generate student interest and learning and, on the 

whole, be effective.

Self-Critique

A student is required to critique personal performance. 

Like all other methods, a self-critique must be controlled 

and supervised by the instructor. Whatever the methods 

employed, the instructor must not leave controversial issues 

unresolved, nor erroneous impressions uncorrected. The 

instructor must make allowances for the student’s relative 

inexperience. Normally, the instructor should reserve time 

at the end of the student critique to cover those areas that 

might have been omitted, not emphasized sufficiently, or 

considered worth repeating. One variant of this method is 

for the instructor to ask the student to name three negative 

aspects of the flight training period, and discuss corrective 

action. Then, the instructor asks for three positive aspects 

of the training. This also indicates to the instructor whether 

or not the student is able to analyze their performance, in 

relation to the standards sought. 

Ground Rules for Critiquing

There are a number of rules and techniques to keep in mind 

when conducting a critique. The following list can be applied, 

regardless of the type of critiquing activity.
10-17

Figure 10-12. Elements of an effective critique.

The 

Effective

Critique

Objective

Specific Flexible

Thoughtful Acceptable

Organized

Constructive

Comprehensive

• Avoid trying to cover too much. A few well-made 

points usually is more beneficial than a large number 

of points that are not developed adequately.

• Allow time for a summary of the critique to 

reemphasize the most important things a student 

should remember.

• Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into the 

unpleasant position of defending criticism. If the 

criticism is honest, objective, constructive, and 

comprehensive, no defense should be necessary.

• If part of the critique is written, make certain that it is 

consistent with the oral portion.

Although, at times, a critique may seem like an evaluation, 

it is not. Both student and instructor should consider it as an 

integral part of the lesson. It normally is a wrap-up of the 

lesson. A good critique closes the chapter on the lesson and 

sets the stage for the next lesson.

Characteristics of an Effective Critique

In order to provide direction and raise the students’ level 

of performance, the critique must be factual and be aligned 

with the completion standards of the lesson. This, of course, 

is because the critique is a part of the learning process. Some 

of the requirements for an effective critique are shown in 

Figure 10-12. 

• Objective—the effective critique is focused on student 

performance. It should be objective, and not reflect 

the personal opinions, likes, dislikes, and biases of 

the instructor. If a critique is to be objective, it must 

be honest; it must be based on the performance as it 

was, not as it could have been, or as the instructor and 

student wished that it had been.

• Flexible—the instructor needs to examine the entire 

performance of a student and the context in which 

it is accomplished. Sometimes a good student turns 

in a poor performance and a poor student turns in a 

good one. A friendly student may suddenly become 

hostile, or a hostile student may suddenly become 

friendly and cooperative. The instructor must fit the 

tone, technique, and content of the critique to the 

occasion, as well as the student. A critique should 

be designed and executed so that the instructor can 

allow for variables. An effective critique is one that 

is flexible enough to satisfy the requirements of the 

moment.

• Acceptable—before students willingly accept their 

instructor’s criticism, they must first accept the 
10-18

Figure 10-13. There are three common types of evaluations that 

instructors may use.

Evaluation

Knowledge Tests

Performance Tests

Oral Quizzes

instructor. Students must have confidence in the 

instructor’s qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, 

competence, and authority. If a critique is presented 

fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from 

a position of recognizable competence, the student 

probably accepts it as such. Instructors should not rely 

on their position to make a critique more acceptable 

to their students. 

• Comprehensive—a comprehensive critique is not 

necessarily a long one, nor must it treat every aspect 

of the performance in detail. The instructor must 

decide whether the greater benefit comes from a 

discussion of a few major points or a number of minor 

points. The instructor might critique what most needs 

improvement, or only what the student can reasonably 

be expected to improve. An effective critique covers 

strengths as well as weaknesses. 

• Constructive—a critique is pointless unless the student 

profits from it. The instructor should give positive 

guidance for correcting the fault and strengthening 

the weakness. Negative criticism that does not point 

toward improvement or a higher level of performance 

should be omitted from a critique altogether.

• Organized—unless a critique follows some pattern 

of organization, a series of otherwise valid comments 

may lose their impact. Almost any pattern is acceptable 

as long as it is logical and makes sense to the student 

as well as to the instructor. An effective organizational 

pattern might be the sequence of the performance 

itself. Sometimes a critique can profitably begin at the 

point where a demonstration failed and work backward 

through the steps that led to the failure. 

• Thoughtful—an effective critique reflects the 

instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the student’s need 

for self-esteem, recognition, and approval from others. 

The instructor should never minimize the inherent 

dignity and importance of the individual. Ridicule, 

anger, or fun at the expense of the student have no 

place in a critique. While being straightforward 

and honest, the instructor should always respect the 

student’s personal feelings.

• Specific—the instructor’s comments and 

recommendations should be specific, rather than 

general. The student needs to focus on something 

concrete. If the instructor has a clear, well-founded, 

and supportable idea in mind, it should be expressed 

with firmness and authority in terms that cannot be 

misunderstood. 

Evaluation

Whenever learning takes place, the result is a definable, 

observable, measurable change in behavior. The purpose of 

an evaluation is to determine how a student is progressing in 

the course. Evaluation is concerned with defining, observing, 

and measuring or judging this new behavior. Evaluation 

normally occurs before, during, and after instruction; it is an 

integral part of the learning process. During instruction, some 

sort of evaluation is essential to determine what the student 

is learning and how well they are learning it. The instructor’s 

evaluation may be the result of observations of the students’ 

overall performance, or it may be accomplished as either a 

spontaneous or planned evaluation, such as an oral quiz, 

written test, or skill performance test. [Figure 10-13]

Oral Quizzes

The most used means of evaluation is the direct or indirect 

oral questioning of the student by the instructor. Questions 

may be loosely classified as fact questions and thought 

questions. The answer to a fact question is based on memory 

or recall. This type of question usually concerns who, what, 

when, and where. Thought questions usually involve why 

or how, and require the student to combine knowledge of 

facts with an ability to analyze situations, solve problems, 

and arrive at conclusions. Proper quizzing by the instructor 

can have a number of desirable results.
10-19

Characteristics of Effective Questions

An effective oral quiz requires some preparation. The 

instructor should devise and write pertinent questions in 

advance. One method is to place them in the lesson plan. 

Prepared questions merely serve as a framework, and as 

the lesson progresses, should be supplemented by such 

impromptu questions as the instructor considers appropriate. 

To be effective, questions must apply to the subject of 

instruction. Unless the question pertains strictly to the 

particular training being conducted, it serves only to confuse 

the students and divert their thoughts to an unrelated subject. 

An effective question should be brief and concise, but also 

clear and definite.

Effective questions must be adapted to the ability, experience, 

and stage of training of the students. Effective questions 

center on only one idea. A single question should be limited 

to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a combination. 

Effective questions must present a challenge to the students. 

Questions of suitable difficulty serve to stimulate learning. 

Effective questions demand and deserve the use of proper 

English.

Answering Questions from Students

Responses to student questions must also conform with 

certain considerations if answering is to be an effective 

teaching method. The question must be clearly understood by 

the instructor before an answer is attempted. The instructor 

should display interest in the student’s question and frame 

an answer that is as direct and accurate as possible. After 

the instructor completes a response, it should be determined 

whether or not the student’s request for information has 

been completely answered, and if the student is satisfied 

with the answer.

Occasionally, a student asks a question that the instructor 

cannot answer. In such cases, the instructor should freely 

admit not knowing the answer, but should promise to get the 

answer or, if practicable, offer to help the student look it up 

in available references.

Written Tests

As evaluation devices, written tests are only as good as the 

knowledge and proficiency of the test writer. This section is 

intended to provide the flight instructor with only the basic 

concepts of written test design. 

Characteristics of a Good Test

A test is a set of questions, problems, or exercises for 

determining whether a person has a particular knowledge or 

skill. A test can consist of just one test item, but it usually 

consists of a number of test items. A test item measures a 

single objective and calls for a single response. The test 

could be as simple as the correct answer to an essay question 

or as complex as completing a knowledge or practical test. 

Regardless of the underlying purpose, effective tests share 

certain characteristics. For a full list of these characteristics, 

refer to the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook.

Test Development

When testing aviation students, the instructor is usually 

concerned more with criterion-referenced testing than normreferenced testing. Criterion-referenced testing evaluates 

each student’s performance against a carefully written, 

measurable, standard or criterion. Norm-referenced testing 

measures a student’s performance against the performance 

of other students. There is little or no concern about the 

student’s performance in relation to the performance of other 

students. The FAA knowledge and practical tests for pilots 

are all criterion referenced because in aviation training it is 

necessary to measure student performance against a high 

standard of proficiency consistent with safety.

Presolo Knowledge Tests

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 

requires the satisfactory completion of a presolo knowledge 

test prior to solo flight. The presolo knowledge test is 

required to be administered, graded, and all incorrect answers 

reviewed by the instructor providing the training prior to 

endorsing the student pilot certificate and logbook for solo 

flight. The regulation states that the presolo knowledge test 

must include questions applicable to 14 CFR parts 61 and 91 

and on the flight characteristics and operational limitations 

of the make and model aircraft to be flown. 

The content and number of test questions are to be determined 

by the flight instructor. An adequate sampling of the general 

operating rules should be included. In addition, a sufficient 

number of specific questions should be asked to ensure the 

student has the knowledge to safely operate the aircraft in 

the local environment.

Specific procedures for developing test questions are covered 

in the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, but a review of some 

items as they apply to the presolo knowledge test are in 

order. Though selection-type (usually referred to as multiplechoice) test items are easier to grade, it is recommended that 

supply-type (or “fill in the blank”) test items be used for 

the portions of the presolo knowledge test where specific 

knowledge is to be tested. One problem with supply-type test 

items is difficulty in assigning the appropriate grade. 

Since solo flight requires a thorough working knowledge 

of the different conditions likely to be encountered on the 

solo flight, it is important that the test properly evaluate this 

area. In this way, the instructor can see any areas that are 
10-20

not adequately understood and can then cover them in the 

review of the test. Selection-type test items do not allow 

the instructor to evaluate the student’s knowledge beyond 

the immediate scope of the test items. The supply-type test 

item measures much more adequately the knowledge of the 

student, and lends itself very well to presolo testing.

The instructor must keep a record of the test results for at 

least three (3) years, as required by the provisions of 14 CFR 

section 61.189. The record should at least include the date, 

name of the student, and the results of the test.

Performance Tests

The flight instructor does not administer the practical test for 

a pilot certificate. Flight instructors do get involved with the 

same skill or performance testing that is measured in these 

tests. Performance testing is desirable for evaluating training 

that involves an operation, a procedure, or a process. The 

job of the instructor is to prepare the student to take these 

tests. Therefore, each element of the practical test has been 

evaluated prior to an applicant taking the practical exam.

The purpose of the practical test standards (PTS) is to delineate 

the standards by which FAA inspectors and designated pilot 

examiners conduct tests for ratings and certificates. The 

standards are in accordance with the requirements of 14 CFR 

parts 61 and 91 and other FAA publications including the 

Aeronautical Information Manual and pertinent advisory 

circulars and handbooks. The objective of the PTS is to ensure 

the certification of pilots at a high level of performance and 

proficiency, consistent with safety.

Since every task in the PTS may be covered on the check 

ride, the instructor must evaluate all of the tasks before 

certifying the applicant to take the practical test. While this 

evaluation is not totally formal in nature, it should adhere to 

criterion-referenced testing. Although the instructor should 

always train the student to the very highest level possible, the 

evaluation of the student is only in relation to the standards 

listed in the PTS. The instructor, and the examiner, should 

also keep in mind that the standards are set at a level that is 

already very high. They are not minimum standards and they 

do not represent a floor of acceptability. In other words, the 

standards are the acceptable level that must be met and there 

are no requirements to exceed them.

Planning Instructional Activities

Any instructional activity must be well planned and organized 

if it is to proceed in an effective manner. Much of the basic 

planning necessary for the flight instructor is provided by 

the knowledge and proficiency requirements published in 

14 CFR, approved school syllabi, and the various texts, 

manuals, and training courses available. This section reviews 

the planning required by the instructor as it relates to four 

key topics—course of training, blocks of learning, training 

syllabus, and lesson plans.

Course of Training

In education, a course of training may be defined as a complete 

series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal. The 

goal might be a certificate of completion, graduation, or an 

academic degree. For example, a student pilot may enroll in 

a private pilot certificate course, and upon completion of all 

course requirements, be awarded a graduation certificate.

Other terms closely associated with a course of training 

include curriculum, syllabus, and training course outline. In 

many cases, these terms are used interchangeably, but there 

are important differences.

A curriculum may be defined as a set of courses in an area 

of specialization offered by an educational institution. A 

curriculum for a pilot school usually includes courses for 

the various pilot certificates and ratings. A syllabus is a 

brief or general summary or outline of a course of study. In 

aviation, the term “training syllabus” is commonly used. In 

this context, a training syllabus is a step-by-step, building 

block progression of learning with provisions for regular 

review and evaluations at prescribed stages of learning. 

The syllabus defines the unit of training, states by objective 

what the student is expected to accomplish during the unit of 

training, shows an organized plan for instruction, and dictates 

the evaluation process for either the unit or stages of learning. 

And, finally, a training course outline, within a curriculum, 

may be described as the specific content of a particular course. 

It normally includes statements of objectives, descriptions 

of teaching aids, definitions of evaluating criteria, and 

indications of desired outcome.

Objectives and Standards

The overall objective of an aviation training course is 

usually well established, and the general standards are 

included in various rules and related publications. For 

example, eligibility, knowledge, proficiency, and experience 

requirements for pilots and maintenance students are 

stipulated in the regulations, and the standards are published 

in the applicable practical test standards (PTS). It should be 

noted, though, that the PTS standards are limited to the most 

critical performance tasks. Certification tests do not represent 

an entire training syllabus.

Blocks of Learning

After the overall training objectives have been established, 

the next step is the identification of the blocks of learning 

[Figure 10-14] which constitute the necessary parts of the 

total objective. Just as in building a pyramid, some blocks are 
10-21

Figure 10-14. The presolo stage, or phase, of private training is comprised of several basic building blocks. These blocks of learning, 

which should include coordinated ground and flight training, lead up to the first solo.

FIRST SOLO

EMERGENCY

PROCEDURES

PRESOLO

WRITTEN EXAM

ASCENTS,

DESCENTS, AND

MANUEVERING

TAKEOFFS

AND 

LANDING

STRAIGHT AND

LEVEL FLIGHT

ASSEMBLY

AND LAYOUT

INFLATION

TECHNIQUES

AIRPORT

OPERATIONS

WEATHER AND 

FLIGHT PLANNING

submerged in the structure and never appear on the surface, 

but each is an integral and necessary part of the structure. 

During the process of identifying the blocks of learning to 

be assembled for the proposed training activity, the planner 

must also examine each carefully to see that it is truly an 

integral part of the structure. 

While determining the overall training objectives is a 

necessary first step in the planning process, early identification 

of the foundation blocks of learning is also essential. Training 

for any such complicated and involved task as piloting 

or maintaining an aircraft requires the development and 

assembly of many segments or blocks of learning in their 

proper relationships. In this way, a student can master the 

segments or blocks individually and can progressively 

combine these with other related segments until their sum 

meets the overall training objectives.

Training Syllabus

There are a number of valid reasons why all flight instructors 

should use a training syllabus. As technology advances, 

training requirements become more demanding. At the 

same time, new and often more complicated rules continue 

to be proposed and implemented. In addition, the rules for 

instruction in other than an approved flight school are still 

quite specific about the type and duration of training. These 

factors, along with the continuing growth of aviation, add 

to the complexity of aviation training and certification. 

Instructors need a practical guide to help them make sure the 

training is accomplished in a logical sequence and that all of 

the requirements are completed and properly documented. A 

well organized, comprehensive syllabus can fulfill these 

needs.

Syllabus Format and Content

The format and organization of the syllabus may vary, but it 

always should be in the form of an abstract or digest of the 

course of training. It should contain blocks of learning to be 

completed in the most efficient order.

Since a syllabus is intended to be a summary of a course 

of training, it should be fairly brief, yet comprehensive 

enough to cover essential information. This information is 

usually presented in an outline format with lesson-by-lesson 

coverage. Some syllabi include tables to show recommended 

training time for each lesson, as well as the overall minimum 

time requirements. 

Since effective training relies on organized blocks of learning, 

all syllabi should stress well-defined objectives and standards 

for each lesson. Appropriate objectives and standards should 

be established for the overall course, the separate ground 

and flight segments, and for each stage of training. Other 

details may be added to a syllabus in order to explain how 

to use it and describe the pertinent training and reference 
10-22

materials. Examples of the training and reference materials 

include textbooks, video, compact disks, exams, briefings, 

and instructional guides.

How To Use a Training Syllabus

Any practical training syllabus must be flexible, and should 

be used primarily as a guide. When necessary, the order of 

training can and should be altered to suit the progress of 

the student and the demands of special circumstances. For 

example, previous experience or different rates of learning 

often require some alteration or repetition to fit individual 

students. The syllabus also should be flexible enough so it 

can be adapted to weather variations and scheduling changes 

without disrupting the teaching process or completely 

suspending training.

Effective use of a syllabus requires that it be referred to 

throughout the entire course of training. Both the instructor 

and the student should have a copy of the approved syllabus. 

However, as previously mentioned, a syllabus should not 

be adhered to so stringently that it becomes inflexible or 

unchangeable. It must be flexible enough to adapt to special 

needs of individual students.

A syllabus lesson may include several other items that add 

to or clarify the objective, content, or standards. A lesson 

may specify the recommended class time, reference or 

study materials, recommended sequence of training, and 

study assignment for the next lesson. Both ground and flight 

lessons may have explanatory information notes added to 

specific lessons. 

While a syllabus is designed to provide a road map showing 

how to accomplish the overall objective of a course of 

training, it may be useful for other purposes. As already 

mentioned, it can be used as a checklist to ensure that required 

training has successfully been completed. Thus, a syllabus 

can be an effective tool for recordkeeping. Enhanced syllabi, 

which also are designed for recordkeeping, can be very 

beneficial to the independent instructor.

A recordkeeping function may be facilitated by boxes or 

blank spaces adjacent to the knowledge areas, procedures, or 

maneuvers in a flight lesson, much as the syllabus designed 

by the Balloon Federation of America does. Most syllabi 

introduce each procedure or maneuver in one flight lesson 

and review them in subsequent lessons. Some syllabi also 

include provisions for grading student performance and 

recording both ground and flight training time. Accurate 

recordkeeping is necessary to keep both the student and the 

instructor informed on the status of training. These records 

also serve as a basis for endorsements and recommendations 

for knowledge and practical tests. 

Another benefit of using a syllabus is that it helps in 

development of lesson plans. A well constructed syllabus 

already contains much of the essential information that is 

required in a lesson plan, including objectives, content, and 

completion standards.

Lesson Plans

A lesson plan is an organized outline for a single instructional 

period. [Figure 10-15] It is a necessary guide for the 

instructor in that it tells what to do, in what order to do it, and 

what procedure to use in teaching the material of a lesson. 

Lesson plans should be prepared for each training period 

and be developed to show specific knowledge and/or skills 

to be taught.

A mental outline of a lesson is not a lesson plan. A lesson plan 

should be put into writing. Another instructor should be able 

to take the lesson plan and know what to do in conducting 

the same period of instruction. When putting it in writing, the 

lesson plan can be analyzed from the standpoint of adequacy 

and completeness.

Lesson plans serve many purposes, such as:

• Assure a wise selection of material and the elimination 

of unimportant details.

• Make certain that due consideration is given to each 

part of the lesson.

• Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a 

suitable sequence for efficient learning.

• Provide an outline of the teaching procedure to be 

used.

• Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives 

of the course of training.

• Give the inexperienced instructor confidence.

• Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the 

instructor or the date on which the lesson is given.

Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson

The quality of planning affects the quality of results. 

Successful professionals understand the price of excellence is 

hard work and thorough preparation. The effective instructor 

realizes that the time and energy spent in planning and 

preparing each lesson is well worth the effort in the long 

run. [Figure 10-16]

A complete cycle of planning usually includes several 

steps. After the objective is determined, the instructor must 

research the subject as it is defined by the objective. Once 

the research is complete, the instructor must determine the 
10-23

Figure 10-15. This ground lesson example shows a unit of ground 

instruction. In this example, neither the time nor the number of 

ground training periods to be devoted to the lesson is specified. 

The lesson should include three key parts—objective, content, and 

completion standards.

To develop the student’s skill in 

planning a flight

Observe wind and weather conditions 

from the weather channel, radio, and 

visually by use of pibal or other autolite

Call flight service station for weather 

briefing

Select launch site

Weather information form

Sectional chart and road map

Plotter

Compass

Pibal

Discuss lesson

Obtain weather information

Observe surface winds with pibal

Determine launch site

Locate launch site on chart

Draw dead reckoning line in direction 

of flight and mark off distance or time 

on the line

Suggest landmarks to verify position 

in flight

Airspace considerations

Critique plan

Obtain weather briefing from FSS 

(1-800-WX-BRIEF)

Recommend launch site based on 

accurate weather information 

recorded on form

Draw flight plan approved by instructor

Student should demonstrate ability to 

obtain complete weather briefing from

the FAA Flight Service Station and 

correlate this information with observed 

weather conditions

Locate launch site on chart

Drew proposed course with time ticks 

on dead reckoning line

Understands need for flexibility to 

adjust flight plan

Selects landmarks in flight to verify 

position

Objective:

Elements:

Equipment:

Instructor’s

Action:

Student’s Action:

Completion

Standards:

Lesson 1 Flight Planning

BFA Preflight Training Lesson Plan

method of instruction and identify a useful lesson planning 

format. Other steps, such as deciding how to organize the 

lesson and selecting suitable support material also must be 

accomplished. The final steps include assembling training 

aids and writing the lesson plan outline. One technique for 

writing the lesson plan outline is to prepare the beginning and 

ending first. Then, complete the outline and make revisions 

as necessary. The following are some of the important 

characteristics that should be reflected in all well-planned 

lessons.

• Unity—each lesson should be a unified segment 

of instruction. A lesson is concerned with certain 

limited objectives, which are stated in terms of desired 

student learning outcomes. All teaching procedures 

and materials should be selected to attain these 

objectives.

• Content—each lesson should contain new material. 

However, the new facts, principles, procedures, 

or skills should be related to the lesson previously 

presented. A short review of earlier lessons is usually 

necessary, particularly in flight training.

• Scope—each lesson should be reasonable in scope. A 

person can master only a few principles or skills at a 

time, the number depending on complexity. Presenting 

too much material in a lesson results in confusion; 

presenting too little material results in inefficiency.

• Practicality—each lesson should be planned in terms 

of the conditions under which the training is to be 

conducted. Lesson plans for training conducted in a 

balloon differ from those conducted in a classroom. 

Also, the kinds and quantities of instructional aids 

available have a great influence on lesson planning 

and instructional procedures.

• Flexibility—although the lesson plan provides an 

outline and sequence for the training to be conducted, 

a degree of flexibility should be incorporated. For 

example, the outline of content may include blank 

spaces for add-on material, if required.

• Relation to course of training—each lesson should be 

planned and taught so that its relation to the course 

objectives are clear to each student. For example, a 

lesson on short-field takeoffs and landings should be 

related to both the certification and safety objectives 

of the course of training.

• Instructional Steps—every lesson, when adequately 

developed, lends itself to the four steps of the teaching 

process: preparation, presentation, application, and 

review and evaluation.

How To Use a Lesson Plan Properly

Be Familiar With the Lesson Plan

The instructor should study each step of the plan and should 

be thoroughly familiar with as much information related to 

the subject as possible.

Use the Lesson Plan as a Guide

The lesson plan is an outline for conducting an instructional 

period. It assures that pertinent materials are at hand and 
10-24

Figure 10-16. An example of an inflight lesson plan for balloon training. 

Unit 1 Introductory Dual Flight

BFA Inflight Training Lesson Plan

To introduce the student to balloon flight

Flight planning

Balloon layout and inflation

Fundamentals of level flight

Level flight in relation to ground

Ascents and descents

Normal approach to land

Postflight discussion

Balloon Flight Manual

Airworthy balloon

Before flight, discuss lesson objective 

by using preflight lesson plans for Flight

Planning, Use of Blast Valve, Layout

and Inflation, and Fundamentals of Level 

Flight

Demonstrate all elements of planning,

layout, inflation and flight allowing 

student to perform after each demonstration and coach student practice

Postflight critique of student 

performance and make study 

assignment

Student should observe instructor’s

demonstrations and practice activity

with coaching from instructor

Objective:

Elements:

Equipment:

Instructor’s

Action:

Student’s Action:

Flight planning D/E 1 2 3

a. Weather briefing—FSS. . . . . . . . . . . . ___

b. Observe surface winds-pibal . . . . . . . . . ___

c. Select launch site—landowner permission . ___

d. Plot flight path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

e. Weight and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Blast valve operation

Layout and inflation

a. Comprehensive checklist . . . . . . . . . . . ___

b. Crew briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

c. Layout direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

d. Rig basket and install burner. . . . . . . . . ___

e. Fuel system check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

f. Fuel quantity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

g. Inflation restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

h. Instruments—calibrate to elevation or 

pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

i. Rig envelope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

j. Cold inflation—fan operation . . . . . . . . . ___

k. Walk around inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . ___

l. Recheck weather and weight . . . . . . . . ___

m.Checklist—hot inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

n. Hot inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Launch

a. Equilibrium-launch checklist . . . . . . . . . ___

b. Weight-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

c. Controlled ascent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Fundamentals of flight

a. Recognizes vertical direction. . . . . . . . . ___

b. Level flight—relation to ground. . . . . . . . ___

c. Level flight—with instruments . . . . . . . . ___

d. Ascents and descents with instruments . . . ___

e. Use of wings at various altitudes to steer . . ___

f. Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

g. Normal approach and landing using checklist ___

Deflation

a. Landowner relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

b. Supervise crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Refueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Postflight discussion including use of the 

comprehensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Completion of pilot and aircraft logs . . . . . . ___

____________________ . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

____________________ . . . . . . . . . . . . ___

Completion

Standards:

Student should have a general understanding of a balloon flight and be aware 

of standards required to be a competent

 pilot

Notes: _____________________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

Key: Instructor’s action: D/E - D = demonstrated

E = explained or discussed

 Student’s action: 1 = no assistance required

2 = some assistance required

3 = need help

Student _________________________ Date ____________

Instructor _______________________ Date ____________

Balloon make/model ______________ N#______________

Flight time ______________________
10-25

that the presentation is accomplished with order and unity. 

Having a plan prevents the instructor from getting off the 

track, omitting essential points, and introducing irrelevant 

material. Students have a right to expect an instructor to give 

the same attention to teaching that they give to learning. The 

most certain means of achieving teaching success is to have 

a carefully thought-out lesson plan.

Adapt the Lesson Plan to the Class or Student

In teaching a ground school period, the instructor may find 

that the procedures outlined in the lesson plan are not leading 

to the desired results. In this situation, the instructor should 

change the approach. There is no certain way of predicting 

the reactions of different groups of students. An approach 

that has been successful with one group may not be equally 

successful with another.

A lesson plan for an instructional flight period should 

be appropriate to the background, flight experience, and 

ability of the particular student. A lesson plan may have to 

be modified considerably during flight, due to deficiencies 

in the student’s knowledge or poor mastery of elements 

essential to the effective completion of the lesson. In some 

cases, the entire lesson plan may have to be abandoned in 

favor of review.

Revise the Lesson Plan Periodically

After a lesson plan has been prepared for a training period, 

a continuous revision may be necessary. This is true for a 

number of reasons, including availability or non-availability 

of instructional aids, changes in regulations, new manuals 

and textbooks, and changes in the state-of-the art among 

others.

Lesson Plan Formats

The format and style of a lesson plan depends on several 

factors. Certainly the subject matter has a lot to do with 

how a lesson is presented and what teaching method is used. 

Individual lesson plans may be quite simple for one-on-one 

training, or they may be elaborate and complicated for large, 

structured classroom lessons. Preferably, each lesson should 

have somewhat limited objectives that are achievable within 

a reasonable period of time. This principle should apply to 

both ground and flight training. As previously noted, aviation 

training is not simple. 

In spite of need for varied subject coverage, diverse teaching 

methods, and relatively high level learning objectives, most 

aviation lesson plans have the common characteristics already 

discussed. They all should include objectives, content to 

support the objectives, and completion standards. Various 

authorities often divide the main headings into several 

subheadings, and terminology, even for the main headings, 

varies extensively. For example, completion standards may 

be called assessment, review and feedback, performance 

evaluation, or some other related term.

Chapter Summary

It is an unfortunate truth that many commercial balloon 

pilots are not as qualified and prepared for their instructional 

responsibility as they should be. All commercial pilots are 

required to study the necessary principles of instruction in 

order to pass their knowledge test, and must perform a lesson 

on a flight maneuver as a part of the practical test. 

A commercial pilot who chooses to instruct needs to hold 

himself to the same standards as the rest of the aviation 

community. He should provide compete and thorough flight 

training, as well as insuring that proper ground training is 

conducted, so that the prospective pilot is well-grounded in 

all facets of aviation. To do less minimizes the instructor’s 

role in the educational process, and perpetuates poor training 

in the ballooning community. 

The information in this chapter provides a basis for an 

instructor’s knowledge of the skills and techniques of the 

instructional process. It is the responsibility of each individual 

instructor to expand on that knowledge, and provide the best 

instruction possible.
10-26
11-1

Introduction

This chapter discusses topics relating specifically to manned 

gas ballooning. The understanding and flying of gas balloons is 

very similar to hot air ballooning, but there are also significant 

differences. This chapter generally discusses the differences 

and assumes that the reader is familiar with the topics in the 

other chapters of this handbook. Frequent comparisons to 

hot air ballooning are used to place discussions in a more 

familiar context for the hot air balloon pilot.

Much of this chapter relates to gas balloons with an envelope 

volume of 1,000 cubic meters (35,315 cubic feet). This is 

by far the most common size and is the maximum volume 

allowed for the major competitions. Several types of lifting 

gas are discussed, but the main emphasis is on helium and 

hydrogen. All discussions assume that the envelope is the 

“zero pressure” type. Zero pressure envelopes have an open 

appendix, or tube, at the bottom that maintains a zero pressure 

The Gas Balloon

Chapter 11
11-2

Figure 11-1. Early style of gas balloon. Many of these terms still 

apply today.

Ripping panel Valve

Valve line

Open neck

Hoop or load ring

Basket Ballast

Neck line

Ripping line

difference between the gas inside the envelope and the 

atmospheric air outside. Neither super-pressure balloons nor 

Rozière (a type of gas-hot air hybrid construction) balloons 

are discussed. 

Gas ballooning was once the most common form of aviation 

in the United States. Today, due to the costs involved, 

gas flights are most frequently undertaken for training, 

competition, or record breaking purposes. Short, recreational 

gas flights, while not unheard of, are much less common 

than hot air. 

The History of Gas Ballooning

The first gas balloon flight occurred just a few weeks after the 

first manned balloon flight of Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier 

and the Marquis d’Arlandes. While the Montgolfiers were 

experimenting with hot air balloons, the Robert brothers and 

Jacques Charles were also experimenting with gas balloons.

The first gas balloon was small (13 feet in diameter) and was 

filled with what was called “inflammable air.” [Figure 11-1]

It generated 35 pounds of net lift and, when set free, remained 

aloft for 45 minutes and traveled 15 miles. Its final, sudden 

descent was attributed to a rupture in the balloon.

With the success of the demonstration flight, Charles next 

made a 25.5-foot diameter globe of rubberized silk. A net 

was fitted over the upper half of the balloon and tied to a 

loop around the middle of the bag. From this loop, a sort of 

car or boat was suspended. The bag was tied at the bottom 

to contain the gas. Dropping ballast caused the balloon to 

rise, and releasing gas through a valve at the top made it 

fall. On December 1, 1783, Professor Charles and Nicholas 

Robert made the first manned gas balloon flight. The first 

flight lasted for 1 hour and 45 minutes, rose to 1,800 feet, and 

covered more than 27 miles. On landing, Robert got out of the 

boat and Charles, now flying solo, ascended to almost 9,000 

feet. The balloon had been flaccid on first landing, but filled 

out as it rose and gas was released to prevent it from bursting. 

Benjamin Franklin was present for this lift off and recognized 

the potential for balloons in military operations.

Other ascensions followed, mostly to gather scientific data. 

It was through these early experiments that the design/shape 

of gas balloons, lifting capacity, and weight of air were 

determined. One notable early flight was the crossing of 

the English Channel from Britain to France by Jean-Pierre 

Blanchard and Dr. John Jeffries on January 7, 1785. Their 

balloon was scarcely sufficient to carry them and they threw 

out their ballast, anchors, food, and clothing to complete the 

crossing.

In 1906, James Gordon Bennett needed news for his 

newspaper and having been successful in starting car and 

boat races, decided to initiate a gas balloon race. The first 

race was organized for Paris, France. Each country could send 

contestants to the race. This race, the Coupe Aéronautique 

de Gordon Bennett, is still held annually although there were 

years when no race occurred due to wars. Today, the race is 

the most prestigious gas race in the world. It is sanctioned 

by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). The 

country of the previous year’s winner is entitled to host the 

race. In 2006, the 50th race was held flying out of Belgium 

(www.coupegordonbennett.org).

The Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta (AIBF) started 

the America’s Challenge Gas Balloon Race in 1995. It has 

been conducted yearly, with the exception of 1999 when 

AIBF instead hosted the Gordon Bennett Race. This has 

become a very prestigious and international race that offers 

pilots the opportunity for extremely long flights (www.

balloonfiesta.com/Education/History/).

Balloon Systems

Gas balloons designs are generally classified as netted or 

quick fill.
11-3

Figure 11-2. “Spirit of Springfield,” a netted gas ballon.

Figure 11-3. Quick fill design gas balloon.

Netted Balloon Systems

The netted design [Figure 11-2] dates from the 18th century. 

A spherical balloon envelope is encased in a diamond mesh 

net of light weight cord that runs around the balloon from 

the apex valve at the top of the envelope down to support 

points on the gondola. 

Inflation is accomplished by first bringing the inflation 

hose to the center of a ground tarp. The envelope is next 

laid over the hose with the hose inserted into the appendix 

and with the apex of the balloon on top and centered. The 

net is deployed over and attached to the envelope and as the 

lifting gas is flowed, sandbags are hung on the diamonds of 

the net at ground level. As the balloon fills and forms a rising 

hemisphere, the crew moves the sandbags down the net to 

keep them at ground level. Enough bags are added to keep 

the balloon anchored to the ground. 

After the envelope is completely filled, it is raised and the 

basket is brought underneath and attached to the net. The 

hemispherical shape is very stable in moderate to high ground 

winds as the flow is over the top of the shape. One drawback 

of netted balloons is that more crew is required to manage 

the sandbags during inflation.

Quick Fill Balloon Systems

The quick fill design dates from the mid 20th century. A 

natural shape envelope is surrounded by vertical support 

tapes that run from the apex of the balloon down to the 

gondola. [Figure 11-3] Several horizontal tapes extend 

circumferentially around and are attached to the vertical tapes 

to stabilize the structure.

Inflation is accomplished by laying out the envelope on the 

ground along its full length with the apex at one end and the 

appendix (base) at the other. The gondola is attached to the 

load lines and is bagged down. As the lifting gas is flowed 

in through the appendix, several crew members hold the 

apex of the balloon down. When enough gas has entered 

the envelope to generate approximately 100 to 150 pounds 

of net lift, the apex is released, the envelope rises, and the 

inflation is completed.

Lifting Gases

Modern gas balloons normally use helium or hydrogen as 

the lifting gas. Anhydrous ammonia and methane are two 

other less common options. Helium is a monotomic, inert 

gas and must be refined to reach a purity of greater than 

99 percent from raw well gas at a purity of a few percent. 

Hydrogen typically exists in the molecular form H2. It is 

flammable when combined in a mixture of 25 percent H2

to 75 percent air. This means that this mixture supports an 

existing flame. 
11-4

Figure 11-4. Maneuvering valve on quick fill gas ballon.

Figure 11-5. Typical gondola layout.

Helium is expensive but is more commonly used in the 

United States while hydrogen is more common in Europe. 

Helium provides slightly less lift than hydrogen but is the 

more stable gas. (See subsection titled Flying in Inversions 

on page 11-7 for a discussion of stability.) Balloon systems 

must not be prone to generating static electricity if they are 

to be used with hydrogen.

There are at least six factors to consider when choosing a 

lifting gas. These are: 

1. Compatibility with the balloon system being used 

2. Cost 

3. Lifting capacity

4. Availability 

5. Locale of flight 

6. Inherent gas stability

Normally, the gas selection process starts with the type 

of balloon. Hydrogen can be used if the balloon system 

is hydrogen compatible, hydrogen is available, and local 

ordinances allow its use. If one of these conditions is not 

satisfied, as is often the case in the United States, then helium 

is the likely choice. If a very short training or pleasure flight 

of several hours is planned, the more economical alternative 

of ammonia or methane (natural gas) may be considered.

When inflating or landing with hydrogen or methane, care 

must be taken to ensure that no flame or material with the 

potential to generate sparks is present in the launch locale. 

Lighted cigarettes, cigars, nylon clothing, cell phones, and 

other electronic devices are examples of forbidden items. 

Only essential personnel should be allowed in the launch and 

landing areas. For long, competitive flights, the increased 

stability of helium is a factor in its favor.

Components of the Gas Balloon

Gas balloon systems can be broken into four parts:

1. Envelope to contain the lifting gas

2. Gondola for carrying pilots and equipment

3. Support system to connect the envelope to the 

gondola

4. Other equipment

Envelope

The maneuvering valve [Figure 11-4] is at the apex of the 

envelope. It allows for the controlled release of a small 

amount of gas to initiate a descent. It is usually spring 

actuated and controlled via a line that runs from the valve 

down through the envelope into the gondola. On some 

balloons, a gas tight parachute top may be used instead of a 

valve. The envelope is also equipped with either a rip panel 

or deflation port for rapid, total deflation during high wind 

landings. More information on proper use of the valve and 

deflation ports is provided in the section The Practice of Gas 

Ballooning, page 11-8.

Gondola 

The gas balloon’s gondola [Figure 11-5] is typically 

somewhat larger than ones used for sport hot air ballooning, 

with four by five feet being a typical size. A foldable cot or 

sleeping pad normally runs along the long side of the gondola 

and a “kick-out” panel in the side wall at one end of the cot 

may be used to provide additional legroom for sleeping.

A trail rope is slung on the outside gondola along with much 

of the remaining support equipment. The trail rope is typically 

about 150 feet of natural fiber rope, one inch in diameter and 

weighs about 40 pounds. Its use is described in the landing 

paragraph. 

Support Cabling

The connection between envelope and gondola may be made 

of rope, flat tape, or steel cable. The total strength of the 
11-5

Figure 11-6. Instruments and radios are sometimes carried in a 

pod such as this.

cabling should have a breaking strength of at least five times 

the maximum gross load that is suspended on the cables. 

This must include sand ballast, as well as the weight of the 

gondola, the occupants, and all supplies and equipment.

For hydrogen systems, the cabling must be electrically 

conductive. For ammonia systems, the cables should be long 

enough to separate the occupants of the gondola from gas 

fumes coming out of the appendix. 

The bottom end of the cabling is gathered at a load ring which 

acts as the interface between the envelope and the gondola 

cables. The load ring also serves as the system’s strong point 

for attachment of inflation harnesses or trail ropes. 

Equipment

Equipment carried varies with the purpose of the flight. 

A minimum equipment list should include an altimeter/

variometer, compass, global positioning system (GPS), 

aircraft position lights, several flashlights (for night flights), 

oxygen (for high altitude flights), aircraft radio, and 

aircraft sectional maps for navigation and communication. 

[Figure 11-6] Other items which may be included for safety 

and occupant comfort may include: a first aid kit, adequate 

food, water, warm clothing, and toilet facilities for both 

the planned flight and for the postflight period before the 

recovery crew arrives. 

Theory of Gas Ballooning

Complete books have been written on the theory of gas 

ballooning and a full discussion of the topic is not possible 

here. At the very least, three topics must be understood by 

the competent gas pilot: physics, weather aspects, and the 

significance of different lifting gases. 

Physics of Gas Ballooning

Four main factors are instrumental in determining lift:

1. Type of lifting gas used (e.g., helium, hydrogen, or 

anhydrous ammonia)

2. Amount of lifting gas in the envelope (usually equal 

to the envelope’s total capacity)

3. Outside air temperature

4. Ambient barometric pressure (which is directly related 

to altitude and local weather conditions).

Lift at Sea Level

The generation of buoyancy (commonly referred to as “lift”) 

in a gas balloon is somewhat different from that of a hot air 

balloon. The basic principle is the same, but for different 

reasons.

One cubic meter of air weighs 2.702 pounds at sea level 

under International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions 

(29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) and 59 degrees Fahrenheit 

(°F) at sea level). At the same time, and also under ISA 

conditions, a cubic meter of helium weighs 0.3729 pounds. 

The difference between these two numbers, 2.329 pounds, 

is the gross lift of a gas balloon with a volume of one cubic 

meter. To determine the gross lift under ISA conditions, it then 

becomes a simple multiplication of 2.329 pounds times the 

volume of the envelope. For the standard 1,000 cubic meter 

gas balloon, the gross lift is 2,329 pounds. 

The above calculation is valid for helium. If, however, 

hydrogen is used as the lifting gas, the factor is 0.189 pounds 

per cubic meter; anhydrous ammonia’s weight is 1.583 

pounds per cubic meter. As compared to helium, hydrogen 

has 8 percent more gross lift per cubic meter, while ammonia 

has approximately 50 percent less lift than helium under ISA 

conditions.

Lift at Altitude

As a balloon ascends, it is generally true that temperature, 

atmospheric pressure, and gross lift all decrease. Gross lift 

decreases as pressure decreases, but increases as temperature 

decreases. Thus, as a gas balloon rises in the atmosphere, the 

decreasing pressure and temperature oppose each other. The 

decreasing temperature increases lift while the decreasing 

pressure decreases lift. Atmospheric pressure changes are 

more significant than temperature changes. Thus, net lift 

decreases as altitude increases in a standard atmosphere.
11-6

When calculating the effect of changing pressure and 

temperature, it is necessary to multiply the sea level lift by 

the ratio of pressures and temperatures. For a nonstandard 

ambient pressure, multiply the lift at the ISA level either by 

29.92 "Hg or 1,013.25 millibars (mb). 

Temperatures at altitude must also be calculated and 

compensated for. The factor for temperature is a ratio of 

absolute temperatures expressed in either degrees Kelvin 

or Rankine. To get temperature in degrees Rankine, simply 

add 459 to the normal Fahrenheit temperature. For a new 

temperature, multiply the lift calculated at the ISA by the 

factor: (59 °F+ 459)/(new temperature + 459). When using 

temperature in degrees Centigrade (°C), add 273 to convert 

to absolute temperature (i.e., Kelvin). This is: (15 °C + 

273)/(new temperature + 273). Various lift factors at differing 

altitudes, comparing helium and hydrogen, are illustrated in 

Appendix F.

Pressure Ceiling

The pressure ceiling is the altitude at which the lifting gas 

inside the envelope would expand to just completely fill the 

envelope, assuming the balloon rose to that altitude. Rising 

above the pressure ceiling causes lifting gas to be expelled 

from the appendix and establishes a new, higher pressure 

ceiling. Exceeding the current pressure ceiling causes loss of 

lifting gas, reduces gross lift, and typically causes the balloon 

to eventually begin to descend. Ballast must be expended to 

maintain the new higher altitude. However, maneuvers that 

result in altitude changes below the pressure ceiling, do not 

result in loss of lifting gas or gross lift. Very little ballast is 

required to ascend while below the pressure ceiling. For these 

reasons, the gas pilot should always be aware of what the 

approximate current pressure ceiling is and should consider 

the consequences of penetrating that ceiling.

The following approximations generally apply to a balloon 

below 18,000 mean seal level (MSL).

1. For a 1,000 cubic meter balloon at its pressure ceiling, 

an ambient pressure decrease of 1 "Hg causes a 

decrease in gross lift of about 80 pounds.

2. For a 1,000 cubic meter balloon at its pressure ceiling, 

an ambient and gas temperature decrease of 3.3 oF 

causes a lift increase of about 16 pounds.

3. For a 1,000 cubic meter balloon at its pressure ceiling, 

a discharge of about 64 pounds of ballast results in 

approximately a 1,000 foot increase in altitude.

Additional Factors That Affect Lift

1. A balloon flying below its pressure ceiling (i.e., a 

flaccid balloon) responds differently from one flying 

at its pressure ceiling. 

2. When the lifting gas inside the balloon is warmer (i.e., 

super heating) than the ambient air, additional lift is 

generated. The reverse happens when the lifting gas 

is colder than the ambient air.

3. Nonstandard atmospheric conditions, such as 

inversions, affect a balloon’s stability.

4. The atmospheric humidity has a small effect on lift 

with more humidity resulting in slightly less lift.

5. The purity of the lifting gas directly affects lift. Most 

commercially produced gas is assumed to be greater 

than 99 percent pure, but purity can be reduced as a 

result of improper filling technique.

For further discussion of gas balloon calculations, the book 

A Short Course on the Theory and Operation of the Free 

Balloon, by C. H. Roth, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, 

is recommended reading. This manual provides a good 

overview of the physics and operation of gas ballooning as 

of 1917. It is long out of print, but photocopies are readily 

available.

Weather Considerations for Gas 

Ballooning

When studying weather for gas ballooning, one must look 

for trends both further into the future and higher above 

the ground. The best weather for any flight is determined 

by the flight’s objectives. A flight to set a duration record 

(maximum time aloft) benefits from light winds and clear 

skies while a distance competition requires high winds aloft 

with lighter winds in the landing zone. A competitor in a 

long competition is likely to encounter several different 

weather patterns during flight simply due to the length of 

the flight. Examples of these include precipitation, snow, 

icing, thunderstorms, lightning, high winds, mountain winds, 

unstable air, or convective currents.

This discussion again focuses on the most common type of 

competitive flight, a Gordon Bennett type, with the objective 

to maximize great circle distance covered. Since winning 

distances can be well over a thousand miles at altitudes of 

up to 18,000 feet MSL with times aloft possibly exceeding 

seventy hours, a much larger area of the weather map must 

be studied than for a typical hot air flight.

Meteorological Differences From Hot Air 

Ballooning

In contrast to hot air flights, landing conditions are most 

likely to be different from those at launch and several weather 

patterns may be encountered during the flight. Freezing 

levels and the moisture content of the air should be checked 

to predict the possibility of icing. Any icing that occurs has 

multiple negative impacts on the flight. It adds weight to 
11-7

Figure 11-7. Standard temperature lapse chart.

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Temperature (°F)

Altitude (feet)

–20.00 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00

Standard Lapse Rate

Figure 11-8. Atmosphere exhibiting an inversion.

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Temperature (°F)

Altitude (feet)

–20.00 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00

Inversion Aloft

the balloon and can interfere with the functioning of the 

valve by preventing it from either opening properly or from 

sealing tightly after activation. The weight of the ice should 

initiate a natural descent to a lower altitude and warmer 

temperatures. If this does not happen naturally, the pilot may 

initiate a descent by valving. Be aware that the melting ice 

at lower altitudes lightens the system and additional valving 

is necessary to prevent a second ascend back above the 

freezing level. Falling ice shards have also been blamed for 

equipment damage on occasional flights. A second strategy 

against icing is to seek drier air above the saturated air but the 

higher altitude is unlikely to provide the warmer temperatures 

needed to melt the accumulated ice.

Encountering thunderstorm activity is much more common 

in gas versus hot air flights. This is especially dangerous 

when flying an explosive gas such as hydrogen. Isolated 

thunderstorms can develop due to solar heating of moist air 

in the afternoon over the great plains of the United States 

with very little warning. Prediction and avoidance are the 

best tools against thunderstorms. Real time contact between 

the pilots and a ground-based meteorologist with access to 

forecasting tools to predict the formation of thunderstorms 

can help to avoid these storms. During the different stages 

of a thunderstorm, rapid accelerations due to inflows or 

outflows, as well as rapid ascents or descents, are very likely. 

The presence of any of these effects, in conjunction with 

any thunder or lightning are indications that an immediate 

landing is prudent.

Meteorological Flight Planning

Flight planning for a gas balloon flight starts several days 

prior to the planned flight. The gas balloon pilot examines 

numerous meteorological tools, looking at frontal movement 

to get the big picture, wind speed and direction forecasts at 

several altitudes, and future times to predict a flight path. 

Then, they will study forecast precipitation probabilities 

and freezing levels over the flight period. Modern trajectory 

predictors, such as the HYSPLIT (www.arl.noaa.gov/

ready.html) program, maintained by National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) can be a great 

help. However, the HYSPLIT model gives no forecast for 

precipitation along the route, so the possibility of rain, snow, 

or icing must be assessed using other weather models. Often, 

ideal weather is found just after a frontal passage, after any 

moisture has cleared but while the air mass is still moving 

with the departing front.

For serious competitions, a professional meteorologist is an 

invaluable team member and is consulted before and during 

the flight. A good starting point for weather investigations 

is NOAA’s aviation weather web site www.aviationweather.

gov. 

Flying in Inversions

Proper utilization of atmospheric temperature inversions 

during gas balloon flights can result in increased flight 

stability and ballast conservation. Figure 11-7 shows a 

simplified atmospheric temperature lapse chart when no 

inversion is present. Figure 11-8 is similar but with an 

inversion present. In both charts, altitude increases up the 

vertical scale and temperature increases going to the right 

on the horizontal scale. Figure 11-7 shows temperature 

decreasing consistently with altitude, while Figure 11-8 has 

an inversion zone (inside red circle) from 2,000 to 4,000 feet 
11-8

in which the temperature increases with increasing altitude. 

A gas balloon flying in this inversion has the advantage of 

increased stability as compared to the altitudes above or 

below the inversion which exhibit normal lapse rates.

To explain this, it is important to understand the term 

“stability” with respect to a gas balloon. Stability can be 

imagined as an invisible hand that gently pulls the balloon 

down whenever it starts to rise or alternately pushes the 

balloon back up as it starts to fall. A balloon flying in stable 

weather tends to fly level with very little intervention from 

the pilot. However, stability is a weak condition and can 

be overcome by many factors, such as gain or loss of solar 

heating, orographic winds, and ballasting or valving.

To understand why an inversion creates stable flying 

conditions, think of a gas balloon flying at 3,000 feet in the 

middle of the inversion. If, for some reason, the balloon 

starts to ascend, two things happen. First, the balloon enters 

warmer ambient air. Second, the lifting gas inside the balloon 

expands and cools adiabatically as it reaches the slightly 

lower pressure atmosphere of the higher altitude. Both of 

these effects cause the balloon to lose lift and to descend. It is 

helpful to remember that, as a hot air balloon either cools or 

enters hotter air, the temperature differential between outside 

and inside air decreases and lift is lost. The same principle 

applies here, as applied to gas balloons. Subsequently, if the 

gas balloon descends from its starting point, it encounters 

cooler outside ambient air and its interior gas compresses and 

warms adiabatically, therefore gaining and ascending back to 

its original altitude. Remember, in an inversion, either motion 

(ascending or descending) tends to cause an opposing force 

to passively initiate a return to the original altitude. 

With proper planning, the gas balloon pilot can take advantage 

of this scenario. Weather theory teaches that inversions often 

set up at night either right at the surface (sometimes referred 

to as “surface inversion”) or at some altitude above the ground 

(generally referred to as an “inversion aloft”) as shown in 

Figure 11-8. Visible signs of an inversion may be pollution 

trapped below the inversion causing reduced visibility and 

dirty looking air. Invisible signs of an inversion may be 

significantly more stable flying conditions in the inversion 

area. If a slow, steady initial ascent is initiated (best done 

by launching with a flaccid balloon), the balloon may find 

an inversion with no help from the pilot by leveling off as it 

enters the inversion zone. More likely the pilot has to hunt 

for the inversion; inversion levels can be determined from the 

use of the Skew-T charts as previously discussed in Chapter 

4, Weather Theory and Reports.

As an example, during flight at night very near the ground, 

a pilot may feel he or she is continually ballasting to fly 

level. If a pilot suspects an inversion aloft may exist above, 

he or she can initiate a slow ascent. If the envelope is flaccid 

and the ambient air at this altitude is not inverted, then the 

balloon tends to continue rising until it either encounters an 

inversion or becomes full as it reaches its pressure ceiling. If 

the balloon levels out while it is still flaccid, this may indicate 

that it has entered an inversion zone. If the balloon continues 

to fly level passively, it is flying in an inversion.

The Practice of Gas Ballooning

Gas Balloon Regulations

For a pilot with a hot air rating, certification to fly gas 

balloons requires the removal of the “with airborne heater” 

limitation on his or her certificate. For a private pilot gas 

rating, aeronautical experience requirements in Title 14 of 

the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section 61.109(h) 

(1) require “...at least two flights of at least 2 hours each 

that consists of

(i) At least one training flight with an authorized 

instructor within 60 days prior to application for the 

rating on the areas of operation for a gas balloon;

(ii) At least one flight performing the duties of pilot 

in command in a gas balloon with an authorized 

instructor; and

(iii) At least one flight involving a controlled ascent to 

3,000 feet above the launch site. ”

The regulation for removal of the airborne heater restriction 

from an existing hot air pilot’s certificate (14 CFR Section 

61.115 Balloon ratings: Limitations) states:

(2) The limitation may be removed when the person 

obtains the required aeronautical experience in a 

gas balloon and receives a logbook endorsement 

from an authorized instructor who attests to the 

person’s accomplishment of the required aeronautical 

experience and ability to satisfactorily operate a gas 

balloon. 

NOTE: Only a logbook entry is required to complete the 

process (no check ride), since the gas authorization is a 

removal of a restriction from an existing rating rather than 

an issuance of a new rating.

The regulations for the aeronautical experience for a 

commercial rating are virtually identical according to 14 

CFR section 61.129(h)(4)(i) except that the student must act 

as pilot in command on both flights and the controlled ascent 

must be to “...5,000 feet above the launch site.”
11-9

Figure 11-9. America’s Challenge launch at Fiesta Park, 

Albuquerque, New Mexico.

debris and trash and to check for obstructions to inflation 

or takeoff. Layout and assembly differ by balloon type, but 

should proceed according to the balloon’s flight manual. For 

quick fill balloons, layout should be downwind, similar to 

hot air balloons. A crew briefing should be performed and a 

crew chief should be designated. Safety must be emphasized; 

new crew members must be given specific instructions and be 

assigned to a more experienced crew member for guidance. 

Gas balloon launches still tend to draw a crowd and some 

form of crowd control may be required. [Figure 11-9]

A launch restraint should be secured and additional inflation 

ballast (weighing several hundred pounds more than the 

pilots and supplies that eventually are on board) should be 

added to the gondola.

The start of gas flow is a critical point in the inflation. A 

slow initial flow allows a last minute check of cable routings 

and crew positions. Surface weather conditions determine 

flow rate after the initial checkout. For quick fill systems, a 

partially filled envelope is much more subject to twisting in 

wind gusts. A flaccid envelope tends to present a concave 

(spoon-shaped) surface to the wind, producing a higher drag 

factor and placing more stress on the entire system. Once 

the envelope’s shape has filled out to a convex (beach ball) 

shape, it is more able to stand by shedding wind gusts around 

it. Quick fill systems are much more subject to this effect 

than are netted balloons.

As described in the section on balloon systems, a netted 

balloon envelope is laid out flat on the ground and its shape 

during inflation resembles a sphere rising out of the ground. 

It always presents a convex (shedding) shape to the wind. A 

separate step is required after inflation to install the basket 

and attach it to the load lines coming down from the net.

Additional areas of specific interest to gas balloon pilots are 

the regulation for currency for night flight according to 14 

CFR section 61.57(b)(1):

“...no person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft 

carrying passengers during the period beginning 1 hour after 

sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise unless within the 

preceding 90 days that person has made at least three takeoffs 

and three landings to a full stop during the period beginning 

1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise.”

NOTE: This is similar to the currency for day flight and only 

applies to flights with passengers. It does not prohibit night 

flight when only pilots are on board. 

Also of interest are the sections on aircraft lights (14 CFR 

section 91.209) for night flight; the use of supplemental 

oxygen (14 CFR section 91.211), and the use of transponders 

(14 CFR section 91.215).

Flight Planning

During the planning stage of the flight, the objectives of the 

flight should be established. Possibilities include: training, 

pleasure, competition, record setting, new equipment 

checkout, or possibly scientific investigation. Then, the 

expected flight parameters should be developed. These 

include the number of pilots and passengers, balloon 

parameters (type, size, and lifting gas to be used), launch 

time and location, expected duration, required weather, 

maximum altitude, and predicted landing zone. If a fixed 

date has been selected for the flight, an initial meteorological 

assessment should be made approximately three days out 

and subsequent weather developments are used to make a 

“go/no-go” decision. If the flight date is flexible over an 

extended time window, continual monitoring of the weather 

is required until proper conditions develop. 

After this, an equipment list can be developed and a 

system weight and ballast calculation should be performed. 

Permission to use the desired launch site must be confirmed 

and the availability of adequate gas supply and launch and 

chase crew must be assured. A concise schedule should be 

sent to all crew members, defining when decisions are made 

and how these decisions are communicated to the crew.

Finally, all inflation and flight equipment must be assembled 

and checked out for proper functioning. The chase vehicle 

selected should be able cover the expected distance and bring 

all participants back home.

Layout and Inflation

When the day comes, all equipment is transported to the 

launch site. A site “walk-around” is performed to remove 
11-10

Figure 11-10. A gas balloon, shortly after the weigh off procedure, 

ascends into the sky.

Inflight Procedures

All other things being equal, a gas balloon’s natural tendency 

is to find its equilibrium altitude and to fly level at that 

altitude. By contrast, a hot air balloon’s natural tendency to 

descend must be counteracted with periodic infusions of heat. 

In a gas balloon, pilot action is only required to initiate or 

arrest an ascent or descent or to counter atmospheric or other 

disturbances. A gas balloon may fly for an hour or longer with 

no intervention by the pilot. Pilot initiated altitude changes 

with gas balloons tend to occur at a slower rate over a longer 

time period as compared to hot air ballooning.

Ascents are initiated by jettisoning ballast (usually sand or 

water) while descents result from releasing lifting gas from 

a valve at the top of the envelope. 

Significant midflight altitude changes are often undertaken 

as part of a long-term strategic plan rather than for short 

term tactical reasons. The consequences of any maneuver 

should be considered carefully before being undertaken. It is 

often stated that ballast is the fuel of a gas balloon and well 

before all ballast has been expended, the aircraft must be 

safely back on the ground. Use of large amounts of ballast 

to execute a major ascent invariably shortens the potential 

duration of a flight. 

For example, in a distance competition, an ascent from the 

surface to 12,000 feet MSL may be executed to enter more 

favorable winds. This may take 1 hour to accomplish but 

that altitude may then be maintained for the next 8 hours if 

weather conditions are stable.

Two additional concepts that must be understood to pilot gas 

balloons are solar heating and lifting gas purity.

Solar Heating

Solar heating (also called super-heating) occurs when the 

heat of the sun is trapped inside the balloon’s envelope 

and causes the temperature of the lifting gas to exceed the 

outside air temperature. As the heated lifting gas expands, 

one of two things will happen. If the envelope is flaccid, the 

less dense gas occupies a larger fraction of the envelope’s 

volume and displaces more air and the system’s gross 

lift temporarily increases. This causes the balloon to rise 

towards its pressure ceiling and it also temporarily causes 

the pressure ceiling to drop. When the envelope becomes full 

(i.e., reaches its pressure ceiling), gas is expelled and a new 

ceiling is established.

A good rule of thumb is to take no more time than is 

necessary to complete the fill. This is especially true in 

windy conditions. 

Launch

With the use of a checklist, confirm that all required 

equipment items and pilots are on board. A launch master is 

usually assigned to direct removal of excess inflation ballast 

until the system is neutrally buoyant. Desired ascent rate 

determines how much additional ballast is removed to attain 

the proper amount of positive buoyancy. The launch master 

should be an experienced gas balloonist and direct crew to 

allow the balloon to rise several feet off the ground several 

times to test the buoyancy before instructing the crew to bring 

it back to the ground one last time before final release. If the 

ascent rate is too slow, additional ballast are removed until 

the proper rate is achieved. After a final check for airspace 

clearance above, the “Hands off!” command is given and the 

balloon is allowed to fly free. [Figure 11-10]
11-11

If the flight is continued through sunset, loss of solar heating 

results in a cooling of the lifting gas and a resultant loss of 

gross lift. Ballast must then be used to maintain buoyancy.

Purity of Lifting Gas

A final topic of interest is the effect of mixing air with the 

lifting gas. It may seem that since air is heavier than the lifting 

gas, the air would have a tendency to pool at the bottom of 

the envelope and be expelled through the appendix as the 

balloon rises into less dense air. However, this is not what 

happens. The forces of molecular attractions cause the air 

and lifting gas to become permanently mixed and a generally 

less pure mixture occurs. When this happens, some of the 

benefits of operating under the pressure ceiling are lost and 

every up/down maneuver causes the loss of lifting gas along 

with the expelled air.

For this reason, care should be taken to close the appendix 

when descending rapidly to avoid allowing air to force its way 

up into the envelope through the open appendix. Maintaining 

a high level of purity of the gas inside the envelope can extend 

flight duration. Care must be taken to open the appendix 

during rapid or prolonged ascents which bring the balloon 

close to its pressure ceiling. Ascent above pressure ceiling 

with a closed appendix increases internal pressure on the 

envelope’s fabric and, in an extreme case, could cause the 

envelope to rupture.

Landing, Retrieval and Packup

The landing phase is the single most critical portion of the 

entire flight. The pilots may be fatigued from the long flight. 

They may be in unfamiliar geography and weather conditions. 

There may be time pressure to land in daylight if sunset is 

approaching. A landing after dark, under a full moon and 

in open territory may be performed rather routinely, but a 

daylight landing is still much preferred. A night time landing 

in dense woods under a new moon or with reduced visibility 

can be very stressful. Five minutes on oxygen prior to landing 

may help to relieve some fatigue and clear the senses.

The landing decision varies with each flight and should be 

discussed jointly among all the pilots. Landings should be 

initiated while there is still adequate ballast available to 

abort at least one approach, if necessary. The actual amount 

of ballast required varies with pilot experience, weather 

conditions, terrain and descent rate. For a 1,000 cubic meter 

balloon in relatively easy landing conditions and under 

a shallow descent, 50 pounds may suffice. Under more 

adverse conditions, 250 pounds or more may be advisable. 

Additional considerations for landing may include duration 

of flight, fatigue level of the pilots, accomplishment of the 

flight objectives, current and forecast weather, terrain, and 

time of day.

When the decision is made to land, all possible equipment 

should be securely stowed. Occupants should don helmets 

and any other protective gear. All antennas, solar panels, and 

other items hanging below the basket should be retrieved 

and stowed. Adequate ballast should be brought inside the 

basket where it is readily available to abort or round-out a 

landing. 

The trail rope should be rigged and readied for deployment. 

The trail rope serves three purposes. First, it slows the descent 

rate. A fully deployed trail rope weighing about 40 pounds 

on a 1,000 cubic meter balloon normally arrests a descent of 

approximately 340 feet per minute (fpm) at 150 feet above 

ground level (AGL) to a descent rate of 0 fpm at ground 

contact. The descent from 150 feet will take about 45 seconds. 

These numbers are only approximations and local conditions 

at landing certainly cause these to vary somewhat. Secondly, 

the trail rope orients the balloon so the attachment point of 

the rope is on the upwind (or trailing) side of the basket. This 

may be important depending on the arrangement of the basket 

and/or deflation ports. Finally, as more of the rope contacts 

the ground, friction slows the horizontal speed of the balloon. 

The trail rope should be connected to the load ring with a 

quick release mechanism to allow release should the trail rope 

become permanently entangled on the ground.

If the gondola has rotated during flight, placing the trail rope 

on the gondola’s downwind side, it does not deploy correctly 

unless the pilot guides it around to the upwind side of the 

gondola. Otherwise the rope deploys under the gondola and 

tends to pull the leading edge of the gondola down and may 

completely invert it. This is colloquially called “dog-housing” 

and puts the occupants in the uncomfortable position of 

being dragged along the ground trapped inside the basket. 

Unlike modern hot air balloons, most gas balloon systems 

do not have rigid uprights, so dog-housing is a real concern 

in a high wind landing; the best antidote is to keep as much 

weight as possible (including the occupants) on the upwind 

(trailing) side of the basket.

The trail rope also acts to stop any ascent since a rising 

balloon becomes heavier as more of the rope is lifted off the 

ground. This is why it is sometimes called “retrievable” or 

“reusable” ballast. For this reason, the trail rope should never 

be deployed until landing is completely certain. Aborting 

a landing with a deployed trail rope requires ballasting 

the weight of the trail rope (approximately forty pounds) 

in addition to the ballast normally required to achieve the 

desired ascent rate. 

The anti-sail line should be pulled tight and secured to the 

load ring or other strong point. The purpose of this line is 

to hold the bottom of the envelope down taut to minimize 
11-12

Figure 11-11. A successful gas balloon landing.

drag in a high wind landing. If the envelope is allowed to 

ride free, it rides up and bows in the wind, forming a scoop 

that catches much more wind and increases the length of the 

drag along the ground.

At this point, the descent is initiated and one or more potential 

landing sites should be identified. If the descent continues 

as expected and an adequate landing site is attainable, the 

descent rate should be tailored toward that site. A last check 

should be made for powerlines and other obstructions on 

the path to the landing site. The area downwind of the site 

should also be checked in case landing runs long. Only then, 

at a height above ground equal to the length of the trail rope 

(usually about 150 feet), and only if there are no intervening 

obstacles between the balloon and the landing site, will the 

trail rope be deployed. [Figure 11-11]

As with a hot air balloon, if a fast layer has been encountered 

during the descent, it may be advisable to level off at an 

altitude below the fast layer to burn off some momentum. 

However, if this jeopardizes hitting the only likely landing 

site, a high wind landing is the better option.

The final phase of the landing is ground contact, and just 

as in piloting a hot air balloon, a decision must be made to 

perform either a rip-out or standup landing. Contrary to hot 

air ballooning, in gas, rip-out landings are the norm. Up to 

the final moment, ascent rate is controlled by actuating the 

valve (or parachute) to release small amounts of lifting gas. 

As in hot air ballooning, both pilots should be positioned 

for landing. Typically at about five feet AGL, the deflation 

port line (usually red) is pulled to open the port and release 

a large quantity of gas immediately. Some systems may 

have multiple deflation ports. Once the deflation port is 

activated, the flight is terminated with a rapid descent, so it 

is important to be close to the ground before activation. The 

height of activation can occasionally be as high as thirty to 

fifty feet in for emergency reasons, but a very hard landing 

is sure to ensue.

On the newer German (Wörner) balloons with sealing 

parachute tops, it is possible to reseat the parachute after 

a deep activation of several seconds, but gas equivalent to 

many bags of ballast has been lost. Shorter, shallower vents 

are used on these systems for maneuvering, but deflation is 

achieved with a deep constant pull on the parachute line.

Once the balloon has come to a stop and is no longer buoyant, 

the pilots exit and attempt to contact the chase. Any medical 

concerns should be dealt with immediately. Landowners 

should be located, if possible, and an inventory of the contents 

of the gondola should be done to check to see if anything 

bounced out during the landing. If darkness is near and no 

houses are in sight, flashlights, a compass, and GPS should 

be located immediately to ensure that bearings are not lost 

in the dark. On a long flight, it may be several hours until 

the chase crew arrives, but when they do, pack-up proceeds 

in reverse of assembly.

The America’s Challenge Race, 2006

The 2006 America’s Challenge gas balloon competition is 

considered by many in the gas balloon community to be 

one of the most exciting and controversial flights in recent 

years. It is presented here as an illustration of the skills and 

decision-making processes necessary for a successful gas 

balloon flight.

In July 2006, two gas balloon pilots from Georgia, Andy 

Cayton and Danni Suskin, were to participate in the Gordon 

Bennett challenge competition in Belgium. Upon preparation 

for launch, it was discovered that the balloon to be used had 

some mechanical problems that kept the Cayton-Suskin team 

from flying. Cayton came back to the United States with every 

intention of winning the America’s Challenge in the hope of 

having the opportunity to pursue a victory in the following 

year’s Gordon Bennett. As Suskin was unable to participate 

in the event, Cayton selected Kevin Knapp of North Carolina 

as his co-pilot for the America’s Challenge. 
11-13

Figure 11-12. Inflation of the America’s Challenge balloons, 

Albuquerque, NM, October 2006.

Figure 11-13. Dallas, Texas, from 11,000 feet, as seen from the 

Cayton-Knapp balloon in flight.

Launch was originally scheduled for the evening of October 

7, 2006. Don Day, a meteorologist who worked with Cayton 

on numerous world record hot air flights as well as other 

gas flights, was located at the launch field in Albuquerque, 

New Mexico. In conference with Cayton and Knapp, Day 

determined that the weather would be a significant factor 

in the launch and in any subsequent flight track across the 

United States. The initial track for the planned launch date 

would have put the team on a northeasterly track towards 

Canada; but, low freezing levels and thunderstorms east 

of the Sandia Mountains forced race officials to delay the 

planned launch. The next launch window, Tuesday, October 

10, showed a potential track east, paralleling Interstate 40.

During the 3-day weather delay, Cayton had reason to 

reevaluate some strategic issues regarding the flight. One 

concern was the fact that both he and Knapp were fairly large 

men; he felt that this might place them at some disadvantage 

over teams with smaller pilots. Smaller pilots are able to carry 

more ballast, and thus can extend their flight time. Also, 

while disappointed with the no-fly situation at the Gordon 

Bennett, he realized that this might provide an advantage, as 

he would not be attempting a second duration flight while 

still fatigued from the Gordon Bennett. Cayton believed that 

these two issues balanced out, and continued with Knapp to 

prepare for the launch.

Tuesday, October 10, arrived clear and cold; the cold front 

and low-pressure system that had delayed the initial launch 

had passed through the Albuquerque area and was now 

ahead of them. A massive cold front would push through 

Canada into the central United States and move to the Gulf 

of Mexico during the second day of flight. The plan was to 

stay between the two systems to remain competitive and safe. 

With crew chief Ken Draughn and help from competitors 

Peter Cuneo and Bert Padelt, the inflation went smoothly. 

[Figure 11-12]

As launch position had been previously drawn by lot, the 

Cayton-Knapp team was the fifth balloon to launch. Early on 

the evening of the 10th, Cayton handed two bags of ballast 

to the balloonmeister, Stefan Handl, and they were in the air. 

The race was on! Knapp remembers many “good luck” calls 

from the crowd; the chase crew mounted their vehicle and 

departed the launch field not knowing they would have a role 

in one of the most controversial events in years

Cayton-Knapp tracked more easterly than the balloons that 

had previously launched and stayed well north of highway 

I-40 as they crossed the Sandia Mountains. Their altitude 

was well above 10,000 feet the first night and averaged 

30 miles per hour (mph) with the temperature in the low 

30’s. Cayton and Knapp spent most of the night colder than 

expected and shivering to keep warm. They established radio 

contact with Lubbock, Texas Approach at 0630 Wednesday 

morning and shortly after experienced the magic of a sunrise 

from the air.

Most of Wednesday was spent flying over Texas, averaging 

36 mph. Another team, that of Phil McNutt and Brian Critelli, 

flew 90 degrees directly below them passing to the north 

just before they reached the Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex. 

[Figure 11-13] Cayton-Knapp could see other balloons in 

the distance, but it was unusual to see another team’s balloon 

so close in flight. Dallas Approach directed them to fly over 

the Class B airspace above 11,000 feet; at that altitude, they 

started tracking a more southerly direction.

Wednesday evening found the team over northern Louisiana. 

Most of the night was spent above 2,500 feet flying less 

than 12 mph. The strategy was to stay behind the weather 

system ahead and to position themselves for Thursday’s 

flight. Cayton and Knapp fell behind several teams during 

the night, but that served to let them know they were where 

they needed to be.
11-14

Figure 11-14. Panama City Beach, Florida, as seen from the 

Cayton-Knapp balloon, 25 miles out over the Gulf of Mexico.

Figure 11-15. Tracks of the 2006 America‘s Challenge competitors.

Thursday morning’s weather forecast was not favorable; 

winds on the surface, as well as at 3,000, 6,000, and 9,000 

feet were all going out into the Gulf with no options but to 

land. Several teams saw this and landed. Meteorologist Day 

and Cayton had a long discussion via satellite phone, and 

confirmed the winds above 12,000 would hook out into the 

Gulf and bring them back to dry land near Panama City, 

Florida. All the available meteorological information told 

them it would work. If the team wished to stay competitive, 

they had to go high and out over the water. 

They began their ascent around 10:00 AM and went out over 

the water just east of New Orleans. It was relatively slow 

going but Cayton and Knapp finally made it back to land as 

planned and began a slow descent around 16:30. Equipment 

was secured in anticipation of a possible landing near the 

Apalachicola National Forest in the Florida panhandle. After 

confirming their position in the race, and with no place to 

land, the decision was made to continue the flight through 

the night. The weather prognosis was good, the winds would 

be relatively calm during the night and remaining ballast was 

good, so they calculated the needed distance and time to win 

the race. [Figure 11-14]

Early on Thursday morning, it appeared that the team’s 

patience had paid off. By 0430, they were moving east about 

6 mph and were just over Cross City, Florida. At sunrise, they 

were 13 miles further east, and just north of Old Town and 

Fanning Springs. Surface winds were calm and there was a 

thin layer of ground fog. As the sun came up, the balloon 

experienced solar heating and ascended to just over 7,000 

feet. The flight continued in an easterly direction at 15 mph 

and by 08:00 the team came to the realization that they were 

in a perfect position to take over the lead.

As the Cayton-Knapp team crossed Interstate 75, just south 

of Gainesville, Florida, they received word that the German 

team of Eimers/Winker [Figure 11-15, AC-13] was on the 

ground, and near Cayton’s home in Savannah, Georgia. 

Cayton and Knapp elected to continue flying until they had 

a cushion of 10 miles before beginning their descent. 
11-15

With surface winds of approximately 3 mph and knowing the 

race was won, the team elected to land in Citra, Florida. Their 

chase crew was waiting for them in the yard of a cooperative 

landowner. After a 60 hour, 20 minute flight covering 1,478 

miles, Andy Cayton and Kevin Knapp had beaten the odds 

to capture the 2006 America’s Challenge Cup.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides a short description of the unique aspects 

of gas ballooning in comparison to hot air ballooning. For 

more information, a local gas pilot and the Gas Division of 

the Balloon Federation of America (www.bfa.net) are good 

resources. 
11-16
A-1

Vapor Pressures of LP Gases

Temperature (°F) Approximate 

Pressure Propane Butane

–40 2 

–30 7

–20 12

–10 18

0 25

10 34

20 42

30 53

40 65 3

50 78 7

60 93 12

70 110 17

80 128 23

90 150 30

100 177 38

110 204 46

Appendix A

Vapor Pressures of LP Gases
A-2
B-1

Appendix B

Pibal Plotting Grid

This grid may be used for the two practice pibal plotting exercises in Chapter 3. Additionally, it may be 

copied and used in the preflight planning process.
B-2
C-1

Balloon Flight Checklist

Preflight

1.

2. Brief crew

3. ground

Inflation

1. Face flap to

2. Secure upright to

3. Docs - 2 ignitors - Drop line

4. Attach burners & fuel lines

5. Meter pilot valves off

6. Turn tank valve 1/8, for leaks

7. Turn tank valve full & back 1/8

8. Fuel pressure >90 psi

9. for leaks

10. Shut tank valves OFF

11. Connect cables to basket, bottom 1st 

12. 

13. Lay out

14. Brief crew @ opening

15. Fan: FUEL – FACE – START

16. telltales

17. Secure Top

18. interior fabric & lines

19. Even inflation

20. Turn down

21. Open liquid valve tank FULL & back 1⁄4

22. Ignite burner pilot

23. Pop igniter & lift

Pre-launch

27.? fuel gauges – fuel pressure

28. Altimeter – Radio

29.Give final crew instructions

Prelanding

1. Obstructions

2. Brief

3. Face travel

4. Bend knees & ankles

 a. Hold basket handle in upright position, 

 do not hold onto pilot or each other 

 b. Stay in basket until relieved

5. Ensure landing space

6. Hold basket 

Retrieval

1. Turn off TANKS, PILOTS, INSTRUMENTS, RADIO

2. Vent propane to cool burners

3. Remove top with crown line tension

4. Sleeve balloon and pack

5. Vent lines excess propane

6. Disconnect lines, cable & burner

7. Police field

24.Short blast inflation

25. Stop as clears ground

26.Short blast to = equilibrium

Appendix C

Balloon Flight Checklist
C-2
C-3

Student Balloon Flight Checklist

Preflight

1. Weather briefings

2. Documents

3. Fuel check 

4. Crew briefing

5. Passenger briefing

6. Layout & assembly

7. Inspection

Inflation

1. Crew briefing

2. Fan placement

3. Equilibrium

4. Board passengers 

5. Basket check

6. Instrument check

7. Fuel

Launch

1. Final crew instructions

2. Obstacles—Clear

3. Traffic—Clear

Descent/Approach

Recovery

1. Secure deflation system

2. Secure envelope

3. Secure heater

4. Secure basket

5. Pack-up

6. Fuel check

Landing

1. Monitor passengers

2. Secure fuel

3. Secure heater

4. Deflation

1. Passenger briefing

2. Obstacles—Clear

3. High wind landing

4. Water landing

Postflight

1. Fueling 

2. Report discrepancies

3. Storage
C-4
D-1

Pibal Velocity vs. Size

Calculated Velocities for Round Balloons

Diameter (in) Weight (gms) Velocity (ft/min)

-----------------------------To Use This Chart -----------------------------

9 2.50 241

10 2.50 284

11 2.50 319

12 2.50 350

9 3.00 221

10 3.00 270

11 3.00 308

12 3.00 342

9 3.50 201

10 3.50 255

11 3.50 297

12 3.50 333

14 3.50 391

12 4.00 324

13 4.00 357

14 4.00 386

15 4.00 412

16 4.00 436

12 4.40 317

13 4.40 351

14 4.40 381

15 4.40 408

16 4.40 433

12 5.15 303

14 5.15 372

15 5.15 400

16 5.15 426

17 5.15 451

18 5.15 473

12 7.77 252

14 7.77 339

15 7.77 373

16 7.77 404

17 7.77 431

18 7.77 457

Determine the weight of an empty balloon. Then, knowing the 

inflated diameter of the pibal, you can read the approximate 

vertical velocity of the pibal. 

To get the weight of the empty balloon, weigh 10 empty pibals 

on a scale. Take the weight in ounces, and multiply by 28.35

to obtain the weight of the ten balloons in grams. Then, divide 

by 10 to obtain the weight of an individual balloon. 

Appendix D

Pibal Velocity Versus Size
D-2
E-1

Aeronautical Knowledge: 14 CFR sections 61.35(a)(1) 

61.103(d), and 61.105

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the required training in accordance with 14 CFR section 61.105.

I have determined [he or she] is prepared for the LTA-FB 

Private Pilot knowledge test.

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Flight Proficiency/Practical Test: 14 CFR sections 61.103(f), 

61.107(b), and 61.109

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the required training in accordance with 14 CFR sections 61.107 and 

61.109. I have determined [he or she] is prepared for the 

Private Pilot practical test.

Signature, Certificate, #, Date

Private Pilot Endorsements

Aeronautical Knowledge: 14 CFR sections 61.35(a)(1), 

61.123(c), and 61.125.

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the required training in accordance with 14 CFR section 61.125.

I have determined [he or she] is prepared for the LTA-FB 

Commercial Pilot knowledge test (CBH).

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Flight Proficiency/Practical Test: 14 CFR sections 61.123(e), 

61.127, and 61.129

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the 

required training of 14 CFR sections 61.127 and 61.129. I have

determine [he or she] is prepared for the Commercial Pilot 

practical test.

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Flight Review: 14 CFR section 61.56

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] holder of pilot 

certificate #______________ has satisfactorily completed a 

flight review consisting of one hour of flight training and one 

hour of ground training as required by 14 CFR section 61.56 on 

[date].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

NOTE: This endorsement varies somewhat from the example 

provided in the Advisory Circular. While there is no regulatory 

requirement to indication the hours of training involved, many 

Flight Standards District Offices have interpreted the regulation

in that manner. It may be best to use this example if an

individual attends numerous balloon events around the country

on a regular basis. 

Endorsement for Retesting of a Written or Practical Test:

14 CFR section 61.49

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the 

additional [flight and/or ground] training as required by 14 CFR 

section 61.49. I have determined that [he or she] is prepared for 

the [name the knowledge/practical test to be retaken].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Commercial Pilot Endorsements

Pre-solo Aeronautical Knowledge: 14 CFR section 61.87(b)

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has satisfactorily 

completed the pre-solo knowledge exam of 14 CFR section 

61.87(b) for the [make and model aircraft].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Pre-solo Flight Training: 14 CFR section 61.87(c) (The back of 

the Student Pilot Certificate must also be endorsed.)

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the 

required pre-solo training in a [make and model aircraft]. I have

determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 14 CFR

section 61.87(d) and is proficient to make solo flights in a 

[make and model aircraft].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Note: Other limitations may be included, such as maximum 

wind/weather conditions at launch, location, etc.

Solo Endorsement (each 90-day period): 14 CFR section 

61.87(p)

I have given Mr./Mrs./Ms. [First name, MI, Last name] the 

instruction required by 14 CFR section 61.87(p). [He or She] 

has met the requirements of 14 CFR section 61.87(p) and is 

competent to make safe solo flights in a [make and model 

aircraft].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Note: additional 90-day endorsements are recorded in the 

student’s log book only, not on back of the Student Pilot 

Certificate.

Student Pilot Endorsements

Appendix E

Log Book Endorsement Formats
E-2

he re

05.

B 

3(f), 

he re

107 and 

e 

Aeronautical Knowledge: 14 CFR sections 61.35(a)(1), 

61.123(c), and 61.125.

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the required training in accordance with 14 CFR section 61.125.

I have determined [he or she] is prepared for the LTA-FB 

Commercial Pilot knowledge test (CBH).

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Flight Proficiency/Practical Test: 14 CFR sections 61.123(e), 

61.127, and 61.129

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the 

required training of 14 CFR sections 61.127 and 61.129. I have

determine [he or she] is prepared for the Commercial Pilot 

practical test.

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Flight Review: 14 CFR section 61.56

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] holder of pilot 

certificate #______________ has satisfactorily completed a 

flight review consisting of one hour of flight training and one 

hour of ground training as required by 14 CFR section 61.56 on 

[date].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

NOTE: This endorsement varies somewhat from the example 

provided in the Advisory Circular. While there is no regulatory 

requirement to indication the hours of training involved, many 

Flight Standards District Offices have interpreted the regulation

in that manner. It may be best to use this example if an

individual attends numerous balloon events around the country

on a regular basis. 

Endorsement for Retesting of a Written or Practical Test:

14 CFR section 61.49

I certify that [First name, MI, Last name] has received the 

additional [flight and/or ground] training as required by 14 CFR 

section 61.49. I have determined that [he or she] is prepared for 

the [name the knowledge/practical test to be retaken].

Signature, Certificate #, Date

Commercial Pilot Endorsements

7(b)

ly 

tion 

back of 

he 

. I have

 14 CFR

 a 

um 

n 

e 

She] 

nd is 

del 

he 

 

Ref. Appendix 1, Advisory Circular 61-65

14 CFR part 61 contains pilot training and testing procedures, 

instructor responsibilities and requirements, privileges, and 

limitations for each level of certificate. Pilot applicants, whether

student, private or commercial pilot, being recommended for a 

written or practical test, solo flight, or completing a flight review

must have a written endorsement in their log book by an

authorized instructor. Each endorsement should include the

instructor’s signature, certificate number, and date.

Log Book Endorsements

Ref. Appendix 1, Advisory Circular 61-65
F-1

Lift Table for Helium and Hydrogen at Standard Temperatures and Pressures 

(1,000 cubic meter envelope)

Altitude

(feet MSL)

Pressure

(in. Hg)

Air Temperature

(°F)

Gross Lift

(Helium)

Gross Lift

(Hydrogen)

0 29.92 59.00 2,329.35 2,513.37

1,000 28.86 55.43 2,262.40 2,441.13

2,000 27.82 51.87 2,196.05 2,369.54

3,000 26.82 48.30 2,131.99 2,300.42

4,000 25.84 44.74 2,068.58 2,232.00

5,000 24.90 41.17 2,007.54 2,166.14

6,000 23.98 37.61 1,947.21 2,101.03

7,000 23.09 34.05 1,888.46 2,037.64

8,000 22.23 30.48 1,831.36 1,976.04

9,000 21.39 26.92 1,775.05 1,915.28

10,000 20.58 23.36 1,720.42 1,856.33

11,000 19.80 19.79 1,667.54 1,799.27

12,000 19.03 16.23 1,614.68 1,742.24

13,000 18.30 12.67 1,564.44 1,688.03

14,000 17.58 9.11 1,514.30 1,633.93

15,000 16.89 5.55 1,466.00 1,581.81

16,000 16.22 1.99 1,418.70 1,530.78

17,000 15.58 –1.58 1,373.34 1,481.83

18,000 14.95 –5.14 1,328.13 1,433.05

19,000 14.35 –8.70 1,284.89 1,386.39

20,000 13.76 –12.25 1,241.84 1,339.94

21,000 13.20 –15.81 1,200.85 1,295.72

22,000 12.65 –19.37 1,160.12 1,251.77

23,000 12.12 –22.93 1,120.57 1,209.10

24,000 11.61 –26.49 1,082.24 1,167.74

25,000 11.12 –30.05 1,045.15 1,127.72

1. Pressures and Temperatures taken from U. S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements, 1966, ESSA, 

NASA, USAF; Table 5.2, Geometric Altitudes, English Units

2. Tables assume no effects due to superheating or impurities in lifting gas supply.

3. Entire volume is assumed to be completely filled with lifting gas as would normally be the case on

initial ascent.

4. For all descending altitudes, or for partially full envelopes, use the gross lift shown for the altitude at

which the envelope would be completely full. This is called the pressure altitude and is equal to the 

maximum altitude achieved during the flight, if the envelope was full at that altitude. Gross lift does 

NOT change as balloon descends unless additional lifting gas is lost.

Helium density: 0.01056 pounds/cubic foot at STP

Hydrogen density: 0.00535 pounds/cubic foot at STP

Air density: 0.07651 pounds/cubic foot at STP

Envelope volume: 1,000 cubic meters (35,320 cu. ft.) 

Notes

Appendix F

Lift Table for Helium and Hydrogen at Standard Temperatures and Pressures
F-2
G-1

Abort. To terminate an operation prematurely when it is seen 

that the desired result will not occur.

Advection. In weather, the term used for the horizontal 

transport of heat by the wind. 

Absolute altitude. The actual distance between an aircraft 

and the terrain over which it is flying.

Advisory circular (AC). An FAA publication that informs 

the aviation public, in a systematic way, of nonregulatory 

material.

Accident. An occurrence associated with the operation of an 

aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards 

the aircraft with the intention of flight and all such persons 

have disembarked, and in which any person suffers death or 

serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives substantial 

damage. (NTSB 830.2)

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). A reference 

publication for pilots.

Airworthiness directive (AD). A regulatory notice sent out 

by the FAA to the registered owner of an aircraft informing 

him or her of a condition that prevents the aircraft from 

meeting its conditions for airworthiness. Compliance 

requirements will be stated in the AD.

Adiabatic process. In weather, the change of the temperature 

of air without transferring heat. In the adiabatic process, 

compression of the air mass results in the warming of the air; 

conversely, the expansion of the air mass results in cooling 

of the air. 

Administrator. The FAA Administrator or any person 

to whom he or she has delegated authority in the matter 

concerned.

Aeronaut. A person who operates or travels in a balloon 

or airship.

Glossary

Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM). A systematic 

approach to the mental process, used by pilots to consistently 

determine the best course of action in response to a given 

set of circumstances. 

Aeronautics. The branch of science that deals with flight 

and with the operations of all types of aircraft.

Aerostat. A device supported in the air by displacing more 

than its own weight of air.

Automated flight service station (AFSS). An air traffic 

facility that provides pilot briefings and numerous other 

services.

AGL. Above ground level.

Aircraft. A device that is used or intended to be used for 

flight in the air.

Airport. An area of land or water that is used for the landing 

and takeoff of an aircraft.

Altimeter. A pressure reading device that, when properly 

calibrated, indicates the height of the aircraft above mean 

sea level (MSL). An altimeter is a required instrument in 

a balloon, as directed by 14 CFR Part 31, Airworthiness 

Standards: Manned Free Balloons.

Altimeter setting. The station pressure (barometric pressure 

at the location the reading is taken) which has been corrected 

for the height of the station above sea level.

Ambient air. Air surrounding the outside of a balloon 

envelope.

Anabatic winds. In weather, a wind that blows up the slope 

of a hill or mountain due to increased heating along the 

valley walls. 
G-2

Annual inspection. A maintenance term directed by 14 CFR 

part 91, section 91.409, which states that “no person may 

operate an aircraft unless, within the preceding 12 calendar 

months, it has had—(1) an annual inspection...and has been 

approved for return to service...”

Apex line. A line attached to the top of most balloons to 

assist in inflation or deflation. Also called crown line or top 

handling line.

Approved. Approved by the FAA Administrator or person 

authorized by the Administrator.

Archimedes’ Principle. The Greek mathematician’s 

principle of buoyancy, which states that an object (a balloon) 

immersed in a fluid (the air) loses as much of its own weight 

as the weight of the fluid it replaces.

ATC. Air Traffic Control.

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). The 

continuous broadcast (by radio or telephone) of recorded 

noncontrol, essential but routine, information in selected 

terminal areas.

Automatic Weather Observing System (AWOS).

Continuous broadcast (by radio or telephone) of weather 

conditions at selected locations.

Ballast. Gas ballooning term; used to control buoyancy, and 

therefore altitude, during flight. Ballast, usually in the form 

of sand or water, is carried aloft by the gas balloon at launch. 

As the balloon pilot needs to adjust altitude, a small amount 

of ballast is jettisoned overboard, thereby reducing the gross 

weight of the balloon at that point in time. The balloon will 

then rise to a new pressure altitude, where it will remain until 

there is another dynamic change in the lift equation. 

Balloon. A lighter-than-air aircraft that is not engine driven, 

and that sustains flight through the use of either gas buoyancy 

or an airborne heater.

Balloon Federation of America (BFA). A national 

association for balloon pilots and enthusiasts in the 

United States, and affiliated with the National Aeronautic 

Association. Information about the BFA can be found at 

www.bfa.net

Balloon flight manual. A manual containing operating 

instructions, limitations, weight, and performance information, 

which must be available in an aircraft during flight. Portions 

of the flight manual are FAA approved.

Basket. That portion of a hot air balloon that carries the pilot, 

passengers, cargo, fuel, and instruments.

Blast valve. The valve on a propane burner that controls the 

flow of propane burned to produce heat.

Bowline knot. Pronounced boh' lin. A common knot that is 

easy to tie and untie and will not slip.

Btu (British thermal unit). A measurement of heat. The 

amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water from 60 

to 61 °F.

Buoyancy. In ballooning, when the balloon is zero weight 

and is neither climbing nor falling.

Burn. A common term meaning to activate the main blast 

valve and produce a full flame for the purpose of heating the 

air in the envelope.

Burner. See Heater.

Capacity. See Volume.

Captive balloon. Commonly used to describe a balloon that 

is permanently anchored to the ground.

Category. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations: (1) As used with respect to the certification, 

ratings, privileges, and limitations of airmen, means a 

broad classification of aircraft. Examples include: airplane; 

rotorcraft; glider; and lighter-than-air; and (2) As used with 

respect to the certification of aircraft, means a grouping of 

aircraft based upon intended use or operating limitations. 

Examples include: transport, normal, utility, acrobatic, 

limited, restricted, and provisional (14 CFR part 1).

Ceiling. The lowest broken or overcast layer of clouds or 

vertical visibility into an obscuration.

CFR. Code of Federal Regulations.

Charles’ Law. If the pressure of a gas is held constant and 

its absolute temperature is increased, the volume of the gas 

will also increase. This principle is particularly relevant in 

gas ballooning.

Checklist. A tool that is used as a human factors aid in 

aviation safety. It is a systematic and sequential list of all 

operations that must be performed to properly accomplish 

a task.
G-3

Class. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations: (1) As used with respect to the certification, 

ratings, privileges, and limitations of airmen, means a 

classification of aircraft within a category having similar 

operating characteristics. Examples include: single-engine; 

multiengine; land; water; gyroplane; helicopter; airship; and 

free balloon; and (2) As used with respect to the certification 

of aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft having similar 

characteristics of propulsion, flight or landing. Examples 

include: airplane, rotorcraft, glider, balloon, landplane, and 

seaplane.” (14 CFR part 1)

Coating. A thin synthetic added to the surface of balloon 

fabric to lessen porosity and ultraviolet-light damage.

Cold front. In weather, the leading edge of a cold air mass 

displacing a warmer air mass.

Cold inflation. Forcing cold air into the envelope, giving it 

some shape to allow heating with the heater.

Commercial pilot. A person who, for compensation or 

hire, is certificated to fly an aircraft carrying passengers or 

cargo.

Controlled airspace. Airspace designated as Class A, B, C, 

D, or E within which air traffic control service is provided 

to some or all aircraft.

Convection. Generally, the transfer of heat energy in a fluid. 

As applied to weather, the type of heat transfer occurring in 

the atmosphere when the ground is heated by the sun. 

Cooling vent. A vent, in the side or top of the balloon 

envelope, which opens to release hot air, and that closes after 

the release of air automatically.

Crew chief. A crewmember who is assigned the responsibility 

of organizing and directing other crewmembers.

Crown line. A line attached to the top of most balloons 

to assist in the inflation and deflation of the envelope. 

Sometimes referred to as apex line or top handling line.

Currency. Common usage for recent flight experience. 

In order to carry passengers, a pilot must have performed 

three takeoffs and three landings within the preceding 90 

days. In order to carry passengers at night, a pilot must have 

performed three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop at 

night (the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 

hour before sunrise).

Dacron. The registered trade name for polyester fabric 

developed by DuPont.

Declination. A term useful in map reading. Declination 

is the difference between true north and magnetic north, 

and is usually defined on an aviation sectional map or a 

topographical map. 

Density altitude. As defined in the Pilot’s Handbook of 

Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-25, “pressure altitude 

corrected for nonstandard temperature.” However, a more 

pertinent definition is that in the Airman’s Information 

Manual, which explains density altitude as being nothing 

more than a way to comparatively measure aircraft 

performance. See paragraph 7-5-6 of the AIM for a complete 

discussion.

Deflation panel. A panel at the top of the balloon envelope 

that is deployed at landing to release all hot air (or other 

lifting gas) from the envelope. A parachute top is a form of 

deflation panel.

Designated pilot examiner (DPE). A person appointed by 

the Administrator who may accept application for certificates, 

administer practical exams, and issue pilot certificates. DPEs 

are considered to be technically qualified, and must have a 

good industry reputation for professionalism and integrity. 

Drag line. A gas balloon term used to describe a large, heavy 

rope, deployed at landing, which orients the balloon (and rip 

panel) to the wind, and transfers weight from the balloon to 

the ground, creating a landing flare.

Drop line. A rope or webbing, which may be deployed by the 

pilot to ground crew to assist in landing or ground handling 

of a balloon.

Envelope. Fabric portion of a balloon that contains hot air 

or gas.

Equator. The widest diameter of the envelope.

Equilibrium. When lift equals gravity, as in level flight. 

Equilibrium at launch is typically that temperature at which 

after the balloon has been inflated and is standing up (erect), 

the ground crew is able to hold the balloon in place by resting 

their hands lightly on the basket. 

Fabric test. Testing of the envelope fabric for tensile strength, 

tear strength, and/or porosity. Fabric tests are specified by 

each balloon manufacturer.
G-4

False lift. See Uncontrolled Lift.

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The federal 

agency responsible to promote aviation safety through 

regulation and education.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The 

federal agency which regulates radio communication and 

communication equipment in the United States.

Flameout. The inadvertent extinguishing of a burner 

flame.

Flare. The last flight maneuver by an aircraft in a successful 

landing, wherein the balloon’s descent is reduced to a path 

nearly parallel to the landing surface.

Flight review. Required for all certificated pilots every 24 

months in order to retain pilot in command privileges. A 

flight review consists of at least 1 hour of flight training and 

1 hour of ground training.

Flight time. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, the time from the moment the aircraft first 

moves under its own power for the purpose of flight until the 

moment it comes to rest at the next point of landing.

Flight visibility. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, the average forward horizontal distance, of an 

aircraft in flight, at which prominent unlighted objects may 

be seen and identified by day and prominent lighted objects 

may be seen and identified by night.

fpm. Feet per minute.

Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). Field offices 

of the FAA, which deal with certification and operation of 

aircraft.

Gauge. A device for measuring. Required gauges on a hot 

air balloon are the envelope temperature gauge (pyrometer) 

and the fuel quantity gauge for each fuel tank. Most balloons 

also have fuel pressure gauges.

Gondola. Portion of a gas balloon that carries the pilot, 

passengers, cargo, ballast, and instruments. 

Gore. A vertical section of fabric, often made of two vertical, 

or numerous horizontal panels, sewn together to make a 

balloon envelope.

Global Positioning System (GPS). The Global Positioning 

System is a series (or “constellation”) of satellites circling 

the Earth, each broadcasting a unique signal. These signals, 

usually three or more, are detected by electronic units, 

and, thru triangulation and time delay sensings, provide an 

extremely accurate location readout of the GPS receiver. 

Many balloon pilots carry a small GPS unit on board the 

balloon to determine location, ground track and ground 

speed. 

Ground crew. Persons who assist in the assembly, inflation, 

chase, and recovery of a balloon.

Ground visibility. According to Title 14 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations, prevailing horizontal visibility near 

the earth’s surface as reported by the United States National 

Weather Service or an accredited observer.

Handling line. A line, usually 1⁄4-to 1⁄2-inch diameter rope, 

attached to a balloon envelope or basket, used by the pilot 

or ground crew to assist in the ground handling, inflation, 

landing, and deflation of a balloon.

Heater. Propane-fueled device to heat air inside the envelope 

of a balloon, often referred to as a burner.

Helium. A light, inert gaseous chemical element mainly 

found as a natural gas in the southwestern United States. 

Used to inflate gas balloons and pilot balloons.

Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) Weather 

Display. A product of the Aviation Digital Data Service, this 

computer program give weather information, both real-time 

and forecast, for a 5 kilometer square area nationwide. It can 

be viewed and downloaded at www.weather.aero/HEMS

Hydrogen. The lightest of all gaseous elements. Commonly 

used in Europe for inflating gas balloons. Flammable by 

itself and explosive when mixed with oxygen. As opposed 

to helium, hydrogen is easily manufactured.

Hypoxia. An aeromedical term; means “reduced oxygen” or 

“not enough oxygen.” 
G-5

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). An 

agency of the United Nations, which has codified principles 

and techniques of international air navigation and fostered 

the planning and development of international air transport 

to ensure safe and orderly growth. ICAO has produced many 

international treaties to standardize aviation; the United States 

is a member of the ICAO, and as such, has agreed to many 

of the standardization efforts, most notably in the area of 

airspace nomenclature. 

Igniter. A welding striker, piezo sparker, matches, or other 

means used to ignite the balloon pilot flame.

Incident. An occurrence other than an accident, associated 

with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could affect 

the safety of operations.

Indicated altitude. The altitude shown on a properly 

calibrated altimeter.

Inoperative. Not functioning or not working.

Instructions for Continued Airworthiness. A manual 

published by an aircraft manufacturer specifying procedures 

for inspection, maintenance, repair, and mandatory 

replacement times for life-limited parts.

Integrated Airman Certification and Rating Application 

(IACRA). An online application system that allows for the 

issuance of student, private and commercial pilot certificates 

without generating paperwork; all certificate application 

and approved is performed through the use of electronic 

“signatures.” 

Instrument. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, A device using an internal mechanism to show 

visually or aurally the attitude, altitude, or operation of an 

aircraft or aircraft part. There are only two instruments 

required in a hot air balloon: vertical speed indicator (VSI) 

and altimeter.

Katabatic winds. A wind produced by the flow of cold, 

dense air down a slope in an area subject to radiational 

cooling. Mountain winds are the most common form of 

katabatic winds. 

Kevlar® A registered trademark for a DuPont Corporation 

product, a synthetic fiber created in 1965 which has a strength 

factor 5 times that of steel. Frequently used in balloon systems 

for suspension cables and control lines of various types. 

Generally, Kevlar® is used for the core of a suspension line, 

and will have a cover or sheath over the core, as Kevlar® is 

ultraviolet light sensitive. 

Life-Limited. An aircraft part whose service is limited to a 

specified number of operating hours or cycles. For example, 

some balloon manufacturers require that fuel hoses be 

replaced after a certain number of years.

Light Aircraft. Any aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight 

of less than 12,500 pounds. All presently FAA-certificated 

balloons are light aircraft.

Limitations. Restrictions placed on a balloon by its 

manufacturer. Examples are maximum envelope temperature 

and maximum gross weight.

Log. A record of activities: flight, instruction, inspection, 

and maintenance.

LTA. Lighter-Than-Air.

Maintenance. The upkeep of equipment, including 

preservation, repair, overhaul, and the replacement of 

parts.

Maintenance Manual. A set of detailed instructions issued 

by the manufacturer of an aircraft, engine, or component that 

describes the way maintenance should be performed.

Maintenance Release. A release, signed by an authorized 

inspector, repairman, mechanic, or pilot after work has 

been performed, stating that an aircraft or aircraft part has 

been approved for return to service. The person releasing 

the aircraft must have the authority appropriate to the work 

being signed off.

Master tank. The propane tank, usually tank number one, 

that offers all appropriate services, such as liquid, vapor, and 

backup system.

Maximum allowable gross lift. The maximum amount of 

weight that a balloon may lift under standard conditions. 

Usually a part of the balloon’s design criteria, and may be 

found on the type Certificate Data Sheet for that particular 

balloon.

METAR. In weather, an acronym for Aviation Routine 

Weather Report, which is an observation of current surface 

reported in the standard international format. Routine 

METARs are transmitted hourly; there is a special report (as 

indicated by the acronym “SPECI”) that may be issued at any 

time for rapidly changing weather conditions.
G-6

Metering valve. A valve on a balloon heater that can be set 

to allow propane to pass through at a specific rate.

Methanol. A type of alcohol, usually fermented from wood, 

required by most balloon manufacturers to be introduced into 

propane tanks annually to adsorb, and thus eliminate, small 

quantities of water from the fuel.

Mildew. A gray or white parasite fungus which, under warm, 

moist conditions, can live on organic dirt found on balloon 

envelopes. The fungus waste materials attack the coating 

on the fabric.

Mooring. Operation of an unmanned balloon secured to 

the ground by lines or controlled by anything touching the 

ground. See Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, 

part 101.

Mouth. The bottom, open end of a hot air balloon envelope. 

Also called the “throat.”

MSL. Mean sea level.

Neutral buoyancy. A condition wherein a balloon is 

weightless and is neither ascending nor descending.

Nitrogen charging. A technique of adding nitrogen gas to 

propane tanks to increase fuel pressure. Used in place of 

temperature to control propane pressure in hot air balloons 

during cold weather.

Nomogram. Technically, a calculating chart with scales 

that contain values of three or more mathematical variables, 

widely used in engineering. In ballooning, a balloon’s 

performance chart is a nomogram.

Nonporous. The state of having no pores or openings which 

will not allow gas to pass through. New hot air balloon fabric 

is nearly nonporous.

Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice containing 

information concerning facilities, services, or procedures, 

the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel 

concerned with flight operations.

Nylon. The registered name for a polymeric fabric. Most 

balloon envelopes are made of nylon.

OODA Loop. An aeronautical decision-making model 

particularly suited to ballooning. Originally devised by Col. 

John Boyd for use by Air Force combat pilots, it has come 

to be widely utilized in the business community. See the 

discussion in chapter 1 of this handbook. 

O-Ring. A doughnut-shaped packing, usually rubber, used 

between two moving parts to act as a seal. Balloon heater 

and tank valves usually have O-rings between the valve stem 

and valve bonnet.

Orographic. A term pertaining to mountains or anything 

caused by mountains, as in orographic wind (wind formed by 

mountains) and orographic cloud (a cloud whose existence is 

caused by disturbed flow of air over and around a mountain 

barrier).

Overtemp ( or over temperature). The act of heating the air 

inside a hot air balloon envelope beyond the manufacturer’s 

maximum temperature.

Oxygen starvation. The condition inside a balloon envelope 

where all available oxygen has been consumed by the heater 

flame and additional burning is impossible since propane 

must have oxygen to burn. In extreme cases, the blast flame 

and pilot light flame will extinguish after a long burn or 

series of burns and may not relight until the envelope has 

“breathed” additional air.

Parachute top. A deflation system wherein the deflation 

port is sealed with a disc of balloon fabric shaped like a 

parachute. Lines attached to the edge of the parachute disc 

gather into a single line that may be pulled down by the pilot 

in the basket.

Pibal. Pilot balloon; a small helium-filled balloon sent aloft 

to help determine wind direction, velocity, and stability.

Pilot in Command (PIC). The pilot responsible for the 

operation and safety of an aircraft during flight.

Piezo. (Pronounced pee-ate' zo). A piezoelectric spark 

generator that is built into many modern balloon heaters to 

ignite the pilot light.

Pilot light. A small, continuously burning flame used to 

ignite the main “blast” flame of a balloon heater.

Pilotage. Navigation by visual reference to landmarks.

Pinhole. Any small hole in a balloon envelope smaller than 

the maximum dimensions allowed for airworthiness.

Porosity. A condition of the envelope fabric that allows hot 

air to escape. Excessive porosity requires increased fuel use 

and results in higher envelope temperatures.
G-7

Positive control. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, control of all air traffic, within designated 

airspace, by air traffic control.

Preflight. All preparations, including gathering information, 

assembly, and inspection performed by the pilot before 

flight.

Pressure gradient. In weather, the difference between high 

and low pressure areas. Wind speed is directly proportional 

to the pressure gradient.

Pressure relief valve. A device in a propane tank designed to 

release excess pressure—which may be caused by overfilling, 

overheating, or excessive nitrogen pressurization—to prevent 

tank rupture.

Preventive maintenance. Simple or minor preservation 

operations and the replacement of small standard parts not 

involving complex assembly operations.

Prohibited area. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, designated airspace within which the flight of 

aircraft is prohibited.

Propane. A colorless and odorless gas. Ethyl mercaptan is 

added to propane to give it a detectable odor. Propane weighs 

4.2 pounds per gallon at 60 °Fahrenheit.

Practical Test Standard (PTS). Book containing areas 

of knowledge and skill that a person must demonstrate 

competency in for the issuance of pilot certificates or 

ratings.

Pull test. A strength test in which a section of envelope fabric 

is pulled to a definite pound measurement to determine if it 

meets the certification requirements for airworthiness.

Pyrometer. An instrument used to measure air temperature 

inside the top of a balloon envelope.

Rapid descent. A relatively fast loss of altitude. A subjective 

term, but usually meant to describe a descent of more than 

500 fpm.

Rating. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, a statement that, as part of a pilot certificate, 

sets forth special conditions, privileges, or limitations.

Red line. Refers to a line which activates the deflation panel 

of a balloon, or the maximum envelope temperature allowed, 

or the maximum on a gauge.

Repair station. A facility where specified aircraft and 

their parts may be inspected, repaired, altered, modified, 

or maintained. FAA approval is issued to a facility upon 

qualifications specified by the local FSDO.

Repairman certificate. An FAA certificate issued to a 

person who is employed by a repair station or air carrier as a 

specialist in some form of aircraft maintenance. A repairman 

certificate is also issued to an eligible person who is the 

primary builder of an experimental aircraft, to which the 

privileges of the certificate are applicable.

Required equipment. Equipment that must be aboard 

an aircraft, as required either by the FAA or balloon 

manufacturer, to maintain airworthiness.

Restricted area. Airspace of defined dimensions within 

which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with 

certain conditions.

Return to service. A certificated mechanic or authorized 

inspector must approve an aircraft for return to service after 

it has been inspected, repaired, or altered. In addition, an 

aircraft that has been modified must be test flown by an 

appropriately certificated pilot before return to service.

Ridge. In weather, an elongated area of high pressure with 

no rotative motion.

Rip panel. A deflation panel, usually circular or triangular, 

at the top of a balloon envelope, which may be opened by 

pulling a line in the basket to allow hot air or gas to escape, 

and the envelope to deflate.

Rotator vent. See Turning Vent.

Rotor. May be found embedded in mountain waves. 

Formation usually occurs where wind speeds change in a 

wave, or where friction slows the wind near the ground. See 

Figure 4-22 of this handbook for a graphical representation 

of rotors. 

Sectional chart. Published on a routine basis, these charts 

are similar to automobile road maps, and provide useful 

information regarding airspace, reference points, tower 

frequencies, etc., to a balloon pilot. They are generally not 

very helpful for navigation, as the scale, 1:500,000, is too 

small to be of use to the balloon pilot.

SIGMET. Significant Meteorological Information.
G-8

Single Pilot Resource Management. A variant of the 

crew resource management model that is or more practical 

application to the balloon pilot. Defined as the “art and 

science of managing all resources available to the single pilot 

to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.” 

Skew-T plot. In weather, a graphic depiction of the data 

received from a radiosonde.

Small aircraft. Aircraft having a maximum certificated 

takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less. All currently typecertificated balloons are small aircraft.

Serial number (S/N). A number, usually one of a series, 

assigned for identification.

Step descent. A method of allowing a balloon to lower 

toward the ground by reducing the altitude, leveling off, and 

repeating the step, to lower the balloon in increments rather 

than one continuous motion.

Superheat. A gas balloon term, superheat occurs when 

the sun heats the gas inside the envelope to a temperature 

exceeding that of the ambient air, resulting in expansion of 

the gas.

Superpressure balloon. (1) A type of hot air balloon which 

has no openings to the atmosphere—the mouth is sealed with 

a special skirt—and is kept pumped full of air (at a higher 

pressure than the atmosphere) by an on-board fan. Used on 

moored balloons to allow operations in relatively strong wind. 

(2) In gas ballooning, a sealed envelope in which the internal 

envelope pressure exceeds that of a non-sealed envelope. 

Suspension lines. Lines descending from the mouth of 

a balloon envelope from which the basket and heater are 

suspended.

Syllabus. An abstract or digest of training. It is intended to 

be a summary of a course of training, and should be brief, yet 

comprehensive enough to cover essential information.

Telling and Doing Technique. A four-step process teaching 

process particularly well suited to teaching physical skills. 

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). TAFs are valid for 

a 24-hour time period, and are updated four times daily. The 

TAF reporting system uses the same abbreviations as used 

in METAR reports.

Temperature gauge. The thermometer system, required in all 

type-certificated hot air balloons, that gives a constant reading 

of the inside air temperature at the top of the envelope. May be 

direct reading or remote, using a thermocouple or thermistor 

connected to a gauge in the basket or reading signals sent 

by a transmitter.

Temperature recorder. A small plastic laminate with 

temperature-sensitive paint dots that turn from white or silver 

to black, to record permanently the maximum temperature 

reached.

Tensile strength. The strength of a material that resists the 

stresses of trying to stretch or lengthen it.

Terminal velocity descent. A term used by balloonists for 

the speed obtained when the balloon is allowed to fall until 

it apparently stops accelerating, at which point the envelope 

acts as a parachute and its vertical speed is no longer affected 

by its lifting gas, but only by its shape (which is caused by 

design), load, and other factors.

Tethering. Operation of a manned balloon secured to the 

ground by a series of lines.

Thermal. A column of rising air associated with adjacent 

areas of differing temperature. Thermal activity caused by the 

sun’s heating usually starts 2 to 3 hours after sunrise.

Time in service. According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, with respect to maintenance time records, means 

the time from the moment an aircraft leaves the surface of the 

earth until it touches it at the next point of landing.

Touch-and-go landing. An operation by an aircraft that lands 

and takes off without stopping.

Topographic map. A map depicting area information on a 

smaller scale that an aviation sectional chart, and of much 

more value to the balloon pilot. Most topographic charts show 

areas of vegetation, roads, built-up areas, and the general 

topography (or terrain) of a given area. 

Trough. In weather, an elongated area of low pressure with 

no rotative motion.

Turning vent. A vent on the side of a hot air balloon envelope 

which, when opened, allows escaping air to exit in a manner 

causing the balloon to rotate on its axis.
G-9

Type certification. Official recognition that the design and 

operating limitations of an aircraft, engine, or propeller meet 

the airworthiness standards prescribed by the Code of Federal 

Regulations for that particular category or type of aircraft, 

engine, or propeller.

Uncontrolled lift. Lift that occurs without specific action by 

the pilot. Often referred to as false lift.

Useful lift (load). The potential weight of the pilot, 

passengers, equipment and fuel. It is the basic empty weight 

of the aircraft subtracted from the maximum allowable gross 

weight. 

VAD winds. In weather; velocity azimuth display winds are 

derived from the output of the 160 or more WRS-88 radar 

sites located throughout the United States. The WRS-88 is 

configured to produce radar returns off of dust and other 

particulate matter in the air, and in turn, those returns can 

be used to indicate wind direction and speed at different 

altitudes. Generally reported in 1000 foot increments.

Variometer. See Vertical Speed Indicator.

Vent. (1) The action of opening the vent to cool the air in the 

envelope. (2) An envelope opening that will automatically 

close.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). An instrument that 

continuously records the rate at which an aircraft climbs or 

descends. Usually measured in FPM. A required instrument 

in a balloon.

Vent line. The line that activates the cooling vent.

Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Flight rules governing aircraft 

flight when the pilot has visual reference to the ground at 

all times.

Virga. Precipitation that falls from a cloud and evaporates 

before reaching the ground.

Volume. The total amount of air or gas (expressed in cubic 

feet) contained in a balloon envelope.

Warm front. In weather, the leading edge of a warm air mass 

displacing a colder air mass.

Warp. The threads in a piece of fabric that run the length 

of the fabric.

Weigh-off. Determine neutral buoyancy of a gas balloon or 

airship by taking weight off at launch.

Wind direction. The direction the wind is coming from.

Wind shear. A strong and sudden shift in wind speed or 

direction, which may be either vertical or horizontal. Wind 

shear should not be confused with normal wind change, which 

is gentler. Wind shear is often associated with the passage of 

a weather front, or a strong temperature inversion.

WINGS Program. A program that encourages general 

aviation pilots to continue training and provides an opportunity 

to practice selected maneuvers in a minimum of instruction 

time. Participation in the WINGS program relieves a pilot 

from compliance with flight review requirements, provided 

all WINGS requirements are met. Previously governed by 

Advisory Circular 61-91, the WINGS program is available 

as on online education program at www.faasafety.gov, 

effective mid-2007.
G-10
I-1

Index

100-hour inspection .....................................................2-13

A

aborted landings ...........................................................7-11

absolute instability ............................................. 4-20, 4-21

absolute stability ..........................................................4-20

accident prevention ......................................................10-5

adiabatic process ............................................................4-5

advection fog ................................................................4-19

aeromedical factors ........................................................9-1

aeronautical decision-making ........................................1-7

aircraft 

documents .................................................................2-11

log books ..................................................................8-14

maintenance ..............................................................2-13

airman’s meteorological information (AIRMET) ........4-39

airport/facility directory (A/FD) ....................................3-3

airport advisory areas .....................................................5-8

airspace classification ....................................................5-2

airworthiness certificate ...............................................2-11

airworthiness directives (ADs) ....................................2-14

air masses .......................................................................4-5

air mass thunderstorms ................................................4-27

air temperature ...............................................................4-1

alcohol ............................................................................9-7

alert areas ............................................................... 5-5, 5-7

altimeter .........................................................................4-3

alto ................................................................................4-15

America’s Challenge Race .........................................11-12

anabatic winds ..............................................................4-14

animal populations .......................................................7-16

annual inspection .........................................................2-13

anvil stage ....................................................................4-25

appendaged envelope .....................................................2-4

application ..................................................................10-11

approach .........................................................................8-2

angles ..........................................................................8-5

area forecasts (FA) .......................................................4-39

ascents ............................................................................7-4

assembly .........................................................................6-9

atmosphere .....................................................................4-2

atmospheric 

circulation .................................................................4-10

pressure ............................................................... 4-1, 4-3

stability .....................................................................4-20

attention ......................................................................10-12

automatic terminal information service (ATIS) .............3-3

automatic weather observing system (AWOS) ..............3-3

aviation digital data services (ADDS) .........................4-29

aviation forecasts .........................................................4-36

aviation medical examiner (AME) .................................9-1

aviation routine weather report (METAR) ...................4-37

B

balloon 

brands .......................................................................2-15

certificate ..................................................................1-12

components .................................................................2-3

flight training ..............................................................1-1

inspections ................................................................2-13

placement ...................................................................6-8

sizes ..........................................................................2-14

systems .....................................................................11-2

Balloon Federation of America (BFA) ...........................3-3

basket ..................................................................... 2-6, 6-9

burner .............................................................................6-9

check ...........................................................................6-9

ratings .........................................................................7-2

C

castellanus ....................................................................4-15

ceilings .........................................................................4-18

celsius .............................................................................4-3

certificate of aircraft registration .................................2-12

certified flight instructor (CFI) ....................................10-1

Charles, Professor Jacques .............................................2-2

chase crew ......................................................................6-4

checklists ........................................................................6-2

choosing a balloon .......................................................2-14

cirrus ............................................................................4-15

Class A airspace .............................................................5-5
I-2

Class B airspace .............................................................5-5

Class C airspace .............................................................5-4

Class D airspace .............................................................5-4

Class E airspace .............................................................5-3

Class G airspace .............................................................5-2

clear-air turbulence (CAT) ...........................................4-22

clothing ..........................................................................6-4

clouds .......................................................... 4-1, 4-15, 4-29

classification .............................................................4-15

formation ..................................................................4-15

cold front ........................................................................4-7

cold weather flying ......................................................3-10

collision avoidance .........................................................1-5

compass ........................................................................2-10

composite moisture stability chart ...............................4-32

computer-based training .............................................10-14

conclusion ..................................................................10-13

conditional instability ......................................... 4-20, 4-21

conduction ......................................................................4-4

congested areas ..............................................................8-7

constant pressure analysis charts .................................4-33

content ........................................................................10-21

contour flying .............................................. 7-8, 7-10, 7-11

controlled airspace .........................................................5-3

controlled firing areas ............................................ 5-5, 5-8

control touch ..................................................................1-2

convection ......................................................................4-5

convective cells ............................................................4-25

convective currents ......................................................4-13

convective significant meteorological information .....4-40

convective stability ......................................................4-20

coordination ...................................................................1-2

Coriolis force ...............................................................4-11

crewmembers .................................................................6-4

crew 

briefing .......................................................................6-5

management .............................................................7-15

resource management .................................................1-8

responsibilities ..........................................................8-14

critique .......................................................................10-16

crown line .......................................................................6-5

cumulonimbus ..............................................................4-17

cumulus .............................................................. 4-15, 4-25

currents .........................................................................4-10

D

DECIDE Mode .............................................................1-11

decision-making process ..............................................1-10

deflation 

line ............................................................................7-12

port .............................................................................2-4

dehydration ....................................................................9-7

demonstration-performance method ..........................10-13

density altitude ...............................................................3-8

descents .................................................................. 7-4, 7-6

designated pilot examiner (DPE) ...................................1-3

development ...............................................................10-12

dew point ......................................................................4-29

diminished capacity .....................................................6-16

direction .........................................................................7-8

direct user access terminal system (DUATS) ....... 3-3, 4-28

disuse............................................................................10-9

drop line .......................................................................2-11

drugs ...............................................................................9-8

E

effective questions .....................................................10-18

emergency checklist .......................................................6-2

empty-field myopia ......................................................9-10

envelope ............................................................... 2-4, 11-4

equilibrium .....................................................................7-3

equipment ........................................................... 3-12, 11-5

evaluation ....................................................... 10-16, 10-18

evaluation of student piloting ability ...........................10-3

evaporation fog ............................................................4-19

experimental airworthiness certificate ...........................2-4

F

Fahrenheit .......................................................................4-3

false heavy (downward lift) .........................................6-15

false lift ........................................................................6-15

fatigue ............................................................................9-6

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) .........................1-2

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ...............5-9

fire extinguisher ...........................................................2-10

first aid kit ....................................................................2-10

flight instructor ...............................................................1-3

characteristics ...........................................................10-2

responsibilities ..........................................................10-3

flight planning ...................................................... 3-1, 11-9

flight safety practices .....................................................1-5

Flight Service Station (FSS) ......................... 3-2, 4-1, 4-28

Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) .......................1-2

flight training ...............................................................10-1
I-3

flying 

heavy ..........................................................................7-3

inversions .................................................................11-7

light .............................................................................7-3

fog ................................................................................4-18

formation ..................................................................4-19

types .........................................................................4-19

fracto- ...........................................................................4-15

frontal ................................................................. 4-21, 4-22

fog .............................................................................4-19

thunderstorms ...........................................................4-26

fronts ..............................................................................4-7

fueling adapter .............................................................2-10

fuel 

leak ...........................................................................7-12

planning ..................................................................... 6-4

system .........................................................................6-9

tanks ...........................................................................2-7

G

gas balloon ................................................ 11-1, 11-2, 11-8

regulations ................................................................11-8

General Mills Company .................................................2-2

gloves ...........................................................................2-11

gondola .........................................................................11-4

gradient winds ..............................................................4-14

ground crew .................................................................3-11

H

habit formation .............................................................10-9

hazardous attitudes and antidotes ...................................1-7

health factors ..................................................................9-2

heater system ..................................................................2-5

heatstroke .......................................................................9-7

heat transfer ....................................................................4-4

Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) ......4-29

helmets .........................................................................2-11

high-wind landing ..........................................................8-9

high clouds ......................................................... 4-15, 4-16

history ........................................................................... 2-1

human resources .............................................................1-8

hyperventilation .............................................................9-3

hypoxia ...........................................................................9-2

histotoxic hypoxia ..................................................... 9-2

hypemic hypoxia ........................................................9-2

hypoxic hypoxia ........................................................ 9-2

I

igniters ..........................................................................2-10

illusions ..........................................................................9-4

inflation ..................................................... 6-12, 6-13, 11-9

fans .............................................................................2-9

placement .................................................................6-11

styles .........................................................................6-12

inflight emergencies .....................................................7-12

inflight maneuvers .........................................................7-1

inflight procedures .....................................................11-10

inflight weather advisories ...........................................4-39

insight ...........................................................................10-8

instructor responsibilities .............................................10-2

instructor tells-instructor does ....................................10-15

instrument checks .........................................................6-10

instrument flight rules (IFR) ........................................4-31

instruments ........................................................... 2-7, 7-12

Integrated Airman Certification and/or Rating Application 

(IACRA) .......................................................................1-15

interference ..................................................................10-9

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 4-3, 5-1

introduction ................................................................10-12

J

jet stream ......................................................................4-13

K

katabatic winds .............................................................4-15

L

landing ......................................................... 8-1, 8-9, 11-11

sites .............................................................................6-8

landowner relations ................................... 6-17, 7-16, 8-11

launch ............................................................... 6-14, 11-10

site ...................................................................... 6-6, 6-8

layout .................................................................. 6-10, 11-9

learn ..............................................................................10-7

learning ..........................................10-6, 10-8, 10-9, 10-20

process ......................................................................10-6

lecture method ............................................................10-13

lenticularus ...................................................................4-15

lesson plan ...................................................... 10-22, 10-25

lifting gases ..................................................................11-3

lift 

at altitude ..................................................................11-5

at sea level ................................................................11-5

load .................................................................................3-8

location ...........................................................................6-6

logging of flight time ...................................................8-13

low approach ..................................................................8-5

low clouds .......................................................... 4-15, 4-16

low level wind shear ....................................................4-23
I-4

M

malfunction 

of pilot light ..............................................................7-12

of vent .......................................................................7-12

maneuvering ...................................................................7-7

Marquis d’Arlandes .......................................................2-1

maximum allowable gross weight .................................3-8

mechanical ......................................................... 4-21, 4-22

meteorological 

differences ................................................................11-6

flight planning ..........................................................11-7

middle clouds ..................................................... 4-15, 4-16

middle ear .......................................................................9-3

military operation areas (MOAs) ........................... 5-5, 5-7

military training routes (MTR) ......................................5-8

minimum safe altitude ....................................................7-8

miscellaneous items .....................................................2-10

Montgolfier brothers ......................................................2-1

mooring ........................................................................7-13

motion sickness ..............................................................9-5

motivation ........................................................ 10-8, 10-12

mountain 

flying ........................................................................3-11

wave .........................................................................4-23

N

National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO) ...........3-4

National Airspace System (NAS) ..................................5-1

National Center for Atmospheric Research and the 

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ......4-29

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) .......................................................................4-28

national security areas ............................................ 5-8, 5-9

National Weather Service (NWS) ..................................3-2

navigation .......................................................................3-4

netted balloon ...............................................................11-3

neutral stability .............................................................4-20

new territory .................................................................3-12

night vision ..................................................................9-10

nimbus ..........................................................................4-15

O

objectives ...................................................................10-20

obstacles ................................................................. 6-6, 8-5

obstructions ..................................................................4-23

occluded front ................................................................4-9

OODA Loop .................................................................1-11

oral quizzes ................................................................10-18

organizing material ....................................................10-12

orographic winds ..........................................................4-14

other airspace areas ........................................................5-8

overview .....................................................................10-12

P

packing the balloon .......................................... 8-11, 11-11

passenger briefing .............................................. 6-12, 8-10

perceptions ...................................................................10-7

performance-based objectives ....................................10-11

performance 

planning .............................................................. 3-8, 6-4

tests .........................................................................10-19

personal 

appearance and habits ...............................................10-5

preparation ................................................................3-13

phonetic alphabet .........................................................5-10

physics.................................................................. 2-2, 11-5

pibal ........................................................................ 3-3, 6-3

recording .....................................................................3-6

pilot/crew communications ..........................................7-15

pilot’s log .....................................................................8-13

pilot light systems ..........................................................2-6

pilot performance ...........................................................9-2

pilot weather reports (PIREPs) ....................................4-40

planning instructional activities .................................10-20

plot .................................................................................3-6

positive transfer of controls ...........................................1-6

practical test recommendations ....................................10-4

practical test standards ...................................................1-4

practice approaches ........................................................8-7

precipitation ......................................................... 4-1, 4-29

preflight inspections .....................................................2-13

checklist ......................................................................6-2

preflight operations ........................................................6-1

preflight planning ...........................................................3-2

prelaunch check ...........................................................6-14

preparation ..................................................... 10-10, 10-11

presolo knowledge tests .............................................10-19

pressure 

ceiling .......................................................................11-6

change .......................................................................4-29

gradient .....................................................................4-11

pressure systems .............................................................4-6

pressure vessels ..............................................................2-7

preventative maintenance .............................................2-13

progressive fill .............................................................6-11

prohibited areas ...................................................... 5-5, 5-6

propane fuel ...................................................................2-6

proper language ............................................................10-6

providing adequate instruction .....................................10-3

purity of lifting gas .....................................................11-11
I-5

Q

quick/safety release ............................................ 2-10, 6-12

quick fill balloon ..........................................................11-3

R

radar summary chart (SD) ............................................4-31

radiation .........................................................................4-4

radiation fog .................................................................4-19

radios ............................................................................2-10

radio communications .......................................... 5-9, 7-15

radio procedures ...........................................................5-10

recovery ................................................................ 8-1, 8-11

refueling .......................................................................8-13

removing the balloon from the vehicle ..........................6-8

repairs and alterations ..................................................2-14

restricted areas ....................................................... 5-5, 5-6

retrieval ......................................................................11-11

review .........................................................................10-11

risk assessment skills .....................................................1-7

risk management ............................................................1-9

rotors ............................................................................4-24

rules of landing ..............................................................8-7

runway incursion avoidance ..........................................1-6

S

safety practices .............................................................10-5

safety restraint ..............................................................6-12

scuba diving ...................................................................9-8

sea level pressure .........................................................4-29

sectionals ........................................................................3-5

self-improvement .........................................................10-4

significant meteorological information (SIGMET) .....4-40

significant weather prognostic charts ...........................4-34

sincerity ........................................................................10-4

single-pilot resource management .................................1-8

sinus problems ...............................................................9-3

situational awareness ........................................... 1-2, 1-10

six-line method .............................................................7-13

Skew-T plots ................................................................4-34

sky cover ......................................................................4-29

small-scale winds .........................................................4-14

solar heating ...............................................................11-10

sources of flight training ................................................1-4

spares ............................................................................2-11

spatial disorientation ......................................................9-4

special conditions .........................................................3-10

special shape balloons ....................................................2-4

special use airspace ........................................................5-5

spread layout ................................................................6-10

stability/lifted index chart ............................................4-32

stagnant hypoxia ............................................................9-2

standards ....................................................................10-20

standards of performance .............................................10-3

standard airworthiness certificate ......................... 2-4,2-11

standard atmosphere .......................................................4-2

standard burn ..................................................................7-2

stationary front ...............................................................4-9

steep descents .................................................................7-6

step-down approach .......................................................8-5

straight and level flight ..................................................7-3

stratus ...........................................................................4-15

stress ....................................................................... 1-7, 9-5

strip layout ...................................................................6-11

student does-instructor evaluates ...............................10-15

student pilot supervision ..............................................10-4

student tells-instructor does .......................................10-15

student tells-student does ...........................................10-15

support cabling .............................................................11-4

support equipment ..........................................................2-9

surface analysis chart ...................................................4-29

surface friction .............................................................4-12

surface fronts ................................................................4-10

syllabus format ...........................................................10-21

T

teaching ......................................................................10-12

process ....................................................................10-10

techniques of flight instruction ..................................10-14

telling-and-doing technique .......................................10-14

temperature .......................................................... 4-3, 4-29

dew point relationship ..............................................4-18

scales ..........................................................................4-3

variations ....................................................................4-4

temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) ..............................5-8

test development ........................................................10-19

tethering .......................................................................7-13

thermal .........................................................................4-21

airships .......................................................................2-5

flight ...........................................................................8-8

three-line method .........................................................7-13

thunderstorm ...................................................... 4-24, 4-25

timing .............................................................................1-2

topographic chart ...........................................................3-5

training .......................................................................10-20

syllabus ...................................................................10-22

transport/chase vehicle ...................................................2-9

turbulence .....................................................................4-21

types of flight .................................................................6-4
I-6

U

uncommanded (false) lift .............................................6-15

uncontrolled airspace .....................................................5-2

United States Geological Survey (USGS) .....................3-5

useful lift ........................................................................3-8

use of checklists .............................................................1-6

V

valley fog .....................................................................4-19

variometer ......................................................................2-7

velocity azimuth display (VAD) winds ........................4-35

vertical speed indicator ..................................................2-7

very high frequency (VHF) radio ................................7-15

visibilities .....................................................................4-18

vision ..............................................................................9-9

visual flight rules (VFR) ................................................3-4

W

warm front ......................................................................4-8

warning areas ......................................................... 5-5, 5-6

water landings ................................................................8-9

weather ................................................................... 3-2, 4-1

brief ............................................................................6-3

charts ........................................................................4-29

considerations ...........................................................11-6

depiction chart ..........................................................4-31

hazards ......................................................................4-21

information ...............................................................4-28

station .........................................................................6-3

wind....................................................4-1, 4-10, 4-23, 4-29

direction ......................................................................6-8

patterns .....................................................................4-12

shear ............................................................... 4-21, 4-22

wind and temperature aloft forecast (FD report) .........4-36

winds below ...................................................................7-7

written tests ................................................................10-19