Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics 

of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

In collaboration with the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, and the

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality

Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5044

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover photograph: Early 1900s Otsego City Dam on the Kalamazoo River in Otsego, Michigan. 

Photographer unknown.
Historical and Simulated Changes in 

Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo 

River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

By Cynthia M. Rachol, Faith A. Fitzpatrick, and Tiffiny Rossi

In cooperation with the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, and the

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality

Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5044

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2005

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Denver Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

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Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

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Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Rachol, C.M., Fitzpatrick, F.A., and Rossi, T., 2005, Historical and simulated changes in channel characteristics of the 

Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5044, 

62 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract .......................... 1

Introduction ................... 1

Purpose and Scope ............................................................................................................................. 3

History of the Kalamazoo River dams ............................................................................................... 3

Kalamazoo River Drainage Basin Characteristics ......................................................................... 5

Geomorphic processes and bank-stability concepts .................................................................... 7

Methods ....................... 10

Analysis of Historical Documents and Aerial Photographs ....................................................... 10

Longitudinal Profile Development ................................................................................................... 12

Valley and Channel Cross-Section Data Collection and Aggregation ...................................... 12

Streambank-Stability Assessment .................................................................................................. 12

Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics .......................................................... 15

Channel Planform Changes from 1830s to 1999 ............................................................................ 15

Longitudinal Profiles .......................................................................................................................... 17

Valley Cross Sections ........................................................................................................................ 17

Streambank Stability ......................................................................................................................... 19

Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 22

Acknowledgements .... 23

References Cited ........ 23

Appendix A. Valley and designed channel cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from 

Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan ......................................................................................................... 27

Appendix B. Geotechnical parameters from field tests of streambanks for the Kalamazoo

River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan ..................................................................................... 47

Appendix C. Maps showing channel change from early to mid-1830s to 1999 at selected

locations on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan ................................................................................ 49

Figures

1-7. Maps showing:

1. Location of the Kalamazoo River and detailed Study area in Michigan ............................. 2

2. Locations of major dams within the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan ............ 4

3. Surficial geology of the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan ................................. 5

4. Soil distribution in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan .................................... 6

5. Location of U.S. Geological Survey stream-gaging stations in the Kalamazoo River 

drainage basin, Michigan ........................................................................................................... 7

6. Land cover in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan, 1997 to 2000 ..................... 8

7. Pre-settlement (1816-1856) land cover in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, 

Michigan ....... 8

8-10. Diagrams showing:

8. Sediment zones shown in reference to a watershed in plan view and longitudinally ..... 9

9. Common landform features related to streams .................................................................... 10
iv

10. Different modes of streambank failure ................................................................................... 10

11. Map showing location of bank models on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan .................... 14

12-13. Graphs showing:

12. Flow rates used in SEDMOD sediment transport model under 2001-02

flow conditions and 1947 spring flood conditions with dams removed, Kalamazoo 

River, Michigan .......................................................................................................................... 15

13. Longitudinal profile of the Kalamazoo River, Michigan, from its headwaters to 

mouth at Lake Michigan ........................................................................................................... 17

14. Map showing locations of valley cross sections in the Plainwell to Otsego reach

of the Kalamazoo River, Michigan ............................................................................................ 18

15-19. Graphs showing:

15. Example cross section of the Kalamazoo River Valley, Michigan ..................................... 18

16. Cross sections 54.41 and 53.05 for present conditions and designed channel with

dams removed, Kalamazoo River, Michigan ......................................................................... 19

17. Longitudinal profile of present thalweg, present hard bottom lowest elevation, and

designed channel thalweg in the Plainwell to Otsego reach of the Kalamazoo River,

Michigan ..... 19

18. Planform of desgined channel and approximate area with impounded sediment,

Kalamazoo River, Michigan ..................................................................................................... 19

19. Water surface profiles for the HEC-RAS simulation of bankfull flood and floods in 

the design channel with 2- and 50-year recurrence interval ............................................ 20

20-22. Photographs showing:

20. Undercut banks typical of the Plainwell to Otsego reach ................................................... 22

21. Localized bank failure site included in study ........................................................................ 22

22. Material eroded from the bank becomes part of the bank toe .......................................... 22

Tables

1. Slopes used in bank-stability assessment for present and dams-removed scenarios,

Kalamazoo River, Michigan ......................................................................................................... 15

2. Factor of safety predicted by bank-stability model under present conditions .................... 20

3. Factor of safety predicted by bank-stability model under dams-removed conditions ...... 21
v

Conversion Factors, Datum, and Abbreviations

Multiply By To obtain

Length mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

Area square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)

square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2)

Volume cubic yards (yd3) 0.7646 cubic meter (m3)

Flow cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Mass milligram (mg) 0.00003527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound, avoirdupois (lb)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 

(NAVD 88).

Abbreviations used in this report:

ARS United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service

BBL Blasland, Bouck, and Lee, Inc.

DEM Digital Elevation Model

DOQ Digital Orthoquadrangle

DPI Dots per Inch

DRG Digital Raster Graphic

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

GLO Government Land Office

MDEQ Michigan Department of Environmental Quality

MDNR Michigan Department of Natural Resources

NMAS National Map Accuracy Standard

NSSDA National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy

OSL Optical Science Lab

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl

TIFF Tagged Image File Format

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

USGS United States Geological Survey
Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel 

Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, 

Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

By Cynthia M. Rachol, Faith A. Fitzpatrick, and Tiffiny Rossi

ABSTRACT

In a study to understand the historical effects of the 

construction and decommissioning of dams on the Kalamazoo 

River, Plainwell to Otesgo, Michigan, and to simulate channel changes that may result if the dams were removed, early 

to mid-1800s General Land Office surveys and aerial photographs from 1938, 1981, and 1999 were compared in order to 

identify historical changes in the river’s planform. This analysis of the 80-mile reach from Morrow Dam to the river mouth 

at Saugatuck provided insight into how susceptible the river 

has been to channel migration. The comparison showed that 

changes in channel width and location were caused mainly by 

construction of dams and subsequent water-level adjustments 

in the impounded reaches upstream from the dams. Braiding also occurred downstream from one of the dams. Minor 

changes in channel form that were not caused by the dams, 

such as the development and cutoff of meander bends, were 

observed.

A more detailed study in a 5-mile reach passing through 

the Plainwell and Otsego City Dams included compiling 

existing valley cross section and longitudinal profile data into 

a database, assessing bank stability, and using a hydrologic 

model to simulate the channel as if the dams were removed. 

Fifty-four valley cross sections compiled from United States 

Geological Survey and consultant data sets were used as a 

base for a bank-stability assessment and to design a hypothetical stable channel without the two dams. The channel design 

involved adjusting the slope, hydraulic geometry, and floodplain width to ensure that water could be transferred through 

the reach without increasing flooding or erosion problems.

The bank-stability assessment focused on conditions that 

are critical to failure. This was accomplished through the use 

of a two step process. The first involved evaluating the sediment removed from the bank toe when the stage is high. The 

second involved calculating the factor of safety for the bank 

based on the water table being elevated higher than the stage, 

mimicing a bank storage effect. Using these paired proccesses, two scenarios of critical conditions were evaluated: 

dams present and dams removed.

Results of the bank assessments showed that, under 

both critical-condition scenarios, the streambanks were more 

susceptible to toe erosion than to block failure. As toe erosion 

progresses, the banks will eventually collapse as supporting 

material underneath is removed. Toe erosion for the damsremoved scenario resulted in higher amounts of erosion than 

for the dams-present scenario, leading to an overall decrease in 

bank stability. Effects of vegetation on the bank stability were 

variable; stability for some banks increase if vegetation was 

present but remain the same for other banks. 

INTRODUCTION

Dams, diversion structures, and channelization have 

affected the Kalamazoo River since the mid-1800s. Modification of the river has led to the development of a variety 

of depositional environments that would otherwise not have 

been present; some of these areas contain sediments contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from papermill 

carbonless copy paper recycling (Blasland, Bouck, and Lee, 

Inc., 1996). The sources of these contaminants are believed 

to be within the city of Plainwell and within and near the city 

of Kalamazoo, Mich. Downstream from these cities are four 

low-head dams on the river between Plainwell and Allegan, 

three of which are owned by the State of Michigan (fig. 1). 

These dams were built in the mid- to late 1800s and early 

1900s and were used for power generation and industrial water 

supply. Most of the contaminated sediments were deposited in 

the dam impoundments during the 1950s to 1970s (Blasland, 

Bouck, and Lee, Inc., 1996). 

 1
In 1987, the superstructures (dam gates, turbines, and 

powerhouse) were removed from the State-owned Plainwell, 

Otsego, and Trowbridge dams leaving wingwalls and crests in 

place. In order to remove the superstructures, the pool 

levels were lowered exposing previously inundated flood-plain 

sediments which contain PCBs at elevated concentrations and 

causing the river to incise into the impoundment bottom. The 

remaining low-head structures are in poor condition; and the 

State-owned dams were reinforced in 2001 and the fourth dam 

is being evaluated (Todd King, Camp Dresser and McKee, oral 

commun. 2003). Despite efforts to keep the dams in place, 

PCB-laden sediment continues to be transported and deposited 

downstream from each dam.

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land and 

Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from Michigan 

Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Figure 1. Location of the Kalamazoo River and detailed study area in Michigan. Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

MICHIGAN

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

04106906

04107850

Trowbridge Dam

Otsego Dam Otsego City Dam

Plainwell Dam

Otsego

Plai n well

0 0.5

0 0.5 1 2 KILOMETERS

1 2 MILES

EXPLANATION

STREAMFLOW-GAGING

STATION AND NUMBER

DETAILED STUDY AREA

Kalamazoo River

Sch nable Brook

Gun River

2 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 1. Location of the Kalamazoo River and detailed study area in Michigan.
The Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) 

is interested in removing the State-owned dams and restoring the river channel from Plainwell to below the Trowbridge 

Dam to its pre-dam conditions. The Michigan Department of 

Environmental Quality (MDEQ) and the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA) are interested in understanding the present geomorphic condition of the river channel, its 

flood plain, wetlands, and previous depositional surfaces. All 

three agencies would like to develop a better understanding of 

what the river conditions were before the dams were built and 

to identify potential concerns should the dams be removed. 

The MDEQ and USEPA would like to identify areas susceptible to bank erosion and reaches prone to avulsion.

The goals of this study by the U. S. Geological Survey 

(USGS), in cooperation with the MDEQ and the USEPA, 

were to (1) provide a general description of the geologic 

and hydrologic setting of the Kalamazoo River, (2) identify 

historical changes in planform and slope, (3) provide hydraulic 

geometry and slope data for use in a U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (ARS) channel evolution model, and (4) assess bank stability. The ARS model 

(CONCEPTS) used the data produced in this study to simulate 

the Kalamazoo River under three scenarios: present conditions with the dams in place, present conditions with the dams 

removed, and possible conditions with the designed channel 

and the dams removed (Wells and others, 2003). 

Although engineering studies and construction efforts 

have addressed the stabilization of some of the dams on the 

Kalamazoo River, the consequences of dam removal are 

basically unknown. This study provides data on the potential 

for mobilization, transport, and ultimate fate of PCB-laden 

sediment. Results from this study have substantial potential 

to advance the general understanding of geomorphic and 

sedimentation processes in rivers affected by dams and contamination problems. Data from this study will aid in making 

decisions regarding dam removal more cost effective and scientifically based. The State of Michigan, USEPA, and private 

consultants will use this information to help guide restoration, 

management, and cleanup efforts on the Kalamazoo River. 

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the historical and potential future 

changes in channel shape, streambanks, and streambed for 

the Plainwell/Otsego reach, a detailed reach of the Kalamazoo River that includes two dams that are referred to as the 

Plainwell and Otsego City dams. The objectives of this report 

are to describe the general geologic and hydrologic conditions 

for the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, identify historical 

changes in channel planform and slope for the Kalamazoo 

River from the 1830s to 2002, develop methodologies for constructing valley cross sections and provide hydraulic geometry 

and slope data for the Plainwell/Otsego reach (river mile 51.23 

to 56.67), and show the results of a bank-stability assessment 

through the study reach.

History of the Kalamazoo River dams

There are many historical accounts of dams being constructed in the Kalamazoo River and its tributaries. Most of 

these dams began as crudely assembled earthen structures, and 

others started out as wooden structures that were later rebuilt 

with stone or concrete. At present (2003), there are at least 

seven dams or instream remnants of dams (fig. 2). Because the 

most immediate need for remediation exists at the Plainwell, 

Otsego City, Otsego, and Trowbridge dams, the following 

historical discussion will concentrate on those dams. 

All four dams were constructed to supply either mill 

power or hydroelectric power. Built in 1836, the Otsego City 

Dam is the oldest and is the only dam to presently (2003) have 

its gates in place (Nevins and Dalrymple, 1975). Sixty years 

after the construction of the Otsego City Dam, three hydroelectric dams were built in quick succession: the Trowbridge 

Dam in 1898, Plainwell Dam in 1899, and Otsego Dam in 

1902 (D. Dalrymple, 1972, Dalrymple, 1983). The impounding of water behind the Otsego Dam forced the relocation of a 

settlement that was located where Pine Creek enters the Kalamazoo River (Dalrymple, 1983). The rest of the dams did not 

inundate any established communities when they were built. 

From the 1900s to the 1960s, the three dams were 

actively used for power generation. In 1967, the dams were 

decommissioned from use and turned over to the State of 

Michigan (J. Bernier, Consumers Energy, oral commun., 

2003). In 1973, the gates were permanently opened on the 

State-owned dams, lowering the water levels within the 

impoundments down to their sills (Anderson, 1991; Roy F. 

Weston, Inc., 2002). In 1987, demolition began on the superstructures of the three State-owned dams (Kalamazoo Gazette, 

1987), reducing them to their present configuration. Each of 

the State-owned dams was inspected, and short-term reinforcements were added in the form of riprap, metal sheet wall, and 

grass matting (Todd King, Camp, Dresser, and McKee, oral 

commun., 2002). 

Throughout this time, paper mills thrived upstream from 

the dams in the Plainwell and Kalamazoo areas. The period 

of greatest contaminant release is believed to be from 1950 

to 1970 (Blasland, Bouck, and Lee, Inc., 1996). Some of the 

paper mills recycled carbonless paper, a process that produced 

a waste stream containing PCBs (Roy F. Weston, Inc., 2002). 

Until the early 1950s, paper mills in both Plainwell and 

Kalamazoo discharged wastewater directly into the Kalamazoo River and one of its tributaries, Portage Creek (Blasland, 

Bouck, and Lee, Inc. 1996). By the mid-1950s, all of the 

paper mills had treatment facilities in place. This new wastewater treatment system was combined to treat both the mills’ 

industrial waste and the city’s domestic waste (Kalamazoo 

Gazette, 1975, 1984). It was later realized after contaminants 

had been already released into the river, that the facilities were 

not sufficient to handle these types of inputs.

Many studies of the Kalamazoo River have been conducted since the early 1980s to determine the extent of the 

contamination (Simard, 2003). One of the most recent studies 

INTRODUCTION 3
was by Roy F. Weston, Inc. (2002), in which sediment samples 

were collected within the Plainwell and Otsego City impoundments and their surrounding flood plains and wetlands. The 

results of their analysis show that the maximum and minimum 

concentrations of PCBs within the banks of the river were 

82,100 μg/kg and 5 μg/kg, respectively; maximum and minimum concentrations within flood-plain and wetland samples 

were 84,100 μg/kg and 3 μg/kg. In addition to PCBs, dioxins 

were detected.

The USGS has established stream-gaging stations above 

the Plainwell Dam and below the Trowbridge Dam, collected 

suspended- and bedload-sediment data, and conducted channel 

cross-section surveys that were used to develop a transport 

model to simulate the effects of dam removal. Additionally, 

4 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land and 

Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from Michigan 

Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Figure 2. Locations of major dams within the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan. Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

MICHIGAN

0 2.5 10 MILES

0 2.5 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Otsego

Kalamazoo

Otsego Dam

Trowbridge Dam

Caulkins Dam

Allegan City Dam

Otsego City Dam

Plainwell Dam

Morrow Dam

Plainwell

Allegan

Comstock

Lake Allegan

Kalama zoo River

Figure 2. Locations of major dams within the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.
the USGS collected sediment cores from behind the four dams 

and quantified the volume of post-dam sediment that has 

accumulated behind each of the dams (Rheaume and others, 

2002; 2003).

Kalamazoo River Drainage Basin 

Characteristics

The Kalamazoo River Basin has a drainage area of 

2,020 mi2 and covers parts of 10 counties (Ottawa, Kent, Allegan, Barry, Eaton, Van Buren, Kalamazoo, Calhoun, Jackson, 

and Hillsdale; fig. 1). The Kalamazoo River is a sixth order, 

warm-water stream (Huggler, 1996). The river is approximately 123 mi. long from its headwaters in Calhoun County to 

its mouth at Lake Michigan in Allegan County. The topography consists of gently rolling hills; and the drainage-basin 

relief is 686 ft. Precipitation averages about 35.7 in. annually, 

with 56 percent occurring from April to September; the average seasonal snowfall is 79.7 in. (Knapp, 1987).

Six major sea inundations acted as the main depositional 

environment for the local bedrock units (Deutsch and others, 

1960). The major bedrock units are Mississippian in age and 

include the Marshall Sandstone, Coldwater Shale, and Michigan Formation. Intense folding and erosion of the Marshall 

Sandstone resulted in exposure of the Coldwater Shale, which 

has been susceptible to valley formation (Riggs, 1938). The 

present-day Kalamazoo River occupies the bed of pre-glacial 

drainages within these valleys. Where the folding was less 

intense and erosion was not as severe, the Marshall Sandstone 

formed ridges. Prior to glaciation, these bedrock units were 

eroded to a low relief (Deutsch and others, 1960). 

Advances and retreats of glaciers during the Pleistocene 

resulted in the deposition of thick glacial deposits that form 

the present topography (fig. 3). Moraines—distinct ridges of 

debris deposited directly or pushed by a glacier representing a 

stagnant position of ice—mark the drainage basin where many 

stages of glacial retreat took place. The Kalamazoo River 

cuts across three major morainal systems: the Inner and Outer 

Figure 3. Surficial geology of the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

ALLEGAN

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

Lake

Border Mor aine

Inner

Valparaiso

Outer

Valparaiso

Outer Kalamazoo

Inner Kalamazoo

Tekonsha Moraine

Tekonsha Moraine

Surficial geological features from Michigan Natural Features Inventory.

County boundaries from Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's center: 0.9996.

Longitude of the projection's center: 86 00 00 W. Latitude of the projection's center: 45 18 33 N.

Azimuth at the projection's center: 337.25555555556.

EXPLANATION

FINE TEXTURED GLACIAL TILL

MEDIUM TEXTURED GLACIAL TILL

COARSE TEXTURED GLACIAL TILL

END MORAINES OF FINE TEXTURED TILL

END MORAINES OF MEDIUM TEXTURED TILL

END MORAINES OF COARSE TEXTURED TILL

DUNE SAND

GLACIAL OUTWASH SAND AND GRAVEL, AND 

POSTGLACIAL ALLUVIUM

ICE CONTACT OUTWASH SAND AND GRAVEL

LACUSTRINE SAND AND GRAVEL

MICHIGAN

0 20 MILES

0 20 KILOMETERS

10

10

INTRODUCTION 5

Figure 3. Surficial geology of the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.
Kalamazoo Moraines in west-central Kalamazoo County, the 

Inner and Outer Valparaiso Moraines in east-central Allegan 

County, and the Lake Border Moraine in western Allegan 

County (Monaghan and Larson, 1984; Gephart and Larson, 

1982). Glacial meltwater cut a channel through the moraine 

deposits and enabled the present channel to form despite these 

ridges.

Terrace remnants throughout the Kalamazoo River Valley are evidence of a predecessor to the modern Kalamazoo 

River (Monaghan and Larson, 1984). This proto-Kalamazoo 

River drained from the retreating Saginaw glacial lobe in the 

east and the Lake Michigan lobe in the west. The surrounding 

coarse-grained outwash and glacial till plains supply sand, 

gravel, and cobbles to the modern Kalamazoo River (fig. 3).

The three main soil types within the drainage basin are 

loam, sand, and muck (fig. 4). Loam, the dominant soil type, 

covers 56 percent of the drainage basin and ranges in texture 

from silty clay loam to sandy clay loam. Loam covers most 

of the eastern and central portions of the drainage basin, with 

patches in the western portion that are coincident with endmoraine deposits. Sand, which covers about 42 percent of the 

drainage basin, consists of sand, fine sand, loamy sand, and 

loamy fine sand. About 2 percent of the drainage basin area 

is muck (U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation 

Service, 1994).

A stream-gaging station has been operating on the 

Kalamazoo River at Comstock (USGS station 04106000) 

from 1931 to the present (Blumer and others, 2003; fig. 5). 

The drainage area at Comstock is about 1,010 mi2. For the 

Comstock station’s 72-year period of record, the mean annual 

streamflow is 896 ft3/s. The maximum daily mean flow of 

6,830 ft3/s occurred on April 8, 1947, and the minimum daily 

mean flow of 185 ft3/s occurred on August 7, 1934 (Blumer 

and others, 2003). Historical and present stream-gaging stations on the Kalamazoo River and its tributaries are shown in 

figure 5. 

Land-cover data collected between 1997 and 2000 

indicate that the Kalamazoo drainage basin is dominated by 

agricultural and forested land (fig. 6; Vogelmann and others, 

2001). 

Many historical accounts have described the area as being 

an ideal location for logging and agriculture. Much of the 

Figure 4. Soil distribution in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan. Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

ALLEGAN

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

Soil features from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service.

County boundaries from Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's center: 0.9996.

Longitude of the projection's center: 86 00 00 W. Latitude of the projection's center: 45 18 33 N.

Azimuth at the projection's center: 337.25555555556.

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

EXPLANATION

CLAY LOAM 2.0%

FINE SAND 14.3%

LOAM 1.1%

LOAMY FINE SAND 1.8%

LOAMY SAND 7.5%

SAND 18.3% MUCK 1.9%

SANDY CLAY LOAM 2.6%

SANDY LOAM 50.1%

SILTY CLAY LOAM 0.3%

MICHIGAN

0 20 MILES

0 20 KILOMETERS

10

10

6 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 4. Soil distribution in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.
European settlement grew around the mills on the Kalamazoo 

River. Prior to European settlement, vast forests, wetland, and 

grassland (fig. 7) dominated the drainage basin (Comer and 

others, 1998).

Geomorphic processes and bank-stability 

concepts

Stream channels are created by flowing water eroding 

and depositing sediment. Within a drainage basin, stream 

channels form networks in which erosion and deposition can 

be viewed as occurring in particular zones (fig. 8). Located in 

the headwaters of the drainage basin, the erosion zone is the 

source for much of the stream sediment and runoff. Towards 

the stream mouth, the channel gradient becomes gentler, 

and sediment is deposited. A transitional zone connects the 

erosion and deposition zones. In a stable stream channel, 

sediment moves through the transitional zone with no net 

gain or loss (Schumm, 1977). By looking at the location of a 

reach within its drainage basin, overall erosion and deposition 

processes can be put into perspective.

Gaging station numbers and locations from U.S. Geological Survey annual data reports.

Hydrologic features and county boundaries from Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's center: 0.9996.

Longitude of the projection's center: 86 00 00 W. Latitude of the projection's center: 45 18 33 N.

Azimuth at the projection's center: 337.25555555556.

Figure 5. Location of U.S. Geological Survey stream-gaging stations in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, 

Michigan.

04108660 04108600

04108500

04108000

04107850

04106906

04106500

04106320 04106190

04105800

04105700

04105500

04105000

04104945

04104500

04104000

04103500 04102850 04106300 04106400

04106000 04103010

04106180

Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

ALLEGAN

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

Kalamazoo River 

Drainage Basin

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Station

Number Name StationNumber Name

04102850 South Branch Kalamazoo River near Albion 04106190 Portage Creek at Garden Line near Portage

04103010 Kalamazoo River near Marengo 04106300 Portage Creek near Kalamazoo

04103500 Kalamazoo River at Marshall 04106320 West Fork Portage Creek near Oshtemo

04104000 Battle Creek at Kalamo Road at Charlotte 04106400 West Fork Portage Creek at Kalamazoo

04104500 Battle Creek at State Highway 78 at Bellevue 04106500 Portage Creek at Kalamazoo

04104945 Wanadoga Creek near Battle Creek 04106906 Kalamazoo River at Plainwell

04105000 Battle Creek at Battle Creek 04107850 Kalamazoo River near Allegan

04105500 Kalamazoo River near Battle Creek 04108000 Kalamazoo River near Allegan (discontinued)

04105700 Augusta Creek near Augusta 04108500 Kalamazoo River near Fennville

04105800 Gull Creek at 37th Street near Galesburg 04108600 Rabbitt River near Hopkins

04106000 Kalamazoo River at Comstock 04108660 Kalamazoo River at New Richmond

04106180 Portage Creek at Portage

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

STREAM-GAGING STATION

LOCATION AND NUMBER

04106180

MICHIGAN

INTRODUCTION 7

Figure 5. Location of U.S. Geological Survey stream-gaging stations in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.
Figure 6. Land cover in the Kalamazoo River Drainage Basin, Michigan, 1997 to 20 Lake Michigan

K a l am a zoo R i v e r

D r a in ag e B a s in

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Land cover data from Vogelmann and others, 2001.

County boundaries from Michigan Resource Information System.

DEVELOPED 4.0%

FORE ST 27.4%

AGRICULTURAL 59.2%

WETLAND 6.7%

EXPLANATION

WATER 2.2%

B ARREN 0.3%

S H R U B L A N D 0.1%

GR A S SL AND 0.1%

OTTAWA KENT

ALLEGAN

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

HILLSDALE

0 10 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

MICHIGAN

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's cent

Longitude of the projection's center: 86 00 00 W, Latitude at the projection's center: 45

Azimuth at the projection's center: 337.255555555556.

Figure 7. Pre-settlement (1816-56) land cover in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Land cover data from Comer and others, 1998.

County boundaries from Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's center: 0.9996.

Longitude of the projection's center: 86 00 00 W. Latitude of the projection's center: 45 18 33 N.

Azimuth at the projection's center: 337.25555555556. Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

OTTAWA KENT

ALLEGAN

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

0 20 MILES

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

10 MICHIGAN

EXPLANATION

WATER (2%)

BARREN (6%)

FOREST (53%)

GRASSLAND (24%)

WETLAND (15%)

8 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 6. Land cover in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan, 1997 to 2000.

Figure 7. Pre-settlement (1816-56) land cover in the Kalamazoo River drainage basin, Michigan.
Considered at a smaller scale, erosion and deposition lead 

to the formation of stream-channel features such as terraces, 

flood plains, meander bends, and sand bars. These landforms 

are continuously changing and vary in temporal scale (fig. 9). 

Some features take many years to evolve; others are formed 

over the course of a single large storm. Stream terraces are 

abandoned flood plains that formed when the stream flowed 

at a higher elevation than its present course and are no longer 

related to the modern flow regime. In the Kalamazoo River, 

these terraces were formed 13,500 to 16,000 years ago when 

most of the streamflow consisted of glacial meltwater from the 

Saginaw Lobe (Dorr and Eschman, 1970).

The flood plain is the area adjacent to a stream channel, 

which receives overflow water during storm events. As water 

enters the flood plain, it loses energy and deposits its sediment 

load. Heavier, coarser sediments tend to be deposited at the 

edge of the flood plain, immediately adjacent to the stream, 

whereas finer material settles out farther inland. These localized deposits of coarse material are often referred to as natural 

levees. The stage at which the streamflow meets the cusp 

between the stream channel and the flood plain is commonly 

referred to as the bankfull stage. This stage is commonly 

referred to as the “channel forming” stage because of its high 

frequency and its capacity to erode, transport, and deposit 

sediment.

As a stream channel evolves, it forms meander bends. 

Meander bends start out having a large radius, which over time 

becomes smaller as banks along their outer edge are eroded 

and point bars form along their inner edge. This combination of erosion and deposition exaggerates the channel form 

until, during high flows, water is able to pass directly over 

the neck of the meander bend. These high flows facilitate the 

formation of a new channel across the meander, shortening the 

overall length of the stream channel. Over time, the meander becomes abandoned and leaves traces of where the river 

used to flow in the form of oxbow lakes and filled channels. 

As part of this study, many abandoned oxbows and channels 

were noted as locations of change along the Kalamazoo River. 

These features indicate historical changes in the river’s morphology that provide evidence for the dynamics of the river.

One focus of concern in the Kalamazoo River has been 

the stability of its streambanks. Within the Plainwell to 

Otsego reach, unstable streambanks potentially act as a continuing source to the river of PCB-rich sediments held within 

the flood plain. By understanding the mechanisms behind 

bank failure, the susceptibility of the Kalamazoo River streambanks can be determined.

The failure of a streambank can have many underlying causes and can take one of various forms. Geotechnical properties of the sediment layers, over-steepening of the 

streambank, addition of loads to the top of the bank, saturation 

of the bank, and rapid drawdown of water levels adjacent to 

the bank can contribute to failure (Budhu, 2000). Banks can 

become over-steepened by the removal of material at the base, 

or bank toe, or by the lowering of the streambed adjacent to 

the bank (Amiri-Tokaldany and others, 2003; Osman and 

Thorne, 1988). The bank toe acts to support the overall bank; 

as the toe is removed the stream widens, making the bank 

angle steeper. All sediments have a critical angle of slope that 

is a function of their composition. Once the critical angle is 

exceeded, the sediments cannot support themselves; the result 

is a failure that establishes a new bank angle that is less than 

the critical angle. 

Geotechnical properties of the sediments layers include 

cohesion, saturated unit weight, friction angle, critical shear 

stress, and erodibility. Fluids introduced into the pore spaces 

of the bank sediments can lead to failure by destabilizing the 

bank from within. Saturation and oversaturation of the sediments reduces the amount of cohesion and friction between 

the grains. This reduction allows for slippage between sediment grains, and increased likelihood of bank failure.

Modes of failure include movement of one mass of soil 

sliding over another (translational failure), displacement of 

a wedge-shaped mass of soil (wedge failure), displacement 

of a wedge-shaped mass of soil that has also been undercut 

(beam cantilever failure), and undercutting of the bank (tensile 

cantilever failure) (fig. 10; U.S. Navy, 1986; Easson and Yarbrough, 2002).

Erosion zone Transition zone Deposition zone

Erosion zone Transition zone Deposition zone

Tributaries

Direction of water flow

Mouth

Main stem

Distance upstream from mouth

Elevation

Low gradient

Longitudinal profile

High gradient

Figure 8. Sediment zones shown in reference to a 

watershed in plan view (top) and longitudinally (bottom, 

modified from Schumm, 1977).

INTRODUCTION 9

Figure 8. Sediment zones shown in reference to a watershed 

in plan view (top) and longitudinally (bottom, modified from 

Schumm, 1977).
METHODS

Analysis of Historical Documents and Aerial 

Photographs 

To gain a qualitative perspective on the changes in 

channel width and position in the Kalamazoo River from the 

early to mid-1800s to the present (2003), historical multidate, 

General Land Office (GLO) survey notes and aerial photography were analyzed, in part through time transgressive comparison (a method that aids in understanding the fluvial system 

through visualization). Key features that can be noted from 

aerial photography include drainage patterns, erosion, and 

changes in vegetation, all of which can be useful in interpreting the characteristics of a stream channel (Howe, 1960).

The Michigan Natural Features Inventory digitized 

GLO survey notes into a land cover GIS dataset (Comer and 

others, 1998). The GLO data were collected on a statewide 

county-by-county basis and range in time from 1816 to 1856. 

Although the surveyors’ notes focused extensively on tree 

data, the location of rivers and lakes also was documented. 

Because of the uncertainty present in the interpretation of the 

notes, the application of this dataset was used with caution.

The aerial photography used in this analysis represented 

three time periods: 1938, 1981, and 1999. The 1938 and 1981 

photographs were furnished by the Center for Remote Sensing 

and GIS Aerial Image Archive at Michigan State University as 

individual paper prints. The 1938 photographs were originally 

Bankfull stage

Channel Bank

Bank

Point bar Low flow

Terrace

Outside of meander bend

Flood plain

Inside of meander bend

Channel deposits

Fluvial deposits

Flood plain

(Oxbow lake) 

abandoned

channel

Filled in

abandoned

channel

Levee

Breach in levee

Point bar

Silt & sand & clay

Valley side

Upland

Terrace

Terrace

Terrace

Buried

abandoned

channel

Silt &

clay

Silt & sand & clay Sand Glacial till

Figure 9. Common landform features related to streams (from Fitzpatrick and others, 1999).

NOT TO SCALE

Before Failure After Failure

Translational failure

Slab failure (or wedge failure)

Figure 10. Different modes of streambank failure (used 

with permission from Easson and Yarbrough, 2002). 

Beam cantilever failure

Tensile cantilever failure

10 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 9. Common landform featuers related to streams (from Fitzpatrick and others, 1999)..

Figure 10. Different modes of streambank failure (used with 

permission from Easson and Yarbrough, 2002).
contracted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and 

taken by Edgar Tobin Aerial Surveys (presently Tobin 

International) of San Antonio, Tex. from June to October 

1938. This photography was acquired at a scale of 1:20,000 

(1 in. = 1,666 ft). The 1981 photographs were originally 

contracted by the USGS as part of the National High Altitude 

Photography program (NHAP) and taken by Mark Hurd Aerial 

Surveys, Inc. of Minneapolis, Minn. in May 1981. The photography was acquired at a scale of 1:58,000 (1 in. = 4,833 ft). 

The original paper prints were scanned and saved as 

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) images. The 1938 photography was scanned at a resolution of 510 dots per inch (dpi) 

and the 1981 photography at a resolution of 1,200 dpi for a 

resultant ground resolution of approximately 1 m for both sets 

of imagery. 

Because no information could be obtained on the type 

of camera(s) used in the 1938 photography acquisition, these 

images could not be orthorectified by digital methods. Orthorectification allows errors produced during image processing 

to be reduced. It controls the amount of geometric distortion 

caused by the camera orientation, topographic relief of the 

photographed area, and systematic errors associated with the 

imagery (ERDAS, 2001). Additionally, a coordinate system is 

projected onto the image surface during the orthorectification 

process.

Orthorectification is possible from information obtained 

through a camera calibration report, which was not standard 

for imagery of that period. Camera calibration reports include 

information such as the focal length of the camera, radial lens 

distortion, position of the fiducial marks, and position of the 

principal point of the photograph. Although it is possible to 

orthorectify imagery without a calibration report, either the 

focal length of the camera or average flying height of the aircraft is a necessary component for this process. As an alternative to orthorectification, the 1938 imagery was georectified by 

means of geometric correction. Georectification is an acceptable alternative to orthorectification in this instance, because 

the terrain in the study area is not marked by large changes in 

relief.

Georectification assigns a real-world coordinate system 

to individual photographs and corrects distortions on the basis 

of generic, polynomial transformations (ERDAS, 2001). The 

1938 photographs were individually georectified in ERDAS 

Imagine 8.5 by use of a second-order polynomial transformation. In order to relate the images to points of a known 

location, the analyst used ground-control points such as road 

intersections, hard structures, or, in some rare cases, natural 

features (trees or river bends). Ground-control points used in 

the georectification process were collected from 1998 Series 

USGS Digital Orthophoto Quadrangles (DOQ) from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) that matched 

the area of study. The source imagery was acquired at a scale 

of 1:40,000, with a reported accuracy of +/- 33 ft. During 

the ground-control point collection, the attempt was made to 

select at least nine evenly spaced ground-control points per 

image. Additionally, at least one checkpoint per image was 

collected to measure the accuracy of the geometric-correction 

model. To complete the georectification, the imagery was 

resampled by means of a nearest neighbor interpolation.

For the 1981 photography, camera calibration reports 

were obtainable from the Optical Science Lab (OSL) at the 

Mapping Application Center of the USGS, so the 1981 photography was able to be orthorectified by use of the ERDAS 

Imagine 8.5 Orthobase module. Ground-control points were 

collected from the same reference as the 1938 images. About 

9 evenly spaced ground-control points were selected on each 

image, in addition to 50 tie points per image. 

Tie points are points that are observable on one or more 

overlapping photographs but whose ground coordinates are 

unknown, but. The tie points serve to tie overlapping images 

together. Ground coordinates for the tie points are computed 

through a process called block triangulation, which uses 

the information from the camera calibration report and the 

ground-control-point locations. Two check points per image 

also were collected to measure the accuracy of the block triangulation. Once the block triangulation was done, the distortions from topography were corrected through a process called 

orthoresampling. This process is facilitated in Orthobase by 

matching the image pixels with a corresponding elevation 

pixel from a USGS 30-m digital elevation model (DEM) of the 

study area. The orthoresampling was completed by means of 

bilinear interpolation.

Once the 1938 and 1981 sets of imagery were georectified or orthorectified, the imagery was mosiacked together to 

produce a single image of the study area for each year. Both 

mosiacked images were then accuracy checked by use of 

the Federal Geographic Data Committee’s (FGDC) National 

Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) guidelines. In 

accordance with these guidelines, a minimum of 20 welldefined checkpoints were used to test the accuracy of the 

georectification and orthorectification processes (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998). These checkpoints were collected from a USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle map 

in digital raster graphic (DRG) format, which was assumed to 

be a higher accuracy product than the resultant georectified 

and orthorectified imagery.

The accuracy of the 1938 georectified imagery is 

+/- 78 ft at the 95-percent confidence level. This accuracy 

does not meet the National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) 

for a 1:20,000-scale product. The positional errors in this 

dataset were likely because of the inability to correct for elevation in the georectification process and errors in the groundcontrol-point source data. Because the results of the georectification and orthorectification were to be used in a qualitative 

study, the errors of the 1938 imagery were not a major 

concern. The accuracy for the 1981 orthorectified imagery 

is +/- 77 ft at the 95-percent confidence level. This accuracy 

meets NMAS for a 1:58,000-scale product.

Aerial photography from 1938 and 1981 were acquired 

as individual paper prints and were prepared for use in a GIS 

using the procedure described above. Aerial photography 

METHODS 11
from 1999 were furnished as an orthorectified, GIS-ready 

layer by Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Features of the Kalamazoo River were digitized from the 

aerial photographs for each time period. Some limitations of 

the photography, such as poor contrast from the original prints 

and the vegetative cover at the time of the photograph, have 

introduced error into the interpretation of the streambank. 

However, because the intended purpose for the streambank 

digitizing was for qualitative comparison, these limitations 

were not of great concern. Streambanks and islands were digitized at a scale of 1:2,500 and were identified on-screen with 

ArcMap 8.2 (Minami, 2001).

Longitudinal Profile Development 

A longitudinal profile was constructed for the entire 

length of the Kalamazoo River to identify relative variations in 

slope and potential reaches that are prone to erosion or deposition. Data for the longitudinal profile were gathered from contours and stream lengths measured manually with a planimeter 

from USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle maps. The 

manually derived stream lengths and river miles were updated 

to correspond to GIS-derived river miles. A more detailed 

longitudinal profile for the Plainwell/Otsego reach (river mile 

51.23 to 56.67) was derived from thalweg elevations extracted 

from valley cross-section data.

Valley and Channel Cross-Section Data 

Collection and Aggregation

Data for valley and channel cross sections were needed to 

support the bank-stability models and the ARS channel-evolution model (Wells and others, 2003). Cross-section data for 

the Plainwell/Otsego reach (river mile 51.23 to 56.67) were 

collated from four major sources: USGS cross-section surveys 

of the channel up to the edge of water on both banks, USGS 

bank-profile survey from channel bottom to flood-plain elevations, Blasland, Bouk and Lee, Inc. (BBL) valley and channel cross-section surveys, and USGS 7.5-minute topographic 

quadrangle maps. The USGS collected 98 channel cross 

sections in 2000–02 for the Plainwell/Otsego reach (Rheaume 

and others, 2002; 2003). The USGS channel cross-section 

data extended to the low-flow water surface. Sediment cores 

also were collected during the instream surveys to determine 

the elevation of the pre-dam channel bottom in the impounded 

reaches of the Kalamazoo River. 

BBL collected 32 valley and instream cross-sections in 

1993–94 in the Plainwell/Otsego reach (Blasland, Bouck, and 

Lee, Inc., 1994). These cross sections were used as a base to 

determine valley widths, channel location within the valley, 

and flood-plain, terrace, and valley-side elevations. 

USGS channel cross-section data were combined with 

BBL cross-section data at 55 locations along the Plainwell/

Otsego reach (river mile 51.23 to 56.67). At the time of the 

field data collection, no USGS channel data were available 

for the reach downstream from the Otsego City Dam. For this 

portion of the reach, the BBL cross-section data were used.

Bank profiles for both banks along the main channel 

were surveyed in 2002 by the USGS at each of the combined USGS/BBL cross-section locations in the previously 

impounded reaches above the Plainwell and Otsego City 

Dams. In the braided portion of the reach downstream from 

the Plainwell Dam, some of the bank profiles of the secondary 

also channels were surveyed.

Endpoints of the valley cross-sections from combined the 

data sources were extended by use of elevations and distances 

measured from USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle 

map, if needed. Data were added to a valley cross section from 

this source to ensure that the endpoint elevations were above 

any flood stages historically reached by the river. The resulting cross sections were used by the USDA-ARS for modeling 

sediment transport through the reach. 

The valley cross-sections were used as a base to design 

a potential stable channel through the reach for simulation 

of the removal of the Plainwell and Otsego City Dams. For 

this study, a stable channel was considered to be one in which 

the sediment entering the reach is in equilibrium with that 

leaving the reach. The channel geometry, channel location, 

flood-plain area, and channel elevation were modified on the 

valley cross sections to minimize potential flooding, erosion, and sedimentation problems. USGS data from channel 

sediment cores were used to identify the pre-dam channel 

and flood-plain surface (Rheaume and others, 2002; 2003). 

In addition, the evaluation of historical channel planform was 

used to determine the best location for the designed channel. 

The shape and size of the designed channel and the flood-plain 

width were determined by examining reaches upstream from 

Plainwell and downstream from Otsego that are not presently 

or historically affected by impounded water or sediment. The 

resulting slope of the designed channel through the portion 

of the reach affected by impounded sediment is similar to 

the channel slope near the city of Plainwell and downstream 

from Otsego City dam. The HEC-RAS River Analysis System 

(Brunner, 2002) was used to route floods through the designed 

channel for bankfull and 2- and 50-year recurrence intervals 

(flow magnitudes of 1,700 ft3/s, 2,900 ft3/s, and 6,300 ft3/s, 

respectively). The HEC-RAS simulation results for these 

flows were used to confirm that the designed channel was 

adequate for conveying bankfull flows and that the designed 

flood-plain area was adequate for safely conveying the 50-year 

flood.

Streambank-Stability Assessment 

The present-day (2003) banks and flood plain of the 

study reach were once inundated by water impounded by the 

Plainwell and Otsego City Dams. Since the dewatering of the 

impoundments and subsequent removal of the superstructure 

of the Plainwell Dam, the Kalamazoo River has established 

a new base level by eroding into sediments that had served 

as the impoundment bottom. The surrounding banks contain 

concentrations of PCB and other contaminants (Roy F.Weston, 

Inc., 2002) and may be a continuing source of contaminants 

12 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
into the river. Part of the USGS study was to assess the permanence of these banks under present conditions and if the 

dams were removed. An understanding of the condition of the 

banks and the processes that would lead to failure of the banks 

would aid in the development of management criteria suitable 

for this location. 

 The model used in the streambank-stability assessment 

was the ARS Bank-Stability and Toe-Erosion Model, Static 

Version 3.4, designed by the ARS (Simon and others, 2003). 

The model is run in a Microsoft Excel-based environment and 

is subdivided into a toe-erosion module and a bank-stability 

module. 

Each bank is analyzed individually and is described by 

inputting parameters such as the bank profile, mean bank 

angle (β), layer thickness, and the elevation at which the shear 

surface emerges from the bank. By default, the model separates the bank profile into individual layers, leaving the user 

to define the thickness and geotechnical properties of each 

layer. If the bank is composed of a single homogeneous layer, 

the thickness is subdivided equally into five layers and the 

geotechnical properties are assigned uniformly throughout.

The model contains worksheets for the entry of geotechnical data related to each of the model layers. For the toe-erosion module, the geotechnical data inputs consist of the critical 

shear stress (τc) and erodibility (k) coefficients for the bank 

and bank-toe materials. For the bank-stability module, the 

geotechnical data inputs consist of internal friction angle (φ’), 

cohesion (c’), saturated unit weight (γ), and rate of increase in 

soil shear strength due to matric suction (φb) (Simon and others, 2003). Values used in each of the models are presented in 

appendix B.

The model is a limit equilibrium model, and the end 

result is the calculation of a factor of safety (Fs) for the bank 

under the user-defined hydrologic conditions. The Fs is a ratio 

of the resisting forces and the driving forces and is based on 

the equations for the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for the 

saturated layers of the bank (Simon and Collison, 2002) and 

the Fredlund and others (1978) criterion for the unsaturated 

layers (Simon and others, 2000):

F

c L S W U P

W P s

i i i i

b

i i i i

i i

= + + - + -

-

å ' [ tan ] [ cos cos( )]tan '

sin

f b a b f

å b sin[a b - ]

where i represents the i

th layer;

L is the length of the failure plane within the layer;

S is the force produced by matric suction on the 

unsaturated part of the failure surface;

W is the weight of the layer;

U is the hydrostatic-uplift force on the saturated 

portion of the failure surface;

P is the hydrostatic confining force due to the river 

stage; and

α is the failure plane angle (Simon and others, 

2000).

In the model, Fs values less than 1.0 are considered to be 

unstable, values between 1.0 and 1.3 deemed conditionally 

stable, and values greater than 1.3 are considered to be stable. 

The valley cross-section dataset described in the previous 

section provided the bank profiles and channel slope used in 

the model. Ten cross-section points were used to define the 

bank and bank-toe profiles. Bank angles were determined by 

taking the average bank angle from the top of the bank to the 

top of the bank toe. 

Geotechnical bank data were collected within the study 

reach from April to November 2002. Data-collection locations 

(fig. 11) were chosen to coincide with locations of USGS and 

BBL transects. The geotechnical bank surveys consisted of a 

jet test, a borehole-shear test, and bulk-density and particlesize analysis. The jet test and borehole-shear test are two 

in-situ tests designed to determine geotechnical properties 

specific to the test location. 

A full description of the jet-test apparatus and a discussion of the procedure used for data collection is presented 

in Hanson and Simon (2001). The jet test yields the τc and 

k input parameters for the toe-erosion module of the model. 

Data collected from the borehole-shear test enable the φ’ and 

c’ to be determined. Handy and Fox (1967) and Thorne and 

others (1981) describe the apparatus and procedure for data 

collection.

Hydrologic data used in the model consist of river stage 

and water-table elevation. Because the emphasis is on the 

potential for bank failure, the critical hydrologic conditions 

necessary for failure were used. For the toe-erosion module, 

the stages used at each bank-assessment location consisted 

of maximum water-surface elevations under present and 

flood conditions. By using the maximum stage elevations, 

the model biases its prediction in favor of the largest amount 

of possible erosion for that particular combination of stage, 

duration, and bank material. The streambank’s post-erosion 

geometry is output from the toe-erosion module and serves as 

the input for the bank-stability module. 

In the bank-stability module, the minimum water-surface 

elevations predicted by another model were used, and the 

water-table elevation was placed at or near the top of the bank 

immediately adjacent to the river in order to oversaturate the 

bank. Oversaturation would result in excess pore-water pressures, decreasing bank stability. 

Water-surface elevations at each bank location were 

based on the results of a one-dimensional sediment transport model, SEDMOD, by USGS (Syed and Bennett, 2004). 

SEDMOD was used to determine the erosion and transport of 

sediments through a reach of Kalamazoo River between the 

Plainwell and Allegan stream-gaging stations under present 

and flood conditions. The present conditions used in the SEDMOD model reflect the streamflow measured at the Kalamazoo River at Plainwell stream-gaging station for a 730-day 

period from January 1, 2001 to December 31, 2002 (fig. 12). 

The flood conditions used in the SEDMOD model reflect the 

streamflow measured at the Kalamazoo River at Comstock and 

Kalamazoo River near Fennville stream gaging stations for a 

60-day flood period in spring 1947 (fig. 12). The flood-conditions model scenario also included the hypothetical removal of 

the Plainwell and Otsego City Dams. 

METHODS 13
Figure 11. Location of bank models on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan. 

EXPLANATION

KALAMAZOO RIVER 

DRAINAGE BASIN

BANK MODEL LOCATION

AND SITE NAME

56.67

Otsego City Dam

Plainwell Dam

Otsego

Plainwell

56.67 56.29

56.03

55.87

55.72

55.62

55.45

55.30 55.20

55.10

55.01

54.12

53.73 53.19 52.59

51.83 52.25

51.43

51.23

54.68-L

54.61-L

54.68-R

54.54

54.46

54.61-R

0 0.5 1 MILE

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN MICHIGAN H

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from 

Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

14 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 11. Location of bank models on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan.
assessed without vegetative cover and with covers of eastern 

cottonwood, gamma grass, switch grass, sycamore, and black 

willow. 

HISTORICAL AND SIMULATED 

CHANGES IN CHANNEL 

CHARACTERISTICS

Channel Planform Changes from 1830s to 1999

Comparison of streambanks interpreted from 1830s 

GLO surveys and digitized from 1938, 1981, and 1999 aerial 

photography shows that the Kalamazoo River has not been 

prone to appreciable lateral migration. For brevity, the results 

of changes in channel characteristics described in this section 

describe changes observed and do not describe the Kalamazoo 

River on a river-mile-to-river-mile basis. 

Most of the observed changes can be attributed to 

channel shortening by cutting across meander bends, or to 

human influences such as channelization or the construction 

of impoundments on the river. An example of a developing 

meander bend is shown in appendix C1. From river miles 

9.5 to 10.5, the neck of land between the river bends became 

narrower from the 1830s to 1999. Numerous bends throughout the reach analyzed showed a similar trend. In some cases, 

the aerial photographs show oxbow lakes and filled channels 

adjacent to the river.

Movement and channelization of the mouth of the Kalamazoo River was observed in this analysis. As shown by 

streambanks interpreted from the early to mid-1800s GLO survey notes, the historical course of the Kalamazoo River moved 

along a wide bend as it emptied into Lake Michigan (appendix 

C2). In 1904, the bend was altered so that the river mouth 

was moved to its present-day course, approximately 0.75 mi 

northwards and the channel was straightened (W.F. Baird and 

Associates, 1999).

Dams built on the Kalamazoo River, which include the 

Caulkins Dam, Allegan City Dam, Trowbridge Dam, Otsego 

Dam, Otsego City Dam, and Plainwell Dam, are shown in 

figure 2. Caulkins Dam was built in 1935 (J. Bernier, Consumers Energy, oral commun., 2003) and is upstream from 

Swan Creek Marsh at river mile 26.25. This impoundment is 

known as Lake Allegan and backs up water to river mile 33. 

Streambanks interpreted from the GLO surveys show that the 

former channel meandered within the banks of the presently 

impounded area (appendix C3).

Upstream from Lake Allegan, the Kalamazoo River 

passes through the city of Allegan. The Allegan City Dam 

is located within the city at river mile 36. This dam was 

originally built in 1840 for hydromechanical use (J. Bernier, 

Consumers Energy, oral commun., 2003). The dam presently 

impounds water three-quarters of a mile upstream. 

The Trowbridge Dam is at river mile 45 and was built in 

1898 (Dalrymple, 1972). When the impoundment was at its 

Channel slopes were interpreted from the valley crosssection data for the present-conditions bank assessments. To 

remain consistent with the input water-surface elevations 

under flood conditions, the channel slopes used in the floodconditions bank assessments were based on the SEDMOD 

bed-elevation results. The modeled reach was broken up into 

subsections, and the slopes used are summarized in table 1.

Table 1. Slopes used in bank-stability assessment for present and 

dams-removed scenarios, Kalamazoo River, Michigan

River mile

Presentconditions 

slope

Damsremoved 

slope 56.67-55.72 0.0008 0.0009

55.72-55.2 .0015 .0016

55.2-54.93 .0002 .0009

54.8-54.54 .0032 .0032

54.54-53.22 .0003 .0001

52.59-51.23 .0005 .0010

In the bank-stability module, the user has the ability to 

specify varying vegetative cover, which may affect bank stability. By default, the model calculates the Fs

 without vegetative 

cover. For the models developed in this study, each bank was 

Figure 12. Flow rates used in SEDMOD sediment 

transport model under (A) 2001-02 flow conditions and 

(B) 1947 spring flood conditions with dams removed, 

Kalamazoo River, Michigan.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

TIME, IN DAYS

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

(A)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

TIME, IN DAYS

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

(B)

HISTORICAL AND SIMULATED CHANGES IN CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS 15

Figure 12. Flow rates used in SEDMOD sediment transport 

model under (A) 2001-02 flow conditions and (B) 1947 spring 

flood conditions with dams removed, Kalamazoo River, 

Michigan.
full height, its backwaters extended upstream to river mile 49. 

The water level within the impoundment was lowered in 1973 

(Anderson, 1991), resulting in a decrease in the area inundated. The present impoundment area extends upstream to 

river mile 47.25 (appendix C4). The lowering of the impoundment head has led to the exposure of various islands within a 

1-mi stretch directly upstream from the dam that was previously mapped as a single straight channel in the GLO surveys. 

These islands are readily inundated at high flows. Within this 

island area, Rheaume and others (2000) found 7- to 11-ft thick 

layers of the fine-grained sand/silt/clay material that is associated with the PCB contamination.

At the edge of the former Trowbridge impoundment 

backwater (river mile 49), a channel meander was cut off once 

the impoundment head was lowered. When the impoundment was at its original height, the land encompassed by this 

meander was transformed into an island. Although this island 

is still visible in the 1999 aerial photographs, a recent (2003) 

field reconnaissance indicated that the channel surrounding the 

island is no longer active. 

The Otsego Dam is at river mile 49.5. This dam was built 

in 1902 (Dalrymple, 1972), and, similar to Trowbridge, the 

head on the impoundment was lowered in 1973 (Anderson, 

1991). The GLO survey notes show that the original course of 

the river was to the right of the present spillway. The present 

impoundment backwater extends 1.75 mi upstream, just below 

the M-89 bridge (appendix C5). Originally, the inundated 

area was larger, yet the backwater extended only 0.25 mi 

further upstream than it currently (2003) does. Comparison 

of the GLO survey notes with the 1938 aerial photography 

shows that the river channel has been shifted slightly (river 

mile 49.75 to 50.25) and that the confluence with Pine Creek 

has been moved downstream about 500 ft (river mile 50.5). 

Pine Creek is currently impounded by a small wetland control 

structure. The backwater created by this structure inundates 

an area similar to what the Otsego Dam used to flood when it 

was at its full height (appendix C5). The Pine Creek impoundment was dewatered for a short period in 2000 in order to flush 

out sediment (Dennis Eagle, Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, oral commun., 2000); recent observations 

show that the previous water levels have been reestablished.

The Otsego City Dam is at river mile 53. Originally built 

in 1835 (Nevins and Dalrymple, 1975), the GLO survey notes 

show that an island was at the site of the present-day dam. 

The 1938 aerial photographs show a bypass to the south of the 

dam (appendix C6). This bypass was filled in 1957, and a low 

area along the city riverfront marks its location.

The Plainwell Dam is at river mile 54.9. Within the 

1.75-mi distance between the Otsego City and Plainwell Dams 

lies the most complex portion of the Kalamazoo River. This 

reach is characterized by an anastomosing channel because the 

river splits into multiple channels below the dam and the Gun 

River enters the Kalamazoo River (river mile 53.5). A comparison of the aerial photography shows that the water levels 

behind the Otsego City impoundment were increased in 1981 

and were lowered by 1999. Through the impounding of the 

Kalamazoo River and adjustment of water levels, the mouth of 

the Gun River has been extended close to 1800 ft downstream 

from its location shown as the GLO surveys.

Upstream from the Plainwell impoundment, a comparison of the 1999 aerial photographs with the GLO survey 

notes reveals that the present-day planform of the river closely 

matches that of the mid-1800s. The 1938 aerial photographs 

show that the spillway for the Plainwell Dam released water 

to the west of the present spillway and that the edge of the 

impoundment backwater when the dam was in full operation 

extended 1.6 mi upstream to river mile 56.5 (appendix C7). A 

number of islands formed at this location from sediment being 

deposited as the water velocities slowed when going into the 

impoundment. The present impoundment extends to river 

mile 55.8 and has similar islands marking its edge.

In the 1880s, a millrace was dug and a diversion structure was built, diverting water from the Kalamazoo River and 

forming an island on which the city of Plainwell was built 

(river miles 56.7-58.3). In order to provide a new route for 

water that passed through the diversion structure, a bend was 

formed in the Kalamazoo where the GLO survey notes show a 

straight channel had been (appendix C8). The reach along this 

bend forms the main channel of the river.

Meander bends that had been cut off prior to the GLO 

surveys can be seen at river miles 60.5–61 (appendix C9) and 

64.5. Other observations include a bend cutoff at river miles 

71.8–72.2 between the time period of the 1938 and 1981 

aerial photographs, and a meander bend cut off at river mile 

75 between the time period of the GLO surveys and the 1938 

aerial photographs.

Built in 1941, Morrow Dam is at river mile 76.4 (J. Bernier, Consumers Energy, oral commun., 2003). The backwater 

in this impoundment extends upstream to river mile 79.4. 

The GLO surveys and 1938 aerial photographs show that this 

impoundment inundates a reach consisting of many bends 

(appendix C10). Comparisons between these two sources 

of data show changes in which the channel has shifted as the 

river meandered. 

Overall, the large-scale changes in the course of the Kalamazoo River can be attributed to the placement of dams. The 

comparison of aerial photography to the GLO surveys within 

the impoundment areas indicated that as the impoundment 

heads were established, the river responded by inundating its 

banks and creating backwater. Downstream from each dam, 

the river returned to what is believed to be its pre-dam character: a fairly straight, gravel bottom, steep-sloping channel. In 

the case of the Plainwell Dam, the river flows almost immediately into the backwater of the Otsego City Dam and the river 

is not able to reestablish its original form. The lowering of 

water levels and removal of the dam superstructure within the 

Plainwell impoundment caused sediment to erode from the 

impoundment and fill in the main channels of the anastomosed 

reach immediately downstream. This reach formed new channels and shifted the location of the main channel southwards 

(appendix C6; Rheaume and others, 2003). 

16 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Longitudinal Profiles

The longitudinal profile for the entire length of the 

Kalamazoo River is a reflection of two major factors: glacially related landforms and the presence of dams (fig. 13). 

The steep profile and average slope of 0.016 of the headwater reach upstream from Mosherville Lake (river mile 152) 

reflects drainage from the Tekonsha moraine. Downstream 

from Mosherville Lake (river mile 152 to 60) the average 

slope is 0.0006. From river mile 60 to 40, a distance that 

includes the Plainwell/Otsego reach, the slope steepens to an 

average of 0.001 as the river cuts through the outer Valparaiso 

Moraine and associated outwash deposits. Rapids were present 

at Otsego prior to the construction of the Otsego City Dam 

(Dalrymple, 1983). The slope flattens as the Kalamazoo River 

nears its mouth at Lake Michigan (about 0.0001). Steeper 

slope and mid-profile position of the Plainwell/Otsego reach 

(river mile 51.23 to 56.67) indicate that the reach originally 

functioned as a zone of sediment and water transfer. The 

building of the dams has changed this reach from a transfer 

zone into a zone of sedimentation, with localized scour below 

the dams. 

Valley Cross Sections

Valley cross-section locations for the Plainwell/Otsego 

reach (river mile 51.23 to 56.67) are shown in figure 14. The 

cross-section labels reflect the river mile at which the cross 

section is located. Valley cross-section diagrams for present 

conditions (2001–02) with the two dams are in appendix A. 

An example of data sources for the cross-sections is shown 

for cross section 54.41 in figure 15. This cross section is in 

the braided section of the river below the Plainwell Dam 

and is one of the most complex cross sections, with a main 

channel and three side channels. How the different data sets 

were combined is illustrated in figure 15, with coarse points 

having been derived from the USGS 7.5-minute topographic 

quadrangle maps and consultant cross sections, and the more 

detailed points obtained by combining the USGS bank surveys 

and instream sounding and coring data.

Valley cross sections with a designed channel for the 

dams-removed scenario are shown in appendix A. The channel geometry, channel location, flood-plain area, and channel 

elevation were modified to minimize potential flooding, erosion, or sedimentation problems. Examples of how two cross 

sections were modified are shown in figure 16.

For the reach upstream from the Plainwell Dam, cross 

sections from river mile 55.33 to 56.67 (fig. 14) were not modified because they are upstream from impoundment effects 

HISTORICAL AND SIMULATED CHANGES IN CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS 17

Figure 13. Longitudinal profile of the Kalamazoo River, Michigan, from its headwaters to mouth at Lake Michigan. 

Locations of dams within study area are highlighted in red.

Figure 13. Longitudinal profile of the Kalamazoo River, Michigan, from its headwaters to mouth at Lake 

Michigan. Locations of dams within study area are highlighted in red. 

550

650

750

850

950

1,050

1,150

0 50 100 150 200

RIVER MILE FROM MOUTH

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

Lake Allegan

Dam

Trowbridge Dam

Otsego Dam

Otsego City Dam

Plainwell Dam

City of Kalamazoo

East Comstock Dam

Confluence with Battle Creek

Ceresco Dam

Marshall Dam

City of Battle Creek

Dam

Mosherville Lake

Dam

City of Albion

Dam
(appendix A). Cross sections in the impounded area upstream 

of Plainwell Dam, from river mile 54.93 to 55.30, were mainly 

modified by lowering the channel to its pre-dam elevation and 

removing impounded sediment to increase flood-plain area 

(appendix A). The slope through this reach is similar to that 

for pre-dam conditions (fig. 17).

Between the Plainwell and Otsego City Dams from 

river mile 53.00 and 54.84, the slope of the designed channel is steeper than that for pre-dam conditions (fig. 17). The 

pre-dam steepening of the slope at the former rapids near the 

City of Otsego was smoothed by slightly steepening the reach 

upstream from the Otsego City Dam location. In the braided 

part of the reach immediately downstream from the Plainwell 

Dam, the valley cross sections were modified by simplifying 

the multiple channel system into one or two main channels 

and relocating the main channels to those shown on the GLO 

survey (appendix C6). Modifications at cross section 54.41 

are an example of typical changes made in the cross sections 

through this part of the reach (figs. 16 and 18). The planform 

of the designed channel is shown in figure 18.

Downstream from the multichannel reach from river 

mile 54.12 to 53.05, the channel elevation was lowered and 

impounded sediment removed to create a flood-plain area. 

Changes made to cross-section 53.05 are shown in figure 16B

as an example of the type of changes that were made to the 

cross sections in this reach. The channel location reflects that 

shown on the GLO survey (appendix C6).

Downstream from the Otsego City Dam from river mile 

52.59 to 51.23, cross sections were not modified, and present 

(2001–02) cross sections were used for the design channel 

(appendix A). The channel location has remained the same 

through this reach for the last 170 years (appendix C6).

Simulated HEC-RAS water-surface profiles for bankfull 

flow (1,700 ft3

/s) and floods with 2- and 50-year recurrence 

intervals (2,900 and 6,300 ft3

/s, respectively) are shown in 

figure 19. Present bridges are shown in the profile of water 

surfaces, with the top of the vertical lines representing the 

elevation of bridge decks. The designed channel cross-section 

is hydraulically stable. However, a 50-year flood overtops the 

Farmer Street Bridge, and the elevation of the 2-year flood is 

only about 1 ft below the bridge deck. Presently, the Otsego 

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Envirnmental Quality Land and Water Management.

Hydrologic features from Michigan Resource Information System.

Figure 14. Locations of valley cross sections in the Plainwell to Otsego reach of the Kalamazoo 

River, Michigan.

Transect line with label in river mile

City

Dam

EXPLANATION

Transect line at bridge with label in river mile

0 1 MILE

0 1 KILOMETER

N

Otsego

Plainwell

51.23

51.43

51.64

51.83

52.02

52.25

52.40

52.59

53.05

53.43

53.13

53.19

53.27

53.58

53.73

53.89

54.26

54.02

54.12

54.33

54.41

55.45

55.5355.62

55.72

56.03

56.07

56.18

56.29

56.40

56.56 56.67

53.00

51.35

55.87

54.46

54.54

54.61

54.65

54.68

54.80

54.84

54.86

54.93

54.97

55.06

55.01

55.10

55.15 55.20

55.30

55.33

KALAMAZOO 

RIVER

KALAMAZOO 

RIVER

52.53

52.80

Figure 15. Example cross section of the Kalamazoo 

River Valley, Michigan. [Altitudes based on North 

American Vertical Datum [1988]

680

685

690

695

700

705

710

715

720

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT FLOOD-PLAIN EDGE, IN FEET

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

2001-02 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

7.5' TOPOGRAPHIC QUAD

BANK AND SOFT BOTTOM

HARD BOTTOM

BLASLAND, BOUCK, and LEE, INC (1999) 

EXPLANATION

18 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 14. Locations of valley cross sections in the Plainwell to Otsego reach of the Kalamazoo River, Michigan.

Figure 15. Example cross section of the Kalamazoo River 

Valley, Michigan.
City Dam must regulate flood flows enough to control flooding at this bridge. The relative elevation of the Farmer Street 

bridge deck above the Kalamazoo River channel is about 10 ft, 

compared to more than 20 ft for the Highway 131 Bridge, 

15 ft for the North Street Bridge, and 12 ft for the M-89 

Bridge (fig. 19). 

Streambank Stability 

Data collected by Roy F. Weston, Inc. (2002) showed that 

the surrounding banks contain PCB and other contaminants. 

Failure of these banks may become a continuing source of 

contaminants to the Kalamazoo River. A streambank stability model was used at selected locations in order to gain an 

understanding of the condition of the streambanks and the 

processes that would lead to their failure. The model was run 

under two scenarios: “present conditions,” where the stage 

is consistent with the SEDMOD model stage elevations for a 

730-day period from January 1, 2001 to December 31, 2002; 

and “flood conditions,” where the stage is consistent with the 

SEDMOD 60-day spring flood model (Syed and Bennett, 

2004). 

Under present conditions, the bank-stability model 

calculated a factor of safety that would classify 8 of the 25 

streambanks unstable and 3 of the 25 streambanks conditionally stable if there were no vegetation (table 2). Four of the 

unstable bank locations are located upstream from the Plainwell Dam; four of the unstable or conditionally stable bank 

locations are located between the Plainwell and Otsego City 

Dams; and two of the unstable or conditionally stable bank 

locations are located downstream from the Otsego City Dam. 

With vegetation considered in the model, the factor of safety 

became stable or conditionally stable at two of the unstable 

locations, the conditionally stable locations remained conditionally stable, and the stable locations remained stable for all 

vegetation types but black willow. 

Toe erosion was occurred at all bank locations except 

cross-sections 55.2, 55.1, 55.01, 54.12, and 53.73 (fig. 11). At 

7 of the 8 unstable sites, the low factor of safety can be attributed to toe erosion. 

Under flood conditions, the bank-stability model calculated a factor of safety that would classify 7 of the 25 streambanks unstable and 4 of the 25 streambanks conditionally stable if there were no vegetation (table 3). All 7 of the unstable 

Figure 16. Cross sections 54.41 (A) and 53.05 (B) for 

present (2002) conditions and designed channel with 

dams removed, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. [Altitudes 

based on North American Vertical Datum 1988]

680

685

690

695

700

705

710

715

720

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT FLOOD-PLAIN EDGE, IN FEET

ALTITTUDE, IN FEET

Designed channel

Present (2001-02) soft bottom

Present (2001-02) hard bottom

(A)

(B)

670

675

680

685

690

695

700

705

0

710

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT FLOOD-PLAIN EDGE, IN FEET

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

Designed channel

Present (2001-02) soft bottom

Present (2001-02) hard bottom

ALTITUDE , IN FEET

51 52 53 54 55 56 57

720

710

700

690

680

670

660

RIVER MILE FROM MOUTH

Figure 17. Longitudinal profile of present thalweg, 

present hard bottom lowest elevation, and designed 

channel thalweg in the Plainwell to Otsego reach of 

the Kalamazoo River, Michigan. [Altitudes based on 

North American Vertical Datum 1988]

Designed channel thalweg altitude

Current channel thalweg altitude

Current hard bottom altitude

Plainwell Dam

Otsego City Dam

Figure 18. Planform of designed channel and approximate 

area with impounded sediment, Kalamazoo River, Michigan 

(cross-sections 53.05 and 54.41 are indicated for reference).

85 ̊41'30" 85 ̊39'

42 ̊27'

42 ̊28'

0 0.5 1 MILE

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

Previously

impounded

area

54.41 53.05

Base from 1:24,000 U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

HISTORICAL AND SIMULATED CHANGES IN CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS 19

Figure 16. Cross sections 54.41 (A) and 53.05 (B) for present 

(2002) conditions and designed channel with dams removed, 

Kalamazoo River, Michigan.

Figure 17. Longitudinal profile of present thalweg, present 

hard bottom lowest elevation, and designed channel thalweg 

in the Plainwell to Otesgo reach of the Kalamazoo River, 

Michigan.

Figure 18. Planform of designed channel and approximate 

area with impounded sediment, Kalamazoo River, Michigan 

(cross sections 53.05 and 54.41 are indicated for reference.
Figure 19. Water surface profiles for the HEC-RAS simulation of 

bankfull flood and floods in the design channel with 2- and 50-

year recurrence interval. [Altitudes based on North American 

Vertical Datum 1988]

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 670

680

690

700

710

720

730

740

MAIN CHANNEL DISTANCE, IN FEET FROM BEGINNING OF MODELED REACH

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

State Highway 89 Bridge

North Street Bridge

Farmer Street Bridge

U.S. Highway 131 Bridge

EXPLANATION

Water surface - 50 year

Water surface - 2 year

Water surface - bankfull

Channel bottom

banks under flood conditions were predicted to be unstable 

under the present conditions. Locations 55.1 and 55.01 were 

predicted to be conditionally stable under flood conditions, but 

were predicted to be stable under present conditions; locations 

54.68-L and 54.46 were predicted to be conditionally stable 

under flood conditions, but were predicted to be unstable 

under present conditions.

The effects of steepening the slope on the streambanks 

can be seen when comparing the results of the bank-stability 

assessment. Under present conditions, toe erosion resulted in 

undercut bank profiles. Field observations show that many of 

the locations analyzed were in the process of becoming undercut (fig. 20). The progression of bank undercutting would lead 

to the eventual localized failure of the bank as more sediment 

was removed (fig. 21). Once failure occurs, the bank material 

that is sloughed into the river acts to temporarily reinforce the 

bank and becomes part of the new bank toe (fig. 22). Over 

time, the root mass shown on top of the failed bank in figure 

Table 2. Factor of safety predicted by bank-stability model under present conditions1, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. [All 

data are dimensionless; factors of safety is computed by use of the ARS Bank-stability and Toe-Erosion Model (Simon 

and others, 2003). Values less than 1.0 are considered to be unstable, values between 1.0 and 1.3 deemed conditionally stable, and values greater than 1.3 are considered to be stable]

Station

Bank vegetation

None Cottonwood Gamma

grass Switch grass Sycamore Black Willow

56.67 2.01 4.30 3.97 7.91 4.00 2.50

56.29 1.45 1.46 1.45 1.45 1.46 1.46

56.03 8.69 13.94 13.21 22.27 13.23 9.68

55.87 4.78 6.65 6.20 9.04 6.41 5.23

55.72 .55 1.81 1.47 3.32 1.66 .90

55.62 .83 1.12 1.05 1.50 1.09 .90

55.45 1.30 2.72 2.41 4.63 2.54 1.66

55.3 .20 1.35 1.07 2.80 1.21 .50

55.2 .01 5.24 4.13 12.35 4.59 1.35

55.1 1.89 3.14 2.88 4.85 2.98 2.18

55.01 2.58 5.29 4.64 8.78 4.95 3.24

54.68-L .02 .09 .02 .02 .09 .09

54.68-R 4.77 4.60 4.77 4.77 4.60 4.60

54.61-L 4.98 4.71 4.98 4.98 4.71 4.71

54.61-R 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08

54.54 .12 .15 .12 .12 .15 .15

54.46 .96 .97 .96 .96 .97 .97

54.12 2.21 2.22 2.21 2.21 2.22 2.22

53.73 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.88

53.19 2.54 2.51 2.54 2.54 2.51 2.51

52.59 3.28 3.25 3.28 3.28 3.25 3.25

52.25 1.24 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.23 1.23

51.83 1.91 1.90 1.91 1.91 1.90 1.90

51.43 1.41 1.40 1.41 1.41 1.40 1.40

51.23 0.79 0.87 0.79 0.79 0.87 0.87

1

Present conditions refers to wher UPSTREAM FROM PLAINWELL DAM BETWEEN PLAINWELL AND OTSEGO CITY DAMS DOWNSTREAM FROM OTSEGO CITY DAM

20 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 19. Water surface profiles for the HEC-RAS simulation 

of bankfull flood and floods in the design channel with 2- and 

50-year recurrence interval Kalamazoo River, Michigan.
Table 3. Factor of safety predicted by bank-stability model under flood conditions1

. [All data are dimensionless; factors of safety is computed by use of the ARS Bank-stability and Toe-Erosion Model (Simon and others, 2003). Values 

less than 1.0 are considered to be unstable, values between 1.0 and 1.3 deemed conditionally stable, and values 

greater than 1.3 are considered to be stable]

River mile None Cottonwood Gamma

grass Switch grass Sycamore Black Willow

56.67 1.83 2.87 2.73 4.51 2.73 2.06

56.29 1.54 1.55 1.54 1.54 1.55 1.55

56.03 4.72 6.52 6.25 9.32 6.28 5.06

55.87 7.97 14.67 13.11 23.39 13.82 9.59

55.72 .74 1.95 1.62 3.38 1.81 1.09

55.62 .83 1.11 1.04 1.46 1.07 .90

55.45 1.52 3.09 2.76 5.25 2.89 1.91

55.3 .28 1.46 1.17 2.95 1.32 .59

55.2 .22 5.08 4.04 11.69 4.47 1.45

55.1 1.01 1.33 1.26 1.77 1.29 1.08

55.01 1.10 1.37 1.32 1.77 1.33 1.15

54.68-L 1.06 1.15 1.06 1.06 1.15 1.15

54.68-R 3.06 2.98 3.06 3.06 2.98 2.98

54.61-L 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.32

54.61-R 3.13 2.92 3.13 3.13 2.92 2.92

54.54 .10 .13 .10 .10 .13 .13

54.46 1.00 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01

54.12 1.81 1.85 1.81 1.81 1.85 1.85

53.73 2.20 2.19 2.20 2.20 2.19 2.19

53.19 2.54 2.51 2.54 2.54 2.51 2.51

52.59 2.13 2.12 2.13 2.13 2.12 2.12

52.25 .97 .97 .97 .97 .97 .97

51.83 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42

51.43 1.65 1.64 1.65 1.65 1.64 1.64

51.23 0.77 0.84 0.77 0.77 0.84 0.84

1

Flood conditions refers UPSTREAM FROM PLAINWELL DAM BETWEEN PLAINWELL AND OTSEGO CITY DAMS DOWNSTREAM FROM OTSEGO CITY DAM

Bank vegetation

20 will erode away and the bank toe will resemble that shown 

in figure 22.

Locations that are the most prone to toe erosion under 

present conditions were found at the upper ends of the 

impoundments or just below a dam (cross-sections 56.67, 

54.68-R, 54.68-L, 54.61-R, 54.61-L, 52.59, and 52.25) as well 

as near bridges where the river was moving into a bend (cross 

sections 56.03 and 51.23). The relation between the locations 

of modeled erosion and their placement along the river emphasizes the importance of the geomorphic processes that are 

at work. The upper ends of the impoundments have steeper 

slopes than within the impoundments themselves (fig. 17). 

These steeper slopes result in higher velocities and increased 

shear stresses that are acting on the bank and removing toe 

material. Accelerated removal of the toe material reduces the 

stability of the bank. At bridges in the study reach, the river 

becomes constricted as it passes, which also increases the 

instream velocities, thereby removing toe material. Occurrences of bends in the river accentuate the erosion process by 

forcing water into the bank, which removes additional bank 

sediments.

Under flood conditions, the same pattern of increased toe 

erosion and decreased bank stability at locations of increased 

velocity and the presence of bridges and bends was observed. 

Assessment results show that the banks of the Kalamazoo 

River are primarily stable and have bank toes that are subject 

to erosion. Locations prone to bank toe erosion are found 

to be related to the occurrence of human-made features, 

such as bridges, and the occurrence or potential for channel 

slopes within the reach to become steepened. The erosion of 

instream sediments within the present impoundments would 

result in an increase in channel slope (Syed and Bennett, 

2004). The slopes used in this analysis are listed by reach in

table 1. Locations that did not reflect an appreciable change in 

slope between the present and flood conditions are a function 

of the length time modeled. Under flood conditions, headward 

HISTORICAL AND SIMULATED CHANGES IN CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS 21
Figure 20. Undercut banks typical of the Plainwell to 

Otsego reach, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. Photograph 

by C. M. Rachol.

Figure 21. Localized bank failure site included in study 

(river mile 51.23; see Figure 11), Kalamazoo River, 

Michigan. (Failed bank is approximately 6 feet in wide.) 

Photograph by C. M. Rachol.

Figure 22. Material eroded from the bank becomes part 

of the bank toe, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. Photograph 

by C. M. Rachol.

erosion of the bed increases the streambank height. Over time, 

the stability of the streambanks would become decreased.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Dams, diversion structures, and channelization have 

affected the Kalamazoo River since the mid-1800s. Modification of the river has led to the development of a variety of 

depositional environments that would otherwise not have been 

present; some of these environments contain polychlorinated 

biphenyls (PCBs) from papermill carbonless copy paper production. The Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) are interested in quantifying the present geomorphic condition of the river channel, its flood plain, wetlands, 

and previous depositional surfaces. The MDEQ and USEPA 

would like to identify areas of high bank-erosion potential and 

reaches prone to channel avulsion. Therefore, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the MDEQ and 

USEPA, began a study concerning historical and simulated 

changes in channel characteristics from Plainwell to Otsego 

on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan. The findings of the study 

reported herein include hydraulic geometry and slope data for 

use in future simulations in erosion and sediment transport, 

descriptions of historical changes in planform and slope, and 

assessments of bank stability under present hydrologic conditions and flood conditions.

• Comparison of aerial photography from 1938, 1981, 

and 1999 with early to mid-1800s General Land Office 

Survey notes show that the Kalamazoo River channel 

has stayed within the confines of its glacial valley for 

the period of record. Major changes in the channel 

form were the result of either natural processes (resulting in the formation and evolution of meander bends) 

or the building of dams and adjustment of impounded 

water levels (resulting in the mobilization of sediments).

• The USGS in 2002 collected detailed bank-profile 

data along the Kalamazoo River between the cities of 

Plainwell and Otsego, Mich. These data were combined with USGS 2001 data for channel and bottom 

elevations and valley cross-section data collected by 

a consulting firm and supplemented with data from 

USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle maps. The 

resulting cross sections were used as part of this study 

for the bank-stability analysis and by the U.S. Depart22 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Figure 20. Undercut banks typical of the Plainwell to Otsego 

reach, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. Photograph by C.M. 

Rachol.

Figure 21. Localized bank failure site included in sstudy (river 

mile 51.23; see Figure 11), Kalamazoo River, Michigan. (Failed 

bank is approximately 6 feet wide) Photograph by C.M. 

Rachol.

Figure 22. Material eroded from the bank becomes part of the 

bank toe, Kalamazoo River, Michigan. Photograph by C.M. 

Rachol.
ment of Agriculture—Agricultural Research Service 

for simulating sediment movement through the detailed 

reach.

• The stability of streambanks along a 5-mi reach of the 

Kalamazoo River from the city of Plainwell to below 

the Otsego City Dam was studied. The results of the 

bank-stability assessments showed that the bank toes 

were prone to erosion, resulting in the formation of 

an under cut bank profile. Under present conditions, 

unstable banks were found close to meander bends and 

bridges, and steeper channel slopes. Compared to the 

rest of the channel, these locations had higher streamflow velocities and shear stress, which resulted in 

larger amounts of undercutting and instability. Under a 

flood scenario, locations that were unstable under present conditions remained unstable, and the slopes within 

the impoundments became steepened as in stream sediments were eroded.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Todd King (Camp, Dresser, and 

McKee, Inc., Detroit, Mich.) and Paul Bucholtz (Michigan 

Department of Environmental Quality, Lansing, Mich.) for 

their technical support. Krista Stensvold (U.S. Geological 

Survey, Middleton, Wis.) and Josef Schuler (U.S. Geological Survey, Rice Lake, Wis.) performed bank-profile surveys. 

Michelle Lutz (U.S. Geological Survey, Middleton, Wis.) 

provided cross-section database support. Marie Peppler, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Middleton, Wis.) provided graphical 

support. Bernard Lenz (U.S. Geological Survey, Rice Lake, 

Wis.) conducted HEC-RAS analysis of the designed channel. 

Personnel at the Remote Sensing and Geographic Information 

Sciences Research and Outreach Services at Michigan State 

University assisted in the digital processing of historical aerial 

photographs. Personnel from Camp, Dresser, and McKee 

Inc., provided the 1999 aerial photographs. Sharon Baltusis 

(U.S. Geological Survey, Lansing, Mich.) furnished editorial 

and graphic support. Kyle Juracek (U.S. Geological Survey, 

Lawrence, Kans.) and Tim Straub (U.S. Geological Survey, 

Urbana, Ill.) served as technical reviewers.

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REFERENCES CITED 25
26 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from

Appendix A 27

Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14.

CROSS-SECTION 51.23

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 51.35 (M-89 BRIDGE)

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 51.43

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14. 

28 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 51.64

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

660

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 51.83

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 52.02

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 29
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 52.25

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 52.40

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 52.53 (NORTH STREET BRIDGE)

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

30 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 52.59

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 52.80 (FARMER STREET BRIDGE)

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.00 (OTSEGO CITY DAM)

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 31
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 53.05

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.13

0 250 500 750 1,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.19

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

670

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

32 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 53.27

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.43

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.58

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 33
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 53.73

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 53.89

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

0

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.02

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

34 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 54.12

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.26

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.33

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 35
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS SECTION 54.41

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS SECTION 54.46

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.54

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

36 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 54.61

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.65

0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.68

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 37
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 54.80

680

690

700

710

720

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.84

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

680

690

700

710

720

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.86 (PLAINWELL DAM)

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

38 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 54.93

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 54.97

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.01

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 39
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 55.06

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.10

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.15

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

40 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 55.20

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.30

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.33

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

720

730

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

710

Appendix A 41
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 55.45

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.53

[NOTE: NOT USED FOR DESIGN CHANNEL]

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

690

700

710

720

730

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.62

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

42 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 55.72

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 55.87 (HIGHWAY 131 BRIDGE)

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 56.03

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 43
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 56.07

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 56.18

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 56.29

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

44 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 -- continued.

Appendix A. Valley and designed cross sections for the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan. 

Designed channel modifications shown by dashed line; cross-section extensions based on topographic map 

elevations shown in grey. Cross-section locations within study reach are shown on Figure 14 --continued.

CROSS-SECTION 56.40

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 56.56

0 500 1,000 1,500

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

CROSS-SECTION 56.67

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000

DISTANCE FROM LEFT POINT, IN FEET

700

710

720

730

740

ALTI

TUDE, IN FEET

Appendix A 45
46 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
Appendix B. Geotechnical parameters from field tests of streambanks for

Appendix B 47

the Kalamazoo River from Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan
48 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Appendix B. Geotechnical parameters from field tests of streambanks for the Kalamazoo river from Plainwell 

to Otsego, Michigan. Streambank locations within study reach are shown on Figure 11. [*, denotes locations 

where the average of multiple field tests were presented; Abbreviations: ca, apparent cohesion; c’, cohesion; φ’, 

internal friction angle; γ, saturaded unit weight; τc, critical shear stress; k, erodibility; kPa, kilo-Pascals; kN/m3, 

kilo-Newton per cubic meter; Pa, Pascal; cm3/N-s, cubic centimeter per Newton per second; --, no data]

Bank Layer properties Bank Toe Properties

River mile Layer from 

top of bank

Depth of layer from top 

down to river bottom (m)

ca

(kPa)

c’ 

(kPa)

φ’, in 

degrees γ (kN/m3) τc(Pa) k (cm3/N-s)

56.67 1 0-5.0 5.0 .0 24.2 16.0

56.67 2 5.1-6.6 4.6 4.3 21.9 10.6 12.2 .69

56.29 1 0-1.53 2.2 .8 40.6 9.1

56.29 2 1.54-4.6 3.9 1.4 27.9 16.0 11.3 .13

56.03 1 0-5.5 1.9 .0 25.7 15.6

56.03 2 5.5-7.0 9.8 8.2 21.2 18.0 2.0 .07

55.87 1 0-3.0 1.9 .0 25.7 18.0

55.87 2 3.1-5.1 9.8 8.2 21.2 12.7 9.8 1.71

55.72 1 0-5.6 2.7 .0 27.5 16.4

55.72 2 5.61-8.6 4.9 4.0 23.8 10.1 18.0 .44

55.62 1 0-4.5 6.2 2.1 23.2 16.7

55.62 2 4.51-8.5 6.1 4.0 18.7 11.3 7.9 1.14

55.45 1 0-3.7 3.7 1.9 23.5 15.0 2.0 .07

55.3 1 0-2.2 .0 .0 30.0 *15.9

55.3 2 2.3-5.8 6.7 6.1 20.4 11.6 24.0 1.63

55.2 1 0-1.7 3.7 1.9 23.5 15.7

55.2 2 1.71-2.7 .0 .0 35.0 *15.9

55.2 3 2.71-6.2 10.2 10.7 14.6 16.9 72.2 .85

55.1 1 0-4.93 10.2 4.5 16.7 14.9

55.1 2 4.94-7.5 8.8 7.8 12.5 12.9 4.7 5.79

55.01 1 0-4.1 5.5 3.3 11.2 15.2

55.01 2 4.2-6.6 16.0 13.7 26.6 12.5 7.8 1.24

54.68-L 1 0-0.42 .4 .1 29.1 12.9

54.68-L 2 0.43-2.2 .0 .0 30.0 *15.9 -- --

54.68-R 1 0-0.50 2.2 2.1 31.4 12.7

54.68-R 2 0.51-1.20 6.8 5.7 35.0 11.5 2.0 .07

54.61-L 1 0-1.9 8.9 7.6 19.8 15.0 -- --

54.61-R 1 0-0.82 2.3 2.1 10.9 13.8 .23 .20

54.54 1 0-2.6 .3 .0 19.1 12.5 .22 .21

54.46 1 0-2.4 5.2 4.4 24.0 12.5 2.0 .07

54.12 1 0-3.9 6.3 6.2 16.9 9.7 2.0 .07

53.73 1 0-1.7 3.6 3.2 19.4 16.2 2.0 .07

53.19 1 0-4.0 2.3 .0 10.9 7.4 2.6 5.27

52.59 1 0-5.2 3.7 3.4 29.3 14.8 .2 .22

52.25 1 0-4.1 .2 .0 11.2 15.8 -- --

51.83 1 0-9.8 3.6 1.6 21.3 17.2 1.1 .10

51.43 1 0-5.5 3.6 1.6 21.3 17.2

51.43 2 5.6-8.3 4.7 .0 30.0 9.3 4.4 .47

51.23 1 0-11.58 0.0 0.0 29.7 14.6 -- --
Appendix C. Maps showing channel change from early to mid-1830s to 1999 at 

selected locations on the Kalamazoo River, Michigan.

Appendix C 49
50 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

Appendix C1. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mile 8.5 to 11.5, Michigan.

MICHIGAN H

EXPLANATION

KALAMAZOO RIVER

DRAINAGE BASIN

8.5

9

9.5

10

11

10.5

11.5

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

0 0.25 0.5 MILE 1999

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from 

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

Appendix C1. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mile 8.5 to 11.5, Michigan.
Appendix C 51

Lake Michigan Lake Michigan

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

Appendix C2. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mouth near Saugatuck, Michigan.

0

0.5

1

1.5

Lake Michigan

Saugatuck

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

MICHIGAN H

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

Appendix C2. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mouth near Saugatuck, Michigan.
52 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

26

25.5

27.5

27

26.5

29

29.5

30

30.5

31

28

28.5

Caulkins

Dam

0 0.5 1 MILE

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

MICHIGAN H

Appendix C3. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Caulkins Dam, Michigan.

Appendix C3. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Caulkins Dam, Michigan.
Appendix C 53

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

47 45.5 46

45

46.5

47.5

48

Trowbridge

Dam

48.5

49

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

Appendix AppendiCx4 C4. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Trowbridge Dam, Michigan. . Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Trowbridge Dam, Michigan.
54 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

51.5 50

50.5

49.5

51

Otsego

Dam

M 89

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C5. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Otesgo Dam, Michigan. Appendix C5. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Otsego Dam, Michigan.
Appendix C 55

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from 

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C6. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Otesgo City Dam, Michigan.

54.5

53.5 54

53

55

Otsego

City

Dam

Plainwell

Dam

Otsego

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

Appendix C6. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Otsego City Dam, Michigan.
56 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

MICHIGAN H

55.5

56

56.5

55

Plainwell

Dam

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C7. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Plainwell Dam, Michigan. Appendix C7. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Plainwell Dam, Michigan.
Appendix C 57

57.5

57

58

56.5

Plainwell

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. Inset base from USGS 1981 Aerial

photograph mosaic.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C8. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through the Plainwell Mill-race, Michigan.

Appendix C8. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through the Plainwell Mill-race, Michigan.
58 Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, Michigan

61

60.5

61.5

60

62

62.5

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

PRE-1830s

1830s

1938

1981

1999

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C9. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mile 60 to 62.5, Michigan. Appendix C9. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River mile 60 to 62.5, Michigan.
Appendix C 59

MICHIGAN H

Lake Michigan

Kalamazoo

Comstock

Saugatuck

Allegan

Otsego

Plainwell

OTTAWA KENT

BARRY

EATON

CALHOUN

JACKSON

HILLSDALE

KALAMAZOO

VAN BUREN

ALLEGAN

86 ̊ 84 ̊30'

42 ̊30'

42 ̊

Kalamazoo River

Drainage Basin

77

76.5

77.5

76

78

78.5 79

Morrow Dam

0 0.25 0.5 MILE

0 0.25 0.5 KILOMETER

EXPLANATION

STREAMBANK

RIVER MILE

FROM MOUTH

1

1830s

1938

1981

1999

City names and locations from U.S. Geological Survey digital raster graphics.

Hydrologic divides from Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Land 

and Water Management. Hydrologic features and county boundaries from 

Michigan Resource Information System. 1999 aerial photographs courtesy

of Camp, Dresser, and McKee.

Figure projection is Hotine Oblique Mercator, Type 2, Scale factor at the projection's

center 0.9996; longitude of the projection's center 86 00 00 W; latitude of the projection's

center 45 18 33 N; Azimuth at the projection's center 337.25555555556.

Appendix C10. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Morrow Dam, Michigan.

Appendix C10. Channel change, 1830s to 1999, Kalamazoo River through Morrow Dam, Michigan.
Michigan—

Rachol, C.M., Fitzpatrick, F

Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5044

.A., and T. Rossi—Historical and Simulated Changes in Channel Characteristics of the Kalamazoo River, Plainwell to Otsego, 

ISBN

Printed on recycled paper