United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Northeastern 

Research Station

General Technical

Report NE-321

Revised

Experimental Forests and Ranges 

of the USDA Forest Service
Published by: For additional copies:

USDA FOREST SERVICE USDA Forest Service 

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

September 2004 Delaware, OH 43015-8640

Revised March 2008 Fax: (740)368-0152

 Revised publication 

 available in CD-ROM only

Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us

The Compilers

MARY BETH ADAMS, soil scientist, LINDA H. LOUGHRY, secretary, LINDA L. 

PLAUGHER, support services supervisor, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern 

Research Station, Timber and Watershed Laboratory, Parsons, West Virginia.

Manuscript received for publication 17 November 2003

Abstract

The USDA Forest Service has an outstanding scientific resource in the 79 

Experimental Forests and Ranges that exist across the United States and 

its territories. These valuable scientific resources incorporate a broad range 

of climates, forest types, research emphases, and history. This publication 

describes each of the research sites within the Experimental Forests and 

Ranges network, providing information about history, climate, vegetation, 

soils, long-term data bases, research history and research products, as well 

as identifying collaborative opportunities, and providing contact information.
Compiled by:

Mary Beth Adams

Linda Loughry

Linda Plaugher

Experimental Forests and Ranges of 

the USDA Forest Service
Contents

Introduction............................................................................................................................iv

Overview..................................................................................................................................1

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

Estate Thomas Experimental Forest (U.S. Virgin Islands)...............................................10

Luquillo Experimental Forest (Puerto Rico)......................................................................12

Northern Research Station (formerly North Central Research Station)

Argonne Experimental Forest (Wisconsin).......................................................................16

Big Falls Experimental Forest (Minnesota) ......................................................................18

Coulee Experimental Forest (Wisconsin).........................................................................19

Cutfoot Sioux Experimental Forest (Minnesota)...............................................................20

Dukes (Upper Peninsula) Experimental Forest (Michigan) ..............................................22

Kaskaskia Experimental Forest (Illinois) ..........................................................................24

Lower Peninsula Experimental Forest (Michigan)............................................................26

Marcell Experimental Forest (Minnesota).........................................................................28

Paoli Experimental Forest (Indiana).................................................................................31

Pike Bay Experimental Forest (Minnesota)......................................................................33

Sinkin Experimental Forest (Missouri)..............................................................................35

Udell Experimental Forest (Michigan) ..............................................................................37

Northern Research Station (formerly Northeastern Research Station)

Baltimore Ecosystem Study (Maryland) ...........................................................................39

Bartlett Experimental Forest (New Hampshire)................................................................42

Fernow Experimental Forest (West Virginia)....................................................................44

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (New Hampshire)...................................................46

Kane Experimental Forest (Pennsylvania).......................................................................48

Massabesic Experimental Forest (Maine)........................................................................50

Penobscot Experimental Forest (Maine)..........................................................................52

Silas Little Experimental Forest (New Jersey)..................................................................54

Vinton Furnace Experimental Forest (Ohio).....................................................................57

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest/Caribou-Poker Creeks 

Research Watershed (Alaska) .....................................................................................60

Cascade Head Experimental Forest (Oregon).................................................................63

Entiat Experimental Forest (Washington).........................................................................66

H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest (Oregon)...................................................................68

Maybeso Experimental Forest (Alaska) ...........................................................................70

Pringle Falls Experimental Forest (Oregon).....................................................................72

South Umpqua Experimental Forest (Oregon).................................................................75

Starkey Experimental Forest and Range (Oregon)..........................................................76

Wind River Experimental Forest (Washington) ................................................................78

Young Bay Experimental Forest (Alaska).........................................................................80

Pacific Southwest Research Station

Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest (California) ...........................................................82

Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed (California) ........................................................84

Challenge Experimental Forest (California) .....................................................................86
Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest (Hawaii)..................................................................88

North Mountain Experimental Area (California)................................................................91

Onion Creek Experimental Forest (California) .................................................................93

Redwood Experimental Forest (California) ......................................................................95

Sagehen Experimental Forest (California) .......................................................................97

San Dimas Experimental Forest (California)....................................................................99

San Joaquin Experimental Range (California) ..............................................................101

Stanislaus–Tuolumne Experimental Forest (California).................................................103

Swain Mountain Experimental Forest (California)..........................................................105

Teakettle Experimental Forest (California) .....................................................................107

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Black Hills Experimental Forest (South Dakota) ............................................................110

Boise Basin Experimental Forest (Idaho)....................................................................... 111

Coram Experimental Forest (Montana)..........................................................................113

Deception Creek Experimental Forest (Idaho)...............................................................116

Desert Experimental Range (Utah) ................................................................................118

Fort Valley Experimental Forest (Arizona)......................................................................120

Fraser Experimental Forest (Colorado)..........................................................................122

Glacier Lakes Ecosystem Experiments Site (Wyoming) ................................................125

Great Basin Experimental Range (Utah)........................................................................128

Long Valley Experimental Forest (Arizona)....................................................................130

Manitou Experimental Forest (Colorado) .......................................................................131

Priest River Experimental Forest (Idaho) .......................................................................134

Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest (Arizona)..................................................................136

Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest (Montana) .........................................................137

Southern Research Station

Alum Creek Experimental Forest (Arkansas).................................................................140

Bent Creek Experimental Forest (North Carolina)..........................................................142

Blue Valley Experimental Forest (North Carolina)..........................................................144

Calhoun Experimental Forest (South Carolina)..............................................................146

Chipola Experimental Forest (Florida)............................................................................148

Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (North Carolina) ..........................................................150

Crossett Experimental Forest (Arkansas) ......................................................................152

Delta Experimental Forest (Mississippi).........................................................................154

Escambia Experimental Forest (Alabama).....................................................................156

Harrison Experimental Forest (Mississippi)....................................................................158

Hitchiti Experimental Forest (Georgia) ...........................................................................160

Koen Experimental Forest (Arkansas) ..........................................................................162

Olustee Experimental Forest (Florida) ...........................................................................164

Palustris Experimental Forest (Louisiana)......................................................................166

Santee Experimental Forest (South Carolina)................................................................168

Scull Shoals Experimental Forest (Georgia) ..................................................................170

Stephen F. Austin Experimental Forest (Texas) .............................................................172

Sylamore Experimental Forest (Arkansas).....................................................................174

Tallahatchie Experimental Forest (Mississippi) ..............................................................176

Appendix: Common and Scientific Names of Flora and Fauna Found 

in Descriptions of Experimental Forests and Ranges ....................................................178
Introduction

In 2002, an historic meeting was held by managers of Experimental Forests and Ranges of the 

USDA Forest Service at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in Oregon. The publication, 

“Experimental Forests and ranges of the USDA Forest Service”, published in 2004, was one of the 

products of that meeting. 

Since the original publication, Experimental Forests and Ranges have gained added prominence 

and there has been significant progress in development of our network of Experimental Forests and 

Ranges. As we approach the 100th anniversary of Experimental Forests, we have commissioned 

two new experimental forests (Sagehen and Hawaii), added additional research areas (Baltimore 

Ecosystem Study, and North Mountain Research Area) and decommissioned two experimental 

forests (Kawishi and McCormick). Two research stations (Northeastern and North Central) have 

merged and additional resources have been provided to expand our capabilities and our visibility.

This CD-ROM publication is a revision of the original General Technical Report NE-321, and 

provides a snapshot of Experimental Forests and Ranges network in early 2008. We have corrected 

errors of fact, and have added descriptions of new experimental forests, ranges, and sites. The 

intent was to make the information in this volume up to date and more accessible, but without 

a truly significant revision. Therefore, while experimental forests within the North Central and 

Northeastern Research Stations are now part of the new Northern Research Station, we did not 

attempt to change each instance where the original station names appeared. The experimental sites 

from the Northern Research Station are now grouped together, but significant reformatting of 

pages and text did not occur.

This publication has the advantage of being searchable and more portable than a print version. It 

is our intention to make necessary changes quickly as the experimental forest and range network 

continues to evolve and develop into its second century.
1

Overview

Science makes the USDA Forest Service unique. The 

ability to conduct scientifi c research in-house, to 

apply research fi ndings on the National Forest System 

lands, and to transfer them to others for use on all of 

the nation’s forest land sets the Forest Service apart as 

a natural resource agency. A unique and exceedingly 

valuable part of the infrastructure in place to conduct 

this research is the national network of experimental 

forests and ranges, a land base authorized by Congress 

and designated by the Chiefs of the Forest Service over 

the last 100 years. These experimental forests and ranges 

are not historical relics, but the sites for most of the longterm research conducted by Forest Service Research and 

Development and our partners. The experimental forests 

and ranges are living laboratories where Forest Service 

scientists not only make discoveries but also demonstrate 

research results for cooperators and stakeholders. 

They provide the opportunity to conduct the bold, 

imaginative research that will be required for the future.

Experimental forests and ranges (and other experimental 

areas within this network) remain as some of the few 

places where ecological research can be maintained 

over the long term. This kind of protection allows for 

experiments that can last longer than an individual 

scientist’s career. For example, at the H.J. Andrews 

Experimental Forest in Oregon, a study of log 

decomposition that was established in 1982 is expected 

to last for 200 years! The existence of these experimental 

forests and ranges allows for long-term data to be 

collected, and for us to learn how forests change over 

time as climate and other factors change. At the Bartlett 

Experimental Forest in New Hampshire, 500 growth 

plots were laid in a grid across the forest in 1931. 

Remeasurements of these plots have helped us better 

learn how to manage forests that are dynamic and subject 

to a variety of stresses over time. Because experimental 

forests and ranges often encompass whole watersheds 

and large areas, it is possible to do landscape-scale 

experiments. Finally, operating as a network of ecological 

research sites representing a wide range of forest and 

range types allows scientists to conduct cross-site 

comparisons, to help leverage funding, and to evaluate 

landscape patterns and processes at landscape to regional 

scales.

Experimental forests and ranges are extremely varied 

and are located throughout the Unites States and Puerto 

Rico (Table 1). They are as small as 231 ha (Paoli 

Experimental Forest in Indiana) and as large as 22,500 

ha (Desert Experimental Range in Utah). They range 

from boreal forests (Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest 

in Alaska) to tropical forests (Luquillo Experimental 

Forest in Puerto Rico and Hawaii Experimental 

Tropical Forest) to dry desert ranges (Great Basin 

Experimental Range in Utah). Almost 40 percent of 

these experimental forests and ranges date back to 

the 1930s. And research records date back to 1908 

(Fort Valley Experimental Forest in Arizona). The 

newest experimental forests were designated in 2007 

(Sagehen Experimental Forest in California and Hawaii 

Experimental Tropical Forest). Such diversity is a 

hallmark and a strength of the network of experimental 

forests and ranges managed by Forest Service Research 

and Development.

However, managers of these experimental forests and 

ranges face increasing challenges in maintaining their 

legacy. Fifteen years ago there were 110 experimental 

forests across the country; now there are 79. Support 

has declined for infrastructure maintenance and for 

collection and maintenance of long-term experiments 

and data sets. Regulatory mandates for National Forest 

System lands are not designed for the special needs 

of experimental forests and ranges. Authority for 

management decisions and the application of regulation 

is unclear. Bold experiments to address important 

management questions are often stymied because of 

these challenges.

To address some of these issues, an historic meeting 

of managers of experimental forests and ranges was 

convened in October 2002 at the H.J. Andrews 

Experimental Forest. The goals of the workshop were to:

• Highlight past and present research on Forest 

Service experimental forests and ranges.
2

• Address the issues that affect experimental 

forest/range managers in accomplishing their 

research mission, and identify proposed solutions 

or suggested avenues to deal with them.

• Develop Forest Service experimental forests as a 

network for intersite research and broader scale 

research and to communicate research results 

to a broad array of clients and to anticipate and 

address natural resource research questions in a 

creative and productive fashion.

This publication, a compilation of information about 

the experimental forests and ranges of the USDA Forest 

Service, is only one outcome of this workshop.

The information provided in this publication should 

prove useful and interesting for current and potential 

collaborators, for readers interested in forestry and 

ecosystem research, and for those seeking interesting 

opportunities for fi eld visits. Each description provides 

information on the history, climate, soils, vegetation, and 

research conducted at each experimental forest or range 

and provides contact information. These descriptions 

were prepared by the dedicated people who work and 

sometimes live on these experimental forests and ranges. 

Contributors to this volume include Mary Beth Adams, 

Jim Barnett, Eric Berg, Floyd Bridgwater, John Brissette, 

Mason Bryant, Susan Cordell, Ken Davidson, Carol 

DeMuth, Renee Denton, Dan Dey, Brian Dick, Chris 

Eagar, Peter Garrett, Russ Graham, Sarah Greene, Jim 

Guldin, Robert Haack, Howard Halverson, Clifford 

Harwell, John Hom, Terry Jain, Sherri Johnson, 

Boone Kaufman, Stan Kitchen, Randy Kolka, William F. 

Laudenslayer, Jr., Ted Leininger, Tom Lisle, Dave Loftis, 

Ernest Lovett, Ariel E. Lugo, Durant McArthur, Ward 

McCaughey, Charlie McMahon, Dan Marion, Garland 

Mason, Todd Mowrer, Robert Musselman, Dan Neary, 

Dana Nelson, Malcolm North, William Oliver, Ken 

Outcalt, Brian Palik, Timothy Paysen, Dave Peterson, 

Felix Ponder, Jr., Bob Powers, Rich Pouyat, Kathryn 

Purcell, Martin Ritchie, Jane Rodrigue, Michael G. Ryan, 

Ray Shearer, Wayne Shepperd, Dave Shriner, MarieLouise Smith, Winston Smith, Julie Smithbauer, John 

Stanturf, Terry Strong, Susan Stout, Brenda Strohmeyer, 

Fred Swanson, Steve Tapia, Ron Thill, Frank Thompson, 

Carl Trettin, Jerry Van Sambeek, Sandy Verry, Jim 

Vose, Tom Waldrop, Marilyn Walker, Melvin Warren, 

Dale Weigel, Karen Whitehall, David Wiese, Richard 

Woodsmith, Brenda E. Wright, Tricia Wurtz, Dan Yaussy, 

Andrew Youngblood, and John Zasada.
3

Table 1.—Location and basic climate data on experimental forests and ranges of the USDA Forest ServiceExperimental Mean annual or annual Mean annual forest/range Location Vegetation range in temperature precipitationInternational Institute of Tropical Forestry °C mm Estate Thomas St Croix. U.S. Plantations of mahogany, 26.7 1,100  Virgin Islands teak, toona  Luquillo Puerto Rico Evergreen broadleaf 19 to 25 2,000-5,000  tropical forestNorthern Research Station (formerly North Central Research Station)  Argonne Wisconsin Northern hardwoods/ 5 813 lowland conifers  Big Falls Minnesota Lowland black spruce -35 to 32 500-640  forest  Coulee Wisconsin Upland oaks, hardwood, 6.7 864  plantations Cutfoot Sioux Minnesota Red pine -35 to 32 500-640  Dukes Upper Peninsula, Northern hardwoods & 5 864  Michigan hemlock/hardwoods Kaskaskia Southern Illinois Mixed hardwood forests 13 1,098  Lower Peninsula Lower Peninsula, Oak, aspen, northern -12 to 26 800  Michigan hardwoods  Marcell Minnesota Forested peatlands & 3.3 780  upland hardwoods  Paoli Southern IndianaMixed hardwoods, 13 1,092  oak-hickory  Pike Bay Minnesota Aspen -35 to 32 500-650  Sinkin Missouri Northern red oak/ -9 to 27 1,118  white oak  Udell Lower peninsula, Oak, aspen 5.7 790  Michigan 

Continued
4

Northern Research Station (formerly Northeastern Research Station)  Baltimore Baltimore, Maryland Hardwood forest to 12.8 1090 urban developed Bartlett New Hampshire Northern hardwoods -5 to 32 1,270  Fernow West Virginia Mixed mesophytic 8.9 1,470  hardwoods  Hubbard Brook New Hampshire Northern hardwoods/ 5.6 1,400  spruce-fi r  Kane PennsylvaniaAllegheny hardwoods/ 6.1 1,100  northern hardwoods  Massabesic Maine Eastern white pine/8.1 1,188  northern red oak Penobscot Maine Mixed northern conifers 6.6 1,060  Silas Little Southern New Jersey Pine barrens -2 to 25 1,150  Vinton Furnace Southeastern OhioUpland mixed-oaks 11.3 1,024 Pacifi c Northwest Research Station  Bonanza Creek Interior Alaska Taiga forest -50 to 33 269 Cascade Head Central Oregon coast Sitka spurce/western 10 2,450  hemlock Entiat North central Ponderosa pine/ -4 to 18 580  Washington Douglas-fi r

 H.J. Andrews Cascade Range, Oregon Douglas-fi r/ 1 to 18 2,400  western hemlock Maybeso Southeastern AlaskaSitka spruce/western 6.7 2,740  hemlock  Pringle Falls Central Oregon Ponderosa pine -3 to 16 610-1,020  South Umpqua Southern Cascade Mixed conifer 9.0 880-1,560  Range, Oregon  Starkey Interior Oregon Bunchgrass scabland/ -30 to 37 510  ponderosa pine  Wind River Southwest Washington Douglas-fi r/western 8.7 2,223  hemlock Young Bay Southwest Alaska Sitka spruce/western -8 to 25 1,500 

Table 1.—continuedExperimental Mean annual or annual 

 hemlock 

 Mean annual

 forest/range Location Vegetation range in temperature precipitation

Continued
5

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station  Blacks Mountain Central California Interior ponderosa pine -9 to 29 460  Challenge Sierra Nevada CaliforniaPacifi c ponderosa pine 6 to 21 1,727  Caspar Creek Northern California Mixed conifers 12 1,200  Hawaii Hawaii Wet and dry tropical 17 to 28 250-1220 forests and grasslands North Mountain Southern California Chaparral 3 to 32 250 Onion Creek Central California Red fi r, white fi r, Jeffrey -14 to 30 1,060 

 pine/dry meadows  Redwood Northern CaliforniaCoastal redwood 1,930  Sagehen California Grassland, shrub, mixed conifer -10 to 26 847 San Dimas Southern California Mixed chaparral  San Joaquin Central California Blue oak-foothill 5.6 to 26.7 486  pine woodland  Stanislaus-Tuolmne Central California Sierra Nevada/ -23 to 35 940  mixed Conifer  Swain Mountain California Red fi r/white fi r/ -23 to 29 1,243-1,270  Lodgepole pine  Teakettle Southern Sierra Nevada, Mixed conifer, red fi r, -15 to 321,250 

 California Jeffrey pine, lodgepole pineRocky Mountain Research Station  Black Hills South Dakota Ponderosa pine 7 to 32 500  Boise Basin Southern Idaho Ponderosa pine -4 to 19 635  Coram Northwestern Montana Western larch and -40 to 39 851  interior Douglas-fi r  Deception Creek Northern Idaho Western hemlock 6 1,400  Desert Utah Salt-desert shrub -3.5 to 23.3 157  Fort Valley Arizona Ponderosa pine 7 574  Fraser ColoradoSubalpine forests/ 0.5 432-711 

Table 1.—continuedExperimental Mean annual or annual 

 alpine tundra

 Mean annual

 forest/range Location Vegetation range in temperature precipitation

Continued
6

 Glacier Lakes Ecosystem Wyoming Alpine and subalpine -0.44 1,247  Experiments Site (Englemann spruce/ subalpine fi r)  Great Basin Utah Herbland, oakbrush and -36 to 37 300-750  piñon-juniper  Long Valley Arizona Ponderosa pine Not available Not available Manitou Colorado Ponderosa pine, -20 to 32 398  Douglas-fi r Priest River Idaho Subalpine fi r, grand fi r, 6.6 810 

 western hemlock, Douglas-fi r, western redcedar Sierra Ancha Arizona Chaparrel shrub, mixed Not available 410-850  conifers  Tenderfoot Creek Montana Subalpine fi r -37 to 27 880 Southern Research Station  Alum Creek Arkansas Shortleaf pine, oaks 15 1,407  Bent Creek Western North CarolinaOak-hickory12.8 1,170-1,219  Blue Valley Western North Carolina White pine/oak-hickory12.0 1,650-2,030 

 Calhoun South Carolina Loblolly pine/shortleaf -1 to 30 1,270  pine, mixed hardwoods  Chipola Panhandle of Florida Sandhills vegetation: -7 to 38 1,524  longleaf pine, oaks  Crossett Arkansas Loblolly pine/ mixed 17.6 1,410  hardwoods  Coweeta Hydrologic Western North Carolina Northern hardwoods, 12.6 1,800-2,300  Laboratory cove hardwoods, oak-hickory  Delta Mississippi Mixed southern hardwoods 0 to 31,354  Escambia Alabama Longleaf pine -7 to 37 1,520  Harrison Mississippi Longleaf pine-bluestem 1,651 

Table 1.—continuedExperimental Mean annual or annual Mean annual forest/range Location Vegetation range in temperature precipitation

Continued
7

 Hitchiti Georgia Loblolly and shortleaf 7.2 to 27.2 1,140  pine/hardwoods  Koen Arkansas Oak-hickory upland, 15 1,168  hardwoods  Olustee Northeastern Florida Flatwoods vegetation: -7 to 40 1,520  longleaf pine, slash pine, saw-palmetto  Palustris Louisiana Longleaf pine22 1,465  Santee South Carolina Loblolly pine, longleaf 18.7 1,350  pine, mixed pine, mixed pine-hardwoods Scull Shoals Georgia Upland hardwoods, Not Available 1,219  mixed pines-hardwoods  Stephen F. Austin Texas Loblolly pine, shortleaf 2to 35 1,253  pine, pine-hardwoods Sylamore Arkansas Upland hardwoods 14 1,130 

Table 1.—continuedExperimental Mean annual or annual 

 Tallahatchie Mississippi Mixed shortleaf pine and 6.1 to 26.6 1,321  hardwoods

 Mean annual

 forest/range Location Vegetation range in temperature precipitation
Page intentionally left blank
9

International Institute of Tropical Forestry
10

Estate Thomas Experimental Forest (U.S. Virgin Islands)

Introduction

The Estate Thomas Experimental Forest 

encompases 60 ha and is the easternmost 

experimental forest in the system. It is 

located at an elevation of 76 to 137 m above 

sea level 6.4 km west of Christiansted, 

Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. The St. 

Croix Sugar Factory, Inc., owned Estate 

Thomas in 1917 when the U.S. government 

purchased St. Croix from Denmark. The 

West Indies Sugar Factory bought the land 

in 1928 and sold it in 1931 to the Chabert 

Family. The U.S. government bought it in 

1934 and the Forest Service acquired the 

tract from the Virgin Islands Corporation in 

1963. Chief Ed Cliff designated the Estate 

Thomas Experimental Forest on March 11, 1964. The 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry administers 

the Estate Thomas in collaboration with the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Government. The vegetation is representative of 

the dry forests of the Virgin Islands, and by its location 

near the geographic center of St. Croix, it is a strategic 

area of open space in a densely populated island.

Climate

The forest is classifi ed a subtropical dry forest in the 

Holdridge Life Zone Classifi ation System. Annual 

rainfall averages 1,100 mm and annual temperature 

averages 26.7 °C with a daily range of 8 °C. There is 

no frost. Hurricanes and storms pass the vicinity of the 

forest at relatively high frequencies, i.e., about 50 per 

century.

Soils

The hilly slopes have shallow and very stony clay soils. 

In general, soils are well drained, gravely loam, with little 

to moderate slope and formed from parent calcareous 

marine sediments.

Vegetation

There is no original vegetation on the Estate Thomas, 

though forests cover most of the property. Hills comprise 

76 percent of the property and were farmed until 1928 

and valleys until 1953. Sugar cane was the predominant 

crop. The vegetation now includes secondary forests that 

emerged naturally after abandonment of agriculture, 

and tree plantations established by the Forest Service 

for experimental purposes. West Indian or smallleaf mahogany, a naturalized species, dominates the 

secondary forests located in the hilly sector of the forest. 

The Forest Service used the fl at areas for experimental 

plantations, including teak, toona, Spanish cedar, 

lignum-vitae, and small-leaf mahogany.

An inventory of the natural vegetation in the Estate 

Thomas identifi ed 110 plant species, including 83 woody 

species in 1.73 ha. Basal area and tree density were 17.6 

m2

/ha and 1,672 stems/ha, respectively, and the average 

canopy height was 7.7 m. It was also documented that 

nonnative species dominated the tree and shrub layers of 

the forest.

Long-Term Data Bases

Most of the data collected on the Estate Thomas EF are 

from tree plantations of different species and provenances. 

Studies included 15 exotic tree species between 1961 and 

1966. The tree diameter data are available through the 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry.
11

Research, Past and Present

Research began on the Estate Thomas in 1930 with 

the planting of small-leaf mahogany and other timber 

species. The overall objective was understanding the 

adaptability of tropical timber species to conditions 

on St. Croix. The Forest Service used the results from 

research at the forest to improve tree productivity on 

nearby private lands. Today, research focuses on the 

restoration of tropical dry forests following deforestation. 

The recent vegetation inventory provides the base 

information needed for future decisions on restoration 

research and forest management activities at this site.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research on the Estate Thomas produced the 

information required to reforest dry lands in the tropics 

of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The management of West 

Indian mahogany in these islands is a product of research 

at the experimental forest. Research there also established 

the expected tree growth rates for the region and 

identifi ed the timber species with the best adaptability to 

conditions in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Collaborators

The main collaborators of the research program are 

the U.S. Virgin Islands Government Department 

of Agriculture, the University of the Virgin Islands 

Agriculture Experiment Station, and St. Croix 

Environmental Association.

Research Opportunities

The Estate Thomas is available for studying secondary 

forest succession on abandoned agricultural lands in dry 

life zones. Such deforested dry forest land predominates 

in the tropics because of the high population densities 

in dry areas and the high rates of deforestation. Most 

of the original tree plantations did not survive various 

hurricanes that passed over the site, and these sites 

are now undergoing active succession of native and 

nonnative species. Numerous long-term plantation 

and natural secondary vegetation plots are available for 

research. The forest is also available for elementary and 

secondary education and passive recreation.

Facilities

There are no structural facilities on the Estate Thomas, 

but it is fenced and is easily accessible by automobile.

Lat. 17°44′30′′ N, long. 64°31′4′′ W

Contact Information 

Director

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

PO Box 25000

Río Piedras PR 00928-5000

Tel: (787) 766-5335 

http://luq.lternet.edu
12

Introduction

The 11,330-ha Luquillo Experimental 

Forest is the largest tropical forest in the 

experimental forest and range system and 

the only experimental forest with the same 

boundary as the national forest, that is, the 

Caribbean National Forest and the Luquillo 

are one. The core area was designated public 

land in 1876 by the King of Spain. The 

Luquillo became a forest reserve in 1903, 

several years before the establishment of 

the National Forest System. In 1956, the 

Luquillo was designated an experimental 

forest. It has been studied for over 100 years 

and is one of the most intensively studied 

tropical forests in the world. The forest was 

designated the Luquillo Biosphere Reserve 

in 1976 by the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere 

Program and a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) 

site by the National Science Foundation in 1988. The 

Luquillo comprises the largest area of primary forests in 

Puerto Rico (recently designated as wilderness by the 

U.S. Congress) and the most pristine rivers in the island, 

including several wild and scenic rivers.

Climate

Located within the Holdridge Life Zone Classifi cation 

System, the Luquillo is a subtropical moist to subtropical 

rain forest. Along the 1,000-meter elevation gradient 

(100 to 1,075 m asl), mean annual temperature ranges 

from 25 to 19 °C and annual rainfall from 2,000 to 

5,000 mm. The average annual rainfall for the forest 

is 3,880 mm. The climate is subtropical maritime and 

is moderated by steady trade winds, which maintain 

relatively constant year-round air temperatures. The 

annual temperature variation within a climate station 

is only 3.0 to 3.5 °C. Rainfall intensity varies at all 

temporal scales from diurnal to decadal. Although all 

months receive in excess of 100 mm, there is a period of 

lower rainfall between February and April and peaks of 

rainfall in September. Storms and hurricanes are climatic 

events that dramatically change forest conditions. For 

example, winds normally range from 8 to 18 km/h but 

Luquillo Experimental Forest (Puerto Rico)

exceed 200 km/h during category 5 hurricanes. Rainfall 

can exceed 400 mm/day during storms and low-pressure 

systems. Such events trigger numerous landslides. In the 

Luquillo, droughts (<100 mm/month) recur on decadal 

scales, but natural fi res do not occur.

Soils

There are four soil associations representing 19 soil series 

in the Luquillo. The principal orders are Ultisols and 

Inceptisols, which respectively occupy 50 and 20 percent 

of the total forest area, and small areas with Inceptisols 

and other soil types. Dominant soils are deep, highly 

weathered and leached clays, with low pH and base 

saturation less than 35 percent at a depth of 1.25 m.

Vegetation

The vegetation of the Luquillo is evergreen broadleaf 

tropical forest. The 240 tree species in the forest form 

different forest types, with different species composition, 

structural development, and dominance with elevation. 

The cloud condensation level occurs above 600 m 

elevation, where soils are saturated and forested wetlands 

constitute the forest cover. Increased elevation is 

associated with decreasing forest height, decreasing tree 

species diversity, increasing species dominance, increasing 

epiphyte abundance, and increasing tree density.
13

Long-Term Data Bases

Numerous data bases are compiled at the Luquillo, 

including maps of geology, soils, vegetation, and 

disturbance history; seven sets of aerial photography 

(since 1936); air temperature and precipitation (since 

1909); solar radiation, windspeed and direction, relative 

humidity; NADP precipitation (since 1984); as well 

as chemical composition of precipitation, dryfall, 

cloudwater, bulk soil, soil solution, throughfall, stemfl ow, 

streamwater, plant, animal, and fungal tissue; vegetative 

composition, above- and below-ground biomass, tree 

growth/mortality, litterfall, litter decomposition, wood 

decomposition, mycorrhizal associations, phenology; and 

population records and biomass of terrestrial and aquatic 

fauna. Many long-term data records are available on the 

Luquillo LTER web page.

Research, Past and Present

Research studies carried out on the Luquillo range from 

plantation forestry, reforestation, land rehabilitation, 

tree growth, and ecosystem structure and function, to 

wildlife ecology, hydrology, and geomorphology. More 

recently, the research program has been expanded to 

cover disturbance and landscape ecology. The Luquillo 

is participating in more than 30 cross-site experiments, 

including:

• LIDET (Long-Term Intersite Decomposition 

Experiment Team)

• LINX (Lotic Intersite Nitrogen Experiment)

• DONIC (Dissolved Organic Nitrogen Intersite 

Comparison)

• Chronic nitrogen addition to forest soils

• WW-DECOEX (World Wide Aquatic Leaf 

Decomposition Experiment)

• Earthworms and soil processes in tropical 

ecosystems 

• Relationship between nutrient inputs and faunal 

diversity

• Canopy herbivory and soil processes in a 

temperate and tropical forest

• Cross-site comparison of aquatic insect 

emergence

• Global forest dynamics network

• Landscape fragmentation and forest fuel 

accumulation; effects of fragment size, age, and 

climate

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The following completed research products are 

used continuously by land managers, conservation 

organizations, other professionals, and the public: 

• Tree and vine identifi cation

• Parrot recovery techniques

• Tree species selection for different sites

• Reforestation techniques

• Tree nursery techniques

• Urban tree plantings

• Silvicultural treatment for cutover and volunteer 

forests

• Properties of Caribbean woods, and treatments 

for drying and preserving them

• Rehabilitation of landslides

• Wood production via plantations

• Research techniques for long-term monitoring 

of tree growth, tree turnover, and wildlife 

abundance

Collaborators

University of Puerto Rico; Forest Products Laboratory; 

Notre Dame University; Colorado State University; 

Utah State University; State University of New York 

- College of Environmental Science; University of 

New Hampshire; University of Georgia; University 

of California - Berkeley; University of Pennsylvania; 

University of New Mexico; University of Nevada - Las 

Vegas; Texas Tech University; Veitji Universiteite of 

Amsterdam; Institute for Ecosystem Studies; New 

York; Scranton Metropolitan University; Pennsylvania 

State University - Altoona; USDI Geological Survey; 

University of Hawaii-Hilo; Universidad de Zulia 

- Maracaibo, Venezuela; Oregon State University; 

University of Washington; Siena College.
14

Research Opportunities

The Luquillo offers opportunities for research in tropical 

forestry and related fi elds. Programs such as those of the 

USDA Forest Service, the National Science Foundation, 

the USDI Geological Survey, and the University of 

Puerto Rico are available for research collaboration in all 

fi elds of the natural sciences.

Facilities

The El Verde Field Station, which has living quarters 

and laboratory facilities for up to 25 scientists, is 

maintained by the Institute for Tropical Ecosystem 

Studies in the Luquillo. The fi eld station provides 

collections of local plants and animals; a laboratory 

with light meters, balances, microscopes, pH meters, 

hoods, etc.; line power backed up by a generator; and 

gas, air, and vacuum lines. The Biology Department of 

the University of Puerto Rico (Río Piedras) maintains 

a second fi eld station in the palo colorado forest of the 

Luquillo. Among the resources available through IITF 

are the Bisley Experimental Watersheds, the Sabana 

Field Research Station, a woodshop, analytical laboratory 

for soils and vegetation, tropical forestry library with 

55,000 documents, 10,000 bound volumes, 100 journal 

subscriptions, map, fi lm, and slide collections of the 

entire Oxford forestry collection on microfi lm, FAO 

documents and journal listings from larger libraries (e.g., 

Oxford, University of Georgia, University of Florida, 

USDA National Agricultural Library) in microfi che, 

computerized literature searching facilities, and a research 

herbarium with more than 95 percent of the 700+ tree 

species in Puerto Rico. The herbarium is operated by the 

Botanical Garden of the University of Puerto Rico.

Lat. 18°17′30′′ N, long. 65°47′30′′ W

Contact Information

Director

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

PO Box 25000

Río Piedras PR 00928-5000

Tel: (787) 766-5335

http://luq.lternet.edu
15

Northern Research Station
16

Introduction

The Argonne Experimental Forest is located within the 

Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest about 24 km 

southeast of Three Lakes, Wisconsin. The forest was 

established in 1947 and is administered by the USDA 

Forest Service’s North Central Research Station.

Climate

The climate is continental, with an average annual 

temperature of 5 °C. Summer maximums of 32 °C 

are common and winter minimums can reach -40 °C. 

Average annual rainfall is 813 mm, mostly occurring 

during the growing season. Snowfall averages 1,524 

mm per year. The growing season averages about 100 

days.

Soils

Three soil types dominate the Argonne: Iron River loam, 

Carbondale peat, and Tawas sand.

Vegetation

The vegetation types vary according to the soil type. The 

Iron River loam supports northern hardwoods dominated 

by sugar maple, yellow birch, basswood, and hemlock. 

Other species found mixed in this type are white ash, 

black cherry, quaking aspen, northern red oak, and 

American hornbeam. The Carbondale peat supports 

mixed lowland conifers dominated by black spruce and 

tamarack. Jack and red pine, quaking aspen, and paper 

birch dominate the Tawas sand. Most stands of trees on 

the Argonne are second-growth and even-aged, though 

there are small areas of old-growth northern hardwoods 

on the forest.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are many long-term data exist for projects on the 

Argonne though few of these are active. Active studies 

include a farm woodlot study, cutting methods study, and 

red maple growth and yield study.

Research, Past and Present

Research on the Argonne began in 1947. The primary 

objectives of most studies are to learn how to bring 

second-growth northern hardwoods under management. 

The cutting methods study (comparing nine different 

types of cutting) is replicated and is the highest priority 

study on the forest.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Information from studies on the Argonne has been used 

to develop management guides for northern hardwood 

forests in the Lake States. These guides are widely applied 

throughout the region. The Argonne also serves as an 

excellent demonstration to landowners area to land 

managers interested in managing northern hardwoods.

Collaborators

Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest, Wisconsin 

Department of Natural Resources, Menominee Tribal 

Enterprises, as well as many industries and universities 

have collaborated on studies at the Argonne.

Research Opportunities

The Argonne provides an opportunity to study the 

silviculture and ecology of the three main vegetation 

types. The active studies provide opportunities to 

compare treatments of many components of the forest.

Argonne Experimental Forest (Wisconsin)
17

Facilities

There is a small fi eld station located on the Argonne, 

but the building is without water, heat, or bathroom 

facilities.

Lat. 45°45′ N, long. 89°0′ W

Contact Information

Argonne Experimental Forest 

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

Forestry Sciences Laboratory

5985 Highway K

Rhinelander, WI 54501

Tel: (715) 362-1124

http://ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/argonne
18

Introduction

The Big Falls Experimental Forest was established in 

1961 entirely on state land that was set aside primarily 

for management of lowland black spruce forest. At the 

time, research goals included silvicultural, harvesting and 

utilization, and economic studies.

Climate

The climate is continental. Maximum summer 

temperatures are > 32 °C with high humidity (80 

percent) and minimum winter temperatures to -35 

°C. Growing season length is 100 to 120 days. Average 

annual precipitation is 500 to 640 mm. About two-thirds 

of precipitation occurs as rain and one-third as snow. 

Snow depths average 1 to 2 m. Although prolonged 

summer droughts occur, rainfall is usually adequate 

during the growing season.

Soils

No information on soils at the Big Falls EF is available.

Vegetation

Primary overstory species on Big Falls are black spruce 

and tamarack, with associated understory vegetation of 

alder, swamp birch, blueberry, calamus, sedges, grasses, 

bog Labrador tea, raspberry, willow, and moss.

Long-Term Data Bases

No information is available.

Research, Past and Current

Black spruce regeneration, growth and yield, cutting 

methods, prescribed burning studies, and general wetland 

ecology are topics that have been studied at Big Falls.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

No information is available.

Collaborators

Studies have been carried out with the Minnesota 

Division of Forestry.

Research Opportunities

There is no formal research program. Proposals can be 

directed to the USDA Forest Service’s North Central 

Research Station at Grand Rapids, Minnesota.

Facilities

There are no facilities at the Big Falls EF.

Lat. 48°10′ N, long. 94°W

Contact Information 

Big Falls Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

1831 Highway 169 E

Grand Rapids, MN 55744

Tel: (218) 326-7116

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/

Big Falls Experimental Forest (Minnesota)
19

Introduction

The Coulee Experimental Forest, located in west central 

LaCrosse County, Wisconsin, was formally dedicated 

in 1960. The forest is owned and administered by 

the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. The 

Coulee is 1,214 ha of upland oak forests, experimental 

tree plantings, ridgetop open fi elds, rock outcroppings, 

and several small “goat prairies” on steep topography.

Climate

The average annual temperature at Coulee is 6.7 °C, with 

summer maximum temperatures occasionally exceeding 

38 °C and winter minimums as low as -40 °C. Average 

annual precipitation is 864 mm, with the highest rainfall 

usually occurring during the growing season. Average 

annual snowfall is 1,118 mm. Average length of the 

growing season is 138 days.

Soils

On the ridgetops, soils have up to 1 m of loess over 

clayey pedisediment. The bedrock is generally more than 

2 m deep on these summits and shoulders. The soils 

are formed in silty slope alluvium over loamy skeletal 

materials with some bedrock at 1 to 2 m. The footslope 

soils are formed in silty slope alluvium with occasional 

rock fragments but no bedrock within 2 m.

Vegetation

The ridgetops of the Coulee, formerly used for 

agricultural crops, are now planted to pines, spruces, 

larches, and mixed hardwoods. Species and seed source 

experimentation were part of the reforestation projects 

here. Some open land remains and is currently rented 

by neighboring farmers. Natural and established prairie 

sites are managed for native plants and wildlife habitat. 

The forest is predominantly an oak-hickory type with 

red and white oak, shagbark hickory, basswood, and 

elm providing the major volume. The steeper slopes are 

productive because they were never used for agriculture as 

fi elds or pasture.

Long-Term Data Bases

No information is available.

Research, Past and Present

Past research topics include forests and erosion in the 

driftless area, reforestation, and land disposal of sewage 

effl uent.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The primary mission of the research initiated on the 

Coulee was to study the effect of land use and steep 

land management on fl oods, soil erosion, and stream 

sedimentation. A secondary mission was to study the 

adaptability of various tree species and classes of planting 

stock to different sites to guide landowners in their treeplanting programs. Many reports have been published on 

the following subject areas:

• Land use and effects on soil properties, runoff, 

and erosion 

• Soil freezing 

• Spring fl ow and groundwater 

• Evapotranspiration 

• Climate 

• Reforestation 

• Research instruments and techniques 

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Wisconsin Department of 

Natural Resources, and several research units of the 

USDA Forest Service. Past collaborators include: the 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Wild Turkey Federation, 

Ruffed Grouse Society, Wisconsin Woodland Owners 

Association, USDA Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, Audubon Society, and Whitetails Unlimited.

Lat. 43°48′ N, long. 91° W

Contact Information

Coulee Experimental Forest

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

3550 Mormon Coulee Road SOB 

La Crosse WI 54601

Tel: (608) 785-9007

Coulee Experimental Forest (Wisconsin)
20

Introduction

The Cutfoot Sioux Experimental Forest, established 

in 1932, contains about 1,255 ha. The Sunken Lake 

Research Natural Area consisting of about 726 ha is 

contained within it.

The portion of Minnesota Highway 46 that passes 

through the Cutfoot Sioux is called the Avenue of 

Pines. The Avenue is well known for its scenic beauty 

and the outstanding pine forest. Most people who 

drive through the Avenue do not realize that it is one 

of the most intensively managed red pine forests in 

northern Minnesota.

Cutfoot Sioux contains a large stone memorial 

with a plaque commemorating Dr. Rafael Zon, who 

was instrumental in establishing the research branch 

of the USDA Forest Service and designating the fi rst 

experimental forests. His ashes were scattered in the area 

of the memorial.

Climate

The climate at the Cutfoot Sioux is continental. 

Maximum summer temperatures are > 32 °C with 

high humidity (80 percent) and minimum winter 

temperatures plunging to -35 °C. Growing season length 

is 100 to 120 days. Average annual precipitation is 50 

to 64 cm; snow depths average 1 to 2 m. Although 

prolonged summer droughts occur, there is usually 

adequate rainfall during the growing season.

Soils

Well-drained medium to fi ne sand developed in glacial 

outwash parent materials. The soils are typical of the 

natural red pine and mixed pine stands of northern 

Minnesota.

Vegetation

The major forest type, roughly 75 percent of the Cutfoot 

Sioux, is red pine with varying amounts of jack and 

eastern white pine. Paper birch and quaking aspen are 

common components of the pine-dominated stands and 

Cutfoot Sioux Experimental Forest (Minnesota)

in some places are the most dominant species. Site index 

for red pine is about 55 (based on age 50 years).

The majority of the red pine stands in the forest are of 

natural origin. Most red pine originated after a major fi re 

in 1870. Based on fi re scars there have been seven major 

fi res in the forest: during 1865, 1870, 1876, 1888, 1892, 

and 1918. There are scattered red pines that are more 

than 200 years old. These trees are remnants left to meet 

a reserve tree requirement during initial logging.

Plantations occupy a small percentage of the Cutfoot 

Sioux. The most notable areas of planted red pine are the 

Greely Lake and Gravel Pit stands. A major feature of the 

red pine in the forest is the understory composed mostly 

of beaked hazel. A major objective of the prescribed 

burning research conducted in the 1960s was to reduce 

the density of this species and improve understory 

conditions for red pine regeneration. 

Long-Term Data Bases

The most important long-term data bases from the 

Cutfoot Sioux are the red pine levels of growing stock 

study (established in 1949), the red pine cutting methods 

study (established in 1950), and the under-burning study 

in red pine (established in 1960). These studies are in 

stands that originated in 1870. There are data available 
21

from other old studies, but those mentioned have the 

best records and experimental design. All of these plots 

have maps showing individual tree location and a history 

of tree removal.

Research, Past and Present

Research on the Cutfoot Sioux began in the mid1920s, before the area was offi cially designated as an 

experimental forest. Research to date has focused almost 

exclusively on silviculture of the red pine type, with 

emphasis on methods of thinning and intermediate 

cutting. There has also been some work with jack pine. 

There have been no new studies established on the forest 

in the last decade. A large study of red pine variable 

overstory retention and mixed conifer regeneration is 

ongoing on the same site type, immediately adjacent to 

the forest.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The major accomplishments come from results of the 

three long-term studies mentioned earlier. These have 

helped to provide the basis for silviculture of red pine in 

the region, particularly intermediate harvest regimes.

Collaborators

Collaborators from the Chippewa National Forest have 

worked on the Cutfoot Sioux.

Research Opportunities

There are opportunities to do additional work (for 

example, describe the understory or study individual tree 

growth) in the long-term study areas. To date, there are 

no baseline plots established in most of the Sunken Lake 

Research Natural Area.

Facilities

There is no on-site housing, but resorts in the area 

provide opportunities for short-term rentals. Nearest 

communities are Squaw Lake to the north and Deer 

River to the south. Grand Rapids, Minnesota, is about 

a 45-minute drive to the southeast. There are numerous 

woods roads in the forest, making most of the area 

readily accessible.

Lat. 47°40′ N, long. 94°5′ W

Contact Information 

Cutfoot Sioux Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

USDA Forest Service

1831 Highway 169 E

Grand Rapids, MN 55744

Tel: (218) 326-7116

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/
22

Introduction

The Dukes Experimental Forest was established in 1926 

and is located about 25 km southeast of Marquette, 

Michigan. A small amount of white pine and elm was 

logged during the early 1900s. The remaining forest 

is essentially old growth today. In 1974, a research 

natural area (94 ha) was established within the forest’s 

boundaries. The Dukes was administered by the 

Marquette fi eld offi ce until it closed in 1981. It is 

currently administered by the North Central Research 

Station’s Laboratory in Grand Rapids, Minnesota.

Climate

Average annual precipitation on the Dukes is about 86 

cm and is distributed evenly through the year. Lakeeffect snowfall is considerable and averages 355 cm 

per year, with up to 760 cm some years. Proximity to 

Lake Superior results in a cool lacustrine climate, with 

moderated minimum and maximum temperatures. 

Average annual temperature is around 5 °C, and the 

growing season averages 110 days.

Soils

The Dukes is on a ground moraine deposited by an 

advance of the Green Bay lobe as it moved southward 

from the Lake Superior Basin. Dominant soils are the 

well-drained Munising sandy loam, somewhat poorly 

drained Skanee sandy loam, poorly drained Angelica 

sandy loam, and Linwood muck.

Vegetation

The uplands of the Dukes are dominated by old-growth 

northern hardwoods and eastern hemlock-hardwoods. 

Hemlock dominates the somewhat poorly drained soils 

and northern white-cedarspruce and hardwoodconifers 

dominant the poorly drained soils and muck. Most 

forests are old growth.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are data for many studies on the Dukes, though, 

data collection ended when the Marquette fi eld offi ce 

was closed. Recently, two studies (stocking levels in old 

growth and second growth) have been reopened. Plots 

have been remeasured and treatments will be reapplied in 

the near future.

Research, Past and Present

Research began on the Dukes in the 1920s and 

continued until 1981. Studies consisted of stocking 

levels of hardwoods and swamp conifers, cutting 

cycles, regeneration, and cutting methods of northern 

hardwoods. Currently, only the stocking-level studies and 

a red maple growth and yield study remain active.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research results from the Dukes have been used to 

develop management guides for northern hardwood 

forests in the Lake States. These guides are widely applied 

throughout the region. The Dukes also is an excellent 

demonstration area for landowners and land managers 

interested in managing northern hardwoods. From 

studies on the forest, the only proven sustainable unevenage structure for managing northern hardwoods was 

developed. This structure (the Arbogast Guide) is applied 

on millions of hectares of northern hardwoods in the 

Lake States.

Collaborators

Collaborators involved in studies at the Dukes include 

the Hiawatha and Ottawa National Forests, Michigan 

Department of Natural Resources, Michigan Technical 

University, Michigan State University, and many forest 

industries.

Research Opportunities

There are research opportunities to study the silviculture 

and ecology of all the vegetation types on the Dukes. 

There also are opportunities for comparing treatments 

that have been applied since the 1920s. Much of this is 

managed old growth, of which little remains in the Lake 

States. The RNA is available for nondestructive research 

in old-growth northern hardwoods.

Dukes (Upper Peninsula) Experimental Forest (Michigan)
23

Facilities

There are no on-site facilities. The Dukes can be 

accessed by Dukes Road off Highway 94. Roads are well 

maintained but are not plowed during the winter.

Lat. 46°21′ N, long. 87°10′ W

Contact Information 

Dukes Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

Forestry Sciences Laboratory

5985 Highway K

Rhinelander, WI 54501

Tel: (715) 362-1124

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/up
24

Kaskaskia Experimental Forest (Illinois)

Introduction

Formal establishment of Kaskaskia Experimental Forest 

on the Elizabethtown Ranger District of the Shawnee 

National Forest was completed in 1942. Boundaries 

included about 526 ha reserved for experimental purposes 

and 16 ha purchased in 1934 for the administrative site. 

The Kaskaskia was administered from Columbus, Ohio, 

until 1946 when administration was transferred to the 

newly established research center in Carbondale, Illinois. 

By 1961, the boundaries of the forest enclosed 4,047 ha, 

of which 1,335 were in federal ownership. In 1972, when 

the research mission turned to hardwood plantations 

culture, 465 ha of federal land not currently part of the 

active research studies were returned to the Shawnee 

National Forest, with a new boundary enclosing only 870 

ha of federal and privately owned lands. 

More than 30 research studies were established within 

the Kaskaskia; however, only the study documenting 

long-term changes in an old-growth natural area remains 

active. 

Climate

The average length of the growing season (frost-free 

period) is 190 days. The average date of the last killing 

frost of spring is April 16; the fi rst killing frost of 

autumn is September 24. Annual average temperature 

is 13 °C and regional annual rainfall is 1,098 mm 

distributed equally throughout the year; prolonged dry 

periods during the growing seasons are not unusual. 

The Rosiclare_5_NW weather station (site 117487) in 

Hardin County compiled the following averages from 

1971 to 2000: winter average minimum temperature; 

4 °C, maximum temperature 7 °C, summer average 

minimum temperature, 18 °C; maximum temperature, 

30 °C, average annual rainfall, 99 cm; snowfall 25 cm.

Soils

The soils on the Kaskaskia are primarily Alford silt loam 

(fi ne-silty, mixed, mesic, Typic Hapludalfs), Grantsburg 

silt loam, and Clarksville cherty silt loam. In many areas, 

nearly the entire loessial mantle has been lost, leaving a 

surface covered with chert. St. Louis and St. Genevieve 

limestones underlie these soils. A narrow belt of fi ne 

sandy loam runs along Goose Creek, Hogthief Creek, 

and Big Creek. These belts are an alluvial formation, 

fairly fertile, and subject to frequent overfl ow. The 

Kaskaskia is located on an extensive anticline known 

as Hicks Dome, which was formed during an explosive 

phase of igneous activity during Permian times. 

Erosion has removed much of the original sedimentary 

formations, leaving Devonian limestone outcroppings 

in some areas that are remnants of the Ozark uplift that 

occurred about 200 million years ago. Subsequent action 

by wind and water from glaciers north of the area cut 

into the exposed rock, producing areas of deep glacial 

till through this area of gently to steeply sloping hills. 

Elevation ranges from 120 to 200 m above sea level.

Vegetation

The following SAF forest types are documented on the 

Kaskaskia: SAF40 (post oak-black oak), SAF52 (white 

oak-red oak-hickory), SAF 53 (white oak), SAF59, and 

SAF64 (sassafras-persimmon). About 40 percent of the 

area is mixed hardwood forests found on the lower and 

middle north and east slopes. Coves and stream bottoms 

are dominated by yellow-poplar, northern red oak, white 

oak, black oak, several hickory species, black gum, elm, 

American beech, and maples.

About 50 percent of the area is of the oak-hickory type 

found along south- and upper north-facing slopes and 

on the ridgetops dominated by black, white, post, scarlet, 

southern red, and black jack oak, and a mix of hickories. 

There is also a small disjunct stand of chestnut oak.

Long-Term Data Bases

Only one long-term data base is currently being 

maintained on the Kaskaskia. Data are available on 

survival, d.b.h., and ingrowth of individual trees in eight 

permanent plots within the Kaskaskia Woods, a 7.7-

ha remnant of largely undisturbed old-growth forests 

identifi ed in 1935. The plots have been remeasured 

periodically at nominally 10-year intervals. The natural 

area is composed equally of mesic upland forest and 

dry-mesic upland forest communities. Although now 
25

inactive, the small-group-opening study was also 

remeasured repeatedly.

Paper fi les are archived at the research laboratory in 

Columbia, Missouri, for several of the other studies 

initiated on the Kaskaskia. Most notable are detailed 

records from 1948 to 1968 documenting harvesting 

activities within the compartment study. Thirty-eight 

6- to 16-ha compartments were established on mixed 

hardwood and oak-hickory sites to follow long-term 

impacts of commercial-type forest management practices 

for one sawtimber rotation under uneven-age silviculture. 

Experimental design included various combinations 

of logging methods, silvicultural systems, cutting 

cycles, rotation length, and management intensity. The 

study did not include a no-management option. This 

study occupies the majority of the experimental forest 

remaining after the boundaries were redrawn in 1972.

Research, Past and Present

Several of the more interesting research projects include 

a compartment study with 40 plots treated with various 

cutting methods, cutting cycles, rotation lengths, and 

management intensities using uneven-age silviculture. 

Additional topics include conversion of farm woodlands 

to managed forests, chestnut and cottonwood provenance 

progeny tests, regeneration and growth following small 

group-selection cutting, and documenting natural 

succession on upland oak-hickory forests.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

At the Kaskaskia, the following studies were considered 

important:

• Maple succession without disturbance of upland 

old-growth oak-hickory forests

• Effect of small group opening on light, soil 

moisture, and natural regeneration

• Development of a tree-quality index for 

hardwood trees 

• Processing and utilization of oak and hickory for 

lumber 

Collaborators

Collaborators included the Shawnee National Forest, 

Southern Illinois University, University of ArkansasFayetteville, and Auburn University.

Research Opportunities

The compartment study provides an opportunity to 

evaluate long-term changes in vegetation subjected to 

a range of cutting methods and cycles to implement an 

uneven-age silvicultural system. Only the 8-ha Kaskaskia 

Woods is currently part of an active research study. 

Most areas on the Kaskaskia are available for cooperative 

research subject to approval by the North Central 

Research Station and the Shawnee National Forest.

Facilities

No buildings are being maintained on the Kaskaskia 

following abandonment of the administrative site 

in 1988. The nearest town is Golconda, Illinois. 

Neighboring towns include Glendale, Simpson, Robbs, 

and Elizabethtown.

Lat. 37°32′ N, long. 88°21′ W

Contact Information 

Kaskaskia Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

202 Natural Resources Building

University of Missouri

Columbia, MO 65211

Tel: (573) 875-5341

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/
26

Introduction

The 1,376-ha Lower Peninsula Experimental Forest, 

made up of the Pine River and Newaygo Units, was 

formally established in 1954. The forest was initially used 

for silvicultural research, studies of chemical release of 

overstory hardwoods in pine plantations, and growth and 

yield of northern hardwoods under different stocking 

levels. The Pine River Unit, located in the southwest 

corner of Wexford County, contains 1,117 ha. The 

Newaygo Unit, located in Newaygo County, contains 

260 ha.

Climate

In the Pine River Unit, the Wexford County portion of 

the Lower Peninsula, the average temperature in January 

(NOAA climate summary 1995) ranged from -12 to 

-4 °C; in July, it ranged from 13 to 26 °C. The average 

rainfall was 79 cm; snowfall was 180 cm. There were 5 

days when temperatures were above 32 °C and 23 days 

when they were below -18 °C. In the Newaygo County 

Unit of the Lower Peninsula, the average temperature in 

Junuary (NOAA climate summary 1995) ranged from 

-12 to -2 °C; in July, it ranged from 13 to 28 °C. The 

average annual rainfall was 81 cm; snowfall was 180 cm. 

There were 8 days when temperatures were above 32 °C 

and 16 days when they were below -18 °C.

Soils

The Pine River Unit of the Lower Peninsula is located in 

the northern highlands division of the Lower Peninsula 

of Michigan. This region is covered with a thick layer 

of glacial drift deposited by the Lake Michigan ice lobe 

during the most recent glaciation. The principal soil 

types encountered are Rubicon, Grayling, Roselawn, and 

Emmet sands. There are some differences in the texture 

and moisture-holding capacities of these soils. This is 

refl ected by differences in forest types and growth. In 

general, the soils are deep, well-drained, slightly acid 

spodosols.

The Newaygo Unit is located in the glaciated central 

uplands division of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. 

These uplands have a thick layer of glacial drift and 

probably were covered by the Lake Michigan ice lobe 

during the most recent glaciation. The principal soils 

are Sparta loamy sand and Plainfi eld sand. Both sands 

are dry and well drained, and they occur in nearly level 

plains. The top layer of Sparta loamy sand is a mixture 

of sand and fi ne organic matter. Plainfi eld sand has a 

thin layer of loamy sand mixed with a moderate amount 

of organic matter. Within the Plainfi eld sand sites there 

are small wind-eroded areas where the surface sand has 

largely been removed. The surfaces of these dish-shaped 

spots are several feel below the surface of surrounding 

noneroded areas and are frequently gravelly. There is little 

or no organic matter in these so-called sandblows. 

Vegetation

Three natural forest types prevail in the Pine River 

Unit: oak, aspen (ranging from pure stands to mixtures 

with oak and maple), and second-growth northern 

hardwoods. The oaks are mainly pin, white, northern 

red, and black oak. Considerable areas of pine, including 

red, jack, and eastern white, have been planted. Mixed 

white pine-oak type is the principal forest type of the 

Newaygo Unit. This unit also contains about 65 ha of 

plantations, most of which are red pine, with several 

acres of jack and white pines.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are no long-term data bases. 

Research, Past and Present

In the Pine River Unit, herbicide release of pine 

plantations, growth and yield of northern hardwoods, 

and municipal sewage sludge fertilization of aspen 

sprouts and pine plantations have been studied. In the 

Newaygo Unit, research evaluated prairie restoration and 

removal of red pine stands planted on prairie sites, as well 

as changes in insects and vegetation as the prairie comes 

back, with emphasis on the endangered Karner blue 

butterfl y.

Lower Peninsula Experimental Forest (Michigan)
27

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Silvicultural studies included outplanting of genetically 

selected white and jack pines and white spruce varieties; 

growth and yield of bigtooth aspen; soil moisture 

availability under hardwoods and conifers; and growth 

of pine-plantations and aspen-sprout forests treated with 

sewage sludge. The Lower Peninsula was also the site of 

forest studies on streambank erosion and stabilization, 

groundwater quality in forests fertilized with sewage, 

and measurements of understory growth and chemical 

quality.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Huron-Manistee National 

Forest.

Research Opportunities

No studies have been installed on the Lower Peninsula 

since 1981, and the Newaygo tract has not been used for 

research purposes since 1965. All older studies have been 

measured, reported, and discontinued. Except for the 

administrative site, there are no plans to use the forest for 

research purposes in the future.

Facilities

The Lower Peninsula has only one administrative site. In 

Wexford County, Michigan, this 12-ha site is commonly 

called the Wellston Field Laboratory. This laboratory 

consists of an 80-m2

 building, a shop and garage, and a 

fl ammables storage building. A National Atmospheric 

Deposition collection site is located here. Also on the site 

is a 0.8-ha cleared area enclosed with a deer-proof fence.

Lat. 43°25′ N, long. 85°40′ W

Contact Information

Lower Peninsula Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station 

1407 S. Harrison Road

East Lansing, MI 48823

Tel: (517) 355- 7740

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/
28

Introduction

Streamfl ow, weather, and well data collection began on 

the Marcell Experimental Forest in 1960. This 898-

ha site has six calibrated watersheds, each consisting 

of a mineral soil upland and organic soil peatland; an 

intermittent or perennial stream drains each peatland 

and its larger watershed. Formally established in 1962, 

the Marcell contains two units on land owned by the 

Chippewa National Forest, State of Minnesota, Itasca 

County, and a private individual. Previous and ongoing 

research addresses the ecology and hydrology of peatland. 

Research concerns typical upland/wetland watersheds 

in the Lake States, atmospheric chemistry, nutrient 

cycling, soil quality, tree-stand dynamics, and a variety 

of watershed treatments applied to upland or bogs to 

investigate impacts on water yield, peak streamfl ow, 

water quality and nutrient processing.

Climate

The climate at the Marcell is strongly continental, with 

moist warm summers and relatively dry cold winters 

with abundant sunshine. Annual precipitation averages 

780 mm, and annual temperature is 3.3 °C. About twothirds of the precipitation occurs as rain, and one-third 

as snow. Mean monthly precipitation ranges from 25 

mm in February to 110 mm in August. Total annual 

precipitation ranges from 510 to 9,540 mm. Monthly 

average temperatures in June, July, and August are 

between 16 and 19 °C, and between -11 and -15 °C in 

December, January, and February.

Soils

Ely greenstone and Canadian Shield granite and gneiss 

bedrock underlie glacial drift 45 to 55 m thick. An 8-

m-thick compact till of clay, sand, and gravel containing 

limestone fragments lies directly on bedrock. Sand 

drifts totaling 35 m in thickness overly the till. The 

upper member of these sand drifts is exposed at the 

surface on about one-third of the Marcell. Soils in this 

parent material are Menahga sands (mixed frigid Typic 

Udipsamment), Graycalm loamy sands (mixed frigid 

Alfi c Udipsamment), Cutaway loamy sands (loamy 

mixed Arenic Eutroboralf), and Sandwick loamy fi nd 

sands (loamy mixed frigid Arenic Glossaqualf). On 

about two–thirds of the Marcell, the deep sand drifts are 

overridden by a clay loam till with rock that is slightly 

calcareous and has several cretaceous shale fragments. In 

places, a 10-cm-thick layer of loess lays on the surface. 

Soils in this parent material are Warba fi ne sandy 

loam-clay loam at depth (fi ne-loamy mixed Glossic 

Eutroboralf), Nashwauk fi ne sandy loam (fi ne-loamy 

mixed Typic Glossoboralf), and Keewatin fi ne sandy 

loam (fi ne-loamy mixed Glossic Eutroboralf).

Forested fen peatlands developed on the Mooselake peat 

(a Euic Typic Borohemist). They are typically hemic in 

decomposition, reddish, and full of wood fragments. 

The forested bog peatlands developed on Loxely peat 

(a Dysic Typic Borosaprist) with porous sphagnum and 

ericaceous moss at the surface grading to Hemic and 

Sapric horizons within a depth of 1m. The poor fen/

sedge peatlands developed on Greenwood peat (a Dysic 

Typic Borohemist).

Vegetation

In the Marcell, sandy uplands support red and jack 

pine in fi re-origin stands or in plantations, along with 

mixed stands of aspen, white birch, balsam fi r, and white 

spruce. The sandy loam till soils support similar mixed 

stands. Forested bogs contain black spruce and tamarack. 

The peatland surface is dominated by sphagnum 

mosses and ericaceous shrubs. The forested fens contain 

similar species as the bogs but also northern whitecedar and black ash. Open, poor fens are dominated by 

depauperate sedges and a variety of mosses.

Marcell Experimental Forest (Minnesota)
29

Long-Term Data Bases

Soil data include organic and mineral soil physical 

properties, saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil 

temperature profi les, and von Post profi les for organic 

soils. Weather data include maximum, minimum, and 

mean daily air temperatures, and daily precipitation. 

Precipitation chemistry includes measurements of all major 

anions and cations (weekly since 1978), and total mercury 

(weekly values) and methyl mercury (monthly composites 

of weekly values). Snow-pack data (depth and water 

equivalent), soil frost (depth and occurrence), and soil 

moisture (1- foot increments to 10 feet) are available. 

Streamfl ow (daily) and water-table elevation data (daily 

in peatlands and one regional water-table site, monthly at 

other wells) are available at a variety of V-notch weirs and 

steel-well-pipe sites. Interfl ow and near-surface fl ow runoff 

are available for mineral soil sites. Water chemistry (major 

anion levels) is available from mineral soil runoff plots, 

peatland water tables, watershed streams, and regional 

water tables wells on a 2-week or storm grab-sample basis.

Research, Past and Present

At the Marcell, research on organic soils includes the 

relation between soil physical properties and water 

properties. Research on peatland hydrology and ecology 

has examined the relationship of peatland vegetation and 

chemical and physical aspects of water source; the albedo 

and evaporation characteristics of forested and harvested 

peatlands; the impact of wetlands on streamfl ow patterns 

and peak fl ows and hydrograph shape in relation to 

organic soil profi les; and the effect of harvesting or 

prescribed fi re on water chemistry, soil temperature, and 

water table response.

Numerous nutrient cycling studies have been conducted 

for all major nutrients, and in acid bog peatlands for trace 

metals. Data have been obtained on the rate of evolution 

of methane and carbon dioxide from various bog and 

fen peatlands, and the rates of carbon accumulation in 

peatlands. Detailed studies of the fate of mercury (both 

total and methyl) and interactions with sulfur inputs are 

ongoing.

Watershed studies include the evaluation of various 

forest management options on water yield and chemistry. 

Treatments include upland clearcutting of aspen, 

peatland strip and clearcutting of black spruce, prescribed 

fi re in a harvested fen peatland, upland nitrogen 

fertilization, conversion of upland aspen forest to conifer 

forests, and use of cattle grazing or herbicides to convert 

from aspen to conifers.

The Marcell is a Long-Term Soil Productivity site for 

evaluating the impact of soil compaction and removal 

of surface organic matter on aspen productivity. It is 

the longest running National Atmospheric Deposition 

Program (NADP) site in the Nation (since July 

1978). The Marcell was one of three pilot sites for the 

measurement of total mercury and methyl mercury in 

precipitation (beginning in 1993) as part of the NADP 

Mercury Deposition network. It is proposed as a U.S. 

Climate Reference Network site.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Many of the current concepts of peatland hydrology and 

ecology were fi rst observed and tested at the Marcell. 

Forest management options for watershed and watershed 

modeling of storm hydrographs yielded data on the 

relationships between open or young forest land and 

increases in bankfull streamfl ow rates. These data have 

been translated to harvest rate and open land guides for 

various forest plans at the national, state, and county 

levels, and are used by river basin planning groups in the 

Lake States.

The Marcell is the site of an extensive long-term 

evaluation of groundwater wells. These data are used 

in combination with paleo-botanical studies of peat 

profi les and soil hydraulic conductivity to illustrate 

the signifi cance of deep seepage to water and nutrient 

budgets on experimental watersheds. Work at the forest 

on soil compaction on the forest was the fi rst in the Lake 

States to reveal the serious and prolonged impact of 

compaction on future aspen productivity.

Collaborators

University of Minnesota (Departments of Soil, Water 

and Climate; Natural Resources, Ecology, Forest 

Resources, Environmental Engineering, Water 

Resources Research Center), Science Museum of 

Minnesota, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 
30

Minnesota Division of Natural Resources, Chippewa 

National Forest, Superior National Forest, University 

of Nebraska, University of Wisconsin, Michigan 

State University, University of Michigan, Michigan 

Technological University, Gustavos Adolphus College, 

University of Toronto-Mississauga, National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, United States Geological 

Survey, National Science Foundation, and the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency.

Research Opportunities

The depth, variety, and length of water, soil, atmosphere, 

and vegetation data bases at the Marcell afford 

graduate students and collaborative scientists a unique 

opportunity to study watershed and landscape aspects of 

upland and peatland systems in the northern Lake States. 

There also is a variety of demonstration plots and areas 

on the Marcell.

Facilities

The Marcell has a fi eld laboratory (constructed in 

1964) with a bunkroom, offi ce, bench laboratory, small 

kitchenette, and bathroom. This facility is being replaced 

with a larger fi eld laboratory with four bedrooms, 

universal access toilets, laundry, kitchen, bench 

laboratory, and small conference area. 

Lat. 47°32′ N, long. 93°28′ W

Contact Information 

Marcell Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

Forest Sciences Laboratory

1831 Highway 169 East

Grand Rapids, MN 55744

Tel: (218) 236 7115

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/marcell

There are no long-term databases.
31

Introduction

The Paoli Experimental Forest was established in 1963 

in the Wayne-Hoosier National Forest in south-central 

Indiana. The primary goal was to conduct research on 

mixed hardwood species to demonstrate how to increase 

the number and quality of high-value species on good 

sites. The Paoli, about 256 ha, is located in the Tell City 

Ranger District.

Climate

The climate is temperate, with long summers and mild 

winters. The average frost-free period is 175 days. Annual 

precipitation measures 1,092 mm and it falls throughout 

the year, primarily as rain. Droughts can occur in late 

July and August.

Soils

The physiography of the Paoli is typical of the 

unglaciated knobs region of southern Indiana and 

north-central Kentucky. The area is essentially a dissected 

plateau. Slopes range from steep to gentle and ridges 

from narrow to very broad. Elevation of the Paoli ranges 

from 180 to 256 m above sea level.

Vegetation

The forest types are typical for southern Indiana and 

other areas of equally good sites in the region. Mixed 

hardwoods are on lower slopes, in valleys, and in coves. 

The oak-hickory type is found on the upper slopes 

and ridges. The predominant species are sugar maple, 

ash, beech hickory, white oak, and elm in the mixed 

hardwood type and white oak, hickory, sugar maple, 

red oak, and black oak in the oak-hickory type. Yellowpoplar is defi cient in the overstory but scattered trees 

provide a seed source. Black walnut trees, though not 

numerous, are scattered through the mixed hardwood 

stands. Plantations and old fi elds are generally found 

on broad ridges. The old fi elds range from small fi elds 

with no woody species to those with volunteer trees and 

shrubs.

Long-Term Data Bases

The oldest research data bases of the Paoli include studies 

of oak regeneration and stand dynamics that are less than 

20 years old.

Research, Past and Present

• White and northern red oak planting 

• Effects of nursery undercutting and shoot 

pruning on growth of outplanted oaks

• Prescribed burning to stimulate both planted 

and natural stands of regenerated oak trees and 

control competition to the oak from yellowpoplar, aspen, and maple

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research in oak regeneration conducted on the Paoli has 

been used to develop prescriptions for regenerating oak 

that were published in the scientifi c literature, conference 

proceedings, and North Central Research Station papers. 

This research has added to our knowledge of how oak 

regeneration dynamics vary by ecoregion in the Eastern 

United States and was recently incorporated into a 

landmark synthesis on oak forest ecosystems, The Ecology 

and Silviculture of Oaks by P.A. Johnson, S.R. Shifl ey, and 

R. Rogers. 

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Hoosier National Forest, 

Purdue University, and Indiana Division of Natural 

Resources.

Research Opportunities

Opportunities include stand-level investigations into 

the forest ecology and silviculture of central hardwood 

forests. Monitoring ongoing research will continue to 

be productive and add to our knowledge of how forests 

respond to specifi c management disturbances. Periodic 

forest inventory will document forest succession in the 

absence of management.

Paoli Experimental Forest (Indiana)
32

Facilities

An equipment shed (67 m2) is located on the property.

Lat. 38°19′ N, long. 86°18′ W

Contact Information

Paoli Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

202 Natural Resources Building

University of Missouri

Columbia MO 65211

Tel: (573) 875-5341

http://www.fs.fed.us/ef/paoli
33

Introduction

Pike Bay Experimental Forest is located on the Chippewa 

National Forest just east of Cass Lake, Minnesota. 

Research began on the forest in the late 1920s before it 

was offi cially designated an experimental forest in 1932. 

Pike Bay is adjacent to the “ten-sections” area of the 

original Chippewa National Forest. Only dead trees have 

been removed from the this area.

Climate

The climate at Pike Bay is continental. Maximum 

summer temperatures are 32 °C with high humidity 

(80 percent) and minimum winter temperatures descend 

to -35 °C. Growing season length is 100 to 120 days. 

Average annual precipitation is 50 to 65 cm. Snow 

depths average ~1 m. Although prolonged summer 

droughts occur, there usually is adequate rainfall in the 

growing season.

Soils

Although variable, the soils have developed mainly in the 

Guthrie till plain deposits covered to varying depth by a 

silt loam loess cap. The soil type is the Warba soil series.

Vegetation

Much of the forest is dominated by mature to 

overmature aspen (60 to 80 years old). These are among 

the most productive (site index 75 and higher at base 

age 50 years) aspen sites in northern Minnesota. Pike 

Bay once supported large white pines and northern 

hardwoods and examples of each remain.

Pike Bay is noted for its abundance of small seasonal 

wetlands. These vary greatly in the depth of water and 

duration of fl ooding during the growing season. Black 

ash is the most common tree species in seasonal wetlands. 

Generally, these wetlands are 0.25 ha or less in size.

The eastern edge of the Pike Bay is adjacent to the 

Bemidji Sand Plain, an area where fi res (assumed to 

be related to burning by Native Americans) occurred 

more frequently. At least historically, the eastern side of 

the forest is believed to have had species more tolerant 

to burning (for example more white and red pines). In 

the interior and western parts of the forest, fi re was less 

common and vegetation is more sensitive to fi re. Fire has 

generally been eliminated as a disturbance agent and the 

differentiation between these areas is not as obvious in 

present-day vegetation.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are long-term data bases for a number of projects, 

and not all are fully replicated; however, length of record 

gives them value. There are a number of long-term 

records on aspen thinning beginning in the 1940s and 

50s, but these studies no longer are active and a number 

of the sites have been clearcut.

Active studies for which long-term records are available 

are listed with approximate length of record: white pine 

thinning (established about 1948, with intermittent 

records); ABC (aspen-birch-conifer) studies (established 

about 1978, excellent pretreatment and immediate posttreatment records but inactive in recent years); long-term 

soil productivity in aspen forest types (established in 

1993, excellent pretreatment and post-treatment records); 

species comparison trials on a single soil type (established 

in the 1930s, studied intensively in the 1970s, currently 

inactive).

Pike Bay Experimental Forest (Minnesota)
34

Research, Past and Present

Research began in the 1930s, and plantations established 

then have provided important areas for studying and 

comparing forest and soil development in aspen, red 

pine, and spruce growing on the same soils. Aspen 

research has been the most common at Pike Bay. 

Beginning in the 1940s, aspen research has included 

thinning in young stands, prescribed burning, and effects 

of clearcutting on soil and stand productivity. Currently, 

the most active work is related to the Long-Term Soil 

Productivity Study (LTSP), one of three aspen LTSP sites 

in the Lakes States (others are in the Upper and Lower 

Peninsulas of Michigan). There is a small amount of 

published work on white and red pine.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Aspen research over the years has been important in 

helping develop and refi ne silvicultural prescriptions for 

management. Long-term research on soil productivity is 

important for predicting impacts on aspen productivity 

from compaction and organic matter removal. Work on 

thinning in white pine is the oldest research available in 

Minnesota for this forest type.

Collaborators

Collaborators have come from the Chippewa National 

Forest.

Research Opportunities

Aspen research remains a major focus and there are 

signifi cant opportunities for continuing the ongoing 

work and beginning new research on other aspects of 

aspen silviculture and stand development. The forest 

also provides opportunites for research on ecology and 

silviculture of northern hardwoods and mixtures of 

northern hardwoods and aspen/birch-white-pine.

Facilities

There are no on-site facilities, but the closest town, Cass 

Lake, is several miles to the west. The nearest larger town 

is Bemidji, about a 1-hour drive west of Grand Rapids 

on Highway 2. There is a well-developed system of roads 

within the forest, but travel is diffi cult in wet weather.

Lat. 47°20′ N, long. 94°40′ W

Contact Information 

Pike Bay Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

1831 Hwy. 169 E

Grand Rapids, MN 55744

Tel: (218) 326-7116

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/
35

Introduction

In 1950, the lands that make up the Sinkin Experimental 

Forest were withdrawn from the National Forest System 

to implement forestry research. The headwaters of Sinkin 

Creek originate in the general vicinity of the experimental 

forest, hence the name “Sinkin.” The forest covers 1,666 

ha and is located in southeastern Dent County, Missouri. 

It is a compartment within the Salem Ranger District 

of the Mark Twain National Forest. The town of Salem 

is approximately 40 km to the northwest. The Sinkin 

is operated and maintained cooperatively by the North 

Central Research Station and Mark Twain National 

Forest.

Climate

Weather data have been collected from 1950 to the 

present. Most of the average annual precipitation of 

1,118 mm falls in the form of rain, with occasional 

freezing rain, sleet, and snow during the winter months. 

Winter snowfall averages 2,540 mm. The coldest month 

is January and the warmest is July or August. Within the 

data set, the lowest temperature recorded is -28 °C and 

the warmest is 44 °C. It is not uncommon during the 

winter months for temperatures of 10 to 15 °C; this is 

known locally as the January thaw. Temperatures of 

32 °C or higher have been recorded in April and October. 

The wettest months are April, May, and June, and the 

driest are December, January, and February. 

Soils

Most of the ridgetops and steep side slopes on the Sinkin 

are composed of Clarksville stony loam or gravelly loam. 

The surface layer is about 33 cm thick and consists 

of cherty silt loam. The subsoil is about 18 cm thick, 

reddish yellow, with very cherty loam. From 40 to 90 

percent of the soil profi le contains pieces of chert of 0.6 

to 15 cm. These soils originate from Cambrian dolomite 

and sandstone in the Roubidoux and Gascanade 

formations. Because these soils have a low moisture 

storage capacity, droughty conditions develop quickly 

when there is a lack of precipitation.

Vegetation

Approximately 1,214 ha of the Sinkin is dominated by 

the red oak and white oak groups. Black and scarlet oaks 

are the most numerous species in the red oak group, with 

some northern red oak. The most numerous and largest 

trees of the white oak group are white and post oaks. 

Growing in association with both groups are hickory, 

black tupelo, sassafras, shortleaf pine, black cherry, 

maple, dogwood, and some black walnut. The youngest 

stands are 3 years old and the oldest exceed 100 years. 

The understory is composed of hardwood species and 

shade-tolerant herbaceous plants. The remaining 186 ha 

is of the oak-shortleaf pine timber type. The overstory 

and understory consist of varying amounts of hardwood 

species and shortleaf pine. Herbaceous plants that do well 

on acidic and drier sites are found on these sites.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data bases kept at the Sinkin are pine stocking 

study evaluating effects on growth and yield (origin 

1950), oak stocking study (origin 1962, effects on growth 

and yield), and shelterwood study (origin 1979). In 

addition, data bases have been kept of Sinkin weather 

data (origin 1950), spatial distribution study (origin 

1978), and a continuous forest inventory (origin 1992).

Research, Past and Present

Initial research concentrated on solving management 

and reproduction problems of shortleaf pine. Planting 

techniques, prescribed fi re, use of herbicides to control 

competition, and thinning methods were developed 

to address these problems. Later research confronted 

the silvicultural issues with the management and 

reproduction of oak stands. Studies were established 

to answer questions about natural and artifi cial oak 

regeneration. Current research entails monitoring the 

long-term studies, savanna demonstration areas, joint 

fi re-science projects with the Missouri Department of 

Conservation and the USDI Geological Survey, and 

administrative studies of uneven-age management with 

the Mark Twain National Forest.

Sinkin Experimental Forest (Missouri)
36

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

In the 52-year history of the Sinkin, more than 200 

research projects have been established and numerous 

shortleaf pine management guides have been written 

by project scientists. The silvicultural techniques used 

by foresters for pine management in Missouri were 

developed on the Sinkin. Successful techniques of oak 

underplanting were developed and refi ned on the forest 

and surrounding National Forest lands. Information 

gained from research conducted contributed signifi cantly 

to The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks by P.A. Johnson, 

S.R. Shifl ey, and R. Rogers.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Mark Twain National Forest, 

Missouri Department of Conservation, University 

of Missouri, Southern Illinois University, and USDI 

Geological Survey.

Research Opportunities

Studies of ecology and silviculture of central hardwood 

forests, oak decline, drought-related stress on tree growth 

and yield, insect pest and drought relations, and savanna 

development could be developed.

Facilities

The technical staff for the Sinkin consists of three 

fulltime technicians in an offi ce located at the Salem 

Ranger District Offi ce. The forest has an automated 

weather station that is accessible by satellite and cell 

phone.

Lat. 37°30′ N, long. 91°15′ W

Contact Information 

Sinkin Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

University of Missouri

Columbia, MO 65211

Tel: (573) 875-5341

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/sinkin

Or:

Superintendent

Tel: (573) 729-6656
37

Udell Experimental Forest (Michigan)

Introduction

In 1961, the 1,538-ha Udell Experimental Forest 

was established by the USDA Forest Service as a fi eld 

laboratory for studying the hydrology of forested glacial 

sand sites. One of the major objectives was to compare 

water yields from the primary forest cover types. The 

Udell is located in Manistee County and on the Manistee 

Ranger District of the Lower Michigan National Forest.

Climate

Weather statistics for the Udell are supplied by NOAA 

climate summary (1995). Average temperatures for 

January range from -9 to -2 °C; for July they range from 

15 to 27 °C. Average annual rainfall is 790 mm; snowfall 

is 2,340 mm. There are 6 days when the temperature 

exceeds 32 °C and 5 days when it dips below -18 °C.

Soils

The Udell consists of sand outwash plains surrounding 

a sand moraine that result from the late Pleistocene 

(Valders) advance of continental glaciation about 

10,000 years ago. Terminal moraines of the Port Huron 

substage were breached and reworked by this ice front 

and its recessional melt waters to form a large sand plain 

surrounding small morainal remnants, one of which 

is the upland known locally as the Udell Hills. The 

Manistee and Little Manistee Rivers fl ow westward to 

Lake Michigan through the sand plain. The Udell lies 

between these two rivers. Small tributaries to the Little 

Manistee River form in high water-table areas southeast 

of the Udell Hills. The Pine and Claybank Creeks 

fl ow from the north side of the area and drain into the 

Manistee River. The pattern of water-table levels shows 

that ground water fl owing from the study area supplies 

these streams.

Upland soils are predominantly within the Grayling sand 

soil type, a Spodic Udipsamment. On some ridgetops 

in the morainal hills, a clayey sand susbsoil within the 

surface 120 cm characterizes inclusions of the Graycalm 

series (Alfi c Udipsamment). Shallow water-table areas 

on the northwest and southeast boundaries contain the 

imperfectly drained Au Gres sands (Entic Haplaquod) 

and poorly drained areas contain Roscommon sand 

(Typic Aquipsamment) interspersed with woody Tawas 

histosols. Grayling sand covers more than 90 percent of 

the Udell.

Vegetation

Approximately 70 percent of the Udell is in oak and 

aspen forest cover types. Stand composition in these types 

range from mixed oaks with relatively few aspen to pure 

aspen stands. There are about 610 ha of jack pine and 

red pine plantations that have been established on the 

eastern and western outwash plains. In the southeast and 

northwest portions, lowland hardwood forests of elm, red 

maple, and occasional northern white-cedar are found.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are no long-term data bases.

Research, Past and Present

Research at the Udell has focused on the effects of forest 

type and partial cutting on ground-water yields and pulp 

and papermill sludge fertilization of red pine plantations.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Numerous reports have been published on changes in 

streamfl ow resulting from reforestation and cutting.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Huron-Manistee National 

Forest, Manistee Ranger District, and Lower Michigan 

National Forest.

Research Opportunities

Considerable portions of upland moraines, level outwash 

plains, and hardwood swamp areas are instrumented 

with wells and other measurement devices to determine 

the behavior of ground-water level under existing forest 

conditions. The forest includes the major portions of the 

surrounding plains and segments of extensive hardwood 

swamp areas.
38

Facilities

The Udell extends from 1.6 to 4.8 km south of a 

major access highway (M-55). Research personnel are 

headquartered at Cadillac, Michigan, 56 km to the east. 

Field operations at the forest are centered at the Pine 

River Forest Laboratory, 16 km east of the forest near the 

junction of Highways M-55 and M-37.

Lat. 44°15′ N, long. 85°24′ W

Contact Information

Udell Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

North Central Research Station

1407 South Harrison Road

East Lansing, MI 48823

Tel: (517) 355-7740

http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/ef/udell
39

Introduction

The Baltimore Ecosystem Study (BES) is a National 

Science Foundation Long-Term Ecological Research 

project that explores metropolitan Baltimore, Maryland, 

as an ecological system. The project involves researchers 

and educators from the Northern Research Station and 

more than 30 colleges, universities, community groups, 

and government agencies. The research program advances 

scientifi c understanding of urban ecosystems, and 

serves as a resource for education and decision making 

by communities and land managers responsible for 

sustaining the equality of life for millions of citizens in 

the Baltimore metropolitan area. The research measures 

interactions between ecological, social, and physical 

factors to understand the structure and function of the 

Baltimore ecosystem.

The BES area includes Baltimore City, Baltimore County, 

and the counties of Ann Arundel, Carrol, Harford, 

Howard, and Montgomery. The primary study unit, 

however, is the 17,150 ha Gwynns Falls Watershed. 

The Gwynns Falls watershed is a mix of land-use types 

including agricultural and forested lands, recently 

suburbanized areas, established suburbs, and dense urban 

areas having residential, commercial and open spaces.

Climate

The Baltimore metropolitan area has hot humid 

summers and cold winters with average annual air 

temperatures ranging from 14.5  ̊C in the city to 12.8 

 ̊

C in the surrounding area. Precipitation is distributed 

evenly throughout the year and ranges from an annual 

average of 108 cm yr-1 in Baltimore to 104 cm yr1

 in the surrounding metropolitan area. Maximum 

evapotranspiration occurs during July, and groundwater 

reservoirs are recharged primarily between mid-September 

and March. The greatest rainfall intensities occur in the 

summer and early fall; precipitation from this period is 

about 10 percent higher than during the remaining three 

seasons of the year. The proximity of large bodies of water 

and the infl ow of southerly winds contribute to relatively 

high humidity during much of the year.

Vegetation

The Baltimore metropolitan area was previously 

dominated by hardwood deciduous forests with smaller 

areas of riparian and wetland vegetation. After European 

colonization and before the development of the city, 

the forested areas were transformed to agricultural 

uses. Forest cover, mostly outside the city, is dominated 

by chestnut oak, yellow-poplar; box elder, green 

ash sycamore and silver maple are found in riparian 

areas. Overall, Baltimore City has a canopy cover of 

approximately 25 percent with the majority of tree 

stems occurring in remnant forest patches, vacant land, 

and residential areas that are dominated by ash species, 

American elm, American beech, black cherry, black 

locust, and tree-of-heaven.

Soil and Surface Geology

The Gwynns Falls watershed lies in two physiographic 

provinces, the Piedmont Plateau to the north and the 

Atlantic Coastal Plain to the south, which are separated 

by the Fall Zone. The topography varies from “gently 

sloping” to “hilly” with locally steep slopes and bedrock 

outcroppings within drainage corridors. The Piedmont 

Plateau in the watershed is underlain by mafi c, and 

ultramafi c rock types. The Coastal Plain in the watershed 

is underlain by much younger, poorly consolidated 

sediments. Soils in the Coastal Plain are very deep, 

somewhat excessively drained and well-drained upland 

Baltimore Ecosystem Study (Maryland)
40

soils that are underlain by either sandy or gravelly 

sediments or unstable clayey sediment. The dominant 

coastal plain soils in the Baltimore metropolitan area 

consist of Typic Hapludults. Soils in the Piedmont 

Plateau of the Baltimore region are very deep, moderately 

sloping, well drained upland soils that are underlain 

by semi-basic or mixed basic and acidic rocks. The 

dominant piedmont soils in the Baltimore area consist of 

Ultic Hapludalfs. Highly disturbed soils make up more 

than 60 percent of the land area of urbanized areas of the 

watershed.

Research and Facilities

The BES study area includes nearly 60,000 ha of intact 

forests, some 120 years old or more. In the Baltimore 

metropolitan region, a small network of permanent plots 

in urban and rural forest remnants has been established 

to measure ecosystem processes over time within an 

urban-rural gradient framework. In addition, the BES 

maintains a larger network of over 400 “extensive” or 

Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) plots that are situated in 

various urban land-use and cover types that are revisited 

every 5 years to measure changes in vegetation structure 

and soil characteristics. The BES also has established 

a hierarchical network of 14 USGS stream-gauging 

stations that represent a gradient of urban development, 

ranging from small, single land-use watersheds to 

larger and complex watersheds that integrate all of the 

principal study area. In so doing, advantage was taken of 

differences in socio-economic factors, land use, and cover 

among the smaller watersheds in the hierarchy to set up 

comparisons much like the gradient analysis of remnant 

forest patches described above. The network includes 

a reference area in an entirely forested watershed. A 

network of meteorological measurements was established 

to support hydrologic investigations and to provide a 

climatic framework for all studies. The network includes 

10 rain gauges, fi ve complete weather stations, a solar 

radiation monitor, an atmospheric fl ux tower, and a 

network of stream temperature probes.

Long-Term Data Bases

GIS data bases include geology, soils, land use, socialdemography, historic land use and cover, urban 

infrastructure, tree canopy, among others. Climate 

data, including air temperature, precipitation, relative 

humidity, wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation 

have been collected since 2000. Since 1999, stream 

temperature, water quality and quantity, and pathogens 

have been monitored, along with soil moisture and 

temperature, soil water chemistry, tree growth and 

mortality, and trace gas fl uxes. Eddy fl ux measurements 

began in 2001.

Major Research Accomplishments and 

Effects on Management

• The most dense network of urban watershed 

monitoring stations in the country (14 gauging 

stations installed)

• The only permanent eddy fl ux tower in an urban 

or suburban area

• Measuring community well-being and social 

capital and relating this to stewardship

• Developing new tools that can improve local 

resource management and planning

• Classroom enrichment, teacher training, 

mentoring, and science instruction, including 

training and recruitment of minorities into 

natural resource professions

• Development of innovative non-point 

source, non-structural (using trees and other 

vegetation) low impact development storm water 

management techniques

• Measurement of urban forest ecosystem services 

and monitoring long-term health of both urban 

trees and remnant forest stands

• Riparian hydrology of urban streams 

• Measured surface water salt contamination and 

spatial patterns of soil contamination

• Measuring urban carbon cycle

Collaborators

Institute of Ecosystem Studies (IES);University of 

Maryland Baltimore County, Center for Environmental 

Research and Education; Maryland State Forest Service; 

Parks and People Foundation; Baltimore City (Public 

Works, Recreation and Parks, Planning, Public Health) 

and Baltimore County Department of Environmental 

Protection and Natural Resource Management; U.S. 
41

Geological Survey; Johns Hopkins University; University 

of North Carolina; Vermont University; University of 

Maryland Center for Environmental Science; Chesapeake 

Bay Program; Columbia University; Towson University.

Lat: 39°24 ́47 ̋ N, long. 76°31 ́19 ̋ W

Contact Information

Baltimore Ecosystem Study c/o

Center for Urban and Environmental 

 Research and Education

Technology Research Center

1000 Hilltop Circle

Baltimore, MD 21250

Tel: (410) 455-8014

www.beslter.org/
42

Introduction

The Bartlett Experimental Forest is the site of research 

to answer questions about ecological structure, function, 

and process in New England’s northern hardwood forests 

and to provide guidelines for managing timber and 

wildlife habitat. The Bartlett is within the Saco Ranger 

District of the White Mountain National Forest in New 

Hampshire and is managed by the Northeastern Research 

Station at Durham, New Hampshire. Established in 

1931, it encompasses 1,052 ha but will likely double in 

size with the forest plan revision that is being written. 

The forest extends from the Village of Bartlett in the 

Saco River Valley at 207 m to about 915 m elevation at 

its upper reaches. Aspects across the forest are primarily 

north and east.

The White Mountain National Forest, including the 

Bartlett, was purchased under the Weeks Act of 1911. 

In the late 19th century, the area was selectively logged 

for high-value species, fi rst eastern white pine and red 

spruce and later sugar maple and yellow birch. Logging 

railroads were laid and hardwood stands were clearcut 

for locomotive fuel. The lower third of the Bartlett was 

logged and some portions were cleared for pasture. 

Upper portions were progressively less impacted with 

increasing elevation. Although fi res are relatively rare, the 

1938 hurricane did widespread damage. High-grading 

resulted in more American beech, so that when the beech 

scale-Nectria complex (beech bark disease), arrived in 

the 1940s, it caused substantial damage and continues 

to infl uence stand dynamics. An ice storm in 1998 was 

the most recent widespread natural disturbance, affecting 

mostly higher elevation stands. Occasional windstorms 

are common, but of relatively small scale.

Climate

Summers are warm with high temperatures frequently 

above 32 °C. Winters are cold with low temperatures 

often reaching -5 °C. Average annual precipitation is 

1,270 mm, well distributed throughout the year. In 

winter, individual storms can drop more than 600 mm of 

snow, which most years accumulates to depths of 1.5 to 

2 m.

Soils

The soils on the Bartlett are spodosols that developed 

on glacial till derived from granite and gneiss. The soils 

are moist but usually well drained. In places, the soil is 

shallow and boulders and rocks are common throughout 

the forest.

Vegetation

There are areas of old-growth northern hardwoods with 

American beech, yellow birch, sugar maple, and eastern 

hemlock the dominant species. Even-aged stands of red 

maple, paper birch, and aspen occupy sites that once were 

cleared. Red spruce stands cover the highest slopes, and 

eastern white pine is confi ned to the lowest elevations.

Long-Term Data Bases

When the Bartlet was established, about 500 plots 

measuring 0.10 ha were laid out on a 100 by 200 m grid. 

On these plots, all trees > 5 cm d.b.h. were measured in 

1931-32, 1939-40, 1991-92, and 2001-03. Partial 

remeasurements were done in the 1950s and 60s. Some 

Bartlett Experimental Forest (New Hampshire)
43

plots are in compartments that receive silvicultural 

treatments and others are in areas that are not entered for 

harvest. The main long-term data base comprises 

measurements from these plots. Stand-level data bases 

that follow responses to forest management include tree 

regeneration and stand dynamics; changes in woody 

shrub and herbaceous vegetation; and bird, small 

mammal (including bats), and amphibian use of habitats 

created by silvicultural prescriptions. Larger scale data 

bases from Bartlett and adjacent White Mountains 

include measurements of forest composition, 

productivity, and soil and canopy-level nutrient status in 

conjunction with data collected by a variety of airborne 

and spaceborne remote-sensing instruments.

Research, Past and Present

For the fi rst 50 years, research on the Bartlett focused 

on managing northern hardwood stands for timber. 

An array of silvicultural prescriptions was applied, 

including single-tree selection, group and patch cutting, 

clearcutting, and diameter-limit harvesting. Although 

these are among the longest running studies in this 

forest type, many management questions about thinning 

regimes, tree-quality development, etc. remain and 

silvicultural research continues. Silvicultural treatments 

create a range of stand compositions and structures 

that are ideal for wildlife habitat studies. For the past 

20 years, relationships between vegetation management 

and needs of wildlife throughout their life cycles have 

been investigated intensely. Such research focuses on 

amphibians, small mammals, and birds. Since 1995, the 

Bartlett has become a primary site for tests of emerging 

airborne and spaceborne remote-sensing technologies, 

including imaging spectrometry, imaging laser, and radar 

systems. These technologies are evaluated for their ability 

to estimate forest composition, structure and growth, and 

ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling and carbon 

storage. This research, though primarily at the landscape 

or broader scales, critically depends on the long-term 

detailed records from the Bartlett.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Northern hardwood forest management in New 

England is based largely on research done at the Bartlett. 

Regeneration methods and early stand management 

have been infl uenced by studies there, as have 

recommendations for managing habitat for wildlife. 

Research on the Bartlett research has been instrumental 

by understanding forest response following disturbance 

and in providing reference data for fi eld and remotesensing studies aimed at understanding nutrient cycling, 

growth, and carbon storage. Technology transfer is a 

major function, with numerous workshops and tours 

annually.

Collaborators

On the Bartlett, collaborating specialists include those 

from the White Mountain National Forest, other 

Northeastern Research Station scientists, and faculty 

and graduate students from the University of New 

Hampshire. Remote sensing is studied in collaboration 

with the University of New Hampshire and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Research Opportunities

Opportunities for studying all aspects of ecology and 

management of northern hardwood forests in New 

England are nearly unlimited on the Barteltt and 

manipulative experiments are possible in collaboration 

with NE scientists. Project staff will facilitate 

nonmanipulative studies that do not confl ict with the 

long-term mission of the forest.

Facilities

Facilities at the Bartlett include an offi ce and laboratory 

space, a conference room, and quarters for up to 25 

people.

Lat. 44°2′39′′ N, long. 71°9′56′′ W

Contact Information

Bartlett Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

PO Box 640

271 Mast Road

Durham, NH 03824

Tel: (603) 868-7632

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham/bef/bartlett
44

Introduction

The Fernow Experimental Forest, a 1,902-ha outdoor 

laboratory and classroom, was established in 1934 and 

named for Bernhard Fernow, a pioneer in American 

forestry research. Early research addressed high-elevation 

red spruce and the effects of fi re on hardwood forests. 

The Fernow was closed during World War II, but a 

new research program was begun in 1948 to study the 

silviculture of mixed hardwood forests and watersheds 

of the central Appalachians. The Fernow, located 

near Parsons, West Virginia, lies within the Allegheny 

Mountain section of the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau. 

Elevations range from 533 to 1,112 m, with generally 

steep slopes.

Climate

The climate at the Fernow is characterized as rainy and 

cool. Mean annual precipitation is about 1,470 mm 

per year, distributed evenly throughout the year. Mean 

annual temperature is 8.9 °C, with a frost-free season of 

about 145 days. Although winter snowfall can be heavy, 

the snow pack is intermittent.

Soils

A rock layer composed of fractured hard sandstone 

and shale underlies most of the Fernow. A majority 

of the soils are of the Calvin and Dekalb series, 

which originated from these rocky materials (loamyskeletal mixed mesic Typic Dystrochrepts). On the 

southeastern part of the forest, Greenbrier limestone 

outcrops to produce a midslope zone of limestone soil 

of the Belmont series (fi ne-loamy mixed mesic Typic 

Hapludalfs). The average soil depth is about 1m.

Vegetation

The Fernow was heavily cutover between 1905 and 

1911. The second-growth vegetation is mixed hardwood 

forest, and has been classifi ed as mixed mesophytic. 

Principal overstory species include northern red oak, 

sugar maple, yellow-poplar, and red maple. There are 22 

commercial tree species on the Fernow.

Long-Term Data Bases

Meteorological data have been collected consistently 

at the Fernow since 1951 and deposition chemistry 

has been monitored since 1987. Streamfl ow has been 

recorded from fi ve gauged, forested watersheds since 

1951 and stream chemistry since 1971; currently, 

11 watersheds are monitored for streamfl ow and 

chemistry data. Silvicultural data bases have been 

developed since 1949. Whole-stand characteristics 

are based on 100-percent tallies (d.b.h. > 12.7 cm) on 

more than 80 research compartments that have been 

remeasured periodically and managed using silvicultural 

practices from even-aged to uneven-aged regeneration. 

Unmanaged reference areas are included in this data 

base. Data can be stratifi ed by site quality and include 

information on species, d.b.h., merchantable height 

and grade, and dead or alive. Regeneration data were 

concurrently sampled using temporary plot locations for 

both seedlings (d.b.h. < 2.54 cm) and saplings (d.b.h. 

Fernow Experimental Forest (West Virginia)
45

< 12.7 cm). Individual tree information is collected on 

more than 800 permanent growth plots. Growth plots 

were fi rst established in 1979 and complement the 

whole-stand data. Data are collected on species, d.b.h., 

stem characteristics, logging damage, tree form, crown 

dimensions, and temporal changes. Permanent growth 

plots also have been established to track net primary 

productivity in long-term ecological studies.

Research, Past and Present

Scientifi c studies on the Fernow have followed two 

lines of research, with considerable overlap. Silvicultural 

research, focused mostly on mixed hardwood stands, 

addresses questions relating to regenerating, growing, 

tending, and harvesting trees and stands. Watershed 

research has addressed some of the more basic questions 

about water use by forests and forest hydrology, as 

well as critical issues affecting roads, best management 

practices, and forest management effects on water and 

soil resources. In 1994, two research units combined 

to incorporate larger and broader scales of research. 

The Fernow also has been in the forefront of research 

on acidic deposition and nitrogen saturation. A wholewatershed acidifi cation study has been conducted since 

1989. Recently, research on threatened and endangered 

species has assumed a more prominent role, due to the 

presence of Indiana bat and running buffalo clover on 

the Fernow.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research on the Fernow has demonstrated the benefi ts of 

good forest management in the central Appalachians and 

shown that improved log quality gives the greatest return 

from good hardwood forest management. Guidelines 

for determining site quality from topographic and soil 

features were developed, along with improved logging 

methods that are practical and profi table. Researchers 

have demonstrated that although streamfl ow can be 

increased by practical forest management, cutting a forest 

does not create a high fl ood hazard when the forest fl oor 

is protected from erosion. Work from the Fernow has 

been used to develop best management practices for West 

Virginia.

Collaborators

On the Fernow, collaborators include scientists from 

West Virginia University, University of Pittsburgh, 

University of Georgia, Virginia Polytechnic and State 

University, Purdue University, Pennsylvania State 

University, and specialists from the Monongahela 

National Forest. Industrial cooperators include 

MeadWestvaco, and the Jim C. Hamer Lumber 

Company.

Research Opportunities

The opportunities for research on the Fernow are 

abundant thanks to its long-term studies and the wealth 

of data. There is the opportunity for stand manipulations 

as the Fernow has its own logging crew and equipment.

Facilities

Facilities on the Fernow that include a water-quality and 

another laboratory facility, small, historic bunkhouse, 

and the Timber and Watershed Laboratory in Parsons.

Lat. 39°3′15′′ N, long. 79°41′15′′ W

Contact Information 

Fernow Experimental Forest

Northeastern Research Station

USDA Forest Service

P.O. Box 404

Parsons, WV 26287

Tel: (304) 478-2000

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/parsons/fefhome.htm
46

Introduction

The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest was established 

in 1955 as a major center for hydrologic research in 

New England. Located in the White Mountain National 

Forest in central New Hampshire, the 3,138-ha bowlshaped Hubbard Brook Valley has hilly terrain, ranging 

in elevation from 222 to 1,015 m. The Hubbard Brook 

Ecosystem Study was established by a cooperative 

agreement in 1963. In 1988 the Hubbard Brook was 

designated as a Long-Term Ecological Research site by 

the National Science Foundation.

Climate

Annual precipitation at Hubbard Brook averages about 

1,400 mm, with one-third to one-quarter as snow. The 

month of January averages about -9 °C and the average 

July temperature is 18 °C. The average number of 

days without killing frost is 145. The estimated annual 

evapotranspiration is about 500 mm.

Soils

Soils at the Hubbard Brook are predominantly welldrained Spodosols (Typic Haplorthods) derived from 

glacial till, with sandy loam textures. They are acidic (pH 

about 4.5 or less) and relatively infertile (base saturation 

of mineral soil ~ 10 percent). Soil depths, including 

unweathered till, average about 2.0 m surface to bedrock, 

though this is highly variable. Depth to the C horizon 

averages about 0.6 m. At various places, the C horizon 

exists as an impermeable pan.

Vegetation

The present second-growth forest is even-aged and 

composed of about 80 to 90 percent northern hardwoods 

and 10 to 20 percent spruce-fi r.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are many long term data bases at Hubbard 

Brook, including instantaneous streamfl ow and daily 

precipitation, weekly snow depth, and weekly soil 

temperature and moisture. Solution chemistry data 

include weekly bulk precipitation, monthly soil solution 

chemistry, and weekly stream chemistry. Information 

on a variety of organisms is also collected. Soils are 

resampled at regular intervals. Data bases from Mirror 

Lake are maintained at Hubbard Brook.

Research, Past and Present

At Hubbard Brook, the following topics are being 

studied:

• The role of calcium supply in regulating the 

structure and function of base-poor forest and 

aquatic ecosystems 

• Animal populations and communities

• Colder soils in a warmer world: a snow 

manipulation in a northern hardwood forest 

ecosystem 

• Stream ecosystems

• A spatial model of soil parent material 

• Modeling effects of acid deposition, forest 

disturbance, and soil chemistry on forest 

production and streamwater quality 

• Remote sensing for measurement of canopy 

nitrogen and calcium content, and estimation of 

forest production and stream chemistry 

• Landscape-scale controls on N retention and N 

gas fl uxes in the Hubbard Brook Valley 

• Nutrient uptake at the ecosystem scale 

• Carbon and calcium controls on microbial 

biomass and invertebrate grazers 

• Comparison of δ 15N and nitrifi cation potential 

across a nitrate-loss gradient 

• Response of northern hardwood forests to 

nutrient perturbation 

• Edaphic controls on the structure and function 

of the northern hardwood forest 

• Vegetation dynamics and primary productivity 

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (New Hampshire)
47

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

At Hubbard Brook, the following subjects have been 

researched:

• Small watershed technique for studying 

biogeochemistry

• Factors regulating nutrient fl ux and cycling in 

northern hardwood forests

• First documentation of acid rain in North 

America

• Effects of forest harvesting disturbance on water 

quality and quantity

• Long-term effects of acid rain on soil nutrient 

pools and streamwater chemistry

• Relationship of interior forest bird populations 

and communities to forest structure and 

development

• Development and application of ecosystem 

process models: 1) hydrological, 2) forest growth 

and development, and 3) soil nutrient processes

Collaborators

At Hubbard Brook, collaborators include scientists from 

other Forest Service research units, Institute of Ecosystem 

Studies, Brown University, Dartsmouth College, Syracuse 

University, Cornell University, University of Michigan, 

Yale University, Appalachian State University, State 

University of New York-Environmental Science and 

Forestry, USDI Geological Survey, Wellesley College, 

University of New Hampshire, and Smithsonian 

Institution.

Research Opportunities

The Hubbard Brook staff welcomes new studies and 

collaboration on existing ones. There is a need for 

expanded cooperative research in the fi elds of soil physics 

and forest hydrology.

Facilities

The Robert S. Pierce Ecosystem Laboratory located at 

Hubbard Brook provides 835 m2

 of space, including 

six offi ces, four laboratories, a conference room, six 

dormitory rooms, and a kitchen, baths, and showers. 

There is also a sample archive building and maintenance, 

storage, garage, and shop facilities.

Lat. 43°56′ N, long. 71°45′ W

Contact Information

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

271 Mast Road

Durham, NH 03824

Tel: (603) 868-7636

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham/4352/hb.shtml
48

Introduction

The Kane Experimental Forest was established on 

March 23, 1932, though research had begun as 

early as 1927. Its primary mission has been forest 

management research, though watershed research 

was included in the beginning and wildlife research 

is part of the current program. Ongoing long-term 

studies include individual tree and understory 

vegetation measurements; treatments such thinnings, 

regeneration cuts, uneven-age cuts, and long-term 

measurements of unmanaged forest. The Kane is 

used heavily for training and tours for educational, 

professional, and landowner groups. National 

Atmospheric Deposition Program data have been 

collected at the forest since 1978.

Climate

Approximately 1,100 mm of precipitation falls each year, 

mostly as rain, including 10 cm per month during the 

growing season. Wind events of all scales are the most 

common natural disturbances. Precipitation can be 

highly acidic, as the Kane receives some of the highest 

deposition levels of both sulfate and nitrate in the eastern 

United States.

Soils

Soils are derived from sandstones and shales that are 

unglaciated, often with a fragipan.

Vegetation

Vegetation is primarily of the Allegheny hardwood 

variant of the northern hardwood type. Tree species 

include black cherry, sugar and red maple, American 

beech, eastern hemlock, sweet birch, and striped maple.

Long-Term Data Bases

Some studies that were installed on the Kane in the 

1930s (including contrasts of management styles and 

a study of weeding in young stands) continue to yield 

useful results. Other studies include a major thinning 

study installed in 1973-75, regeneration studies from the 

same era, and a study of different silvicultural systems 

installed in 1980. More recent data bases include those 

from a site in a regional study of sugar maple decline that 

includes detailed soil and foliar nutrient data.

Research, Past and Present

Research at the Kane EF is aimed at understanding 

ecology and stand-development processes in stratifi ed 

mixed hardwood forests and the interactions of these 

processes with forest management. The focus is on 

regeneration processes, wood production, and, more 

recently, on carbon sequestration and wildlife habitat. 

Regeneration research has included studies of the effects 

of white-tailed deer and the mechanisms of interference 

from invasive, native understory herbaceous and woody 

species.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Regeneration studies conducted on the Kane were 

translated into guidelines for assessing understory 

regeneration stocking that changed the way harvesting 

decisions were made throughout Pennsylvania and 

beyond. Data collected from thinning studies form 

the basis for the SILVAH stand growth simulator, and 

management guidelines developed from KEF research 

form the basis for the decision-support processes in the 

SILVAH computer program. Through the silvicultural 

training sessions conducted annually on the Kane, results 

Kane Experimental Forest (Pennsylvania)
49

from research there are widely adopted and were cited in 

recent certifi cation reports for public agencies through 

the Forest Stewardship Council as one component of a 

sustainable forest management program.

Collaborators

Collaborating institutions include the Allegheny 

National Forest, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, 

Pennsylvania State University, University of Pittsburgh, 

State University of New York, the National Atmospheric 

Deposition Program, and several Forest Service research 

work units.

Research Opportunities

In addition to the opportunities that arise simply because 

long-term data sets are associated with many plots on the 

Kane, there are numerous subjects for which data from 

existing study plots could provide important insights 

on herbaceous plant communities, soil mega- and 

microfauna, lichens, fungi, genetics of tree and other 

plants, and various wildlife communities. Because a great 

deal is known about the disturbance history of much 

of the Kane, such studies could be rich and rewarding 

in a short time. There is also the opportunity to resume 

hydrologic studies.

Facilities

There are two small bunkhouses, one housing up to six 

people, and another in renovation housing two persons. 

There is a small offi ce, a garage, a 1930s-era blacksmith 

shop, a shed, and a prefab classroom/conference facility 

erected in 1985.

Lat. 41°35′52′′ N, long. 78°45′58′′ W

Contact Information 

Kane Experimental Forest

Forestry Sciences Laboratory

P.O. Box 267

Irvine, PA 16365

Tel: (814) 837-7349

Or

Tel: (814) 563-1693

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/warren/kane.shtml
50

Introduction

The Massabesic Experimental Forest is in the process 

of revitalization. Ravaged by fi re and windstorms, 

underutilized for decades, it is once again serving as a 

location for forest ecology and management research 

and demonstration. It is typical of much nonindustrial 

forest land in New England. Located in York County, 

Maine’s southernmost, the Massabesic is grown-over 

farmland abandoned between the Civil War and the 

Great Depression. Eastern white pine and northern 

red oak colonized its old fi elds and still dominate those 

sites. Ownership of the Massabesic is not typical of that 

of other experimental forests in that the Northeastern 

Forest Experiment Station purchased the land under 

the Weeks Act between 1937 and 1942. The 1,497-

ha forest consists of two units (North and South) that 

are about the same size. There are numerour special 

ecological features, including one of the largest Atlantic 

white-cedar wetlands in New England, many vernal 

pools, and numerous plants and animals that are rare 

or uncommon. As one of the largest blocks of public 

land in southern Maine, the Massabesic is popular for 

recreation. It is managed by one of the units at the 

Northeastern Research Station Laboratory in Durham, 

New Hampshire, and is the only experimental forest with 

appreciable amounts of white pine and red oak.

The history of Massabesic is one of change and challenge. 

Soon after establishment, it closed for World War II. It 

reopened in 1946, and studies on white pine management 

were planned and installed. Following years of drought, 

1,214 ha burned in October 1947, in a 61,000-ha fi re 

that consumed entire villages in southwestern Maine. On 

the Massabesic, the fi re was a stand-replacing disturbance 

in some places, while in other areas only part of the forest 

fl oor was consumed, or skipped entirely. Although many 

trees killed in the fi re were harvested the next year, 80 

percent of the timber was destroyed or salvaged. Over the 

next few years, windstorms blew down many more trees in 

fi re-weakened stands. Following the fi re and windstorms, 

research emphasis shifted from stand management to 

artifi cial regeneration, both direct seeding and planting, 

and later to forest genetics.

Climate

The Massabesic climate is infl uenced by the Atlantic 

Ocean, which is fewer than 32 km southeast of either 

unit. Average annual temperature is 8.1 °C, with July 

normally warmest (33.9 °C) and January coldest 

(-5.8 °C). Total annual precipitation averages 1,188 

mm, with September typically the driest and November 

the wettest month. May 4 is the average date of the last 

killing frost and the growing season averages 157 days.

Soils

Soils are of glacial origin over granite bedrock. Upland 

soils are typically stony to very stony sandy loams, 

ranging to sandy on outwash plains. Exposed ledge is 

common. Major soil taxa are Dystrochrepts, Udorthents, 

and Udipsamments. The land is fl at to gently rolling, 

lying at elevations from 61 to 137 m.

Vegetation

The eastern white pine-northern red oak forest type 

dominates upland sites. Eastern hemlock and red maple 

are also well represented throughout the forest. Nearly 

Massabesic Experimental Forest (Maine)
51

pure stands of paper birch occupy some areas cleared by 

the 1947 fi re and subsequent salvage. Other cleared areas 

were planted or direct seeded to white pine or a mixture 

of white and red pine. Exotic species, including western 

white and Scots pines, were also planted. Common 

woody shrubs include beaked hazelnut, several species 

of Viburnum, winterberry, witch-hazel, sheep-laurel, and 

Vaccinium species. Common herbaceous plants are star 

fl ower, Canada mayfl ower, bracken fern, wild sarsaparilla, 

wintergreen, wild oats, and mountain rice. There are few 

nonnative invasive plant species.

Long-Term Data Bases

Numerous studies have been conducted on the 

Massabesic since the late 1940s, but none resulted in 

long-term series of remeasurements. Between 1998 and 

2000, a 100- by 200-m grid of permanent sample points 

was established. Both variable-radius and fi xed-radius 

plots were used to inventory all vascular plants. Those 

data and a number of physical parameters are summarized 

in a GIS database. Periodic remeasurements are planned.

Research, Past and Present

When the Massabesic was established, permanent 

sample plots were installed but many plot location 

stakes were lost in the 1947 fi re and never reestablished. 

Following the fi re, white pine management research 

was reinitiated but emphasis shifted to artifi cial 

regeneration research, including a number of pesticide 

trials to control competing vegetation and white pine 

weevils. Management research closed in the 1960s 

and a series of genetics studies on white pine weevil 

resistance was initiated, followed by a broader focus on 

tree improvement research. Recent research includes 

investigations of soil nitrogen processes, aquatic insects, 

amphibian and owl ecology, and comparison of methods 

for sampling coarse woody material.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Some of the fi rst recommendations for aerial seeding of 

burns and for herbicide use in white pine management 

were based on research on the Massabesic. In planted 

stands similar to those of the forest, about one-third 

of western white pines suffer weevil damage compared 

to two-thirds of eastern white pines. Fifty years after 

farming ceased, its effects were still evident on soil pH, 

C:N, percent organic matter, and concentrations of total 

C and total N. The effects of fi re on soil after the same 

period were much less clear. With its location in the 

most populous part of Maine, the Massabesic EF hosts a 

conservation education project that reaches hundreds of 

school children and adults every year.

Collaborators

Faculty members and graduate students from the 

University of Southern Maine and the University of New 

Hampshire are collaborating in studies at the Massabesic. 

The education project is a partnership with the state 

forestry agency, local soil and water conservation district, 

local conservation commission, and the Small Woodland 

Owners Association of Maine. Numerous volunteers 

from local communities and state naturalist societies 

participated in the fl oristic inventory and continue to 

support activities on the forest.

Research Opportunities

There are ample opportunities for research on all 

aspects of ecology and management of pine-oak and 

other mixed-species forests, especially with regard to 

meeting information needs of nonindustrial landowners. 

Manipulative experiments are possible in collaboration 

with Northeastern Research Station scientists. Project 

staff members are willing to facilitate nonmanipulative 

studies that do not confl ict with the long-term research 

and demonstration missions of the Massabesic.

Facilities

The Massabesic has only minimal facilities. The Forest 

Service-owned buildings are occupied by state and local 

agencies under long-term use permits.

Lat. 43°27′8′′ N, long. 70°40′44′′ N

Contact Information

Massabesic Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

PO Box 640, 271 Mast Road

Durham, NH 03824

Tel: (603) 868-7632

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham/mas/massabes.htm
52

Introduction

“The mission of the Penobscot Experimental Forest is 

to afford a setting for long-term research conducted 

cooperatively by USDA Forest Service scientists, 

university researchers, and professional forest managers 

in Maine; to enhance forestry education of students 

and the public; and to demonstrate how the timber 

needs of society are met from a working forest.” That 

statement was written in 1994 when the Penobscot was 

donated to the University of Maine. Land was purchased 

by nine pulp, paper, and land-holding companies in 

1950 and leased to the Forest Service’s Northeastern 

Forest Experiment Station as a site for long-term forest 

management research in the northeastern spruce-fi r 

forest. The Penobscot is now jointly managed by the 

university and the Northeastern Research Station at 

Durham, New Hampshire.

Located 15 km north of Bangor, Maine, the Penobscot is 

in the Acadian Forest, a region covering much of Atlantic 

Canada and adjacent Maine. An ecotone between 

boreal and broadleaf biomes, the region is dominated 

by mixed conifers. Red spruce is the signature species of 

the Acadian Forest, distinguishing it from similar forests 

around the Great Lakes where white spruce is common 

and red spruce is absent. Balsam fi r, a boreal species, 

is at its southern limit, whereas other trees, including 

eastern hemlock and eastern white pine, are at their 

northern limits. Stand-replacing fi res are less frequent 

than in the boreal forest or other temperate forests. 

Natural disturbances are insect epidemics (notably 

eastern spruce budworm) and windstorms, causing 

sporadic mortality. Most of the forest around Bangor has 

been cut periodically for high-value products since the 

1790s. However, little of the 1,618-ha Penobscot was 

ever cleared or cut during the 20 to 40 years prior to its 

designation as an experimental forest.

Climate

The climate of the Penobscot is cool and humid. 

Average annual temperature is 6.6 °C, with February the 

coldest (7.1 °C) and July the warmest (20 °C). Normal 

precipitation is 106 cm, with 48 percent falling during 

the growing season, which averages 156 days.

Soils

The soils of the Penobscot are complex and variable 

because of glacial infl uences. Till derived from fi ne 

grained sedimentary rock is the principal parent material. 

Low till “ridges” are well-drained loams, stony loams, 

and sandy loams. Flat till areas between ridges are poorly 

and very poorly drained loams and silt loams. Low areas 

along watercourses and in depressions have lake and 

marine fi ne sediments that are poorly drained silt and 

silty clay loams.

Vegetation

The vegetation types on the Penobscot are typically more 

diverse than on the industrial spruce-fi r forest farther 

north. The canopy is dominated by a mix of conifers, 

including hemlock, spruce (mostly red but some white 

and black), balsam fi r, northern white-cedar, white 

pine, and occasional tamarack or red pine. Common 

hardwoods include red maple, paper and gray birch, and 

quaking and bigtooth aspen.

Long-Term Data Bases

The Penobscot has data bases associated with silvicultural 

studies established in the early 1950s. Trees were 

Penobscot Experimental Forest (Maine)
53

measured on 420 plots before and after harvest and at 

about 5-year intervals between harvests. Trees ≥ 10 cm 

d.b.h. are measured on 0.08-ha plots. Trees < 10 cm 

but ≥ 1.25 cm are measured on 0.02-ha plots. Plots are 

circular and share the same center point. Inventories 

began before treatments were applied. Depending on the 

treatment, there have been 11 to 19 remeasurements. 

Since the 1970s, individual trees have been numbered 

and their growth followed. Regeneration inventories 

began in the 1960s. There are a number of additional 

data bases from shorter term studies overlaid on the longterm silvicultural experiment, and from the University 

of Maine’s Forest Ecosystem Research Program (FERP), 

which was initiated in 1996.

Research, Past and Present

Scientifi c studies on the Penobscot have been 

traditionally focused on management of mixed conifer 

stands for timber. Over the past 20 years, research 

was broadened to include fundamental studies of tree 

growth and maturation, spruce budworm predation, 

biodiversity, root structure and function, coarse woody 

material, economics, and growth-and-yield modeling. 

The long-term silvicultural experiment that is the 

basis for most of the research includes 10 replicated 

treatments representing a range of even-age and 

uneven-age prescriptions: clearcutting, three variants 

of shelterwood, selection with three cutting cycles, two 

forms of diameter-limit cutting, and an unmanaged 

control. Researchers with FERP are studying the effects 

of expanding gap shelterwood on several attributes of 

ecosystem structure and function.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The Penobscot is recognized internationally for its 

silvicultural research, including the only examples of 

uneven-age management of conifers in the Northeastern 

United States and Eastern Canada, where cutting cycles 

have been sustained over decades. Pioneering research on 

shelterwood removals, strip cutting, and precommercial 

thinning was conducted on the forest. Analyses of stand 

growth and development and economics of various 

silvicultural treatments have infl uenced management 

decisions throughout the region. The range of stand 

composition and structure in the long-term silvicultural 

study attracts cooperating scientists interested in the 

effects of forest management on hydrology, soils, plants, 

and animals. Technology transfer is a major undertaking, 

with numerous tours annually for students and 

professionals.

Collaborators

Because of ownership and proximity to the University 

of Maine, most cooperators are faculty and graduate 

students. A research unit at the Northeastern Research 

Station’s New Hampshire facility is responsible for 

Forest Service research. With the exception of FERP, 

other Penobscot research is guided jointly by a team 

of university faculty and Forest Service scientists. 

Collaborators also include researchers from other NE 

projects, Canadian Forest Service, University of Vermont, 

and University of New Hampshire, state forestry 

and wildlife agencies, and Small Woodland Owners 

Association of Maine.

Research Opportunities

There are nearly unlimited research opportunities in 

all aspects of ecology and management of coniferdominated and mixed conifer-hardwood stands of the 

Acadian Forest. New research within the long-term 

silvicultural study is encouraged and facilitated by Forest 

Service scientists. Research in conjunction with FERP 

is approved by the director of that program. All other 

research proposed must be presented to the university and 

Forest Service team that manages the research program.

Facilities

At the Penobscot, there is an offi ce, shop, and storage 

space.

Lat. 44°51′ N, long. 68°37′ N

Contact Information

Penobscot Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

PO Box 640

271 Mast Road

Durham, NH 03824 

Tel: (603) 868-7632

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham
54

Introduction

In 1933, the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station 

and the State of New Jersey signed a cooperative 

agreement for an experimental forest, the Lebanon 

Experimental Forest, “for the purpose of conducting 

studies, experiments, and demonstrations in silvics 

and silviculture...to solve forest problems of the region 

typifi ed by conditions in southern New Jersey. These may 

include experiments in obtaining natural reproduction of 

the forest after cutting, in thinning to stimulate growth, 

and in artifi cial reforestation; also, more fundamental 

studies of the factors which affect tree growth.” The 

Northeastern Research Station has maintained the lease 

agreement from New Jersey for the use of this 239-ha site 

for regional forest research.

In 1937, Dr. Silas Little was assigned to the Lebanon 

and worked there until 1979, most of that time as the 

research project leader. This experimental forest was 

renamed in his honor after his retirement. In 1985, 

following the departure of the last Forest Service 

employee, the Northeastern Research Station entered 

into a cooperative agreement with Rutgers University 

to use the buildings for the Pinelands Research Center 

(PRC). In the late 1980s, the site received recognition 

as a UNESCO Man and the Biosphere site. The PRC 

has a full-time director, a site manager, and a number of 

graduate students in residence. In 2002, the Northeastern 

Research Station reestablished active fi re research at the 

Silas Little with a 5-year National Fire Plan grant for 

regional climate and fi re danger modeling specifi c to the 

Pine Barrens. The existing fi re danger rating system does 

not meet the needs of the wildfi re managers in this part 

of the United States and this research will address this 

defi ciency.

Climate

The climate on the Silas Little and surrounding Lebanon 

State Forest is strongly infl uenced by the Atlantic Ocean. 

Elevations are so uniform in this area that they do not 

infl uence temperature and there is only slight variation 

from one site to another. The coldest month is February 

(-2 to 1°C) and the warmest is July (23 to 25 °C). The 

fi rst killing frost occurs about October 18 and the last 

about April 22. The high summer maximum is 42 o

C 

and the lowest winter minimum is -32 °C. Rainfall is 

relatively constant and equally distributed both as to 

season and location, but there is a marked dry season 

in the fall. Average rainfall in this area is 1,145 mm. 

Snowfall is slight and remains on the ground only a short 

time.

Soils

Soils in the region of the Silas Little are described as 

Englishtown formation, consisting of micaceous white 

and yellow quartz sand and glauconitic, and locally 

lignitic lens of clay and silt. Southern New Jersey is 

essentially an immense coastal plain, generally less 

than 30.5 m above sea level; average elevation is 18 m. 

Rivers in this area drain southeast to the Atlantic Ocean. 

The region’s soils are predominately sandy but vary 

considerably in texture, ranging from course sand to 

sandy loam, and also vary in drainage. The dry character 

of much of the soil adversely affects plant growth during 

even to moderate drought.

Vegetation

The Silas Little represents the Pine Barrens forest types 

that include poorly drained soils supporting pitch pine 

(14 percent), infertile sands supporting pitch pine and 

low-grade oaks (22 percent), swamp forests (12 percent), 

Silas Little Experimental Forest (New Jersey)
55

and slightly better quality soils supporting oaks and 

shortleaf and pitch pines (52 percent).

Long-Term Data Bases

A major objective of research on the Silas Little was to 

evaluate damage from wildfi res to the pinelands and 

compare losses from fi res deliberately set under favorable 

conditions to wildfi res, for example, prescribed burns. 

The scope of this research included loss of wood and 

reduced productivity of the site. There is additional 

information on fi re effects and containment, regeneration 

of desirable species, economic surveys, and surveys of 

Atlantic white-cedar swamps. The Northeastern Research 

Station continues to maintain the pine breeding orchard 

at the site and monitors several plantings of hybrid pines 

on the surrounding Lebanon State Forest.

Research, Past and Present

In 2002, a 5- year National Fire Plan grant was awarded 

for a study entitled, “Regional climate and fi re danger 

modeling specifi c to the Pine Barrens,” to carry out 

research to enhance the National Fire Danger Rating 

System in the Pine Barrens. This research will develop a 

more responsive fi re danger rating system that is specifi c 

to the New Jersey Pine Barrens by focusing on the 

interaction between climate, fi re, and vegetation. The 

research will employ prescribed burns and the use of 

portable and fi xed fl ux towers to monitor vegetation, soil, 

and atmospheric conditions before and after prescribed 

burns over a range of conditions and vegetation types. 

The network of fi re weather stations and portable towers 

should produce detailed fi re weather and carbon, water, 

and energy fl ux measurements at local and landscape 

levels to determine the processes that are distinctive for 

the Pine Barrens.

Earlier research (started 1985 to 2002) has been carried 

out by the staff and graduate students at the Pinelands 

Research Station. Researchers are looking at the effects of 

fragmentation and human-induced changes in hydrology 

of the Pineland wetland ecosystem on the Atlantic whitecedar swamps. Studies on the effects of acid deposition 

on the New Jersey Pine Barrens include a monitoring 

station for the New Jersey Atmospheric Deposition 

Program. Other studies deal with stream chemistry, the 

effects and recovery from past fi res in the Pine Barrens, 

inventory and population dynamics of wildlife species, 

and several other problems unique to these sandy sites 

along the Atlantic Coast.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

In 1964, the Northeastern Research Station initiated a 

cooperative study with New Jersey and the West Virginia 

Pulp and Paper Company (now MeadWestvaco) to start 

a tree improvement program involving pitch and loblolly 

pine. The goals were to produce a superior loblolly pine 

for southern Delaware and eastern Maryland, produce 

superior pitch pine for sections of the Northeast, and 

develop pitch × loblolly pine hybrids that would be 

winter-hardy north of the loblolly pine range and 

that would outgrow pitch pine. The fi rst F1 hybrids 

were outplanted in 1971 and over the next 15 years, 

65 plantings of F1

 and F2 hybrids were established 

throughout Eastern United States and southeastern 

Canada. South Korea became interested in the hybrid 

in the late 1960s and through the early 1980s millions 

of hybrids were used to reforest denuded hills in that 

country. In the 1980s, France obtained hybrid seed 

and achieved spectacular growth rates. In this country, 

MeadWestvaco now produces and plants millions 

of hybrid pitch × loblolly every year and in 1993 

International Paper Company began a program for its 

northern lands. This is one of the most successful research 

programs initiated by the Northeastern Research Station. 

Plots from genetics trials are maintained at the site.

Collaborators

Researchers have come to work at the Silas Little from 

the New Jersey Forest Fire Service, Pinelands Field 

Station, Rutgers University, New Jersey State Climatology 

and Eastern Modeling Consortium, University of Florida, 

University of Maryland, and NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center.

Research Opportunities

Opportunities are nearly unrestricted in all aspects of 

fi re weather, wildfi re ecology, and carbon sequestration 

research. New research within the New Jersey Pine 

Barrens region is encouraged and facilitated by Forest 

Service and Pinelands Research Station scientists. 

Research at the Silas Little and the Rutgers Pineland 
56

Research Stations requires approval of the fi eld station 

director and Forest Service program manager.

Facilities

Offi ce space, laboratory, quarters, storage, shop, weather 

stations, deposition monitoring, instrumented fl ux 

towers are located on the Silas Little administrative site 

in New Lisbon, New Jersey. The Rutgers Pinelands 

Research Station maintains offi ces and quarters in the 

main building, and lab trailers on the site. National 

Science Foundation grants have allowed Rutgers 

University to purchase several laboratory buildings. 

Several offi ce trailers at the administrative site, as well 

as some greenhouse space, are used by the New Jersey 

Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Pest 

Control.

Lat. 39°54′58′′ N, long. 74°35′55′′ W

Contact Information 

Silas Little Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

PO Box 640, 271 Mast Road

Durham, NH 03824

Tel: (603) 868-7632

www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham

Or

Global Change Program

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

11 Campus Blvd.

Newtown Square, PA 19073

Tel: (610) 557-4097

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/global/
57

Introduction 

In 1952, the Baker Wood Preserving Company 

set aside 486 ha of land as the Vinton Furnace 

Experimental Forest for use by the USDA 

Forest Service’s Central States Forest Experiment 

Station, Columbus, Ohio. This area served as 

the fi eld lab for a research unit at Athens, Ohio. 

Early research included farm forestry, pine 

conversion, and cutting practice demonstrations. 

A decade later, the Mead Corporation purchased 

the land and maintained the relationship with 

the Forest Service. The land is now owned by 

MeadWestvaco and managed by a research unit 

of the Northeastern Research Station located at 

Delaware, Ohio. Thousands of people visit the 

Vinton each year for meetings, training, and tours. The 

area consists of a steeply dissected topography of ridges 

and hollows with elevations ranging from 200 to 300 m.

Climate

Mean annual temperature at the Vinton Furnace is 

11.3 °C, which includes below-freezing temperatures 

during January. Precipitation, mostly rain, is distributed 

throughout the year with a mean annual precipitation 

of 1,024 mm. The growing season consists of 158-day 

frost-free days.

Soils

Soils at the Vinton Furnace are unglaciated silt loam 

derived from sandstones, siltstones, and shales, 

sometimes with scattered, discontinuous limestone beds.

Vegetation

The Vinton Furnace comprises upland mixed-oak forests 

with chestnut oak on the ridgetops, tending to scarlet 

and black oak downslope, with white oak, red maple, 

and hickories midslope blending to yellow-poplar and 

Ohio buckeye in the mesic areas. Scattered areas of 

shortleaf pine and eastern hemlock account for most of 

the conifers found in the area. More than 50 tree species 

are found within the borders of Vinton Furnace.

Long-Term Data Bases

The fi rst harvesting conducted at Vinton Furnace was 

on the cutting practice demonstration area, where data 

have been collected since 1954. A replication of the 

stand density study has been monitored since 1960. 

Research begun in 1994 and 2001 on the use of fi re and 

thinning to restore mixed-oak ecosystems is intended to 

become long-term studies and include data collected on 

soils, birds, arthropods, forest-fl oor plants, and fuels in 

addition to tree data.

Research, Past and Present

Past studies concentrated on silvicultural practices, 

regeneration, and growth and yield of desirable hardwood 

species. Current research focuses on the effects of 

using thinning and prescribed fi re to restore mixed-oak 

ecosystems and fi re behavior and dynamics.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Some of the earliest clearcutting research was performed 

at Vinton Furnace. Results of these studies formed 

the basis for the recommendations published in EvenAged Silviculture for Upland Central Hardwoods (USDA 

Agriculture Handbook 355). Stocking charts were 

developed with data from the stand-density studies 

Vinton Furnace Experimental Forest (Ohio)
58

which were used to produce the GROAK and OAKSIM 

growth and yield simulators. A GIS-based moisture index 

to predict plant associations across a landscape has been 

constructed. Vinton Furnace is one of the fi rst sites to 

conduct ecosystem-based studies on the effects of fi re in 

the central hardwood region.

Collaborators

Researchers from Mead and now MeadWestvaco, Ohio 

State University, Ohio University, Hocking College, 

Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Wayne National 

Forest, Ohio Biological Survey, Ohio Lepidopterists, 

Nature Conservancy, Purdue University, University of 

North Carolina, and other Forest Service research units 

have worked at Vinton Furnace.

Research Opportunities

As part of the Forest Service’s National Fire and Fire 

Surrogates Ecosystem Study, the Vinton Furnace offers 

landscape-scale thinning, burning, and control treatment 

areas with many components of the ecosystem well 

documented and monitored. Collateral, multidiscipline 

studies are continually being added to these areas.

Facilities

The headquarters area of the Vinton Furnce in Albany, 

Ohio contains a large meeting/training center, quarters 

for eight visiting scientists and technicians, offi ce 

equipment, and a weather station.

Lat. 39°11′ N, long. 82°22′ W

Contact Information

Vinton Furnace Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Research Station

359 Main Road

Delaware, OH 43015-8640

Tel: (740) 368-0101

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/delaware/4153/vfef.html
59

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station
60

Introduction

The Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest and CaribouPoker Creeks Research Watershed are the only designated 

forest research facilities in the true boreal forest zone 

of the United States. Both are on Alaska state land, 

with Forest Service and university research activities 

conducted under a long-term lease and cooperative 

agreement, respectively. Bonanza Creek, located about 

20 km southwest of Fairbanks, Alaska, was established 

in 1963 with about 3,360 ha of upland, interior Alaska 

boreal forest. In 1969, the forest was enlarged to 

5,053 ha to include representative fl ood-plain forests 

along the Tanana River. Bonanza Creek lies within 

the Tanana Valley State Forest, a unit managed by the 

Alaska Division of Forestry. It is leased to the USDA 

Forest Service’s Pacifi c Northwest Research Station 

for the exclusive purpose of conducting research in 

forestry. Bonanza Creek was declared a Long-Term 

Ecological Research (LTER) site by the National Science 

Foundation in 1987. 

Caribou-Poker Creeks is a 10,400-ha upland research 

site located 45 km north of Fairbanks that is dedicated 

to research into hydrologic and environmental questions 

about the discontinuous-permafrost boreal forest of 

the Yukon-Tanana Upland of central Alaska. In 1969, 

a cooperative agreement signed by the Interagency 

Technical Committee for Alaska and the Alaska 

Department of Natural Resources designated the basin 

as the Caribou-Poker Creeks Research Watershed. In 

1996, the Water and Environmental Research Center 

of the University of Alaska assumed management of the 

watershed.

Climate

The climate in interior Alaska is strongly continental, 

with cold winters and warm, relatively dry summers; 

it is characterized by drastic seasonal fl uctuation in 

day length (> 21 hours on June 21 and < 3 hours 

on December 21). Mean annual temperatures in the 

Tanana Valley area average between -2 and -5 °C. July 

temperatures average 16.3 °C, whereas in January the 

average is -23.5 °C. Periods of extreme cold in the 

vicinity of -40 to -45 °C can occur at any time from 

late November through February. Daily maximum 

temperatures occasionally reach 35 to 37 °C in June and 

July, often with only modest night cooling because of the 

persisting daylight. The growing season is short (100 days 

or less).

Annual precipitation in interior Alaska is 250 to 500 

mm. About 35 percent of this precipitation falls between 

October and April as snow. Although precipitation 

amounts during the growing season may be low, 

evaporation rates are also low because of the relatively 

short growing season and cool temperatures. Even so, as 

much as 75 to 100 percent of the summer precipitation 

may be lost as evapotranspiration. Snow covers the 

ground from mid-October until mid- to late April, and 

maximum accumulation averages 75 to100 cm. Soil 

temperatures are consistently low.

Soils

In this area of Alaska, soils are uniformly immature 

and range from cold poorly drained soils with shallow 

permafrost to warm well-drained soils in the uplands 

that support mature white spruce communities. Parent 

material falls into three main categories: (1) bedrock 

composed of Precambrian schist, (2) thick loess deposits 

originating from glacial periods, and (3) alluvial deposits 

in fl ood plains. Slope and aspect are critical in the 

formation of permafrost. North-facing slopes are usually 

underlain by permafrost, contrasting sharply with southBonanza Creek Experimental Forest/Caribou-Poker 

Creeks Research Watershed (Alaska)
61

facing slopes and their warm, well-drained soils. Poorly 

drained black spruce fl ats of interior Alaska are also 

largely underlain by permafrost.

Vegetation

The taiga forest of Alaska consists of a mosaic of forest, 

grassland, shrubs, bogs, and alpine tundra. The forest 

is dominated by young stands in various stages of 

succession; mature stands more than 200 years old are 

rare due to frequent fi res. In areas relatively protected 

from fi res, such as the river fl ood plains, the active 

erosion and meandering of the silt-laden, glacially fed 

rivers results in the active production of newly vegetated 

silt bars and the rapid erosion of older, mature stands.

Upland forest types range from highly productive aspen, 

paper birch, and white spruce stands on well-drained, 

south-facing slopes to permafrost and moss-dominated 

black spruce forests of low productivity on north-facing 

slopes, lowlands, and lower slopes. Flood plain forests 

of balsam poplar and white spruce are productive on 

recently formed river alluvium where permafrost is 

absent, but slow-growing black spruce and bogs occupy 

the older terraces that are underlain by permafrost.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are climate data for both Bonanza Creek and 

Caribou-Poker Creeks. The Bonanza Creek LTER also 

has a long-term vegetation data base. There are data for 

all LTER successional control sites, including tree-growth 

measurements, litter collections, seedfall counts, seedling 

establishment; thaw depth (permafrost), and 15- and 30-

year records for thaw depth after fi re, as well as archived 

soil samples and archived herbarium specimens and 

snow-course measurements. All data from the LTER site 

are cataloged at www.lter.uaf.edu.

Research, Past and Present

Much of the early Forest Service research in Alaska was 

conducted by scientists from the Pacifi c Northwest 

Forest and Range Experiment Station’s Institute of 

Northern Forestry (INF). Early research on white 

spruce seed production began in 1958 and continued 

through 1992. From 1957 until 1966, INF personnel 

conducted destructive sampling and stem analysis for 

the development of growth and yield tables for white 

spruce, aspen, and birch. Both fl ood plain and upland 

stands within Bonanza Creek were used extensively. 

Demonstration plots were established for different 

silvicultural systems on an upland white spruce site 

in 1972, and various aspects of natural regeneration 

(including seedfall, seedling survival, density and growth, 

nutrient status, and competition) also were evaluated. 

Sprout and sap production in birch stands has also been 

studied. Beginning in 1962, INF and the University of 

Alaska cooperated in studies of the effects of red squirrel 

foraging on white spruce cone and seed production. 

This work was later expanded to include the red squirrel 

response to various silvicultural treatments.

Between 1964 and 1967, nutrient relationships in birch 

and black spruce stands on north-facing slopes were 

studied at Bonanza Creek. This work was expanded to 

include above- and below-ground biomass and nutrient 

cycling in white spruce and birch stands on slopes of all 

aspects. Numerous permanent plots have been used to 

study species composition, successional relationships, 

and soil temperature fl uctuations. Research has also 

focused on the spruce and Ips beetles, large aspen 

tortrix, spear-marked black moth, and the larch bud 

moth. More recently, Bonanza Creek has been the site 

of studies of fl ood plain soil moisture dynamics and 

formation of salt crust on freshly deposited alluvium, 

forest reestablishment and insect and disease dynamics 

following wildfi re, and tree-species provenance tests.

Research at Caribou-Poker Creeks in recent years has 

examined the performance of electrical resistivity, 

ground penetrating radar, and transient electromagnetic 

surveys to determine subsurface conditions. Hydrologic 

monitoring has been essential in developing a computer 

model capable of predicting runoff rates and volumes 

from watersheds with permafrost distribution ranging 

from 2 to 53 percent. An experimental oil spill 

conducted in the mid-1970s has provided critically 

valuable data demonstrating natural degradation 

processes following oil spills on thick organic soils and 

continues to provide information on vegetation recovery 

and the natural resilience of subarctic forests.
62

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at the Bonanza Creek LTER site has 

contributed substantively to understanding the 

relationship between “independent” factors and internal 

ecosystem dynamics in causing successional change in the 

boreal forest of Alaska. Major fi ndings of the program 

are that species effects are strong in the boreal forest and 

successional changes in species composition are not a 

simple consequence of changes in competitive balance 

but involve species-driven changes in biogeochemistry 

and the physical environment. In addition, vertebrate 

herbivores are a powerful force driving successional 

change through their effects on plant competitive 

interactions and biogeochemistry and succession 

infl uences exchanges of methane, carbon dioxide, water, 

and energy in ways that could affect climate.

Collaborators

At these Alaska sites, collaborators have come from 

the University of Alaska- Fairbanks, National Science 

Foundation’s LTER Program, Alaska Cooperatively 

Implemented Information Management System, Water 

and Environmental Research Center, Cold Regions 

Research and Engineering Laboratory, Tanana Chiefs 

Conference, Alaska Division of Forestry, Alaska Boreal 

Forest Council, Alaska Fire Service, Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game, Arctic Region Supercomputing 

Center, USDI Geological Survey, Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and Bureau of Land Management.

Research Opportunities

Research topics at the Bonanza Creek LTER site vary 

widely, with 30 principal investigators listed in the 

current proposal.

Lat. 64°8′ N, long. 148°0′ W (BNEF)

Lat. 65°16′ N, long. 147°5′ W (CPCRW)

Contact Information 

Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

University of Fairbanks Alaska

P.O. Box 756780

Fairbanks, AK 99775-6780

Tel: (907) 474-5881

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/bonanza-creek.shtml 
63

Introduction

Cascade Head Experimental Forest, located on 

the central Oregon Coast, was established in 1934 

to represent typical Sitka spruce-western hemlock 

forests. The Neskowin Crest Research Natural Area 

was established in 1941 in the northwest corner of 

the experimental forest. In 1974, an act of Congress 

established the Cascade Head Scenic Research Area, 

which includes the western half of the experimental 

forest. The designation added several prairie 

headlands, the Salmon River estuary (the only 

estuary on Forest Service lands in the conterminous 

United States), and contiguous private lands to 

the mature forest ecosystems already part of the 

experimental forest. The result has been a more diverse 

and coastal-related research program. Together, the 

experimental forest and the scenic research area were 

designated a Biosphere Reserve as part of UNESCO’s 

Man and the Biosphere program in 1980.

The ecosystems here are home to more than 350 species 

of wildlife. There are four federally listed endangered 

species that use or inhabit the Cascade Head area: spotted 

owl, marbled murrelet, coho salmon, and Oregon silver 

spot butterfl y. The recently restored Salmon River estuary 

provides a critical juncture between fresh and salt water, 

supports numerous forms of life, and maintains staging 

areas for upstream spawning migrations of anadromous 

fi sh and rearing areas for juveniles and smolts. 

Climate

Cascade Head is on the southern end of the coastal 

temperate rain forest, a 1- to 5-km-wide strip that runs 

from southeastern Alaska to northern California. Cascade 

Head has a moderate and very wet climate. Mean annual 

temperature is 10 °C with minimal seasonal and diurnal 

fl uctuations. Average yearly rainfall is 2,450 mm, though 

fog drip through the forest canopy may add 500 mm of 

precipitation a year. Heavy rains and gale force winds 

blowing off the ocean are common in late fall and winter. 

Soils

The headlands and ocean-front areas of Cascade Head 

are mostly basalt. Soils, derived primarily from tuffaceous 

siltstones, are fi ne textured, moderately well drained, 

and deep (100+ cm). Soils under forest stands are fertile 

and rich in organic matter and contain high levels of 

nitrogen. Sediments in the estuary reveal surfaces buried 

from previous earthquakes, the most recent occurring 

about 350 years ago.

Vegetation

When the Cascade Head was established, the area was 

primarily covered with a forest that grew up after the 

huge Nestucca Fire of the late 1840s. Stands of spruce 

and western hemlock that survived the fi re are found 

in the Neskowin Crest Research Natural Area. The 

Nechesney Indians burned some of the forest close to 

the ocean in the early 1900s. Some of the more gentle 

country to the east, homesteaded by European settlers 

and abandoned in the early 1920s, now supports evenaged, single-canopy forests with dense shrub understories. 

The forested ecosystems include productive young, 

mature, and old-growth stands of Sitka spruce-western 

hemlock and Douglas-fi r forests with riparian areas and 

streambanks dominated by red alder. Western redcedar 

is found occasionally. Some of the highest growth rates 

and greatest volumes per hectare for any temperate forest 

in the world are reported for this area. Experimental 

clearcutting, shelterwood cutting, thinning, and salvage 

from large windstorms have affected about 25 percent of 

the forested area.

Cascade Head Experimental Forest (Oregon)
64

The Salmon River estuary has a history of livestock 

grazing that goes back to the late 1800s. In the early 

1960s, the estuary was diked for pasturage. With the 

establishment of the scenic research area, the dikes were 

breached in 1979 and restoration of the estuary begun. 

Breaching of the dikes was completed in 1997. Previous 

to dike building, the estuary was dominated by high saltmarsh vegetation; currently, low salt-marsh communities 

dominate the restored areas.

Two grassy headlands are found in the area: Cascade 

Head itself (owned by The Nature Conservancy) and 

north of that, the Hart’s Cove headland within the 

Neskowin Crest Research Natural Area. Both headlands 

are basaltic intrusions, dominated by grass species (not all 

native) and fringed by Sitka spruce forest.

Species diversity in the area is high, mainly because of 

the variety of the ecosystems involved. The area is rich in 

moss and lichen species (more than 90 and 180 species, 

respectively) and the vascular plant list for all ecosystem 

types includes more than 400 species.

Long-Term Data Bases

A NOAA weather station at Cascade Head has been 

collecting temperature and precipitation data since 1934. 

Three state-of-the-art telemeterized weather stations were 

established in the spring of 2002. The Pacifi c Northwest 

Research Station maintains permanent sample plots 

established in 1935, 1963, and 1979 (in Neskowin Crest 

Research Natural Area). 

Research, Past and Present

Early research at Cascade Head includes studies that 

determined life history and characteristics of native 

tree species; growth and yield of Sitka spruce-western 

hemlock, Douglas-fi r, and red alder stands; and basic 

relations between vegetation and climate. From the 

1940s through the 1960s, experimental, commercialsize harvesting evaluated the silvicultural and economic 

results of different cutting methods. Although research 

in applied forestry has continued over the years, other 

topics are being studied today, including forest ecosystem 

productivity, wind disturbance, nutrient cycling, and 

global carbon cycling.

Research on the Salmon River estuary has been 

ongoing since the fi rst dikes were breached in 1979. 

Reestablishment of the salt marsh ecosystems continues 

to be studied, and studies of the use of these restored 

ecosystems by anadromous fi sh were initiated more 

recently.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Much of the information for managing Oregon coastal 

Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests, both young and 

old, has come from Cascade Head. Long-term plot data 

and current thinning studies are providing information 

for how best to accelerate the restoration of coastal forest 

ecosystems. The area has served for more than 25 years as 

the end point for the Oregon Transect, a study area that 

runs from the Pacifi c Coast east to the desert, crossing 

numerous environmental gradients and ecosystems. 

Long-term data are used extensively for modeling 

purposes. The Salmon River estuary work is seminal 

in looking at the role of estuaries in the lives of various 

species of anadromous fi sh.

Collabrators

At Cascade Head, collaborators include The Nature 

Conservancy, numerous state and private universities, 

Oregon Division of State Lands, Oregon Department 

of Fish and Wildlife, National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, and 

National Marine Fisheries Board of the Nation Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration.

Research Opportunities

The Salmon River estuary is the best example of a 

restored estuary on the Oregon coast. It provides 

excellent opportunities to study the relationship of 

anadromous fi sh and estuaries. Cascade Head has both 

mature/old-growth and plantation forests available for 

study. Both these forest types are important for answering 

questions posed by the Northwest Forest Plan. The 

forest contains some of the best remaining and largest 

extant coastal temperate rain forest left along the Pacifi c 

Northwest coast south of British Columbia. Cascade 

Head is highly visible and accessible to the public for 

recreation and enjoyment, making opportunities for 

research on recreation use and social interaction plentiful.
65

Facilities

Cascade Head can accommodate 12 to 14 people 

overnight. There are two buildings, each with its own 

kitchen and bathroom facilities. However, there are no 

laboratory facilities.

Lat. 45°4′ N, long. 123°58′ W

Contact Information

Cascade Head Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

3200 Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331

Tel: (541) 650-7360

http://www.fsl.orst.edu/chef/
66

Introduction

The Entiat Experimental Forest was established in 1957 

to study the effects of road building and timber 

harvesting on the quantity, quality, and timing of water 

discharge from small watersheds in the mountains of 

north-central Washington. Instrumentation was installed 

in three similar, adjacent watersheds (4.74 to 5.65 km2

each) to monitor weather and streamfl ows. Scientists 

from the Pacifi c Northwest (PNW) Research Station’s 

Wenatchee Forestry Sciences laboratory collected baseline 

data for almost 12 years before a lightning-caused wildfi re 

burned all three watersheds in 1970. This unplanned 

“treatment” shifted the research focus from road and 

timber harvesting effects on hydrology to wildfi re and 

post-fi re recovery effects on hydrology. Over the following 

decade, research within the Entiat produced numerous 

publications related to fi re effects on streamfl ow 

characteristics, water temperature, water quality, and 

sediment production. Additional studies investigated the 

effi cacy of various post-fi re forest rehabilitation treatments. 

Work continued on the Entiat until 1977 when a change 

in research priorities at PNW halted research efforts. 

Elevation ranges from 610 to 2,164 m, and mean aspect 

in the three watersheds ranges from 205 to 237 °.

Climate

At the Entiat, winters are cold and moderately wet, and 

summers are warm and dry. Average annual precipitation 

from 1961 to 1971 was about 580 mm, about 70 percent 

of which was snow. Monthly mean temperatures (at 915 

m elevation) range from -4 °C in January to about 18 °C 

in July and August.

Soils

Soils are well-drained Entisols of the Choral and Rampart 

series. Surface soils have are classifi ed as sandy loams. 

Soils were derived primarily from volcanic ash and 

pumice deposits that overlay the granitic bedrock of the 

Chelan Batholith.

Vegetation

Prior to the 1970 fi re, forests at low elevations were 

dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fi r. Stands 

of lodgepole pine and whitebark pine were also present. 

About 15 percent of the Entiat was classifi ed as bare rock. 

Long-Term Data Bases

High quality streamfl ow data measured at 120° Vnotch weirs were recorded on Burns, Fox, and McCree 

Creeks for the period 1959 to 1971. High sediment 

fl ows in 1972 destroyed the weirs on Fox and McCree 

Creeks, and the weirs were replaced by Parshall fl umes. 

The weir on Burns Creek continued to function and 

produce high-quality fl ow data through 1977, with 

only occasional interruptions caused by sediment 

accumulations.

Stream temperature data were collected hourly at the 

three weir sites during 1968 to 1971. Additional stream 

temperature data were collected on Burns (1972 to 73) 

and McCree (1974 to 77). Precipitation, air temperature, 

and humidity were recorded at the Burns Creek weir site. 

Some stream chemistry and coarse sediment production 

data are also available.

Research, Past and Present

Most research to date has focused on effects of 

disturbances (especially fi re) and vegetation recovery 

on watershed hydrology, with additional work on the 

effects of post-fi re harvesting systems and rehabilitation 

efforts on soils and vegetation. After 32 years of post-fi re 

vegetation recovery, work on the Entiat is being revived. 

In 1999, work began to compile, organize, and archive 

historical hydrologic and vegetation data.

Plans are in place to resume studies of streamfl ow 

generation, water quantity and quality, surfacesubsurface water routing, and fi re and road effects in the 

three watersheds beginning in 2003 in collaboration 

with Oregon State University’s Department of Forest 

Engineering. This work is intended to form the basis for 

a nested watershed monitoring and modeling approach 

for scaling up fi ndings to the larger Entiat watershed and 

other watersheds in the mid-Columbia region. The 

Entiat watershed contains a USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, SNOTEL station, and the existing 

Entiat Experimental Forest (Washington)
67

stream-gauging network is being expanded. Personnel 

from the National Forest System, Washington State, and 

Chelan County are actively cooperating in this joint effort.

Additional research is also under consideration, 

including studies of stream productivity and material and 

invertebrate transport and their subsequent effects on 

downstream fi sh habitats.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Approximately 20 primary publications were developed 

from studies at Entiat. These have contributed 

signifi cantly to our knowledge of fi re effects on waterfl ow 

and quality, microclimate, and soil-water relationships, as 

well as watershed rehabilitation, post-fi re salvage effects, 

and vegetation recovery. 

Collaborators

Collaborators at Entiat include Oregon State University, 

Washington State University, and the University of 

Washington.

Research Opportunities

The reestablishment of stream gauging and collection of 

climate data will form a basis from which other studies 

could benefi t.

Facilities

There are no on-site facilities; the Entiat is located about 

30 miles north of Wenatchee and 12 miles northwest of 

Entiat in the eastern Cascade Mountains of Washington.

Lat. 47°57′ N, long. 120°28′ W

Contact Information

Entiat Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

1133 N Western Avenue

Wenatchee, WA 98801

Tel: (509) 662-4315

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/index.shtml
68

Introduction

Since its establishment in 1948, the H. J. Andrews 

Experimental Forest has been a site of intensive 

and extensive research on watershed processes; 

forest ecology, especially structure, composition, 

and function of old-growth Douglas-fi r forests and 

plantation; forest-stream interactions; biological 

diversity; processes, rates, and controls on nutrient 

and carbon cycling; and history and effects of 

natural and management disturbance processes. 

The research at H. J. Andrews featured studies of 

management effects in the 1950s and 1960s, and 

then supplemented applied studies with ecosystem 

research under the International Biological Program 

in the 1970s, and the National Science Foundation’s 

Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) program since 

1980. The close working relationship between research 

and management communities (under the auspices of 

the Cascade Center for Ecosystem Management and 

the Central Cascades Adaptive Management Area) have 

resulted in testing and development of new management 

approaches to forest stands and landscapes as well as 

streams and riparian zones. The H. J. Andrews is a 

Biosphere Reserve in UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere 

program. Research activities extend over a much broader 

area, including use of Research Natural Areas (RNA), 

wilderness areas, and other lands.

Climate

The climate at the H. J. Andrews is cool and wet in 

winter and warm and dry in summer. Annual precipitation 

is about 2,500 mm at low elevations, falling mainly as 

rain at low elevations and as snow at upper elevations.

Soils

Soils are primarily Inceptisols, with local areas of Alfi sols 

and Spodosols derived from mainly andesite volcanic 

bedrock. Surface horizons are commonly loamy but may 

be stony at depth and shallow on steep slopes.

Vegetation

Douglas-fi r-western hemlock forest dominates at lower 

elevations and Pacifi c silver fi r forest at upper elevations. 

Forest age classes include 150- and 500-year-old stands 

developed after wildfi re, and plantations dominated by 

Douglas-fi r established after clearcutting since 1950. 

Other forest types and age classes exist in neighboring 

areas, including within RNAs.

Long-Term Data Bases

Numerous long-term data bases are available on the H. 

J. Andrews Web site. These include the amount and 

chemistry of precipitation and streamfl ow from three sets 

of experimental watersheds; vegetation change in plots 

of various types, including 1-ha mapped reference stands 

representing the vegetation types of the areas; and data 

from long-term experiments, such as the 200-year log 

decomposition experiment.

Research, Past and Present

Studies in the fi rst two decades of the H. J. Andrews’s 

history emphasized basic characterization of the forests 

and soils and analysis of effects of forestry practices, 

including effects of clearcutting with and without 

burning and various partial cutting practices on 

nutrients, streamfl ow, and sediment yield from small 

watersheds. In the 1970s, ecosystem studies expanded the 

characterization of patterns of and controls on vegetation 

across the landscape, stream ecology, disturbance 

processes, and hydrology and nutrient cycling within 

small watersheds. Basic work on old-growth forests 

H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest (Oregon)
69

and northern spotted owl ecology took place during 

this decade. Since 1980, research under the LTER 

program has focused on the question “how do land use 

(principally forestry and roads), natural disturbances 

(principally fi re and fl oods), and climate variability affect 

key ecosystem properties, especially hydrology, biological 

diversity, and carbon dynamics”?

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Science at the H. J. Andrews has contributed greatly 

to our understanding of conifer forests of the region 

and globe. Work on old-growth forests, forest-stream 

interactions, roles of coarse woody debris in terrestrial 

and stream systems, and interactions of geophysical 

and ecological systems has yielded important advances. 

Perhaps the most distinctive feature has been the close 

link between research and land management and policy 

in areas such as the development of new approaches 

to management of forest stands, riparian zones, road 

systems, landscapes, dead wood, and species conservation.

Collaborators

The H. J. Andrews is managed cooperatively by the 

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station, Oregon State 

University, and Willamette National Forest. Research 

and education activities involve collaborators from many 

other institutions.

Research Opportunities

The H. J. Andrews is managed as an open national 

and international research and education resource. 

There are many research and education opportunities. 

Contact the director or participating scientists for further 

information.

Facilities

The H. J. Andrews is located 50 miles east of Eugene, 

Oregon, in the Cascade Mountains and is a 2-hour 

drive from Corvallis, where many scientists working at 

the forest have main offi ces. The headquarter facilities 

include offi ce, laboratory, and living facilities.

Lat. 44°11′55′′ N, long. 122°14′41′′ W

Contact Information 

H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

333 SW First Avenue

Portland, OR 97204

Tel: (541) 822-6336

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/hjandrews.shtml
70

Introduction

The Maybeso Experimental 

Forest, located on Prince of Wales 

Island in southeast Alaska near 

Ketchikan, was established in 

1956 to investigate the effects 

of clearcut timber harvesting on 

forest regeneration and regrowth, 

and on the physical habitat of 

anadromous salmonid spawning 

areas. The watershed was exposed 

to the fi rst large-scale industrial 

clearcut logging in southeast Alaska and nearly all 

commercial forest was removed from the watershed, 

including the riparian zone, from 1953 through 1960. 

The present forest is an even-aged, second-growth spruce 

and hemlock forest.

The watershed is a broad U-shaped glacially sculpted 

valley with a single stream network. The stream fl ows 

through a fl oodplain composed of glacial till up to 

headwater tributaries to an elevation of 900 m. The 

area of the watershed is approximately 4,452 ha. Pink, 

chum, and coho salmon, and Dolly Varden, steelhead, 

and cutthroat trout are present throughout the main 

stream and tributaries. Wildlife species include several 

mammals and a variety of resident and migrant birds. 

Mammals include Sitka black-tailed deer, black bear, 

beaver, American marten, ermine, northern fl ying 

squirrel, Keen’s mouse, long-tailed vole, dusky shrew, and 

several species of bats. Forest and riparian birds include 

bald eagle, northern goshawk, and several species of owls, 

chickadees, wrens, warblers, and thrushes. Other birds 

found in the watershed are Steller’s jay, northwestern 

crow, raven, and spruce grouse. The species assemblages 

are representative of a second-growth forest in a 

temperate rainforest ecosystem.

The proximity of other watersheds in various stages of 

forest succession on Prince of Wales Island contributes to 

the signifi cance of the Maybeso. The Old Tom Research 

Natural Area (an old-growth forested watershed) is 

located in nearby Skowl Arm and is accessible by boat 

or fl oat plane. It can provide an old-growth control 

for some aspects of studies in the Maybeso. Current 

research in the watershed is focused on studies to provide 

information on the management of second-growth 

watersheds and for the development and evaluation of 

watershed restoration methods.

Climate

The Maybeso is part of a temperate rain forest and is 

characterized by cool, moist climate. The mean annual 

temperature is 6.7 °C and the average rainfall is about 

2,740 mm annually. Temperatures rarely exceed 21 °C 

during the summer and seldom drop below -12 °C in 

the winter. Peak rainfall and streamfl ows generally occur 

during October and November and during the spring in 

April and May.

Soils

More than 90 percent of the valley soils are Tolstoi or 

Karta. The former are well drained and range from 

Entisols to Spodosols developed on steep slopes covered 

by colluvium on fractured bedrock; the latter are welldeveloped Spodosols. These form the weathered portion 

of the compact glacial till of much of the valley.

Vegetation

Sitka spruce and western hemlock are the dominant 

conifers. Other conifers include Alaska cedar and 

mountain hemlock. Red alder is the most common 

deciduous tree in the watershed. Common shrubs are 

Sitka alder, devil’s club, stink and trailing black currant, 

The Maybeso Experimental Forest (Alaska)
71

salmonberry, blueberry, winterberry, and scarlet elder. 

More than 25 percent of the watershed was logged from 

1953 through 1960. Nearly all of the commercial forest 

was harvested and most of the present forest is 40 to 50-

year-old, second-growth Sitka spruce or western hemlock. 

Alder is the dominant tree species in landslide tracks, 

abandoned roads, and parts of the riparian zone.

Long-Term Data Bases

A set of scale maps of the stream was completed and 

updated annually from 1949 through 1960. Secondgrowth thinning plots established shortly after timber 

harvest are remeasured periodically. Juvenile salmonid 

populations have been sampled periodically from the 

early 1980s to the present. Discharge and temperature 

records were made from 1949 through 1963 for most 

months; however, measurements were made only from 

April to October from 1948 through 1952.

Research, Past and Present

The Maybeso research program is designed to evaluate 

aspects of forest regeneration, riparian succession and 

evolution of stream channel morphology, and response of 

salmonid populations to changes in large-wood density 

and distribution. Several of these studies cover a period 

of more than 40 years. During the past 20 years, research 

on the watershed has evolved from studies of salmonid 

spawning habitat to broader studies of stream and 

riparian habitat as it moves through succession following 

timber harvest. The focus has been on changes in stream 

habitat as it relates to large-wood and its effect on juvenile 

salmonid populations. These studies have established 

a long-term (> 40-year) analysis of stream channel 

evolution. An extensive and thorough investigation of 

slope stability was conducted and completed during and 

shortly after logging in the watershed, as was an analysis 

of the geology of the watershed. These studies have 

continued intermittently during the past 30 years. Plots 

to evaluate long-term growth and silviculture treatments 

on the second-growth forest are located throughout the 

watershed. Streamfl ow and temperature data also have 

been collected intermittently during the past 40 years. 

Recent research in the watershed has emphasized landmanagement activities on steeper slopes and the role of 

alder in forest productivity.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research on the Maybeso watershed has focused on 

hydrology, slope stability, silviculture, and fi sh habitat. 

Results from research have contributed to guides for 

timber harvest practices on steep slopes, thinning regimes 

for second-growth spruce forests, and management of 

large-wood in streams.

Collaborators

Researchers from the following institutions have 

collaborated on studies at the Maybeso: University 

of Washington, University of Alaska, Michigan State 

University, University of Michigan, Montana State 

University, Oregon State University, and University of 

British Columbia.

Research Opportunities

There are opportunities for research on the following 

topics: 

• Second-growth forest succession 

• Effects of intensive silviculture of forest and 

watershed succession and ecology 

• Watershed restoration 

Facilities

A 12-person bunkhouse was completed in 2002 at Hollis; 

two other older buildings there provide storage and work 

space. The facilities at Hollis are located about 3 km from 

the Maybeso.

Lat. 55°29′13′′ N, long. 132° 39′59′′ W

Contact Information 

Maybeso Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

Juneau Forestry Sciences Laboratory

2770 Sherwood Lane Suite 2A

Juneau, AK 99801-8545

Tel: (907) 586-8811

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/index.shtml
72

Introduction

Pringle Falls Experimental Forest is a diverse 

natural laboratory within the Deschutes 

National Forest in central Oregon. It was 

formally established in 1931 as a center for 

silviculture, forest management, and insect 

and disease research in ponderosa pine forests 

east of the Oregon Cascade Range. Pringle 

Falls is maintained by the Pacifi c Northwest 

Research (PNW) Station for research and 

education in ecosystem structure and function 

and for demonstration of forest management 

techniques. It provides outstanding examples 

of undisturbed and managed ponderosa pine, 

lodgepole pine, and higher elevation mixed 

conifer forests occurring on 6,600-year-old aerially 

deposited Mount Mazama pumice and ash common 

throughout central and south-central Oregon.

Pringle Falls was the fi rst experimental forest to be 

established by the PNW. Thornton T. Munger, fi rst 

director of the Station, selected the 3,043-ha site of the 

Pringle Butte unit in 1914. Munger was a colleague 

and long-time friend of Gifford Pinchot, fi rst Chief of 

the Forest Service. Existing headquarters buildings were 

constructed between 1932 and 1934. The 3,535-acre 

Lookout Mountain unit was added in 1936 for a total of 

4,475 ha. Pringle Falls Research Natural Area, within the 

Pringle Butte unit of the experimental forest, provides a 

protected area for nondestructive research.

Climate

The climate of Pringle Falls is continental, modifi ed 

by proximity of the Cascade Range to the west and the 

Great Basin Desert to the east. Most precipitation occurs 

as snowfall. Annual precipitation averages 610 mm on 

Pringle Butte and more than 1,020 mm on Lookout 

Mountain. Daytime high temperatures in the summer 

range from 21 to 32 °C. Summer nights are cool and 

frosts can occur throughout the growing season.

Soils

Pringle Falls is characteristic of low-elevation forests 

within the High Cascades physiographic province. 

Terrain is generally fl at or gently rolling, dotted with 

small volcanic peaks and cinder cones. Pringle Butte, 

the oldest known geologic formation in the area, is a 

5-million-year-old shield volcano rising nearly 305 m 

above the surrounding basin. More recent deposits are 

sand and silt sediments of the La Pine Basin, overlain 

with sands and gravels deposited by glacial outwash from 

the Cascade Range. Lookout Mountain, the highest point 

in Pringle Falls (1,592 m), is a 300,000-year-old shield 

volcano resting on La Pine sediments. Overlaying the 

entire area is a 0.5- to 2-m-thick layer of dacite pumice 

and ash resulting from the explosion of Mount Mazama 

(now Crater Lake) nearly 6,600 years ago. Soils derived 

from Mazama pumice and ash have only a thin weathered 

surface layer. Most of the soil profi le is undeveloped, 

with low organic matter content, low nitrogen, sulfur, 

and phosphorus content, and high porosity. Daytime to 

nighttime temperature variation within the soil profi le 

can be extreme.

Vegetation

Forest communities within Pringle Falls are representative 

of low- and mid-elevation regional landscapes. Aspect, 

Pringle Falls Experimental Forest (Oregon)
73

elevation, and past disturbance events (especially fi res, 

insects, and disease, and more recent timber harvesting) 

have created a mosaic of rich biological diversity. 

Ponderosa pine is the dominant conifer through most of 

thPringle Falls. Shrub layers include antelope bitterbrush, 

ceanothus, greenleaf manzanita, giant chinquapin, and 

bearberry. A fi re regime of low-intensity burns every 7 to 

20 years, coupled with infrequent large and more intense 

fi res, was common prior to the advent of modern fi re 

suppression.

Dense stands of lodgepole pine with antelope 

bitterbrush, Idaho fescue, western needlegrass, and 

bearberry occur on fl ats and basin bottoms that are 

slow to drain in the spring and, because of topography, 

are prone to frequent frosts that kill ponderosa pine 

seedlings. In the mixed-conifer forest type at higher 

elevations, stands may contain ponderosa pine, grand fi r, 

Shasta red fi r, sugar pine, western white pine, whitebark 

pine, and mountain hemlock.

Long-Term Data Bases

An annotated bibliography of publications resulting 

from research at Pringle Falls from 1930 to 1993 was 

published in 1995 and is available from the PNW 

Station.

Research, Past and Present

Some of the earliest forestry research in central Oregon 

occurred within Pringle Falls. In 1936, a rating system 

for determining the susceptibility of ponderosa pine trees 

to western pine beetle attack was based on a westwide 

study and monitoring effort that included ponderosa 

pine stands in Pringle Falls. In 1950, stand structure 

and periodic growth measurements resulting from a 

study in which suppressed ponderosa pine seedlings were 

released from a lodgepole pine canopy were published. 

During the next several decades, research concentrated 

on determining the competitive effect of shrubs growing 

with ponderosa pine; use of prescribed fi re to control 

competing shrubs; and the soil thermal properties, 

surface temperatures, and seedbed characteristics 

required for lodgepole and ponderosa pine regeneration 

from natural seedfall. Also during this time, logging 

methods that ensured the survival of existing seedlings 

and saplings were developed, thus reducing future 

reforestation efforts and costs.

During the 1970s, permanent research plots were used 

to study the response of ponderosa pine to fertilization, 

and the release and subsequent growth of ponderosa and 

lodgepole pines and grand fi r at various tree densities. 

During this time, the frequency, intensity, and spatial 

patterns of wildfi re in old-growth ponderosa pine 

stands were examined, and the genetic characteristics 

of ponderosa pine were described. Work beginning in 

the 1980s and extending up through the early 1990s 

emphasized the response of dwarf mistletoe-infected 

pine to thinning, interactions between fi re and dwarf 

mistletoe, and development of stands in response to 

various silvicultural practices.

Much of the current research in Pringle Falls is designed 

to increase our understanding of the long-term processes 

that regulate or infl uence the structure, composition, and 

pattern of forests. Additional work will emphasize human 

interactions in the wildland-urban interface and how 

these interactions infl uence risk.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Much of the knowledge on which current eastside 

ponderosa pine silviculture is based was developed at 

Pringle Falls.

Collaborators

Collaborating researchers from the Deschutes National 

Forest and Oregon State University have worked at 

Pringle Falls.

Research Opportunities

At Pringle Falls, there are opportunities for the following 

types of research: manipulative and nonmanipulative 

research in ponderosa and lodgepole pine silviculture, 

entomology, pathology, fuel reduction and fi re effects, 

and natural disturbance regimes; social interactions 

involving high-density recreational use within a wild and 

scenic river corridor; and wildlife habitat values.
74

Facilities

The Pringle Falls Experimental Forest and Research 

Natural Area is about an hour’s drive south of Bend, 

Oregon, and are easily accessed from U.S. Highway 97. 

Overnight facilities within the PFEF are available for 

small groups involved in on-site research or educational 

activities.

Lat. 43°42′ N, long. 121°37′ W

Contact Information

Pringle Falls Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

La Grande Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory

1401 Gekeler Lane

La Grande, OR 97850

Tel: (541) 962-6530 

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/pringle-falls.shtml
75

Introduction

The South Umpqua Experimental Forest was established 

on the Umpqua National Forest in 1951. It was 

originally intended to provide research opportunities in 

the mixed-evergreen forest type common in the Cascade 

Range of southern Oregon. Experimental watershed 

studies were undertaken on four watersheds tributary 

to Coyote Creek by researchers in Corvallis in 1962. 

In 1967, the area of the forest was reduced in total area 

from the original 1,921 to 263 ha of the Coyote Creek 

experimental watersheds.

Climate

Annual precipitation at the watershed #2 gauge from 

1961 to 1976 averaged 1,230 mm and ranged from 880 

to 1,560 mm, falling mainly as rain but with some snow 

in winter. During this period, annual discharge from the 

control watershed averaged 630 mm.

Soils

Soils in the South Umpqua are derived from 

volcaniclastic bedrock and are moderately well-drained 

gravelly loams to a depth of 150 cm. Both active and 

inactive large, slow-moving landslides have created 

subdued topography in parts of the area, especially 

watershed 3.

Vegetation

The forest vegetation of the South Umpqua is 

characteristic of the mixed-conifer zone with Douglasfi r intermingled with several pine species, incense-cedar, 

other conifers, and several hardwood species.

Long-Term Data Bases

Streamfl ow and climate records for the Coyote Creek 

watersheds are available online from the Forest Science 

Data Bank associated with the Corvallis Forestry Sciences 

Lab (http://www.fsl.orst.edu/lter).

Research, Past and Present

The Coyote Creek experimental watershed studies of 

the effects of cutting and regrowth on hydrology and 

sediment production have been the central feature 

of research on the South Umpqua. After gauging 

commenced in 1962, watershed treatments were 

implemented in 1971, involving roads constructed 

in watersheds 1, 2, and 3; watershed 1 was partially 

cut, watershed 2 had small patches cut, watershed 3 

was clearcut and burned, and watershed 4 was left as a 

control. Stream gauging and other studies were ended 

in 1981 but were restarted in 2000-01 in a cooperative 

effort of the Umpqua National Forest and Pacifi c 

Northwest Research Station. A few studies of sediment 

production, ecology of mixed evergreen forest types, and 

effects of forest cutting and regrowth on streamfl ow took 

place in the Coyote Creek experimental watersheds in the 

early study period. The new period of stream gauging and 

sediment basin monitoring is intended to set the stage 

for thinning and perhaps prescribed fi re in the South 

Umpqua in the near future.

Facilities

The South Umpqua is located on the Umpqua National 

Forest’s Tiller Ranger District west of Tiller, Oregon, 

in the South Umpqua River drainage. The forest has 

no facilities (other than roads, gauging stations, and 

sediment basins) nor a web page, except for watershed 

research data on the Andrews Experimental Forest web 

page (http://www.fsl.orst.edu/lter). The area is accessible 

via the National Forest System roads.

Lat. 43°1′ N, long. 123°10′ W

Contact Information 

South Umpqua Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

Corvallis Forestry Sciences Laboratory

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97331

Tel: (541) 750-7355

South Umpqua Experimental Forest (Oregon)
76

Introduction

The Starkey Experimental Forest and Range is a unique 

facility with a rich history. The fi rst research emphasized 

the improvement of rangelands and livestock grazing 

methods. The setting is ecologically similar to the interior 

western forest landscapes. The history of use, logging, 

and grazing is also typical. Current ecological conditions, 

both in the understory and overstory, are also typical of 

conditions in the interior West. However, the ungulateproof fence enclosing 40 square miles, as well as interior 

fencing, provide control of herbivory effects and even the 

mix of herbivores (cattle, mule deer, and elk), making the 

Starkey a unique facility for research.

Climate

Annual precipitation on the Starkey EFR is extremely 

variable, but the average is 510 mm, falling primarily as 

winter snow. Temperatures vary from summer highs over 

37 °C to winter lows of -30 °C.

Soils

Soils range from extremely shallow basaltic soil types 

supporting grasslands to deep volcanic ash derivatives 

supporting forest stands.

Vegetation

Typical for this elevation (1,067 to 1,524 m) in the Blue 

Mountains, the Starkey’s vegetation types are primarily 

bunchgrass scabland, ponderosa pine-bunchgrass, 

Douglas-fi r associations, some grand fi r types, lodgepole 

pine, and mixed conifers.

Long-Term Data Bases

For the Starkey, there are 12 years of deer and elk 

handling data and radio telemetry locations for deer, elk, 

and cattle (ongoing). In addition, there are 20+ years of 

varied data sets for riparian grazing in Meadow Creek. 

Condition and trend transects and range exclosure data 

began in the 1950s. Big-game exclosures with vegetation 

data collection will be the subject of long-term analysis.

Research, Past and Present

On the Starkey, limited research on developing 

techniques of survey and measurement of forage 

production, use, and cover was conducted on site before 

it was offi cially designated as an experimental forest in 

1940. Exclosures were constructed to assess ecological 

change over time. A two-unit deferred-rotation grazing 

system was established in 1942. Practical management 

projects to improve livestock distribution through water 

development, salting, and range riding were also initiated.

A study begun in 1955 addressed the questions of 

proper stocking level for range improvement and animal 

gain, the effect of tree overstory on forage production, 

the effect of livestock grazing on deer and elk, and the 

infl uence of grazing on runoff and erosion. Of particular 

note is the initiation of research on cattle, elk, and deer 

interactions. Also in the 1950s, the fi rst broad-scale study 

in the Pacifi c Northwest correlated forest and range soils 

inventories.

The Meadow Creek Riparian Habitat Study was initiated 

in 1975 as a large multidisciplinary effort that involved 

11 cooperators and included research in hydrology, 

water chemistry, aquatic biology, fi sheries, and livestock 

nutrition. Another signifi cant direction change was the 

initiation of research on nongame wildlife. Research was 

also conducted on upgrading decadent forest stands with 

modern timber harvest concepts.

In the 1980s, riparian research continued on Meadow 

Creek, as did research on nongame wildlife. Study plan 

development and construction of fences and facilities 

began for the elk, deer, and cattle interactions study. 

The current elk, deer, and cattle interactions project 

was initiated in 1989 to increase our understanding 

of how these ungulates respond to each other, and to 

management activities.

Cooperative research with Oregon State University 

on livestock grazing management in riparian areas has 

continued on the Meadow Creek study pastures. Also, 

a cooperator at Eastern Oregon University is studying 

how bats use forest stands before, during, and after 

fuels reduction. Research on forest insect dispersion 

and abundance has also been conducted. Recently, a 

research logging entry provided treatments to remove all 

Starkey Experimental Forest and Range (Oregon)
77

mistletoe-infected trees and a partial removal of mistletoe 

brooms for a study of logging effects on tree and fl ying 

squirrels.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Reseeding studies on the Starkey have helped identify the 

best methods for rehabilitating mountain summer ranges 

and those depleted by logging. The effects of grazing 

systems and stocking rates on deer and elk provided 

information still in use today. Nongame wildlife research 

provided information to formulate snag retention policies 

in regional Forest Service management plans. Research 

on grazing methods for riparian zone improvement 

provided methodology on adjusting season of use and 

stocking rates as an alternative to expensive fencing, and 

the best sequence for grazing riparian meadows, forest 

and grassland ranges. The fi rst wild-land soil survey was 

conducted on the Starkey and provided a template for use 

on three adjacent national forests.

Recent studies on the Starkey have provided the 

following results: 

• Effective resolution of controversies surrounding 

management of domestic versus wild ungulates 

on range allotments 

• Delivery of critical knowledge regarding the 

management of deer, elk, and other wildlife in 

relation to fuels treatments to reduce fi re risk 

• Effective transfer of knowledge on the 

compatibility of ungulate and timber 

management

• Defensible options for managing roads and 

human activities on public lands. 

• Enhanced opportunities for hunting and viewing 

of elk 

• A better understanding of the role of ungulate 

grazing in relation to forest productivity, plant 

succession, fi re risk, and habitats for fi sh and 

wildlife

• Information on cattle grazing distribution 

relative to streams and steelhead trout spawning 

habitat used 

• Identify factors affecting cattle distribution 

relative to riparian areas

Collaborators

Collaborators working on the Starkey include researchers 

from Oregon State University, University of AlaskaFairbanks, University of Idaho, University of Montana, 

National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, 

Boise Corporation, and Oregon Department of Fish and 

Wildlife.

Research Opportunities

Sustainable forest ecosystem management, watershed 

health and restoration, and recreation and viable road 

management could all be addressed on the Starkey. The 

background information on ungulate activity, roads 

and traffi c, and vegetation and physiographic features 

provides an excellent data base from which to begin 

modeling efforts. A fuels reduction project is in place 

with treatments completed in 2003. 

There are opportunities for collaborative efforts to pursue 

research on the following topics: fuels/fi re management, 

threat of invasive weed species, insect and disease response, 

biodiversity issues, and riparian/water quality concerns. 

Small-mammal, avian, and threatened and endangered 

plants research opportunities also are available. Meadow 

Creek, a stream with an anadromous fi sh population, is 

cross-fenced and thus provides a laboratory for intensive 

research related to livestock use. The presence of a 

telemetry system for tracking ungulate movement in 

response to various management manipulations greatly 

enhances the opportunities for research.

Facilities

The Starkey is located 45 km southwest of La Grande. 

Facilities include a headquarters residence compound, 

telemetry computer center, and animal handling facilities, 

hay barn, pens, shops, and laboratory.

Lat. 45°10′-18′ N, long. 118°28′-37′ W

Contact Information 

Starkey Experimental Forest and Range 

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

Forest and Range Sciences Laboratory

1401 Gekeler Lane

La Grande, OR 97850

Tel: (541) 962-6539. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/starkey
78

Introduction

Although the Wind River Experimental Forest was 

not established until 1932, Forest Service research 

in the area began at least 20 years earlier. Thornton 

T. Munger, who later became the fi rst director of the 

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station, arrived in 1909 

and proceeded to establish a tree nursery, an arboretum, 

the fi rst Douglas-fi r growth-and-yield plots, and an 

important tree heredity study. Munger also established 

the Wind River Research Natural Area (RNA), later to 

be named after him, in 1926. The Wind River was set 

up as two divisions, Panther Creek and Trout Creek. 

Early on, the forest became the central area for studying 

the great Douglas-fi r forests of the Pacifi c Northwest, 

and many of the silvicultural practices for managing 

these forests were developed there. Silvicultural studies 

continued following World War II and into the 1960s, 

though many other areas served as important sites for 

the study of Douglas-fi r forests. In the 1980s research at 

Wind River was rekindled with an increase in ecosystem 

studies and old-growth/wildlife habitat research. In 1994, 

the Wind River Canopy Crane was established in the T. 

T. Munger RNA.

Climate

The nearby Columbia River Gorge affects the valley’s 

climate, contributing to strong winds in any season 

and cool, wet weather in the winter. Average annual 

precipitation is about 2,540 mm annually, occurring as 

rain or snow during fall, winter, and spring. Summers are 

warm and dry. Cold air draining into the valley can bring 

frosts almost any time of year.

Soils

Soils are primarily volcanic in origin with some colluvial 

and glacial till.

Vegetation

The Wind River is best known for its old-growth forests 

of Douglas-fi r and western hemlock. Other tree species 

in the forest include western redcedar and Pacifi c silver, 

grand, and noble fi rs. Understory trees include Pacifi c 

yew, vine maple, Pacifi c dogwood, and red alder. Western 

white pine used to grow in the forest, but most trees 

have been killed by white pine blister rust. Much of the 

forest consists of stands more than 400 years old. Younger 

forests include stands that were established after burns in 

the late 1840s and then again after the 1902 Yacolt Burn. 

Numerous plantations have been established following 

timber harvest into the late 1980s.

Many shrubs grow in the forest understory, including 

salal, Oregon-grape, red and big huckleberries, and west 

coast rhododendron. Dozens of plant species grow on 

the forest fl oor, including queencup beadlily, vanilla leaf, 

bracken fern, beargrass, twinfl ower, trillium, and little 

pipsissewa. Huckleberries and beargrass are particularly 

abundant at higher elevations.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data from the spacing study, some of the 

thinning studies, the arboretum, and the heredity study 

are available, but not all are are in digital form. Data for 

permanent plots in the Munger RNA (from 1949 on) are 

digital. Long-term weather data have been published. A 

complete weather station was established with the Wind 

River Canopy Crane. These data are available at: http://

depts.washington.edu/wrccrf/

Research, Past and Present

The earliest concerns at Wind River were how to prevent 

and control wildfi res, regenerate burned and cutover 

Wind River Experimental Forest (Washington)
79

lands, and grow seedlings to revegetate large areas of 

denuded forest land. The Wind River Arboretum was 

established to study which tree species from all over 

the world would grow best in the area. Permanent 

growth and yield plots, spacing studies, pruning, 

fertilization, and thinning studies, along with work 

on the autecology of Douglas-fi r, provided the most 

complete body of knowledge on the management and 

silviculture of Douglas-fi r-western hemlock forests in 

the Pacifi c Northwest prior to World War II. After the 

war, work continued at Wind River, but there was an 

increased interest in working in younger stands and in 

laboratories. Although the older studies, residue use, 

and thinning continued to be studied at Wind River, 

the late 1960s and 1970s saw a waning of traditional 

forestry work. One exception in the late 1970s was 

the Trout Creek Hill study, which continues to look at 

growth of different species mixtures with an eye toward 

managing for diversity, not only of species but for 

different management objectives. In the early 1980s, use 

of Wind River increased, with more ecosystem-oriented 

studies, including pollutant monitoring, nutrient cycling, 

decay of coarse woody debris, and forest gaps. The forest 

also became one of two focal sites for the USDA Forest 

Service’s Old-Growth Forest Wildlife Habitat Program, 

whose objectives were to defi ne old-growth Douglas-fi r 

forests, identify wildlife species associated with these 

forests, and determine their biological requirements and 

ecological relationships.

In 1994, a standard construction canopy crane was 

installed in the old-growth forest of the Munger RNA 

to study processes operating at the interfaces between 

vegetation and the atmosphere and belowground. The 

major research emphases of this facility are forest carbon 

and nutrient cycling, biological diversity and ecosystem 

functioning, forest health and protection, monitoring 

of climate and climate variability, ground validation 

and testing of new remote sensing technology, and 

tree physiology and growth. Many studies within these 

broader categories are taking place in the old-growth 

forest, but also in the younger stands and plantations 

throughout Wind River. The arboretum, heredity, 

spacing, permanent plots, and the Trout Creek Hill 

studies are ongoing.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The Wind River is often referred to as the “cradle of 

forestry research for the Pacifi c Northwest.” Early 

research work had much infl uence on the management of 

Douglas-fi r forests. In the 1980s, the forest was the site 

for old-growth forests and wildlife studies, which changed 

the direction of federal forest management in the Pacifi c 

Northwest. Today, the Trout Creek Hill study and oldgrowth and young-growth studies at and adjacent to the 

Wind River canopy crane are addressing current issues of 

global carbon cycling, management of young forests for 

objectives other than timber management, and issues of 

biological diversity.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the U.S. Department of Energy, 

Environmental Protection Agency, Smithsonian 

Institution, Universities of Washington, Idaho, California 

at Davis and Irvine, and Georgia, Oregon State 

University, Arizona State University, Evergreen University, 

Utah State University, and Stanford University.

Research Opportunities

The opportunities for research at Wind River are broad 

given the diversity of forest age classes, the existence of 

maintained long term study plots, the vibrant partnership 

that is the Wind River Canopy Crane Research Facility, 

the forest’s proximity to a large city, and the large extent 

of undisturbed forest that remains.

Facilities

At Wind River there are two residences, with a total of 20 

beds and kitchen facilities. The Wind River Ranger District 

has a 24-bed bunkhouse, which is sometimes available.

Lat. 45°50′ N, long. 121°54′ W

Contact Information

Wind River Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

Corvallis Forestry Sciences Laboratory

3200 SW Jefferson Way

Corvallis, OR 97330 

Tel: (541) 750-7360

http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/exforests/windriver.shtml
80

Introduction

The Young Bay Experimental Forest, located on 

Admiralty Island about 24 miles southwest of Juneau 

was established in 1959. It comprises 2,600 ha and 

was designed as a paired watershed for forest hydrology 

research. The vegetation is an old-growth forest with 

mature timber cover consisting primarily of Sitka spruce 

and western hemlock. It is a glaciated watershed with 

two short streams that are incised through thick (> 6 m) 

glacial till in their lower reaches and rise rapidly (gradient 

>10 percent) from sea level to an elevation of 1,160m. 

Both streams support small runs of pink and chum 

salmon, and a small population of Dolly Varden trout.

Research, Past and Present

Research on Young Bay has centered on artifi cial 

channel studies. Stream-gauging stations were installed 

on both streams in 1958 and stage and temperatures 

were recorded from 1958 through 1966. An artifi cial 

stream channel was installed in 1967 and was used for 

studies of gravel bed movement, gravel morphology, and 

the survival of eggs and alevins in different substrate 

compositions and fi ne sediment concentration. 

Subsequent work included the development and testing 

of an electronic device to measure intra-gravel water fl ow 

was part of this study. Research on the electronic gravel 

device was discontinued following the development of a 

prototype device. An evaluation of fi sh movement up a 

baffl ed culvert was conducted in the mid-1980s. There 

are no active studies on the forest at present.

Collaborators

There are no collaborators at present.

Research Opportunities

The Young Bay has excellent potential for the 

reestablishment of an artifi cial stream system to evaluate 

stream productivity in a controlled and statistically 

verifi able setting.

Facilities

All structures and equipment were removed from Young 

Bay in 1994.

Lat. 58°8′ N, long. 134°32′ W

Contact information 

Young Bay Experimental Forest 

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station 

Juneau Forestry Sciences Laboratory

2770 Sherwood Lane, Suite 2A

Juneau, AK 99801

Tel: (907) 586-8811

Young Bay Experimental Forest (Alaska)
81

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station
82

Introduction

The Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest, located in 

Lassen County, California, was formally designated in 

1934 as the Pacifi c Southwest Station’s principal site for 

management studies of the interior ponderosa pine type. 

Blacks Mountain occupies 3,715 ha on the Eagle Lake 

District of the Lassen National Forest. About half of 

the forest lies in a gently rolling basin at an elevation of 

1,700 m. The remainder extends up the moderate slopes 

of Blacks Mountain to the north and to the east, reaching 

an elevation of 2,100 m at the summit of Patterson 

Mountain. Slopes rarely exceed 30 percent. Aspects are 

primarily west and south facing.

Climate

The climate is characterized by warm dry summers and 

cold wet winters. Annual precipitation, mostly snow, 

averages about 460 mm in the basin. About 90 percent 

of the precipitation falls from October through May. Air 

temperatures during the year usually range from -9 to 

29 °C.

Soils

Most of the soils are between 1 and 3 m deep over basalt. 

Typic Argixerolls with mesic soil temperature regimes 

predominate at lower elevations. Andic Argixerolls with 

frigid soil temperature regimes predominate at higher 

elevations.

Vegetation

Interior ponderosa pine (SAF 237) occupies 3,715 ha 

and is the only forest cover type on the forest. Species 

composition varies within the type. White fi r and 

incense-cedar, absent in stands within the lower portion 

of the basin, become increasingly abundant at higher 

elevations. The remaining 437 ha are poorly drained fl ats 

occupied by sagebrush and grass.

Long-Term Data Bases

Blacks Mountain has been subdivided into 100 

compartments of about 40 ha each. An intensive road 

system, the fi rst in the West designed specifi cally for 

truck hauling, was laid out so that every compartment 

was bordered by a road. Compartments and roads have 

been continuously maintained. In 1933 and 1934, the 

Blacks Mountain was completely inventoried on a 1-ha 

grid. Timber type maps and inventories were prepared 

by compartments and updated following harvests. 

Computerized stem maps for a 20-year period and 

inventories for a 50-year period are available on 8-ha 

parcels (48). An ecological unit inventory was completed 

in 1994.

Research, Past and Present

Studies going back as far as 1910 resulted in new theories 

of management, silviculture, and insect control for 

interior ponderosa pine. The initial objective of Blacks 

Mountain was to develop these theories into a system 

of management and to test, demonstrate, and improve 

this system through continuous operation of a timber 

tract on a commercial scale. Early timber harvests were 

primarily for insect control. An insect risk-rating system 

developed at Blacks Mountain was tested. The mosaic of 

Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest (California)
83

small even-aged groups of trees (then the prevailing stand 

structure) was proposed as the subject of management 

rather than individual trees. This concept of “unit area 

control” was tested operationally during the 1950s.

An ambitious study of stand growth and development 

after several intensities of timber harvesting was begun 

in 1938. Each year for 10 years, four to six 8-ha plots 

were installed to test cutting prescriptions ranging from 

a commercial clearcut, to various intensities of partial 

cutting or no harvest. This methods-of-cutting study 

(MOC) was abandoned in the mid-1960s when research 

became focused on even-age management, but was 

resurrected in 1990 when interest returned to unevenage management. In 1992, the MOC compartments 

became the basis for a new long-term interdisciplinary 

study of how forest structural complexity affects the 

health and vigor of interior ponderosa pine ecosystems, 

the ecosystem’s resilience to natural and human-caused 

disturbances, and how such ecosystems can be managed 

for sustained resource values. In 1995, Blacks Mountain 

was selected as part of the North American Long-Term 

Soil Productivity (LTSP) Network for 1 of 12 LTSP 

experiments in California.

In October 2002, the Cone Fire consumed 647 ha at 

Blacks Mountain. Subsequently, a study of fi re salvage 

impact and wildfi re behavior in managed stands was 

initiated. Burned areas are receiving varying levels 

of salvage to test response of fuel conditions and soil 

compaction.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management 

An insect risk-rating system was developed at Blacks 

Mountain to identify large, old ponderosa pines at risk 

of being killed by the western pine beetle. When early 

logging operations demonstrated that as little as 35 

m3

/ha could be logged economically and that cutting 

using the insect risk-rating system reduced the annual 

rate of tree killing, such sanitation/salvage operations 

were employed over a wide area. A system for classifying 

ponderosa pine trees as to vigor, developed at Blacks 

Mountain in 1936, continues to be used widely. The 

concept of “unit area control” was tested operationally 

during the 1950s. A 50-year record of stand development 

has demonstrated and quantifi ed the increase in stand 

density, the infl ux of white fi r, and the increased 

mortality of large, old ponderosa pines found in interior 

ponderosa pine forests throughout the West in the 

absence of periodic wildfi re.

Collaborators

Scientists and foresters from Humboldt State University, 

Oregon State University, Wildlife Conservation Society, 

and Lassen National Forest have collaborated on studies 

at Blacks Mountain.

Research Opportunities

Blacks Mountain contains typical stands of interior 

ponderosa pine with a variety of stand structures from 

young plantations though natural stands of poles to 

partially cut and uncut late seral stands. Collaborators are 

sought to explore the responses of vegetation, wildlife, 

insects and other ecosystem components to stand 

structure, grazing, and prescribed fi re.

Facilities

Housing and offi ce space is available at the Lassen 

National Forest’s Bogard Work Center, 19 km southeast 

of the forest. Gasoline and general merchandise can be 

obtained in the town of Susanville, 64 km southeast of 

Blacks Mountain.

Lat. 40°40′ N, long. 121°10′ W

Contact Information 

Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

3644 Avtech Parkway

Redding, CA 96002

Tel: (530) 242-2454 

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/program/ecology_of_western_

forests/experimental_forests/blacks_mountain
84

Introduction

Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed serves as an 

important research site for evaluating the effects of 

timber management on streamfl ow, sedimentation, and 

erosion in the rainfall-dominated forested watersheds of 

the northern coast of California. Caspar Creek includes 

two watersheds with nested sub-basins: the North Fork 

(NFC, 484 ha) and South Fork (SFC, 424 ha). Begun 

in 1962 as a cooperative effort between the California 

Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and the 

USDA Forest Service’s Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station, the project has evolved from a simple paired 

watershed study into one of the most comprehensive 

and detailed investigations of its kind. Hydrologic data 

collected here include streamfl ow, subsurface pipefl ow, 

piezometric pressure, soil moisture tension, suspended 

sediment, turbidity, bedload transport, air and water 

temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation. Channel 

data include channel cross sections, stream habitat 

typing, woody debris recruitment and riparian canopy 

evaluations, sediment storage, and pool condition. 

Hillslope data include landslide inventories, road 

evaluations, and vegetative condition. Cooperators have 

undertaken benthic investigations, aquatic vertebrate 

and macroinvertebrate sampling, and water chemistry 

monitoring.

Climate

Winters are mild and wet, and summers are moderately 

cool and dry. About 90 percent of the average annual 

precipitation of 1,200 mm falls during October through 

April. Summer coastal fog is common. Snow is rare and 

rainfall intensities are low.

Soils

The soils of the basins are well-drained clay-loams, 1 to 2 

m in depth, and are derived from Franciscan graywacke 

sandstone and weathered, coarse-grained shale of 

Cretaceous Age. They have high hydraulic conductivities, 

and subsurface stormfl ow is rapid, producing saturated 

areas of only limited extent and duration.

Vegetation

Forest types at Caspar Creek include second-growth 

mixed conifer, mostly coast redwood, Douglas-fi r, 

western hemlock, and grand fi r.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are long-term data bases on stream discharge, 

precipitation, suspended sediment concentration, 

turbidity, and solar radiation.

Research, Past and Present

Research at Caspar Creek is designed to study the effects 

of forest practices on watershed and ecological processes. 

From 1963 to 1967, both the NFC and SFC watersheds 

were calibrated prior to treatment. At that time, these 

watersheds supported a 90-year-old, second-growth, 

mixed conifer forest dominated by coast redwood and 

Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed (California)
85

Douglas-fi r. From 1967 to 1972, roads were constructed 

and about two-thirds of the stand volume was selectively 

harvested and tractor yarded from SFC. From 1985 to 

1986, 67 percent of an 87-ha ungauged tributary was 

clearcut and cable yarded immediately upstream of the 

North Fork gauging station. Logging began in the main 

study portion of the NFC in 1989 and ended in 1991. 

Three tributaries in the NFC were left in an untreated 

control condition. Postlogging measurements continue in 

the NFC and SFC watersheds.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management 

The South Fork Caspar Creek selection harvest with 

tractor yarding (phase 1) showed that:

• Sediment increased by 335 percent from road 

building in 1968.

• Sediment increased by 212 percent from tractor 

logging following the 1970-73 harvest.

• Major landslides accounted for most of the 

sediment production in the SFC after logging; 

more sediment was made available for transport.

• SFC road system persisted as the major source 

of sediment, annual streamfl ow increased by 15 

percent, but larger relative increases occurred 

during summer low fl ows; during the late 1960’s, 

the salmonid abundance declined but appeared 

to return to predisturbance levels after only 2 

years.

In the Caspar Creek/North Fork studies of clearcutting 

and skyline cable logging, annual suspended sediment 

loads increased by 73 percent in the partially clearcut 

NFC but by more than 100 percent in the clearcut 

tributary watersheds. An increase in landslides was not 

observed post-harvest; rather, increases in sediment 

loads were correlated to the fl ow increase, length of 

intermittent channels logged or burned, and new road 

construction. In clearcut units, storm peaks increased by 

as much as 300 percent, but the mean increase was 35 

percent. As basin wetness increased, peak fl ow increases 

lessened. Return to pretreatment fl ow conditions appears 

to be occurring 12 years post-harvest. Debris loading 

(large-wood) increased along the NFC stream channel 

in the fi rst few years after logging due to increased 

windthrow. Channel morphology has become more 

complex with more debris jams, sediment storage “steps,” 

and greater pool volumes. However, no dramatic changes 

in the abundance of steelhead, coho, and Pacifi c giant 

salamander were attributed to logging.

Collaborators

Researchers from the following organizations have 

worked on Caspar Creek: California Departments 

of Forestry and Fire Protection and Fish and Game, 

National Marine Fisheries Service, California Water 

Quality Control Board, Stanford University, University 

of California at Davis, University of California at 

Berkeley, Chico State University, Humboldt State 

University, California Polytechnic University, and 

Oregon State University.

Research Opportunities

Caspar Creek provides long-term, records of basic 

hydrologic and geomorphic processes spanning the 

downslope sequence of processes from the tree canopy to 

third-order channels in two watersheds with 26 nested 

sub-basins. Large-scale experimentation is planned 

for timber harvest and watershed restoration. New 

collaborators from a multitude of disciplines, including 

hydrology, geomorphology, forestry, meteorology, and 

aquatic and riparian ecology, are welcomed.

Facilities

Expanded lodging and laboratory facilities are under 

construction for the Jackson Learning Center nearby. 

Caspar Creek offi ces are located at the Jackson 

Demonstration State Forest offi ce, 802 N. Main Street, 

Fort Bragg, CA.

Lat. 39°22′30′′ N, long. 123°40′ W

Contact Information 

Caspar Creek Experimental Watershed 

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

Redwood Sciences Laboratory

1700 Bayview Drive

Arcata, CA 95521 

Tel: (707) 825-2930

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/rsl/projects/water/caspar.html 
86

Introduction

The Challenge Experimental Forest is located on 

the Plumas National Forest surrounding the small 

community of Challenge. The forest was formally 

designated in 1942 (but not activated until 1958) for 

experimentation in silvicultural management of the 

young-growth forests at lower elevations on the west 

slope of the Sierra Nevada. It was enlarged to its present 

boundaries in 1958.

Challenge occupies 1,446 ha in eastern Yuba County, 

California, at the western edge of the Feather River 

District of the Plumas National Forest. Elevations range 

from 730 to 1,130 m. Slopes on more than 80 percent 

of the Challenge are less than 30 percent. All aspects are 

represented with west and south aspects predominating.

Climate

The climate is Mediterranean in that summers are warm 

and dry, and winters are cool and wet. Mean annual 

precipitation averages 1,727 mm, 98 percent of which 

falls between October and May. The occasional snowfalls 

melt rapidly, leaving the ground free of snow most of the 

winter. Annual temperatures normally range from 6 °C in 

January to 21 °C in July.

Soils

The Challenge is located on a drainage divide of the Yuba 

River. Most of the land is drained by tributaries of Dry 

Creek, which originates on the forest and joins the Yuba 

River about 20 miles downstream. Most soils are old and 

deep. Clayey, oxidic, mesic Xeric Haplohumults of the 

Challenge and Sites soil series cover most of the forest.

Vegetation

Pacifi c ponderosa pine (SAF 245) is the major forest 

cover type. Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer (SAF 243), 

California black oak (SAF 246), and Pacifi c ponderosa 

pine-Douglas-fi r (SAF 244) types are also present.

Long-Term Data Bases

Precipitation and maximum and minimum temperatures 

have been recorded at the nearby Challenge Work 

Center, Plumas National Forest, since 1938. Soils have 

been mapped both by the Cooperative Soil Vegetation 

Survey and the University of Californian at Davis, 

in cooperation with Yuba County. The timber was 

inventoried in 1938-39 and again in 1979.

Research, Past and Present

Early research at the Challenge sought answers to two 

major questions: how to grow and harvest young-growth 

(80 to 100 years old) ponderosa pine to ensure adequate 

regeneration, and how to dispose of logging slash to 

reduce fi re hazard and ensure adequate regeneration. 

Both even-age (clearcutting, seedtree, and shelterwood) 

and uneven-age (group and single-tree selection) 

management systems were studied. Management of 

native California hardwoods, fi eld testing of hybrid and 

introduced pine species, and amount and pattern of 

soil moisture depletion by individual trees were other 

important early studies. In 1998, the fi rst California 

Long-Term Soil Productivity Experiment (LTSP) was 

installed as part of the North American LTSP Research 

Network.

More recent investigations include: 

• Determining the extent to which natural 

reproduction follows different methods of 

cutting, logging, slash disposal, and site 

preparation.

• Evaluating the success of various direct seeding 

practices, including site preparation and rodent 

control.

• Determining the magnitude, periodicity, and 

germination characteristics of conifer and 

hardwood seedcrops.

• Determining the growth of the residual 

stand and changes in stand structure under 

management.

• Determining the effect of timber harvest on the 

magnitude and duration of leaching losses of soil 

nutrients.

Challenge Experimental Forest (California)
87

• Determining the effect of soil compaction 

and loss of organic matter on long-term soil 

productivity.

• Evaluating the effect of fertilization on soil 

chemistry and on the growth and foliar 

chemistry of mixed-conifer species.

• Determining the effects of competition and 

fertilization on the growth, biomass, and 

chemistry of ponderosa pine.

Results are directly applicable to more than 800,000 ha 

of low-elevation, highly productive sites on the west slope 

of the northern Sierra Nevada.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Long-term results from a study of group selection 

demonstrated and quantifi ed the effect on regeneration 

of openings of different sizes on growth rates and 

proportion of the mixed conifer species. Regeneration of 

fi ve species of conifers, three of hardwoods, and two of 

shrubs was evaluated for fi ve different cutting methods 

in terms of seedling stocking, density, and height 

growth. For ponderosa pine, seed-tree and shelterwood 

methods produced the highest stocking and density. 

Selection cutting methods were best for survival and 

establishment of sugar pine, white fi r, and Douglas-fi r. 

For all species, seedling height growth increased from 

single-tree selection to clearcutting. However, shrubs 

were particularly dense after clearcutting and broadcast 

burning, and could be a major factor in establishing 

adequate regeneration of rapid growth potential in this 

method.

A study of initial spacing and shrub competition 

on growth and development of planted ponderosa 

pine showed that the infl uence of shrub competition 

in restricting tree growth is short lived if trees are 

planted on a highly productive site with intensive site 

preparation. After about 15 years of growth, trees with 

a shrub understory begin to exceed that of trees free of 

shrubs. Stem volume production is expected to be about 

the same with and without a shrub understory in about 

60 years. 

Soil solution chemistry measured in the 17-year period 

following harvesting and reforestation indicates that 

nitrate continues to leach below the rooting zone until 

a continuous canopy of perennial vegetation develops 

(about 14 years). However, losses are essentially equal to 

nitrogen inputs from precipitation.

Soil compaction led to sizable losses of tree growth 

through the fi rst 5 years of stand development (but the 

opposite is true on sandy soils). Loss of surface organic 

matter had little infl uence of tree growth, but led to 

appreciable erosion of the unprotected mineral soil (the 

effect was much greater than that of soil compaction). 

Isotopic analyses of 13C in branch samples indicated 

periods of physiological drought stress caused by 

treatment or by climate.

Collaborators

Staff from the Plumas National Forest, and scientists 

from the University of California at Davis and Berkeley 

have worked on the Challenge.

Research Opportunities

The Challenge offers abundant opportunities for research 

into shrub-tree interactions, stand dynamics of ponderosa 

pine from young plantations to 130-year-old natural 

stands and long-term soil changes in soil productivity as 

a consequence of logging operations.

Facilities

The Challenge has no facilities. General merchandise 

can be obtained in the town of Challenge. The nearest 

accommodations are in Oroville (42 km northwest) or 

Marysville (56 km southwest).

Lat. 39°28′ N, long. 121°13′ W

Contact Information

Challenge Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

2400 Washington Avenue

Redding, CA 96001

Tel: (530) 242-2455

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw.redding
88

Introduction

In 1992, the Hawaii Tropical Forest Recovery Act 

authorized the establishment of Hawaii Experimental 

Tropical Forest to serve as a center for long-term research 

and a focal point for developing and transferring 

knowledge and expertise for the management of tropical 

forests. The Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest 

(HETF), established on March 23, 2007, is located on 

the Island of Hawaii and is divided into two units: the 

Laupāhoehoe Wet Forest Unit (5,134 ha) and the Pu‘u 

Wa‘awa‘a Dry Forest Unit (14,383 ha). These two units 

encompass remarkable gradients of climate, forests, soils, 

and land use history. The HETF, located on lands owned 

and managed by the state of Hawaii, is cooperatively 

managed by the Institute of Pacifi c Islands Forestry of 

the Pacifi c Southwest Research Station and the Hawai‘i 

Division of Forestry and Wildlife.

The Hawaiian Islands are the world’s most isolated 

archipelago and subsequently, there is a high level of 

endemism among native fl ora and fauna. This presents 

a unique opportunity for researchers to address a broad 

range of ecological questions. The HTEF also serves 

as a living learning laboratory where education and 

demonstration programs will be provided for students of 

all ages.

Climate

The two units of HTEF occupy distinct climate zones 

representing the two major climate conditions of the 

island. The Laupāhoehoe Unit is located on the eastern, 

windward fl anks of Mauna Kea from approximately 

518 to1,860 m elevation. Orographic cloud formations 

account for the high rainfall rates and the afternoon 

fogs that occur in the area. Average annual rainfall at 

lower elevations is 418 cm and approximately 157 to 

261 cm at upper elevations. The Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Unit 

is located on the western, leeward side (Kona coast) of 

the Big Island. It lies on the northern fl ank of Hual lai 

volcano, extending from sea level to within 1.6 km of 

the mountain summit, approximately 1,920 m elevation. 

Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a often receives afternoon convectional 

rainfall. At higher elevations (1,200 m elevation) median 

annual rainfall is about 122 cm; at sea level, median 

annual rainfall is less than 25 cm. Monthly rainfall is 

greatest during March through July, and peaks during 

May. Temperatures in the HETF vary by elevation on the 

western side. At highest elevations the temperature could 

be 13 °C colder than in the lowlands. At sea level, average 

monthly day time temperatures range from 26 to 28 °C 

and night time temperatures range from 17 to 21 °C.

Soils

The terrain and soils found within the Laupāhoehoe 

Unit vary with the age and type of surface lava fl ows 

and the depth of volcanic ash deposited over these fl ows. 

The terrain in the highest elevation area is the roughest, 

and these surface fl ows are grouped with the youngest 

of Mauna Kea’s post-shield formation fl ow series. They 

are characterized as predominantly a‘a or blocky a‘a 

fl ows which are generally free of the eolian volcanic ash 

deposits that mantle the older Mauna Kea fl ow series. 

Soils on these fl ows are described as very stony loam. 

In the upper mid-elevation of Laupāhoehoe Unit, the 

surface lava fl ows are older but still are grouped with 

those erupted during the younger, post-shield phase of 

Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest (Hawaii)
89

Mauna Kea’s. These fl ows are also predominantly a‘a or 

blocky a‘a fl ows but are partially mantled by volcanic ash 

deposits. Soils on these fl ows are described as silt loam 

formed from volcanic ash.

Two historic lava fl ows dominate the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Unit: 

the 1859 fl ow from Mauna Loa and the 1800 to1801 

Ka‘ūpūlehu fl ow from Hualālai. Both fl ows covered large 

areas of native forest and have been poorly re-vegetated. 

Most lava between these two historic fl ows originated on 

Hualālai. Lava tubes are important geological systems 

in the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a area. Biologically, the openings are 

habitats of many unique plant and animal species.

Vegetation

The Laupāhoehoe Unit contains fi ve primary native 

communities: Koa/‘Ōhi‘a Lowland Wet Forest, Koa/

‘Ōhi‘a Montane Wet Forest, ‘Ōhi‘a /Hāpu‘u Montane 

Wet Forest, Carex alligata Montane Wet Grassland, and 

Koa/‘Ōhi‘a Montane Forest, as well as areas of non-native 

vegetation. The native forest communities contain rare 

plants and provide important forest bird habitat. Two 

hundred thirty-four vascular plants have been identifi ed 

in the Laupāhoehoe Natural Area Reserve.

The Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Dry Forest Unit, representative of 

the most endangered forest type in the Pacifi c Islands, 

contains fi ve life zones starting from the summit of 

Hualālai to the coast : Subalpine Zone—‘Ōhi‘a Subalpine 

Forest, Montane Dry Forest Zone—‘Ōhi‘a Montane 

Dry Forest, Montane Mesic Forest Zone—Koa/‘Ōhi‘a 

Montane Mesic Forest, ) Lowland Dry Forest Zone, and 

Coastal Zone. A recent biological assessment lists 189 

native vascular plants, including 17 federally endangered 

species.

Long-Term Data Bases

Research and monitoring equipment installed at the 

Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a unit include: 1) a remote access weather 

station, managed by the Bureau of Land Management; 

and 2) weather stations, collecting climate data. A system 

for archiving data and reports from the HETF will be 

established to facilitate an exchange and transfer of 

information among federal, state government, forests, 

academia, scientists, and private landowners.

Research Opportunities

The HETF will be the location of many short- and longterm research studies needed to understand structure, 

function, and processes of Hawaiian tropical ecosystems. 

The Laupāhoehoe Unit has been selected to the Core 

Wildland Site for the Pacifi c National Ecological 

Observatory Network (NEON) Domain. Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a 

Unit will be prominent as a Gradient Observational 

Site. The Hawai‘i Permanent Plot Network (HIPPNET) 

funded by the NSF-EPSCoR program has established 

two of ten statewide, large (4 ha), permanent research 

plots in the HETF. HIPPNET plots and monitoring 

methods are designed to complement the network of 

long-term tropical forest research plots established by the 

Center for Tropical Forest Science.

HETF will be an internationally recognized center for 

long-term studies at scales from the plot to the watershed 

on forestry, conservation biology, endangered species, 

and invasive species, to help us better understand how 

to restore and sustainably manage tropical forests. 

Land managers challenged with management of these 

important landscapes, will have the benefi t of scientifi c 

information to inform their decisions. The HETF will 

also provide many new public education, research, and 

demonstration opportunities.

Collaborators

State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife , and 

University of Hawai‘i.

Facilities

Currently, the Laupāhoehoe Unit has no facilities and no 

monitoring equipment installed. However, an area near 

the northern corner of the boundary is suitable and will 

likely be the site used for facilities. The Laupāhoehoe 

Unit is near to the Institute of Pacifi c Islands Forestry 

Headquarters and the University of Hawai‘i - Hilo 

campus where administrative, greenhouse, and laboratory 

support would be located.

Infrastructure of roads, houses, and water supply, in 

various conditions, already exist in the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a 

Unit. Existing improvements in the area include 16 
90

structures, approximately 214 km of roads, four water 

sources, approximately 48 km of waterlines, many miles 

of fences and rock walls, and an airplane landing strip.

Laupāhoehoe Wet Forest Unit, Lat. 19.80528 N, 

Long. 155.26917 W

Pu’u Wa’awa’a Dry Forest Unit, Lat. 19.73194 N, 

Long. 155.88611 W

Contact Information

Institute of Pacifi c Islands Forestry

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

60 Nowelo Street

Hilo, Hawaii 96720-0370

Tel: (808)933-8121

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/ef/hawaii
91

Introduction

The North Mountain Experimental Area (NMEA) was 

established on January 8, 1964, when land previously 

administered by the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM), U.S. Department of the Interior, was withdrawn 

from all appropriation under the Public Land laws 

including mining/mineral leasing laws by Public Land 

Order 3221. This withdrawal occurred by authority of 

the President, and pursuant to Executive Order 10355 of 

May 26, 1952.

The NMEA contains a total of 4,348 ha. Nearly the 

entire area is covered with chaparral that is representative 

of southern California, low elevation, interior nontimbered wildlands. The BLM land examiner described 

the area as “badlands,” created apparently by uplifting 

along the Hot Springs Fault line. Three major drainages 

dissect the NMEA: Potrero, Poppet, and Indian Creeks. 

All three are ephemeral. Since 1983, nearly all of the 

vegetation on the Experimental Area has burned. A major 

fi re in 1932 burned over 80 percent of the area, and again 

in 1967 the Bailiff Fire burned about 60 percent of the 

NMEA. Use of the NMEA is limited to activities directly 

related to research in problems of prevention and control 

of forest and range fi res.

Climate

The climate of the NMEA is typically Mediterranean. 

Due to its inland location, summers can be quite hot 

and dry, and winters cool and wet. Mean maximum 

temperatures over 30 °C and relative humidity values 

below 35 percent are typical for California inland 

stations. Mean temperatures for Hemet (8 km southwest) 

are as follows:

January July

Minimum 3 °C 15 °C

Maximum 16 °C 32 °C

The annual precipitation is only about 250 mm. Rain 

falls primarily between October and April. January is 

North Mountain Experimental Area (California)

typically the wettest month, with 50 mm of precipitation. 

Elevation ranges from 460 m to 1,320 m.

Soils

Soils throughout most of the NMEA are derived from 

granitic rocks. They vary considerably in depth, are low 

in organic matter, are moderately coarse to very coarse, 

and neutral to slightly acid (pH from 6.5 to 5.8). Soils 

are low in fertility and have relatively low water holding 

capacity. Some soils on rolling-to-steep uplands are 

moderately coarse Lithosols developed from mica schists. 

The surface texture of these soils is predominately sandy 

loam, but grades into clay loam a few inches below 

the surface. These soils are also low in fertility, and are 

moderately permeable with medium to rapid runoff. 

Structural development is lacking throughout the profi le.

Vegetation

The plant community is primarily of the Shrub 

Formation. The major subformations are the Chaparral 

Subformation (Chamise, Manzanita, Ceanothus, 

Mountain Mahogany, and Scrub Oak Series) and the Soft 

Chaparral Subformation (California Buckwheat Series). 

Several other series are present in minor and varying 

amounts.

Long-Term Data Bases

Aerial photographs are available: 1:20,000 vertical 

aerial photographs (1961), and oblique aerial 

photographs (1964). A variety of maps are available: 

7.5- and 15-minute topographic maps, 7.5-minute 

orthophotographic maps, and fi eld-drawn vegetation 

maps at the series level. Wildfi re history maps go back to 

about the 1930s.

Research, Past and Present

Early studies at the NMEA centered on fuel breaks and 

fuel properties. Plant control research was conducted in 

two main categories: (1) the eradication of either selected 

brush plants or all vegetation; and (2) the reduction of 

plant growth with growth-inhibiting substances. The 

research centered around the use of herbicides that 
92

were believed to give the most effective and economical 

control of brush regrowth in established fuelbreaks. 

Another study concerned shrub seed production, 

dispersal, and deposition on chaparral vegetation to 

develop better techniques for reducing the volume of 

hazardous brush fuels.

Additional studies involved development of a low volume 

shrub that would slow down or repel fi res and the use 

of sheep to reduce fuel volume on fuelbreaks. Studies 

to determine fuel properties affecting fi re behavior of 

chamise and other species were included. NMEA was 

also the site of wind pattern investigations to compare 

collected wind data with predictions from theoretical 

models of valley convections. Other research topics 

included: fuel physical and chemical properties, and 

arrangement; short- and long-term recovery from 

prescribed fi res under varying conditions; factors that 

affect hydrologic processes; vegetation dynamics, air 

pollution, and nutrient cycling; and ecological and 

physiological studies of chaparral.

Current research efforts focus on plant-soil-water 

relations in chaparral. Since 1983, nearly all vegetation 

at North Mountain has burned. In the October 2006 

Esperanza fi re, almost 65 percent of the experimental 

forest burned, with scattered unburned islands.

Major Research Accomplishments and 

Effects on Management

Signifi cant contributions were provided from studies on 

fuelbreaks and fuel properties, as well as wind pattern 

investigations and plant control and eradication. Longterm data sets include fi eld-drawn vegetative maps and 

wildfi re history maps.

Collaborators

Future collaborators include the University of California, 

Riverside.

Research Opportunities

Research will focus on the short- and long-term recovery 

from the Esperanza fi re and will test pilot vegetative 

eradication techniques.

Facilities

No offi ce, laboratory, or living facilities are within the 

NMEA. The Forest Fire laboratory and the University of 

California in Riverside are within an hour’s drive of the 

NMEA.

Location

The NMEA is located in Riverside County, The nearest 

full facility community is Banning, located 5 km north 

of the NMEA boundary. Beaumont and Hemet are also 

within 8 km of the boundary.

Road access to the NMEA is best from Banning/Idyllwild 

Highway, State Route 243. Due to the limited use of the 

area, road maintenance is infrequent and minimal, at this 

writing.

Contact Information

Project Leader

Prescribed Fire for California Chaparral and 

 Associated Ecosystems

Forest Fire Laboratory

4955 Canyon Crest Drive

Riverside, California 92507

www.fs.fed.us/psw/ef/north_mountain
93

Introduction

The Onion Creek Experimental Forest was established 

in 1958 to develop techniques for increasing water 

yields from forested lands in the Sierra Nevada snow 

zone. Onion Creek encompasses about 1,200 ha in fi ve 

main sub-basins. The aspect is variable but generally 

southwest. Elevation ranges from 1,830 to 2,590 m. 

Harvest disturbance is minimal. About 20 percent of the 

northwestern portion of Onion Creek was harvested in 

the early 1900s and a portion of the forest is formally 

withdrawn from mineral entry. Cattle grazing continues 

as nearly 200 cattle pass through Onion Creek over a 3- 

to 4-day period twice each year.

Atmospheric deposition has not been measured on the 

forest itself. However, annual hydrogen ion loading at 

the nearby Central Sierra Snow Laboratory of the Pacifi c 

Southwest Research Station has ranged from 7 to 10 

mg/m2

 since 1983. Mean annual sulfate ion loading since 

983 is 4.5 g/m2

 at the snow laboratory.

Climate

The climate is typically Mediterranean, with moist, 

relatively mild winters and dry, warm summers. 

Annual precipitation is about 1,060 mm at 1,830 m 

elevation, with 85 to 90 percent falling as snow during 

the winter. Mean monthly air temperatures range from 

-1 °C in January to 15 °C in July. Monthly minimum 

temperatures range from a low of -14 °C in January to 

1 °C in July, whereas monthly maximum temperatures 

range from about 13 °C in January to 30 °C in July.

Soils

Mapped geologic units include Miocene pyroclastics with 

Andesitic mudfl ow breccias, volcanic conglomerate, and 

some tuff. Quaternary glacial deposits include Pleistocene 

moraines, glacial drift, and fl uvioglacial sand and gravel. 

No mineralization of economic signifi cance is known to 

exist and no mining claims are recorded. 

Soils are volcanic Xerumbrepts and have been classifi ed 

as follows: Ahart/rock outcrop (15 percent of the forest), 

Ahart/Waca (25), Gefo variate (5), Meiss (5), Tallac (15) 

Waca/Meiss (5), Waca/Windy (5), miscellaneous (20). 

Cation exchange capacities are 25 to 35 meq/100 g (sum 

of cations) or 20 to 30 meq/100 g (ammonium acetate). 

A soil resource inventory map (third-order soil survey) is 

available.

Vegetation

The main plant communities are red fi r (SAF 207), white 

fi r (SAF 211), Jeffrey pine (SAF 247), and dry meadow. 

An ecological survey of a portion of Onion Creek listed 

major forest plant species including red and white fi r, 

sugar, Jeffrey, western white, and lodgepole pine, incensecedar, mountain hemlock, and western juniper.

Long-Term Data Bases

Climatic data bases include air temperature, relative 

humidity, and precipitation (continuous strip chart) 

since 1976; coverage before 1976 is sporadic. Hydrologic 

data bases include continuous stream discharge records 

available from fi ve sub-basins with areas ranging from 0.5 

to 2.1 km2

. A sixth gauging station monitors the entire 

9.3-km2

 basin. Snowpack depth and its water equivalent 

have been monitored monthly at a snow course since 

1937.

Research, Past and Present

Past research at Onion Creek dealt with the relationship 

of Sierra Nevada snow dynamics to the red fi r-white fi r 

ecotone and also involved the use of meterological and 

streamfl ow data to develop and calibrate rain-on-snow 

models. There is no current active Forest Service research 

and the facility is now managed by the University of 

California at Berkeley.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Topics of major accomplishments at Onion Creek 

include:

• Snow hydrology

• Freshwater aquatic biology 

• Materials evaluation (weatherability of outdoor 

sign material)

Onion Creek Experimental Forest (California)
94

Collaborators

Collaborators include scientists from the University of 

California at Davis (mid-1980s), University of California 

at Berkeley (present), and California Department of 

Water Resources.

Research Opportunities

Onion Creek offers an instrumented watershed with 

available historic climatic and hydrologic data, and 

pristine forest conditions with limited roading and 

historic management actions.

Facilities

Onion Creek is in the north drainage of the American 

River about 30 km west of Truckee, California, on the 

Tahoe National Forest. Facilities are minimal: one cabin 

with bunk beds for four and an outbuilding; no drinking 

water. Main access is along 6.5 km of poorly graded 

county road. Commercial accommodations are available 

11 km away at Soda Springs. The Central Sierra Snow 

Laboratory is located 11 km distant.

Lat. 39° 17′ N, long. 120° 21′ 15′′ W

Contact Information

Onion Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

PO Box 245 

Berkeley, CA 94701

Tel: (415) 559-6316
95

Introduction

The Redwood Experimental Forest at Yurok, California, 

was established in 1940 to study the silviculture of coast 

redwood and to develop techniques for regeneration and 

management. Redwood is located on the coastal front 

of the northern coast ranges in northern California, 

about 2.4 km inland from the Pacifi c Ocean and near 

the mouth of the Klamath River. The Redwood includes 

379 ha drained by High Prairie Creek. Redwood is the 

principal forest species on the forest, with Douglasfi r, Sitka spruce, western hemlock, and Port Orfordcedar making up the remainder. About 59 percent of 

the timberland is classifi ed as Site I and 35 percent is 

classifi ed as Site II. Tree ages range up to 1,200 years. 

Topography varies considerably over the forest. Slopes 

range from 0 to 75+ percent, and elevation ranges from 

40 to 340 m.

About 45 percent of the total area (226 of 502 ha) 

was clearcut in harvest units ranging from 1.2 to 62.7 

ha between 1956 and 1985. About 1 percent (4 ha) 

was harvested in 1981 using the selection system. An 

additional 23 percent (87 ha) is available for approved 

manipulative research studies, and 16 percent (61 ha) is 

preserved in an undisturbed old-growth redwood forest 

condition in the Yurok Research Natural Area (RNA) 

established in 1976.

Climate

The climate at the Redwood is typically mild and 

foggy in summer. The average July temperature is 12.6 

°C, with little precipitation other than fog drip. The 

average January temperature is 6.8 °C. Annual rainfall 

averages 1,930 mm and snowfall is uncommon. No 

climatic data are maintained at Redwood, but data are 

available from the town of Klamath, in a similar climatic 

environment 6 km south and from Crescent City, 27 

km north of the forest. Precipitation is well in excess of 

potential evapotranspiration, except for about a month in 

midsummer.

Soils

The entire region is underlain by Mesozoic rocks of 

the Franciscan formation, a complex of raw to slightly 

metamorphic sedimentary rocks. This formation 

is generally soft and easily weathered, so that soil 

development is good, with unweathered regolith at 

depths of about 3 m in most areas. Rock outcrops are 

few, and where they do occur, shallow soils and exposure 

combine to make such sites ecologically unique. The 

major soil series is Melbourne, with a small amount 

of Hugo series along the ridgetops (about 6.5 ha) and 

Atwell series at the lower elevations on the southern part 

of the Redwood (about 2.0 ha). Unclassifi ed alluvial soils 

are found along High Prairie Creek on about 32.4 ha.

Vegetation

The Yurok RNA supports very dense stands of oldgrowth redwood averaging about 200 m2

 of basal area 

per hectare. The two dominant vegetation types on the 

forest are redwood-western swordfern and red aldersalmonberry.

Long-Term Data Bases

Timber data on regeneration after cutting, young stand 

growth and yield, response to thinning, and redwood 

sprout development are available (intermittently) 

between 1956 and 1982. Post-harvest regeneration 

and effects of shelterwood removal data were recorded 

between 1970 and 1985. Soil-vegetation maps are also 

available.

Wildlife habitat data are available on species 

composition and abundance of vertebrate communities 

in response to changes in age, moisture, and structural 

features of forest stands from 1983 to 1985. Fish habitat 

data describing stream reaches and distribution of fi sh 

species in High Prairie Creek were mapped from 1984 

to 1987.

Redwood Experimental Forest (California)
96

Research, Past and Present

The following topics have been studied:

• salmonid preference for obstacle-formed pools

• stream structure and fi sh production

• ecology of old-growth forest wildlife habitat 

community

Facilities

The Redwood is readily accessible from U.S. Highway 

101, 27.2 km south of Crescent City and 6.4 km north 

of Klamath. Commercial facilities are available in these 

communities.

Lat. 41°35′ N, long. 124°5′ W

Contact Information 

Redwood Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

Redwood Sciences Laboratory

1700 Bayview Drive

Arcata, CA 95521-6098

Tel: (707) 825-2930

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/rsl/yurok
97

Introduction

In November, 2005, the USDA Forest Service and 

University of California, Berkeley, announced the 

designation of the Sagehen Experimental Forest 

(SEF) under the administration of the Forest Service’s 

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station (PSW) and the 

Tahoe National Forest. The 3,278 ha SEF is located 

approximately 16 km north of Truckee, California, and 

includes the Sagehen Creek Field Station, which has been 

operated by the University of California, Berkeley, under 

special use permit from the Tahoe National Forest since 

1951. The designation of the SEF creates California’s 

11th experimental forest, and is the fi rst to be created 

in California since 1962, and the fi rst in the U.S. since 

1971.

Climate

The climate is typically Mediterranean with cold, wet 

winters and warm, dry summers. Monthly average 

maximum temperature ranges from 4 °C in December to 

26 °C in July; monthly average minimum temperature 

ranges from -10 o

C in January to 3 oC in July. Annual 

precipitation is about 847 mm; snowfall accounts for 

more than 80 percent of the annual precipitation. Annual 

snowfall averages 5,156 mm.

Soils

Soils of the SEF are mainly Andic and Ultic Haploxeralfs 

derived from volcanic parent material. Soils in wet 

montane meadows and fens are of Aquolls and Borolls 

soil types, which are poorly drained soils. The mixed 

conifer forest and plantations are on soils composed 

by varies percentages of Fugawee, Tahoma, and Jorge 

series. These three soil types are all moderately deep 

to very deep, well drained, and gravelly or stony sandy 

loams. The true fi r forests are found mainly on soils of 

Jorge, Waca, Meiss, and Tahoma soil series. Waca soils 

are moderately deep, well drained, and formed from 

andesitic tuff. Meiss soils are of andesitic rock origin, 

shallow, somewhat excessively drained, cobbly loam.

Vegetation

Five major vegetation cover types can be found in the 

experimental forest: grass, shrub, mixed conifer, true fi r, 

and conifer plantation. The grass cover type includes 

fen, wet montane meadow, and dry montane meadow. 

Conifer plantations are areas reforested after the Donner 

and Carpenter Ridge fi res in the 1960s, and are mainly 

ponderosa pine with some Jeffrey pine.

The shrub vegetation type occurs as both a climax type 

on soils too poor, rocky, or shallow to support conifer 

forests and as a post-fi re or logging successional stage to 

mixed conifer forests on deeper, more productive soils. It 

is dominated primarily by tobacco brush, with greenleaf 

manzanita, squaw-carpet, wax currant, Bloomer’s 

goldenbush, dwarf serviceberry, and woolly mule-ears.

The mixed conifer vegetation cover type includes 

lodgepole pine forest, eastside pine forest, and mixed 

conifer stands. Lodgepole pine forest type is found 

along Sagehen Creek and margins of meadows where 

soil is moist. The eastside pine forest is distributed 

mainly on south-facing slopes north of Sagehen Creek. 

It is dominated by Jeffrey pine with some ponderosa 

pines scattered as individuals or isolated pockets. Mixed 

conifer stand is a mixture of several co-dominant species 

including ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, white 

fi r, red fi r, and incense-cedar. Mixed conifer stands are 

found in higher elevations, mainly on the slopes south 

of Sagehen Creek. The true fi r forest cover type occurs 

on northeast- and northwest-facing, high-elevation 

slopes south of Sagehen Creek in moist soil areas. Red 

fi r is the dominant tree species, growing on deep, moist 

soils. White fi r is the major associated species in lower 

elevations, while mountain hemlock and mountain 

mahogany are associates at higher elevations. Other 

associated species are western white pine, lodgepole pine, 

Jeffrey pine, and western juniper.

Sagehen Experimental Forest (California)
98

Long-Term Data Bases

In more than 50 years of research, large amounts 

of data have accumulated, which contributes to its 

value for research. Much of this data is digital and 

available at the UC Berkeley, Sagehen Creek station’s 

website. Six automated weather stations record a host 

of meteorological variables along a transect from the 

Lower Camp to the upper ridgeline. At the Lower Camp 

weather station, daily weather records date back to 1953. 

Snow telemetry (SNOTEL) records dating from 1978 

are available from an automated remote sensing site on 

Carpenter Ridge operated by the National Water and 

Climate Center. Snow Survey records also are available 

from the same location from 1937 to 1994. Since 2001, 

Sagehen Creek Field Station has monitored the chemistry 

of precipitation and dry deposition as part of the 

National Atmospheric Deposition Program. In 2005, two 

more snowmelt pans were installed to measure how much 

precipitation falls as snow above the Lower Camp.

Because Sagehen Creek is part of the Hydrology 

Benchmark Network, USGS has measured stream fl ow 

since October 1953 and water quality since 1968. In 

2003, USGS installed a satellite uplink so these data are 

now available in real time. Water temperature is measured 

at several sites along Sagehen Creek and its tributaries. 

Groundwater depth and temperature also are measured in 

a few places. Other routinely collected data include daily 

satellite imagery, seismic activity, and three transects of 

tree sap fl ow data.

Research, Past and Present

Research will answer important questions about the 

management of National Forests in the Sierra Nevada. 

The Tahoe National Forest and UC Berkeley have been 

working cooperatively for many years and have recently 

initiated a fi reshed analysis for the Sagehen area with 

the intent of designing a strategic fuel reduction plan to 

lessen the intensity of a wildfi re. See an extensive list of 

research publications at the UC Berkeley, Sagehen Creek 

Field Station website.

Collaborators

Research will be managed collaboratively by the Pacifi c 

Southwest Research Station, the Tahoe National Forest, 

and University of California, Berkeley.

Research Opportunities

Research into all aspects of the natural sciences are 

welcomed. Historically, fi sheries, wildlife, range, and 

forestry studies have predominated, however more 

recent use has expanded to include hydrology-related 

efforts. There are substantial collections of higher plants, 

vertebrates, and insects on site and a variety of fi eld and 

laboratory equipment is available, including extensive 

environmental monitoring sites throughout the basin.

Facilities

Access to facilities is arranged through the UC Berkeley, 

Sagehen Creek Field Station. Camping and a variety of 

housing options are available. “Wired/wireless” lab space, 

classroom, and offi ce space can be arranged. A communal 

kitchen is available on-site.

Lat. 39°25 ́54.45′′ N, long. 122°14 ́19.30′′ W

Contact Information

Sagehen Creek Field Station

11616 Sagehen Road

Truckee, CA 96160

http://sagehen.ucnrs.org

Or

Sagehen Experimental Forest

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

Sierra Nevada Research Center

2121 Second Street, Suite A-101

Davis, CA 95616

www.fs.fed.us/psw/ef/sagehen
99

Introduction

Established in 1933, the San Dimas 

Experimental Forest is the only such forest in 

southern California. It covers 6,945 ha in the 

front range of the San Gabriel Mountains, 

located about 50 km northeast of Los Angeles. 

Originally established as an outdoor hydrologic 

laboratory to document and quantify the water 

cycle in semi-arid steeplands, most of the 

facilities were constructed by the depression-era 

Civilian Conservation Corps and Work Projects 

Administration labor programs. San Dimas has 

a long history as a research site in the fi elds of 

hydrology and ecology and is recognized as a 

Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO’s Man and the 

Biosphere program. San Dimas also contains the 

Fern Canyon Research Natural Area.

Climate

San Dimas experiences a Mediterranean-type climate, 

with cool wet winters and hot dry summers.

Soils

Soils are characterized by steep topography, semiarid climate, and crystalline bedrock (Precambrian 

metamorphics and Mesozoic granitics), which produce 

shallow, azonal, coarse-textured soils with numerous rock 

outcrops and low fertility.

Vegetation

San Dimas is covered primarily with mixed chaparral 

brushfi elds but also includes areas of coastal sage scrub, 

oak woodland, and mixed conifers. Some areas were 

type-converted from native chaparrel to grassland during 

the 1960s.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data bases include precipitation, streamfl ow, 

stream nitrate, temperature, relative humidity, and solar 

radiation. Also, since 1982 San Dimas has been an air 

quality monitoring site for the National Atmospheric 

Deposition Program/National Trends Network.

Research, Past and Present

Research has included watershed hydrology, chaparral 

ecology, water yield, precipitation monitoring, post-fi re 

erosion control treatments, soil non-wetability, hillslope 

erosion and watershed sediment fl uxes, soil nutrient 

cycling, and bird habitat use.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Major accomplishments and effects of research at San 

Dimas include the development of rain gauges and raingauge networks to accurately measure precipitation in 

steep terrain, the development of fl umes to measure and 

withstand debris-laden fl ows, and the identifi cation of 

post-fi re soil non-wetability.

Collaborators

Collaborators include professors of hydrology, soil 

science, environmental science, ecology, biology, 

geography, and geology from University of CaliforniaRiverside, University of Georgia, University of Iowa, 

California Polytechnic University-Pomona, Pomona 

College, and California State University-Long Beach.

San Dimas Experimental Forest (California)
100

Research Opportunities

Research opportunities include a broad spectrum of 

studies in the general fi elds of watershed hydrology, 

ecology, biogeochemical cycling, and fi re effects.

Facilities

Facilities at the Tanbark Flat community near San Dimas 

include a laboratory/offi ce, residences, a mess hall/

conference room, and several storage/utility buildings. 

Infrastructure includes water, electricity, propane heating, 

and phone service. Research/monitoring equipment 

includes rain gauges, stream gauges, debris dams, waterquality samplers, a weather station, and a historical 

lysimeter complex.

Lat. 34°12′ N, long. 117°45′ W

Contact Information 

San Dimas Experimental Forest Manager

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

4955 Canyon Crest Drive

Riverside, CA 92507

Tel: (909) 680-1538

http://www.rfl .psw.fs.fed.us/prefi re/sdefhtml/index.html

Or

San Dimas Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

Forest Fire Laboratory

110 North Wabash Avenue

Glendora, CA 91714

Tel: (626) 335-1251
101

Introduction

A statement on the need for an experimental 

area in the San Joaquin Valley foothills was 

prepared in 1934. The initial purpose for the 

San Joaquin Experimental Range was to learn 

how to better manage these lands. San Joaquin 

lands were purchased in 1934 (1,387 ha), with 

additional purchases in 1936 (16 ha) and 1937 

(372 ha). In 1938, another 64 ha were obtained 

under authority of the Weeks Forestry Act. Of 

these, 32 ha have been designated as a Research 

Natural Area. The San Joaquin is managed 

cooperatively by the Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station and California State University’s 

Agricultural Foundation, primarily for research 

and education.

Climate

The climate is Mediterranean, with about 486 mm 

of rain falling from October or November to April or 

May. Winters are cool and wet, with frequent frosts 

and monthly mean temperatures between 4 and 10 °C. 

Elevation ranges from 210 to 520 m above sea level, with 

most of the area between 300 and 457 m. Exposures 

are generally southwesterly. The area drains into a small 

tributary of the San Joaquin River. Summers are hot 

and dry, with maximum daily temperatures commonly 

exceeding 38 °C and monthly mean temperatures 

ranging from 24 to 27 °C.

Soils

Bedrock is mainly granitic. Soils on slopes are shallow, 

residual, and granitic and generally of the Ahwahnee 

series. Soils in swales are deeper and are alluvial and 

generally of the Visalia series. Slope and swale soils have 

a relatively low water-holding capacity. Granitic outcrops 

are common on slopes.

Vegetation

San Joaquin contains open woodland dominated by 

oaks (blue and interior live oaks) and digger pine 

with scattered shrubs and nearly continuous cover of 

herbaceous plants. Swales occur in low areas between 

rises. Dominant shrub species include ceanothus (both 

wedgeleaf ceanothus and chaparral whitehorn) and 

manzanita. Herbaceous plants are generally annuals 

including grasses (e.g., pine bluegrass soft chess, foxtail 

fescue), and various legumes. Perennials, primarily 

rushes, are found in the bottomlands. Native perennial 

bunchgrasses are uncommon and occur on north slopes.

Long-Term Data Bases

Data bases maintained at San Joaquin include long-term 

climate information, a list of all publications based on 

information acquired at the forest, spring bird counts 

begun in the mid-1980s, long-term acorn production 

censuses, and grazing intensity information.

Research, Past and Present

Nearly 400 publications have emerged from work at 

San Joaquin covering studies on energy fl ow, ecosystem 

modeling, nutrient fl ow, fi re ecology, geology and soils, 

hydrology, weather and climate, grasses, woody plants, 

monitoring techniques, vertebrates (especially quail 

and passerine birds), invertebrates, livestock breeding/

growth, livestock disease/nutrition, seeding, and sulfur 

fertilization.

San Joaquin Experimental Range (California)
102

Recent research addresses the following topics: 

geographical ecology of acorn production by California 

oaks; monitoring herbaceous production and utilization; 

effect of burning and overstory canopy on seasonal forage 

production and species composition; introduced annual 

clovers; beef sire evaluation; comparison of reproductive 

strategies of open- and cavity-nesting birds; methods 

for monitoring trends in bird populations in oak-pine 

woodlands; interspecifi c competition for nest sites 

between european starlings and native cavity-nesting bird 

species; foraging ecology of European starlings; effects of 

Africanized honey bees on pollination by other bees; and 

ammonia emissions from natural soils and vegetation.

Current educational activities include a variety of 

experiences for students with beef cow/calf production 

and management: in animal science, livestock and 

carcass evaluation, beef production, livestock and dairy 

evaluation, animal health, and artifi cial insemination 

and embryo transfer. Other educational activities 

include archaeology fi eld classes, fi eld day and leadership 

conferences to help to disseminate information generated 

at San Joaquin.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Signifi cant contributions have been and are being made 

to the development of sustainable grazing systems in 

California’s oak woodland savannas. The nearly 20-yearlong record of bird counts is an extraordinary resource for 

exploring the year-to-year variation of bird populations 

and diversity in oak woodland savannas.

Collaborators

Collaborating scientists from Fresno Agricultural 

Foundation, California State University-Fresno, 

University of California at Davis and at Berkeley, and 

Fresno City College engage in cooperative research at 

San Joaquin as do university extension, and cooperative 

extension groups from these same institutions.

Research Opportunities

Livestock are continuously present at San Joaquin and 

can be used in experiments to evaluate the relations 

among livestock, grazing effects, and plants and other 

animals. Ecosystem responses to prescribed fi re in foothill 

oak woodlands can also be studied.

Facilities

Facilities include limited conference facilities, offi ce 

space, barracks, and storage space available for approved 

research. San Joaquin Experimental Range is located in 

O’Neals, California, about 32 km north of Fresno.

Lat. 37°5′45′′ N, long. 119°43′45′′ W

Contact information

San Joaquin Experimental Range

USDA Forest Service

Sierra Nevada Research Center

2081 East Sierra Avenue

Fresno, CA 93710

Tel: (510) 559-6300

Or

San Joaquin Experimental Range

California State University-Fresno

School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology

2385 East Barstow Avenue

Fresno, CA 93740

Tel: (559) 868-6233

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/programs/snrc/collab_science/

collab3sjer
103

Introduction

The Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest covers 

607 ha near Pinecrest, California, in the central Sierras. 

It was selected as typical of mixed conifer stands of the 

Sierra Nevada, specifi cally, those of high site-quality on 

mid-elevation west slopes. The Stanislaus-Tuolumne was 

formally created in December of 1943, though research 

had been ongoing for years by that time. The effort to 

create the Stanislaus-Tuolomne was driven by Duncan 

Dunning, who had been pushing for formal designation 

of an experimental forest on the Stanislaus National 

Forest since the early 1930’s. The forest consists of two 

tracts: the 80-ha Headquarters Tract on the South Fork 

of the Stanislaus River and the larger Tuolumne Tract on 

the lower slopes of Dodge Ridge, just south of the North 

Fork of the Tuolumne River. Elevations range from 1,590 

to 1,950 m.

Climate

The climate is characterized by warm dry summers and 

cold wet winters. Annual precipitation averages 940 mm, 

more than half falling as snow between December 1 and 

March 31. In exceptional winters, snow may accumulate 

to depths over 3 m. Some drifts persist until mid-May. 

Little precipitation falls from June through September. 

Air temperatures during the year usually range from 

-23 to 35 °C. Average monthly minimum and maximum 

air temperatures range from -7 to 7 °C for January to 6 

to 27 °C for July. The growing season lasts about 112 

days.

Soils

Moderately deep, sandy to fi ne sandy loam soils of the 

Holland series are widespread. Soils are residual, derived 

from granite or diorite. On the higher slopes and ridges, 

soils from the lava caps are shallow and support poor tree 

growth. Overall, site quality is high and is estimated to 

be about 110.

Vegetation

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer (SAF 243) covers 546 ha, 

though it can be considered a variant because Douglasfi r is absent and Jeffrey pine is present. The red fi r forest 

cover type (SAF 207) covers 61 ha.

Long-Term Data Bases

Climatological measurements on the StanislausTuolumne include air and soil temperatures, relative 

humidity, barometric pressure, wind velocity, cloudiness, 

precipitation and soil moisture. Beginning in 1932 and 

1933, records were kept for 30 years at one site, 19 

years at another, and 11 years at three other sites. Trees 

in the Tuolumne Tract have been inventoried by stand 

condition classes within 1-ha divisions. The Stanislaus 

National Forest has mapped the soils to the family 

level. This soil survey supersedes a more detailed survey 

conducted by the University of California-Berkeley in 

1942.

Research, Past and Present

There are no current active research projects on the 

Stanislaue-Tuolumne. Early research there focused on 

Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest (California)
104

the development of harvesting methods for (old-growth 

stands) that would provide for regeneration of sugar 

pine, Jeffrey pine, and ponderosa pine. Cone and seed 

production of pine and fi r trees were monitored for 28 

years. These data were used in the defi nitive work on 

seed and cone production. Later, the “unit area control” 

procedure was tested at the forest. “Site factor” stations 

were established in the early 1930s to monitor conditions 

related to seedling establishment. Studies of dwarf 

mistletoe were conducted here in the 1960s.

Collaborators

Staff members of the Summit Ranger District, Stanislaus 

National Forest, have worked with scientists at the 

USDA Forest Service’s Pacifi c Southwest (PSW) Research 

Station.

Research Opportunities

The Stainslaus-Tuolumne is the site of studies related to 

mixed conifer stands, though on a small scale, because 

the area is limited. The stands here are remarkable 

because of the component of large sugar pine trees found 

throughout much of the forest.

Facilities

The Stanislaus-Tuolumne’s two tracts are located 51 km 

east of Sonora, Tuolumne County. The forest can be 

reached via State Route 108, an all-weather road. The 

road network within the forest is unpaved except for 

Crabtree Road. None of the roads is maintained during 

the winter. There are no facilities maintained by PSW 

as all buildings were transferred to the Summit Ranger 

District in the mid-1960s.

Lat. 38°3′ N, long. 119°57′ W

Contact information 

Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest 

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

3644 Avtech Parkway

Redding, CA 96002

Tel: (530) 242-2454

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/program/ecology_of_western_

forests/experimental_forests/stanislaus
105

Introduction

The Swain Mountain Experimental Forest was 

formally designated on March 22, 1932, as a 

place for fi eld studies and demonstration of forest 

management practices in the true-fi r types of 

California. Chosen specifi cally for the quality 

and extent of the fi r timber present, the 2,492-ha 

forest occupies all of Swain Mountain, a volcanic 

cone composed of vesicular andesite and ash, with 

elevations from 1,737 to 2,149 m. Stand volume 

can be high, up to 2,058 m3

/ha on one 1.6-ha 

block, though the virgin stands more commonly 

contain 840-1,120 m3

/ha.

Swain Mountain largely sat idle for about 20 years 

until preparation for an active program of regeneration 

research began in the early 1950s with forest-type 

mapping and construction of the initial road system. 

Initial research was to determine factors related to wind 

damage in the old-growth stands and to develop criteria 

for selection of wind-fi rm seed trees. Seed dispersal was 

measured for both red and white fi rs. Relationships 

between natural regeneration and site factors such as 

soil temperature and moisture, insolation intensity, site 

preparation, and competing vegetation were explored. 

Snow surveys were taken for nearly 15 years in the 

clearcut and unlogged stands. Cone production in uncut 

stands and along clearcut strips was followed for 16 years.

The second round of research cutting in the early 

1970s again was centered on natural regeneration and 

the impact of shelterwood density and clearcut size 

and shape. During the 1960s and 1970s, studies of the 

effects of dwarf mistletoe and fertilization began, as did 

studies of growth and yield of mixed fi r stands. Longterm studies of response of severely suppressed true-fi r to 

release from overstory competition were installed. The 

information gained from this work constitutes the basis 

for true-fi r management in California.

The third and current period of heavy cutting is to 

extend the shelterwood research results to operationally 

large areas and create extensive acreage of fi r regeneration 

for future research. To these ends, about one-third 

of Swain Mountain has been regenerated through 

shelterwood cutting.

Climate

The climate can be classifi ed as cool and moist even 

though there is a 4- to 5-month summer dry spell. 

Precipitation ranges from 1,243 to 1,270 mm annually, 

almost all of which falls between October and March. 

Eighty percent of the moisture falls as snow, and 

snowpacks of 3 to 4 m are common in February. In 

exceptionally wet years with late spring snows, drifts can 

persist until late July. Between April/May and October, 

precipitation is negligible, coming from scattered thunder 

showers. Winter temperatures generally do not fall below 

-23 °C and summer temperatures only occasionally 

exceed 29 °C. Average monthly minimum and maximum 

air temperatures range from -17 ° to 4 °C for January and 

from 4 ° to 27 °C for July.

Soils

Soils are 0.6 to 2.4 m deep and are generally well drained 

except in association with small “shoestring” meadows. 

The soils are derived in place from weathering of the 

andesite and associated ash. The lava fl ows that formed 

the mountain are occasionally visible at the surface. Soil 

series have not been mapped. Site quality varies but in 

general is good; site index is 150 at 300 years.

Swain Mountain Experimental Forest (California)
106

Vegetation

Forest cover types on the SMEF include large areas of 

red fi r (SAF 207), white fi r (SAF 211), and small areas 

of lodgepole pine (SAF 218) cover types. White fi r 

predominates at the low to middle elevations (1,737 to 

1,890 m), with the proportion of red fi r increasing with 

increasing elevation to the top at 2,149 m. Together, 

the true fi r occupies 1,821 ha. Lodgepole pine grows 

throughout the forest associated with meadows, but 

forms pure stands only at the lowest elevations and in 

areas of shallow soils or high water tables. There are 178 

ha in lodgepole pine. About 445 ha on the south slope of 

the mountain are occupied by an old brushfi eld that has 

been planted with ponderosa and Jeffrey pines.

Long-Term Data Bases

A true-fi r levels-of-growing-stock installation at Swain 

Mountain has been maintained since 1976, with 

remeasurements taking place every 5 years.

Research, Past and Present

In addition to the current research on true-fi r growth 

and yield, research has been conducted on natural 

regeneration, pathology, site preparation, and effects of 

insects on cone crops.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the Almanor Ranger District, 

Lassen National Forest.

Research Opportunities

Swain Mountain provides a place to study the true-fi r 

type common at higher elevations in the northern Sierra 

and southern Cascades. Many acres of shelterwood 

provide opportunities to study the dynamics of young 

stands of white and red fi rs.

Facilities

The Swain Mountain is located 13 km north of 

Westwood, California. It can be reached via a paved road 

that is cleared of snow all winter. Access between midDecember and early May is limited to snowmobile, skis, 

or similar transportation. All of the current 41.8 km of 

all-weather road are accessible by automobile when free 

of snow.

The USDA Forest Service’s Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station maintains barracks and offi ce space for up to 15 

people at the nearby Bogard Work Center on the Eagle 

Lake Ranger District (about a 25 minute drive from 

the forest). These facilities are primarily for the work at 

Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest but are available 

for work at Swain Mountain also.

Lat. 40°25′ N, long. 121°6′ W

Contact Information 

Swain Mountain Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station

3644 Avtech Parkway

Redding, CA 96002

Tel: (530) 242-2454

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/programs/ecology_of_western_

forests/experimental_forests/swain_mountain
107

Introduction

In the 1930s, California state and federal agencies 

began exploring how the Central Valley of 

California’s water supply might be increased through 

management of Sierra Nevada watersheds. In 1938, 

a 1,300-ha area surrounding Teakettle Creek was 

designated the Teakettle Experimental Area and fi ve 

drainages were chosen for study. Stream-gauging 

stations and sediment basins were built in the 1940s. 

The area is old-growth forest at 2,000 to 2,800 m 

elevation and consists primarily of mixed-conifer 

and red fi r forest common on the western slope of 

the Sierra Nevada.

Climate

Climate at the Teakettle Experimental Forest is typical 

of the Sierra Nevada range: hot, dry summers and 

mild, moist winters. Most of the annual precipitation 

falls as snow between November and May, and snow 

accumulations generally persist until late May or early 

June. Mean maximum snow depth is 114 cm, but ranged 

from 24 to 241 cm over a 30-year period. Mean annual 

precipitation is 1,250 mm/yr.

Differences in soil surface temperatures are strongly 

infl uenced by vegetation patch size and high summer 

temperature, even at 2,000 m in elevation. In opencanopy areas, July surface temperatures can reach 60 

°C, whereas 10 m away in closed-canopy forest, the 

temperature is 28 °C.

Soils

 Teakettle includes some areas of metasedimentary and 

volcanic substrates, but the majority of the forest consists 

of granitic soils common in the southern Sierra Nevada. 

The most common soils, the Cannell and Cagwin series 

(Inceptisols and Entisols, respectively), have a coarse 

sandy loam texture throughout the profi le and are highly 

permeable, with a relatively low water-holding capacity. 

These poorly developed soils also have very low clay 

content, usually less than 5 percent. The amount of fi ne 

organic matter is distributed patchily and is an important 

infl uence on water and nutrient-holding capacity in these 

coarse soils. Soils with higher water-holding capacity or 

longer retention times may have signifi cant microsite 

differences in plant species composition and biomass. 

Jeffrey pine, black oak, live oak, or manzanita usually 

occur where soil depth is less than 50 cm. Where soils are 

1 m deep, closed-canopy forest and mountain whitethorn 

often dominate the vegetation.

Vegetation

Teakettle has four main forest types. Mixed conifer forest 

covers about 65 percent of the forest, predominantly 

between 1,900 and 2,300 m elevation. Jeffrey pine (5.5 

percent) is prevalent on shallow soil conditions within 

the mixed-conifer type. Red fi r (28 percent) dominates 

elevations above 2,300 m except for moist locations 

where lodgepole pine (0.5 percent) is dominant. Within 

the mixed-conifer forest there is a fi ne-scale mosaic 

of four patch types: closed canopy, shrub patches 

dominated by mountain whitethorn, open gaps, and 

areas of rock and extremely shallow soils.

Long-Term Data Bases

Streamfl ow and sedimentation data from the Teakettle 

are available for 1958 to 1979. Bird-census data have 

been collected since 1997. A 5-year study of snag 

distribution and turnover occurred from 1997 to 2001. 

In 1997, a long-term permanent plot experiment was 

begun on 4-ha plots (18). Within these 72 ha, all trees, 

Teakettle Experimental Forest (California)
108

snags, logs, and shrubs have been identifi ed, tagged, and 

mapped. Growth, mortality, and turnover rates will be 

followed over the next few decades.

Research, Past and Present

Through the 1970s, data on waterfl ow and weather 

conditions were collected using the fi ve gauged 

watersheds. In the 1980s and early 1990s, studies of 

songbirds and snag dynamics were begun. In 1997, a 

large experiment began comparing the effects of fi re and 

thinning on the mixed-conifer ecosystem. More than 

two dozen researchers are involved in assessing treatment 

effects on a range of ecological variables, including forest 

and understory vegetation, regeneration, microclimate, 

decomposition and respiration, invertebrates, soil 

nutrients and moisture, epiphytes, and small mammals. 

Fire and thinning treatments were completed in 2001 

and response data are being collected for the next several 

years.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Information on stream fl ows and sedimentation 

rates gathered on the Teakettle have been valuable 

for understanding regional climate effects on water 

production for California’s Central Valley. Research 

begun in the 1990s should provide important 

information on the effects of fi re and thinning on 

ecosystem function. These restoration treatments are used 

by forest managers following a century of fi re suppression 

that has signifi cantly altered western forest ecosystems.

Collaborators

Research collaborators have come from the following 

institutions and agencies: California State University, 

Michigan Technological University, National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration-Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Oregon State University, University of CaliforniaBerkley, University of California, University of Maryland, 

Universidad Metropolitana, University of Michigan, 

University of Nevada, University of Washington, USDA 

Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis Program, 

Sierra National Forest, and Southern Research Station.

Research Opportunities

There is a wealth of fundamental ecological data at he 

Teakettle to build upon for researchers interested in the 

effects of fi re and thinning on ecosystem function. In 

particular, the permanently tagged and mapped 72 ha of 

forest (> 40,000 trees), microclimate information, and 

the soil moisture, respiration, and nutrient data. Sample 

points with 3 to 4 years of collected data are well marked 

and mapped, making it easy for sampling at locations 

where other ecological components have been measured.

Facilities

Teakettle is located 80 km east of Fresno, California, 

between Yosemite and King’s Canyon National Parks. 

There is a bunkhouse cabin, dry laboratory, and storage 

garage. The 1,300 ha are gated and relatively remote.

Lat. 36°58′ N, long. 119°1′ W

Contact Information

Teakettle Experimental Forest

Sierra Nevada Research Center

2121 2nd Avenue, Suite A-101

Davis, CA 95616

Tel: (530) 754-7398

http://teakettle.ucdavis.edu
109

Rocky Mountain Research Station
110

Introduction

The Black Hills Experimental Forest is located about 32 

km northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota, and covers 

about 14 km2

 in the ponderosa pine cover type near the 

center of the Black Hills National Forest. The area was 

designated as a experimental area in 1961.

Except for experimental installations, Black Hills was 

largely occupied by dense and declining stands of young 

ponderosa pine and declining stands of older trees. In 

the mid-1980s, the Rocky Mountain Research Station 

and the Pactola Ranger District of the Black Hills 

National Forest cooperatively developed a treatment plan 

including a timber sale. The purpose of the treatment 

was to provide for diverse stand conditions over the area 

for demonstration and future research. Administrative 

responsibility for the forest was given to the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station’s Boise, Idaho, location after 

the termination of silvicultural research at the Forestry 

Sciences Laboratory in Rapid City in the early 1980s.

Climate

Black Hills has moderate climate with frequent summer 

showers.

Soils

Soils are derived from igneous schists and granites, lithic 

in places but generally productive.

Vegetation

At Black Hills, the ponderosa pine type predominates.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are no recorded climatic data, but long-term 

data on ponderosa pine growth are on fi le at the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station.

Research, Past and Present

Past studies at Black Hills focused on the management 

of ponderosa pine forests for multiple resource outputs, 

including timber products, forage production for 

livestock and wildlife, wildlife habitat, and aesthetic 

values. Ongoing research includes continuation of 

studies of long-term levels of growing stock in ponderosa 

pine, overstory/understory production relationships, 

initial spacing in ponderosa pine (including impacts 

of root diseases and control of competing vegetation), 

silvicultural control of mountain pine beetle populations, 

and wildlife habitat. A ponderosa pine provenance 

study of Black Hills sources also is being conducted. 

The levels-of-growing-stock study is part of a westwide effort begun in the early 1960s to provide basic 

information on thinning responses in even-aged stands of 

ponderosa pine. An AMERIFLUX monitoring tower and 

instrument shelter were installed in 2000 by the South 

Dakota School of Mines and remain in use.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The Black Hills has been and continues to be a 

contributor of valuable long-term growth data for use in 

the development and verifi cation of tree-growth models.

Collaborators

The AMERIFLUX monitoring tower is operated by the 

South Dakota School of Mines.

Research Opportunities

Silviculture activities at Black Hills in the 1980s have 

provided a variety of stand and growing conditions that 

could be used in additional research in ponderosa pine 

forests.

Facilities

There are no facilities other than study sites.

Lat. 44°10′ N, long. 103°38′ W

Contact Information 

Black Hills Experimental Forest 

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Street

Ft. Collins, CO 80526

Tel: (970) 498-1259

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/blackhills.html

Black Hills Experimental Forest (South Dakota)
111

Introduction

The Boise Basin Experimental Forest was established in 

1933 to study ponderosa pine. It consists of 3,537 ha 

with elevations ranging from 1,200 to 3,630 m. Boise 

Basin is divided into three units surrounding Idaho City 

in southern Idaho. Idaho City was a booming mining 

town in the 1870s and the surrounding forests supplied 

material to the community. Two units were heavily 

affected by mining activities and the majority of trees in 

them now are the results of post-mining regeneration. 

The third unit, on steeper slopes, has many undisturbed 

areas (containing large areas of ponderosa pine), 

including a Research Natural Area.

Climate

The climate is characterized by warm, dry summers and 

cool, wet winters. Annual precipitation averages 635 

mm with the most falling from October through June. 

Summers can be punctuated by downpours and severe 

lightning. Temperatures average -4 °C in the winter and 

19 °C in the summer.

Soils

Soils are derived from granitic rocks of the Idaho 

Batholith. They are generally deep and mostly Typic 

or Lithic Xeropsamments, Cryumbrepts, Cryoboralls, 

Cryorthents, and Cryocrepts with pH ranges from 5.5 to 

7.0. The 50-year ponderosa pine site index ranges from 

53 to 66.

Vegetation

Interior ponderosa pine dominates the forest cover at 

Boise Basin. Prior to successful fi re exclusion, frequent 

surface fi res maintained the pine with patches of 

quaking aspen. Douglas-fi r occupies many settings, 

with mountain shrubs occupying the cooler aspects and 

shallow soils.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are long-term data bases on historical fi re return 

intervals, soils, habitat types, and vegetation trends.

Research, Past and Present

Beginning in 1933, studies at Boise Basin evaluated 

selection silvicultural systems and their effects on tree 

and ground-level vegetation growth and development. 

Subsequent studies evaluated factors affecting the 

germination, survival, and growth of young ponderosa 

pine. These studies were followed by research on seed 

storage, site preparation, porcupine feeding, thinning 

and pruning. Currently, old-growth restoration, 

prescribed fi re, and root-system structures are being 

studied.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at Boise Basin has provided important 

information on ponderosa pine management, habitat 

types in dry forests, ponderosa pine regeneration, and 

response of ponderosa pine to prescribed fi re.

Boise Basin Experimental Forest (Idaho)
112

Collaborators

USDA Forest Service’s Region 4, Boise National Forest, 

National Interagency Fire Center, University Of Idaho, 

and Boise Cascade Corp. have collaborated with the 

Rocky Mountain Research Station’s scientists.

Research Opportunities

There are research opportunities at Boise Basin on the 

following subjects: ponderosa pine restoration, the urbanrural interface, and recreation.

Facilities

There are no facilities at Boise Basin, which is located 

about 50 km northeast of Boise, on Highway 21.

Lat. 43°49′ N, long. 115°50′ W

Contact information 

Boise Basin Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain Research Station

1221 South Main 

Moscow, ID 83843

Tel: (208) 882-3557

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/boisebasin.html
113

Introduction

Coram Experimental Forest was established in 1933 on 

the Flathead National Forest in northwest Montana as 

an area representative of the western larch forest cover 

type distributed within the upper Columbia River Basin. 

Part of the CEF was reserved as a Research Natural 

Area (RNA) in 1938 and was offi cially recognized as 

the Coram RNA in 1988. In 1976, the Coram was 

designated a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO’s Man 

and the Biosphere program. Coram and Glacier and 

Waterton Lakes National Parks have been designated the 

“Crown of the Continent” Biosphere Reserves. In 1992, 

an international Larix arboretum featuring larches of the 

world was established near Coram in the town of Hungry 

Horse.

Research on the Coram began in 1948, and through 

the 1950s, research objectives were to learn how to 

regenerate western larch and associated conifers using 

even-age regeneration coupled with a wide range of 

site-preparation treatments. Research in the 1960s 

determined how to regenerate larch by seeding and 

planting and how young larch forests respond to a wide 

range of stand densities. Studies in the 1970s featured 

multidisciplinary research in a forest-residues utilization 

research and development program. Research in the 

1980s focused on old-growth dynamics within the 

Coram RNA, cone production in young larch stands, 

and differences in bird populations within logged and 

unlogged areas. In the 1990s, ongoing research expanded 

the dissemination of results through conservation 

education efforts.

Climate

The climate is classifi ed as a modifi ed Pacifi c maritime 

type. Occasionally during the winters, continental 

polar air moves westward over the Continental Divide, 

dropping temperatures substantially. Annual precipitation 

averages about 890 mm at the lowest elevation (1,006 

m) and about 1,270 mm at the highest point, Desert 

Mountain (1,942 m). The May through August mean 

temperature is about 16 °C, with highs on occasion 

exceeding 38 °C. Winter temperatures average about -7 

°C, but rarely drop below -29 °C. Length of growing 

season ranges from 81to 160 days.

Soils

A rock layer primarily comprising argillite and quartzite 

underlies most of the upper slopes of the Coram. Glacial 

outwash and till were deposited on the lower areas. A 

thin layer of volcanic ash covers about half of the forest. 

Rich loamy soils predominate. Soil depths range from a 

few centimeters on the steep, upper slopes to more than 

3 m on the gentle, lower terrain. The following soils 

are evident: loamy-skeletal soils on materials weathered 

from impure limestone and argillite; loamy-skeletal soils 

on argillite, siltite, and quartzite; loamy-skeletal soils on 

glacial till; loamy-skeletal soils on both alluvium and 

glacial outwash; loamy-skeletal soils on glacial outwash; 

and fi ne and fi ne-loamy soils on lacustrine deposits.

Vegetation

Main forest cover types on the Coram are western larch 

and interior Douglas-fi r; spruce-sub-alpine fi r on cooler, 

moist sites at all but the lowest elevations; western 

redcedar on one lower elevation, moist, and sheltered site; 

western redcedar/western hemlock on occasional lower 

to mid-elevation moist sites; whitebark pine along the 

high ridge near Desert Mountain (declining population 

because of white pine blister rust).

Coram Experimental Forest (Montana)
114

Long-Term Data Bases

On the Coram, the following long-term data bases are 

available: 

• Natural regeneration following methods of site 

preparation (1949 to 1960).

• Dispersal of conifer seeds (1949 to 1956).

• Shelterwood and seed-tree cutting, site 

preparation methods, and natural regeneration of 

conifers (1950 to 1984).

• Clearcuttings, site preparation, seed dispersal, 

and natural regeneration of conifers (1954 to 

1974).

• Strip clearcutting, site preparation, growth of 

unmerchantable understory trees, and natural 

regeneration of conifers (1954 to 1974).

• Group seed-tree cutting, site preparation, and 

natural regeneration of conifers (1956 to 1968).

• Direct seeding, germination, and seedling 

survival of conifers (1958 to 1964).

• Small-mammal relationships in old-growth and 

recently harvested western larch (1961 to 1964, 

1992).

• Effects of wide tree spacing and site on fl owering 

response of larch to stem injection of GA4/7

(1991 to 1996).

Research, Past and Present

The following studies at the Coram Experimental Forest 

and/or Coram RNA are ongoing:

• Infl uence of regulated stand densities in young 

western larch stands on individual tree and stand 

growth; insect, disease, and physical damage; 

water relations and phenology; vegetation 

development; and cone production

• Evaluation of alternative timber harvesting 

practices on regeneration, vegetation, and stand 

development and soil water use

• Effectof vegetation change and seedfall on 

permanent plots 

• Bird populations

• Climate and hydrology 

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

• Data from studies at Coram and many other 

locations were summarized for managers in 1976 

in the USDA Technical Bulletin 1520, Ecology 

and Silviculture of Western Larch Forests. For more 

than 25 years, this publication has been the 

primary source of information for management 

of western larch. It is being updated and revised.

• A number of signifi cant symposia and workshops 

have been held to update managers with 

information from results of research on the 

Coram Experimental Forest:

◊ Environmental consequences of timber 

harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous 

forests, 1979, Missoula, MT. 

◊ Conifer tree seed in the Inland Mountain West 

symposium, 1985, Missoula, MT. 

◊ Future forests of the Mountain West: a stand 

culture symposium, 1986, Missoula, MT. 

◊ Ecology and management of Larix forests: a 

look ahead, 1992, Whitefi sh, MT. 

• Celebrating 50 years of research on the Coram 

Experimental Forest, 1948-1998 included:

◊ “Living in the Landscape, A Flathead 

Community Celebration” was held in 1998 to 

mark Coram’s 50th anniversary and to explore 

people’s connection to the landscape. 

◊ “Interpreting the Landscape through Science,” 

a symposium held in Kalispell in 1998, 

celebrated not only 50 years of research at 

Coram but reported results of research being 

conducted elsewhere in the area. 

◊ The self-guided “Walk With Larch” trails 

on the Coram Experimental Forest provide 

opportunities for students and forest visitors to 

explore this unique area. 

◊ 1999 publication of Coram Experimental 

Forest: 50 years of Research in a Western Larch 

Forest (RMRS-GTR-37). 

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/missoula/4151/

publications/RMRS-GTR-37.pdf
115

Collaborators

Scientists from the following institutions have worked 

on the Coram: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 

Clemson University, Flathead National Forest, Glacier 

National Park, Michigan Technical University, Montana 

State University, University of Montana, Universitat 

Münster (Germany), University of Minnesota, University 

of Wisconsin, Washington State University, and 

FORINTEK of Vancouver, BC.

Research Opportunities

Future research on the Coram will continue to build on 

studies already in place and initiate new studies that can 

be superimposed on a wide range of forest conditions. 

In addition to old-growth forests at Coram, a range of 

younger age classes was established following harvest 

cutting and site-preparation treatments from 1916 to 

1974.

Facilities

The fi eld headquarters of the Coram at Hungry Horse, 

Montana, include living quarters and limited offi ce space. 

There is road access throughout much of the forest, 

except within the Coram RNA. Most roads are gated 

because of grizzly bear habitat restrictions and several 

areas are accessed only by trails.

Lat. 48°23′ N, long. 113°59′ W

Contact Information

Coram Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Forestry Sciences Laboratory

800 East Beckwith, PO Box 8089

Missoula, MT 59807

Tel: (406) 542-4169

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/coram.html
116

Introduction

Deception Creek Experimental Forest is located 

in one of the most productive forests of the Rocky 

Mountains. When the forest was established 

in 1933, large, old western white pines were 

important for producing lumber products, 

matches, and toothpicks. Deception Creek is 

located in the heart of the western white pine 

forest type, allowing researchers to focus on the 

ecology and silviculture of western white pine 

and its associated species. The forest includes the 

entire drainage of Deception Creek, a tributary 

of the North Fork of the Coeur d’Alene River 

in northern Idaho. The area encompasses 1,425 

ha, with elevations ranging from 850 to 1,402 

m. Deception Creek dissects the experimental 

forest from west to east and is infl uenced by many small 

side drainages, giving rise to predominantly north- and 

south-facing slopes with slope angles ranging from 35 to 

80 percent.

Climate

Weather is infl uenced by the maritime climate of the 

Pacifi c Coast. Summers are short; autumn and winters 

are cloudy, with precipitation averaging 1,400 mm. 

Annual snowfall averages 4,060 mm or 25 percent of the 

total precipitation.

Soils

Soils are primarily Typic Vitrandepts, which are volcanic 

ash (0.3 to 2 m deep) above Beltian metasediments.

Vegetation

The western hemlock/queen cup beadlilly potential 

vegetation type dominates the forest, with the grand 

fi r/queen cup beadlilly type also frequently occurring 

within Deception Creek. Mixed stands containing grand 

fi r, western hemlock, Douglas-fi r, western larch, and 

western white pine ranging in age from 20 to more than 

250 years occur on the forest. Lodgepole pine, ponderosa 

pine, subalpine fi r, Engelmann spruce, and western 

redcedar occur in small amounts across the forest. The 

118-ha Montford Creek Research Natural Area is located 

within the forest.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are data bases on forest growth (1935 to present), 

weather (1935 to 1965), and western white pine genetic 

trials (1955 to present).

Research, Past and Present

Deception Creek was established as a center for 

silviculture research. Research on the forest applied both 

uneven- and even-age silvicultural systems. Regeneration 

was studied in these trials, as was cleaning and weeding. 

Much of the basic information used for managing 

western white pine was used to show how viewing 

systems using multiple spatial scales provides information 

for prioritizing management activities. Current studies 

are addressing sedimentation, forest genetics, root disease, 

small-diameter utilization, mass selection, and fi re effects.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at Deception Creek was important in 

understanding the ecology and management of western 

white pine. Basic research provided the basics for 

understanding moist northern Rocky Mountain forests 

Deception Creek Experimental Forest (Idaho)
117

and changed the way coarse woody debris is managed 

throughout the Rocky Mountains. Deception Creek 

also played an important role in the development of 

blister-rust resistant western white pine. Similarly, longterm forest-growth records were integral for developing 

Prognosis, a forest vegetation simulator.

Collaborators

Research collaborators have come to the Deception Creek 

from the University of Idaho, University of Montana, 

Washington State University, and USDA Forest Service 

Region 1, Idaho Panhandle National Forests.

Research Opportunities

Deception Creek provides conditions for research that 

requires mixed stands ranging in age from 20 to more 

than 250 years. Because it is one of the most heavily 

roaded drainages in Idaho, the forest offers excellent 

opportunities for studying road abandonment and 

rehabilitation. It also offers moist forest conditions found 

nowhere else in the West except on the Pacifi c Coast. 

Facilities

There are no facilities Deception Creek, which is 32 km 

east of Coeur d’Alene, Idaho.

Lat. 45°10′ N, long. 116°30′ W

Contact Information 

Deception Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

221 South Main 

Moscow, ID 83843

Tel: (208) 882-3557

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/deception.html
118

Introduction

The Desert Experimental Range is geologically 

and fl oristically representative of about 200,000 

km2

 of the Great Basin, an arid region of the 

interior Western United States comprising a 

series of north- and south-aligned ranges and 

closed basins. It was established in 1933 when 

President Herbert Hoover withdrew 22,500 ha 

from the public domain “as an agricultural range 

experiment station.” An offi ce, living quarters, 

support buildings, well, tennis court, major 

roads, and more than 190 km of fence were 

constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps 

before 1935.

These facilities have allowed the Desert Range to 

serve not only as a year-round research center at a remote 

location but also as a range ecology educational facility 

of international signifi cance. Appropriately, in 1976 the 

Desert Experimental Range was designated a Biosphere 

Reserve by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere program. 

It is one of a handful of biosphere reserves representative 

of cold-desert biomes worldwide and is unique in this 

respect in the Western Hemisphere.

Sheep grazing studies began in the winter of 1934-35 to 

study the economic and ecological impacts of grazing at 

different intensities, seasons, and frequencies. The core 

of those grazing treatments has been maintained to date. 

Several permanent exclosures ranging in size from 0.4 

to 740 ha are scattered throughout the Desert Range 

on most plant community types. This allows direct 

examination of the effects of grazing and non-use.

Climate

The climate is that of a cold desert, with cold winters and 

warm summers. Mean January temperature is -3.5 °C, 

and 23.3 °C for July. Mean daily range in temperature is 

18 °C, though daily swings of 28 °C are not unusual in 

the summer. The average frost-free period is from about 

mid-May to late-September (125 days). Elevation ranges 

from 1,547 to 2,565 m. Mean annual precipitation at 

valley sites is 157 mm, about half of which falls from May 

to September. Generally, monsoonal precipitation (JulyAugust) does not reach the effective root zone (deeper 

than 8 cm) of most species, providing little value for 

plant growth. Winter and spring precipitation typically 

reaches soil depths of 15 to 70 cm, and is available 

to plants during the growing season. Precipitation on 

surrounding hills can be as much as 50 percent higher 

than that in valley locations.

Soils

The mountain ranges surrounding the Desert Range are 

composed primarily of sedimentary rock of Paleozoic 

origin. Dolomite, limestone, and quartzite are the 

primary parent materials of soil formation. Some 

early Tertiary igneous extrusions are present. Soils are 

Aridisols (Calciorthids and Camborthids) and Entisols 

(Torrifl uvents and Torripsamments). They are mostly 

gravelly loams, sandy loams, and loamy sands with low 

clay content, except for the mostly barren hardpan, or 

playa, in the valley bottom. Soil pH averages around 8.0 

and salt concentrations are low (upper 30 to 40 cm). 

Carbonate content is relatively high in most series.

Soil disturbance is important on local and landscape 

scales. For example, burrowing mammals occupy and 

continually disturb patches 3 to 12 m in diameter. 

This retards soil horizon development and thus alters 

Desert Experimental Range (Utah)
119

vegetative composition. These patches create a distinctly 

spotted appearance when viewed from above and occur 

on 10 to 15 percent of the landscape. On a larger scale, 

a small Pleistocene lake fi lled the lower regions of Pine 

Valley and left still recognizable shorelines and a playa. 

Infrequent but intense summer storms scour ephemeral 

washes, moving sediments down the long alluvial fans 

that skirt the rocky peaks.

Vegetation

Native vegetation for the alluvial slopes and valley 

bottom that make up about 75 percent of the Desert 

Range comprises relatively few perennial shrubs, grasses, 

and forbs, commonly referred to as the salt-desert shrub 

vegetative community. Dominant shrub species are short, 

approximately 25 cm, and include shadscale saltbush, 

winterfat, budsage, and low rabbitbrush. Larger shrubs 

that become important on upper alluvial fan sites and in 

washes include Nevada ephedra, rubber rabbitbrush, and 

desert almond. Primary grasses include Indian ricegrass, 

bottlebrush squirreltail, galleta grass, sand dropseed, 

purple three-awn, and blue grama. Gooseberryleaf 

globemallow is the most widespread perennial forb. 

Important annuals include cheatgrass, halogeton, and 

Russian thistle, all nonnatives. Numerous distinct 

combinations of two to eight dominant species and near 

monocultures are common.

Black sagebrush, Utah juniper, singleleaf piñon pine, and 

littleleaf mountain mahogany often dominate the shallow 

soils of foothills and mountain slopes. Numerous species 

of shrubs, grasses, and forbs result in communities with 

considerably greater fl oristic and structural diversity than 

those in valley locations.

Long-Term Data Bases

Daily precipitation and daily temperatures (minimum 

and maximum) are available from 1934 to 1981. 

Collection of hourly data on precipitation, air and 

soil temperatures, soil moisture, solar radiation, and 

windspeed and direction began in 1993. Field-drawn 

vegetation maps were completed in 1934 and 1974. 

Community composition data on paired grazed and 

ungrazed exclosures were collected periodically from 

1934 to 1994. Biomass production data are also available. 

Maps reveal grazing treatments, roads, vegetative 

communities, and fences. Aerial photographs were taken 

in 1953 (1:60,000), 1970 (1:30,000), and 1973 (color 

1:15,000). A soils map is available.

Research, Past and Present

Research on the Desert Range has focused on the 

following topics: disturbance and successional processes 

in North American cold-desert plant communities; 

desertifi cation; winter sheep management on the cold 

desert; rodent ecology; pronghorn antelope biology and 

management; cryptobiotic soil-crust ecology; and avian 

and mammalian population dynamics.

Facilities

Three dwellings with running water, electricity, 

telephone, and oil furnaces are maintained at the DER. 

Support structures include power house, garages, shops, 

horse barn, and well house. Potable water is available. 

There are no laboratory facilities. An automated weather 

station is maintained at the headquarters. Use of the 

facilities must be scheduled in advance.

Location

The Desert Experimental Range is located in Pine Valley 

about 70 km west of Milford, Utah, on State Road 

21. The headquarters complex is about 4 km north of 

Highway 21 on an improved gravel road accessible by 

ordinary vehicles year round. Travel to the Desert Range 

is about 4 hours from Provo, and 2 hours from Cedar 

City, Utah.

Lat. 38°40′ N, long. 113°45′ W

Contact Information 

Desert Experimental Range

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 North 500 East

Provo, UT 84606

Tel: (801) 356-5100

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/provo/desert_range/desert_

range.shtml
120

Introduction

The Fort Valley Experimental Forest, named for a 

stockade built there in 1881, is a large, open, bowlshaped meadow at the southwestern base of the San 

Francisco Peaks. It lies at an elevation of about 2,156 

m. Fort Valley was established in 1931 by a forester’s 

order. The original order established 1,108 ha and more 

forested lands were added in 1941 for a total of 2,130 ha. 

Ponderosa pine surrounds the valley and two year-round 

springs (Big Leroux and Little Leroux) supply water 

to the valley. Fort Valley was established to regenerate 

ponderosa pines because the extensive logging practices 

in the Southwest were depleting that resource quickly. 

The arid Southwest presented special challenges for 

regenerating pines because forests do not recover as 

readily as in moister regions. The Fort Valley area in the 

early 1900s was almost untouched by logging because 

of its inaccessibility and 60-degree diurnal temperature 

changes, making it an attractive site for regrowing 

ponderosa pine.

Climate

The climate is semi-humid to humid, with cool 

temperatures and early summer drought. Mean annual 

precipitation is 574 mm, with about half of this falling 

as snow. The average frost-free growing season is 94 days. 

Mean annual temperature is about 7 °C. Large diurnal 

temperature changes are common.

Soils

Surveys of Fort Valley conducted by the Coconino 

National Forest have classifi ed the main soil type as fi ne 

montmorillonitic, frigid Typic Argiborolls, derived from 

basalt and cinders.

Vegetation

The predominant ponderosa pine forest type at Fort 

Valley consists of pole-size trees, 10 to 28 cm in d.b.h. 

and 60 to 100 years old. There are scattered groups of 

older trees (28 to 120 cm d.b.h. and 200 to 500 years 

old), over dense thickets of sapling-size trees ranging from 

1.5 to 10 cm in d.b.h. and 60 to 70 years old.

Long-Term Data Bases

At Fort Valley, data bases are maintained on the following 

subjects: weather (1908 to present), effects of weather 

on Ponderosa pine seed regeneration (1909 to 1944), 

range research (1927 - present), mistletoe research (1910 

to present), image database of historical photos (2000 

- ongoing), resistant Douglas-fi r trees to western spruce 

budworm (1980 to 2001).

Research, Past and Present

Studies on natural and artifi cial regeneration, stand 

improvement methods, ponderosa pine and piñon nut 

production, and mensurational studies are part of the 

research conducted at Fort Valley in the early 1900s. 

Other studies focused on range monitoring, forest 

types, fence-post durability, logging, and timber-sale 

monitoring. Permanent sample plots established in 1909 

are still being measured. Historical archives containing 

all work done at Fort Valley are located at the Rocky 

Mountain Research Station in Flagstaff, Arizona; these 

include annual reports, photos, maps, project reports, 

personnel, and tree-inventory sheets.

Current studies are addressing forest pathology, forest 

restoration, wildland-urban interface treatments, and fi re 

effects.

Fort Valley Experimental Forest (Arizona)
121

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Fort Valley was established primarily to understand why 

ponderosa pine was not regenerating after heavy logging. 

Recommendations derived from research here were 

the basis of many USDA Forest Service management 

practices.

Collaborators

Collaborators working at Fort Valley include the 

Coconino National Forest, Northern Arizona University, 

Ecological Restoration Institute, and Flagstaff Unifi ed 

School District.

Research Opportunities

Fort Valley is an ideal location for research on the 

ponderosa pine ecosystem and other forest research. It 

has a water source, which can be valuable to research 

projects in the Southwest. Past research projects provide a 

basis for continued research.

Facilities

There are 14 buildings located on the Fort Valley 

Experimental Station within the Fort Valley Experimental 

Forest. The Station is listed on the National Historic 

Register and has been nominated as a national historic 

landmark. The buildings are not accessible and need 

restoration.

Lat. 35°16′06′′ N, long. 111°44′25′′ W

Contact Information 

Fort Valley Experimental Forest 

USDA Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Flagstaff Laboratory

2500 S. Pine Knoll Drive

Flagstaff, AZ 86001

Tel: (928) 556-2001

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/fortvalley.html
122

Introduction

The 9,308-ha Fraser Experimental Forest was 

established in 1937 as a representative site for 

conducting studies in the alpine and subalpine 

environments of the central Rocky Mountains. 

It is located on the Sulfur Ranger District of 

the Arapaho National Forest, about 112 km 

northwest of Denver, on the west side of the 

Continental Divide.

Most early research was oriented toward timber 

or water production resulting from forest 

management. Many long-term study plots 

were established in both lodgepole pine and 

Engelmann spruce, and four watersheds were 

monitored for streamfl ow, climate, and snow. 

Some of the records exceed 60 years in length. 

Research on forest-wildlife interactions began in the 

1950s. Biogeochemical studies began in the 1960s, were 

restarted in the 1970s, and have been continuous since 

1982. Much of this work is done in cooperation with the 

USDI National Park Service.

Today, in addition to continued research on hydrologic 

relationships, new research addresses questions that 

deal with stand and landscape diversity or specifi c 

plant allocation and water processes that better defi ne 

ecosystem function. The Fraser is one of several sites in 

the Rocky Mountains that maintains long-term records 

on hydrology, climate, forest structure and growth, and 

responses to forest management. The forest is unique 

among these sites in providing catchments that span 

alpine to lower subalpine ecosystems, with a full suite 

of site histories and environments (ages, aspects, and 

elevations).

Climate

Elevation ranges from 2,680 to 3,900 m, and about 

one-third of the forest is above timberline at 3,350 

m. Climate is strongly correlated with elevation, with 

snow increasing and temperatures decreasing with 

elevation. Overall, the climate is cool and humid, with 

long cold winters and short cool summers. Average 

annual temperature at Fraser headquarters (2,745 m) is 

0.5 °C, and frost can occur any month of the year. At 

headquarters, the mean monthly temperature is -10 °C 

for January and 12.7 °C for July. Annual precipitation 

averages 584 mm (range, 432 to 711 mm), and average 

annual precipitation over the entire forest is 737 mm. 

Nearly two-thirds of the precipitation falls as snow from 

October to May.

Soils

Soils are generally derived from gneiss and schist. Typical 

soils contain angular gravel and stone with little silt and 

clay. These soils are permeable and can store considerable 

water during snowmelt. At high elevations, especially on 

the west side, soils are derived from sandstones. These 

soils are shallow, have large amounts of stone, and have 

fi ne sand or sand textures. Alluvial soils occur along main 

streams, with parent material a mixture of glacial till, 

glacial outwash, and recent valley fi ll.

Vegetation

The Fraser includes subalpine forests and alpine 

tundra typical of the central Rocky Mountains. In the 

forested areas below the timberline, Engelmann spruce 

and subalpine fi r are the predominant trees at higher 

elevations, or north slopes, and along streams; lodgepole 

Fraser Experimental Forest (Colorado)
123

pine is the predominant tree at lower elevations and on 

drier upper slopes. The majority of the forest regenerated 

naturally (sometimes slowly) after a stand-replacing fi re 

in 1685. There are pockets of older trees in draws and at 

higher elevations. The fl at, low-elevation portion of the 

forest was logged in the early 1900s.

Long-Term Data Bases

The primary research focus on the Fraser has been 

the effect of management practices on water yield and 

quality. Snow depth and water content are collected on 

fi ve watersheds, with records dating to 1941 for one of 

them. Streamfl ow is monitored on seven watersheds, 

and a continuous record of streamfl ow for the oldest 

watersheds dates from 1941-43. Sediment transport and 

bedload are measured periodically. Precipitation and 

temperature are measured at more than eight locations 

and records are available from 1969 (one location from 

1939). An NSF Long-Term Ecological Research quality 

environmental monitoring system was installed in 2001. 

Precipitation, streamfl ow, and snowpack chemistry have 

been monitored weekly since 1982. Tree growth, seed 

production, and tree mortality have been recorded at the 

Fraser since in 1938. Climate and streamfl ow data are 

available at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/fraser/fefdatabase.

htm

Research, Past and Present

Most early research on the Fraser was oriented toward 

timber or water production and effects resulting from 

forest management. Additionally, much research 

focused on the effect of forest structure and species 

water use, snow distribution, and water yield. A number 

of integrated studies examined management impacts 

on ecosystem processes and animal populations for 

a landscape. Much early research is summarized in 

RM- GTR-118, available on the web. Current research 

addresses questions about links between forests, riparian 

areas, and streams, and aims to better understand 

mechanisms important in nutrient cycling, snow 

hydrology, and ecosystem carbon storage. More than 

30 individual studies are in progress in addition to the 

continued long-term monitoring of climate, streamfl ow, 

and water chemistry. 

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at Fraser has provided signifi cant advances 

in our understanding of subalpine forest ecology and 

hydrology, and most of the silvicultural and hydrological 

practices used in managing subalpine forests in the 

central Rocky Mountains are derived from research 

done here. Improvements in understanding the factors 

that control snow distribution and water yields across 

heterogeneous landscapes have been incorporated into 

water-yield models and applied widely. Studies of tree 

water use and ecophysiology have provided a better 

understanding of the growth dynamics of forests and 

transpiration water loss, and have been incorporated 

into mechanistic models of ecosystem function used 

to predict the impact of changing climate on forest 

production and carbon storage. Long-term studies of 

manipulated forest stands indicate that recovery requires 

substantially longer than originally hypothesized. Aquatic 

and terrestrial biogeochemistry have been studied in 

manipulated and control catchments, providing a greater 

understanding of the processes that control stream-water 

quality.

Collaborators

Research collaborators working at the Fraser have come 

from the USDI Geological Survey, USDA Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain and North Central Research Stations, 

Colorado State University, University of Colorado, State 

University of New York, and Texas Tech University.

Research Opportunities

The Fraser is ideal for research that extrapolates from the 

plot to the watershed for hydrology, biogeochemistry, 

and vegetation. Outstanding opportunities are available 

to examine issues of landscape-scaling by expanding the 

Fraser’s GIS to cover biogeochemistry (carbon storage 

and fl ux; nitrogen cycling, and retention) and forest 

structure and dynamics. Additionally, the dramatically 

increasing recreation use offers an opportunity to assess 

the effects of recreation. We welcome and encourage 

research at Fraser, and especially encourage research that 

takes advantage of the long-term records.
124

Facilities

The Fraser Experimental Forest is easily accessible (less 

than 2 hours from Denver), has lodging for 20 to 25 

people (main lodge, two cabins, bunkhouse, lounge, and 

washroom), a new biogeochemistry and ecophysiology 

laboratory and meeting/offi ce space, and extensive shop 

and storage facilities. Lodging is available for researchers 

and their fi eld crews for a nominal fee. Although well 

roaded, less than 25 percent of the area has been affected 

by research.

Lat. 39°54′25′′ N, long. 105°52′58′′ W

Contact Information 

Fraser Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Road

Fort Collins, CO 80526

Tel: (970) 498-1255

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/fraser/

Or

Manager, Fraser Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

4947 County Road 73

PO Box 117

Fraser, CO 80442

Tel: (970) 726-5220
125

Introduction

The Glacier Lakes Ecosystem Experiments Site 

(GLEES) is a 600-ha, wilderness-like site located 

in complex terrain at 3,200 to 3,500 m elevation. 

Research at Glacier Lakes is conducted to 

determine the effects of atmospheric deposition 

and climate variability and change on alpine and 

subalpine aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems at 

the upper treeline ecotone. Long-term physical, 

chemical, and biological monitoring is an 

important component of the activities at Glacier 

Lakes. The site is located in the Snowy Range 

of the Medicine Bow Mountains in the Laramie 

Ranger District on the Medicine Bow National 

Forest.

Glacier Lakes contains small, alpine/subalpine watersheds 

that include persistent snowfi elds, fi rst- and second-order 

streams, wetlands, and glacial cirque lakes. Two adjacent 

alpine lakes are of similar surface area and depth but 

differ in watershed area, infl ow patterns, turnover rates, 

snowcover, water chemistry, and aquatic biota. These 

lakes are ice covered 7 to 8 months each year and have 

low acid-neutralizing capacity.

Climate

Glacier Lakes has a harsh environment with high winds 

and low air temperatures. The site is snow covered from 

November to July. Average air temperature is -1 °C, 

average windspeeds range from 6 to 9 m/sec, and gusts 

greater than 20 m/sec are common.

Soils

Glacier Lakes developed from recent glaciation, with 

glacial cirque basins dominating the upper reaches of the 

three main catchments. A permanent snowfi eld exists at 

the top of one of the basins. Bedrock at the site is primarily 

Medicine Bow Peak quartzite. Soils are minimally 

developed, formed over quartzite bedrock that is crossed 

by weatherable mafi c intrusions of amphibolite. Glacial 

till is present in the lower elevation areas of the watershed. 

Geological features include exposed bedrock, talus slopes 

and shallow, immature soils with low base saturation.

Vegetation

Alpine and subalpine vegetation are dominant, with 

304 vascular plant species in 14 distinct forest, meadow, 

shrub, and krummholz plant associations. Trees older 

than 700 years are found within Glacier Lakes. Almost 

200 phytoplankton species have been identifi ed at the 

site.

Long-Term Data Bases

Glacier Lakes maintains an extensive collection 

of meteorological, hydrological, water chemistry, 

snow chemistry, wet and dry deposition, geological, 

soils, snow cover, aquatic, fl oristic, and topographic 

information. Two monitoring sites within Glacier Lakes 

have been established for meteorologic and air-quality 

monitoring. The site includes a network of terrestrial 

fi eld plots, hydrologic sites, and permanent vegetation 

and aquatic sampling plots. A herbarium collection of 

vascular plant species is available for researchers, with 

a duplicate set archived at the University of Wyoming 

Herbarium. Checklists of terrestrial vascular plant 

species, phytoplankton, periphyton, zooplankton, and 

macroinvertebrates have been assembled.

Sites for four national long-term monitoring 

networks are in operation with data available through 

national websites: Clean Air Status and Trends 

Glacier Lakes Ecosystem Experiments Site (Wyoming)
126

Network, Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual 

Environments, National Atmospheric Deposition 

Program, and AmeriFlux.

Research, Past and Present

Research programs on the following topics are under way 

at Glacier Lakes:

• Seedling germination and survival at the alpinesubalpine ecotone. Plots have been established 

to examine the relationship between patterns of 

seedling survival establishment and biotic and 

abiotic factors at multiple scales (10 to - 25 m) 

under natural conditions.

• Nitrogen deposition. In small wet and dry 

subalpine meadow plots, nitrogen deposition 

has been experimentally increased, and changes 

in soil respiration, nitrogen processing, and 

aboveground species composition and abundance 

are being monitored.

• Riparian hydrology. Little is known about the 

movement of pollutants, such as nitrates, within 

the hydrologic systems of alpine environments. A 

stream reach that drains a glacial cirque basin 

was studied to determine nitrogen retention of 

atmospheric inputs during the water year. The 

near-stream spatial and temporal gradients of 

nitrates in the soil solute were the focus of this 

study.

• Dynamics of disturbance on subalpine 

forests. Plots have been established to identify 

disturbance events, including diseases, and to 

quantify their relationship to the formation of 

gaps in the forest canopy of the subalpine forest 

within Glacier Lakes and at the nearby Snowy 

Range Research Natural Area.

• Dendrochronology in the subalpine forest. 

Research is developing tree-ring width 

chronologies to document maximum age 

structures in the subalpine forest stands in and 

near Glacier Lakes. The age of forest stands at 

the site has been determined.

• Exchange of trace gases between the atmosphere 

and the Earth’s surface. Eddy covariance 

technology is being used to study the exchange 

of trace gases such as carbon dioxide and 

pollutants such as ozone. The AmeriFlux site at 

Glacier Lakes has been continuously collecting 

data since November 1999. In addition, the 

infl uence of wind atmospheric ventilation on the 

exchange of trace gases from snowpacks and soils 

is being studied.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Glacier Lakes is used for developing and testing 

techniques for monitoring of air-quality-related values 

(AQRV) in wilderness-type ecosystems. It is a research 

site for the evaluation of new questions on air pollution 

effects on natural ecosystems identifi ed from the Federal 

Land Managers AQRV Workgroup Phase I Report.

Research conducted at Glacier Lakes fi rst identifi ed 

signifi cant levels of carbon dioxide released under the 

snow in the winter. Research has also documented 

fl uxes of nitrogen dioxide and methane from alpine 

and subalpine ecosystems. A strategy to estimate 

the sensitivity of alpine plant species to atmospheric 

deposition was developed at Glacier Lakes and a Longterm Ecological Research site in the Colorado Front 

Range. This approach utilizes plant physiological and 

morphological characteristics to estimate pollutant 

uptake in a process that could be used quickly and easily 

in the fi eld.

A model was developed to estimate snowmelt in complex 

terrain without extensive fi eld surveys. The method 

uses aerial photography and has been fi eld-verifi ed at 

Glacier Lakes. Methods and protocols for water-quality 

sampling in high-elevation environments were developed 

and tested at the site. These protocols are now used by 

national forests in long-term monitoring programs to 

determine the effects of atmospheric deposition on highelevation aquatic ecosystems. They are also being used to 

determine the effects of ecosystem disturbance on water 

quality.

A portable monitoring system was developed at Glacier 

Lakes to monitor the effects of snowmobiles and wildfi res 

on air quality in natural ecosystems. The system has been 

deployed in Wyoming and California.
127

Collaborators

Researchers working at Glacier Lakes have come from 

Colorado State University, University of Wyoming, and 

Wake Forest University, as well as the USDA National 

Resource Conservation Service, the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, and the USDI’s Bureau of Land 

Management and Geological Survey.

Research Opportunities

Researchers are invited to explore opportunities to 

conduct research on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems at 

GLEES by contacting the site administrator.

Facilities

Glacier Lakes is accessible year round, with winter 

travel by snow machine. Laboratory, storage, lodging, 

and kitchen facilities are available for researchers in 

Centennial, Wyoming, about 10 km from Glacier Lakes. 

Information on the site is summarized in a 1994 USDA 

Forest Service publication: GTR-RM-249, The Glacier 

Lakes Ecosystem Experiments Site.

Lat. 41°22′30′′ N, long. 106°15′30′′ W

Contact Information

Glacier Lakes Ecosystem Experiments Site

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Street

Fort Collins, CO 80526

Tel: (970) 498-1239

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/glees.html
128

Introduction

The Great Basin Experimental Range has been a focal 

point for research on the ecology and management of 

watersheds and rangelands as well as on silvicultural 

problems since it was established as the Utah Experiment 

Station in 1912. Subsequent names for this research area 

have been Great Basin Experiment Station (1918-30), 

Great Basin Branch Experiment Station (1930-47), Great 

Basin Research Center (1947-70), and now Great Basin 

Experimental Range (since 1970).

Great Basin ER consists of about 1,861 ha, with an 

elevational range from 2,070 to 3,180 m. It is about 

8 km long, ranges in width from about 1.5 to 4 km, 

and lies on the west face of the Wasatch Plateau wholly 

within the Sanpete Ranger District of the Manti-LaSal 

National Forest. A network of research sites, including 

long-term exclosures and the Elk Knoll Research Natural 

Area, extend out from the Great Basin into other Forest 

Service lands on both the Sanpete and Ferron Ranger 

Districts.

Severe fl ooding during the last part of the 19th 

century and early part of the 20th century led to 

the establishment of the Great Basin Experimental 

Range. The local populace wanted scientifi c study 

of summertime fl oods that originated on mountain 

watersheds and were seriously damaging farms and rural 

communities. These fl oods, usually including mud and 

rocks, were especially severe in the Sanpete and Emery 

County communities below the Wasatch Plateau.

Climate

Average annual precipitation ranges from about 300 mm 

at the lowest elevation (west end) to more than 750 mm 

at the upper elevations (east end). At lower elevations, 

about half of the precipitation falls as snow during the 

November 1 to May 1 winter season, increasing to more 

than 75 percent of high elevations. June and September 

are the driest months. Summer thunderstorms are 

common during July and early August. Temperatures 

range from -36 to 37 °C. Mean January temperature is 

-8 °C; mean July temperature is 13 °C. Maximum and 

minimum temperature differences can range from 3 to 

10 °C on any day depending on elevation and site.

Soils

Soils at the lower elevations of the Great Basin ER are 

commonly derived from the North Horn formation and 

range from silt loam and loam at the surface to clay loam 

in the subsoils. At higher elevations, soils are derived 

mainly from Flagstaff limestone and are mostly clay 

loam in texture. In general, the soils are productive, have 

good water-holding qualities, and are only moderately 

erodible.

Vegetation

Plant communities include oakbrush, and piñon-juniper, 

aspen, Englemann spruce, subalpine fi r, and white fi r 

types.

Long-Term Data Bases

Permanent plots and exclosures were established in 

the vegetation communities of the Great Basin with 

additional permanent plots and exclosures in the general 

area on the Manti-LaSal National Forest. Long-term 

climatic records from a range of elevations have been 

maintained since 1925, with some records going back 

to 1901. Streamfl ow data were collected from the 

1920s until the 1950s. Long-term records of restoration 

plantings throughout different vegetative communities 

are available to compare with natural recovery processes.

Research, Past and Present

The following topics are under study at the Great Basin 

ER: plant adaptation, plant succession, nutrient cycling, 

revegetation, restoration ecology, and game habitat 

improvement.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The Great Basin ER is regarded as one of the pioneering 

sites that led to the establishment of the discipline of 

range management. Featured research includes: (1) 

watershed stability and rehabilitation, including the 

oldest continuously monitored paired watersheds in 

Great Basin Experimental Range (Utah)
129

the world; (2) rangeland studies, including impacts of 

relative levels of grazing pressure on ecosystems and 

individual plants, and rangeland restoration, including 

development and evaluation of plant materials and of 

plant establishment techniques; (3) basic studies on plant 

physiology and nutrition, climate, silviculture, and plant/

rodent interactions; and (4) wildlife habitat restoration, 

including selection and development of woody and 

herbaceous plant species and techniques to culture and 

plant these species.

Facilities

The Great Basin ER is located on the south portion of 

the Ephraim or Cottonwood Creek drainage on the west 

front of the Wasatch Plateau about 8 km east of Ephraim, 

on the Manti-LaSal National Forest. Access is from a 

Sanpete County road known as the Ephraim Canyon or 

Ephraim-Orangeville Road.

The headquarters complex, known as the Great Basin 

Environmental Education Center and currently managed 

by Snow College, includes a museum, amphitheater, 

and offi ces, as well as lodging, cooking, and camping 

facilities. Running water, plumbing, electricity, and 

telephones are available. The eight principal buildings 

were constructed during two primary periods, 1912-

13 and 1934-36. All buildings were recently renovated 

and brought up to modern safety and health standards. 

A small cabin, the Alpine Cabin, located adjacent 

to experimental watersheds A and B, does not have 

electricity or indoor plumbing.

Lat. 39°19′ N, long.111°30′ W 

Contact Information 

Great Basin Experimental Range

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Shrub Sciences Laboratory

735 North 500 East

Provo, UT 84606

Tel: (801) 377-5717

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/greatbasin. html
130

Introduction

The Long Valley Experimental Forest was established in 

1936 as a counterpart to Fort Valley Experimental Forest, 

because it is on contrasting soils (limestone/sandstone 

derived as opposed to basalt-derived clay loam), and 

because it was representative of some of the best sites and 

stands of ponderosa pine on the Coconino and Sitgreaves 

National Forests. It has been used for thinning, grazing, 

and regeneration studies for many years.

Soils

The soils are derived from limestone and are classifi ed as 

Typic Cryoboralfs.

Vegetation

Ponderosa pine stands, unburned since 1913, and not 

grazed since the late 1970s, are the dominant vegetation 

on the forest.

Long Valley Experimental Forest (Arizona)

Research, Past and Present

Research activities at Long Valley include a rangewide 

provenance planting of ponderosa pine, a burning 

interval effects study, and a growth history study.

Facilities

Long Valley is located about 96 km southeast of Flagstaff, 

Arizona, just above the Mogollon Rim, and comprises 

two sections (518 ha).

Lat. 34°33′44′′ N, long. 111°20′25′′ W

Contact Information 

Long Valley Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

2500 South Pine Knoll

Flagstaff, AZ 86001-6381

Tel: (928) 556-2176

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/longvalley.html
131

Introduction

The 6,758-ha Manitou Experimental Forest 

straddles the watershed of Trout Creek, a 

tributary of the South Platte River, about 

48 km northwest of Colorado Springs, 

Colorado. The Manitou Park area contained 

within the forest was originally the property 

of Dr. William Bell, an English physician 

and Colorado pioneer who had established 

a number of enterprises on the property, 

including logging, ranching, resort hotels, and a 

trout farm. He ultimately gave the remainder of 

his holdings to Colorado College to establish a 

school of forestry and be used as a forestry fi eld 

camp. The Manitou was established in 1936 

from land donated to the Forest Service after Colorado 

College closed its forestry school, from surrounding 

National Forest System land, and from other purchased 

properties. As a result, the Manitou contains more than 

100 private holdings within its borders, including a 

major subdivision occupying over 284 ha.

Climate

The climate is cool and dry with a 65-year average 

rainfall of 398 mm/yr. Summer temperatures can reach 

32 °C, but nights are cool. Elevation ranges from 2,286 

to 2,835 m. Winter snowfall is typically light, without a 

snowpack in many years. Although winter temperatures 

can fall below -20 °C, midday January temperatures 

often are as high as 10 °C. Summer thunderstorms can 

be intense, with large amounts of rainfall and lightning. 

Many trees are scarred by lightning.

Soils

Soils are derived from the weakly structured Pikes Peak 

granite and are highly erodeable. Most soils are poorly 

developed, with little organic matter except in riparian 

areas.

Vegetation

The Manitou is representative of the Colorado Front 

Range Montane ecosystem, containing extensive dry-site 

ponderosa pine and Douglas-fi r forests interspersed with 

grassland parks and small aspen clones. Lodgepole pine 

and Engelmann spruce occur at higher elevations, with 

blue spruce, limber pine, and white fi r in local areas.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are temperature and precipitation records for the 

headquarters weather station since 1937. Continuous 

hourly temperature, precipitation, and wind and soil 

temperature data have been available in electronic 

format since 1998. A National Atmospheric Deposition 

Program collection site has been on the Manitou for 

more than 20 years and a NOAA satellite weather station 

has been located at headquarters for a number of years. 

Streamfl ow and water-quality data for Trout Creek were 

recorded and published for some years.

Long-term (30-year) growth records for ponderosa pine 

plots thinned to various stocking levels are also available. 

Seedfall records from shelterwood and seed-tree overstory 

plots, natural seedling germination and survival, and 

growth and survival data for planted trees are available 

from 1981 to 2001 (Unfortunately, this study burned 

in the Hayman Fire of June 2002.) A population of 

fl ammulated owls has been monitored on the Manitou 

since 1978.

Manitou Experimental Forest (Colorado)
132

Research, Past and Present

Early research at the Manitou focused on range 

management, including revegetation of abandoned fi elds, 

grazing management in native and seeded pastures, 

and watershed management in gully control, stream 

sedimentation, surface runoff, and infi ltration. Watershed 

management studies through the mid-1980s centered on 

water quality and examined the effects of cattle grazing 

and recreational and home development on bacterial 

pollution in lakes and streams, and resulting effects on 

aquatic biota. The water-quality research program has 

been terminated.

Range management research conducted through the late 

1970s included studies of rotational grazing systems, 

seasons of use, and overstory/understory relationships. 

The range research program has also been terminated.

In the 1980s, the research emphasis shifted to studies on 

the growth and regeneration of ponderosa pine and on 

wildlife habitat. Research centered on ponderosa pine 

regeneration for both even- and uneven-age systems, 

initial tree spacing and growth, provenance testing 

of ponderosa pine, growth and yield in uneven-aged 

and irregular stand structures in ponderosa pine, and 

old-growth characteristics of Front Range ponderosa 

pine. Other studies include dwarf mistletoe effects and 

control in ponderosa pine, and studies of the habitat 

requirements, habitat use, and population dynamics of 

fl ammulated owls.

Today, research at Manitou has been broadened to gain a 

better understanding of ponderosa pine ecosystems, the 

disturbance regimes active within them, and ways to best 

manage these urban-interface forests. Current studies 

include assessment of silviculture techniques to restore 

fi re-dependent forests to a healthy condition, studies of 

fi re history, fuels assessment, quantifying soil heat fl uxes 

during prescribed burning under a spectrum of fuel 

loadings, studies of insect and bird biology, an intensive 

study of dwarf mistletoe ecology, and a major effort to 

assess human values and preferences in urban-wildland 

interface forests.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at Manitou has made major contributions 

to our understanding of ponderosa pine ecosystems. 

Individual publications are too numerous to mention 

here and are summarized on the forest’s website.

Collaborators

Researchers from the USDI Geological Survey, Colorado 

State University, University of Colorado, Colorado 

School of Mines, University of California, Colorado 

College, Denver Museum of Nature and Science, as well 

as nonaffi liated, privately funded researchers have worked 

on the Manitou.

Research Opportunities

The Manitou is uniquely situated for studies of wildlandurban interface interactions, recreational values, and 

land-management effects on water quality delivered 

to urban areas. The forest is dissected by a major state 

highway, is in close proximity to both Denver and 

Colorado Springs metropolitan centers, and contains 

and is adjacent to several picnic and campground 

facilities administered by the Pikes Peak Ranger District 

of the Pike and San Isbel National Forest. Collaborative 

research opportunities that fi t within the overall research 

goals of the Rocky Mountain Research Station and are 

compatible with other ongoing research at Manitou are 

welcomed.

Facilities

The Manitou has excellent facilities. Most of the 

buildings were constructed in the late 1930s by the 

Works Progress Administration out of locally quarried 

stone and are listed on the National (and Colorado) 

Register of Historic Places. Buildings include a large 

lodge for meetings and housing for research fi eld crews 

(available for a nominal fee), an offi ce/laboratory, 

manager’s residence, and two large garages, one with a 

shop. Also available are a small bunkhouse and a barn/

shed storage area. A concrete pad with RV hookup and 

an offi cially designated helipad complete the headquarters 

facilities.

Lat. 38°6′0′′ N, long. 105°5′30′′ W
133

Contact Information

Manitou Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

240 West Prospect Street

Fort Collins, CO 80526

Tel: (970) 498-1259

Or

Resident Manager

Manitou Experimental Forest

232 County Road 79

Woodland Park, CO 80863

Tel: (719) 687-3034

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/landscapes/Locations/Manitou/

Manitou.shtml
134

Introduction

Priest River Experimental Forest was among the fi rst 

experimental forests: it was set aside as a forestry research 

center in September 1911. The forest served as the 

headquarters for the Priest River Experiment Station until 

1930 when it was incorporated into the Northern Rocky 

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, which, 

in turn, joined the Intermountain Research Station, now 

part of the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Since 

the establishment of Priest River, numerous educators, 

Forest Service researchers, and State and Private Forestry 

personnel have used it.

The forest encompasses 2,590 ha, with elevations ranging 

from 680 to 1,800 m. Two major east-to-west drainages 

bisect the forest, resulting in predominantly north- to 

northwest- and south- to southwest-facing slopes. The 

397 ha of the headwaters of Canyon Creek were set aside 

as the Canyon Creek Research Natural Area in 1937 

and an additional 182 ha of the drainage were set aside 

as the Wellner Cliffs Research Natural Area in 2002. 

Priest River also contains an arboretum set aside in 1929 

to study exotic and native species and an irrigated and 

animal-protected tree nursery.

Climate

Priest River is infl uenced by the Pacifi c Ocean, which 

causes a modifi ed maritime climate. Precipitation 

averages 810 mm, with most of the moisture falling 

as snow in the winter. Summers are dry and the mean 

annual temperature is 6.6 °C.

Soils

Soils are Typic Vitrandepts, with a thick mantle of 

volcanic ash overlaying belt series parent material.

Vegetation

The wide range of elevations and aspects at Priest River 

support fi ve major forest types: subalpine fi r, grand fi r, 

western hemlock, Douglas-fi r, and western redcedar. 

Within these types, western larch, lodgepole pine, 

ponderosa pine, and western white pine are frequent 

associates. Productive ponderosa pine sites occur on the 

western redcedar potential vegetation type. Whitebark 

pine occurs at the highest elevations within the forest. 

Forest ages range in age from 20 to more than 200 years, 

but the age of most trees ranges from 80 to 160 years.

Long-Term Data Bases

Records have been maintained at Priest River on the 

following: weather (1911 to present), streamfl ow (1937 

to present), forest growth (1914 to present), and snowfall 

(1940 to present).

Research, Past and Present

Early research at Priest River provided information on 

basic forestry principles still used today for managing 

Rocky Mountain forests. Throughout the forest’s history, 

it has been a key location for conducting forestry 

research. Regeneration studies using shelterwood, seedtree, and clearcut methods have provided information 

for regenerating mixed conifer forests. Site preparation, 

planting, cleaning, weeding, and thinning studies have 

Priest River Experimental Forest (Idaho)
135

provided information on how to regenerate and maintain 

forest stand composition and growth.

Forest genetic research began in 1911 with a racial 

variation test of ponderosa pine with sources from 22 

locations throughout the Western United States. Growth 

characteristics of disease-resistant western white pine 

have been studied since 1955 and the Priest River has 

been the site of numerous common garden studies 

defi ning seed-transfer rules and zones for western 

conifers.

Fire research began with the development of the fi rst fi re 

danger rating system. This was followed by studies on 

fi re behavior, fuel infl ammability, and fi re effects. Forest 

growth and yield has been studied on the forest since 

1914. The results led to the development of growth and 

yield models.

Currently, studies are being conducted on coarse woody 

debris function, long-term soil productivity, acid 

deposition, western white pine seedling development 

in canopy gaps, forest structure impacts on water yield 

and quality, white bark pine progeny trials, and fungal 

inoculation to enhance wood decomposition.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The following major research fi ndings were developed at 

Priest River: 

• Rust-resistant western white pine 

• Mapping of habitat types, Prognosis model 

(forest vegetation simulator)

• Beginnings of fi re behavior, fi re danger rating, 

and fi re effects information 

• Infl uence of forest structure on water yield and 

quantity

• Importance of coarse woody debris in 

maintaining forest productivity

Collaborators

Scientists from University of Montana, University 

of Idaho, Washington State University, Washington 

Department of Natural Resources, and Idaho 

Department of Lands, as well as from USDA Forest 

Service Northern Region and Idaho Panhandle National 

Forests have worked on the Priest River.

Research Opportunities

Forest growth and climate, watershed and forest 

structure, forest disease as a disturbance process, 

weather infl uences on forest structure, and maintaining 

functioning forests at the urban interface are topics for 

research opportunities at Priest River.

Facilities

Priest River has living quarters, laboratories, offi ces, 

conference room, and a shop, all of which are listed 

on the Idaho State and National Historical Registers. 

Laboratory, offi ce, and shop facilities are available from 

April 1 through November 1. Living and conference 

facilities are available throughout the year.

Lat. 48°21′ N, long. 116°41′ W

Contact Information

Priest River Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

1221 South Main Street

Moscow, ID 83843

Tel: (208) 882-3557

http://fs.fed.us/rm/main/expfor/priestriver.html

Or

Superintendent On-Site

Priest River Experimental Forest

4907 East River Road

Priest River, ID 83856-9509

Tel: (208) 448-1793
136

Introduction

The Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest, located on 

the Tonto National Forest about 48 km northeast of 

Globe, Arizona, was established in 1932 as a research 

area devoted to studying watershed management. This 

5,364-ha experimental area is typical of watershed 

and vegetation conditions throughout the Southwest, 

particularly in Arizona.

The climate, soil, and physiography are typical of 

much of the southwestern region, and are particularly 

representative of the Verde, Salt, and Upper Gila 

watersheds. The Sierra Ancha lies along the crest of the 

Sierra Ancha Mountain range and includes areas between 

1,082 to 2,354 m in elevation. Vegetation types within 

the forest range from semidesert shrub and grassland to 

the pine-fi r forests at higher elevations.

Climate

Precipitation averages about 850 mm at the higher 

elevations at Workman’s Creek, 635 mm at the 

intermediate elevations (1,460 to 1,830 m) surrounding 

the headquarters, and 410 mm at the lower elevations.

Soils

Geology of the range is complex with sedimentary, 

metamorphic, and igneous rocks uplifted in a dome 

like structure. Thick formations of Dripping Springs 

quartzite, dissected by deep canyons or with intrusions of 

diabase and basalt plugs and sills are common in much of 

the forest. Troy sandstone occurs at higher elevations.

Vegetation

Eight vegetation types have been identifi ed on the Sierra 

Ancha including, from the high elevations to low: mixed 

conifer, mountain park, ponderosa pine, chaparral, oak 

woodland, desert grassland, desert shrub, and riparian. 

Fifty-seven percent of the forest is covered by chaparral 

shrubs.

Research, Past and Present

Research studies on watershed management problems 

in woodlands, chaparral, ponderosa pine, and pinefi r forests were conducted on the sites that ranged in 

size from several square meters to complete watersheds 

comprising several thousand hectares. The Sierra 

Ancha is still maintained as a research site under the 

administration of the Rocky Mountain Research 

Station. Many of the earlier watershed studies have been 

concluded and the results published. Currently, only 

one stream gauge is maintained for collecting long-term 

hydrologic data.

Collaborators

Collaborators have included the Salt River Water Users 

Association, Tonto National Forest, Arizona State 

University, and University of Arizona.

Facilities

All of the buildings at the headquarters site are being 

maintained under a special-use permit between the Tonto 

National Forest and Arizona State University. Under 

this agreement, the buildings have been upgraded and 

maintained in a safe and liveable condition.

Lat. 33.5° N, long. 111° W

Contact Information 

Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station

2500 South Pine Knoll

Flagstaff, Arizona 86001-6381

Tel: (928) 556-2176

http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/watershed/sierraancha/

The Sierra Ancha Experimental Forest (Arizona)
137

Introduction

The Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest, established 

in 1961, is representative of the vast expanses of 

lodgepole pine found east of the Continental Divide in 

Montana, southwest Alberta, and Wyoming. Lodgepole 

pine stands on the forest form a mosaic typical of the 

fi re-prone forests at moderate to high altitudes in the 

northern Rocky Mountains. The forest stands are 

classifi ed as one-aged (47 percent of the forested area) 

and two-aged (53 percent) that were created by past 

stand replacement and mixed severity fi res. Engelmann 

spruce and subalpine fi r grow in the area’s sparse but 

species-rich wetlands, whereas whitebark pine, lodgepole 

pine and subalpine fi r grace the higher ridgetops. The 

forest encompasses 3,692 ha of the headwaters of 

Tenderfoot Creek in the Little Belt Mountains on the 

Lewis and Clark National Forest in Meagher County, 

Montana. It is approximately 64 km north of White 

Sulphur Springs, Montana, and 114 km southeast 

of Great Falls, Montana. Lodgepole pine and mixed 

lodgepole pine with Engelmann spruce and subalpine 

fi r stands occupy 3,513 ha, wet meadows cover 126 ha, 

and drier grass and scree slopes make up another 84 ha. 

Elevations range from 1,840 to 2,420 m.

Climate

The climate is generally continental with occasional 

infl uence of the Pacifi c maritime climate along the 

Continental Divide from Marias Pass south. Annual 

precipitation averages 880 mm, and ranges from 594 

to 1,050 mm from the lowest to highest elevations. 

Monthly precipitation generally peaks in December or 

January at 100 to 125 mm per month and declines to 50 

to 60 mm per month from late July through October. 

About 70 percent of the annual precipitation falls 

during the November through May period, usually as 

snow. Intense summer thunderstorms are relatively rare, 

and most overland fl ow and associated soil erosion are 

associated with snowmelt.

Mountain soils generally are at fi eld capacity at the 

beginning of plant growth in early spring. At lower 

elevations and on dry south-facing slopes, soil-moisture 

stress stops plant growth for shallow rooted plants by 

mid-July. At higher elevations, growing seasons are 

shorter and killing frosts rather than moisture stress limit 

growth. Freezing temperatures and snow can occur every 

month of the year at Tenderfoot Creek and throughout 

the Little Belt range. For hardy native plants, growing 

seasons average 45 to 75 days, decreasing to 30 to 45 days 

on the higher ridges.

Soils

The most extensive soil groups are the loamy skeletal, 

mixed Typic Cryochrepts and clayey, mixed Aquic 

Cryoboralfs. Rock talus slopes are prominent on the 

perimeter of the landscape, but rock outcrops are 

confi ned chiefl y to areas adjacent to main stream 

channels. Soils in the grassland parks range from well to 

poorly drained. Seeps and springs are common over the 

entire forest.

The geology of Tenderfoot Creek is characterized by 

igneous intrusive sills of quartz porphyry, Wolsey shales, 

Flathead quartzite, and granite gneiss. The northern 

part of the forest occupies the highest elevations and 

steepest upland topography and is underlain by igneous 

intrusive granitic rocks. The arched bedrock in the 

area was formed from metasediments of Cambrian Age 

consisting mainly of argillites and quartzites. Glaciation 

has infl uenced the landform, producing broad basins in 

which the streams are beginning to regain a water-carved 

dendritic pattern.

Vegetation

Four forest habitat types are present at Tenderfoot 

Creek: subalpine fi r/grouse whortleberry; subalpine fi r, 

blue huckleberry; subalpine fi r, bluejoint; subalpine 

fi r-whitebark pine/grouse whortleberry. Besides these 

four climax types, a portion of the Tenderfoot Creek 

is dominated by the lodgepole pine/huckleberry 

community type. In this case, however, the community 

type is attributable to the subalpine fi r/grouse 

whortleberry habitat type because of the extensive and 

continuous presence of fi r regeneration and old growth 

throughout the forest. Within each habitat type are 

Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest (Montana)
138

stands of different age classes occurring intermittently. 

There are also four other general land descriptions 

classifi ed for the forest: talus slopes, rock outcrops, 

grassland parks, and wet meadows.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data bases maintained at Tenderfoot Creek 

include information on: timber inventory (1957 and 

1963), soil types and maps (1966), fuels analysis (1974 

and 1999), ecological habitat type descriptions (1975), 

GIS layers (current through 2003), streamfl ow (1992 to 

present), water quality, sediment, climate, and vegetation 

(current through 2003).

Research, Past and Present

There was no research at Tenderfoot Creek before 1991 

other than the collection of basic data on soils, timber 

inventory, and habitat typing. Hydrologic and climatic 

monitoring sites and equipment were installed in the 

early 1990s to develop pretreatment baseline information 

for the Tenderfoot Research Project, which is testing 

an array of management treatments for regenerating 

and restoring healthy lodgepole pine forests through 

emulation of natural disturbance processes but avoiding 

catastrophic-scale disturbances. Prescribed burning 

for seedbed preparation and fuels reduction is a major 

portion of the research project.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research treatments were completed in 2000 and 

prescribed burning as part of the over all research design 

was mostly completed in 2002 with the remainder 

completed in the fall of 2003. Posttreatment data were 

collected on water quantity, sediment production, water 

nutrients, fuel loading, noxious weeds, populations of 

pollinating insects, windthrow, understory and overstory 

vegetation response, and snow loading.

Collaborators

Collaborators working at Tenderfoot Creek include 

scientists from the Lewis and Clark, Helena, Gallatin, 

Beaverhead-Deerlodge, and Bitterroot National Forests; 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; 

Montana State Departments of Water Quality and Fish, 

Wildlife and Parks; Montana State University; University 

of Montana; Bitterroot Ecosystem Management Research 

Project; USDI Geological Survey, and Mississippi Basin 

Carbon Project.

Research Opportunities

Opportunities for research at Tenderfoot Creek abound 

for those interested in evaluating new techniques and 

options for managing lodgepole pine communities in 

the northern Rockies, including fuels management, 

and vegetation response and development following 

harvesting, prescribed burning, water production, water 

quality, and associated ecological processes.

Facilities

Permanent structures at Tenderfoot Creek include 10 

fl umes, one open-channel measurement site and two 

SNOTEL sites. Three travel trailers parked near the 

forest during summers provide temporary quarters for 

fi eld crews; a fourth equipment trailer is located on site. 

Other features include internal access roads for stream 

monitoring (Tenderfoot Creek and Lonesome Creek) 

and for access to new research. All other roads are within 

or on the border of three of the four boundaries of 

Tenderfoot Creek. The western boundary is accessed 

by trails only. The main road along Tenderfoot Creek is 

closed to motorized vehicles except for administrative 

use.

Lat. 46°55′ N, long. 110°53′ W

Contact Information 

Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Forestry Sciences Laboratory

800 East Beckwith, PO Box 8089

Missoula, MT 59807

Tel: (406) 329-2125

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/ecology/demo/tenderfoot
139

Southern Research Station
140

Introduction

The 1,885-ha Alum Creek Experimental Forest was 

established in the late 1950s in the headwaters of the Saline 

River near Jessieville, Arkansas. Until the mid-1980s, Alum 

Creek was used primarily to study the effects of different 

silvicultural practices on forest hydrology. During this time, 

10 small research watersheds (0.4 to 12 ha in size) and two 

weather stations were established to monitor streamfl ow, 

water quality, precipitation, air temperature, and other 

hydrometeorological variables. In 1994, Alum Creek was 

included within the area used for the landscape-scale Phase 

III of the Ouachita Mountains Ecosystem Management 

Research Project. Half of the forest is being used as an 

unharvested control area and a nearly 607-ha block is 

being treated with uneven-age reproduction cuttings. 

Since the early 1990s, research scope and pace has 

expanded greatly to include a variety of research studies in 

aquatic ecology, pedology, terrestrial ecology, silviculture, 

and wildlife biology. Four nested streamfl ow gauging 

stations with catchments between 121 and 1,214 ha have 

been established to supplement the existing 

hydrometeorological network. Currently, Alum Creek is 

managed by the USDA Forest Service’s Southern 

Research Station, and is affi liated administratively with 

the Jessieville and Winona Ranger District of the 

Ouachita National Forest.

Climate

The climate is humid subtropical with hot humid 

summers and mild winters. Mean daily temperatures 

range from -1 to 34 °C. The mean annual precipitation 

of 1,321 mm occurs almost entirely as rain and is 

distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year.

Soils

Soils typically fall within the Carnasaw, Townley, or 

Pirum map units. They are well-drained, moderately 

deep to deep, gravelly to stony loam soils that occur on 

undulating to steep hillslopes, ridges, and colluvial areas.

Vegetation

Alum Creek is a mosaic of pine-hardwood, 

predominantly pine, and predominantly hardwood 

stands. Short-leaf pine is the primary pine species; 

hardwoods include white and red oaks, and hickories.

Long-Term Data Bases

The 10 small watersheds within Alum Creek have 

provided hydrometeorological data series ranging from 

20 to 40 years. Three stations are still being for long-term 

baseline data. A comprehensive vegetation inventory 

throughout the entire forest and adjacent phase III 

research area are a unique data source for tracking fl oral 

conditions and changes over time.

Research, Past and Present

Studies at Alum Creek, both past and present, include 

the following topics: effects of different silvicultural 

practices on small-basin streamfl ow yields and water 

quality; erosion and sediment delivery from forest roads; 

nutrient export in streamfl ow from small watersheds; 

shortleaf pine silviculture; aquatic ecosystem processes 

and response to silvicultural practices; effects of different 

silvicultural practices on landscape-scale streamfl ow and 

water-quality characteristics; effects of pine-bluestem 

restoration practices on vegetation, soils, streamfl ow, and 

water-quality characteristics; and pedologic effects of 

forest management for different desired conditions.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Major accomplishments on the Alum Creek include: 

(1) identifi cation of the magnitude and duration of 

Alum Creek Experimental Forest (Arkansas)
141

streamfl ow and water-quality changes resulting from 

different silvicultural practices in small watersheds; 

(2) quantifi cation of forest-road erosion and sediment 

delivery to adjoining streams; (3) characterization of 

nutrient status and export from small forest watersheds; 

(4) characterization of aquatic ecosystem structure, 

processes, and response patterns to natural and 

anthropogenic disturbances; and (5) compilation of longterm hydrometeorological data series representative of 

small forest watersheds in the Ouachita Mountains.

Collaborators

Collaborating organizations working at Alum Creek 

include the Ouachita National Forest, Weyerhaeuser 

Company, University of Arkansas-Monticello, Oklahoma 

State University, University of Arkansas, Mississippi 

State University, University of Oklahoma, Texas A&M 

University, and University of Kentucky.

Research Opportunities

The long-term hydrometeorological data sets, extensive 

hydrometeorological monitoring network, comprehensive 

vegetation inventory, year-round access, and existing 

support facilities mean that there are tremendous 

opportunities exist for research in terrestrial forest 

ecology, hydrology, pedology, geomorphology, aquatic 

ecology, and silviculture.

Facilities

Forest Service facilities at Alum Creek consist of a secure 

storage lot and a work center in Jessieville (~ 16 km 

away) that includes an offi ce, shop, storage space, offroad vehicles, and computer facilities.

Lat. 34°47′54′′ N, long. 93°3′17′′ W

Contact Information 

Alum Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

PO Box 3516, UAM Station

Monticello, AR 71656-3516

Tel: (870) 367-3464

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/4106/alumcreek.htm

Or

USDA Forest Service

4472 Highway 133 South

Crossett, AR 71635

Tel: (870) 364-8730
142

Introduction

The 2,550-ha Bent Creek Experimental 

Forest is the oldest experimental forest east of 

the Mississippi River. European immigrants 

settled the Bent Creek area from 1800 to 1900. 

George Vanderbilt purchased most of this 

land in 1905 as part of his 40,471-ha Pisgah 

Forest. The USDA Forest Service acquired 

the Pisgah in early 1916, and 422 ha of the 

Bent Creek watershed were set aside as the 

Bent Creek Experimental Forest in 1925. An 

additional 1,943 ha were set aside from the 

Pisgah National Forest in 1935. Offi ces and 

laboratories were built 1930-33 by the Public 

Works Administration. Today, the Bent Creek 

campus is on the National Register of Historic Places 

and looks much the same as it did when early scientists 

Jesse Buell and Margaret Abell worked there in the early 

1930s.

Early research focused on methods to improve degraded 

hardwood stands, regeneration, forest insects and 

diseases, and even included hydrologic studies. Today, 

Bent Creek investigators focus on problems of ecological 

classifi cation of upland forest ecosystems, forest dynamics 

(including response to silvicultural treatments), wildlifehabitat relationships, and knowledge-synthesis and 

decision-support systems. The Bent Creek boasts a 

vigorous outreach program, including a wide array 

of ecological demonstrations and technical training 

programs.

Climate

Located just south of Asheville, North Carolina, in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains, Bent Creek offers 

visitors the area’s true four-season climate. Summers are 

warm and humid and winters are mild, with occasional 

snow. Total yearly precipitation is 1,170 mm at the 

lowest elevations, increasing to 1,651 mm at the highest 

elevation of 1,219 m. The growing season generally 

extends from early May to mid-October.

Soils

Bent Creek is located within two landtype associations: 

the intermountain valley (Asheville Basin), and the 

upper-elevation mountain highlands. Asheville Basin 

soils are typical Ultisols, low in organic matter content 

with substantial clay layers and low fertility. Mountain 

highlands soils are typically Inceptisols derived from 

gneisses and schists, acidic, and usually low in fertility. 

Intrusions of mafi c minerals in some coves substantially 

improve fertility.

Vegetation

The Asheville Basin is populated with subxeric oakhickory stands. Dry-site ericaceous shrubs such as 

mountain-laurel dominate forest understories. The 

mountain highlands are typically covered with oaks 

and hickories on slopes and ridges. Cove hardwoods, 

including yellow-poplar and northern red oak, are found 

on more mesic sites. Rhododendron thickets are common 

on low-energy aspects and in drainages. White, shortleaf, 

Virginia, and pitch pine are common associates.

Long-Term Data Bases

At Bent Creek, there are long-term data bases on yellowpoplar and mixed-hardwood growth and yield plots, and 

several long-term studies of regeneration methods.

Bent Creek Experimental Forest (North Carolina)
143

Research, Past and Present

Research topics studied on the Bent Creek Experimental 

Forest include: 

• Hardwood improvement cuttings

• Hydrology

• Hardwood and white pine genetics

• Long-term single-tree selection

• Wildlife habitat, including studies of hard and 

soft mast

• Hardwood regeneration prediction models

• Ecological site-classifi cation prediction models

• Hardwood growth and yield

• Intermediate stand management practices

• Long-term forest response to disturbance

• Natural disturbance regimes and plant and 

animal responses at different spatial and 

temporal scales

• Decision-support tools and models

Major Research Accomplishments

and Effects on Management

Much of what is known about regeneration and 

management of southern Appalachian hardwoods 

stems from research by the Bent Creek staff. Innovative 

approaches to ecological classifi cation also were developed 

here. Research on hard-mast production has provided 

valuable information for wildlife managers.

Collaborators

Collaborators have included scientists from the 

University of Georgia, Duke University, Virginia 

Polytechnic Institute and State University, University 

of Tennessee, Clemson University, North Carolina 

State University, University of North Carolina (Chapel 

Hill and Asheville campuses), southeastern state forest 

and wildlife agencies, and a vast network of forestry 

consultants and industrial foresters.

Research Opportunities

Bent Creek supports a rich array of fl ora and fauna and 

a variety of vegetative structures and compositions that 

could be the subjects of hardwood dynamics research. 

There are facilities for visiting scientists, a conservationeducation classroom for technology transfer, and many 

acres of hardwood demonstration cuttings.

Facilities

The picturesque Bent Creek campus consists of more 

than a dozen small stone-foundation buildings with 

handmade white oak shingles and hand-hewn chestnut 

timbers. The campus is a delightful, productive blend 

of old-time buildings and state-of-the-art computer and 

equipment facilities.

Lat. 35°29′20′′ N, long. 82°38′ W

Contact Information 

Bent Creek Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

1577 Brevard Road

Asheville, NC 28806

Tel: (828) 667-5261 

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/bentcreek
144

Introduction

The 526-ha Blue Valley Experimental Forest was 

established in 1964 to provide an outdoor laboratory 

in a forest dominated by eastern white pine, but it 

experienced only custodial management for the fi rst 30 

years. Several investigations of white pine-hardwood 

dynamics are underway. Extensive grazing and logging 

during the late 1800s and early 1900s are thought to 

have contributed to today’s substantial coverage of 

eastern white pine.

Climate

Located southwest of Highlands, North Carolina, in the 

southern highlands area of the Blue Ridge Mountains, 

Blue Valley has a four-season climate that is substantially 

cooler than that of most of the South. Summers are 

warm and humid; winters are mild, with occasional 

snow. Total yearly precipitation is 1,650 to 2,030 mm, 

distributed evenly throughout the year. The growing 

season generally extends from early May to mid-October. 

Soils

Blue Valley is located within the Whiteside granite 

formations of the southern highlands. The soils, welldrained Inceptisols, are highly acidic and infertile. 

Vegetative diversity and productivity are low for an area 

with such high rainfall.

Vegetation

Blue Valley is dominated by white pine and subxeric oakhickory stands. White pine usually makes up more than 

75 percent of standing basal area. Ericaceous shrubs, 

mostly buckberry, dominate forest understories.

Long-Term Data Bases

No long-term data bases have been established.

Research, Past and Present

The following topics are being studied at Blue Valley: 

single-tree selection cutting in white pine/hardwoods, 

shelterwood/underburning in white pine/hardwoods, 

and bark beetle populations.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Investigations within Blue Valley began in 1995; these 

studies should yield substantial information on the 

management of mixed white pine/hardwood stands over 

the next decade.

Collaborators

Collaborators working at the Blue Valley include staff 

from the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory.

Research Opportunities

At Blue Valley, there are opportunities for research on the 

following topics:

• Fundamental investigations of white pine 

regeneration ecology, including seed production 

and dispersal

• Bark beetle-created gap dynamics

• Ericaceous shrub ecology

Blue Valley Experimental Forest (North Carolina)
145

• Pine/hardwood management, including 

intermediate stand management practices

• Investigations of extreme low-fertility sites

Facilities

Blue Valley has no infrastructure other than forest roads 

and trails.

Lat. 35°00′40′′ W, long. 83°14′46′′ W

Contact Information

Blue Valley Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

1577 Brevard Road

Asheville, NC 28806

Tel: (828) 667-5261
146

Introduction

The Calhoun Experimental Forest is a contiguous block 

of 2,078 ha located in the northwestern portion of the 

Enoree Ranger District of the Sumter National Forest in 

Union County, South Carolina. The Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station established the experimental forest 

in 1947 for work on Piedmont forest, soil, and water 

problems. Like most of the southeastern Piedmont, the 

Calhoun was farmed before it became part of the Sumter 

National Forest. Corn, tobacco, and cotton were planted 

as early as the late 1700s. By the early 1800s, farming was 

abandoned because the fi elds were worn out and erosion 

was extensive. The area was farmed again after the Civil 

War and erosion continued. More than 30 cm of topsoil 

had been lost when the USDA Forest Service acquired 

the land in the 1930s. The location of the Calhoun was 

selected because erosion conditions there represented 

“the worst of the worst.” A number of experiments were 

conducted through the early 1960s until the Calhoun 

laboratory was closed. Few studies were conducted 

until the late 1990s, when work began to establish 

demonstrations of even- and uneven-age management. 

Today the Calhoun is managed by the Southern Research 

Station’s research unit at Clemson University.

Climate

The Calhoun is in the Piedmont region of South 

Carolina. Summers are warm and humid; winters are 

mild. Average annual rainfall is almost 1,270 mm, 

distributed evenly throughout the year. Average high 

temperatures in summer are near 30 °C and average low 

temperatures in winter are near -1 °C.

Soils

Common soils are Ultisols of the Appling and Cataula 

series. Throughout the Calhoun, these soils are severely 

eroded and of low fertility. Vegetation now covers most 

of the area, so erosion has slowed. Severely eroded areas 

have lost the moderately erodible A and B horizons, 

exposing the extremely erodible saprolite. Site indices 

vary greatly because of erosion and range from 18 to 27 

m for pines and 21 to 30 m for hardwoods. Soils are thin 

to moderate, well-drained loam over a clayey subsurface. 

These clayey soils are highly erodible on ridgetops, but 

stable on gently sloping terrain. Stream bottoms are 

narrow, with deep sandy or silty sandy loams subject to 

fl ooding for short periods.

Vegetation

Cover types on the Calhoun are diverse because of the 

dissected topography and past management practices. 

Plantations of loblolly and shortleaf pine are common 

along ridgetops and fl at areas. Stands of mesic oaks 

and mixed mesophytic hardwoods occur at mid- to 

lower slope positions and along streams. Bottomland 

hardwoods are found along the northern end of the 

forest, which is bordered by the Tyger River.

Research, Past and Present

Research on the following topics has been, or is being 

carried out at the Calhoun:

• Hardwood species suitability for eroded soils

• Etiology of littleleaf disease and infl uences of soil 

materials on disease incidence

• Infl uence of thinning on soil-moisture recharge

• Seed source testing for loblolly and shortleaf pine

• Virginia pine as an alternative species where 

littleleaf disease is heavy

• Origin and distribution of shortleaf pine

• Cover-type infl uence on soil moisture and 

rehabilitation of eroded soils

• Infl uence of plantation spacing on soil moisture 

and rehabilitation of eroded soils

• Impacts of silvicultural treatments to reduce 

incidence of pales weevil

• Comparisons of survival and growth of loblolly, 

shortleaf, Virginia, white, and slash pine

• Long-term impacts of forest management on 

formerly cultivated soils

• Techniques to control subterranean termites

• Effects of even- and uneven-age management on 

wood quality

Calhoun Experimental Forest (South Carolina)
147

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

• Much of our current knowledge of the etiology 

and incidence of littleleaf disease was developed 

on the Calhoun.

• Tests of planting density and silvicultural 

practices have helped us understand the growth 

and survival of major pine species.

• Research on the Calhoun provided the defi nitive 

descriptions of how soil chemical processes 

change through decades of forest management.

Collaborators

Current collaboration on the Calhoun is limited to 

studies of termite control by Southern Research Station 

scientists and long-term changes in soil chemistry by 

scientists from Duke University.

Research Opportunities

Demonstration areas are being established throughout 

the Calhoun Experimental Forest to compare how 

Piedmont forests can be managed by seed-tree 

regeneration, shelterwood regeneration, single-tree 

selection, group selection, and thinning of plantations. 

Demonstration sites are replicated and suffi ciently large 

to allow comparisons for many ecosystem components.

Facilities

There are no facilities on the Calhoun. The land is 

managed by the Tyger Offi ce of the Enoree Ranger 

District of the Sumter National Forest 16 km distant.

Lat. 34°37′30′′ N, long. 81°42′30′′ W

Contact Information 

Calhoun Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

239 Lehotsky Hall

Clemson, SC 29634-0331

Tel: (864) 656-5054

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/disturbance/ExpForests/

Calhoun/index.htm
148

Introduction

The Chipola Experimental Forest, located in 

the panhandle area of Florida near Clarksville, 

is entirely on private land. It was established in 

1952 under a 99-year lease to Southern Forest 

Experiment Station and International Paper 

Company and Hardaway Contracting Company. 

These fi rms requested this arrangement as a 

cooperative effort with the Forest Service to 

conduct research on returning these cutover, 

unproductive dry sandy sites to healthy forests. 

For the next 30 years, the 1,117-ha Chipola was 

the primary research site for the research work 

unit located in Marianna, Florida. Research 

focused primarily on silvicultural studies on species 

comparisons, site preparation and planting techniques, 

and cultural practices to improve growth rates. During 

study-plot establishment, much of the property was 

reforested. Following the closure of the Marianna 

research unit in 1981, all facilities were removed from 

the Chipola. In 1985, the area under lease was reduced 

to 506 ha, and in 1990 at the request of the landowners, 

the lease was further reduced to its current 272 ha.

Climate

The Chipola has a nearly subtropical climate, with short 

mild winters and long humid summers that include 

occasional tropical storms and hurricanes. Annual 

temperatures typically range from a high of 38 °C to a 

low of -7 °C. Annual precipitation averages 1,524 mm 

and is distributed relatively evenly throughout the year.

Soils

The uplands of the Chipola are predominantly Lakeland 

soil, a thermic, coated Typic Quartz-ipsamment. It is 

an excessively drained, sandy soil with a gray surfacehorizon and yellowish and brownish lower horizons. 

These sands are often more than 6 m deep and contain 

little organic matter or fi ner materials to hold and supply 

nutrients and moisture. Wet sands like the Chipley or 

sandy Ultisols like the Albany series dominate lower fl ats 

on the forest.

Vegetation

Most of the original forest area was dominated by 

sandhills vegetation: an overstory of longleaf pine, a 

scattered midstory of scrub oaks, and an understory 

dominated by grasses and forbs. Logging in the early 

1900s removed most of the longleaf pine, leaving only 

scattered trees. When the Chipola was established, most 

upland sites were dominated by scrub oaks, including 

turkey, bluejack, and runner. The understory was 

dominated by wiregrass. The 283-ha of lower fl ats are 

occupied by longleaf pine fl atwoods, titi thickets, and 

cypress ponds.

Long-Term Data Bases

Data bases derived from research at the Chipola 

include a south-wide seed-source study for longleaf 

pine (established in 1954) and termiticide testing and 

registration.

Research, Past and Present

At the Chipola, research results on the following have 

been reported:

• Silvicultural studies focused on control of scrub 

oak

• Species comparison trials, including native 

conifers, nonnative conifers, and genetic hybrids 

and crosses

Chipola Experimental Forest (Florida)
149

• Techniques for seed collection, nursery 

management, and planting of Choctawhatchee 

sand pine

• Physical characteristics of sand pine for lumber 

and pulp

• Biomass production from high-density 

Choctawhatchee sand pine plantings

• Tests of herbicides for control of competing 

vegetation on sandhills 

• Site preparation techniques for establishing pines 

on sandhills

• Effect of fertilizers on pine growth on sandhills 

• Growth and yield of Choctawhatchee sand pine 

on sandhills

• Sand pine plantation management

• Test of control measures for termites

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Several important research achievements have resulted 

from studies on the Chipola:

• Proof that only Choctawhatchee sand pine and 

longleaf pine can be grown successfully on deep 

sand soils of the region.

• Nearly all of our knowledge of how to establish 

and manage Choctawhatchee sand pine.

• All of the termite control chemicals registered in 

the last 30 years have been tested and registration 

data collected.

Collaborators

Collaborators include Florida Board of Forestry, 

International Paper Company, Hardaway Contracting 

Company, St. Joe Paper Company, Travelers Insurance 

Company, Southwest Forest Industries, and Stone 

Container Company. Current owners are Southern Pine 

Plantations and two private individuals.

Research Opportunities

About half of the remaining forest of the Chipola has good 

native sandhills vegetation, including wiregrass and longleaf 

pine, and little soil disturbance. However, it has not been 

burned for many years and would serve as a good site for 

restoration research on the sandhills longleaf ecosystem. 

Areas that have been planted to sand pine and other 

species could be used to test the rate of natural vegetation 

recolonization with different treatments. The area can 

continue to be a valuable test site for termite research.

Facilities

There are no on-site facilities. Access is limited because of 

locked gates maintained by the current owners, but the 

site has many dirt roads.

Lat. 30°28′ N, long. 85°16′ W

Contact Information

Chipola Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

320 Green Street

Athens, GA 30602

Tel: (706) 559-4309

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/disturbance/ExpForests/chipola/

index.htm
150

Introduction

Coweeta, known at the time as the “Coweeta 

Experimental Forest” was established in 1934 near 

Otto, North Carolina. In 1948, the site was renamed 

the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, the only USDA 

Forest Service outdoor site to carry the “Laboratory” 

title. Early research focused on establishing baseline 

measurements of climate, streamfl ow, and forest 

growth. Subsequent research established fundamental 

relationships among vegetation (for example, 

type, successional stage), soils, abiotic factors, and 

streamfl ow, further strengthening our understanding 

of the hydrologic cycle in watersheds. In the late 

1960s, efforts to establish an extensive data base on 

nutrient cycling and collaborative research with local 

universities and the National Science Foundation 

(NSF) began in earnest. Coweeta is one of the original 

Long-Term Ecological Research sites established by the 

NSF. The research program at Coweeta represents a 

continuum of theory, experimentation, and application 

using watersheds as landscape units. Two underlying 

philosophies have guided the research: (1) the 

quantity, timing, and quality of streamfl ow provides 

an integrated measurement of the success or failure 

of land-management activities, and (2) good resource 

management is synonymous with good ecosystem 

management. Ecosystem response to disturbance has 

been a focal point for interpreting ecosystem behavior.

Climate

The climate is marine, humid temperate. Average 

annual rainfall is 1,800 to 2,360 mm. Average annual 

temperature is ~12.6 °C.

Soils

Soils are Inceptosols (Umbric Dystrochrepts and Typic 

Dystrochrepts) and Ultisols (Typic Hapludults and 

Humic Hapludults).

Vegetation

Vegetation includes northern hardwoods, cove 

hardwoods, xeric oak/pine, oak/hickory, and mixed oak.

Long-Term Data Bases

At Coweeta, the following data bases are maintained: 

streamfl ow, climate, vegetation, soils, atmospheric 

chemistry, stream chemistry, and net primary 

productivity. Most go back several decades.

Research, Past and Present

Research at Coweeta has produced the following results:

• Information, methods, and guidelines to 

implement and evaluate ecosystem management 

concepts, practices, and effects on water, soil, 

and forest resources

• Improved understanding, baseline data, and 

predictive methods to evaluate the effects of 

atmospheric environment on forested watersheds 

in the Southeastern United States

• Long-term hydrologic and ecological data on 

forested watersheds

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Scientists at Coweeta have:

• Established fundamental relationships of 

vegetation, climate, soils, and streamfl ow

• Applied and tested BMPs for road design in 

mountain watersheds

Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (North Carolina)
151

• Developed an understanding of long-term 

nutrient, carbon, and water responses to natural 

and human disturbance

Collaborators

Collaborators include scientists from Clemson University, 

University of Georgia, University of Virginia, Furman 

University, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill and 

UNC-Asheville, Duke University, Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University, North Carolina State 

University, Northern Arizona University, Oregon State 

University, University of Wisconsin, University of 

Minnesota, University of Tennessee, University of Maine, 

Mars Hill College, Desert Research Institute, National 

University of Mexico, Portland State University, U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Air Force, U.S. 

Navy, National Aeronautics and Space Adiministraion, 

and other units of the Forest Service’s National Forest 

System.

Research Opportunities

Potential research topics include prescribed fi re; nutrient, 

carbon, and water cycling processes; restoration ecology; 

and riparian zone structure and function.

Facilities

There is a six-person house, 24-person dormitory, 

analytical laboratory, and conference facility.

Lat. 35°2′ N, long. 83°24′ W

Contact Information 

Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

3160 Coweeta Lab Road

Otto, NC 28763

Tel: (828) 524 2128

http://coweeta.ecology.uga.edu
152

Introduction

In 1934, the Crossett Experimental Forest was established 

about 11 km south of the town of Crossett in Ashley 

County, Arkansas, from a donation of 680 ha of land by 

the Crossett Lumber Company to the Southern Forest 

Experiment Station. The Crossett Research Center was 

the fi rst USDA Forest Service branch research station 

in the South. Previously, all fi eld research had been 

conducted from station headquarters in New Orleans, 

Louisiana. Research on forest management in secondgrowth loblolly and shortleaf pine stands was to be 

conducted and demonstrated to forest managers and 

landowners throughout the South. During the following 

six decades, Forest Service researchers associated with 

the Crossett have published more than 1,000 articles on 

forest management and silviculture. More than 45,000 

foresters, students, landowners, and university staff 

members have visited the Crossett and benefi ted from its 

research. Currently, the forest is managed by the Southern 

Research Station’s research unit in Monticello, Arkansas, 

and is affi liated administratively with the Jessieville and 

Winona Ranger District of the Ouachita National Forest.

Climate

The Crossett has a subtropical temperate climate. Over 

the 68-year period of record, annual temperatures 

averaged 17.6 °C and annual precipitation 1,410 mm. 

On average, March is the wettest month and September 

the driest; August, the hottest month and January, 

the coldest. The frost-free period is about 240 days. 

Occasional glaze storms are severe enough to damage 

vegetation in the area, and high winds have been 

associated with localized tree damage.

Soils

The Crossett is located in the western Gulf Coastal Plain. 

Soil types are oriented in relation to several intermittent 

drainages. Arkabutla silt loam (Aeric Fluvaquents) occurs 

in the fl oodplain along the drainages. Providence silt loam 

(Typic Fragiudalfs) usually occurs on side slopes along the 

drainages, and Bude silt loam (Glossaquic Fragiudalfs) is 

found on upland fl ats. Providence and Bude soils were 

formed in thin loessial deposits. A number of “pimple 

mounds” or Mima mounds occur on the fl ats between 

the drainages. Site index for loblolly and shortleaf pine 

ranges from 26 to 29 m at 50 years.

Vegetation

The 32-ha Reynolds Natural Area is a mature, closed 

canopy pine-hardwood stand that has received little 

human intervention since 1934. The remainder of the 

Crossett is under management for natural pine sawtimber 

except for streamside management zones. Loblolly pine 

is the dominant species, with lesser amounts of shortleaf 

pine. About 40 percent of the area is under evenaged management and 60 percent under uneven-aged 

management. The goals of both silvicultural systems are 

to produce large, high-quality, sawtimber trees. Rotation 

lengths for even-aged stands are 40 to 60 years, and 

reproduction methods include patch clearcuts, seed trees, 

and shelterwoods. Although some group-selection cutting 

is done, most of the uneven-aged stands are managed 

Crossett Experimental Forest (Arkansas)
153

under the single tree selection method using 5-year 

cutting cycle harvests.

Long-Term Data Bases

At Crossett, weather records date back to 1934, though 

several years of data in the mid-1970s are missing. 

Inventories of the Good and Poor Forties Demonstration 

Areas began in 1936 and are repeated about every 5 years. 

Trees in the Reynolds Natural Area were inventoried 

in 1937 and about every 10 years since. Monitoring 

understory vegetation began in 1952 and is conducted 

about every 10 years. Inventories of the Methods of Cut 

Demonstration Area began in 1942 and were repeated at 

5-year intervals, though there are some gaps. Pine seed 

production has been monitored annually since 1978.

Research, Past and Present

• Historical studies have focused on all aspects 

of the silviculture of natural pine stands. 

Hallmark research was conducted on developing 

techniques for competition control, the 

rehabilitation of understocked pine stands, and 

the uneven-aged management of loblolly and 

shortleaf pine.

• Current research includes studies on groupselection opening size, thinning regimes for rapid 

sawtimber production, impacts of competition 

control on pine growth and yield, and the use 

of silvicultural practices to create an old-growth 

stand character.

• Current demonstration areas include research 

on methods of cut for regenerating pines, 

converting plantations to uneven-aged structure, 

rehabilitating understocked pine stands, 

obtaining natural pine regeneration using 

clearcutting or the seed-tree method, and using 

controlled burning for competition control in 

uneven-aged stands.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Many practices for effective control of competing 

vegetation were developed and tested on the Crossett, 

and much of our knowledge about how to create and 

sustain uneven-aged stands of loblolly and shortleaf 

pines was developed here. Silvicultural practices used to 

regenerate and tend to natural even-aged stands of loblolly 

and shortleaf pines were also developed at the Crossett.

Collaborators

Collaboration has included researchers with the 

University of Arkansas-Monticello, Arkansas Forestry 

Commission, and Arkansas Game and Fish Commission.

Research Opportunities

Research opportunities at the Crossett include all aspects 

of the management of natural pine and pine-hardwood 

stands, the impacts of silvicultural practices on nontimber 

resources such as soils, wildlife, and visual properties, and 

the use of forest demonstration areas to help educate the 

public about good forestry practices.

Facilities

Headquarters is located 11 km south of Crossett, 

Arkansas, on Highway 133. Facilities include an offi ce 

building, wood-working shop, soils laboratory, gas/oil 

storage building, chemical storage building, three-car 

garage, greenhouse facility (not currently used), and a 

residence. The offi ce has a conference room that seats 35 

people. The offi ce building, gas/oil storage building, and 

three-car garage are on the Federal Register of Historic 

Buildings. Many miles of improved gravel roads provide 

excellent access to demonstration and research areas.

Lat. 33°2′ N, long. 91°57′ W

Contact Information 

Crossett Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

PO Box 3516, UAM Station

Monticello, AR 71656

Tel: (870) 367-3464 X10

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/4106/Crossett/crossett_ef.htm

Or

Crossett Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

4472 Highway 133 South

Crossett, AR 71635

Tel: (870) 364-8730
154

Introduction

The 1,044-ha Delta Experimental Forest, located in 

Washington County, is owned by the State of Mississippi. 

In August 1, 1945, the USDA Forest Service entered into 

a cooperative agreement (effective indefi nitely) to conduct 

research there. The forest is about 5 km north of Stoneville, 

which is home to the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry 

Experiment Station’s Delta Branch, the USDA Agricultural 

Research Service’s Jamie Whitten Delta States Research 

Center, and the Forest Service’s Southern Research Station’s 

Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research. The Delta 

also serves as the state-run Stoneville Wildlife Management 

Area, which offers deer, turkey, and small game hunting 

in season. The forest is drained by a network of ditches 

established in the 1930s and is surrounded by agricultural 

land. It was managed for research purposes and timber 

production until the 1970s when management stopped. 

No cutting is allowed without the approval of Mississippi 

State University.

Research during the fi rst 30 years or so involved thinning 

studies, development of silvicultural methods aimed 

at growing quality southern hardwoods, evaluation of 

progeny tests for improved clones of eastern cottonwood, 

heart-rot progression studies, and studies of insect borer 

life cycles and damage to hardwood products. Studies in 

the 1980s and 1990s included determining the causes of 

oak decline and investigating southern red oak-sweetgum 

stand dynamics. Several ice storms occurred in the 1990s; 

the worst (February 1994) severely damaged the crowns 

of most canopy trees, which devalued the Delta for forest 

management research.

Climate

The Delta has a long growing season that extends from 

mid- to late March until late October or early November. 

Average annual precipitation is 1,354 mm, of which 45 

percent occurs from April to September. Summers are 

warm and humid, with July having the highest average 

temperature (34 °C). Winters are mild, January being 

the coldest month, with an average temperature of 0 °C. 

Accumulation of snow is rare, though ice storms occur 

occasionally. Stoneville is 39 m above sea level.

Soils

Soils are largely Sharkey clays interspersed with Dowling 

clays. Sharkey and Dowling soils are medium acid to 

neutral, dark, poorly drained, clayey soils in depressions. 

They are plastic when wet, and hard when dry, forming 

cracks.

Vegetation

Timber types are elm-ash-hackberry, overcup oak-water/

hickory, and sweetgum-water oak. Understory vegetation 

is composed of eastern swamp privet, swamp dogwood, 

poison-ivy, greenbrier, blackberry, peppervine, grapevine, 

and nonnative Chinese privet and Japanese honeysuckle.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are a few long-term thinning studies.

Research, Past and Present

At the Delta, the following topics have been studied: 

bottomland hardwood natural regeneration; suitablility 

of hardwoods for bottomland sites and plantation 

research; progeny evaluations for selecting genetically 

improved hardwoods; thinning and intermediate 

stand-management research; disease and insect spread 

and control; hardwood insect borer life-cycle research; 

southern red oak-sweet gum stand dynamics; and 

bottomland hardwood growth and yield. Current 

research examines life cycles of wood-boring insects 

and the energy content of their larvae in relation to 

the biology of large woodpeckers, with a view toward 

conservation efforts.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Research at the Delta provided much of what we know 

about species-site relationships on poorly drained, lessfertile Mississippi River alluvial soils. Several eastern 

cottonwood clones, selected during the 1960s and 1970s 

by geneticists at the Southern Hardwoods Laboratory 

and tested on the forest, are still used throughout the 

southeastern United States by forest industry and by state 

and federal agencies and internationally.

Delta Experimental Forest (Mississippi)
155

Collaborators

Collaborators include researchers from Mississippi State 

University, The University of Mississippi, Yale University, 

and the U.S. Geological Survey, working in cooperation 

with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mississippi Forestry 

Commission, Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, 

Anderson-Tully Company, as well as private forestry 

consultants and industrial foresters.

Research Opportunities

Much of the Delta was cut in the late 1990s to regenerate 

forest stands that had been unmanaged for more than 30 

years. Oak seedlings were planted to supplement natural 

oak regeneration. The Southern Hardwoods Laboratory 

in Stoneville has facilities for visiting scientists interested 

in conducting oak regeneration or hardwood stand 

dynamics research.

Facilities

The Delta has a 2.2-ha fenced compound with warehouse 

and utilization buildings. The forest is accessible by 

blacktop roads at two locations and has about 8 km of 

all-weather, gravel roads.

Lat. 33°28′8′′ N, long. 90°54′ W

Contact Information 

Delta Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

PO Box 227

Stoneville, MS 38776

Tel: (662) 686-3154

http://www2.srs.fs.fed.us/cbhr
156

Introduction

The Escambia Experimental Forest is a 1,214-ha fi eld 

laboratory located in Escambia County, 11 km south 

of Brewton, Alabama. It was established in 1947 by 

the USDA Forest Service primarily to study problems 

associated with the ecology and management of longleaf 

pine forests. The Forest Service Silviculture Research 

Project located on the campus of Auburn University 

handles research activities and general administration of 

the forest. The T. R. Miller Mill Company of Brewton, 

Alabama, provided land for the Escambia, at no cost 

under a 99-year lease. Wood products derived from 

operations on the forest go to the company.

Climate

The climate is mild and humid, bordering on the 

subtropical. Annual precipitation is about 1,520 mm. 

Average range of temperature is -7 to 37 °C. The frostfree period averages around 235 days, from about March 

15 to November 10.

Soils

Soils are largely coarse to fi ne, loamy, siliceous thermic 

Paleudults. Principle series include Troup, Wagram, 

Benndale, Orangeburg, Lucy, Dothan, Ruston, and Esto. 

Elevation ranges from about 30 to 87 m above sea level. 

Topography is fl at to rolling; most slopes are in the 3- to 

10-percent range, with occasional slopes up to 20 percent.

Vegetation

Slightly more than 80 percent of the Escambia is in the 

longleaf pine type, with the remainder in slash pinehardwood bottoms. Research operations here have 

developed many age classes of longleaf pine, from newly 

germinated seedlings to stands with trees up to 160 

years old. Most of the second-growth timber on the 

forest is about 90 years old. About 490 ha have been 

naturally regenerated, and more than half of this is in 

stands ranging in age from 40 to 55 years. The forest 

is located on the Coastal Plain physiographic province. 

The predominant ground cover is composed of bluestem 

grasses rather than wiregrass, which dominates other 

Coastal Plain sites. Site quality for longleaf pine averages 

21 to 23 m at 50 years.

Long-Term Data Bases

The following long-term data bases are maintained at the 

Escambia: 

• Stand management and management 

alternatives, including even-age, two-age, and 

all-age methods.

• Growth and yield of even-aged natural stands in 

relation to age, site quality, and stand density. A 

regional longleaf growth study was initiated on 

the Escambia in 1964 and other locations in fi ve 

states were added later.

• Fire ecology, including long-term effects of 

season and frequency of prescribed fi re (or fi re 

exclusion) on the growth of dominant pine 

overstory, as well as effects on the composition 

and structure of the hardwood midstory and 

woody and herbaceous vegetation on the forest 

fl oor.

• Farm Forty Demonstration, in which 16 ha of 

understocked second-growth longleaf pine forest 

Escambia Experimental Forest (Alabama)
157

were set aside in 1947 for a demonstration of 

small-woodlot management. The initial goal 

was to produce high-quality poles and logs on 

a 60-year rotation. The rotation has since been 

extended to 80 years.

Research, Past and Present

Researchers on the Escambia have investigated problems 

associated with longleaf pine management, including 

regeneration (primarily natural), stand management, 

management alternatives, growth and yield, site 

evaluation, fi re ecology, and woods grazing.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Most of the research on and development of the 

shelterwood system for longleaf pine natural regeneration 

occurred on the Escambia. More than 180 research 

reports and numerous management guidelines related 

to longleaf pine ecology and management have been 

published for use by nonindustrial, industrial and public 

land managers. Many sites on the forest and nearby lands 

are used for demonstrations, workshops, and tours.

Collaborators

Collaborators include the T. R. Miller Mill Company, 

Auburn University, Longleaf Alliance, four state 

forestry agencies, Forest Service Southern Region, U.S. 

Department of Defense, Tall Timbers Research Station, 

and Jones Ecological Research Center.

Research Opportunities

Due to its central location in the longleaf pine belt 

that extends from the Carolinas to eastern Texas, the 

Escambia is well situated for the study of this species. 

More than 20 percent of the remaining longleaf pine 

forests in the Southeast are within 120 km. Collaborative 

research activities will be needed to fi ll the following 

information voids related to longleaf pine sustainability: 

(1) optimizing natural regeneration alternatives; (2) 

evaluating the sustainability of management alternatives; 

(3) developing improved socioeconomic evaluations of 

all ecosystem components; (4) quantifying the role of 

fi re in maintaining the structure, diversity, and functions 

of longleaf pine ecosystems; and (5) determining the 

infl uence of climatic factors on site productivity. There 

is also a need to better address the recurring problem of 

shortages of longleaf pine seed and seedlings.

Facilities

A forest superintendent employed by the Forest Service 

manages the Escambia with the assistance of a temporary 

technician. Facilities include a fully accessible 4- by 18-m 

modular offi ce building, a 10- by 12-m warehouse, an 8- 

by 20-m equipment storage building, and a 3- by 12-m 

oil and chemical storage building. No overnight facilities 

are available on site but are available in nearby Brewton, 

Alabama.

Lat. 30°8′ N, long. 87°1′ W

Contact Information

Escambia Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

George W. Andrews Forestry Sciences Laboratory

520 Devall Dr.

Auburn, AL 36849

Tel: (334) 826-8700

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/4105/escambia.html
158

Introduction

The Harrison Experimental Forest is located 40 km north 

of Gulfport, Mississippi, on Highway 67 in the DeSoto 

National Forest’s DeSoto Ranger District. The land for 

the 1,662-ha Harrison was chosen to represent about 

12.5 million ha of land with similar soils and topography 

in the Southeast. The original buildings were built by 

the CCC and WPA in 1934 and are candidates for the 

National Register of Historic Places.

Climate

The climate is temperate -humid subtropical, with 

precipitation of 1,651 mm of rain per year, distributed 

evenly throughout the year.

Soils

Well-drained, fi ne-sandy loams of the Ruston and 

Mclaurin series cover the Harrison. The Longleaf 

Pine/Saw Palmetto Research Natural Area (RNA) is on 

Eustis loamy sands. The soils are low in cation-exchange 

capacity, organic matter, and nutrients. They are similar 

to the lateritic soils of the tropics.

Vegetation

The vegetation is mostly of the longleaf pine-bluestem 

type.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are several 30- to 50-year-old records of research 

plantings (genetics studies).

Research, Past and Present

Early research at the Harrison entailed planting and 

regeneration, as well as wood preservation. There are trials 

of fenceposts treated with various preservatives that have 

been evaluated every year for 60 years. The use of water 

spray to preserve wood while waiting to be processed was 

developed here many years ago. Long-term termiticide 

trials have been conducted at the Harrison for many years.

Since 1955, the Harrison has been home to the Southern 

Institute of Forest Genetics (SIFG). The mission of 

the Institute is to discover and investigate genetic and 

ecolutionary principles and processes that function in 

forest ecosystems and to determine how these might 

be used to enhance and sustain forest quality and 

productivity. With the advent of molecular genetic 

technology, scientists at the SIFG have begun a variety of 

new studies based on these techniques.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The following are signifi cant accomplishments from 

research on the Harrison:

• The Southwide Southern Pine Seed Source 

Study originated here in 1951 and continues 

today; the data base is maintained at the SIFG. 

The study has provided seed-source guidelines 

for planting southern pines for more than 50 

years.

• Research on the biology and more recently 

the genetics of the southern pine-fusiform 

rust pathosystem has been conducted at the 

SIFG since the time the disease was identifi ed 

as a serious pest in southern pine plantations. 

Important contributions to understanding the 

pathogenicity and variability in both the host 

and pathogen populations have been made by 

SIFG scientists.

• Some of the earliest genetic information for 

longleaf pine was generated from plantings on 

the Harrison in 1960. That study continues 

today.

• Species comparisons among the southern pines 

planted here are ongoing and have demonstrated 

that different species have different growth 

trajectories.

• Research on the fl owering biology and seed 

production in southern pines at the HEF has 

helped to make tree improvement programs in 

the South cost-effective.

• Research on the inheritance of growth, form 

and disease resistance of forest trees has provided 

guidance for tree improvement programs across 

the South.

Harrison Experimental Forest (Mississippi)
159

• Part of the most recent research with DNA 

markers is being used to incorporate disease 

resistance into the American chestnut, helping 

reestablish this species that was virtually 

eliminated by the chestnut blight.

• DNA markers are also being used at the SIFG 

in population genetic studies to help determine 

effective conservation programs for threatened 

and endangered species.

Collaborators

Researchers have come to the Harrison from institutions 

worldwide: Auburn University, Clemson University, 

Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 

University of Florida, Cornell University, Oklahoma 

State University, Mississippi State University, Fusiform 

Rust Cooperative (North Carolina State University), 

Institut National de La Recherche Agronomique 

(France), International Paper Company, Louisiana State 

University, North Carolina State University, Syracuse 

University, Texas A&M University, American Chestnut 

Foundation, University of California-Berkeley, University 

of California-Davis, University of Georgia, University 

of Massachusetts, University of Parma (Italy); Istituto 

Miglioramento Genetico Piante Forestali (Italy), Istituto 

per l’Agroselvicoltura, (Italy), University of Turino (Italy), 

Western Gulf Forest Tree Improvement Program; NCSUIndustry Tree Improvement Program; Wuhan Institute 

of Botany (Peoples Republic of China), USDA Forest 

Service’s Institute of Forest Genetics (PSW), and research 

units in the Southern Research Station.

Research Opportunities

The Harrison Experimental Forest is located 40 km 

from Gulfport on the Mississippi Gulf Coast. This area 

is among those predicted to have the greatest population 

increases in the United States. The area immediately 

surrounding the forest is rapidly being developed for 

housing and related uses, so there is an opportunity to 

install long-term studies to determine the impacts of 

urban encroachment. The only known population of 

gopher frog is located on the De Soto National Forest 

near the Harrison. There is an opportunity to study the 

effect of urbanization on this endangered species. The 

Harrison is representative of the many longleaf pine sites 

in Mississippi and would provide a great opportunity for 

long-term growth studies.

Facilities

At the Harrison, there is an administration building with 

library/conference room, scientist building, technician 

building, fi ve wet labs equipped with DNA analysis 

equipment, two-bedroom guest house, resident caretaker’s 

house, carpentry shop, greenhouse, head house, shade 

house, pathology lab with environmental control 

chambers, and pole sheds, garages, and storage buildings. 

There are many miles of improved dirt roads with large 

turnarounds.

Lat. 30°38′ N, long. 89°03′ W

Contact Information 

Southern Institute of Forest Genetics

Harrison Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

23332 MS Highway 67

Saucier, MS 39574-9344

Tel: (228) 832-2747 

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/units/mississippi.htm#srs-4153
160

Introduction

Hitchiti Experimental Forest occupies 1,916 ha of lower 

Piedmont forest land in Jones County, Georgia, 29 km 

north of Macon, on the east bank of the Ocmulgee 

River. Acquired in 1946 by the Federal Government, 

it has been home for more than 30 years to research on 

loblolly pine to benefi t nonindustrial forest-land owners, 

who hold 67 percent of the forest land in the Southeast.

Climate

The Georgia Piedmont has a frost-free period in excess 

of 200 days. Mean summer temperature is 26 °C with 

extremes reaching 38 °C. Winter temperatures fl uctuate 

widely and it seldom snows. Annual rainfall averages 

1,250 mm, with most occurring in the winter and 

spring. Drought periods occur frequently in summer and 

fall.

Soils

There are nine soil series within the Hitchiti. Soils of 

the Cecil, Davidson, and Vance series cover more than 

70 percent of the area. Eroded phases of clayey Ultisols 

predominate on undulating terrain, and alluvial soils are 

common on the lower slopes.

Vegetation

Most of the Hitchiti is second- and third-growth forest, 

wtih stands containing loblolly and shortleaf pine mixed 

with hardwoods. The pine stands are mostly even-aged 

and are fairly well stocked with seedlings, saplings, 

poles, and sawtimber. Pine overstories typically contain 

about 85 percent loblolly and 15 percent shortleaf pine. 

Hardwoods are encroaching on about half of the upland 

forest area, and about 10 percent of the forest is classifi ed 

as hardwood. Yellow-poplar and black walnut plantations 

are also found on the Hitchiti.

Long-Term Data Bases

At the Hitchiti, data bases from a study of the varying 

intensities of site preparation treatments began in 1982, 

and a loblolly pine growing space study began in the 

1950s.

Research, Past and Present

At the Hitchiti, the following topics have been or are 

being studied:

• Natural regeneration methods for loblolly pine

• Prescribed fi re for competition control and 

wildlife enhancement

• Uneven-age management of loblolly pine

• Site preparation effects on soils

• Ecology of two undisturbed forest associations 

• Economics of artifi cial and natural regeneration 

of loblolly pine

• Microfaunal population relationship to 

silvicultural treatment

• Infl uence of mechanical site preparation on deer 

forage, and understory plant diversity

• Long-term effects of forest cover on properties of 

eroded soils in the Georgia Piedmont

• Volunteer pine and hardwood response to 

planted loblolly and site preparation

• Response of loblolly pine biomass and specifi c 

leaf area to various site preparation methods

• Stand dynamics of loblolly pine

• Long-term effects of herbicides on soil-water 

availability in loblolly pine stands

Hitchiti Experimental Forest (Georgia)
161

• Wood properties of loblolly pine plantations

• Red cockaded woodpecker management

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The Hitchiti has served as a major source of information 

for establishing and managing loblolly pine in the 

Piedmont, and provided considerable information on 

stand dynamics within loblolly pine forests.

Collaborators

Collaborators include Oconee National Forest, Brender 

Demonstration Forest, Georgia Forestry Commission, 

and Southern Industrial Forest Research Council.

Research Opportunities

Approximately 36 ha of old-growth loblolly pine are 

available for studying stand dynamics and succession. 

Also within the Hitchiti, there is land that runs for 3 

miles adjacent to Ocmulgee River with Falling and Caney 

Creeks, providing excellent opportunities for aquatic 

studies. Mature hardwood bottomlands along Falling 

Creek represent an opportunity to study a threatened 

environment. There are additional opportunities to study 

the impact of the southern pine beetle on loblolly pine 

stands, and growth and yield of loblolly pine.

Facilities

USDA Forest Service facilities include an auditorium/

conference room that holds 65 people. There are two 

offi ces and a shop/fi eld laboratory with herbarium 

dryer, dissecting scopes, and forced-air oven. Another 

building on site houses a small conference room (10 to 

12 people) and an offi ce with kitchen and bath. The 

Hitchiti Hiking Trail is 5.6 km long, leading through an 

area along Falling Creek and Ocmulgee River, with rock 

outcroppings and mature hardwood and pine forests.

Lat. 33°10′ N, long. 83°44′ W

Contact Information 

Hitchiti Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

320 Green Street

Athens, GA 30602-2044

Tel: (706) 559-4316

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/disturbance/ExpForests/Hitchiti/

index.htm
162

Introduction

The 291-ha Koen Experimental Forest is located on 

the south bank of the Buffalo National River near 

Jasper, Arkansas, within the Ozark National Forest. 

The Koen was established in 1950 to develop scientifi c 

principles for forest management. The site was named 

for Henry R. Koen, once the forest supervisor of the 

Ozark National Forest, whose conservation career lasted 

four decades in the fi rst half of 1900s. Seven 2- to 

10-ha hardwood watershed basins were instrumented 

to monitor precipitation, air temperature, barometric 

pressure, streamfl ow, and sediment. Although streamfl ow 

gauging fl umes remain in place, there has been no active 

hydrology research on the site since 1979. Currently, 

the forest is managed by the Southern Research Station 

and is affi liated administratively with the Buffalo Ranger 

District of the Ozark-St.Francis National Forest.

The Koen is headquarters for a research fi eld crew that 

monitors studies throughout the Boston Mountains. It 

also is the site of an interpretive nature trail that helps 

visitors identify more than 40 species of trees and shrubs. 

The trail is wheelchair accessible and also designed to 

accommodate visitors who are visually impaired. The 

trail was built through local contributions, Job Training 

Partnership Act labor, and Forest Service cooperation 

and is maintained by local organizations and Southern 

Research Station personnel. There is a secluded picnic 

area at the entrance to the trail where visitors can enjoy a 

quiet outdoor dining experience.

Climate

The Koen has hot, humid summers, especially at low 

elevations, and is moderately cool in winter, especially 

on the Boston Mountains and high hills. Usually, over 

half the total annual precipitation falls from April 

through September. Snow falls nearly every winter, but 

the snow cover last only a few days. The average winter 

temperature is 4.4 °C; the average summer temperature, 

27 °C. The average annual snowfall is 127 mm and the 

average annual rainfall is 1,143 mm.

Soils

Soils in the Arkana-Moko complex are moderately deep 

(Arkana soils) to shallow (Moko soils) and well-drained. 

Arkana soils are low in natural fertility and moderate 

in content of organic matter. They are medium acid to 

mildly alkaline in the surface layer and strongly acid to 

moderately alkaline in the subsoil. Both permeability and 

available water capacity are low. Moko soils are moderate 

in natural fertility and in content of organic matter. They 

are neutral or mildly alkaline throughout. Permeability is 

moderate and available water capacity is low. The erosion 

hazard is considered severe for both soils.

Other soils include Clarksville very cherty silt loam, a 

deep soil formed from cherty limestone that contains 

40-to 60-percent chert fragments; the Estate-Lily-Portia 

complex of hillside soils that are loamy, stony, and well 

drained; and the Noark very cherty silt loam, which 

consists of deep, well-drained, moderately permeable 

soils that formed in colluvium and clayey residuum from 

cherty limestones on nearly level to very steep uplands of 

the Ozark Highlands.

Vegetation

The Koen is primarily an oak-hickory upland hardwood 

forest.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are two long-term data sets. The fi rst is part of a 

study of eastern red-cedar that began in the 1940s and 

concluded in the mid-1960s. The second is part of a 

watershed study closed in the late 1970s.

Research, Past and Present

Many studies were carried out at the Koen from the 

early 1940s to the late 1970s, and represent valuable 

data sets for northern Arkansas. Should the study sites be 

reestablished to examine long-term changes at the site. 

Past study topics include shortleaf pine cone production, 

outplanting tests of hybrid pines, thinning in white oak 

stands, effect of stand structure on the growth of white 

oak stands, and intensity of pine release from competing 

vegetation.

Koen Experimental Forest (Arkansas) 
163

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Extensive research on regeneration, thinning, and growth 

of white oak and other hardwood species has been 

conducted on the Koen.

Collaborators

Currently, there are no active studies on the Koen.

Research Opportunities

In addition to previous studies that might be 

reestablished, the Koen could host research tours and 

demonstrations. There is also an excellent opportunity 

to develop several studies on underplanting and root 

development.

Facilities

USDA Forest Service facilities include a fi eld offi ce, 

garage, and pole barn. Historically signifi cant buildings 

include a small stone building, springhouse and mill 

foundation.

Lat. 36°2′ N, long. 93°10′ W

Contact Information

Koen Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

PO Box 3516, UAM Station

Monticello, AR 71656

Tel: (870) 367-3464

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/4106/koen.htm

Or

Koen Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

4472 Highway 133 south

Crossett, AR 71635

Tel: (870) 364-8730
164

Introduction

The 3,135-acre Olustee Experimental Forest, 

located in northeast Florida near Olustee, was 

established in 1931. It is part of the Osceola 

National Forest. For nearly 60 years it served as 

a primary site for research primarily on naval 

stores but also silvicultural and genetics studies of 

southern pine, and insects and diseases research. 

In 1996, research units at Olustee were closed, 

but the Southern Research Station continues to 

maintain the Olustee for long-term studies and as 

a reservoir of genetic material for slash pine. The 

National Forests in Florida maintain the buildings, 

which now serve as the Osceola Ranger Station.

Climate

The climate is humid temperate, with short mild winters 

and long humid summers that include occasional tropical 

storms and hurricanes. Annual temperatures typically 

range from 40 to -7 °C. Annual precipitation averages 

1,520 mm, with most falling from March to October. 

The driest part of the year is from November to January, 

with another dry period in May.

Soils

Soils are typical fl atwoods types that developed in a low 

nearly level plain with scattered depressions and poor 

drainage. Much of the forest is covered by Leon soil, a 

sandy siliceous, Thermic Aeric Haplaquod. The surface 

horizon is a mixture of light and dark gray fi ne sand. The 

spodic horizon is 20 to 30 inches below the surface. This 

layer restricts root growth and water percolation. Slightly 

higher areas have Blanton soil with a thick sandy surface 

layer and a clay B horizon. The sites lower and wetter 

than the Leon areas are dominated by Pamlico soil, a 

sandy Medisaprist.

Vegetation

On the Olustee, about 810 ha of the original forest 

was dominated by typical fl atwoods vegetation, which 

included an overstory of second-growth longleaf pine 

and some slash pine, and an understory of saw-palmetto, 

inkberry, and wiregrass. Over the years, much of this 

was harvested and replaced with areas planted primarily 

to slash pine. Baldcypress and black tupelo dominated 

the overstory of swamp and depressional areas, with an 

understory of fetterbush lyonia and loblolly-bay.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data bases include slash pine genetic selections 

for growth, naval stores production, and disease 

resistance, as well as information on the effect of site 

preparation on the growth and yield of slash pine and 

ecosystem properties.

Research, Past and Present

Past research on the Olustee included:

• Developing techniques for the production of 

gum naval stores

• Numerous silvicultural studies on the control of 

saw-palmetto and inkberry

• Species comparison trials, including native 

southern pines and hybrids

• Growth and yield predictions for natural and 

planted slash pine

• Developing site-preparation techniques for 

establishing pines on fl atwoods sites

• Studies on genetics and selection of slash pine for 

superior traits

Olustee Experimental Forest (Florida)
165

• Slash pine plantation management

• Integrated pest management for slash pine

• Production of rosin and turpentine with 

paraquat treatment of living pines

Current studies are evaluating the effect of sitepreparation on the fl atwoods ecosystem.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Most of the technology for past and current production 

of gum naval stores by tapping living pines was developed 

on the Olustee, and many of these techniques were fi rst 

tested on stands here. Nearly all of our knowledge about 

growth and yield of slash pine was derived from research 

at Olustee, which also was a major site for the selection 

and breeding of slash pine. Grafted orchards of secondand third- generation slash pine families continue to be 

maintained on the forest.

Collaborators

The Osceola National Forest is involved in collaborative 

research with the Olustee Experimental Forest.

Research Opportunities

A considerable area of the remaining forest contains 

native fl atwoods vegetation, including second-growth 

longleaf pines that are 80 to 90 years old with an intact 

understory. This could be a valuable reference site for 

longleaf pine restoration or for evaluating responses 

to burning. Areas that have been planted to slash pine 

provide an opportunity to study the effects of sitepreparation treatments such as bedding on long-term 

growth.

Facilities

Temporary storage of equipment and supplies, use of 

phones, computers, etc. can be arranged with the Osceola 

District Ranger Offi ce. The National Forests of Florida 

also maintain a good network of access roads.

Lat. 30°12′ N, long. 82°26′ W

Contact Information 

Olustee Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

320 Green Street

Athens, GA 30602

Tel: (706) 559-4309

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/disturbance/ExpForests/Olustee/

index.htm
166

Introduction

Congress designated the Palustris Experimental Forest 

in 1935 as an area for conducting forestry research. It 

is named in recognition of the longleaf pine that, prior 

to the widespread harvest of virgin pine forests in the 

early 1900s, once occupied more than 36 million ha in 

the South. The Palustris includes two separate tracts of 

public land within the Kisatchie National Forest totaling 

3,035 ha. The Southern Research Station supervises and 

conducts a wide range of long-term and other studies on 

these unique and scientifi cally valuable lands.

The Palustris, also known as the Longleaf Experimental 

Forest, was established due to the efforts of pioneer 

researcher Philip C. Wakeley, whose goal was to develop 

reforestation techniques for the four major southern 

pines. With the help of the Civilian Conservation 

Corps, Wakeley and other scientists grew seedlings at 

the Stuart Nursery near Pollock and outplanted them 

on the Palustris to develop nursery technology and 

stock specifi cations for planting southern pines. Almost 

750,000 southern pine seedlings outplanted during the 

mid- to late-1930s were critical to understanding how to 

reforest the denuded forest landscape.

Early research on the Palustris included cone and seed 

studies that would become the basis for reforestation 

success throughout the South and around the world. 

Direct-seeding operations showcased a means by which 

denuded landscapes could be quickly reforested. Seedling 

production techniques developed here pioneered the 

current capability of tree nurseries to produce more than 

a billion seedlings per year. Methods to control woody 

plants developed here demonstrated how unproductive 

sites can be converted to thriving pine forests and how 

established forest stands can be managed intensively to 

increase economic productivity.

Climate

The climate is typical of the Southern Coastal Plain. 

Annual precipitation averages 1,465 mm with fairly even 

monthly distribution. During the winter and spring, the 

average rainfall is 754 mm compared to 711 mm in the 

summer and fall. October is usually the driest month. 

Temperatures average 22 °C with minimums of -5 °C 

and maximums of 35 °C.

Long-Term Data Bases

Monthly rainfall and temperature data have been 

collected since 1950. Hourly maximum and minimum 

air temperatures, soil temperature, solar radiation, 

windspeed, and precipitation have been collected at 

automated weather stations since 1986.

Numerous long-term (30 to 65 years) growth data sets 

have been collected for longleaf, loblolly, and slash 

pine. These data sets are the basis of growth and yield 

prediction systems that have been developed for these 

species. Other studies quantifying intensive soil and tree 

physiology measurements have been conducted for about 

10 years.

Research, Past and Present

The J. K. Johnson Tract, located 29 km southwest of 

Alexandria, Louisiana, is named in honor of one of 

the fi rst industrial foresters to reforest southern pines. 

This 1,012-ha site is home to long-term studies on 

longleaf pine spacing, prescribed burning, and pruning, 

and a thinning regime study that is now 65 years old. 

Some areas of the Johnson Tract are used for shorter 

term studies that allow scientists to evaluate seedling 

Palustris Experimental Forest (Louisiana)
167

physiology. In addition, innovative research is now 

underway to evaluate the effects of global climate change 

on forest productivity and how container type and size 

infl uence wind fi rmness and productivity of young 

longleaf pine and to devise management strategies to 

reduce adverse effects Using intensive measurements 

of tree and stand morphology and physiology, studies 

like this include cooperative efforts with a full range of 

partners.

The Longleaf Tract, about 56 km south of Alexandria, 

Louisiana, was added to the Palustris in the late 1940s. 

This 2,023-ha site has supported some of the most 

intensive multiresource research in the South. Since 

the 1940s, the interactions of cattle grazing, wildlife 

management, and timber production have been 

evaluated. This research was critical to reforestation 

efforts following World War II. During the War, the 

vast cutover longleaf pine forests became grasslands 

where herds of cattle and hogs roamed freely. Successful 

reforestation efforts required that the interactions among 

cattle, hogs, and trees be understood. This effort has 

provided the information necessary to allow integration 

of grazing, wildlife habitat, and forest productivity. 

Current research includes evaluations of the effects 

of forest management practices on long-term soil 

productivity. With increasing demand for forest products 

and amenities, scientists are using the Longleaf Tract 

to evaluate the effects of timber harvesting, prescribed 

fi re, site preparation, and pine-straw utilization on soil 

structure, nutrition, and chemistry; the ecology of soil 

microorganisms; soil-plant moisture relationships; and 

plant productivity.

Research Opportunities

The Palustris includes a fi eld research laboratory, 

demonstration site for new forestry practices, and an area 

where broad crossections of the scientifi c community can 

work together to effectively and effi ciently use America’s 

forest resources.

Facilities

The Johnson Tract has facilities that include offi ces, 

laboratories, warehouses, shops, and equipment sheds. 

The main building could be used for temporary lodging 

available for cooperating scientists, graduate students, 

and assistants.

J. K. Johnson Tract: Lat. 31°11′ N, long. 92°40′ W

Longleaf Tract: Lat. 31°0′ N, long. 92°36′ W

Contact Information

Palustris Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

Alexandria Forestry Center

2500 Shreveport Highway

Pineville, LA 71360 

Tel: (318) 473-7216

http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/4111/palustris.htm
168

Introduction

The Santee Experimental Forest provides 

a hydrologic laboratory, long-term studies, 

experimental facilities, diverse forest types, and 

demonstration areas that are designed to provide a 

basis for enhancing the management, restoration, 

and conservation of the South Atlantic Coastal 

Plain forested landscape. Located in Berkley 

County, South Carolina, the Santee encompasses 

some of the oldest colonized lands in the United 

States. The land was originally granted to 

Thomas Colleton in 1683 by King Charles II and 

subsequently incorporated part of the early, large 

plantations in coastal South Carolina. Much of 

the uplands was cleared for agriculture and used 

for naval stores production, and the bottomlands were 

used for rice and indigo cultivation. The area was logged 

heavily between 1897 and the late 1920s. In 1933, the 

land was acquired by the U.S. government, and the 

Francis Marion National Forest was formed. The Santee 

Experimental Forest was established in 1937.

The early research program addressed thinning and 

fi re management in loblolly pine stands. Building on 

that base, it evolved to include silviculture, soil-site 

relationships, and forest hydrology. Presently, the Santee 

encompasses 2,469 ha, containing all the major forest 

types in the lower coastal plain, three gauged watersheds, 

a hydroedaphytron facility, and laboratory and housing 

facilities.

Climate

The climate is warm-temperate, with average daily 

maximum and minimum temperatures of 24 and 12 °C, 

respectively. The average annual rainfall is 1,350 mm, 

with approximately 40 percent occurring June-August. 

December, January, and April are the driest months. 

Snowfall and ice storms are rare. Tropical storms and 

hurricanes are a common hazard between August and 

October.

Soils

Soils on the Santee have developed in marine sediments 

and fl uvial deposits, at elevations between 4 and 13 

m above sea level. The soils can be grouped into three 

principal associations: (1) poorly drained, loamy surface 

clayey subsoil, (2) somewhat poorly to moderately welldrained, loamy surface clayey subsoil, and (3) poorly 

to moderately well-drained, sandy subsoil. The soils are 

generally high in organic matter and relatively fertile.

Vegetation

The loblolly pine, longleaf pine, mixed pine, mixed 

pine-hardwood, and hardwood forests are characteristic 

of the lower coastal plain, occurring on three general land 

types: sandy ridges, broad fl ats, and bottomlands. Despite 

the long land-use history and repeated disturbance by 

hurricanes, the composition and productivity of the 

forest suggests dynamic and resilient ecosystems. Ninety 

percent of the forest was severely damaged by hurricane 

Hugo in 1989. About 70 percent of the Santee is 

included in the habitat management area for the redcockaded woodpecker, a federally endangered species.

Long-Term Data Bases

An inventory of completed studies and long-term 

data bases for the Santee is available at the Center for 

Santee Experimental Forest (South Carolina)
169

Forested Wetlands Research website at: www.srs.fs.fed.

us/charleston. The most notable achievements include 

the following:

• The Santee Watersheds, the hydrologic and 

climatological records from the three gauged 

watersheds (35+ years of record). These data are 

available at: www.fsl.orst.edu/hydrodb/harvest/

harvest.htm.

• Meteorological records (since 1946).

• The Santee Fire Plots, a fi re-effects study (40 

years of treatment history).

• Studies of loblolly pine spacing and data on 

growth response.

Research, Past and Present

The Santee Experimental Forest has been used 

principally for loblolly pine silviculture and fi re research. 

Studies encompassed all aspects of silviculture, including 

harvesting, regeneration, thinning, and fertilization. 

Numerous fi re studies were conducted to assess the 

effects of prescribed fi re on forest growth, forest 

composition, and soil properties. With the establishment 

of the gauged watershed in the 1960’s, the fi re and 

silviculture work could be conducted at a larger scale. 

Three watersheds (two fi rst-order and one second-order) 

were developed, and the gauging is ongoing. The longterm silvicultural studies were destroyed by hurricane 

Hugo. Ongoing research topics include forest succession 

following hurricane disturbance, forest hydrology, carbon 

cycling, and wildlife.

The Santee’s hydroedaphytron facility is a mesocosmstructure that allows the manipulation of soil and water 

regimes. The facility has been used in ecophysiology 

research to consider plant adaptations to fl ooding and 

currently is being used to study soil carbon sequestration.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

The fi re research conducted on the Santee has 

provided much of the basis for fi re prescriptions in 

the coastal region. Research on soil fertility pioneered 

the application of phosphorus for successful loblolly 

management on marine sediments. Those fi ndings are 

still used and were instrumental to realizing improved 

loblolly production in the coastal plain. Research on 

the use of artifi cial nesting cavities was critical to the 

reestablishment of the red-cockaded woodpecker after 

hurricane Hugo; that work has since provided the basis 

for reintroduction of this endangered species into other 

areas of its former range.

Collaborators

Collaborators have come from the College of Charleston, 

Clemson University, University of South Carolina, 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 

MeadWestvaco, International Paper, Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, Native Plant Society, and Francis Marion 

National Forest.

Research Opportunities

The Santee offers opportunities to support research 

related to any aspect of the ecology and management of 

upland or wetland coastal plain forests. Its hydrologic 

laboratory and data base provide unique opportunities 

for both process-level research and modeling. There also 

is an opportunity to enhance ongoing hydrology, forest 

succession, carbon cycling, and wildlife research, and to 

establish studies on the Santee or adjoining areas in the 

Francis Marion National Forest.

Facilities

The Santee has laboratory space, greenhouse, offi ces, 

meeting room, fabrication shop, and a four-bedroom 

guesthouse available to visiting researchers.

Lat. 33°8′ N, long. 80°49′ W

Contact Information

Santee Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

2730 Savannah Highway

Charleston, SC 29414

Tel : (843) 766-0371 

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/charleston/santee.html
170

Introduction

On November 27, 1959, land (1,816 ha) in northeast 

Georgia was designated the Scull Shoals Experimental 

Forest. The purpose of the Bankhead-Jones Act, under 

whose auspices the forest was established, is to “...provide 

for research into basic laws and principles relating to 

agriculture....” In compliance with Congress’s intent, 

the USDA Forest Service immediately began studies 

to shed light on the processes involved in forest and 

wildlife culture of the southeastern Piedmont. Particular 

attention has been paid to the roles of fi re in silviculture, 

the development of wildlife habitat, and the regeneration 

of hardwood ecosystems.

Parts of Sculls Shoals was once a major city between 

Atlanta and Savannah. The old mill site encompasses 

roughly 10 ha and is frequented by history buffs and 

hikers. A civic group, The Friends of Scull Shoals, is 

active in maintaining the site and studying its history. 

There are also several Indian mounds on a 27-ha section. 

The Forest Service maintains this site, which sees heavy 

use from archeologists from the University of Georgia. 

Deer and turkey hunters account for an increasing 

proportion of recreational users.

Climate

The mean annual precipitation is about 1,219 mm. 

Although the amount of rainfall is fairly well distributed 

throughout the year, the nature of the precipitation varies 

seasonally. Winter and spring rains are usually gentle and 

widespread, whereas summer and fall rains are generally 

locally heavy thunderstorms, which have a much higher 

erosion potential. Frozen precipitation is infrequent and 

short-lived, melting within several days. Rarely, glazing 

ice storms damage hardwood and pine stands. The 

average frost-free growing season extends from April 1 to 

November 10 (about 219 days).

Soils

Soils in this part of Georgia typically fall into the soil 

order Ultisol. They are old, strongly acidic, highly 

weathered, and poor in the base nutrients used by plants. 

Scull Shoals has a history of intense agricultural use that 

resulted in severe erosion of the topsoils. Major upland 

soils series include Cecil, Lockhart, and Wilkes. In 

moderately well-drained fl uvial sediments, the Congaree 

soil series is present; it is among the most productive 

soils of this area. The poorly drained fl ood plains usually 

belong to the Wehadkee series and are mostly forested 

with water-tolerant hardwoods.

Vegetation

Hardwoods are the major upland tree species on Scull 

Shoals, but there are also many natural stands of mixed 

pine (shortleaf and loblolly) and hardwoods. Numerous 

planted pine stands also have been established over the 

years. The stands of dominant pine composition have 

been subject to severe damage by the southern pine 

beetle in conjunction with devastating drought of the 

last 5 years. The demise of the pine stands is causing a 

conversion to a more drought-tolerant hardwood forest 

cover. Dominant trees include oak, hickory, maple, ash, 

locust, sycamore, elm, birch, dogwood, willow, poplar, 

and pine. There also are many woody understory species 

that contribute to a complex forest community.

Research, Past and Present

Throughout the years but particularly during the 1960s 

and 1970s, research at Scull Shoals signifi cantly increased 

our understanding of the biological processes important 

to silviculture. These results are signifi cant on both a 

regional and national scale. For example, foresters now 

have a better understanding of the interactions between 

the soil factors and pathogens that cause littleleaf 

disease to attack shortleaf pines growing on badly 

eroded Piedmont land. Epicormic branching extensively 

devalues hardwood logs. The biology behind this process 

was poorly understood until research at Scull Shoals 

revealed the ontogeny of this phenomenon in sweetgum 

and demonstrated the universality of the development 

sequence for other hardwood species.

The production of fi ber from intensively managed, 

short-rotation plantations, with maximum repeatable 

yields harvested every 3 to 7 years rather than every 

few decades, is now common. The feasibility of this 

Scull Shoals Experimental Forest (Georgia)
171

silvicultural system was demonstrated by research 

initiated in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The biology of early conelet abortion plagued pine seed 

orchards for years. Studies at Scull Shoals determined 

that insect damage caused the cones to drop prematurely. 

Researchers also developed best management practices 

that combined cultural and chemical insect control. 

Many seed-orchard managers credit these measures with 

making the production of pine seed economically feasible 

in the Southeast.

Research Opportunities

More than 200,000 ha of pine stands comparable 

to those at Scull Shoals have been destroyed by the 

southern pine beetle during the past 5 years. No system 

has been developed and tested to restore the lands to 

more drought-tolerant, diverse mixed pine-hardwood 

communities. Another area of concern and opportunity is 

the decline of mature hardwood stands. Many hardwood 

stands now approaching the century mark will be 

harvested soon or will die from age-related maladies; the 

recent drought having hastened this process. Research by 

the local Forest Service silvicultural unit in Athens has 

laid a foundation for developing reliable reforestation 

systems, but fi eld testing is needed on a larger scale, and 

the system must be adapted for a variety of conditions.

Facilities

There are no facilities at Scull Shoals.

Lat. 33°40′ N, long. 83°16′ W

Contact Information 

Scull Shoals Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

Forestry Science Laboratory

320 Green Street

Athens, GA 30602

Tel: (706) 559-4288
172

Introduction

The 1,072-ha Stephen F. Austin Experimental 

Forest is the only such forest that was 

established by an act of Congress. It became an 

experimental forest in 1945 with the creation of 

the East Texas Branch Station in Nacogdoches, 

Texas, which was later renamed the Wildlife 

Habitat and Silviculture Laboratory. Until 

about 1961, the Austin was used primarily for 

silvicultural research. Beginning in the early 

1960s, the forest was increasingly used for 

wildlife research. Initial wildlife studies focused 

on game species (especially deer and squirrels), 

but current wildlife research concerns mostly 

nongame species.

Climate

Located on the Western Gulf Coastal Plain, the Austin 

experiences hot, humid summers and mild winters. 

Rainfall averages about 1,270 mm per year. About half of 

this rainfall occurs during the April through September 

growing season.

Soils

The Mantachie-Marietta soils of the bottoms are loamy 

and somewhat poorly drained to moderately well 

drained. They are frequently fl ooded and have moderate 

permeability. The upland terraces consist of AttoyacBernaldo-Besner soils, which are loamy, well-drained soils 

of level to gently sloping sites with moderate permeability.

Vegetation

Upland portions of the Austin (about 364 ha) consist of 

loblolly and shortleaf pine and pine-hardwood stands. 

Mature bottomland hardwoods occupy the remaining 

two thirds of the forest. The dominant hardwoods 

throughout the Austin include many species of oaks and 

hickories.

Long-Term Data Bases

Data bases are maintained on the development of heart 

rot fungi that were inoculated into hardwoods in the 

1970s, and snag population dynamics.

Research, Past and Present

The following topics have been studied at the Austin :

• Hardwood control and pine harvesting methods

• Effects of hardwood removal on deer

• Effects of prescribed fi re on mushrooms

• Impacts of different levels of shading on the 

production and fruiting of important wildlife 

browse plants

• Life history of timber rattlesnakes

• Succession of anuran (frog) communities in 

constructed wildlife ponds

• Habitat use and movement patterns of alligator 

snapping turtles

• Food habits of wintering waterfowl

• Effects of acid rain and ozone on pine growth 

• Life histories of several woodpecker species

• Use of artifi cial cavities by prothonotary warblers 

• Wildlife use of nest boxes in four habitat types

• Wildlife use of artifi cial snags

• Woodpecker use of bottomland hardwood snags

• Inoculation of hardwoods with sapwood 

decaying fungi 

Stephen F. Austin Experimental Forest (Texas)
173

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Studies on the Austin established effective control 

methods for undesirable hardwoods. Much of our 

knowledge about managing southern forests for wildlife 

(especially white-tailed deer) was derived from studies 

on several experimental forests, including the Austin. 

Considerable knowledge about habitat requirements for 

several woodpeckers also was derived from studies on the 

Austin.

Collaborators

The establishment language specifi es that the Austin will 

be available to the Stephen F. Austin Teachers College 

(now Stephen F. Austin State University). The Natural 

Resource Conservation Service maintains the East Texas 

Plant Materials Center on the Austin, and with the 

development of the SFA Interpretive Trail System, the 

AEF is receiving increased use for conservation education 

purposes.

Research Opportunities

The 688 ha of mature bottomland hardwood forest, 

which is being retained as old growth, represent a unique 

and rapidly disappearing resource in East Texas. The 

rivers, streams, and sloughs of the Austin are unique sites 

for various aquatic studies. The interpretive trails offer 

an opportunity to study the benefi ts of conducting forest 

and wildlife management demonstrations to help educate 

the public about different forest management practices.

Facilities

USDA Forest Service facilities include an offi ce, shop, 

gas/oil and chemical storage building, pole barns, 

and improved dirt roads. The SFA Interpretive Trail 

System consists of 4.8 km of trail (including 1.5 km 

of universally accessible trail), picnic and parking area, 

information kiosk, interpretive signing, bird observation 

area, several 15-m bridges over Jack Creek, drinking 

fountains, and fl ush toilets. The East Texas Plant 

Materials Center also has an offi ce with a conference 

room, seed-processing building, and several pole barns. 

There are three water wells on the Austin.

Lat. 31°28′ N, long. 94°47′ W

Contact Information

Stephen F. Austin Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

Wildlife Habitat & Silviculture Laboratory

506 Hayter Street

Nacogdoches, TX 75965-3556

Tel: (936) 569-7981

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/wildlife/trail.htm
174

Introduction

Located in Stone County, Arkansas, near the community 

of Mountain View, the Sylamore Experimental Forest was 

the site of many early research projects pertaining to the 

management of upland hardwood forests. The Sylamore 

consists of 1,737 ha and is surrounded by USDA Forest 

Service roads. The area is dominated by oak-hickory 

stands interspersed with pine. The Sylamore has a 

number of intermittent streams, and was the location 

of numerous wildlife study areas, notably two 2.59-

km2

 pens for deer studies. Currently, research activities 

are coordinated by the Southern Research Station; 

administratively, the forest is identifi ed as Compartment 

102 on the Sylamore Ranger District of the Ozark-St. 

Francis National Forest, which coordinates management 

activities there in support of research.

Climate

The climate of the Sylamore is characterized by relatively 

cool winters, warm to hot summers, and fairly abundant 

rainfall. Average daily maximum temperature is 33 °C in 

July and 7.7 °C in January; minimum temperatures are 

19 °C in July and -4.4 °C in January. Annual rainfall is 

1,219 mm and is distributed fairly equally throughout 

the year.

Soils

Soils are oriented by topographic position. The MokoEstate complex are shallow soils with a high stone 

content that occur along drainages. The Clarksville 

very cherty silt loam is the most widely distributed soil 

series. This excessively well-drained soil is mainly on 

side slope positions; it is low in both organic matter and 

fertility. Ridgetops are dominated by the ClarksvilleNixa complex, which are excessively to moderately well 

drained soils with low fertility. Site index for upland oaks 

ranges from 14 to 23 m at 50 years.

Vegetation

Most of the area is mature upland hardwoods stands 

dominated by oaks. Some areas, especially the southfacing slopes, have a signifi cant component of shortleaf 

pine.

Long-Term Data Bases

There are no long-term data bases.

Research, Past and Present

At the Sylamore, early research was directed toward the 

silviculture of upland hardwood stands and wildlife 

habitat. Currently, there are two cooperative studies. The 

fi rst, entitled “The origin and development of an oak 

forest in northern Arkansas”, examines the patterns of 

establishment and development in oak-dominated stands. 

The second, “Silvicultural research on the Sylamore 

Experimental Forest”, is a thorough forest-wide inventory 

of the Sylamore.

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

Some of the early practices for managing upland 

hardwood stands were developed and tested on the 

Sylamore. The effects on wildlife habitat also were 

evaluated.

Collaborators

The Sylamore is part of an Arkansas Fish and Game 

Wildlife Management area.

Research Opportunities

Opportunities for research include topics such as all 

aspects of the management of upland hardwood stands, 

and the effects of silvicultural practices on nontimber 

resources such as soils, wildlife, and visual properties.

Facilities

Access to the Sylamore, as with most of the Ozarks, 

is moderately diffi cult. Access is from Forest Service 

Road 1113, north of Mountain View off State Highway 

5. There is an old house, still habitable, and several 

buildings used primarily for equipment storage.

Lat. 36°0′ N, long. 92°10′ W

Sylamore Experimental Forest (Arkansas)
175

Contact Information

Sylamore Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

PO Box 3516, UAM Station

Monticello, AR 71656

Tel : (870)367-3464 x10

http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/4106/sylmore/htm

Or

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

4472 Highway 133 South

Crossett, AR 71635

Tel : (870)364-8730
176

Introduction

The 1,416-ha Tallahatchie Experimental Forest, 

located in the Holly Springs National Forest near 

Oxford, Mississippi, was created in 1950. It is 

administered by the Southern Research Station’s 

Center for Bottomland Hardwood Research at 

Oxford. Much of the Tallahatchie lies within 

the fl oodplain of the Little Tallahatchie River. It 

encompasses several small basins whose streams fl ow 

into the Little Tallahatchie River upstream of Sardis 

Reservoir. Upland portions of the forest include the 

headwaters of two additional watersheds, one draining 

into the Little Tallahatchie and the other into the 

Sardis. The Tallahatchie was established to study the 

relationships among hardwood forests, fl ooding, and soil 

erosion. The forest and associated hydrological research 

provided support for a large and perhaps unprecedented 

federal reforestation and soil stabilization effort, the 

Yazoo-Little Tallahatchie Project, which was conducted 

on the upper coastal plain of northern Mississippi from 

1949 to 1985. Recent research on the Tallahatchie has 

focused on the response of plants and birds to altered fi re 

regimes.

Three small watersheds (the Pine-Hardwoods 

Watersheds) were established in 1959 about 0.6 

km east of the Tallahatchie. These watersheds have 

been informally considered part of the forest since 

establishment. Ten small watersheds and 10 nested, 

subwatersheds were installed in 1980-82.

Climate

Located in the upper coastal plain, the Tallahatchie 

has hot, humid summers and fairly mild winters with 

occasional ice and snowstorms. Annual precipitation 

in Oxford averages 1,321 mm and is distributed evenly 

throughout the year. The growing season lasts about 

218 days. Average temperatures are 6.1 °C in January 

and 26.6 °C in July. Brief convective summer storms of 

high intensity are common. Most winter precipitation is 

cyclonic, and soils occasionally freeze to shallow depths.

Soils

Soils on the Tallahatchie consist of predominantly 

coastal plain sandy loams and smaller amounts of silt 

loams of loessial origin. Coastal plain soils are principally 

Ruston, and loessial soils are Lexington, Loring, and 

Grenada. Infi ltration rates greatly exceed all but the most 

extreme precipitation intensities.

Vegetation

Forest cover on the Tallahatchie is 55- to 65-year old 

mixed stands of shortleaf pine and hardwoods, (largely 

white and red oak and hickories), which have been only 

minimally disturbed since establishment. Recent plant 

surveys revealed as many as 90 species of saplings and 

herbaceous plants. This amount is likely to increase 

when all hickory and other overstory species are 

included.

Long-Term Data Bases

Long-term data bases include the amount and intensity 

of rainfall (1954 to 2001), humidity and air temperature 

(1954 to 1989), stormwater runoff from PineHardwoods watersheds (1959 to 1997; one is ongoing). 

There are other data sets on hydrology, erosion, soils, 

and plant measurements.

Tallahatchie Experimental Forest (Mississippi)
177

Research, Past and Present

Research at the Tallahatchie has included the following 

topics:

• Sediment yields and runoff rates from small, 

undisturbed forested basins and from small, 

logged basins

• Infl uence of small mammals on stormfl ow 

responses of pine-covered catchments

• Hydrologic effects of harvesting methods for 

mature shortleaf pine-hardwoods

• Responses of plant and bird communities to fi re 

regimes

• Correlations between tree species composition 

and changes in fi re frequency

• Historically important fi re/disturbance regimes 

in oak-pine forests of north Mississippi

• Relationships between avian community 

structure and prescribed burning

• Relationships between nest success in bird 

species of concern and prescribed burning

• Effects of simulated fi re on fl owering of a fi readapted forb in infrequently burned oak-pine 

forests

• Connectivity and population dynamics of 

fi shes among various fl ood-plain habitat types 

over seasons and years of different fl ood-plain 

inundation levels

• Effects of cool-season prescribed fi re on 

herbaceous, understory, and overstory vegetation

Major Research Accomplishments 

and Effects on Management

At the Tallahatchie, effects of harvesting on runoff and 

erosion rates from small basins were quantifi ed and our 

understanding of changes from historic fi re regimes and 

of the effects of prescribed burning on plants and birds 

were greatly increased.

Collaborators

Scientists from the University of Mississippi and 

Mississippi State University have worked on the 

Tallahatchie.

Research Opportunities

The Tallahatchie provides opportunities for ongoing 

hydrolic studies of small basins with long-term data 

going back more than 40 years. Thus, researchers can 

examine hydrologic changes in the context of forest aging 

and climate change. The Tallahatchie’s lowland areas 

provide a rare opportunity to examine aquatic processes 

in relatively undisturbed, second-growth, fl ood-plain 

forests. The Tallahatchie also is an ideal site for studying 

the role of prescribed fi re in restoration and biodiversity 

conservation.

Facilities

An unused fi re lookout tower and one warehouse are 

located on the Tallahatchie. There are about 11.3 km of 

improved USDA Forest Service roads (dirt) and 8.7 km 

of gated or unimproved roads. One gated roads leads 

to an unimproved dirt boat-launch ramp on the Little 

Tallahatchie River.

Lat. 34°30′10′′ N, long. 89°26′17′′ W

Contact Information

Tallahatchie Experimental Forest

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research Station

1000 Front Street

Oxford, MS 38655

Tel: (662) 234-2744

http://www2.srs.fs.fed.us/cbhr/html/default.stm
178

Flora

Alaska-cedar Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach

Alder Alnus P. Mill

American beech Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.

American chestnut Castenea dentata (Marsh.)

American elm Ulmus americana

American witchhazel Hamamelis virginiana L.

antelope bitterbrush Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC.

ash Fraxinus spp.

Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P.

bald cypress Taxodium ascendens Brongn.

balsam fi r Abies balsamea (L.) P. Mill.

balsam poplar Populus balsamifera L.

basswood Tilia americana

beaked hazelnut Corylus cornuta Marsh.

bearberry Arctostaphylos spp. 

beargrass Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh.)Nutt.

bigtooth aspen Populus grandidentata Michx.

(bitter pecan) waterhickory Carya aquatica (Michx. f.) Nutt.

black ash Fraxinus nigra Marsh.

black cherry Prunus serotina Ehrh.

black gum Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

black locust Robinia pseudoacacia

black oak Quercus velutina Lam.

black sagebrush Artemisia nova A. Nels.

black spruce Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. 

black walnut Juglans nigra L.

blackberry Rubus spp.

black locust Robinia pseudoacacia L.

blackjack oak Quercus marilandica Muenchh.

Bloomer’s goldenbush Ericameria bloomeri

blue grama Bouteloua gracilis (Willd. ex Kunth) Lag. ex. Griffi ths 

blue huckleberry Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) Torr. & Gray ex Torr.

blue joint Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.

blue oak Quercus douglasii Hook. & Arn.

blue spruce Picea pungens Engelm.

blue stem Andropogon L.

blueberry Vaccinium spp.

bluejack oak Quercus incana Bartr.

bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey

box elder Acer negundo

western bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

bride’s bonnet Clintonia unifl ora (Menzies ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes) Kunth

bud sagebrush Picrothamnus desertorum Nutt.

calamus Acorus calamus L.

California black oak Quercus kelloggii Newberry

Appendix: Common and Scientifi c Names of Flora and Fauna Found 

in Descriptions of Experimental Forests and Ranges

Continued
179

Canada mayfl ower Maianthemum canadense Desf. 

ceanothus Ceanothus spp.

chamise Adenostoma fasciculatum

cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L.

chestnut oak Quercus prinus L.

Chinese privet Ligustrum sinense Lour.

Choctawhatchee sand pine Pinus clausa var. immuginata (Ward) E. Murr.

common hackberry Celtis occidentalis L.

desert almond Prunus fasciculata (Torr.) Gray

devil’s club Oplopanax horridus Miq.

digger pine Pinus sabiana Dougl.

dogwood Cornus spp.

Douglas-fi r Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. menziesii

dwarf-mistletoe Arceuthobium spp.

dwarf serviceberry Amelanchier pumila

eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.

eastern hemlock Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr

eastern white pine Pinus strobus L.

elm Ulmus spp.

Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry ex. Engelm.

fetterbush Lyonia lucida (Lam.) K. Koch

fl owering dogwood Cornus fl orida L.

foxtail fescue Vulpia myuros (L.) K.C. Gmel.

inkberry Ilex glabra (L.) Gray

galleta grass Pleuraphis jamesi Torr.

golden chinkapin Chrysolepis chrysophylla (Dougl.) A.DC. 

gooseberryleaf globemallow Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia (Hook. & Arn.) Rydb.

grand fi r Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don.) Lindl.

grapevine Vitis L. spp.

gray birch Betula populifolia Marsh.

greenbrier Smilax L. spp.

greenleaf manzanita Arctostaphylos patula Greene

grouse whortleberry Vaccinium scoparium Leib. ex Coville

halogeton Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C. A. Mey

hickory Carya spp.

huckleberry Gaylossacia Kunth

incense-cedar Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin

Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer

Indian ricegrass Achnatherum hymenoides (Roener &JA Schultes) Barkworth

interior live oak Quercus wislizenii A. DC

ironwood Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

jack pine Pinus banksiana Lamb.

Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Thunb

Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.

Labrador-tea Ledum groenlandicum Oeder

lignum-vitae Guajacum offi cinale L.

little pipsissewa Chimaphita umbellate (L.) W. Bart

limberpine Pinus fl exilus James

littleleaf mountain mohogany Cercocarpus intricatus S. Wats.

loblolly-bay Gordonia lasianthus (L.) Ellis

Appendix: Continued

Continued
180

loblolly pine Pinus taeda L.

lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Laud.

lodgepole pine Pinus contorta var. latifolia (Engelm. ex S. Wats.) Critchfi eld

longleaf pine Pinus palustris P. Mill.

low rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus viscidifl orus ssp. viscidifl orus (Hook.) Nutt

mallow ninebark Physocarpus malvaceus (Greene) Kuntze

manzanita Arctostaphylos spp.

maple Acer spp.

mountain hemlock Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.

mountain mahogany Cercocarpus montanus

mountain ricegrass Piptatherum pungens (Torr.) Barkworth 

mountain whitethorn Ceanothus cordulatus Kellogg

needlegrass Achnatherum spp. 

Nevada ephedra Ephedra nevadensis S. Wats.

noble fi r Abies procera Rehd.

northern pin oak Quercus ellipsoidalis E.J. Hill

northern red oak Quercus rubra L.

northern white-cedar Thuja occidentalis L.

Oregon-grape Mahonia spp.

overcup oak Quercus lyrata Walt.

Pacifi c dogwood Cornus nuttallii Audubon ex Torr. & Gray

Pacifi c rhododendron Rhododendron macrophyllum D. Don ex G. Don

Pacifi c silver fi r Abies amabilis (Dougl. ex Loud) Dougl.

Pacifi c yew Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

paper birch Betula papyrifera Marsh.

peppervine Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne

persimmon Diospyros virginiana L.

pin oak Quercus palustris Muenchh.

pitch pine Pinus rigida P. Mill.

poison-ivy Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze

ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson

Port Orford cedar Chamaecyparus lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl.

post oak Quercus stellata Wangenh.

purple three awn Aristida purpurea Nutt.

quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Michx.

queencup beadlilly Clintonia unifl ora (Menzies ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes) Kunth

red alder Alnus rubra Bong.

red elderberry Sambucus racemosa var. racemosa L.

red fi r Abies magnifi ca A. Murr.

red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium Sm.

red maple Acer rubrum L.

red pine Pinus resinosa Soland.

red spruce Picea rubens Sarg.

redwood Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don.) Endl.

rhododendron Rhododendron L.

runner oak Quercus margarettiae Ashe ex Small

running buffalo clover Trifolium stoloniferum Muhl. ex Eat.

Russian thistle Salsola spp.

rusty menziesia Menziesia ferruginea Sm.

sagebrush Artemisa spp.

Appendix: Continued

Continued
181

salal Gaultheria shallon Pursh

salmonberry Rubus spectabilis Pursh

sand dropseed Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray

sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda J. Presl

sassafras Sassafras albidum Nutt. Nees

saw-palmetto Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small

scarlet oak Quercus coccinea Muenchh.

scotch pine Pinus sylvestris L.

sedges Carex spp.

shadscale saltbush Atriplex confertifolia (Torr. & Frém.) S. Wats.

shagbark hickory Carya ovata (P. Mill) K.Koch

Shasta red fi r Abies × shastensis (Lemmon) Lemmon

sheep-laurel Kalmia angustifolia L.

shortleaf pine Pinus echinata P. Mill

silver maple Acer saccharinum

singleleaf piñon pine Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frém.

Sitka alder Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata (Regel) A. & D. Löve

Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.

slash pine Pinus elliottii Engelm.

snowberry Gaultheria spp.

soft chess Bromus hordeaceus L.

southern red oak Quercus falcata Michx.

Spanish cedar Cedrela odorata L.

squaw carpet Ceanothus prostratus

starfl ower Trientalis borealis Raf.

stink currant Ribes bracteosum Dougl. ex Hook.

striped maple Acer pensylvanicum L.

subalpine fi r Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

sugar maple Acer saccharum Marsh.

sugar pine Pinus lambertiana Dougl.

swamp (bog) birch Betula pumila L.

swamp dogwood Cornus stricta Lam.

swamp privet Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Poir.

sweet birch Betula lenta L.

sweetgum Liquidambar styracifl ua L.

sycamore Platanus L. spp.

tamarack Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch

thinleaf huckleberry Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Torr.

teak Tectona grandis L.F.

titi Cyrilla garden ex L.

tobacco brush Ceanothus velutinus

toona Toona ciliata Roemer

trailing black currant Ribes laxifl orum Pursh

tree-of-heaven Ailanthus altissima

trillium Trillium spp.

turkey oak Quercus laevis Walt.

twinfl ower Linnea borealis L.

Utah juniper Juniperus osteosperma (Torr.) Little

vanillaleaf Carphephorus odoratissimus (J.F. Gmel.) Herbert

vine maple Acer circinatum Pursh

Appendix: Continued

Continued
182

Virginia pine Pinus virginiana P. Mill.

water oak Quercus nigra L.

wax currant Ribes cereum

West Indian mahogany Swietenia mahogoni (L.) Jacq.

western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.

western juniper Juniperus occidentalis Hook.

western larch Larix occidentalis Nutt.

western needlegrass Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb. ex S. Wats.) Barkworth

western prince’s-pine Chimaphila menziesii (R. Br. ex D. Don) Spreng

western redcedar Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don

western swordfern Polystichum munitum (Kaulfuss) K. Presl

western white pine Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don

white birch Betula papyrifera Marsh.

white ash Fraxinus americana L.

white fi r Abies concolor var. lowiana (Gord. & Glend.) Lemmon

white oak Quercus alba L.

white spruce Picea glauca (Moench) Voss

whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

white-stem rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas ex Pursh) Britt.

wild oats Avena spp.

wild sarsaparilla Aralia nudicaulis L.

willow Salix spp.

winterberry Ilex sp.

winterfat Krassheninnikova lanta (Pursh) A.D.J. Meevse & Smit

wintergreen Pyrola L. spp.

wiregrass Aristida stricta Michx.

woolly mule-ears Wyethia mollis

yellow birch Betula alleghaniensis Britt.

yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Fauna 

Alligator snapping turtle Macrolemys temminckii

American martin Martes americana

bald eagle Haliaetus leucocephalus

beaver Castor canadensis

black bear Ursus americanus

black-tailed deer Odocoileus hemionus

chickadees Paridae

chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta Walbaum

coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum

cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki clarki Richardson

Dolly Varden trout Salvelinus malma malma Walbaum

dusky shrew Sorex monticolus

elk Cervus elaphus L.

ermine Martes erminea

fl ammulated owls Otus fl ammeolus

fl ying squirrels Glaucomys sabrinus

gopher frog Rana capito cevosa

honey bee Apis mellifera

Indiana bat Mysotis sodalis Miller & Allen

Appendix: Continued

Continued
183

Karner blue butterfl y Lycaeides mellisa samuelis

Keen’s mouse Peromyscus keeni

larch bud moth Zeiraphera improbana Walker

large aspen tortrix Choristoneura confl ictana Walker

long-tailed vole Microtus longicaudis

marbled murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus 

mule deer Odocoileus hemionus

northern fl ying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus

northern goshawk Accipiter gentiles

northwestern crow Corvis caurinus

Oregon silver spot butterfl y Speyeria zerene hippolyta

owls Strigidae

pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Walbaum

porcupine Erethizon dorsatum

pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana 

prothonotary warbler Protonotaria citrea

quail Colinus virginiana

raven Corvus corax

red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Erxleben

red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides borealis

spear-marked black moth Rheumaptera hastata L.

spotted owl Strix occidentalis caurina

spruce budworm Choristonuera

spruce grouse Falcipennis canadensis

starling Sturnus vulgaris

steelhead trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum

Steller’s jay Cyanocitta stelleri

subterranean termite Reticulitermes spp.

thrushes Turdidae spp.

timber rattlesnake Crotalis horridus

warblers Sylviidae and Parulidae

western pine beetle Dendroctonus breviconus

white pine weevil Pissodes strobi Peck

white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman

winter wren Troglodytes troglodytes

woodpeckers Picidae

Appendix: Continued
Printed on Recycled Paper

Adams, Mary Beth; Loughry, Linda; Plaugher, Linda, comps. 2004. Revised March 

2008. Experimental Forests and Ranges of the USDA Forest Service.

Revised. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-321 Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 183 p. [CD-ROM}

The USDA Forest Service has an outstanding scientific resource in the 79 

Experimental Forests and Ranges that exist across the United States and its 

territories. These valuable scientific resources incorporate a broad range of 

climates, forest types, research emphases, and history. This publication describes 

each of the research sites within the Experimental Forests and Ranges network, 

providing information about history, climate, vegetation, soils, long-term data 

bases, research history and research products, as well as identifying collaborative 

opportunities, and providing contact information.

Keywords: experimental forests, experimental ranges, research sites, ecosystem 

research, wildlife research, watershed research, Forest Service history
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