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Th e

College Payoff

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings


Anthony P. Carnevale, Stephen J. Rose and Ban Cheah
 

THE GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY CENTER ON EDUCATION AND THE WORKFORCE 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1 INTRODUCTION

 3 PART I: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment

 4 PART II: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment and Age

 6 PART III: Variations in Earnings by Education and Occupation: Earnings Overlap

 10 PART IV: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity

 13 PART V: Top Ten Occupations by Educational Attainment

 20 CONCLUSION

 21 TECHNICAL APPENDIX

 23 APPENDIX: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment and Occupation 

All data in this report are the authors’ analysis of the 2007-2009 American Community Survey. 

We would like to express our gratitude to the individuals and 


organizations that have made this report possible. First, we thank 


the Lumina Foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation for their support of our research over the past few years, and in 


particular, we are grateful for the support of Jamie Merisotis, Hilary 


Pennington, Holly Zanville, and Parminder Jassal. We are honored 


to be partners in their mission of promoting postsecondary access 


and completion for all Americans. 


We also want to thank our editor, Vic Caleca, and our designers 


Michael Lizama, Lisa Milan and Heather Negaard, as well as Jeff
 

Strohl, Nicole Smith, Tamara Jayasundera, Laura Meyer, Michelle 


Melton, Peter Daniels, and numerous other colleagues, too many to 


list here, who provided support and insight throughout the process.
 

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A college degree pays off — but by just how much? In this report 

from the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce, 

we examine just what a college degree is worth — and what else besides 

a degree might influence an individual’s potential earnings. Th is report 

examines lifetime earnings for all education levels and earnings by occupation, age, race/ethnicity, and gender. The data are clear: a college degree is 

key to economic opportunity, conferring substantially higher earnings on 

those with credentials than those without. A 2002 Census Bureau study 

estimated that in 1999, the average lifetime earnings of a Bachelor’s degree 

holder was $2.7 million (2009 dollars), 75 percent more than that earned 

by high school graduates in 1999. Today, we find similar numbers — but 

since 1999, the premium on college education has grown to 84 percent. 

In other words, over a lifetime, a Bachelor’s degree is worth $2.8 million 

on average.1 We present our findings in dollar totals over a career, which is 

defined as being a full-time, full-year worker from 25 to 64 years old.2 

Over a lifetime, 

individuals with 

a Bachelor’s 

degree make 84% 

more than those 

with only a high 

school diploma. 

1 See the technical appendix for a discussion about the different ways to measure returns, including a discussion on why we do not use 

net present value in estimating lifetime earnings. 

2 Using full-time, full-year workers helps reduce the earnings differentials produced from temporary labor market exit for reasons like maternity, caretaking, and disability. See technical appendix for why we chose simple dollar value over net present value. The earnings data 

are based on median values, compared to the Census report, which was based on averages because this metric, in our opinion, gives a 

clearer picture of the earnings distribution. We use median and not mean because it gives a better overall picture of what is happening, 

whereas mean can be skewed by outliers. For example, if Bill Gates walks into a room of 50 people, the average income of people in 

the room shoots towards a billion dollars, but the median income in the room would not significantly change. 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 1 
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Even within the same 

occupation, more 

education gets workers more money. Truck 

drivers with less than 

high school make $1.3 

million over a lifetime, 

compared to $1.5 million 

for truck drivers with 

a high school diploma. 

Elementary and middle 

school teachers with a 

Bachelor’s degree make 

$1.8 million over a lifetime, compared with $2.2 

million for those with a 

Master’s degree. 

Despite a general earnings boost conferred by a degree, earnings vary greatly depending on the 

degree type, age, gender, race/ethnicity, and occupation of an individual. Th e findings are stark: 

Women earn less at all degree levels, even when they work as much as men. On average, women 

who work full-time, full-year earn 25 percent less than men, even at similar education levels. At 

all levels of educational attainment, African Americans and Latinos earn less than Whites. For 

example, African Americans and Latinos with Master’s degrees have lifetime earnings lower than 

Whites with Bachelor’s degrees. 

But variations are not just among people of different degree levels or by gender or race/ 

ethnicity. In spite of the obvious returns to more education, the job someone is doing — their 

occupation — also matters when it comes to earnings. In fact, there is a wide variation in earnings 

by occupation even among people with the same degree. For example, financial managers with 

a Bachelor’s degree earn $3.1 million over a lifetime, while accountants and auditors with a 

Bachelor’s make $2.5 million.3

 Clearly, these differences are driven by the occupations, not 

only by educational attainment. 

But that’s not all — earnings also vary within the same occupation by education level. For 

instance, truck drivers with less than a high school diploma make $1.3 million over a lifetime, 

compared to $1.5 million for truck drivers with a high school diploma. Elementary and middle 

school teachers with a Bachelor’s degree make $1.8 million over a lifetime, compared with $2.2 

million for those with a Master’s degree. 

Finally, some people with lower educational attainment earn more than their more highly 

educated counterparts as a result of occupational difference. We call this concept ‘overlap.’ For 

example, customer service representatives with an Associate’s degree make $1.4 million over a 

lifetime, while high school graduates who are supervisors of production workers make $1.8 

million over a lifetime. In fact, 14 percent of people with a high school diploma make at least as 

much as the median earnings of those with a Bachelor’s degree, and 17 percent of people with a 

Bachelor’s degree make more than the median earnings of those with a Professional degree. A lot 

of this overlap can be explained by the occupations in which individuals are found. 

 These occupational differences highlight another fact: our traditional understanding of career 

mobility is from an industry perspective: you work your way up from the mail room to the corner 

offi ce. This is a relic of an earlier time — today, careers are based on occupation. Because of the 

emphasis on postsecondary education — which generally means more specific occupational training 

— workers will be attached more to the occupations they will fill than the industries in which they 

work. In other words, workers progress up an occupational hierarchy, not an industry-based one. 

In the first section of the report, we present earnings data on eight levels of educational 

attainment, including less than high school, high school, some college/no degree, Associate’s 

degree, Bachelor’s degree, Master’s degree, Doctoral degree, and Professional degree. Next, we 

discuss how earnings change across the career of an individual, as related to age and educational 

attainment. Then, we turn to an often-overlooked fact: earnings within education levels can vary 

3 These earnings, and all earnings presented hereafter, are at the median and not the average. 

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dramatically. We show the range of earnings within each level, which demonstrates that there is 

significant overlap of earnings. In other words, those in the upper reaches of one level of educational attainment have significant earnings overlap with those in the lower reaches of another. For 

example, about 28 percent of workers with Associate’s degrees earn more than the median earnings 

of workers with Bachelor’s degrees. This section also presents earnings and education and occupation, which demonstrates that earnings vary not only by educational attainment, but by occupation. Next, we examine how earnings vary not just by educational attainment, but also by gender, 

and race/ethnicity. In the final section, we identify the ten most common occupations at each 

education level and their lifetime earnings. In the appendix table, we present earnings and 

demographic information on nearly 300 specifi c occupations. 

PART I: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment 

As Figure 1 shows, median lifetime earnings rise steadily for workers with increasing educational 

attainment. Overall, the median lifetime earnings for all workers are $1.7 million, which is just 

under $42,000 per year ($20 per hour). Over a 40-year career, those who didn’t earn a high school 

diploma or GED are expected to bring in less than $1 million, which translates into slightly more 

than $24,000 a year ($11.70 per hour). Obtaining a high school diploma adds 33 percent more to 

lifetime earnings; the average annual earnings of people with a high school diploma are $32,600 

($15.67 per hour). Clearly, then, the economic penalty for not finishing high school is steep — 

almost $9,000 a year. 

FIGURE 1: MEDIAN LIFETIME EARNINGS BY HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, 2009 DOLLARS 

$3,648,000 

$973,000 

$1,304,000 

$1,547,000 $1,727,000 

$2,268,000 

$2,671,000 

$3,252,000 

Less High Some Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral Professionthan High School College/No Degree Degree Degree Degree al Degree 

School Diploma Degree 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Ear
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Having some postsecondary education, even without earning a degree, adds nearly one-


quarter of a million dollars to lifetime earnings. Annual earnings rise to $38,700 ($18.69 per 

hour). Getting an Associate’s degree adds another bump of nearly $200,000 in lifetime earnings. 

At $43,200 a year ($20.77 per hour), those with Associate’s degrees earn nearly one-third more 

than those with just a high school diploma. These numbers demonstrate conclusively the 

advantage of non-baccalaureate postsecondary education. 

Getting a Bachelor’s degree adds another large increase in lifetime earnings. With median 

earnings of $56,700 ($27.26 per hour), or $2.3 million over a lifetime, Bachelor’s degree holders 

earn 31 percent more than workers with an Associate’s degree and 74 percent more than those 

with just a high school diploma. Further, obtaining a Bachelor’s is also the gateway to entering 

and completing graduate education. About one-third of Bachelor’s degree holders obtain a 

graduate degree. 

All graduate degree holders can expect lifetime earnings at least double that of those with 

only a high school diploma. For those with a Master’s degree (which includes those with Master’s 

degrees in elementary teaching and in business administration), typical lifetime earnings are $2.7 

million ($66,800 a year or $32 per hour).4

 Moreover, earnings rise substantially for those with 

Doctoral and Professional degrees: Doctoral degree holders have lifetime earnings of $3.3 million 

($81,300 per year; $39 per hour) while those with Professional degrees (mainly doctors and 

lawyers) have the highest earnings, making over $3.6 million over the course of a lifetime 

($91,200 per year; $44 per hour). This is a 61 percent increase (nearly 1.4 million) over 

Bachelor’s degree holders.5 

PART II: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment and Age 

Another way to compare the labor force outcomes of workers with different levels of education is 

to detail their earnings over the course of their careers. As Figure 2 shows, the diff erences among 

median earnings by education level are much smaller at the beginning of an individual’s career 

(25-29 years old) than later in an individual’s working life. Earnings at ages 40-44 are considerably higher for all workers, independent of educational attainment. However, the rise is only 19 

percent for high school dropouts and 25 percent for those with high school diplomas. Th e returns 

4 This number hides the fact that people with a Master’s in Business Administration earn substantially more than the other large categories 

of Master’s degrees—Master’s in Education (and Master’s in Fine Arts). However, there are significantly more Master’s in Education, which 

bring the median down. 

5 It should be noted that the choice to use the median values has the biggest effect on those with Bachelor’s and graduate degrees because of the very high earnings of top earners. For example, the mean (average) earnings of those with a Bachelor’s degree is $500,000 

higher than the median ($2.7 million) and the Bachelor’s to high school premium is 87 percent on the basis of the mean (versus 74% on 

the basis of the median). The mean of those with a Master’s degree rises to $3.3 million and for Doctoral degree holders to $3.9 million. 

But the biggest effect of choosing median over mean is seen with Professional degree holders whose mean ($5.1 million) is nearly $1.5 

million higher than its median. 

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 Earnings 

to career advancement rise to 35 percent for those with an Associate’s degree and some college/ 

no degree. By contrast, earnings of Bachelor’s degree holders in the workforce grow by 50 percent 

over these years, those with Master’s degree grow by 57 percent, and those with a Doctoral degree 

grow by 65 percent. By far, the biggest gain over the early years of one’s career involves those with 

Professional degrees. Workers with Professional degrees earn 100 percent more in their 40’s than 

they do in their initial years in the workforce. 

FIGURE 2: LIFETIME EARNINGS TRAJECTORIES, 2009 DOLLARS 

$150,000 Educational Attainment 

Less than High School High School Diploma Some College/No Degree Associate’s 

Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral Professional 

$125,000 

$100,000 

$75,000 

$50,000 

$20,000 

25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-29 50-54 55-59 60-64 

Age 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 5 
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There is signifi cant 

overlap in earnings at all 

education levels: 17% of 

people with a Bachelor’s 

degree make more than 

the median of those with 

a Professional degree, 

for example. 

PART III: Variations in Earnings by Education and Occupation: 

Earnings Overlap 

Thus far, have we focused on the typical person at each educational level by using median 

earnings. It is important to also note that there is wide variation in earnings within educational 

levels, which means that the highest earners of a lower education level earn more than the typical 

worker at a higher level of educational attainment. We call this phenomenon “overlap.” Overlap is 

very much related to differences in earnings by occupation. 

Table 1 shows what share of less-educated workers earn the same or more as those at the median in the next education level. For example, the bottom leftmost number of 31 percent means 

that 31 percent of workers without a high school diploma earn more than the median earnings of 

workers with a high school diploma. Moving up the “Less than high school” column, the highest 

earning 16 percent of this group earns more than the median of those with Associate’s degrees, 

and 7 percent of people with less than a high school diploma earn more than the typical worker 

with a Bachelor’s degree. At the extreme, the most successful 1 percent of less than high school 

workers has at least the median lifetime earnings of those with a Professional degree. 

TABLE 1: PERCENT OF PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR EDUCATION LEVEL EARNING MORE THAN THOSE AT A 

HIGHER EDUCATIONAL LEVEL 

Less than High Some 

High School College/No 

School Diploma Degree Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral 

How to read this chart 

1.3% 

2.3% 

4.6% 

7.3% 

16.3% 

21.3% 

31.4% 

2.4% 

4.6% 

9.2% 

14.3% 

29.8% 

36.6% 

. 

4.8% 

8.6% 

15.9% 

23.1% 

41.9% 

. 

. 

4.9% 

9.5% 

19.2% 

28.2% 

. 

. 

. 

17.2% 

26.7% 

39.9% 

. 

. 

. 

. 

24.2% 

35.5% 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 

36.9%

.

.

. 

. 

. 

. 

Taking the less than high 

school column and reading 

down, it shows that 1.3% of 

people with less than a high 

school education make the 

same amount or more as the 

median earnings of someone 

with a Professional degree. 

2.3% of people with less than 

high school make the same 

amount or more as the median 

for someone with a Doctoral 

degree, 4.6% of people with 

less than a high school education make the same amount 

or mare than someone with a 

Master’s degree, and so on. 

Professional 

Doctoral 

Master’s 

Bachelor’s 

Associate’s 

Some College/ 

No Degree 

High School 

Diploma 

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TABLE 1A: LIFETIME EARNINGS VARIATIONS WITHIN EDUCATION LEVELS, 2009 DOLLARS 

25th Percentile 75th Percentile Interquartile Range

 Less than High School 644,600 1,464,000 819,400 

High School Diploma 867,500 1,889,500 1,022,000 

 Some College/No Degree 1,035,500 2,252,100 1,216,700 

 Associate’s Degree 1,177,100 2,426,300 1,249,200 

 Bachelor’s Degree 1,490,600 3,388,700 1,898,100

 Master’s Degree 1,864,400 3,835,600 1,971,200

 Doctoral Degree 2,150,400 4,743,400 2,592,900 

 Professional Degree 2,004,600 6,472,800 4,468,200 

Continuing up the lower diagonal, 37 percent of workers with a high school diploma have 

lifetime earnings greater than the median amount earned by workers with some college/no 

degree. Since some college/no degree has a median very close to that of Associate-degree holders, 

it is not surprising that the overlap is very high — 42 percent of some college/no degree workers 

have lifetime earnings more than the median of workers with an Associate’s degree. However, the 

next step — from a two- to a four-year degree — is a big one, and only the most successful 28 

percent of Associate’s degree workers earn more than the median earnings of workers with a 

Bachelor’s degree. 

Another way to look at earnings variation within a specific education level is “interquartile 

range”– the difference between the lifetime earnings at the 75th and 25th percentile among 

people with the same highest educational attainment. For example, among those who did not 

finish high school, median lifetime earnings amount to $973,000. However, at the 25th percentile, workers earn $645,000 over a lifetime, while at the 75th percentile workers earn $1.5 million 

over a lifetime. As Table 1A shows, the interquartile range is approximately 1–4.5 million 

dollars (which is about 80 percent of the value of the median for each education level, although 

it increases as educational attainment increases). The largest variation (120% of the median) 

occurs among those with Professional degrees, due to very high earnings at the 75th percentile 

of this group. 

 Finally, Figure 3 shows the large amount of overlap when interquartile ranges are aligned 

with progressively higher levels of education. The overlap would even be greater if we didn’t limit 

the low values to the 25th percentile and the high values to the 75th percentile. 

As stated above, much of the overlap can be attributed to differences in occupation. As 

Figure 4 shows, there is great variation among earnings for those with the same educational 

attainment in different occupations. Moreover, within the same occupation, diff erent education 

levels see differences in earnings. 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 7 
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175,000

1,175,000

2,175,000

3,175,000

4,175,000

5,175,000

7,175,000

8,175,000 

6,175,000

9,175,000 

Number of People (in thousands) 

8,000 

7,000 

Figure 3: OVERLAP IN EARNINGS, 

2009 DOLLARS 

Bachelor’s compared to Less than High School Bachelor’s compared to Some College 

6,000 

5,000 

Bachelor’s compared to Associate’s 

4,000 

Bachelor’s compared to High School Diploma 

3,000 

Bachelor’s compared to Master’s 

1,000 

2,000 

Bachelor’s compared to Professional 

Bachelor’s compared to Doctoral 

Professional 

Doctoral 

Master’s 

Bachelor’s 

Associate’s 

Some College/ 

No Degree 

High School Diploma 

Less than High School 

0 

Lifetime earnings — Truncated left and right 

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Figure 4: LIFETIME EARNINGS BY EDUCATION AND OCCUPATION, 2009 DOLLARS 

$4,500,000 

$4,000,000 

$3,500,000 

$3,000,000 

$2,500,000 

$2,000,000 

$1,500,000 

$1,000,000 

$500,000 

$0 

Managerial 

and 

Professional 

Health 

Professionals 

STEM Education Community 

Service 

and Arts 

Sales and 

Office 

Health 

Support 

Blue Collar Personal 

Services 

Less than High School 

Bachelor’s 

High School Diploma 

Master’s 

Some College/No Degree 

Doctoral 

Associate’s 

Professional 

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Women need a Doctoral 

or Professional degree 

to make more than men 

with a Bachelor’s degree. 

PART IV: Lifetime Earnings by Educational Attainment, Gender, and 

Race/Ethnicity 

Figure 5 shows the median lifetime earnings of male and female workers for each of our eight 

education levels. As can be seen in Table 2, women with the same educational attainment as men 

earn about a quarter less than their male counterparts over a lifetime. This is consistent with 

the yearly reported gender earnings gap of 23 percent, which is based on comparing full-time, 

full-year workers in a single year. For example, over the course of their lifetime, women who 

obtain a Bachelor’s degree make over $650,000 less than men with the same level of education. 

The smallest gender gaps within postsecondary educational bands occurs among those with 

Associate’s degrees and those with Doctoral degrees, where women earn about $400,000 and 

$600,000 less than men over a lifetime, respectively. However, the largest gender gap in earnings 

is for those with Professional degrees: men earn about a million dollar more over a lifetime 

than women with these degrees. 

Had we defined lifetime earnings on the basis of all workers, including those who had periods 

with no earnings (for example, women who leave the labor force for childbearing/child rearing, 

or anyone who leaves for disability or other reasons), we would see even higher gaps between the 

earnings of men and women because women are much more likely than men to be out of the 

labor force for spells of time (and thus, not regularly work full-time, full-year). Considering all 

Figure 5: MALE AND FEMALE EARNINGS BY EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT 

$0 $50,000 $1,000,000 $1,500,000 $2,000,000 $2,500,000 $3,000,000 $3,500,000 $4,000,000 $4,500,000 

Master’s 

Some College/ 

No Degree 

Doctoral Male $3,466,000 

Female $2,857,000 

Professional Male $4,033,000 

Female $3,010,000 

Male $3,145,000 

Female $2,321,000 

Male $2,593,000 

Female $1,939,000 

Male $1,933,000 

Female $1,544,000 

Female $1,327,000 

Male $1,500,000 

Female $1,117,000 

Male $1,103,000 

Female $797,000 

Male $1,802,000 

High School 

Diploma 

Less than 

High School 

Male 

Female 

Women have 

to have a PhD 

to make as 

much as men 

with a BA 

Men with some college but no 

degree earn about the same as 

women with a Bachelor’s degree 

Bachelor’s 

Associate’s 

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workers — not just those who work full-time, full-year — the gender gap in earnings widens by 

about 20 percentage points (with the exception of those with a Master’s or Doctoral degree where 

it only widens 6–9 percentage points). 

TABLE 2: GENDER GAP (FEMALE EARNINGS RELATIVE TO MALE EARNINGS) 

Full-time, Full-Year Workers with Typical Experiences 

Workers (ideal) with the Labor Market 

Less than High School -27.7% -90.0% 

High School Diploma -25.5% -52.2% 

Some College/No Degree -26.4% -47.1% 

Associate’s Degree -20.1% -37.6% 

Bachelor’s Degree -25.2% -43.7% 

Master’s Degree -26.2% -33.7% 

Doctoral Degree -17.6% -26.7% 

Professional Degree -25.4% -44.6% 

Because so few women with less than a high school diploma work, the earnings gap among 

this group expands to an alarming 90 percent. Women with just a high school diploma are also 

likely to be out of the labor force and their lifetime earnings gap versus comparable males is 52 

percent. At the some college/no degree, Bachelor’s, and Professional degree levels, the gender gap 

stands at a hefty 45 percent. The smallest gender gaps for the ‘typical’ worker can be found at the 

Associate’s degree (38%), Master’s degree (34%), and Doctoral degree (27%) levels. 

Wage disparities also are visible when lifetime earnings are examined on the basis of race or 

ethnicity. Historically, non-Hispanic Whites (hereafter, Whites) have had higher earnings than 

those of other races/ethnicities. There is now an exception, though, because Asians — especially 

highly-educated Asians — earn wages comparable to Whites. Latinos, meanwhile, have median 

lifetime earnings 34 percent lower than Whites across the board. African Americans make 23 

percent less than Whites. A similar gap (22%) exists for Other Races/Ethnicities (Native 

Americans, Pacific Islanders, and others). 

As Figure 6 shows, there is a lot of variation of the relative earnings of people of diff erent 

races/ethnicities relative to Whites. Among African Americans, for example, lifetime earnings are 

13-16 percent less than Whites with three prominent exceptions — less than high school (18% 

less than Whites), Bachelor’s degrees (20% less than Whites), and Professional degrees (23% less 

than Whites). Latinos have a similar pattern, but the earnings gap is generally in a lower range 

(10-12%). A larger gap exists among Latinos with less than high school (23% less than Whites), 

high school (18% less than Whites), Bachelor’s degrees (21% less than Whites), and Professional 

degrees (18% less than Whites). 

At all levels of 

educational attainment, 

women earn, on average, 

25% less than men. 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 11 
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At the highest levels of 

educational attainment, 

African Americans and 

Latinos lag far behind the 

earnings of their White 

and Asian counterparts—over a lifetime, 

they make close to a 

million dollars less. 

African Americans with 

Bachelor’s degrees make 

20% less than Whites 

with Bachelor’s degrees. 

For African Americans and Latinos, there are large gaps between earnings when compared to 

Whites, especially at the lowest levels of educational attainment. It should be noted that these gaps 

would be larger if the full-time, full-year approach was expanded to include periods when workers 

were out of the labor force. While the gaps are smallest at the some college/no degree, Associate’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral degree levels, they are large again among Bachelor’s and Professional degree 

holders. These patterns suggest that more study is needed regarding the nature of occupational 

concentration by race/ethnicity at the high and low ends of the occupational ladder. 

FIGURE 6: LIFETIME EARNINGS BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 2009 DOLLARS 

$0 $1,000,000 $2,000,000 $3,000,000 $4,000,000 

Professional 

Doctoral 

Master’s 

Bachelor’s 

Associate’s 

Some College/ 

No Degree 

High School 

Diploma 

Less than 

High School 

Other 

Asian 

Latino 

African 

American 

White 

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Asian workers, by contrast, have the most varied earnings relative to Whites. Among the least-


educated Asian workers — high school graduates and dropouts — lifetime earnings are 20 percent 

below Whites with the same education levels. The gap falls to 6-9 percent for those with some 

college/no degree, an Associate’s degree, or a Bachelor’s degree. However, among those with 

graduate degrees, Asian workers have higher lifetime earnings than Whites. 

PART V: Top Ten Occupations by Educational Attainment 

Here we detail the ten most common occupations for each education level. There are 300 detailed 

occupations, which are all presented in the appendix table. 

Table 3 presents the ten most common occupations for those who did not finish high school. 

Not surprisingly, virtually all of these jobs are low-skill manual labor and service jobs. Th e blue 

collar ‘male’ jobs of truck drivers, carpenters, construction laborers, and other production workers 

earn more than the median of all workers at this education level. 

TABLE 3: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS FOR THOSE WITH LESS THAN HIGH SCHOOL 

Share of all Occupations Lifetime 

for those with less Earnings 

than High School (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Less than High School $973,000 

Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 6.1% 1,300,000 

Janitors and Building Cleaners 4.6% 855,000 

Cooks 3.3% 761,000 

Construction Laborers 3.2% 1,037,000 

Maids and Housekeeping Cleaners 3.1% 663,000 

Laborers and Material Movers 2.9% 965,000 

Maintenance Workers 2.7% 772,000 

Other Agricultural Workers 2.6% 814,000 

Other Production Workers 2.3% 980,000 

Carpenters 2.2% 1,069,000 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 13 
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 Table 4 lists the most common occupations for those with a high school diploma and no 


postsecondary education, many of which are also found in Table 3. However, the diff erence 

between having and not having a high school degree leads to much higher earnings in these same 

occupations. For example, driver/sales workers and truck drivers with a high school diploma have 

lifetime earnings $230,000 higher than workers in the same field without a high school diploma. 

There is an equivalent bump for janitors, other production workers, and laborers and material 

handlers. In this table, however, there are also now new titles with greater responsibilities and 

pay — other managers, supervisors and managers of retail sales workers, and supervisors and 

managers of production workers. 

TABLE 4: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA 

Share of all Lifetime 

Occupations Earnings 

High School Diploma (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, High School Diploma $1,304,000 

Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 4.9% 1,531,000 

Secretaries and Administrative Assistants 3.7% 1,264,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers 3.3% 1,345,000 

Janitors and Building Cleaners 2.6% 1,048,000 

Laborers and Movers 2.2% 1,199,000 

Retail Salespersons 1.8% 1,134,000 

Nursing and Home Health Aides 1.8% 966,000 

Other Production Workers 1.8% 1,308,000 

Other Managers 1.7% 1,876,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Production Worker 1.6% 1,809,000 

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Table 5 presents the occupations where workers with some college/no degree are concentrated. 


While some of these occupations also appeared in Table 4, the relative pay within these common 

occupations vary greatly. On the one hand, driver/sales workers and truck drivers and nursing and 

home health aides have virtually the same lifetime earnings. By contrast, retail salespersons and 

other managers with some college/no degree make considerably more than their counterparts with 

just a high school diploma. Finally, secretaries and administrative assistants make slightly more if 

they have some postsecondary education.

 This variation shows that some jobs have narrowly defined tasks and that college education 

does not always lead to extra earnings. In other jobs, however, there is more room for personal 

initiative, which permits those with college-level skills to perform more productive activities and 

attain higher pay. Further, those with some college/no degree expand their access to more 

supervisory, financial, and high sales functions. 

TABLE 5: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, SOME COLLEGE/NO DEGREE 

Share of all Lifetime 

Occupations, Some College/ Earnings 

No Degree (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Some College/No Degree $1,547,000 

Secretaries and Administrative Assistants 4.7% 1,348,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers 3.4% 1,507,000 

Other Managers 2.8% 2,220,000 

Drivers/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 2.4% 1,569,000 

Accounting, and Auditing Clerks 2.1% 1,391,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Administrative Support Workers 2.0% 1,657,000 

Customer Service Representatives 2.0% 1,331,000 

Retail Salespersons 2.0% 1,320,000 

Nursing and Home Health Aides 1.6% 1,030,000 

Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing 1.5% 2,009,000 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 15 
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As Table 6 shows, registered nurse is by far the most common occupation among workers 

with an Associate’s degree; this occupation pays considerably more than what is earned at the 

median for all workers with an Associate’s degree. Medical technologists and technicians also make 

significantly more than the median for Associate’s degree holders. For many other jobs, however, 

earnings for those with some college/no degree and those with an Associate’s are quite similar; 

secretaries and administrative assistants, other managers, supervisory of retail sales workers and 

administrative support workers, accounting, customer service representatives, and retail sales 

workers all earn similar pay in the same occupation at the some college/no degree and Associate’s 

degree level. 

TABLE 6: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, ASSOCIATE’S DEGREES 

Share of all Lifetime 

Occupations Earnings 

Associate’s Degree (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Associate’s Degree $1,728,000 

Registered Nurses 9.1% 2,267,000 

Secretaries and Administrative Assistants 4.3% 1,385,000 

Other Managers 2.6% 2,292,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers 2.5% 1,531,000 

Accountants and Auditors 2.0% 1,636,000 

Supervisors/Managers of Administrative Support Workers 1.7% 1,736,000 

Customer Service Representatives 1.6% 1,379,000 

Retail Salespersons 1.5% 1,312,000 

Medical Technologists and Technicians 1.2% 2,187,000 

Accounting, and Auditing Clerks 1.2% 1,327,000 

As Table 7 indicates, Managerial and Professional occupations are the most common 

occupations for those with Bachelor’s degrees. With the exception of elementary and middle 

school teachers and supervisors of retail workers, lifetime earnings are much higher at the 

Bachelor’s level than for less-educated workers. Registered nurses earn $260,000 more over a 

lifetime if they have a Bachelor’s rather than an Associate’s, while accountants/auditors and other 

managers with a Bachelor’s have extra lifetime earnings of approximately $800,000 more than 

their counterparts with Associate’s degrees. New occupations such as chief executives, fi nancial 

managers, computer software engineers, and marketing and sales managers all have lifetime 

earnings over $3 million with only a Bachelor’s, close to the median lifetime earnings of 

Doctoral degree holders. 

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TABLE 7: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, BACHELOR’S DEGREES

Share of all Lifetime 

Occupations Earnings 

Bachelor’s Degree (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Bachelor’s Degree $2,268,000 

Elementary and Middle School Teachers 5.1% 1,757,000 

Other Managers 4.6% 3,094,000 

Accountants and Auditors 4.6% 2,422,000 

Registered Nurses 4.0% 2,527,000 

Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing 2.5% 3,062,000 

Suoervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers 2.3% 1,807,000 

Chief Executives 1.9% 4,483,000 

Financial Managers 1.9% 3,081,000 

Computer Software Engineers 1.8% 3,554,000 

Marketing and Sales Managers 1.8% 3,494,000 

 Those who obtain Master’s degrees seek specialization, which limits the number of occupations 

in which they can seek work. Table 8 details the top ten occupations for those with a Master’s degree. Once again, elementary and middle school teachers lead the way because of the large number 

of teachers with a Master’s in education. Many of the top jobs are common to both those with 

Bachelor’s degrees (as shown in Table 7) and those with Master’s degrees (as shown in Table 8). 

Th e difference is that at the graduate level workers have significantly higher lifetime earnings; for 

example, computer software engineers make nearly $300,000 extra with a Master’s degree over a 

lifetime, while elementary and middle school teachers make $400,000 extra with a Master’s degree. 

This is clear evidence that additional educational preparation, which is often only two years of 

schoolwork, leads to a signifi cant payoff — but that payoff varies by occupation. 

TABLE 8: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, MASTER’S DEGREES 

Share of all Lifetime 

Occupations Earnings 

Master’s Degree (2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Master’s Degree $2,671,000 

Elementary and Middle School Teachers 13.0% 2,155,000 

Other Managers 5.4% 3,762,000 

Education Administrators 4.0% 2,786,000 

Accountants and Auditors 3.7% 3,030,000 

Secondary School Teachers 3.1% 2,217,000 

Computer Software Engineers 2.6% 3,835,000 

Registered Nurses 2.5% 3,044,000 

Postsecondary Teachers 2.5% 2,024,000 

Counselors 2.4% 1,945,000 

Chief Executives 2.4% 5,160,000 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 17 
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Traditionally, Doctoral degree holders have worked predominantly within academia, though 


today only 26 percent of Doctoral degree holders work as postsecondary teachers or professors 

(as shown in Table 10). Yet a number of people can have both Doctoral and Professional degrees 

(e.g., physicians, lawyers, etc.) and are put in the Doctoral degree category because the Census 

treats a Doctoral degree as a higher attainment level than a Professional degree (and defers to the 

higher educational attainment level). Doctors and lawyers can seek additional education (Doctoral 

degrees), though many of those who get a Doctoral degree in addition to their Professional degree 

tend to teach or do research at the university level rather than pursue private practice (which can 

be more remunerative). Finally, there are a few workers with Doctoral degrees who are categorized 

as business executives (other managers and chief executives); these may be scientists or technical 

specialists who have become company leaders and have been substantially rewarded as a result. 

TABLE 10: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, DOCTORAL DEGREES 

Share of all 

Occupations 

Doctoral 

Lifetime 

Earnings 

(2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Doctoral Degree $3,252,000 

Postsecondary Teachers 26.0% 2,803,000 

Physicians and Surgeons 5.7% 5,085,000 

Physical Scientists 5.2% 3,577,000 

Lawyers and Judges 4.7% 3,676,000 

Education Administrators 4.6% 3,465,000 

Other Managers 3.7% 4,670,000 

Psychologists 3.5% 2,515,000 

Medical Scientists 3.5% 3,259,000 

Pharmacists 2.6% 4,358,000 

Chief Executives 2.1% 5,131,000 

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 Those who get Professional degrees receive specialized training for their occupations, in 


particular in law and medicine. About a third (32%) of these workers are practicing lawyers and 

judges, and another third (32%) obtained a degree in one of the medical specialties (physicians 

and surgeons, dentists, pharmacists, veterinarians, and nurses). The remaining occupations in the 

top ten are other managers, teachers, accountants, and auditors. The managerial field is particularly 

undercounted because of the plethora of industry-specific managers. There are also several occupations in this list that pay a similar amount as those with just a Master’s degree: elementary and 

secondary school teachers, accountants and auditors, and registered nurses (who actually make less 

than their counterparts with a Master’s degree). 

TABLE 9: TOP TEN OCCUPATIONS, PROFESSIONAL DEGREES

Share of all 

Occupations 

Professional degree 

Lifetime 

Earnings 

(2009 dollars)

 All Occupations, Professional Degree $3,648,000 

Lawyers and Judges 31.5% 4,032,000 

Physicians and Surgeons 22.8% 6,172,000 

Dentists 3.4% 4,035,000 

Elementary and Middle School Teachers 2.8% 2,292,000 

Pharmacists 2.3% 4,420,000 

Veterinarians 2.1% 2,981,000 

Accountants and Auditors 1.7% 3,203,000 

Other Managers 1.7% 3,873,000 

Postsecondary Teachers 1.6% 2,919,000 

Registered Nurses 1.5% 2,722,000 

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CONCLUSION
 

No matter how you cut it, more education pays. The data presented here show that there is a 

sizeable economic return to going to college and earning at least a two- or four-year degree. Th e 

33 percent of Bachelor’s degree holders that continue on to graduate and professional schools have 

even more prosperous futures ahead. Moreover, the difference in earnings between those who go 

to college and those who don’t is growing — meaning that postsecondary education is more 

important than ever. 

However, as we have demonstrated, there are significant variations based on age, gender, 

race/ethnicity, and above all, occupation. In the following appendices, we present lifetime earnings 

by education level for 300 distinct occupations. These numbers prove that higher education 

opens up the highest-paying jobs, but also that there is a range of pay within jobs and that more 

highly-educated people usually earn considerably more than their less-educated counterparts 

in the same occupation. 

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TECHNICAL APPENDIX 

We reproduced the methodology originally 

used in the 2002 Census report on lifetime 

earnings. They describe this approach as: 

“ Synthetic estimates of work-life earnings 

are created by using the working population’s 1-year annual earnings and summing 

their age-specific average earnings for 

people ages 25 to 64 years. Th e resulting 

totals represent what individuals with the 

same educational level could expect to 

earn, on average, in today’s dollars, during 

a hypothetical 40-year working life.” 

Specifically, the Census approach looks at 

5-year age groups — 25-29, 30-34, etc. — 

to get an average for each age group and then 

sums each of these 5-year averages of a particular demographic and/or educational group to 

estimate the average 40-year degree for 

that group. 

 This approach is an estimate and is not 

based on real careers of people. In real life, 

people’s careers are much more volatile — 

they change jobs, have wide yearly earnings 

variations, have periods of time where they are 

not working, often start working before age 

25, and may retire before age 64 or work well 

past it. Also, by only using earnings levels from 

2009 data, these estimates are only approximations of what individuals who are 25 years old 

today can expect to earn over their lifetime. It 

is quite probable that productivity growth will 

lead to higher earnings in the future and therefore the career of today’s young adults will lead 

to higher lifetime earnings than presented here. 

 We differ from the Census in that we use 

median earnings rather than average earnings. 

As noted in footnote 2, median earnings tend 

to be more representative of “typical” experiences than average earnings. 

To construct medians and the 25th and 75th 

percentile groups, we combine the medians, 

25th, and 75th percentile levels in the diff erent 

5-year periods rather than the averages. 

 Since no data source exists with a large 

number of cases that tracks individuals throughout their careers by earnings, occupation, and 

hours worked per year, this approach is the only 

viable one to construct even a rough estimate 

of lifetime earnings. While most people don’t 

increase their education level after age 25, very 

few people work full-time, full-year in the same 

narrow occupation. The numbers presented 

here should be viewed as representing the broad 

earning differences that exist based on education, 

gender, race/ethnicity, and occupation and 

not exact representations of an individual’s 

lifetime earnings. 

Simple Dollars versus Net Present Value 

A series of commentators objected to the 

Census computations because it treated a 

dollar today the same as a dollar 30 years later 

in one’s career (e.g., it didn’t take into account 

net present value). The essence of this criticism 

is the financial principle that a dollar in the 

future is worth less than dollar today. A person 

who wins a million dollars in the lottery has 

the choice of receiving $50,000 per year for 

20 years or taking a lump sum of $450,000 to 

$550,000 (depending on the state and current 

interest rate on government bonds). Th e reason 

for this discrepancy is that those who take the 

money today could be earning money by investing it (in government bonds, for example). 

 Simple financial calculators can turn a 

stream of earnings into a “net present discounted value” with a specific discounting rate. 

We chose 2.5% because this represents the real 

interest rate of long term government bonds. 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 21 
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Thus, the $2,789,000 lifetime earnings of a 

Bachelor’s degree holder has a current lump 

sum value of $1,712,000, which is 39 percent 

less than the simple adding up of yearly earnings. Using discounted values, the dollar gap 

between Bachelor’s degree holders and high 

school graduates falls to $786,000 (from nearly 

$1.3 million). 

Even with discounted dollars, workers with 

a Bachelor’s degree today can expect to have 

lifetime earnings $593,000 higher than workers 

with only a high school diploma. Th erefore, it 

is still worth the time and investment to obtain 

a college education. 

For those interested in present discounted 

values, simply reducing each of these numbers 

by 39 percent will result in a satisfactory 

estimate. 

Full-Time, Full-Year Workers Another 

important choice in determining lifetime 

earnings is whether to base these computations 

on an “ideal” career in which the person works 

full-time, full-year for each of 40 years from 25 

to 64. In reality, only about half of men and 

a small share of women meet these criteria, 

since major interruptions, including temporary 

unemployment, illness, early retirement, and 

time taken off to meet family responsibilities, 

often take people out of the workforce for 

some period of time. Over a recent 15-year 

period, Rose and Hartmann (2004) found that 

74 percent of men and 26 percent of women 

were “super attached workers”–working at least 

1,750 hours in 12 of 15 years. Following the 

Census approach, we chose to compute lifetime 

earnings on the basis of full-time, full-year 

workers and alert the reader that many 

workers, especially female workers, don’t 

meet this standard. 

But what if we take the costs of college 

into account? James Altucher and others have 

been vocal that the costs of college change the 

equation and make going to college not worth 

it. In many media appearances, he has claimed 

that the $200,000-$250,000 that parents might 

spend on a college education could easily return 

over $2 million if it were invested long-term in 

stocks and bonds rather than spent on college. 

 This argument contains several errors. To 

begin with, only a very small share of private 

colleges cost between $200,000-$250,000, 

and no public college costs this much; only 

10% of 2008 Bachelor’s degree students had 

total costs (tuition, fees, books, room, board, 

transportation, and other expenses) of $50,000 

or more per year. Second, more than two-thirds 

(65%) of students don’t pay the full price of 

college and have access to grants and lowinterest loans. Third, the multimillion-dollar 

payoff assumes that neither the principal nor 

the yearly profits on the investment will be 

used for 40 years. However, it is absurd to 

suggest that people with a high school education are likely to leave their investments 

untouched for 40 years, because, as we have 

just demonstrated, they are more likely to earn 

much less than their more highly educated 

counterparts and need the money. The reality is 

that 20- and 30-year olds have very low savings 

rates because this is the time when they are 

raising their own children. Most saving occurs 

after age 40, and are done by people with high 

earnings. The median net worth of people 

approaching retirement with a Bachelor’s 

degree is four times higher than those with only 

a high school diploma. It is a fantasy to think 

that starting one’s career after high school and 

using the money that might have been used to 

pay for college will lead to a gold mine later in life. 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Chief Executives and Legislators General and Operations Managers Advertising, Promotions, Public Relations Managers Marketing and Sales Managers Administrative Services Managers Computer and Information Systems Managers Financial Managers Human Resources Managers Industrial Production Managers Purchasing Managers Transportation, Storage, and Distribution Managers Farmers and Ranchers, Farm, Ranch, and other Agricultural Managers Construction Managers Education Administrators Miscellaneous Managers, including Engineering, Funeral Directors, Postmasters and Mail Superintendents Food Service Managers Gaming and Lodging Managers Natural Sciences, Medical and Health Services Managers Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers Social and Community Service Managers Agents and Business Managers of Artists, Performers, and Athletes, Logisticians, Meeting and Convention Planners Purchasing Agents, except Wholesale, Retail, and Farm and Non-Farm Products Wholesale and Retail Buyers, except Farm Products Claims Adjusters, Appraisers, Examiners, and Investigators Compliance Offi cers, except Agriculture, Construction, Health and Safety, and Transportation Cost Estimators 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 23 

Lessthan HighSchool

...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.1.5
.
1.41.0
.
.
........ 

HighSchoolDiploma

2.62.2.2.2..1.81.92.3.1.7.2.01.41.91.2.1.71.5..1.71.41.7.. 

Somecollege

3.22.5.2.52.13.12.12.22.42.21.9.2.31.52.21.51.71.91.71.71.91.81.61.72.02.2 

Associate’s 

3.02.5.2.5.3.02.22.2....2.31.62.31.5.2.31.6..1.9.1.8.. 

Bachelor’s 

4.53.32.9 3.52.63.73.12.93.32.92.6.3.12.03.21.82.12.72.22.12.52.32.12.32.72.7 

Master’s/Professional/Doctoral

5.14.0.4.3.4.0

4.23.43.93.7..3.62.93.9..3.52.92.6....3.1. 

Gender
Earnings
Gap %
 

30.228.128.137.113.014.661.119.923.824.53.3.20.027.529.333.330.129.527.222.419.718.115.727.010.937.5 

Percent
Female


21.128.055.741.730.928.352.860.216.642.516.911.76.462.731.943.148.367.749.566.347.052.349.061.846.212.9 

Percent
White•


87.082.284.883.978.277.477.875.283.480.174.892.685.476.379.866.070.475.475.574.974.078.879.672.373.888.8 

PercentAfricanAmerican•

3.35.75.64.29.96.08.19.64.18.59.3.73.013.46.88.56.712.19.114.212.29.15.715.211.01.5 

Percent
Latino•


4.67.65.76.78.2

5.28.310.18.36.911.44.99.07.47.514.29.37.211.77.49.27.88.88.39.06.5 

PercentHighSchool orless 

PercentSome College andAssociate’s 

PercentBA andGraduate 

11.2 22.6 66.2 18.0 33.8 48.2 6.7 20.1 73.2 8.7 24.4 66.9 21.8 42.3 36.0 4.9 24.1 71.0 12.4 26.9 60.7 13.9 29.8 56.3 23.6 33.0 43.4 12.6 30.0 57.4 38.6 36.2 25.2 46.5 31.3 22.2 34.8 33.4 31.8 5.1 14.1 80.8 16.6 28.1 55.2 38.4 37.9 23.7 24.4 36.3 39.3 10.8 28.0 61.2 24.4 37.2 38.4 8.7 21.7 69.6 14.1 33.8 52.0 21.9 38.9 39.3 26.2 36.9 36.9 18.2 36.0 45.8 11.7 29.8 58.5 26.2 41.8 32.0

Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% * 

 (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 
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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Human Resources, Training, and Labor Relations Specialists . 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.9 24.2 70.2 72.2 13.9 9.3 13.6 33.4 53.0 Management Analysts . . 2.2 . 2.9 3.5 24.6 40.6 78.5 6.7 5.3 5.4 18.4 76.2 Other Business Operations Specialists . 1.6 1.8 . 2.3 3.1 39.7 60.6 69.5 14.0 9.3 15.5 33.5 51.0 Accountants and Auditors . 1.5 1.7 1.6 2.4 3.0 40.8 58.2 73.6 8.8 6.6 4.5 18.6 76.9 Appraisers and Assessors of Real Estate . . . . 2.0 . 16.5 33.2 89.1 3.9 4.0 12.1 36.1 51.8 Budget, Credit, Financial Analysts . . . . 2.7 3.8 40.1 49.0 72.6 10.5 6.8 6.0 20.3 73.7 Personal Financial Advisors . . 2.0 . 3.1 3.8 53.5 28.7 79.9 7.0 6.6 4.9 17.1 78.1 Insurance Underwriters . . . . 2.7 . 42.6 68.9 78.9 9.5 6.8 17.4 33.4 49.2 Financial Examiners, Financial Specialists, all other . . . . 2.7 . 84.8 54.7 72.5 13.2 8.5 13.9 28.3 57.8 Loan Counselors and Offi cers . 1.6 1.8 . 2.4 2.9 44.7 52.4 76.7 8.4 10.2 14.7 35.1 50.2 Tax Examiners, Collectors, Revenue Agents, and Preparers . . . . 2.2 . 23.0 61.1 66.1 17.5 11.5 15.5 33.4 51.2 Computer Scientists and Systems Analysts . 2.2 2.4 2.3 3.0 3.5 14.8 29.3 70.0 9.2 5.9 5.9 28.4 65.6 Computer Programmers . . 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.3 11.0 24.0 74.4 4.7 4.4 5.4 24.4 70.2 Computer Software Engineers . . 3.1 3.0 3.6 3.9 16.5 20.4 63.4 4.5 3.7 2.8 15.1 82.1 Computer Support Specialists . 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.6 15.0 29.4 72.5 11.1 7.8 12.1 47.0 40.9 Database Administrators . . . . 3.0 . 28.9 32.6 73.0 6.2 5.1 5.5 26.2 68.3 Network and Computer Systems Administrators . . 2.5 2.5 2.9 3.3 15.0 18.5 77.2 8.2 6.0 8.5 39.3 52.3 Network Systems and Data Communications Analysts . . 2.4 2.5 2.7 3.4 19.1 23.0 74.7 8.8 6.4 7.9 36.4 55.7 Actuaries, Miscellaneous Mathematical Science Occupations, including Mathematicians and Statisticans . . . . . 3.8 23.6 40.3 73.8 4.2 4.6 1.2 6.3 92.4 Operations Research Analysts . . . . 3.0 3.5 14.6 49.0 72.7 12.6 6.2 7.1 25.5 67.4 Architects, except Naval . . . . 2.8 2.9 9.7 23.0 80.6 3.3 7.0 1.8 8.3 89.9 Surveyors, Cartographers, and Photogrammetrists, and Surveying and Mapping Technicians . . 1.9 . . . 18.2 12.6 85.7 2.9 8.1 23.4 47.2 29.4 Aerospace, Biomedical, Agricultural, Chemical, Computer Hardware, Environmental, Marine, Materials, Petroleum, Mining, Geological . . . . 3.6 4.0 13.9 12.8 75.6 4.9 5.6 3.4 14.3 82.2 Civil Engineers . . . . 3.2 3.7 16.9 11.1 79.3 4.4 5.7 3.5 11.5 85.0 Electrical and Electronics Engineers . . . . 3.4 4.1 12.8 8.3 72.4 4.7 5.6 4.2 17.9 77.9 Industrial Engineers, including Health and Safety . . . . 3.0 3.4 8.4 18.3 79.7 4.1 6.2 8.2 23.0 68.8 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Mechanical Engineers . . . . 3.2 3.6 10.5 7.1 81.7 3.5 5.4 5.2 21.5 73.4 Miscellaneous Engineers, including Nuclear Engineers . . 2.7 2.6 3.4 3.8 4.7 11.6 74.7 4.4 5.2 3.7 15.4 80.9 Drafters . . 2.0 1.9 2.0 . 12.4 17.3 81.4 4.3 8.5 14.1 62.2 23.8 Engineering Technicians, except Drafters . 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.2 . 31.3 16.0 72.9 9.6 9.4 26.4 56.9 16.6 Agricultural and Food, Biological, Conservation Scientists and Foresters, Environmental Scientists and Geoscientists . . . . 2.3 2.8 2.9 32.9 84.0 4.4 4.1 2.5 7.6 89.9 Medical Scientists . . . . . 3.1 16.4 51.3 59.9 5.1 4.8 1.0 2.0 97.0 Astronomers and Physicists, Atmospheric and Space, Physical Scientists, all other . . . . 2.8 3.4 29.5 33.4 70.0 3.0 4.6 .7 2.4 96.9 Chemists and Materials Scientists . . . . 2.5 3.4 7.7 36.0 67.9 7.6 5.4 1.2 7.4 91.4 Economists, Market and Survey Researchers,Urban and Regional Planners, Miscellaneous Social Scientists, including Sociologists . . . . 2.7 3.4 29.6 47.1 79.7 5.2 6.1 3.2 11.1 85.7 Psychologists . . . . . 2.2 8.6 62.4 84.2 6.6 6.0 .4 .9 98.6 Agricultural/Food Science, Biological, Geological/Petro­ leum and Miscellaneous Life, Physical and Social Science Technicians, including Social Science Nuclear Technicians Research Assistants . 1.5 1.7 . 2.0 . 15.9 42.7 72.9 7.8 10.1 21.7 36.3 42.0 Counselors . . 1.3 . 1.5 2.0 -2.3 68.3 64.6 22.0 10.1 7.5 17.3 75.2 Social Workers . 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6 2.0 6.5 78.0 61.4 23.8 11.2 7.1 17.1 75.8 Miscellaneous Community and Social Service Specialists . 1.2 1.4 . 1.7 2.0 21.9 65.3 58.7 23.8 13.8 14.0 32.5 53.6 Clergy . . 1.4 . 1.6 1.8 10.4 14.2 79.9 9.1 5.8 8.2 14.7 77.2 Directors, Religious Activities and Education, and Religious Workers, all other . . . . 1.5 . 22.8 53.7 79.5 6.1 8.7 11.0 22.3 66.7 Lawyers and Judges, Magistrates, and other Judicial Workers . . . . . 4.0 19.7 33.2 86.4 5.2 4.4 .8 1.3 98.0 Paralegals and Legal Assistants . 1.7 1.7 1.7 2.0 . 10.2 88.1 74.5 9.4 12.0 13.5 47.3 39.2 Miscellaneous Legal Support Workers . 1.5 1.6 . 2.2 . 32.7 71.9 73.1 11.2 10.7 19.1 41.0 39.9 Postsecondary Teachers . . . . 1.8 2.5 17.9 45.3 78.0 6.4 5.1 1.2 4.8 94.0 Preschool and Kindergarten Teachers . .7 .8 .9 1.3 1.9 57.9 98.0 63.4 20.2 12.7 15.9 40.3 43.8 Elementary and Middle School Teachers . . 1.1 1.3 1.8 2.2 9.9 77.6 80.7 9.5 7.4 1.4 3.6 94.9 Secondary School Teachers . . . . 1.8 2.2 8.4 56.6 81.1 8.9 7.3 1.0 3.3 95.7 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Special Education Teachers . . . . 1.8 2.1 6.7 84.2 79.6 11.8 6.4 3.5 7.6 89.0 Other Teachers and Instructors . 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.7 2.1 36.6 54.5 74.6 13.2 8.0 14.1 31.2 54.7 Archivists, Curators, and Museum Technicians, Librarians . . . . 1.6 2.1 8.5 76.4 84.9 7.7 4.2 3.9 11.5 84.7 Library Technicians, and Other Education, Training, and Library Workers . . . . . 2.3 8.7 72.3 73.5 12.8 8.7 10.0 18.3 71.7 Teacher Assistants . .7 .8 .8 .9 . 34.1 90.3 58.6 20.4 17.3 32.6 48.7 18.7 Artists and Related Workers . . . . 1.6 . 44.2 35.0 82.7 2.8 8.3 13.5 30.0 56.5 Designers . 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.3 36.2 45.6 78.9 3.8 9.2 13.4 33.3 53.3 Producers and Directors and Broadcast and Sound Engi­ neering Technicians and Radio Operators, and Media and all other Communication Equipment Workers, Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors . . 2.1 . 2.4 . -.9 25.2 77.6 8.6 10.0 11.8 30.1 58.1 Athletes, Coaches, Umpires and Related Workers . . . . 1.9 . 15.8 20.9 77.6 11.8 6.7 8.4 25.0 66.6 Announcers, and News Analysts, Reporters and Correspondents . . . . 2.2 . 15.8 35.2 79.6 6.0 10.6 9.0 20.2 70.8 Public Relations Specialists . . . . 2.5 . 29.3 60.4 82.6 7.2 6.7 4.3 15.2 80.5 Editors . . . . 2.3 2.2 13.7 52.5 85.0 5.0 5.5 4.3 14.8 80.9 Technical Writers . . . . 2.6 . 8.4 55.1 85.4 7.0 3.6 6.7 19.6 73.7 Writers and Authors . . . . 2.0 2.0 -3.7 51.0 85.8 5.9 3.6 2.9 10.5 86.6 Photographers and Miscellaneous Media and Communication Workers . . . . 1.3 . 19.1 44.2 69.6 5.4 17.4 16.9 35.3 47.7 Chiropractors, Optometrists, Podiatrists, Veterinarians . . . . . 2.7 11.2 32.0 88.7 1.7 3.7 1.0 1.2 97.7 Dentists . . . . . 4.0 18.2 22.4 74.9 3.4 6.1 .6 .9 98.5 Pharmacists . . . . 4.0 4.4 7.6 49.0 71.8 6.5 3.6 .8 1.9 97.3 Physicians and Surgeons . . . . . 6.0 36.3 31.9 69.9 5.4 6.1 .6 1.1 98.2 Physician Assistants . . . . . 3.5 29.3 61.6 74.1 11.0 8.6 6.7 18.2 75.1 Registered Nurses . . 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.0 13.2 89.1 74.1 11.3 4.9 1.6 43.0 55.4 Audiologists, Radiation Therapists, Recreational Therapists, Respiratory Therapists, Speech-Language Pathologists, Therapists, all other . . . 2.1 2.1 2.2 10.9 75.4 79.2 10.1 7.0 2.9 29.2 67.8 Occupational Therapists, and Physical Therapists . . . . 2.7 2.8 13.1 69.6 79.4 5.6 4.6 1.5 8.6 89.9 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioner Support Technicians, Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners, all other . 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 . 20.0 79.0 66.5 15.3 10.9 28.3 53.2 18.5 Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians . . 1.4 1.7 2.1 . 11.9 72.6 62.4 16.8 8.0 12.8 36.8 50.5 Dental Hygienists, and Other Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations . . . 2.1 2.2 . 15.3 66.1 79.8 8.8 7.4 9.0 43.6 47.4 Diagnostic Related Technologists and Technicians . . 2.0 2.2 2.4 . 14.7 66.6 76.2 8.8 8.7 9.8 66.9 23.3 Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics . . 1.7 1.8 . . 27.0 27.6 83.1 6.0 8.8 15.1 69.8 15.1 Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses . 1.4 1.5 1.5 . . 11.0 92.0 63.1 25.4 7.0 20.9 73.4 5.7 Miscellaneous Health Technologists and Technicians . . 1.3 . . . 43.2 64.9 60.2 21.4 10.2 24.4 50.4 25.3 Nursing, Psychiatric, and Home Health Aides .9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 . 22.7 87.1 44.4 36.9 12.6 54.2 37.9 7.9 Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides, Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides . . . 1.7 . . 7.4 78.1 74.4 11.3 10.4 11.4 70.6 18.0 Dental Assistants . 1.2 1.2 . . . 19.4 95.9 65.0 7.7 20.7 34.9 55.0 10.1 Medical Assistants and Other Healthcare Support Occupations, except Dental Assistants . 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 . 14.9 89.4 60.0 17.2 17.6 32.0 56.9 11.1 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Police and Detectives . . 2.5 . 3.0 . 28.1 14.9 78.2 12.1 7.8 13.6 47.7 38.7 Fire Fighters, Fire Inspectors . 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 . 9.1 3.6 81.2 8.5 8.2 18.7 62.2 19.1 Bailiffs, Correctional Offi cers, and Jailers . 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 . 26.5 28.5 63.1 23.4 11.4 34.0 53.2 12.8 Detectives and Criminal Investigators . . 2.5 . 2.9 . 26.9 22.8 72.8 12.7 11.4 9.1 39.3 51.6 Police Offi cers . 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.1 12.5 13.9 72.0 12.7 12.5 13.5 53.0 33.4 Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Offi cers .9 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.6 . 9.4 23.5 50.8 29.7 14.3 42.2 43.7 14.1 Chefs and Head Cooks .9 1.2 1.3 1.6 . . 24.2 16.0 48.9 12.3 20.2 49.3 38.3 12.4 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Food Preparation and Serving Workers .9 1.0 1.1 . 1.5 . 37.2 54.1 60.1 15.8 18.7 51.7 34.5 13.7 Cooks .8 .8 .8 .9 .9 . 26.9 39.6 34.2 16.2 41.5 76.0 19.2 4.9 Food Preparation Workers .7 .8 .8 . . . 17.9 55.8 33.4 14.4 39.9 74.7 19.2 6.2 Bartenders . .9 1.0 . . . 25.3 50.1 78.1 5.4 13.1 38.8 45.0 16.2 Combined Food Preparation and Serving Workers, including Fast Food . .8 . . . . 12.1 73.1 58.6 14.8 19.8 70.5 23.4 6.1 Hosts and Hostesses, Restaurant, Lounge, and Coffee Shop, Waiters and Waitresses .7 .8 .9 . 1.0 . 37.8 66.0 59.4 7.1 23.4 53.0 32.2 14.8 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Food Servers, Non-restaurant . .9 . . . . 31.1 67.4 40.7 25.4 23.5 63.3 29.7 7.0 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Housekeeping and Janitorial Workers 1.1 1.2 1.4 . . . 50.8 35.2 57.7 16.8 22.1 56.9 32.5 10.7 First-Line Supervisors/Managers of Landscaping, Lawn Service, and Groundskeeping Workers . 1.1 1.3 . . . 39.5 5.2 72.9 4.2 21.0 48.5 32.4 19.1 Janitors and Building Cleaners .9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 . 40.0 25.5 48.6 17.4 29.5 71.4 23.6 5.0 Maids and Housekeeping Cleaners .7 .7 .7 . . . 33.7 85.4 29.8 19.3 44.0 80.4 15.6 4.0 Pest Control Workers, Grounds Maintenance Workers .8 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.1 . 1.9 4.7 42.9 7.5 47.5 74.1 19.5 6.3 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Personal Service Workers . .8 1.1 . . . 69.1 59.8 68.2 8.3 11.1 37.5 37.9 24.6 Animal Trainers, Non-farm Animal Caretakers . .0 . . . . 15.9 62.7 83.0 3.9 11.2 46.2 33.3 20.5 Gaming Services Workers, Motion Picture Projectionists, Ushers, Lobby Attendants, and Ticket Takers, Miscella­ neous Entertainment Attendants and Related Workers . 1.3 1.4 . . . 13.3 44.5 55.6 11.7 11.8 41.2 41.4 17.5 Barbers, Hairdressers, Hairstylists, and Cosmetologists . .6 . . . . -5.7 78.5 63.3 15.0 15.0 54.8 38.7 6.5 Miscellaneous Personal Appearance Workers .6 .7 . . . . 2.9 82.1 27.4 2.3 9.5 62.9 27.8 9.3 Baggage Porters, Bellhops, and Concierges, Transportation Attendants . . 1.4 . . . -3.2 46.4 54.4 20.3 17.9 35.7 38.5 25.8 Tour and Travel Guides, Recreation and Fitness Workers . 1.0 1.1 . 1.4 . 21.2 58.2 73.5 12.3 9.5 23.6 36.5 39.9 Child Care Workers . .4 .3 .3 .6 . 193.7 95.6 54.5 19.5 21.4 47.7 38.2 14.0 Personal and Home Care Aides .7 .8 .8 .9 .9 . 16.1 85.4 46.7 26.7 17.9 55.0 34.5 10.5 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.0 41.0 41.3 75.4 7.7 10.8 37.4 38.3 24.3 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Non-retail Sales Workers 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.9 3.4 17.5 28.5 78.0 6.2 10.1 27.2 32.7 40.1 Cashiers .7 .8 .9 .9 1.1 . 32.5 71.8 53.5 15.9 19.7 59.5 29.4 11.2 Parts and Salespersons . 1.3 . . . . 4.1 11.0 80.5 4.9 12.6 58.2 34.9 6.9 Retail Salespersons .9 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.8 1.9 49.3 39.0 73.4 9.5 12.1 36.8 37.9 25.3 Advertising Sales Agents . . 1.8 . 2.6 . 15.8 50.5 82.3 6.6 8.4 13.7 31.1 55.2 Insurance Sales Agents . 1.5 1.6 1.6 2.2 2.4 35.2 45.4 81.7 6.8 8.1 17.2 36.6 46.2 Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents . . 1.9 . 3.4 4.4 53.7 29.0 82.0 5.6 6.7 8.4 22.0 69.7 Sales Representatives, Services, all other . 1.8 2.0 2.0 2.9 3.7 27.3 31.4 82.7 6.3 7.8 17.6 34.1 48.3 Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing 1.4 1.8 2.0 2.1 3.1 3.6 21.2 24.2 85.5 3.3 7.8 19.6 31.9 48.5 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Models, Demonstrators, and Product Promoters, Sales Engineers, and Sales and Related Workers, all other . 1.3 1.7 . 2.6 3.1 42.6 48.1 83.9 4.9 7.1 15.2 25.6 59.3 Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents . 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.5 37.7 49.0 80.8 5.4 8.9 15.1 37.3 47.5 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Offi ce and Administrative Support Workers 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.7 2.2 2.8 29.8 64.3 73.6 11.1 10.9 26.8 43.3 30.0 Bill and Account Collectors . 1.3 1.3 . . . 11.1 71.2 62.0 20.1 15.1 36.1 49.5 14.4 Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators . 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 . 22.9 90.1 71.2 12.3 11.5 36.1 49.8 14.1 Bookkeeping, Accounting and Auditing Clerks . 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.5 . 19.1 88.9 75.8 9.1 9.8 34.9 52.3 12.9 Gaming Cage Workers, Procurement Clerks, Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks . 1.4 1.5 . . . 20.7 85.8 71.9 12.4 10.1 32.9 51.0 16.1 Tellers . 1.0 1.0 . . . 23.0 91.0 70.0 11.8 12.4 41.0 44.4 14.6 Brokerage Clerks, Customer Service Representatives, New Account Clerks 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.9 25.2 68.7 65.3 17.1 13.1 31.8 45.3 22.9 Court, Municipal, and License Clerks . . 1.4 . . . 20.2 80.4 67.4 14.4 13.3 30.2 50.5 19.3 File Clerks . 1.2 1.3 . 1.4 . 14.5 80.9 62.9 18.3 12.6 34.9 46.5 18.6 Loan Interviewers and Clerks . . 1.5 . . . 14.3 82.3 72.7 10.6 11.6 29.5 48.4 22.1 Correspondence Clerks and Order Clerks . 1.2 1.3 . . . 11.3 60.9 68.6 11.7 14.5 45.6 38.0 16.4 Receptionists and Information Clerks . 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 . 19.1 91.5 66.7 13.7 16.0 41.6 46.7 11.7 Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks . . 1.5 . . . 28.5 59.5 61.7 17.0 12.9 28.5 43.8 27.7 Information and Record Clerks, all other . . 1.3 . . . 18.8 86.8 68.4 15.0 11.0 26.1 56.5 17.4 Cargo and Freight Agents, Couriers and Messengers . 1.4 1.6 . . . 31.6 14.1 63.6 14.6 17.1 45.9 42.0 12.2 Dispatchers, Meter Readers, Utilities . 1.4 1.5 1.6 . . 20.7 51.5 72.8 14.1 10.9 42.0 47.0 11.0 Postal Service Clerks . 2.0 2.0 . . . 6.9 48.7 52.3 26.9 9.1 36.5 47.8 15.7 Postal Service Mail Carriers . 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 . 7.0 34.5 67.3 15.7 9.5 35.8 49.4 14.9 Production, Planning and Expediting Clerks . 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.2 . 38.7 55.5 76.4 10.3 9.1 28.4 41.6 30.1 Shipping, Receiving, and Traffi c Clerks 1.1 1.2 1.2 . . . 19.0 29.8 61.0 13.9 20.9 62.2 30.3 7.5 Stock Clerks and Order Fillers .9 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 . 19.2 39.4 58.3 16.6 19.9 59.9 31.8 8.4 Secretaries and Administrative Assistants 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 24.3 96.3 76.5 10.5 9.8 33.2 50.3 16.6 Computer Operators and Statistical Assistants . 1.4 1.6 . . . 31.8 51.2 68.9 14.1 9.8 26.9 47.4 25.7 Data Entry Keyers . 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 . 28.9 81.1 63.5 17.7 12.6 37.9 47.3 14.9 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Word Processors and Typists . 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.4 . 18.3 90.0 67.3 16.4 10.5 36.3 48.2 15.5 Insurance Claims and Policy Processing Clerks . 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6 . 18.1 83.5 69.7 17.0 10.3 31.0 46.9 22.2 Mail Clerks and Mail Machine Operators, except Postal Service and Office Machine Operators, except Computer . 1.1 . . . . 19.1 51.2 54.0 22.4 15.6 53.1 36.9 10.1 Proofreaders and Copy Markers, Office Clerks, General . 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5 . 21.7 84.1 63.8 15.7 14.4 35.7 46.8 17.4 Miscellaneous Office and Administrative Support Workers, including Desktop Publishers . 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.2 33.3 74.6 68.7 15.5 10.6 25.9 43.4 30.6 Graders and Sorters, Agricultural Products, Miscellaneous Agricultural Workers, including Animal Breeders .8 1.0 1.0 . . . 29.0 17.4 35.9 4.3 57.9 81.9 13.6 4.5 Fishing and Hunting, Forest and Conservation, Logging Workers . .9 . . . . -27.6 3.3 79.0 7.8 10.3 77.0 16.0 7.1 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Construction Trades and Extraction Workers 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.3 . 24.8 2.5 79.9 4.1 14.1 56.5 33.1 10.5 Structural Iron and Steel Workers, Reinforcing Iron and Rebar Workers including Boilermakers . 1.8 . . . . 43.7 1.6 70.4 7.6 19.4 68.2 28.7 3.0 Brick Masons, Block Masons, and Stonemasons . 1.4 . . . . -26.9 1.2 52.7 7.1 39.1 77.8 18.3 3.9 Carpenters 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 . .8 1.2 65.1 4.7 27.5 67.2 25.9 6.9 Carpet, Floor, and Tile Installers and Finishers . 1.1 . . . . 10.1 2.1 54.6 3.4 39.8 75.6 18.9 5.5 Construction Laborers 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 . 9.5 2.4 48.7 7.7 41.0 74.7 19.7 5.5 Construction Equipment Operators, Except Paving, Surfacing and Tamping Equipment Operators 1.4 1.6 1.8 . . . -2.0 1.8 77.7 5.9 14.2 75.1 22.0 2.9 Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers, Plasterers and Stucco Masons 1.0 1.1 . . . . 54.7 1.9 35.6 4.4 57.7 84.1 13.2 2.7 Electricians 1.4 1.8 2.0 2.1 1.8 . 5.8 1.8 75.7 6.2 15.2 46.7 46.2 7.0 Glaziers, Insulation Workers, Paperhangers . 1.4 . . . . 64.1 3.1 65.5 7.0 25.3 70.9 24.2 5.0 Painters, Construction and Maintenance .9 1.1 1.0 . . . 67.3 4.8 48.9 6.1 42.9 73.8 19.8 6.4 Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefi tters, and Steamfi tters 1.3 1.7 1.9 2.0 . . 25.9 1.0 71.9 6.4 19.9 63.1 32.6 4.3 Roofers 1.0 1.2 . . . . 130.6 .9 43.3 5.3 49.2 84.7 11.7 3.6 Sheet Metal Workers . 1.7 . . . . 19.6 3.1 77.5 5.8 14.0 65.4 31.5 3.2 Miscellaneous Construction . 1.5 . . . . 10.7 5.7 62.4 9.1 26.0 67.0 27.0 6.0 Construction and Building Inspectors . . 1.9 . . . 12.0 11.5 76.9 7.3 11.5 27.7 47.1 25.2 Highway Maintenance Workers . 1.3 . . . . 6.9 3.3 76.1 10.0 12.2 69.0 28.3 2.7 Ext-Mining Machine Operators . 2.1 . . . . 17.0 3.1 82.9 5.1 10.7 69.2 27.1 3.8 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate First-line Supervisors/Managers of Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers . 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.6 . 16.9 6.9 80.0 7.0 9.9 43.1 44.0 12.9 Computer, Automated Teller, and Offi ce Machine Repairers . 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.9 . 3.9 11.6 71.6 10.6 9.6 22.0 56.0 22.0 Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers . 2.0 2.2 2.2 . . 3.2 11.5 72.3 13.0 10.7 32.5 54.8 12.7 Avionics Technicians, Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians . 2.0 2.2 2.3 . . 21.7 4.3 73.8 7.3 13.2 32.6 56.2 11.2 Other Electric/Electronic . 1.7 1.8 . . . 20.2 3.9 72.0 8.3 15.0 43.0 48.4 8.6 Automotive Body and Related Repairers, Automotive Glass Installers and Repairers 1.2 1.5 . . . . 33.4 1.3 69.2 4.5 23.4 73.0 24.4 2.5 Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.6 . . 23.1 1.2 69.5 6.7 19.6 63.3 32.8 3.9 Bus and Truck Mechanics and Diesel Engine Specialists 1.5 1.7 1.8 . . . -22.2 .8 77.3 6.8 13.0 63.3 34.1 2.5 Heavy Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Service Technicians and Mechanics . 1.8 1.9 . . . 4.7 1.0 81.1 4.9 12.5 61.9 34.4 3.7 Small Engine Mechanics, Miscellaneous Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics, Installers and Repairers, Control and Valve Installers and Repairers . 1.3 . . . . -24.3 2.5 73.9 8.9 15.5 65.0 30.0 5.0 Heating, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers . 1.6 1.8 1.8 . . 5.3 1.0 74.8 6.7 16.0 51.7 42.6 5.7 Home Appliance Repairers, Maintenance Workers, Machiners, Millwrights . 1.7 2.0 . . . 30.7 3.3 81.5 6.3 9.6 55.2 39.2 5.6 Industrial and Refractory Machinery Mechanics 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.0 . . 28.2 3.1 76.8 7.1 12.9 53.4 41.3 5.3 Maintenance and Repair Workers, General 1.2 1.6 1.7 1.9 . . 19.9 3.0 71.3 8.8 16.1 56.1 37.9 6.0 Electrical Power-line Installers and Repairers . 2.4 2.6 . . . 61.0 1.2 80.8 7.1 10.8 51.3 43.4 5.3 Telecommunications Line Installers and Repairers . 2.0 2.2 . . . 14.5 5.9 67.4 15.0 14.8 41.3 49.1 9.6 Other-installation, Maintenance, and Repair Workers 1.1 1.4 1.6 . . . 24.8 6.6 71.5 8.1 16.6 56.0 35.9 8.1 First-line Supervisors/Managers of Production and Operating Workers 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.5 3.1 41.4 17.9 72.6 9.1 14.0 49.3 34.9 15.8 Food and Tobacco Roasting, Baking, and Drying Machine Operators and Tenders, Food Batchmakers, Food Cooking Machine Operators and Tenders . 1.3 . . . . 55.8 35.5 61.5 11.3 22.5 67.4 26.4 6.2 Electrical, Electronics, and Electromechanical Assemblers . 1.1 . . . . 29.2 55.6 49.0 11.5 19.6 68.7 24.5 6.9 Miscellaneous Assemblers and Fabricators .9 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.3 . 31.5 40.0 57.5 14.2 18.9 68.3 26.1 5.6 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings 31 
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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Bakers . 1.0 . . . . 23.4 49.0 44.5 10.9 37.6 70.2 22.6 7.2 Butchers and other Meat, Poultry, and Fish Processing Workers .9 1.2 . . . . 39.8 21.3 44.0 10.4 40.7 78.7 18.7 2.6 Aircraft Structure, Computer Control Programmers/Operators, Extruding/Drawing, Forging, Rolling Machine Setters, Opera- tors and Tenders, Metal and Plastic . 1.5 . . . . 32.1 10.8 77.6 7.4 10.7 58.3 35.9 5.7 Cutting, Punching, and Press Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic . 1.2 . . . . 38.4 21.2 71.6 10.4 14.8 72.1 24.1 3.8 Machinists 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.8 . . 39.6 3.8 76.6 5.7 12.1 58.9 37.6 3.5 Metal Workers including Kiln Model Makers, Molders and other Machine Setters 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8 . . 44.7 6.2 69.5 8.5 18.6 69.3 27.9 2.9 Miscellaneous Metal Workers and Plastic Workers, including Milling and Planning, and Multiple Machine Tool Setters and Lay-out Workers 1.1 1.3 1.4 . . . 37.4 23.0 54.8 12.7 24.4 71.1 24.4 4.5 Bookbinders and Bindery Workers, Job Printers, Prepress Technicians and Workers . 1.3 . . . . 40.1 34.2 72.7 9.8 12.3 56.0 32.1 11.9 Printing Machine Operators . 1.4 1.5 . . . 50.2 15.0 72.6 9.1 14.5 63.5 30.2 6.3 Laundry and Dry-cleaning Workers .7 .8 . . . . 25.3 60.2 37.1 15.9 35.2 78.7 14.6 6.7 Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Workers .8 .9 . . . . 29.4 53.5 47.2 12.3 28.0 74.9 17.3 7.7 Sewing Machine Operators .7 .8 . . . . 17.5 73.4 33.1 11.0 42.1 82.9 13.2 3.9 Miscellaneous Woodworkers, including Model Makers and Pattern Makers . 1.1 . . . . 26.3 11.9 69.9 5.8 20.3 73.8 19.9 6.3 Power Plant, Water and Liquid Waste Treatment, Miscella- neous Plant and System Operators . 1.9 2.2 . . . 21.3 4.9 79.7 8.7 9.2 42.2 45.7 12.0 Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators . 2.0 2.0 . . . 25.4 2.9 70.9 13.6 11.2 45.2 44.7 10.1 Chemical Processing Machine, Extruding, Forming, Press- ing and Compacting, Furnace, Kiln, Oven, Drier, and Kettle Operators and Tenders . 1.7 . . . . 42.9 13.7 70.4 13.3 13.0 55.3 35.1 9.6 Crushing, Grinding, Polishing, Mixing, and Blending Workers . 1.4 . . . . 28.2 10.5 62.6 12.9 20.8 66.4 28.1 5.5 Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.8 2.0 . 54.1 38.0 66.9 11.3 14.7 48.0 37.3 14.8 Other Production Workers, including Semiconductor Proces- sors and Cooling and Freezing Equipment Operators 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 . 38.6 28.7 56.2 14.2 23.5 68.1 25.7 6.1 Packaging and Filling Machine Operators and Tenders .8 1.1 . . . . 33.8 56.7 37.0 17.1 40.4 77.8 18.0 4.3 Painting Workers 1.1 1.4 . . . . 46.6 12.7 57.6 9.9 29.6 75.1 21.7 3.2 Supervisors, Transportation and Material Moving Workers . 1.8 1.9 . 2.3 . 30.8 18.7 69.7 12.5 13.4 43.4 38.9 17.6 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

32 Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce 
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 Lifetime Earnings by Degree (in millions of dollars) Distributions of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Educational Attainment within Occupations Occupation Less than High School High School Diploma Some college Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s/ Profes­ sional/ Doctoral Gender Earnings Gap % Percent Female Percent White• Percent African American• Percent Latino• Percent High School or less Percent Some Col­ lege and Associate’s Percent BA and Graduate Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers, Air Traffic Controllers and Airfield Operations Specialists . . . . 3.9 . 24.0 8.5 88.7 4.3 4.4 7.7 29.4 62.9 Ambulance Drivers and Attendants, Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs, Motor Vehicle Operators, all other .8 .9 .9 . . . 10.2 12.8 39.5 28.6 20.7 55.1 31.4 13.5 Bus Drivers . 1.2 1.3 . . . 39.4 41.2 45.2 35.3 15.4 54.2 38.7 7.1 Driver/Sales Workers and Truck Drivers 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 . 42.2 3.8 64.9 14.0 18.4 68.5 26.8 4.8 Locomotive Engineers, Railroad Brake, Signal and Switch Operators, Railroad Conductors and Yardmasters, Subway, Streetcar, and other Rail Transportation Workers . 2.4 2.5 . . . 22.6 6.8 71.8 18.4 7.5 44.2 44.5 11.3 Parking Lot, Service Station Attendants . .9 . . . . 20.9 15.4 48.0 17.6 26.2 65.8 24.8 9.5 Conveyor Operators/Tenders, Hoist/Winch Operators, Miscel- laneous Material Moving/Transportation Workers, Inspectors . 1.6 1.8 . . . 41.3 13.7 67.4 14.1 14.6 49.8 41.2 9.1 Crane and Tower, Dredge, Excavating, and Loading Machine, Pumping Station Operators . 1.9 . . . . 26.5 2.7 77.5 8.6 12.0 71.7 24.7 3.7 Industrial Truck and Tractor Operators 1.1 1.2 1.3 . . . 6.1 8.7 49.2 21.1 27.4 76.8 20.7 2.6 Cleaners of Vehicles and Equipment .9 1.0 . . . . 7.9 13.3 36.2 18.9 41.9 79.1 17.4 3.5 Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers, Hand, Machine Feeders and Offbearers 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 . 27.6 18.2 59.6 15.2 21.6 70.6 24.5 5.0 Packers and Packagers, Hand .8 .9 . . . . 25.5 60.2 34.1 12.5 46.2 80.5 15.6 4.0 * Percent White, Percent African American and Percent Latino rows total to 100% (may not add to exactly 100% due to missing other races.) 

Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings Report 
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Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings

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