U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services

ACF/ACYF/HSB

Washington, DC 20201

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

Penalty for private use $300

Happy Birthday Head Start...

40 Years Old in 2005!

Over 22 million children and families served since the summer of 1965

Watch for more information about commemorative events this year 

to honor Head Start's past and strengthen its future.

¡Feliz Cumpleaños Head Start...

en sus 40 años de vida en 2005! 

Más de 22 millones de niños y familias han recibido servicios desde el verano

de1965

Esté atento a recibir más información sobre los eventos conmemorativos que se

realizarán este año para celebrar el pasado de Head Start y fortalecer su futuro.
Head Start Head Start Bulletin Bulletin a a

®

HeadStart

ENHANCING HEAD START COMMUNICATION Bulletin

2005

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

■ Administration for Children and Families 

■ Administration on Children, Youth and Families

www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb

ISSUE 78 HeadStart

Bulletin

English Language Learners English Language Learners

Pullout in English 

& Spanish: 

Pullout in English 

& Spanish: 

Estrategias que fomentan resultados

positivos en los niños que están

aprendiendo inglés

Strategies to Support Positive

Child Outcomes for English

Language Learners

Strategies to Support Positive

Child Outcomes for English

Language Learners

Estrategias que fomentan resultados

positivos en los niños que están

aprendiendo inglés
The Head Start Bulletin is published by the Head Start Bureau, 

Administration on Children, Youth and Families, U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services.

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Tommy Thompson, Secretary

ADMINISTRATION FOR CHILDREN AND FAMILIES

Wade F. Horn, Assistant Secretary

OFFICE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS

Chris Downing, Director

Pamela Carter, Deputy Director

ADMINISTRATION ON CHILDREN, YOUTH AND FAMILIES

Joan E. Ohl, Commissioner

HEAD START BUREAU

Windy M. Hill, Associate Commissioner

The BULLETIN is a service of the Head Start Bureau. Its purpose is to enhance 

communication among the Head Start Bureau, Head Start programs, and interested 

national, regional, and state organizations and agencies.

HEAD START BUREAU

Craig Turner, Director, Division of Program Management

JoAn Knight Herren, Chief, T/TA Branch

Carol Whitten, Guest Editor

E. Dollie Wolverton, Guest Editor 

Jeff Fredericks, Managing Editor 

Head Start Bulletin

The Head Start Bulletin is prepared by the National Head Start Training and Technical

Assistance Resource Center under Contract No. 233-02-0002.

Judy David, Senior Editor

Margaret Monsour, Editor

Michelle Hastings, Writer

Deborah Kremer, Writer

Catherine Hardman, Resource Librarian

Lucy Adams, Editorial Assistant

Lindsay Stevens, Editorial Assistant

Aisha Mahy, Publications Coordinator

Head Start Bulletin

English Language Learners

Issue No. 78

For more copies of the Head Start Bulletin or to be put on the mailing list, contact the Head Start

Information and Publication Center, Toll free: 1-866-763-6481; www.headstartinfo.org

Errata in the Head Start Bulletin on Father Involvement Issue 77, June 2004: 

The title of the pull-out in Spanish should be Consejos para crear un libro de historias familiares. The title

appears on the front cover of the Bulletin and on pages 1 and 34.

The photo credit on page 24 should read: Photo courtesy of the Cherokee Nation HS.

The byline on page 8 should read: Compiled by Bulletin Staff from Father Facts by Wade F. Horn and

Tom Sylvester, 4th edition (2002). Gaithersburg, MD: National Fatherhood Initiative, and other sources.
Head Start Bulletin 1

INTRODUCTION

3 Welcome to the English Language Learners Bulletin

4 Program Performance Standards: Supporting Home 

Language and English Acquisition

6 A Head Start for All Children

7 Glossary of Terms

THE COMMUNITY AND FAMILIES

8 Community Collaboration: The Key to Serving 

All Families

11 Bienvenida a Irelys Ramírez

12 A Head Start Parent’s Perspective on 

Language Learning

12 The Parent-Mentoring Initiative is Underway

13 Supporting English Language Learners Through 

Family Literacy Services

14 How Can Teachers and Parents Help Young Children

Become (and Stay) Bilingual?

18 Building Strong Language Foundations in Early 

Head Start

19 Migrant and Seasonal Head Start Programs: Juntos

hacemos la diferencia

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

21 Creating a Vision for Supporting English 

Language Learners

23 Welcome to the Sharing and Learning Place

26 A View from Puerto Rico

28 A New Resource for Head Start Leaders is Here!

TEACHERS AND HOME 

VISITORS SPEAK

31 How Teachers Support English Language Leaners in

the Classrom

33 Beginning the New School Year with Learners

from Many Cultures

36 A Visit to the Rainforest

39 Head Start: An Avenue to Revitalize a Language

41 Talking with a Teacher

43 Offering Families a Language Choice During 

Home Visits

44 An Asian Perspective on Language Issues

ASSESSMENT

47 Assessment of English Language Learners:

Challenges and Strategies

52 The National Reporting System and English 

Language Learners

55 The Impact of Language Differences on Preschoolers’ 

Challenging Behavior

RESOURCES

29 PULL OUT: Strategies to Support Positive Child 

Outcomes for English Language Learners

30 Documento desprendible: Estrategias que fomentan

resultados positivos en los niños que están 

aprendiendo inglés

59 Resources

59 Webliography

2005 Issue No. 78

HeadStart

Bulletin

Photo Credits: Cover photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS. Page 2 photos, from left to right: by N. Reina, Salt

River Pima Maricopa Indian Community; by K. Sullivan, PROP Child and Family Services; courtesy of Cherokee Nation HS; by H.

Wilson, Community Services for Children HS; by J. Brough Schamp, South East Community Organization HS; and by B. Blanken,

Rosemount Center HS/EHS.

page 4: Meeting the

requirements of the Program

Performance Standards

page 18: Supporting

home language in Early

Head Start

page 23: Preserving

Alaskan Native

cultures and languages

page 47: Assessing the

language development of

English Language Learners

Page 2: Head Start serves

a population of English

language learners who

speak 140 different

languages
The Head Start Bureau

embraces the cultural

and linguistic diversity

of our extended family.

by Windy M. Hill 
VIETNAMESE, HMONG, CHINESE, Arabic, Farsi,

Urdu, Russian, Tagalog, and American Sign

Language. These are but a few of the languages

spoken by today’s Head Start children and families. Our extended Head Start family has evolved from a program that, in its early years, served a population of English language learners who were primarily Spanish speaking, to the current cultural representation that includes over 140 languages! 

As Associate Commissioner of the Head Start Bureau, I’m

delighted to introduce this Head Start Bulletin, which offers a

wealth of essential information about English language learners.

It includes articles about research-based instructional strategies

that support first and second language acquisition. There also

are descriptions of Head Start programs that successfully serve

diverse populations. Parents, program managers, Head Start

Bureau staff, and family literacy partners share first-hand

accounts of their experiences in serving the dynamic diversity of

English language learners in Head Start.

This Bulletin is the latest in a series of efforts the Head

Start Bureau has made over the years to support English 

language learners. The Head Start Program Performance

Standards, first published in 1972, require that classroom

environments be structured to help each child build ethnic

pride and that home languages are supported. In 2002, the

English Language Learners Focus Group was convened in

Washington, D.C. to discuss and make recommendations

about effective approaches with diverse populations in Head

Start. Additionally, the new Head Start Leaders Guide to

Positive Child Outcomes provides research-based strategies

that promote the progress of English language learners in all

areas of learning and development. 

The National Head Start Hispanic Institute, held in

Albuquerque, New Mexico from January 31- February 4, 2005,

represents another commitment of the Head Start Bureau to provide knowledge and tools that programs need to provide effective,

culturally appropriate services to English language learners. Since

I have been Associate Commissioner, a number of efforts have

been made to provide improved services to our growing number

of Hispanic staff and families. At our conferences, Spanish interpreters are available (as they are for American Sign Language),

publications are printed in Spanish, including the invaluable

Building Blocks for Father Involvement, and the recent Parent

Mentor Training has been offered to Spanish speakers. 

As you begin to read this Bulletin, I would like to take

this opportunity to acknowledge and honor your dedication to

English language learners and their families. The Head Start

Bureau embraces the cultural and language diversity of our

extended family and values this diversity as a tremendous

resource for our programs as well as for our nation. ■

Windy M. Hill was named Associate Commissioner of the

Head Start Bureau on January 7, 2002.

Welcome to the English

Language Learners Bulletin

online...For more information on Head Start, visit our site at www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb

Windy M. Hill

Photo courtesy of ACF.

Head Start Bulletin 3
4 2005

This Bulletin reminds us that every year, Head Start programs are steadily increasing in the number of enrolled families and children whose home language is other than English,

as well as in the number of languages spoken. Fortunately,

Head Start has a long, rich history of serving culturally and

linguistically diverse populations, as well as strong programmatic requirements in the Head Start Program Performance

Standards to ensure a high quality program for all children

and families. 

In fact, there are over 20 standards in the Program

Performance Standards that specifically refer to the home language, the learning of English, or the cultural background of

families and children. The standards require programs to address

the needs of English language learners (ELLs) and their families.

These requirements cut across multiple service areas: Child

Health and Developmental Services; Education and Early

Childhood Development; Child Nutrition; Family Partnerships;

Management Systems and Procedures; Human Resources

Management; and Facilities, Materials, and Equipment.

More specifically, the Program Performance Standards

require that programs:

• provide an environment of acceptance that supports 

and respects gender, culture, language, ethnicity, and

family composition; 

• serve foods that reflect cultural and ethnic preferences; 

• communicate with families in their preferred or primary language or through an interpreter, to the extent feasible; 

• hire staff, whenever possible, who speak the home languages

of infants and toddlers, and when a majority of children

speak the same language, hire at least one classroom staff

member or home visitor who speaks their language; and

• promote family participation in literacy-related activities

in both English and the home languages. 

Other standards play important supportive roles in creating successful and responsive program services for all children,

including ELLs and their families. 

The Program Performance Standards tell us what to do,

but not how to implement. They help us understand what the

requirements for each service area are, but they do not limit

how we are to meet these requirements. For example, each

Head Start program still determines how to address the

requirements for community partnerships, the transition of

children to elementary school, the family partnership agreements, and ongoing assessment. 

The goal is to design services for ELLs that meet the standards

AND respond to your program’s unique situation.

by Michele Plutro

Introduction

What are the advantages of being bilingual? A review of research (Augusta & Hakuta 1997) indicates that

bilingual children often have higher levels of cognitive achievement than monolingual children. 

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

The Program

Performance Standards

require an environment

of acceptance that

supports culture and

language.

Photo courtesy of HSNRC Photo Archives.

PROGRAM PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

SUPPORTING HOME LANGUAGE AND ENGLISH ACQUISITION
Head Start Bulletin 5

The same is true for the required services to families and

children learning English. Each program must continue to

determine the most effective ways to communicate with the

children and families they serve, to support home languages,

and to help children learn English. 

However, the Guidance accompanying each standard

offers examples and illustrations of how to implement the

standard. Other suggestions about putting the standards into

action appear in this issue of the Bulletin, in other Head Start

publications including the Head Start Leaders’ Guide to

Positive Child Outcomes, and in Web-based resources, such

as STEP-Net. 

When some Head Start programs discuss services for

English language learners, they say they “don’t know what to

do and don’t know where to start.” First, they need to

become very familiar with the Program Performance

Standards and the accompanying Guidance. Then, they can

take a close look at their English language learners and their

families, their staff, and their community resources. The goal

is to design services for ELLs that meet the standards and also

respond to the program’s unique situation. 

In fact, many Head Start programs around the nation

have successfully determined how to meet the requirements of

the Program Performance Standards. They report that children whose primary language is other than English are making

progress in all areas of learning and development. Many families recognize that the Head Start program has effectively supported their home language and helped them and their children learn English. Recent demographic data from the

National Reporting System and the Child and Family

Experiences Survey (FACES) provide evidence of Head Start’s

reach in serving diverse populations.

This is not to suggest that Head Start has done it all or

done enough for ELLs and their families. We are still identifying best practices at the classroom and administrative levels;

we are still considering how to provide training and resources

to teachers, home visitors, and other staff; we are still cultivating community partners who will help us meet the needs of

families. Our charge is to do what we are required to do, to

provide the best services possible, to look for ways to improve

what we are doing, and to implement changes to ensure positive outcomes for Head Start children and their families.

Let us take even greater advantage of the local design and

implementation flexibility that characterizes effective Head

Start programs.

Each time we reflect on the evolution of Head Start, as well

as the services designed and delivered, we should be struck by

our demonstrated capacity to collectively deal with change and

to embrace diversity. This current area of demand, indicated by

the increasing numbers of ELLs and the variety of languages in

our programs, should showcase our collective strengths. As we

move forward at the local and the national levels to serve our

richly diverse Head Start population, let us agree to be early

childhood leaders, innovators, and open learners. ■

Michele Plutro is the Educational Affairs Specialist in the

Office of the Associate Commissioner at the Head Start

Bureau. T: 202-205-8912; E: mplutro@acf.hhs.gov

Introduction

The Program Performance Standards require communication with families in their

preferred or primary language whenever possible.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.

online...For more information on Head Start, visit our site at www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb
6 2005

A HEAD START FOR ALL CHILDREN

Introduction

Where I grew up in northern New Mexico, nearly everyone spoke English and Spanish, and some of my friends also

spoke Tewa, the language of the local Native American

Pueblo. My home language was English, and I learned Spanish

in a bilingual preschool. Our group of 4-5 year olds went on

many outings to the town square where we watched weavers

at work, chatted with the elders, and sometimes, used the

horno (adobe oven) to make bread for our snack. I went to a

very culturally diverse public elementary school. My high

school was on the Pojoaque Indian Pueblo. My world consisted of friends who switched between English and Spanish,

depending on who was a part of the conversation.

I became certified as a teacher of English as a Second

Language and in Bilingual Education. I taught in Guatemala

in an early childhood dual language setting, in New Mexico in

a kindergarten/first grade bilingual combination classroom,

and in Japan in a second grade Spanish immersion classroom.

As I worked in these different educational settings, I was

impressed with how easily the children accepted different languages, styles, and customs. They were well on their way to

becoming global citizens.

When I joined the Head Start Bureau, I fell in love with

the Head Start Program Performance Standards and the

numerous ways they require that programs provide an “environment of acceptance” for children and families from diverse

cultural and linguistic backgrounds (1304.21 (a)(1)(iii). The

Head Start Child Outcomes Framework continues to promote

the language and literacy development of all preschoolers and

requires that English language learners show progress in their

acquisition of the new language. 

This Head Start Bulletin is dedicated to all who support

English language learners in Head Start and Early Head Start

programs. Diversity is one of the strengths of Head Start as

well as one of its challenges. Whether your program works

with families and children who speak the same language in

the classroom—Spanish, Mandarin, Hebrew, English, or

another language—or whether your program has many languages represented in a setting, you will be able to read

about different perspectives on English language learners in

this Bulletin. 

The articles are organized into the following sections: The

Community and Families; Educational Leaders; Teachers and

Home Visitors Speak; Assessment; and Resources. There are

discussions of program policy related to English language

learners, instructional strategies, curriculum planning, challenging behaviors related to language development, and

research reviews of language acquisition. A glossary of terms

is included. Developmental continuity and individual differences are addressed in the articles. There are personal

accounts describing how Head Start staff have been creative

and sensitive in their work with culturally and linguistically

diverse children and families. 

The authors include academics, researchers, administrators,

mentor-coaches, and teachers. They represent geographical

diversity too—they come from Head Start and Early Head Start

programs in urban Puerto Rico and rural Alaska; from migrant

programs in upstate New York and the Cherokee Nation in

Oklahoma; from the suburbs of Virginia, the Hawaiian Islands,

and the coastal city of Portland, Maine. Appearing throughout

the articles are research “nuggets” which are extracted from the

longer, research-based discussions available at www.headstartinfo.org/ English_lang_learners_tkit.htm. The research

“nuggets” are noted by a lightbulb icon. 

With a firm foundation in their home language and in

English, Head Start children will be able to achieve positive

outcomes and to succeed in school and in life. I hope that all

of us who work in Head Start will do our best to ensure that

the children and families in our programs are successful in a

culturally and linguistically diverse world. ■

Jessica Knight is a former Bilingual Program Specialist, Head

Start Bureau, residing in Hawaii.

This Bulletin is dedicated to all those who support English

language learners in Head Start and Early Head Start

programs. by Jessica Knight

online...For more information on Head Start, visit our site at www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb
BILINGUAL: Refers to the use of two languages. However,

defining bilingualism is problematic since individuals with varying

bilingual characteristics may be classified as bilingual. There may

be distinctions between ability and use of a language; variation

in proficiency across the four language dimensions (listening,

speaking, reading and writing); differences in proficiency

between the two languages; variation in proficiency due to the

use of each language for different functions and purposes; and

variation in language proficiency over time (Baker & Jones

1998). People may become bilingual either by acquiring two

languages at the same time in childhood or by learning a second

language sometime after acquiring their first language.

BICULTURAL: Identifying with the cultures of two different

language groups. To be bicultural is not necessarily the same as

being bilingual, and vice-versa (Baker 2000). 

Dominant Language: The language with which the speaker has

greater proficiency and/or uses more often (Baker 2001). 

See Primary Language.

DUAL LANGUAGE PROGRAM/DUAL IMMERSION:

Educational programs designed to serve both language minority

and language majority students concurrently. Two language

groups are put together and instruction is delivered through both

languages. For example, native English-speakers might learn

Spanish as a foreign language while continuing to develop their

English literacy skills, and Spanish-speaking ELLs learn English

while developing literacy in Spanish. Also known as two-way

immersion or two-way bilingual education.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS (ELLs) : Children whose

first language is not English and who are in the process of

learning English. 

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL): An educational

approach in which English language learners are instructed in

the use of the English language. 

HOME LANGUAGE: The language a person acquires first

in life or identifies with as a member of an ethnic group

(Baker 2000). It is sometimes referred to as the first, native or

primary language. 

IMMERSION: An approach to teaching language using the

target language as the only means of instruction. 

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: The process of acquiring a first

or second language. Some linguists refer to acquisition as the

informal development of a person’s second language and

learning as the process of formal study of a second language.

Other linguists do not distinguish between formal learning and

informal acquisition. The process of acquiring a second language

is different from acquiring the first (Baker 2000).

LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE: The protection and promotion

of the first or native language in an individual or within a speech

community, particularly among language minorities (through

bilingual education, for example). The term is often used with

reference to policies that protect and promote minority languages

(Baker 2000).

MONOLINGUAL: Refers to using or knowing only one

language. (American Heritage Dictionary 2000).

MULTICULTURAL: The broad term used to refer to several

cultures. It also relates to a social or educational approach that

encourages interest in many cultures. (American Heritage

Dictionary 2000).

MULTILINGUAL: Refers to the use of three or more languages.

PRIMARY LANGUAGE: The language in which

bilingual/multicultural speakers are most fluent or which

they prefer to use. This is not necessarily the language first

learned in life (Baker 2000). It is also referred to as

dominant language.

SECOND LANGUAGE: This term is used in several ways and

can refer to 1) the second language learned chronologically,

2) a language other than the native language, 3) the weaker

language, or 4) the less frequently used language. Second

language may also be used to refer to third and further learned

languages (Harris & Hodges 1995).

Second Language Acquisition: The learning of a second

language, often English.

SEQUENTIAL ACQUISITION: The process of acquiring a

second language after the basis for the first language has been

established (Tabors 1997).

SIMULTANEOUS ACQUISITION: The process of acquiring

two languages from a very early age (Tabors 1997). 

References can be obtained from the NCELA Web site.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Information comes from AskNCELA’s glossary of terms related to the education of linguistically and culturally diverse students at

www.ncela.gwu.edu/expert/glossary.html

Head Start Bulletin 7
8 2005

Fifty–two languages are spoken in the city of Portland,

Maine. That’s kind of surprising, given that the last U.S.

Census reported that

Maine was the least

diverse state! But

Portland has been designated by the State

Department as a Refugee

Resettlement city. The

refugee families who

have resettled have discovered that Portland is

a safe and welcoming

town. Friends and family members have followed as secondary

migrants from other resettlement areas across the country.

During the last decade, the influx of refugee, secondary

migrant, and immigrant families has changed the face of our

small city.

Of course, these demographic changes are reflected in the

population we serve in our Head Start, Early Head Start, and

child care programs. Our programs are operated by the People’s

Regional Opportunity Program (PROP), a community action

agency. We serve Maine’s most populous county, Cumberland

County. The number of languages spoken by families in our

programs has increased steadily and now averages about 20

languages. In any classroom, there might be as many as ten different languages spoken by the children. Since one language

may be shared by various cultures, the diversity of cultures is

even greater. 

All this change sweeping across our city has resulted in a

huge learning curve for our community and our agency. First

and foremost, we have identified dialogue with the families and

the communities as the primary vehicle for effective and responsive program planning and change. Head Start and other service

programs have developed effective strategies for reaching these

new populations.

The Cross-Cultural Family Network

In 1997, we began to take a closer look at the cultures of the

refugee and immigrant

families enrolled in our

programs. Their perspectives on child rearing

practices and their perceptions of social service

institutions differed from

ours, which hindered our

communication. The

result was a negative

impact on the ability of

these new families to

rear their children

uneventfully. For example, service providers who did not understand traditional medical

practices were calling the Child Abuse and Neglect Council to

ask if these practices were deemed abusive by the State (the

answer was “no”). At the same time, refugee families did not

know how to find out about best parenting practices in the U.S.

To ensure clearer understanding across cultures, PROP’s

Head Start program and the Cumberland County Child Abuse

and Neglect Council co-founded the Cross-Cultural Family

Network. The Network is comprised of community providers,

educators, interpreters, and representatives from the refugee and

immigrant groups. Our mission is to obtain and provide information, offer workshops and conferences, provide opportunities for

collaborative problem-solving, and offer a perspective on crosscultural issues to the larger Portland community. 

The Network’s first goal was to design and disseminate

culturally sensitive materials on U.S. child rearing practices

and laws. Working with cultural liaisons, interpreters, and

child development professionals, we developed and translated

pamphlets for the five most populous cultural groups in 

the area.

COMMUNITY COLLABORATION:

THE KEY TO SERVING ALL FAMILIES

How a Head Start program developed effective services for its

refugee and immigrant families. by Kathleen Sullivan

Demographic changes are reflected in the populations that Head Start programs serve.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.

Community and Families
Head Start Bulletin 9

Over the past six years, we have continued to offer workshops on a community and statewide level on topics such as

evolving demographics of our community and holiday practices. In addition, we offer monthly forums to service

providers and others where they can identify challenges and

determine best practices. 

Educational Services for Children

As the demographics of our classrooms have changed, so

has the need to assess our teaching strategies. One of the greatest challenges is that educational expectations vary across cultures. Approaches to individualization, guidance and discipline,

and disabilities differ. Our education staff has made great

efforts to learn about the desires and values of each family for

their young children.

A training priority has been supporting staff working with

English Language Learners (ELLs). Our approach has evolved as

we have begun to understand the complexity of second or third

language development in young children. The first workshops our

staff attended were conducted by the Multilingual, Multicultural

Office of the Portland Public Schools with Title VII funding (now

Title III of No Child Left Behind Act).

In 2001, nine education staff from our program attended a

conference on ELL teaching strategies in Rhode Island. The training focused on classroom practice and incorporated recommendations from One Child, Two Languages by Patton Tabors (1997).

Subsequently, we purchased this book for every classroom serving

ELLs and recommended it to the school system. We developed inservice training based on the workshops we had attended and

used the book as a resource. 

Next, we conducted a formal assessment of our practices

and then planned a comprehensive ELL training series. We

were awarded an Early Learning Opportunities grant from the

Child Care Bureau (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services)

to carry out this plan. The grant included provisions for multicultural activities which became a perfect vehicle for moving

our work forward.

First, we hired consultants from the community who were

credentialed in ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages)

and familiar with the populations we serve. Over the course of a

year, they observed our classrooms and reviewed our assessment

tools, curriculum, and policies. They held focus groups with staff

and management to assess needs and concerns. Based on their

findings, they made recommendations concerning our work with

ELLs and refugee families, and subsequently developed a comprehensive training series.

The training began with a report on our cultural responsiveness as an agency. We then discussed best practice models that

incorporate current research findings about multilingual, multicultural service delivery. To assure program-wide recognition and

understanding of the changing dynamics of our work, all managers, lead teachers, and family service workers were required to

attend the series. 

In addition to participating in the training, PROP Head

Start has: 

• adapted an observational tool (from Tabors 1997) for 

teachers to track English language acquisition and

• formed a “Multicultural Book Group” that meets once 

a month. 

Stages of Sequential Acquisition of a Second Language

Tabors and Snow (1994) have identified four stages of sequential

acquisition of a new language. The stages represent a general pattern of second language learning for children, after the age of 3, in

English-speaking settings.

Stage 1: Home Language Use. Monolingual children in a new language environment continue to speak their home language. 

Stage 2: Nonverbal Period. This stage begins when children start to

realize that their primary language is not being understood. They

will become quiet, watching and listening intently, and often use

nonverbal means to communicate. 

Stage 3: Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech. During this time, children intentionally use individual vocabulary words in the new language or put them together in a short sequence or short sentence.

Some mixing of the English and the home language may occur. 

Stage 4: Productive Language. The child begins to speak English relatively well. Sentences may be rather awkward and words over- or

under-generalized at times.

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second

Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

Community and Families
10 2005

COMMUNITY COLLABORATION

To maintain our momentum, the consultants met with our

entire management team again in the fall 2003. We reviewed their

recommendations and talked about further implementation. This

continuing dialogue has been instrumental in shifting the focus of

our staff and classrooms around this work. 

Various community resources have helped support language

acquisition and the home cultures in our classrooms. We have

hired bilingual community members to work in the classrooms.

They remain until the children understand the routine and feel

comfortable in the new setting. Because each child adjusts differently, interpreters may remain with children for one week or

three months. 

We also have partnered with the foreign language department of a local university. Students who are bilingual in English

and Spanish volunteer in our programs for two days a week for a

semester and earn course credit. Bilingual community members

make recordings of children’s books in both English and the

home language. Then high school volunteers put them onto CDs.

Parents help us label the classrooms with words from their home

languages. In addition to promoting the home languages, these

activities allow us to learn more about the children’s cultures.

A Unique Literacy Project

The most inspiring and informative multicultural project was

the “New Mainer Book Project,” a collaboration between PROP

and the Maine Humanities Council. We identified the Sudanese

culture in Portland as being under-represented in children’s literature. Community elders helped the project recruit Sudanese

women to tell stories that were important to them—stories that

they would like their children to hear. 

During the fall of 2003, we met with the Sudanese women.

We found that the most effective way to involve refugee families

in outreach projects was to meet them at times when they would

normally congregate. For the Sudanese communities, this meant

meeting on Sundays after church.

Because there are many tribes and dialects in the Sudan,

we met tribe by tribe. We ate together and listened as the

stories were told. We heard fables, folktales, creation myths,

and anecdotal accounts of love, marriage, birthing, and

loss. In all, approximately 50 women participated in 

the project.

The Maine Humanities Council engaged a noted children’s

author (who spoke some Arabic) to collect the stories into a

book that reflects the Sudanese experience. Although the book

is still in the early stages, the information we gathered about the

Sudanese way of life has been invaluable to our staff—information that was often missed when reading an article or conversing quickly with a parent. 

Staff Development and Hiring

To reach out to the new communities we serve and to

involve them meaningfully in our work, we started to attend

Parent Advisory Council (PAC) meetings held by the Portland

public schools. PACs are culturally specific groups that focus on

issues affecting parents of school-age children. They are held on

Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, so weekend work has become

an important part of the outreach effort. We learned that many

Portland families do not understand what PROP offers nor do

they realize the comprehensive nature of Head Start. 

To address these needs in the multicultural community and

to further develop the cultural competence of staff, we formed an

agency-wide Cultural Capacity Committee for outreach, training,

and hiring. While participation was voluntary, we asked that each

department of the agency send a representative. 

The initial activities of the Cultural Capacity Committee led

us directly into the communities. We attended a Multicultural

Outreach Breakfast, neighborhood block parties, and school PAC

meetings. We developed a multicultural resource library and

offered culture-by-culture workshops regarding education, home

visits, and barriers to accessing service. One of the most important efforts was the identification and establishment of “Cultural

Brokers” (bilingual/bicultural liaisons) who helped introduce our

programs to the community and train staff regarding culturally

specific concerns. 

Through the work of the Cultural Capacity Committee, we

have changed how we conduct our work. We have developed

culturally responsive policies about interpreting, holidays, toileting, and meal-modification.

Community and Families
Head Start Bulletin 11

While services to families have improved, recruiting and

employing refugee and immigrant parents remain areas of

growth for us. With Early Learning Opportunities funding, the

agency has brought together Somali and Sudanese women at

our local resource and referral agency (Child Care

Connections) to discuss issues of childrearing. Many women

were interested in starting their own home daycare centers or

working in local preschool and child care centers. 

In response, we collaborated with Portland Adult

Education, Child Care Connections, the Child Abuse and

Neglect Council, and several other child care programs in the

city to offer pre-vocational ESOL classes to 15 refugee

women. The classes were held on-site at a neighboring child

care center, and child care was provided.

Because the job interview process in the United States is very

different, PROP offered “practice” interviews. We modeled and

coached the women to talk about themselves and their achievements so they would be competitive applicants in the job market.

In turn, our staff and Policy Council representatives learned how

to successfully engage the applicants in the interviewing process.

As a result, three participants have been hired as permanent staff

in the agency while three others are on the substitute list. 

Final Thoughts

We at PROP know that this work is very time consuming

and that weekend work is necessary. We also know that we

have more to learn, yet, we have made much progress. We

have established credibility with both the provider and client

communities. Families want to enroll their children in our programs. Parents want to be employed in the agency. Other

groups seek us out as collaborators. Cultural brokers demonstrate their appreciation of our commitment by offering free

training, interpreting, or research services. The benefit to the

agency, and to all of us who have been involved in this multicultural endeavor, is without measure. ■

REFERENCES

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for

preschool educators of children learning English as a 

second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes

Publishing Co.

Kathleen Sullivan is a Children’s Services Team Leader at PROP

Child and Family Services, Portland, ME. T: 207-874-1140; 

E: ksullivan@propeople.org

Community and Families

BIENVENIDA A IRELYS RAMÍREZ Photo by D. Mentzer.

Irelys Ramírez is the Bilingual

Program Specialist at the Head Start

Bureau. She first learned about Head Start

when her young daughter was enrolled in

a program. For Irelys, one of the most

valuable and distinctive components of the

program was parent involvement. 

Irelys comes from Region II, where

she has worked with several ACF programs for more than 20 years. In 1997,

she joined Head Start as a Program

Specialist; providing guidance, technical

assistance and policy interpretation to

local grantees in Puerto Rico. According to

Irelys, the best part of her job was visiting

Head Start centers, where she was able to

observe teachers and children in action.

She adds, "The teachers and directors

have such passion for their work that they

continually inspired me to assist them in

improving their programs." She was also

a Team Leader for on-site PRISM reviews. 

Looking ahead to her new role, Irelys

is committed to supporting the Head Start

Bureau in the development of policies and

strategies for English language learners

and their families served in Head Start

and Early Head Start.
12 2005

RUNNING HED

A HEAD START PARENT’S PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

B Y SAHAR AL I

My children started out in a home-based Head Start program. The home visitor helped us get used to life in a new country. We were speaking

both Arabic and English at home. When my children entered the center-based program, I participated in early literacy training in order to work in

the classroom. There, I learned more about the importance of speaking my home language with my children. 

So, we decided to only speak Arabic at home because the children would be exposed to English in Head Start, in elementary school, and in the

community. I also send them to the mosque once a week to learn Arabic. I have bought some videotapes in Arabic; we see some TV programs in

Arabic. I have a few picture books of the Arabic alphabet and the numbers. 

When we go back to Egypt for a visit, my oldest child speaks only Arabic there. The younger ones speak both Arabic and some English. I

want them to be with other children who speak Arabic because they will “catch” the language from them. 

I explain to my children that learning and speaking two languages will be an advantage. Their high school and college years will be enhanced

by this knowledge. Also, when they become part of the working world, their experiences with two languages will make them more successful.

I hope that Head Start will continue to support the home languages of its families. If the Child Development Associate training was offered in

different languages (now it is in English/Spanish), more teachers and assistants could be hired who are able to prepare the children’s curriculum in

their home languages. Head Start programs might sponsor more multi-language book fairs for families and children. I wish that teachers could

purchase more materials, such as books and games in different languages. Then parents would have material in their home languages to read with

their children, and their language would be kept alive in the Head Start program. 

I am grateful that Head Start helped me realize how important it is for my family to speak our home language. I want to encourage other

families to do the same. ■

Sahar Ali’s children attended the Higher Horizons HS/EHS program in Falls Church, VA. T: 703-931-4474; E: sahar_ali22041@yahoo.com

Community and Families

In the summer of 2004, the Head Start Bureau launched The Head

Start Parent-Mentoring Training Program designed to:

• increase the ability of parents to enhance their children's language

and literacy skills through everyday experiences and

• provide parents with critical communication skills and strategies for

sharing their learning with other parents in their communities.

Over 1,000 mothers, fathers, and legal guardians representing local

Head Start grantees and delegate agencies attended the training events

around the country. Their children were entering their last year of Head

Start before going onto kindergarten. 

Participants were enthusiastic and eager to implement what they

had learned back home. One Parent-Mentor reflected on her experience

in the training, "I walked through the doors with my own knowledge of

being an ordinary parent; now I am leaving with the extra knowledge

and confidence to share my experiences with other parents." A Spanishspeaking Parent-Mentor remarked, "This training gave me confidence to

continue using our Spanish language. It is very important that we keep

our roots in our children's vocabulary. That way they can have not one,

but two languages. This will help them to succeed in everything." 

The Head Start Bureau staff made these inspiring remarks at the

end of each training, "As Parent-Mentors you will be more intentional

about working with your own children and you will become a support

for other parents as they help their children." In fact, many Parent

Mentors have made an impact on their local programs. A Parent-Mentor

from California recently wrote to the Regional Office, "Our agency now

has a Parent-Mentor Program and guess who put it together? I will soon

be staff. We have openings for 3 paid positions. We meet on the first

Wednesday of each month to share ideas and learning activities. Last

time we met at the local library. We were given a tour, applied for library

cards for parent/child, even booked a story teller. I have planned a

Family's Reading Together Workshop. Each participant will get a free

book." No doubt, other Parent-Mentors across the country are making

a difference in the lives of their own children and of other families too. 

The Parent-Mentoring Training will be extended in 2005 to the

Head Start families of 3- and 4-year-old children in the Regions, including Puerto Rico. For more information, contact Willa Choper Siegel,

Program Specialist, Education Branch, Head Start Bureau, 

T: 202-205-4011; E: wsiegel@acf.hhs.gov

THE PARENT-MENTORING INITIATIVE IS UNDERWAY
Head Start Bulletin 13

SUPPORTING ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

THROUGH FAMILY LITERACY SERVICES

B Y WILLA CHOPER SIEGEL AND BARRY M . GARY

What are Family Literacy Services?

Head Start and Early Head Start programs are committed to helping parents contribute to their children’s success.

By focusing on the literacy of parents and of their children

at the same time, family literacy services provide an effective strategy to help parents accomplish this. Family literacy

services are mandated by the Head Start Act of 1998 and

identified specifically in 1304.40(e)(4)(i)&(ii) of the Head

Start Program Performance Standards. However, elements of

family literacy can be seen throughout the Program

Performance Standards because the philosophies of Head

Start and family literacy are so similar. In fact, family 

literacy services impact on the entire range of positive 

child outcomes described in the Head Start Child 

Outcomes Framework. 

For the last five years, The National Center for Family

Literacy (NCFL) has provided training and technical assistance

and other resources to support the legislative requirements

and the implementation of the Program Performance

Standards related to family literacy. Family literacy services 

are multi-focused and inter-related. They include:

• parenting education for family members

• child development information for program staff

• parent-child activities and experiences

• adult education at all levels

These services may be delivered directly through the Head

Start or Early Head Start program or in collaboration with community partners. Family literacy services, supported by the

resources of the NCFL, reach out to all parents and children in

Head Start. They can address many needs of families whose

home language is not English or who may have recently immigrated. Family literacy services are an important link between

families, program staff, and local communities. More information about the NCFL is available at www.famlit.org.

Willa Choper Siegel is a Program Specialist, Education Branch,

Head Start Bureau. T: 202-205-4011; E: wsiegel@acf.hhs.gov

Barry M. Gary is the Director of the Head Start Family Literacy

Project at the National Family Literacy Center, Louisville, KY. 

T: 502-584-1133; E: bgary@famlit.org

Family literacy services reach out to all parents and children in Head Start.

Photo by W. Donlan. Bay County EHS.

Community and Families
14 2005

“... yo creo que una persona siendo bilingüe tiene muchas

mas posibilidades de llegar mucho mas lejos que una persona

que sepa solo un idioma.”

“...I think that a person being bilingual has many more

opportunities to get much further [in life] than a person who

only knows one language.”—Clara’s mother, Head Start, 

May 28, 2002.

When children in the United States enter early childhood

classrooms from homes where English is not the primary

language, they become involved in the process of becoming

bilingual (learning to speak more than one language). As

expressed by Clara’s mother, there is growing recognition

that being bilingual can provide opportunities that may not

be available to monolinguals, people who can speak only 

one language. Further, bilingualism can be beneficial for 

children’s early language and literacy development, for family

communication and functioning, and for children’s feelings of

self-worth. 

In order for the process of becoming bilingual to be successful, parents and teachers need to work together to build

understanding about what it means for a child to become

bilingual and how becoming bilingual can be accomplished

under varied circumstances. How should teachers and parents

collaborate in helping young children become bilingual? We

think that these activities are important:

• collect information about the children and their families

• develop a plan for children’s continued use of the 

home language

• develop a plan for children’s acquisition of English

Collecting Information About the Children and 

Their Families

“Me vine con mi mamá, mi papá ya estaba aquí, me vine

con mi hermano menor, pero por mejorar. [En este país hay]

más oportunidades de progresar que en el país de nosotros.

[Pero todavía tengo] un hermano, el mayor, y mi abuelita, así

que es por la que mas bien viajo por allá.”

“I came with my mom, my father was already here, and I

came with my younger brother, but to have a better life. [In this

country] there are more opportunities to succeed than in my

country. [However, I still have] a brother, the oldest, and my

grandmother, and that is my main reason for going back to

visit.”—Rosa and Ramon’s mother, Head Start, June 12, 2002.

The first step is for teachers to find out all they can about

the language(s) and culture(s) of the families. Of course, this

may not be easy when teachers and parents do not communicate in a common language. For this reason, it may be useful

HOW CAN TEACHERS AND PARENTS HELP YOUNG

CHILDREN BECOME (AND STAY) BILINGUAL?

Teachers can take a first step by gathering information about

the languages and cultures of the families.

by Patton O. Tabors and Lisa M. López

A buddy system pairs children who are proficient in English with English learners.

Photo by H. Wilson. Community Services for Children HS.

Community and Families

By emphasizing the support of the home language at home and encouraging positive and stimulating learning experiences in the early care settings and in the community, caregivers are working to prevent the overall

language delays that can affect future school-related academic achievement (Thomas & Collier 2002).

Excerpt from Sylvia Y. Sánchez . Is It Wrong to Speak to My Babies in Their Home Language?

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)
Head Start Bulletin 15

for teachers to use a questionnaire that can be translated into

the parents’ home language or that can be filled out by parents in English with the help of community members.

Designed to gather cultural and linguistic information about

the child and the family, a questionnaire might ask:

• What name do you use for your child? How did you

decide to give your child this name? Does this name have

a particular meaning or translation?

• What language(s) do you use to talk to your child? Who

else does your child spend time with and what language

do they use?

Other questions could gather information about the child’s

preferences and routines and the parents’ expectations for the

child. (See the sample questionnaire in Tabors’ book One Child,

Two Languages (1997), pp. 96-98). A questionnaire could be

incorporated into the initial home visit when the family and child

enroll in Head Start. 

Once teachers have collected this information, they can

begin thinking about how they want to discuss the issue of

bilingualism with parents. In interviews with Head Start parents and other parents of children who speak Spanish at

home, two themes emerge. Parents want their children to 

continue to use Spanish. And parents want their children to

learn English. In fact, it is only if children continue to learn

their home language and begin to learn English that they 

will be on the pathway to bilingualism. How can this goal 

be accomplished? 

Developing a Plan for Children’s Continued Use of the

Home Language

“Aparte pues que esa es la lengua de uno su maestra nos

dice siempre, la maestra de Tomás, que siempre en casa puro

español. Como en su escuela todo el día es puro inglés

entonces nos dice que en casa no le hablemos por favor inglés

para que aprenda la lengua natal de uno y no el puro exactamente inglés.”

“Besides being our language, his teacher always tells us,

Tomás’ teacher, that at home always use only Spanish. At

school he spends all day using English so she tells us to please

not speak to him in English so that he can learn his native

tongue and not only English.”—Tomas’ mother, public pre-K,

August 24, 2002.

Encourage parents to maintain the home language. Working

with parents around the issue of home language use can be challenging, as parents may hear from many sources that it is important for them to start speaking English with their children as

soon as possible. The important messages to get across to

parents are: 

• Children will need to continue to speak their home language if they are to become bilingual. 

• Communication within the family provides children with

necessary information about the world. 

• Families should communicate in the language they feel

most comfortable using.

• Research shows that children with a strong foundation in

their home language do better in school (Tabors 1997).

Teachers who are confident about these messages and are

willing to collaborate with parents to help maintain the home

language can help parents make the decision, as Tomás’ mother

has, to keep using their home language with their children. 

Bring the home language(s) into the classroom. Depending

on the linguistic composition of the classroom (both the children

and the staff), different approaches are used to incorporate the

language(s). If the teachers and the children share the same home

language, then the curriculum can capitalize on this fact. With the

collaboration of parents, teachers can set appropriate goals for

home language use. 

Community and Families

It is only if children 

continue to learn their

home language and begin

to learn English that they

will be on the pathway 

to bilingualism. 
16 2005

BECOMING (AND STAYING) BILINGUAL

However, if teachers and children do not share the same language(s), then it is necessary to make the curriculum multi-linguistic. Suggestions for teachers include: 

• encourage children to speak their home languages with

classmates who share that language.

• introduce the different alphabets or writing systems of the

home languages. 

• ask parents to teach an activity, present a song, tell a story,

or read a book using their home language. 

• find story books in the children’s home languages and/or

have parents develop story books in their home languages to

add to the classroom library.

• introduce new vocabulary words in English and find out

what that word would be in at least one other language.

• bring story-tellers into the class who can tell a story in

another language. 

Developing a Plan for Children’s Acquisition of English

“Sí, sí sí sí eso sí, [que ella aprenda inglés] me preocupa...aquí

el inglés es predominante y en toda parte necesita hablar inglés.”

“Yes, yes, yes, that is so, I worry [about her learning

English]...here [in the United States] English is the predominant [language] and you need to know how to speak English

everywhere you go.”—Maricarmen’s mother, Head Start,

June 17, 2002.

When and how should English be introduced to young

children from homes where it is not the primary language? Of

course, it depends. In a classroom where all of the children and

the teachers share the same home language, English can be

introduced as a “foreign language.” One approach designates a

particular time of the day as English period. At this time,

another teacher who is a native speaker of English is in charge

of the classroom activities. Goals for these activities will be set

by the teachers and the parents together.

A second option for using a home language and English

at the same time would involve developing a two-way or dual

language classroom or classrooms. In this model, approximately half of the children have a greater proficiency in the

home language and half have a greater proficiency in English.

In these classrooms, instruction is planned to occur in one or

the other of the languages at a given time so that all of the

children are developing bilingual abilities.

In a multilingual classroom where children come from a

variety of home language backgrounds, teachers usually use

English as the classroom language. In this situation, a variety

of well-documented techniques are useful in helping children

make progress in acquiring English. Some techniques focus on

how teachers communicate in English, and other techniques

focus on how teachers organize their classrooms.

Communication Techniques to Help Children Who Are

Learning English

When teachers use English with children who are just

learning English, they try to ensure that they are understood.

For this reason, teachers rely on techniques like buttressing

(using non-verbal cues, such as gestures), repetition (using the

same phrases over and over again), and talking about the here

and now (referring to objects and activities in plain view of

the children). Teachers often provide running commentary

(talking about what they are doing while they are doing it)

during activities and are careful to expand and extend any

words or phrases that a child uses in English. Finally, teachers

also use a technique called “upping the ante” in which they

encourage children to respond in English when they are ready

(Tabors 1997).

Classroom Organization to Help Children Who Are

Learning English

Classrooms with consistent routines are extremely helpful

for young children who are learning English. They come to

know what to expect and begin to navigate the classroom successfully. By using small groups for activity work and by making sure that the English learners are included in those activities, it is possible to tailor the use of English to the ability level

of individual children. It is also possible to establish a buddy

system, where children in the classroom who are already proficient in English pair up with English learners. Finally, it is

important to have places in the classroom where English 

Community and Families
Head Start Bulletin 17

learning children can sit quietly or use manipulatives or look at

pictures or play alone. These places can be thought of as safe

havens in an otherwise demanding classroom situation.

Conclusion

Although we often think that young children can learn a

second language with little effort, research demonstrates that

this is not the case. In fact, the process of learning a second language and the process of maintaining a home language at the

same time are cognitive and social challenges for young children. However, with the help of their parents and their teachers,

it is possible for young children to become bilingual. ■

All quotes in this article come from interviews administered by Lisa M. Lopez, National Science Foundatoin (NSF)

Minority Postdoctoral Fellow (010920), in collaboration with

the Early Childhood Study of Language and Literacy

Development of Spanish-speaking Children, a sub-project of

Acquisition of Literacy in English, a program project of the

Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC, funded by

the NICHHD and the Institute of Education Sciences (5-P01-

HD39530), Patton O. Tabors, Principal Investigator.

REFERENCES

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for preschool

educators of children learning English as a second language.

Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Tabors, P. 2002. Language and literacy for all children. Head

Start Bulletin 74: 10-14. Washington, DC: U.S. Department

of Health and Human Services, Administration for

Children and Families, Head Start Bureau.

Patton O. Tabors is a Principal Research Associate, Harvard

Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA. 

T: 617-495-3096; E: patton_tabors@harvard.edu

Lisa M. López is an Assistant Professor of Educational

Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL. 

T: 813-974-1260; E: Lopez@coedu.usf.edu

Community and Families

ENROLLMENT BY PRIMARY

LANGUAGE OF THE FAM ILY 

AT HOME 

As reported in the Head Start Program Information Report

for the 2003 – 2004 Program Year:

English 772,320 72.40%

Spanish 243,541 22.83%

East Asian Languages 11,830 1.11%

Native Central/

South American and 

Mexican Languages 8,671 0.81%

Middle Eastern and

South Asian Languages 7,160 0.67%

Pacific Island Languages 5,173 0.48%

European and Slavic

Languages 5,026 0.47%

Caribbean Languages 4,182 0.39%

African Languages 4,063 0.38%

Native North American/

Alaska Native Languages 2,063 0.19%

Other Languages 2,678 0.25%
18 2005

What practices can Early Head Start (EHS) programs

implement to support the home languages and cultures of the

families and to support the infants and toddlers who are

English language learners? The Early Head Start National

Resource Center @ ZERO TO THREE (2001) makes the following recommendations. They parallel the Head Start

Program Performance Standards which EHS programs are

required to implement.

The recommended practices for EHS programs are to:

• Involve parents and families in sharing their language and

culture through a range of activities at home and in the

program.

• Collaborate with community partners as well as state and

local programs that work closely with culturally and linguistically diverse families. Ask for volunteers who share

the same culture and language of the children to spend

some time in the classroom.

• Communicate with the families in a variety of ways using

different language approaches and resources. Provide

both written and verbal communication, and whenever

possible, translate into the home languages. Keep them

informed about the best practices for supporting language development.

• Encourage parents to share music, songs, and stories 

for children that are from other cultures and in different

languages. 

• Use visual images (such as books, posters, and photos),

furnishings, toys, and foods that reflect the cultural diversity of the families.

• Communicate with children in a variety of ways using their

home language. Hire and train qualified bilingual caregivers

BUT if the caregiver does not speak the child’s home language, search for resources (songs, toys) that help the infant

or toddler feel at home.

• Involve all parents in curriculum development. Ensure that

the curriculum is individualized to support the language goal

that parents have identified for their children. For example,

is the goal to learn the home language first, to learn English

first, or to learn both simultaneously?

• Conduct dual-language assessments when necessary to

obtain accurate information about the child’s progress.

Include ongoing, systematic observations of the children’s

behavior and language.

• Respect, value, and promote the home languages and cultures for the ultimate development and learning of the

children (NAEYC 1995). ■

REFERENCES

National Association for the Education of Young Children

(NAEYC). 1995. Responding to linguistic and cultural diversity: Recommendations for effective early childhood education. Washington, D.C.: Author. Available at

www.naeyc.org/resources/position_statements/psdiv98.htm.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:

Administration for Children and Families, Head Start

Bureau. Prepared by Early Head Start National Resource

Center @ ZERO TO THREE. 2001. Linguistic diversity

and early literacy: Serving culturally diverse families in

Early Head Start. Technical Paper No. 5. Washington,

D.C.: Author. Available at www.ehsnrc.org. 

Judith Cruzado-Guerrero is an Assistant Professor, School of

Education, Bowie State University, MD. T: 301-860-3307; 

E: jguerrero@bowiestate.edu

BUILDING STRONG LANGUAGE

FOUNDATIONS IN EARLY HEAD START

B Y JUDITH R. CRUZADO -GUERRERO

Community and Families

It is important to communicate with young children in a variety of ways.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.
Head Start Bulletin 19

Migrant and Seasonal Head Start

(MSHS) programs, nationally administered from the Region 12 Migrant and

Seasonal Program Branch, are designed

to provide comprehensive services to eligible mobile migrant and seasonal farmworker families and their children, birth

to compulsory school age.

Geographically spread out in over

37 states, there are currently over 68

MSHS agencies in the United States.

These programs serve approximately

3,000 seasonal children and 31,000

migrant children, of which 40% are

under the age of three. Of the total population enrolled in MSHS programs, 97%

are Hispanic, and Spanish is the dominant language for 9 out of 10 children.

Migrant Head Start was established

in 1969 to serve migrant farm worker

infants/toddlers, preschoolers and their

families. The program was initiated

because both parents worked full-time

for part of the year in the agricultural

fields and children were often at highrisk for being exposed to weather conditions as well as environmental hazards

such as pesticides. 

Seasonal farmworker services were

added in 1998 when it was recognized

that migrant families who no longer

moved in search of agricultural work

also deserved to be eligible to be served

in migrant programs. They have similar

characteristics but no longer move from

one place to another.

As with all Head Start programs,

migrant and seasonal parents are an integral part of the management and administrative decision-making structure. Parents

actively participate in all aspects of program operations in grantee and delegate

agencies. They are volunteers at centers,

staff, and members of parent committees

and Policy Councils. 

MSHS programs are extremely complex. Different programs in different states

may serve the same family as it changes

location. Programs operate on different

schedules. Program length (number of

months) and hours of operation are

diverse, with some programs operating

over 12 hours a day, 7 days a week. The

shortest reported length of a program is 5

weeks and the longest program length is

11 months. Programs use the location of

the grantee/delegate and the type of crops

being harvested, cultivated or processed to

determine when the program will be open.

Because of changes in the agricultural industry, migrant streams are in flux

and many families have found it necessary

to change what is typically known as their

“Home Base” state to another state

entirely. For example, some families find

themselves traveling westward toward the

central United States instead of from

south to north as was typically the case.

This pattern is expected to continue since

the agricultural industry itself is in a state

of constant change.

Promoting the Home Language 

and English

Migrant and Seasonal Programs go

to great lengths to support and foster the

home language of families, primarily

Spanish, and at the same time strive to

provide a classroom environment that

supports the acquisition of English from

an early age. Migrant and Seasonal program staff believe that children benefit

from exposure to two languages. The

potential advantages of being bilingual in

today’s world are enormous, and Migrant

and Seasonal staff foster bilingualism

wherever possible. Though hiring qualified temporary staff is often very challenging, MSHS programs are committed to

having Spanish and English role models in

the classroom. 

MSHS program staff facilitate second

language acquisition by respecting young

children as individuals and by planning

learning experiences that address their

individual strengths, needs and interests.

Classroom staff equip their classrooms

MIGRANT AND SEASONAL HEAD START PROGRAMS (MSHS)

JUNTOS HACEMOS LA DIFERENCIA

B Y S HARON YANDIAN

Community and Families Photo by J. Greenburg. Okeechobee Migrant HS.

The proportion of Head Start children who hear Spanish at home is increasing at a rapid pace. Head Start's Hispanic

Implementation Initiative calculated county populations by age and Hispanic origin for 2010 and 2020 to indicate how

local client bases might change in coming years. 

To view the changing demographics of your county, go to Brad Edmondson's article, Immigration is a Powerful Force -

How Does It Affect Head Start? (http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

MSHS staff believe that children benefit from hearing

and speaking two languages.
20 2005

MSHS PROGRAMS

with materials that invite verbal

exchanges and work to engage each child

in many types of communication each

day. In addition, classroom staff use their

understanding of each child’s background to initiate and sustain communication. MSHS teachers ease the pain of

relocation by talking about the experience in positive ways:

• What we (you) saw on the way...

• How the new location is exciting....

• What we (you) left...

Above all, classroom staff facilitate

second language acquisition by creating

safe environments in which young children can try out and experiment with the

new language—and in which they can

continue to develop their first language.

By continuing to support the development

of the child’s first language while gradually and carefully introducing a second

language, classroom staff offer preschool

children appropriate supports for a lifelong process. Starting in the spring of

2004, the Migrant and Seasonal Head

Start programs participated in the NRS.

Four- and five-year-olds who were

enrolled for four months or more and

were eligible for kindergarten were

assessed. (see Schultz, page 52).

Creating Administrative Practices 

MSHS programs encourage and

support second-language acquisition and

know that learning a second language

cannot be the sole responsibility of 

program staff. Two actions that have

worked for MSHS programs and that

are particularly beneficial for staff and

parents are to: (1) develop a programwide language acquisition policy statement; and (2) promote and support

ongoing professional development for

staff in knowledge of first- and secondlanguage acquisition (see Gonzales,

http://www.headstartinfo.org /English_

lang_learners _tkit.htm). Both send a

clear message that children’s language

development is important and a priority

for the program. 

The policy statement makes clear

exactly how the program will support

the home language and culture within

the context of demonstrateing progress

towards listening, speaking and understanding English. It should also make

clear that progress for each child differs.

The policy statement helps establish

what the organization believes and generates discussion among staff and parents as well as helping them educate

each other. Professional development

activities ensure that staff have 

the knowledge and skills to facilitate 

children’s first- and second-language

development. 

While working with Migrant and

Seasonal children provides unique challenges to Head Start staff, it also presents

a unique opportunity for fostering bilingual education with preschool children. ■

Sharon Yandian is the Director of the

Region XII Migrant and Seasonal Head

Start Training and Technical Assistance

Center at the Academy for Educational

Development. T: 202-884-8729; 

E: syandian@aed.org

Community and Families

Diverse learning experiences promote 

language development.

Photo by J. Greenburg. Indiantown Migrant HS.

There are two types of Migrant and Seasonal Head Start programs.

Home Based programs:

• Serve families in the areas families call home

• Are located in the southern part of the United States (e.g., Arkansas, Arizona,

Florida, New Mexico, southernmost California, and Texas)

• Provide services to mobile farmworker families as they return to the place they call

home primarily from September through May. 

Upstream programs: 

• Provide services to migrant families as they move (generally northward) in search of

agricultural work

• Provide direct services in a shorter time frame

• Provide service that always encompasses the summer months

• Are located in, Idaho, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Washington,

and other states. 
Head Start Bulletin 21

“When I was little and really wanted something, I prayed to

God in two languages, just in case God didn’t know one of them.

Knowing two languages opens many doors for children, ensuring

that nothing is lost in the translation.” Rafael Guerra, Executive

Director of East Coast Migrant Head Start Project

Head Start programs that serve children and families whose

primary language is other than English face a unique challenge.

How do they ensure children’s progress in listening, understanding, and speaking English as specified in the Child Outcomes

Framework while at the same time being developmentally and

linguistically appropriate as required in the Head Start Program

Performance Standards (1304.21)? Thoughtful and committed

program leadership is key.

Developing the Vision 

Language and culture are intricately linked. They are fundamental to the development of identity and are essential connections for families. When a family’s language and culture are not

valued in the educational setting, children may experience emotional distress or feel distanced from their parents and other relatives. Without a solid social-emotional foundation, children’s cognitive development may be jeopardized. Therefore, establishing a

language policy that affirms cultural and linguistic identity is central to Head Start’s commitment to promoting positive child outcomes for all children.

What are the steps Head Start program leaders can take to

ensure that local policies and practices support children and families whose language is other than English?

First, program leaders need to understand the Head Start

Program Performance Standards. They need to understand what

the Program Performance Standards do and do not say. They do

require that programs recognize, accept, and affirm the language

and cultures of families and children. They do require that, if

possible, one staff member speak the same language as the majority of children (see Plutro, page 4).

Second, program leaders need to be well-informed about second language acquisition. Research demonstrates the positive

effects of supporting the home language and of bilingual learning

environments (see articles at http://www.headstartinfo.org/

English_lang_learners_tkit.htm). Administrators also need to

reflect on their own experiences as language learners and as

members of a cultural group.

Third, program leaders need to examine their agencies’

systems and services in order to formulate a sound language

policy. Other staff can be included in this process. Consider

these questions:

• How does the program support cultural and 

linguistic diversity?

• How does the program use the children’s first language in

the classroom?

• How do the policies and practices impact children and families whose home language is not English?

• How do family literacy efforts reflect the languages 

spoken by the families?

• How do hiring practices reflect the diversity of the 

families served?

CREATING A VISION FOR SUPPORTING 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

By acknowledging prior misunderstandings about language

learning, program leadership can develop an informed

language policy. by Eileen M. Torres

Head Start leaders

need to take the time

to reflect on

accomplishments.

Educational Leaders

Before age 3, children exposed to two languages will appear to learn both as one. They may often mix the two

languages as they speak. At about 3 years of age, children begin to separate the two languages. They often

associate each language with its primary speakers, such as Spanish or Chinese with their parents and English

with Head Start teachers.

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm) Photo by J. Greenburg. Bowling Green Migrant HS.
22 2005

CREATING A VISION

Some programs find that they have an “unspoken” language policy without realizing it. By addressing these questions honestly and openly, current policies and practices will

be clarified and, where necessary, adapted and modified. Some

programs may want to consider including these questions in

their program self-assessment. 

Finally, it is essential that program leaders formulate and

articulate a positive vision regarding second language acquisition

and home language use. They need to ensure that both parents

and staff have the opportunity for questions and input on the language policy. By sharing up-to-date information about best practices, collaboration can be fostered.

Implementing the Vision

The implementation of the program’s vision is contingent

upon a number of factors. First, the program must define the ethnic and linguistic composition of the Head Start population in

order to plan appropriate services. Where there are predominately two languages, such as English and Spanish, dual language

models may be considered to give all children the opportunity to

acquire two languages. Multi-lingual Head Start programs need

to consider the number of languages spoken by the families and

children and then develop strategies to support the diversity. If

only a few children speak a language other than English, programs need to ensure that services designed to serve the majority

are equally responsive to all children and families.

Another factor is the availability of community resources

that can assist a program in supporting first language development and affirming the culture(s) of the children and families.

Programs need to identify staff and volunteers who speak the

home languages. Finding resources can be challenging, but

nonetheless essential to ensuring that the children have the opportunity to develop a strong linguistic foundation in their home language that will facilitate their learning English. 

Also, an important factor is having leaders—both staff and

parents—who model the vision for others in the organization. Their

behavior demonstrates how cultural and linguistic diversity can be

supported. For example, they intentionally speak their home language inside and outside of the classroom or at program meetings.

Of course, Head Start staff affect the implementation of the

vision. Therefore, administrators must emphasize how important

it is for all staff to learn about second language acquisition, to

develop an understanding of the families’ cultures, and to support

language development at home and in the program. Program

leaders can ensure there is teacher training on relevant topics,

such as language development and instructional strategies; they

can encourage teaching teams to apply their knowledge to the

child assessment process. Programs also can review and improve

existing management systems to make them more culturally and

linguistically responsive. Most important, leaders can inspire a

shared vision among the staff by appealing to the common goal

of providing the best services to Head Start children and families. 

Celebrating the Vision

Head Start leaders are busy, but they must take time to

reflect on accomplishments that bring them closer to their

goals. The identification of new community resources or a

new volunteer who speaks the language of the families or new

bilingual materials for the curriculum are small steps to show

commitment. Leaders need to communicate the positive results

of the program’s language policy, whether these include an

increase in parent participation or observable gains in child

outcomes. Also, leaders need to acknowledge the contributions of families and promote the idea that literacy behaviors

can be cultivated in any language. 

With informed and committed leadership, Head Start programs can establish policies and practices that support the development of the child’s home language and emphasize the child’s

connection to the family as well as the child’s progress in learning

English. Such policies and practices aid in preparing children for

success in school and in life. Let us continue to hold the presence

of more than one language in the life of a child in high esteem

and create Head Start programs that provide linguistic continuity

for all children. ■

Eileen M. Torres works in the Agribusiness Child Development

Office of Program Support in New York. T: 585-232-1610; 

E: etorres1@frontiernet.net

Educational Leaders
Head Start Bulletin 23

In 1999, after more than nine years as a Head Start

administrator for a large grantee in Georgia, Onsomu

Onchonga became Director of Kawerak Head Start. The program enrolls 203 children in Nome, Alaska and in island villages in the Bering Straits. In the isolated areas, Head Start is

often the only program provider for early childhood services

besides the public school districts. Some Head Start classrooms serve only 5-10 children. Many families speak English

at home; others speak a native language—either Siberian

Inupiaq, St. Lawrence Island Yupik, or Central Yup’ik.1

Onsomu took on a challenge. A firm believer in community

involvement, he was committed to including parents and Tribal

elders in shaping the development of the Kawerak Head Start.

He affirms that one of the strengths of Head Start is that parent

participation and community partnerships are required by the

Program Performance Standards. He explains, “I wanted to

build from the ground up. I didn’t want the Policy Council just

to be a rubber stamp. The Tribal belief/way is to make decisions

by consensus, and that’s my philosophy too.”

Over a two-year period, Onsomu went to visit each Head

Start program. He traveled by plane to the 12 villages, sometimes delayed by bad weather. Accompanied by the President

of the Policy Council and 5-6 members of the Executive

Board, he met with the village elders. They often had tea

together, a village tradition in Onsomu’s native Kenya as well.

They discussed the needs of the village and solutions that

included child care, employment training, and medical services. In Teller, for example, they learned of a transportation

problem for Head Start students, addressed it with the Bering

Strait School District administration, and found resolution. In

addition, a community needs survey was conducted with

Tribal leaders and city government officials, school administrators, and Head Start parents to identify service needs.

A recurring theme during various discussions was language preservation. In some villages, such as Gambell, children spoke the native language, but due to outside pressures,

it was being used less and less. In other villages, the children

did not speak their Inupiaq dialect, nor did most of the adults,

including classroom teachers. In this case, the villagers’ goal

was revitalization. Across the programs, parents were concerned not only about the preservation of culture through language, but also that their children’s identity and psychological

health were threatened if they were not grounded in their linguistic and cultural heritage. 

What was Onsomu’s reaction to these concerns about language and culture? “I wasn’t surprised. I come from Kenya

where people were forced not to speak their home language

A Head Start program develops a curriculum to preserve

Alaskan Native cultures and languages. by Bulletin staff

with Onsomu Onchonga

Parents were

involved in the

development of a

curriculum to reflect

tribal values.

Photo by W. Siegel. Kawerak HS.

Educational Leaders

QUYAKAMSU ELAQULLUTA LIITFIGPUTEM GUUN:

WELCOME TO THE SHARING AND LEARNING PLACE

The Head Start Program Performance Standards require that programs support home language development in

order to promote communication between children and their families and to build children's cultural and linguistic identity. They also suggest the importance of acquiring English for 4- and 5-year olds in Head Start whose

home language is other than English.

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)
24 2005

under the colonial government. Similar injustices have

occurred with Native Americans and Alaska Natives.”

In January and June of 2001, a committee of Kawerak

elders and Head Start parents met to begin the process of creating a new curriculum in keeping with all the Head Start

Professional Performance Standards and integrating local culture and traditional ways of knowing. Reflecting on the process

of curriculum development, Onsomu says, “The elders talked

about what they felt about the traditional ways and they looked

at Western ways.” Working with a consultant and building on

the Creative Curriculum that was already being implemented in

classrooms, Kawerak Head Start developed the Sharing and

Learning Place curriculum. 

The Eskimo culture and languages are woven throughout

the Sharing and Learning Place curriculum. Seven chapters

provide the general framework and discuss culturally appropriate methods for presenting learning experiences. They are

referred to as the Seven Drums (see sidebar) and include the

traditional principles of learning that are common to all the

villages (and often consistent with “modern” educational psychology and developmental practices). For example, one principle is that children learn best by building on familiar experiences. This principle is based on the idea of “growing out” that

Yup’ik groups follow as they introduce the child to life, starting

with the mother, then the house and householders, and then the

village and villagers, and on to the tundra and its inhabitants. 

Later chapters, called the Drum Beats, offer specific learning activities related to Arts and Celebrations, Land, Sky, and

Water. For example, one activity designed to implement the

principle --“Children learn best by building on familiar experiences” -- is creating an “observing out” area where two or

three children can sit comfortably by a window. They can

develop their visual skills for weather, animal behavior, and

plant life, and show respect for their environment. Examples

of locally based experiences to include in the classroom are

the ice fishing game, basket making, and setting up a tent and

meat drying racks in the dramatic play area.

The committee designed a curriculum platform that would

encourage and sustain the use of Alaska Native languages in

Head Start. Recognizing that programs face different situations

and have different resources, the curriculum states that, “Every

classroom is expected to be using strategies for addressing local

language issues...The ultimate goal is creating immersion programs in which children hear and use the language they are

learning 100% of the time in the classroom.” Onsomu adds this

insight, “An environment will be created where children can

learn and use their main language. They will gain confidence

WELCOME TO THE SHARING AND LEARNING PLACE

Educational Leaders

The logo for the Kawerak Head Start reflects their curriculum approach. It shows two children dancing with an

adult family member. Around them are the seven drums,

each showing one aspect of the child's environment, all

beating in unison. As they do in real life celebrations, the

drums bring all the members of the community together

in mutual sharing. The logo is based on the traditional

belief that human development is a process of becoming

increasingly connected with the world and its beings in

wider and wider realms. Around the drums are small

school buildings. The child moves outward from family to

school. The task of learning is to relate successfully and

with increasing understanding to each of the seven

drums (the environment). 
Head Start Bulletin 25

and skills. We’ll use the local language as a springboard to

other learning, including learning English.” 

The curriculum acknowledges that “the challenge is to keep

the language alive in the moment to moment communications of

the classroom rather than to delegate it to separate lessons or

units.” The recommended strategy for teachers and children who

do not have a command of the spoken language is to provide

meaningful phrases to use throughout the day; each of the learning experiences in Drum Beats has a space to record phrases to

teach during the activity. Adults in the village can help with

translation and pronunciation; where there are bilingual teachers, they can assist. Parents are urged to learn the language along

with their children. Where children speak the native language at

home, its use is to be encouraged in Head Start. 

In 2004, one program will begin an immersion approach.

The staff and the children in this village speak the native language. Over time, other programs in Kawerak Head Start will

transition into immersion classes. In Nome, parents will have a

choice about placing their child in an English-speaking or a

native-speaking classroom.

When interviewed by a local newspaper in 2000, Onsomu

declared, “Head Start works—it works if it’s done right... The

community must get involved in the process, and that’s the

way we can help our children and their families.” As Director

of Kawerak Head Start, Onsomu has lead the community on

an exciting journey—one that connects the community with its

heritage and prepares its children for the future. ■

1 The diffent spellings of Yupik and Yup’ik denote different 

pronunciations.

Information for this article was obtained from interviews with

Onsomu Onchonga in October-November, 2003, from the

Sharing and Learning Place curriculum, and from the article,

“Community Involvement Makes Head Start Work,” by

Laurie McNicholas which appeared in The Nome Nugget

(February 10, 2000). 

Onsomu Onchonga was a Head Start Fellow in 2003-2004. 

He is the Director of Kawerak Head Start in Nome, AK.

T: 907-443-9050

Educational Leaders

The Eskimo culture is woven throughout the Sharing and Learning Place curriculum.

Photo by W. Siegel. Kawerak HS.

In Kawerak Head Start, the local language is a springboard to other learning.

Photo by W. Siegel. Kawerak HS.
26 2005

For more than 13 years, Felicita

Sanabria has worked in Head Start programs in Puerto Rico. She has been a

Head Start/Early Head Start Education

Coordinator with the New York

Foundling (NYF) grantee in Puerto Rico

for the last 7 years. She supervises eight

Education Supervisors and three MentorCoaches who work with center-based

and home-based programs. She also

supervises the implementation of the curriculum, Niños y Niñas que Exploran y

Construyen, written by a local educator,

Dra. Angeles Molina (1996). It aligns

with the Head Start Program

Performance Standards. Felicita was

interviewed by Bulletin staff. 

Q: What is the program’s language

policy about English as a second

language? 

The agency is promoting language

development in the children’s home language—Spanish—and in English as a second language. Our language policy

comes from the Head Start Program

Performance Standards

1304.21(a)(1)(iii), which require that

programs: “Provide an environment that

supports and respects gender, culture,

language, ethnicity and family composition.” This Standard encompasses our

teaching beliefs that we demonstrate

respect for the diverse backgrounds and

languages that exist in our classrooms. It

also supports our use of different strategies to sustain and expand the home language. We also know that the Child

Outcomes Framework mandates that

children will show progress in learning

English, so this is one of our goals.

Our agency is committed to

Program Performance Standard 1304.52

g (2): “When a majority of children

speak the same language, at least one

classroom staff member or home visitor

interacting with the children must speak

their language.” We have a well-defined

process of staff recruitment and training. NYF hires early childhood and

bilingual teachers (Spanish-English) to

promote our preschoolers’ language and

literacy development in Spanish and

their acquisition of the English language

in developmentally appropriate ways.

We train teachers who are not fully

bilingual in strategies for teaching

English as a second language. 

Our goal is to support our children

to be successful communicators in

kindergarten. Children in public school

in Puerto Rico begin learning English

formally in first grade.

Q: What are some of the strategies

the program uses to encourage

English language learning? 

As teachers, we have to respect the

children’s home language and teach basic

language skills and expose children to

other languages. In our Head Start program in Puerto Rico, teaching English as

a second language is believed to be

appropriate if it relies on practices such

as singing songs, playing games, and

telling stories. 

We use some very specific songs that

are presented in both languages. One

song that we include in our curriculum,

We use songs to help teach vocabulary.

Photo courtesy of Juana Matos HS.

Educational Leaders

A VIEW FROM PUERTO RICO
Head Start Bulletin 27

Educational Leaders

Pollitos-Chicken, was adapted by

Mrs.Ramonita Auger (a Head Start

teacher in Puerto Rico). The song starts

with “pollitos-chicken, gallina-hen,

lapiz-pencil, pluma-pen, ventana-window, puerta-door, maestro-teacher, pisofloor,” sung to a familiar tune (see box

on right). We also add about 20 different key words to the song, including

concepts of family members and objects

in the classroom. Some other songs in

English the children learn are, “The

Wheels of the Bus,” and “If You Are

Happy and You Know It.”

When I visit the classrooms, I see

children singing songs in English and

Spanish while others are listening to

tapes or looking at one of the bilingual

books. We also have labels around the

room in Spanish and English. The children learn some greeting words (like

“good morning,” “hello,” “sit down,”

and “come in”), color names and number words. Children in Puerto Rico are

exposed to the English language in their

daily routine when they watch TV at

home and visit restaurants like

McDonalds or Burger King. 

Q: How do you measure progress

in English? 

We have a system of ongoing

assessment. For example, we observe

the child in a normal routine and prepare a portfolio of our observations,

record the child’s voice in song, and

assess each child’s individual progress.

We then discuss the portfolio with the

parents three times per year. The children are showing progress in listening

to and understanding English as well as

in speaking English.

Q: How do you include parents

in their child’s language 

development?

We coordinate Early Learning

Specialists and Mentors in all the centers to work as an Early Literacy team

with the family. The parents want their

children to learn to read and write in

Spanish first and, when they are ready,

learn English. They are informed at the

Head Start orientation that English will

be taught in a natural and informal

way. Parents are provided English language learning activities to participate

in with their children. For example,

they can use the English labels on food

items to help teach the alphabet. 

Q: How do you, as the 

Education Coordinator, support 

the educational staff to promote 

language and literacy 

development?

Professional development is conducted in Spanish. Although our program does not offer specific teacher

training in bilingualism, we do support

those teachers who are not fully bilingual by teaching them instructional

strategies, including songs and games in

English. We try to put one bilingual

teacher in each center to support the

other staff. 

Q: What challenges does the program encounter implementing its

language policy? 

We have adjusted our program in

line with the Child Outcomes

Framework. We are just now gaining a

grasp of teaching English as a second

language. At first, teachers were anxious

about the mandated indicators, but now

teachers see them as a new challenge and

as an opportunity for the children. We

also have tried to increase our teachers’

salaries because we want to keep 

our best teachers to implement our

language policy. ■

Felicita Sanabria is the Education

Coordinator with New York Foundling

Head Start in Puerto Rico. 

T: 787-753-9082

Tune of 

Pollito-Chicken

Po – lli – to, chi –cken

Do- Fa – La- Fa- Fa

Ga –lli – na , hen

Do – fa- la – sol

La – piz – pen-cil

La#, La#- La- La

Y plu – ma , pen.

La sol sol fa

Repeat the same tune 

in the second verse
28 2005

The Head Start Bureau has issued a new publication entitled, The Head Start Leaders Guide to

Positive Child Outcomes. The core of this Guide is a comprehensive set of effective teaching strategies

to foster children’s progress in each of the eight Domains of the Head Start Child Outcomes

Framework: language development, literacy, mathematics, science, creative arts, social & emotional

development, approaches to learning, and physical health & safety. The Guide provides a clear vision

of what educational quality looks like: intentional, outcomes-oriented teaching and engaging, challenging learning opportunities for groups and individual children. A chapter in the Guide is devoted to

adaptations for children who are advanced in development or for children who have disabilities.

The Guide addresses the learning needs of all children, including English language learners. It

offers strategies related to the legislatively mandated Language Indicators targeting children’s

progress in listening to and understanding English and speaking English and strategies that also support their home language and culture (see the Bulletin Pullout). For example, strategies to support

English language learners include:

• Speak English in ways that help English language learners understand. Use simple sentences,

repeat what is said, use gestures and facial expressions, point to objects, use everyday vocabulary.

• Help children link English vocabulary to firsthand experiences with pictures, concrete objects, and

real-life events. 

• Provide lots of time and opportunities for children to talk among themselves. Pair English language

learners with dominant English speakers for some activities.

Across the other Domains, the learning needs of English language learners are highlighted in the

Guide. The creative arts allow children to build a sense of competence because there are no right or

wrong ways, all products are valued, and they can rely on non-verbal communication. Drama and dramatic play provide for the use of and practice of language in a natural and spontaneous environment.

Mathematics and science involve hands-on experiences that build vocabulary and concepts. As English

language learners develop gross skills, they experience confidence and pride in their accomplishments

which furthers their progress in other Domains; as their fine motor skills develop, they experiment with

writing tools and literacy materials.

The leadership teams in Head Start programs will find this Guide a useful resource in staff development and parent training. It can be ordered from the Head Start Information and Publication Center at

1-866-763-6481 (toll free); 1-703-683-5769 (fax). It is also available on-line at www.headstartinfo.org

A Spanish version is available.

E. Dollie Wolverton is Chief, Education Services Branch, Head Start Bureau. T: 202-205-8418; 

E: dwolverton@acf.hhs.gov

A NEW RESOURCE FOR HEAD START

LEADERS IS HERE!

B Y E. D OLLIE WOLVERTON

Educational Leaders
HELPING CHILDREN & ADULTS COPE WITH 

TRAUMA IN THE COMMUNITY

A HEAD START BULLETIN PULL- OUT

Head Start Bulletin 29

■ Pay attention to your own feelings and concerns. Take care of yourself.

■ Be aware that your moods and feelings will affect those around you. 

■ Allow staff members time to talk and to express their feelings and concerns.

■ Provide guidance for families and staff members on how to help children deal with

anxiety related to trauma and crisis. Call in consultants or experts if necessary.

■ Be aware that distress related to traumatic events may not show up immediately among

adults or children. 

■ Help families and staff sort out their feelings. Do not be judgmental. Keep in mind that

there will be a wide range of reactions and experiences to any crisis.

■ Encourage parents to monitor their children’s television viewing, especially the news and

shows with violent content, including cartoons. 

■ Reassure children that they and their families are safe. Provide extra comfort and contact

frequently.

■ Maintain the typical, daily schedule of activities. This consistency will help children feel

more secure and in control.

■ Be honest and open about traumatic events if the children are talking about them but

carefully consider each child’s developmental level when giving information.

■ Acknowledge the children’s questions, even if you can only say, “I don’t know the answer.”

■ Do not tolerate prejudiced comments or behavior. Deal with them openly and

immediately.

■ Create a climate of respect, tolerance, and acceptance of diversity in your setting. 

■ Accentuate the positive. Point out the good around you (e.g. the rescue workers).

■ Pay attention to physical complaints especially if they last more than one week or are

severe. See a health care professional

■ Monitor particularly vulnerable children.

RESOURCES 

Although some of these resources were developed in response to the events of September 11th, they also

provide general advice about dealing with crisis and trauma in a community.

www.acf.dhhs.gov/sept11/public.htm

“Helping Children Handle Anxiety Related to September 11 Events”

“Coping with Disaster: Suggestions for Helping Children with

Cognitive Disabilities” (Accessible in Spanish, Chinese, Vietnamese)

www.counseling.org/tragedy/tragedy.htm

“Helping Children Cope with Trauma”

www.naeyc.org/coping_with_disaster.htm

“Helping Children Cope with Disaster”

www.nasponline.org/NEAT/crisis_0911.html

“Coping with a National Tragedy”

www.ed.gov/inits/september11/index.html

“Helping Children Understand the Terrorist Attacks”

www.apa.org/psychnet/coverage.html

“Help with Trauma”

www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm

“Helping Children and Adolescents Cope with Violence and

Disasters”

29 Month 2002

■ Preste atención a sus propios sentimientos e inquietudes. Cuídese.

■ Esté consciente de que su estado de ánimo y sentimientos afectarán a aquellos que le rodean.

■ Permita que el personal tenga tiempo para hablar y expresar sus sentimientos e inquietudes.

■ Oriente al las families y al personal sobre cómo ayudar a los niños a manejar la ansiedad que

pueda derivarse de experiencias de trauma y crisis. Pida la colaboración de consultores o

expertos si es necesario.

■ Esté consciente de que la angustia suscitada por estos acontecimientos traumatizantes puede no

hacerse evidente de inmediato en los adultos o los niños.

■ Ayude a las familias a aclarar sus sentimientos. No juzgue sentenciosamente. Tenga presente

que de cualauler crisis surgirán distintos tipos de reacciones y experiencias.

■ Incentive a los padres a que controlen lo que ven sus hijos en televisión, particularmente las

noticias y los programas de contenido violento, incluso los dibujos animados.

■ Tranquilice a los niños, explicándoles que ellos y sus familias están a salvo. Bríndeles con mayor

frecuencia el consuelo y el contacto que necesitan.

■ Mantenga el típico horario diario de actividades. Esta constancia ayudará a que los niños se

sientan mas seguros y en control.

■ Sea honesto y abierto acerca del desastre ocurrido y los sucesos actuales si ve que los niños

conversan al respecto, pero tome cuidadosamente en consideración el nivel de desarrollo de

cada niño cuando comparta información.

■ Responda a las preguntas de los niños, aún cuando sólo pueda decir: “no sé la respuesta.”

■ No tolere conductas o comentarios prejuiciosos. Aborde el tema de inmediato y abiertamente.

■ Cree un clima de respeto, tolerancia, y aceptación de la diversidad en su ambiente.

■ Recalque lo positivo. Haga notar lo bueno que hay a su alrededor (por ejemplo, los

trabajadores de rescate).

■ Preste atención a las dolencias físicas, en especial si duran mas de una semana o son severas.

Vea a un profesional de la salud.

■ Vigile a los ninos que son particularmente vulnerables.

RECURSOS

Aunque algunos de estos recursos se desarrollaron como respuesta a los sucesos del 11 de septiembre, también

proporcionan consejos generales sobre como manejar las crisis y los sucesos traumatizantes en la comunidad.

www.acf.dhhs.gov/sept11/public.htm

www.counseling.org/tragedy/tragedy.htm

www.naeyc.org/coping_with_disaster.htm

www.nasponline.org/NEAT/crisis_0911.html

www.ed.gov/inits/september11/index.html

www.apa.org/psychnet/coverage.html

www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm

Head Start Bulletin 29

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT POSITIVE CHILD OUTCOMES 

FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

A HEAD START BULLETIN PULL- OUT I SSUE 78

The Head Start Leaders Guide to Positive Child Outcomes presents instructional strategies to support children’s progress across eight

general Domains of learning and development. The strategies highlighted here are helpful when planning for culturally and

linguistically diverse children and ensuring the progress of English language learners. Many more strategies are presented in the

Guide, available in English and Spanish at www.headstartinfo.org

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Build positive, warm, nurturing relationships with English language learners so that they feel safe and less anxious. Not being

able to communicate creates considerable anxiety for young children who cannot learn anything well if they are stressed.

Speak English in ways that help English language learners understand. Use simple sentences, repeat what is said, use gestures

and facial expressions, point to objects, and use everyday vocabulary.

Gradually expand your vocabulary so English language learners continue to make progress in vocabulary development and

are conceptually challenged.

Help children link English vocabulary to real life-events, experiences with concrete objects, and pictures. Focus on the here and

now until they become more proficient in English. 

Help children acquire book knowledge and appreciation, print awareness, and phonological awareness in their home language,

drawing on family and community members as resources. Once acquired, these skills will transfer to English.

LITERACY

Support early writing experiences for English language learners in their home language whenever possible.

English language learners may recognize and identify letters of the alphabet in their home language as well as in English.

MATHEMATICS

Math is an area where many English language learners can accelerate because they can manipulate materials, as well as their

bodies and hands, to practice math skills.

If children know how to count in their home language they can easily transfer that knowledge of numbers into English.

SCIENCE

English language learners can touch, manipulate, and explore science materials without using language until they are

comfortable verbalizing.

It is preferable that children first learn science content in their home language so they are familiar with the concepts when

introduced to science in English.

CREATIVE ARTS

Dance, art, pantomime, and creative expression are areas where English language learners can be included without needing to

rely on language skills in English.

Ask families to share traditional stories from their cultures. Dramatize these stories.

SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Make sure the learning environment is welcoming to every child and reflects his or her identity and culture. 

Demonstrate respect for the children’s cultures and home languages by reflecting them in books, signs, and learning

experiences.

APPROACHES TO LEARNING

How linguistically diverse children approach learning will differ and will affect how quickly they progress in learning English.

A child who is more willing to take risks with language may develop more rapidly than a child who is hesitant in attempting to

speak English.

PHYSICAL HEALTH & DEVELOPMENT

English language learners may show competence in physical skills which can help them feel more confident about their other

activities and skills.

Head Start Bulletin 29
30 Month 2002

CÓMO AYUDAR A LOS NIÑOS Y A LOS ADULTOS A ENFRENTAR

SUCESOS TRAUMATIZANTES EN LA COMUNIDAD

■ Preste atención a sus propios sentimientos e inquietudes. Cuídese.

■ Esté consciente de que su estado de ánimo y sentimientos afectarán a aquellos que le rodean.

■ Permita que el personal tenga tiempo para hablar y expresar sus sentimientos e inquietudes.

■ Oriente al las families y al personal sobre cómo ayudar a los niños a manejar la ansiedad que

pueda derivarse de experiencias de trauma y crisis. Pida la colaboración de consultores o

expertos si es necesario.

■ Esté consciente de que la angustia suscitada por estos acontecimientos traumatizantes puede no

hacerse evidente de inmediato en los adultos o los niños.

■ Ayude a las familias a aclarar sus sentimientos. No juzgue sentenciosamente. Tenga presente

que de cualauler crisis surgirán distintos tipos de reacciones y experiencias.

■ Incentive a los padres a que controlen lo que ven sus hijos en televisión, particularmente las

noticias y los programas de contenido violento, incluso los dibujos animados.

■ Tranquilice a los niños, explicándoles que ellos y sus familias están a salvo. Bríndeles con mayor

frecuencia el consuelo y el contacto que necesitan.

■ Mantenga el típico horario diario de actividades. Esta constancia ayudará a que los niños se

sientan mas seguros y en control.

■ Sea honesto y abierto acerca del desastre ocurrido y los sucesos actuales si ve que los niños

conversan al respecto, pero tome cuidadosamente en consideración el nivel de desarrollo de

cada niño cuando comparta información.

■ Responda a las preguntas de los niños, aún cuando sólo pueda decir: “no sé la respuesta.”

■ No tolere conductas o comentarios prejuiciosos. Aborde el tema de inmediato y abiertamente.

■ Cree un clima de respeto, tolerancia, y aceptación de la diversidad en su ambiente.

■ Recalque lo positivo. Haga notar lo bueno que hay a su alrededor (por ejemplo, los

trabajadores de rescate).

■ Preste atención a las dolencias físicas, en especial si duran mas de una semana o son severas.

Vea a un profesional de la salud.

■ Vigile a los ninos que son particularmente vulnerables.

RECURSOS

Aunque algunos de estos recursos se desarrollaron como respuesta a los sucesos del 11 de septiembre, también

proporcionan consejos generales sobre como manejar las crisis y los sucesos traumatizantes en la comunidad.

Adaptado de http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/sept11/public.htm

www.acf.dhhs.gov/sept11/public.htm

www.counseling.org/tragedy/tragedy.htm

www.naeyc.org/coping_with_disaster.htm

www.nasponline.org/NEAT/crisis_0911.html

www.ed.gov/inits/september11/index.html

www.apa.org/psychnet/coverage.html

www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm

Head Start Bulletin 30

■ Pay attention to your own feelings and concerns. Take care of yourself.

■ Be aware that your moods and feelings will affect those around you. 

■ Allow staff members time to talk and to express their feelings and concerns.

■ Provide guidance for families and staff members on how to help children deal with

anxiety related to trauma and crisis. Call in consultants or experts if necessary.

■ Be aware that distress related to traumatic events may not show up immediately among

adults or children. 

■ Help families and staff sort out their feelings. Do not be judgmental. Keep in mind that

there will be a wide range of reactions and experiences to any crisis.

■ Encourage parents to monitor their children’s television viewing, especially the news and

shows with violent content, including cartoons. 

■ Reassure children that they and their families are safe. Provide extra comfort and contact

frequently.

■ Maintain the typical, daily schedule of activities. This consistency will help children feel

more secure and in control.

■ Be honest and open about traumatic events if the children are talking about them but

carefully consider each child’s developmental level when giving information.

■ Acknowledge the children’s questions, even if you can only say, “I don’t know the answer.”

■ Do not tolerate prejudiced comments or behavior. Deal with them openly and

immediately.

■ Create a climate of respect, tolerance, and acceptance of diversity in your setting. 

■ Accentuate the positive. Point out the good around you (e.g. the rescue workers).

■ Pay attention to physical complaints especially if they last more than one week or are

severe. See a health care professional

■ Monitor particularly vulnerable children.

RESOURCES 

Although some of these resources were developed in response to the events of September 11th, they also

provide general advice about dealing with crisis and trauma in a community.

www.acf.dhhs.gov/sept11/public.htm

“Helping Children Handle Anxiety Related to September 11 Events”

“Coping with Disaster: Suggestions for Helping Children with

Cognitive Disabilities” (Accessible in Spanish, Chinese, Vietnamese)

www.counseling.org/tragedy/tragedy.htm

“Helping Children Cope with Trauma”

www.naeyc.org/coping_with_disaster.htm

“Helping Children Cope with Disaster”

www.nasponline.org/NEAT/crisis_0911.html

“Coping with a National Tragedy”

www.ed.gov/inits/september11/index.html

“Helping Children Understand the Terrorist Attacks”

www.apa.org/psychnet/coverage.html

“Help with Trauma”

www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm

“Helping Children and Adolescents Cope with Violence and

Disasters”

ESTRATEGIAS QUE FOMENTAN RESULTADOS POSITIVOS

EN LOS NIÑOS QUE ESTÁN APRENDIENDO INGLÉS

HOJA DESPRENDIBLE DEL BOLETÍN DE HEAD START I SSUE 78

La Guía del personal directivo de Head Start para lograr resultados positivos en el niño ofrece estrategias pedagógicas que fomentan el

avance de los niños en los ocho dominios generales de aprendizaje y desarrollo. Las estrategias que se destacan a continuación son útiles

cuando se planifican actividades para los pequeños con diversidad cultural y lingüística y para garantizar que los niños que están

aprendiendo inglés puedan progresar. Esta “Guía” ofrece muchas otras estrategias y se encuentra disponible en inglés y en español en el sitio

www.headstartinfo.org.

DESARROLLO LINGÜÍSTICO

Forme vínculos positivos, cariñosos y afectivos con niños que están aprendiendo inglés, de modo que se sientan seguros y con menos

ansiedad. El no poder comunicarse crea una ansiedad considerable en los niños pequeños, quienes no pueden aprender si se sienten

estresados.

Hable inglés de un modo tal, que les ayude a estos niños a entender. Utilice oraciones sencillas, repita lo que dice, use gestos y

expresiones faciales, apunte hacia los objetos y use un vocabulario simple de todos los días.

Amplíe su propio vocabulario gradualmente, de modo que los niños que están aprendiendo inglés sigan realizando avances en el

desarrollo de su vocabulario y sientan que tienen un reto desde el punto de vista conceptual.

Ayude a que los niños conecten el vocabulario en inglés con acontecimientos de la vida real, y las experiencias con objetos concretos e

ilustraciones. Céntrese en el “aquí” y el “ahora” hasta que logren mayor dominio del inglés. 

Ayude a los pequeños a adquirir un conocimiento y apreciación por los libros, conciencia de la palabra escrita y conciencia fonológica

en su idioma materno, usando a integrantes de su familia y de su comunidad como fuentes de información. Una vez que adquieran estas

habilidades, éstas se transferirán al inglés.

ALFABETIZACIÓN

Apoye las experiencias iniciales de escritura de los niños que están aprendiendo inglés en su idioma materno, cada vez que sea posible.

Estos niños pueden reconocer e identificar las letras del alfabeto en su idioma materno, como también en inglés.

MATEMÁTICAS

Las matemáticas son un área en la que muchos niños que están aprendiendo inglés pueden avanzar aceleradamente, debido a que

pueden manipular materiales y usar el cuerpo y las manos para practicar sus aptitudes matemáticas.

Si los niños saben contar en su propio idioma, pueden transferir ese conocimiento de los números fácilmente al inglés.

CIENCIAS

Los niños que están aprendiendo inglés pueden tocar, manipular y explorar materiales de ciencias sin usar el idioma hasta que se sientan

cómodos expresándolo oralmente.

Es preferible que los niños aprendan primero las materias de ciencias en su propio idioma, para que así ya estén familiarizados con los

conceptos cuando se les introduzca las ciencias en inglés.

ARTES CREATIVAS

El baile, el arte, la pantomima [expresión y representación con gestos] y la expresión creativa son ámbitos en los que estos niños pueden

ser incluidos sin necesariamente tener que depender de sus habilidades lingüísticas en inglés.

Pídale a las familias que compartan historias tradicionales de sus culturas. Actúe estas historias.

DESARROLLO SOCIAL Y EMOCIONAL

Asegúrese de que el entorno de aprendizaje es acogedor para todos los niños y refleja su identidad y cultura. 

Demuestre respeto por las culturas y los idiomas del hogar de los pequeños, reflejándolo en los libros, afiches y experiencias de

aprendizaje que utiliza.

MÉTODOS DE APRENDIZAJE

Los niños con diversidad lingüística abordarán el aprendizaje de una manera distinta y esto afectará el grado de rapidez con que

avancen al aprender inglés.

El niño que está más dispuesto a tomar riesgos en el ámbito del lenguaje puede desarrollarse más rápidamente que aquel que no se

atreve a intentar hablar inglés.

SALUD Y DESARROLLO FÍSICO

Los niños que están aprendiendo a hablar inglés pueden demostrar su competencia en las habilidades físicas lo que puede hacerles sentir

más seguros sobre sus demás actividades y aptitudes.

30 2005
Head Start Bulletin 31

Cindy, a Head Start teacher, sits on the floor with a group

of three- and four-year-olds. It is choice time in her class, and

they are all playing with wooden replica figures of community

helpers. Three of the children, Anthony, Ikechukwu, and Roney,

are only just beginning to learn English. Their home languages

are Spanish, Ibo (a Nigerian language), and Arabic respectively.

Ursile is a more advanced English Language Learner (ELL).

Her home language is Haitian Kreole. 

Cindy holds up a wooden figure, the mail carrier, and

says to Anthony, “Oh, Anthony has some people too.

Anthony, look, you have some people.” She continues to hold

up the figure. “Anthony, here’s the mail carrier.” 

Then Ikechukwu holds up the doctor figure while looking

at Cindy as though he wants her to name it. Instead of giving

him the name, Cindy turns back to Anthony and asks, “And

who’s this, Anthony? Is that the doctor?” 

Anthony doesn’t respond so she turns to Roney and points

to the figure, “Is that the doctor, Roney?”

Then Anthony holds the figure up to Cindy’s face as

though he were comparing the doctor to Cindy. Cindy 

interprets his gesture and responds by saying, “It’s the 

doctor. [Does the doctor] look like me? It looks like me?

[Who is it?]”

When none of the children gives the name of the figure,

Cindy turns to Ursile. "Ursile, who's this? Tell...Anthony

wants to know, and Roney and Ikechukwu want to know.

Who's this?" 

This is not an unusual Head Start classroom. At least 27

percent of the Head Start children nationwide speak a language

other than English in the home (Program Information Report

2002-2003). In Cindy’s class of 19 students, 15 are English

Language Learners (ELLs) representing 8 different language

groups. Cindy only speaks English but knows some words in a

few of the home languages. 

ELLs in the Classroom

Like many Head Start teachers, Cindy’s greatest challenge

is to offer her best efforts to support the learning of all the children in her classroom. How can she do this in a multicultural,

multilingual setting?

We might be tempted to believe that monolingual Englishspeaking teachers like Cindy can have little positive effect on

children’s learning of English. Teachers might hope that children’s personality and motivation, along with family support,

will enable them to learn English quickly. They also hope the

children will pick up English as they play with their classmates. They find translators for meetings with ELLs’ parents;

they assign the bilingual assistant teacher to work with the

ELLs; they introduce books in the home language for the

classroom library; they take photos of the child’s family to

include in the classroom Families display. They smile at the

children and gently encourage them in the routines and activities of the day. 

HOW TEACHERS SUPPORT ENGLISH LANGUAGE

LEARNERS IN THE CLASSROOM

A language relationship built on play and talk encourages

children’s development. by Julie A. Hirschler

Cindy listens to,

observes, and talks to

the ELLs in her class.

Photo by J. Sever. Action for Boston Community Development HS.

Jones and Yandian (2000) point out that children who are acquiring a second language sequentially have

already learned a great deal in their first language. They will transfer knowledge and concepts to their

second language. For example, once Spanish speakers learn the concept of numbers in Spanish, they just

need to understand that "uno" means "one" as they learn English.

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak
32 2005

TEACHERS SUPPORT ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

All of these are appropriate ways to support ELLs, but

they do not address a very important element of early language learning—teachers must use language with ELLs to

offer them the maximum support in language acquisition. The

goal of teachers’ interactions with ELLs is to form a 

language relationship.

Establishing a Language Relationship

Cindy was establishing a language relationship through

play. This was an ideal learning situation because using shared

toys allowed all of the children to refer to the same concrete

objects with Cindy. She took advantage of their common toys

by conducting a “conversation” even though the children did

not know enough English to respond with words. She used the

children’s names when speaking to them or when speaking

about them. (“Is that the doctor, Roney?”) It is easier for

ELLs to know what the teacher is talking about if she uses

actual names of people and objects rather than pronouns like

he, she, or it.

Cindy was not at all deterred when the children did not

respond verbally. She continued her interaction with them and

used their gestures and facial expressions as a clue to their

intended meaning. For example, when Ikechukwu looked at

Cindy while holding up a figure, she could tell that he wanted

to know its name. Cindy drew several ELLs into the conversation by asking Roney and Ikechukwu about the figure before

turning to Ursile, a more advanced ELL. 

Cindy supported their play through her deliberate use of

language and her interpretation of their non-verbal communication. The interactions between the teacher and the children not

only reinforced their understanding of English but also brought

the group together in the play situation. 

Teacher Talk that Supports ELL Children

Cindy’s play with ELLs illustrates other effective language

supports as well (See sidebar). She chose a topic for talk that

had meaning for the children. The children had chosen to play

with the figures and were interested in learning about them.

She followed their lead and set up an optimal language learning situation. 

Another positive aspect of Cindy’s conversation was that it

focused on the present and the concrete. The replica figures were

widely scattered among the group on the floor and could be easily

picked up, manipulated, and discussed. It would have been much

more difficult for these ELLs with little or no English vocabulary

to understand talk about the past or the future. With more

advanced ELLs, it would be appropriate to discuss the recent past,

such as a picnic they had with their family over the weekend. 

Cindy was observant and accepted minimal responses. The

children had little or no vocabulary to contribute to the conversation. Only the teacher used oral language to communicate.

But Cindy paid attention to their non-verbal behavior. When

Ikechukwu held up the doctor figure, she could tell that he

wanted to know what the figure was. Instead of supplying the

word, she turned to Anthony and engaged him, “And who’s

this, Anthony? Is that the doctor?” She acted as a go-between

for Ikechukwu and Anthony in the “naming the figure” game.

She created a “conversational triangle.” When Anthony did not 

Continued on page 35

Instructional Strategies that

Support Beginning ELLs

• Show a genuine interest in ELL children.

• Be observant! Notice what ELLs are

interested in, what they might want to talk

about, and what they know. 

• Select a conversation topic that is

meaningful to children. Their choice of a

toy or a play area signals their interest. 

• Learn how to read the meaning of gestures

and facial expressions. Is a child asking

for a word? Does she want to play with a

particular child? 

• Use actual names of people and objects

rather than pronouns.

• Talk about topics in the present. 

• Accept minimal responses such as the

nod of the head or a smile. 

• Continue to interact even though the

children do not offer a verbal response. 

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Figure 1
Head Start Bulletin 33

Summer is almost over. It is time for me to begin planning

for the new school year. I am the head teacher in the

Corduroy Classroom in the Higher Horizons Head Start. The

program draws from a very diverse population, including

recent immigrants and refugees from around the world. In my

13 years in Head Start, I have enjoyed meeting families who

represent more than 20 language groups. Every year, I look

forward to working with the English language learners in 

my classroom.

Learning about the Children and Families

Seventeen children are enrolled in my class this year. As I

make the required home visits before the program begins, I

have an opportunity to learn about what each child enjoys

and to think about how to prepare a welcoming classroom

environment. I begin to establish a relationship with my families and learn about their different cultures and celebrations. I

ask how many family members speak the home language only

or English as well. I ask if the Head Start child has an older

sibling in school who has exposed the younger child to

English. That may mean the preschooler recognizes some spoken words but may not speak English yet. 

This year’s children speak English, Spanish, Arabic,

Vietnamese, Amharic, or Somali with their families. Although

most of the children are new to my classroom, it will be their

second year in Head Start. I expect that there will be a wide

range of English language learning in my classroom. 

It is important that I support the parents’ goals for family

literacy. I make sure parents know that Head Start works with

The Literacy Council of Northern Virginia, an organization

which provides many resources to adult English language

learners. This year, our Head Start program is hosting English

language classes in the evening. Our family literacy committee

helps us plan literacy events for families, staff, and community

members. For example, they plan “Breakfast and Books,” an

October event geared to increase the number of stories read to

our children.

Creating the Classroom Environment 

I want this to be perfectly clear to all classroom teachers:

We cannot keep those old lesson plans and just change the

date and names on the forms. Throw them in the recycle bin

and start fresh. Each year, your classroom should go through

a process of renewal. Even the children who are returning to

the same classroom have changed, and the teaching team

needs to plan according to their new interests, developmental

levels, and language needs. 

Higher Horizons Head Start uses the High Scope curriculum. It provides a structure to the day and an organization for

the environment that helps all the children, and certainly the

English language learners, feel comfortable and safe in the

classroom. The room is divided into areas, such as art, science, and blocks. I will ask a bilingual child who likes to write

to help me label each area in both English and Spanish. 

I love to collect items from different countries for the

classroom: scarves and clothes for dress-up; cooking spoons,

BEGINNING THE NEW SCHOOL YEAR WITH

LEARNERS FROM MANY CULTURES

Honoring individual differences creates an inclusive community

in this multicultural classroom. by Carol Bellamy

Teacher Carol Bellamy

uses picture symbols and

signs to communicate

with ELLs.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Research (Tabors 1997) indicates that preschoolers may acquire 6-10 new words a day while also expanding

their understanding of the words they already know.

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)
34 2005

chopsticks, a wok, and a tortilla pan for the housekeeping

area. I have story tapes in Spanish that can be used in the

classroom or sent home for families to use together. Of course,

the books on the library shelves and around the room show

children who resemble those in my classrooms. 

I also have a world map at the children’s eye level which

stimulates conversation about their countries of origin. One

child described how he took an airplane to Peru to see his

abuela (grandmother). Looking at the map, he showed me

how many countries the plane “flew” across. Class 

discussions that center on the map provide many opportunities for support of home languages and cultures and also

for learning English.

Teaching Strategies for Language Learning

The first few weeks of the program are a time to observe

the children and get to know them. I note that there is a range

of English language learning. Four children speak only

Spanish in the classroom. Other children who speak other languages at home are in the non-verbal period (they have temporarily abandoned efforts to communicate with people who

do not understand their home language); others are repeating

what is said to them in English; some children are speaking a

combination of both their home language and English. Every

day, the teaching team documents all children’s activities and

language usage in English (and their home language). 

I am primarily a monolingual English speaker, as is one of

the teaching assistants, although we both know a bit of

Spanish. The other assistant is bilingual in English and Urdu.

When people learn that we work with children who speak little or no English, they always ask, “How do you communicate?” I respond that all children understand love and that

they know when you genuinely care for them. But, I intentionally use certain techniques or strategies too. 

For example, the daily schedule chart consists of pictures

accompanied by words. We go over the schedule at group time. I

also have the same picture symbols on cards that I wear on a

string around my neck; this way, I can approach an individual

child or a small group and explain and demonstrate what is

expected next. I might say, “Time for the school bus to go home”

while I show the picture. If it is cleanup time, I will say the words

and also show the picture of a child putting away toys. 

I have discovered that this basic technique prompts new

language learning. Four-year-old Carlos can read some words

and enjoys asking questions about what he reads. One day, he

read each word on our chart, including school bus. He told

me, “You forgot to add the children who are picked up in the

car. You need a picture (and words) for that.” 

I also make a point of learning key phrases in different

languages. When a Spanish-speaking child asked me, “Escuela

MULTICULTURAL LEARNERS

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

The butterfly study

also stimulates

writing and 

artistic expression.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.
Head Start Bulletin 35

es mañana?,” I was thrilled to respond in my rudimentary

Spanish. “No escuela mañana, mañana es sabado. No escuela

en sabado y domingo. Escuela en lunes.” The child got so

excited, she blurted out, “Ms. Carol!! Espanol!” Last year, a

Farsi-speaking girl was so eager to get from one activity to

another that she would run from the classroom to the bathroom to the playground. Asking her to slow down in English

did not seem to help, and I was worried she would fall. I

asked her mother, “How do you say walk in Farsi?” The next

day, the word “Roborro” effectively communicated my message to her daughter! 

Building the Curriculum 

In the early fall, we found a butterfly outdoors and

brought it into our classroom. The children have been watching and talking about it. Their vocabulary is expanding as

they learn new words in English like “caterpillar,” and everyone has learned the word “mariposa” from the Spanish speakers. We have added butterfly-related books, pictures, word

cards to the writing area, scarves for wing dancing, and butterfly-shaped play dough cutters. We set up a painting activity,

too. Eventually, we released the butterfly outside. But I went

ahead and ordered seven caterpillars to hatch in the class. The

children ask daily, “When will the caterpillars get here?” 

To support family literacy and the children’s learning, I

will begin sending home books for families to read. Of course,

one of the first books will be The Very Hungry Caterpillar by

Eric Carle. The home reading bag will include ways to extend

the reading with stencils and art materials. I am lucky to collect many books in more than one language for families. 

When the caterpillars arrive, there will be many opportunities for discovery and language development. We will make

a butterfly storybook with illustrations for our class library.

One child, a native Spanish speaker, has proposed that the

book’s title be The Corduroy Caterpillar, Chrysalis, and

Butterfly Book. What vocabulary and conceptual development

are evident in his title! I am pleased to be able to support language-rich activities for all language learners. ■

Carol Bellamy is a Head Start Mentor at Higher Horizons

Head Start, Falls Church, VA. T: 703-820-2457; 

E: Carol.Bellamy@fairfaxcounty.gov

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Teachers Support, Continued from 32

respond, she also included Roney in the conversation by saying,

“Is that the doctor, Roney?” In the end, she had involved all

three children in the conversation.

Creating a Classroom Community for ELLs

These ELLs cannot yet offer oral language to the conversation, but they are active partners in the play of learning.

Cindy has created much more than an opportunity to learn

vocabulary; she has begun the important work of creating a

classroom community of learners. She has done this by establishing a language relationship in the context of play with

each child and among the children. When Head Start teachers

converse in a way that supports English language learning, 

children will not only make progress in language development,

but will feel connected to each other and to all the learning

experiences in the classroom. ■

REFERENCES

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Administration for Children, Youth, and Families. Head

Start Bureau. 2002. Head Start Program Information

Report. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Julie Hirschler is a Senior Researcher and Development

Associate at the Center for Children & Families, Education

Development Center, Inc., in Newton, MA. T: 617-618-2462; 

E: Jhirschler@edc.org
36 2005

Why the Arts?

The arts provide a unique, multi-dimensional learning

medium for all children including English language learners

(ELLs). Body movement, dance, music, gestures, mime, and

puppets help ELLs illustrate the ideas they are learning to

express in the new language (Brown & Pleydell 1999). Using

varied sensory experiences to support a word or concept in the

new language helps create multiple imprints on the learner’s

memory. The open-ended nature of the arts also alleviates anxiety about making mistakes and thus encourages ELLs to cross

the threshold from non-verbal activity into verbalization. The

arts create a strong stimulus for the development of language

in a natural, spontaneous, and creative way. 

Furthermore, the arts support all areas of children’s 

development (Deasy 2002; Arts Education Partnership 1998;

Caldwell 1997). They foster critical thinking, social learning,

emotional intelligence, mathematical understanding, problem

solving, creativity, and literacy. These areas encompass the 

eight general Domains referred to in The Head Start Child

Outcomes Framework.

The Rainforest: An Arts-Based Curriculum

Teachers at Lucy School in Middletown, MD use an artsbased curriculum approach with their preschoolers. They

immersed one group of 4 – 5 year olds in a variety of art experiences about the rainforest that were inspired by Lynne

Cherry’s book, The Great Kapok Tree (1990). This book tells

the story of a woodcutter who wants to chop down one of the

greatest trees in the Amazon basin, the Kapok, but is magically

overpowered by the forest and falls asleep. In his dream, the

forest animals plead with him to spare the tree for their sake.

Over a six day period in the classroom, the visual arts, drama,

storytelling, creative movement, and music were used to stimulate the children’s language and other areas of development. 

Many children were English language learners, and these

art forms were intentionally used to facilitate their acquisition

of English and at the same time, support their home language

of Spanish or American Sign Language (ASL). This model—

learning through the arts—could be used with any language.

English language learning was promoted as new words

were connected to references in the children’s home languages,

How the creative arts promote language and literacy. 

by Victoria Brown and Sarah Pleydell

The arts allow for creative self-expression in young children.

Photo by V. Brown. Lucy School.

In 1982, the Child Development Associate (CDA) Credential Bilingual Specialization was established for candidates

with a working knowledge of two languages, including the ability to speak, read, and write well enough to understand others and to be understood by others.

Excerpt from E. Dollie Wolverton, Historical Overview: Head Start as the Nation's Early Childhood Laboratory

Supporting English Language Learners

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

A VISIT TO THE RAINFOREST
Head Start Bulletin 37

to other symbolic vocabularies (such as signs or pictures), as

well as to the children’s kinesthetic and sensory imprints from

other classroom experiences. Signs (ASL) are generally easy to

learn and help reinforce new vocabulary in any language. 

Excerpts from this curriculum project illustrate how each

specific art form promoted the children’s development in general and language learning in particular. 

Creative Movement

Creative movement dissolves language barriers and, at the

same time, provides a kinesthetic and sensory connection for

learning new vocabulary in any language. Children were shown

photographs of rainforest creatures: monkeys, jaguars, parrots, frogs and sloths, snakes and butterflies. Each animal was

named in English, Spanish and ASL. While sitting in a circle

where they could see each other, children created sounds and

facial expressions (they chattered and grinned like monkeys

and they hissed and flicked their tongues like snakes). Next,

they added a full body movement (the snakes slithering, the

monkeys swinging their arms, the butterflies flapping their

graceful wings). 

While Amazon rain forest sounds were played on a CD,

the children moved like animals. They had great fun scrambling and jumping like monkeys, but also delighted in crawling as slowly as a sloth. 

Visual Arts

An important part of this work was creating the physical

environment of the rain forest. The artwork followed the

movement and drama, which made it more imaginative and

vivid, because the children had first experienced the story with

their bodies. By suspending large, inexpensive pieces of green

netting from the ceiling and then hanging vines, flowers,

snakes, butterflies, birds, lizards, tree frogs, toads (all painted

and sculpted by the children), a rainforest canopy was created.

This canopy shimmered above the children, giving them a

“living through” experience of walking in the rainforest. 

Opportunities for vocabulary and concept learning were

plentiful: “We’re building a canopy for the animals,” “The tissue paper crumples,” “Are parrots the biggest birds?” Latin

American music was often played in the background to help

focus and stimulate the children during the art activities. 

Music

The children made rain sticks (using wrapping paper

tubes, aluminum foil and rice) to capture and recreate the

music of nature; they popped bubble wrap to simulate the

sounds of raindrops falling from branches at the storm’s end.

Using fingers, hands and assorted percussion instruments,

rhythms and beats were also created for rain sounds. Other

musical instruments introduced during the week included

gourd shakers, drums and simple flutes. The instruments were

featured in the closing fiesta. For this event, the teachers also

made up a song in Spanish and English describing the layers

of the rainforest and sung to the tune of “Row, Row, Row

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak Photo by J. Brough Schamp.South East Community Organization HS.

The arts allow for creative self-expression in young children.
38 2005

Your Boat.” The children also sang, signed, and danced to a

variety of multicultural musical selections. 

Drama

Dramatization was a vital part of each day’s activities, but

the children’s favorite scenes were their encounters with “the

Señor” (the main character from the book, played by a

teacher). His “hacienda” was set up in a corner of the classroom where he welcomed and entertained the children. He fed

them slices of mango and laid grass mats on the floor for the

children’s naps. The Señor spoke in English sprinkled with

Spanish phrases and words, many of which he reinforced with

sign language, “Amigos, Friends! Bienvenidos a mi casa.”

“Buenos días! Hello.” 

“Hi. Hola. Is this the rainforest?” the wide-eyed visitors

ask the stranger. “Si, Bosque - Rainforest. Beautiful - Bonito!

Yo soy lenador - a woodcutter. You may call me Señor.

Mira, come inside and see what I have made. Miren todas

las cosas bellas.” The children enter the woodcutter’s home

and are served arroz con frijoles. “Yummy.” “Yuck.” “Can I

have more?” 

The children particularly enjoyed the discussion where they

took on the roles of their favorite animal and talked to the woodcutter in his dream. They told him how sad it made them to see

their homes (los arboles) being cut down and destroyed. The

teacher aide, in the role of a tour guide, translated the English

and Spanish.

Later, the children and their teachers discussed what solutions there might be to the problem of deforestation. Maybe the

woodcutter could grow the kinds of foods that flourished in the

shade. Maybe he could cut down some of the trees and spare the

rest. Finally, they went back to the book to see how the problem

was resolved there. (The woodcutter walks out of the forest with

the tree still standing. He leaves his ax behind.) 

Looking Back

This language and arts-rich learning experience provided

many opportunities for all the children to excel and to enjoy

learning. Their language learning was evident: Spanish speakers

learned English, English speakers learned Spanish, and all learned

sign language. The arts have the capacity to stir a child’s curiosity

and provoke questions and idea sharing. Perhaps this is because

drama, movement, music, dance, and visual arts have the potential for communicating to young children in their own language:

the language of make-believe (Brown & Pleydell 1999). ■

REFERENCES

Arts Education Partnership. 1998. Young children and the arts:

Making creative connections. A report from the task force

on children’s learning and the arts: Birth to age eight.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

Brown, V. and Pleydell, S. 1999. The dramatic difference: Drama

in the preschool and kindergarten classroom. Portsmouth,

NH: Heinemann.

Cadwell, L. B. 1997. Bringing Reggio Emilia home: An innovative approach to early childhood education. New York, NY:

Teachers College Press.

Cherry, L. 1990. The great kapok tree. New York, NY:

Harcourt, Inc.

Deasy, R.J. (Ed.). 2002. Critical links: Learning in the arts and

student academic and social development. Washington, D.C.:

Arts Education Partnership.

Victoria Brown and Sarah Pleydell are co-directors of the Lucé

Institute for Creative Arts in Early Childhood, a teacher-training center. Victoria Brown is also the director of Lucy School,

an arts-based preschool and kindergarten in Middletown, MD.

T: 301-293-1163; E: lucyschool@aol.com

A VISIT TO THE RAINFOREST

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

During the dramatization,

the Señor spoke in English

and Spanish. “Buenas dias.

Amigos, come to my house,

Bienvenidos a mi casa.”
Head Start Bulletin 39

In the spring, Head Start classes of the Cherokee Nation visit

the kindergartens the children will attend in the fall. During one

of these visits, the kindergarten teacher leads the children in circle

time and asks a young girl to count to ten. She begins, “sa-gwu,

tal-li, jo-i, nv-gi, his-gi, su-da-li, ga-qwo-gi, cha-ne-la, soh-ne-la,

sgo-hi,” and finishes with a broad smile. She has just counted to

ten in the Cherokee language. 

Her emerging fluency in Cherokee is testimony to the role of

the Cherokee Nation Head Start (CNHS) in keeping alive a language on the verge of being lost. Serving over 1,000 children, the

CNHS is one of the largest American Indian Head Start programs

in the country. Its programs are not only providing a “Head

Start” to children, but also aiding in the preservation of the

Cherokee language, history, and culture.

Background

In 1821, the Cherokee leader, Sequoyah, completed a

Cherokee alphabet/syllabary. The syllabary consists of 84 characters which represent the 84 syllables used in speaking the language. Within a few years, over 90 percent of the Cherokee

Nation was literate. 

Today, the scenario is much different. It is estimated that

only about 15 percent of the population has some understanding

of the language and approximately 10,000 people speak it. Chad

Smith, Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, has warned,

“Cherokee people may be only one or two generations from losing the language, and language defines the Cherokee culture.” 

Spurred by the Principal Chief’s passion to restore the language, the Cherokee Nation has taken steps toward its revitalization. The Cherokee Nation Tribal Council passed a legislative act

in 1991 that promotes “...maintaining and preserving the

Cherokee language as a living language by...encourage(ing) the

use of Cherokee language in both written and oral form to the

fullest extent possible in public and business settings. Language is

very important to preserving a culture—many words that are

descriptive of cultural mannerisms, feelings, events, and ceremonies are only identifiable in the native tongue. There is no

comparable word in the English language.” 

The Cherokee Nation Culture Resource Center (CNCRC)

was established in 1995 to perpetuate and preserve the

Cherokee language, history, and culture. In 2002, the CNCRC

conducted a survey to assess the fluency rate of the Cherokee

language in the tribal jurisdictional area in northeastern

Oklahoma. The results indicated that the language was fast disappearing and prompted the development of a ten-year language preservation plan. And some of the most important

efforts have been directed at young children. 

Head Start Program Highlights

From the beginning, the Cherokee Nation Head Start program has provided an environment of acceptance for culture,

language, ethnicity, and family composition as required by the

HEAD START: AN AVENUE TO REVITALIZE A LANGUAGE

An environment of acceptance helps preserve the Cherokee

culture. by Ramona Drew and Regina Grass

Classroom visitors demonstrate traditional forms of Cherokee culture.

Photo courtesy of Cherokee Nation HS.

Language connects with the child's heart and lays the foundation for emotional well-being. The language that 

signals this earliest connection is the home language of the family and the cultural community. 

Excerpt from Sylvia Y. Sánchez. Is It Wrong to Speak to My Babies in Their Home Language?

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak
40 2005

Head Start Program Performance Standards. Referred to as

emersion, or “act of emerging” classrooms, they provide a

beginning exposure to the Cherokee language. The daily classroom schedule includes learning meaningful Cherokee words,

such as numbers, colors, and animals. The children also learn

familiar greetings and phrases to express their needs, such as

“Let’s go outside” (See Figure 1). Some classrooms learn entire

songs in Cherokee. Classroom centers and materials are

labeled in Cherokee and English. The syllabary is included in

the writing center. 

To further the goal of producing a new generation of

Cherokee speakers, Head Start has collaborated with a preschool

program created by the Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource

Center (CNCRC). In this program, the children see, hear, and

speak the Cherokee language exclusively. CNCRC director Gloria

Sly states, “Cherokee language classrooms have grown under the

steadfast leadership of Head Start and its holistic approach to

each child.” Teacher training and other resources have been

shared by the CNHS and the CNCRC program. 

Head Start also has served as a curriculum and language

model for the Lost City, Oklahoma school system. In one public

school serving a number of Head Start graduates, weekly assemblies are conducted for all grades to discuss the Cherokee word of

the week. 

This type of collaboration among educational entities—the

CNHS, CNCRC, and the Lost City school system—offers the

promise of continuity for Cherokee children and exposure to the

Cherokee language for non-Cherokee students. 

Successful Strategies 

How did the Cherokee Nation Head Start program implement this language initiative designed to benefit the children and

their families? There are many interrelated pieces. 

The creation of a network of Culture and Language

Specialists. Certified as master Cherokee speakers and writers,

Culture and Language Specialists offer training and other language-related resources to Head Start staff. Two important products they have developed are:

• a language assessment and screening tool that is used when

children enroll in Early Head Start or preschool Head Start.

Although the assessment is conducted in English, it assesses

children’s receptive and expressive Cherokee vocabulary.

The results help teachers plan activities in the classroom.

• a Cherokee language curriculum that includes lesson plans

and an audio tape for infants, toddlers and preschoolers. 

The support for staff training and development. Many

Head Start staff have obtained their CDAs. Teachers of the

Cherokee language who work in schools within the 14-county

jurisdictional area of the Cherokee Nation are encouraged to go

through teacher certification training and testing to assure their

competency and sharpen their instructional skills. Cherokee language speakers visit and volunteer in the Head Start classrooms

Continued on page 42

REVITALIZING LANGUAGE

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

English Cherokee 

(Roman alphabet)

Cherokee

Syllabary

Hello o-si-yo

Hill ga-du-si

Paper go-we-li

How are you? do-hi-tsu

Photo courtesy of Cherokee Nation HS.

Figure 1: An example of Cherokee words and phrases that Head Start children

are learning.

The Cherokee

syllabary is

included in the

writing center.
Head Start Bulletin 41

For six years, Eunice Berríos has

been a teacher with Aspira Head Start

in Puerto Rico. She describes her work

in this way, “Each year has been a challenge that I have accepted -- I continue

to learn from the children.” She is bilingual in Spanish and English. Eunice

currently teaches 18 three- and fouryear-olds. Most of the older children

will move on to kindergarten next year

but the younger ones will remain with

her for another year. The Head Start

program uses the Spanish version of the

Creative Curriculum. Eunice was interviewed by the Bulletin staff.

Q: How would you describe the

language learning environment in

your classroom? 

Every time children go into the classroom, they have an opportunity to have

a language experience. You can find

paper, writing tools, and books everywhere. Children must have proper learning activities that are relevant and based

on developmentally appropriate practices. 

Spanish is spoken with the Head

Start children and their parents. As

defined by Patton Tabors in her book,

One Child, Two Languages, my classroom is a First Language Classroom

because all the teachers and the children

speak the same home language. My

classroom represents the reality of our

culture, where our home language is

Spanish, in contrast to the reality of the

Latinos living in the States who are

immersed in an English- speaking society. 

Sometimes, we use English with

families who have lived in the States or

whose first language is English. Other

parents do speak English but if asked

what they want from the Head Start

program, their preference is that their

children learn to speak Spanish. The

parents also know that English instruction will be incorporated into their

child’s elementary education. 

Because the Puerto Rican population is politically connected to the

United States, young children are readily exposed to the English language.

Most of the PBS broadcasts are in

English. All around Puerto Rico, you

can find signs in English. 

So it is not surprising if we hear

children using English words in the

classroom. When we are in circle time

and counting in Spanish, children will

jump up and announce, “I can say it in

English too.” They are continually

encouraged in their pursuit of language

learning in Spanish and English, if they

choose. Although the actual language

learning process is informal, it is consistent and constant. 

I think that exposing children to

English at an early age expands their

experiences so they feel more comfortable when they receive formal language

education later on. 

Q: What are some of the typical

language experiences in your

classroom? 

The children arrive and prepare for

breakfast. We discuss the day ahead.

After breakfast, the children have

choice time and select a game, toy or

book. We do charts for the weather and

many other topics. We bring language

experiences to the kids by using poems

and stories adapted to our culture. We

practice blending and separating sounds

as well. When published materials are

in English, we also translate into

Spanish. For example, the poster in the

bathroom says, “I brush my teeth,” and

I added a sentence strip in Spanish,

“Cepillo mis dientes.” 

We have translated children’s

books into Spanish and have other

books by Puerto Rican and other

Hispanic authors. We use music from

cultural icons such as José Luis Orozco.

We have our own Puerto Rican culture

but because of the political connections

to the United States, we have celebrations for both countries. For example,

we celebrate Thanksgiving week. 

Mentor-coaching

has brought more

exposure to letters

and words in the

classroom that are

significant to the

child’s language

education.

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

TALKING WITH A TEACHER
42 2005

But it is also the week of the discovery

of Puerto Rico, and we celebrate 

that, too.

Q: How has the Mentor-Coach 

supported the language learning

in your classroom? 

This has been a new experience for

the teachers and supervisors, and I like

it. The Mentor-Coach comes to the

classroom to help with developmentally

appropriate practices. I am encouraged

to write in my diary about any issues

surrounding the children or classroom

situations and my feelings about them.

The Mentor-Coach reviews my journal

and writes notes back to me. As a

result, I have learned to teach and communicate differently and view mentoring as a great experience. 

Mentor-coaching has brought us

more exposure to letters and words that

are significant to the child’s language

education. For example, the word Apple

in the English language begins with the

letter A, but in Spanish it is M for

Manzana. I was using a chart with the

alphabet that was in English, so the

apple drawing was under the “A.” I left

it there, but I also put the word

Manzana under the drawing. This way,

the children are exposed to both languages. We’ve always had books and

materials to support our teaching, but

now, with mentoring, we know how to

make the best use of them.

The mentor-coaching process originated in the United States but at Aspira,

we adapt it to our own language, culture, and traditions. We use some books

and other training materials from

Hispanic authors.

Q: What recommendations do you

have for other programs? 

Be sensitive to how your classroom

and how every learning activity support

the culture of the children you have in

your class. Try to always encourage a

favorable classroom experience no matter

what language is being used. Although

the words that come from our mouths

may be spoken in different languages, the

love, care, and support we bring to our

children are spoken in the same language—the language of the heart. ■

Eunice Berríos is a teacher at Aspira

Head Start, Puerto Rico. 

E: eunicebv@hotmail.com

TALKING WITH A TEACHER

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Revitalizing Language, Continued from 40

to expose the children to the culture and

to provide teaching models for the staff.

In addition, a Cherokee Language

Advisory Board is made up of community members, CNHS staff, and representatives from local agencies. They are

knowledgeable in the Cherokee culture,

language, and traditions and provide

input regarding developmentally and culturally appropriate experiences to incorporate into the Head Start program.

The investment in community

assets. Community leaders, elders, and

speakers of the Cherokee language are vital

links to revitalizing the language. Head 

Start is just one part of this multi-faceted 

language revitalization effort throughout

the community. Classroom visitors

demonstrate various traditional forms of

Cherokee dance and dress, marble games,

and basketry. Parent education meetings

include topics about traditional Cherokee

customs. Exposing the parents, as well as

the children, to Cherokee tradition, teaches

the Cherokee culture and reinforces the

importance of keeping the language alive

for future generations. 

Conclusion

Today, the reality of hearing Cherokee

spoken as the language of everyday life can 

be observed in the CNHS classrooms. And 

the benefits do not end there. Parents and

family members have been learning along

with the children. Thanks to the ongoing

collaboration of the CNHS and the

CNCRC, the entire Cherokee community

can see its language and culture being revitalized and preserved. ■

Ramona Drew is an Education Specialist

with the Cherokee Nation Head Start in

Tahlequah, OK. T: 918-458-4393; 

E: rdrew@cherokee.org. 

Regina Grass is the Director of the Little

Nations Academic Center at Haskell Indian

Nations University in Lawrence, KS. 

T: 785-749-8441; E: rgrass@haskell.edu
Head Start Bulletin 43

In order to meet the needs of the

linguistically diverse populations in their

Head Start programs, the Children’s Aid

Society in New York City and The

Rosemount Center in Washington, D.C.

offer home-visiting services in languages

other than English. 

The Children’s Aid Society is

located in a predominantly Hispanic

neighborhood, and the staff is representative of this population. Many of the

families are recent immigrants from

Spanish-speaking countries. Erica

Quezada is a former home-visitor and

current Educational Director at the

agency’s Early Head Start program. She

reports that about 95% of the families

in the home-visiting program choose to

have their home visits conducted in

Spanish. The other 5% speak English as

their first language. 

Being able to communicate in

Spanish has made it easier for Ms.

Quezada to connect with the children

and families in the program. “It’s not

about language; it’s about learning and

building relationships,” she remarks.

Parents feel much safer and more comfortable communicating in their preferred language; as a result, the program is more effective in its delivery 

of services.

Swati Mukherjea and Patricia

Molina are home-visitors at The

Rosemount Center, which offers Early

Head Start and Head Start home- and

center-based services. Ms. Mukherjea is

a native of India who speaks Bengali,

Hindi, and a bit of Spanish. Ms.

Molina, who is from Chile, works

with the Hispanic community.

The families they work with are primarily Hispanic, but others are from

Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and

Pakistan. Ms. Mukherjea works with

primarily Head Start children, while

Ms. Molina works with Early Head

Start children.

They agree that one of the most

important aspects of working as a

home-visitor is to respect every family’s

beliefs and traditions. “Because we go

into their houses, we need to be really

sensitive to their cultures and myths,”

Ms. Molina notes. Speaking a family’s

preferred language in their home is 

one way of showing sensitivity 

and respect. 

The majority of the families at

Rosemount prefer a mix of languages

during their home-visits. For example,

the home-visitor might speak to the

parents in Bengali but sing songs with

the child in English. Head Start families

want their children to learn and be

comfortable with the English language

because they will use English when they

are in elementary school.

Ms.Mukherjea finds that, “Parents are

very conscious of literacy and want

their child to have the necessary basic

skills to succeed in school.” 

The Rosemount Center offers literacy resources and support for parents

who want to learn English and is currently seeking a formal partnership with

the American Library Association. The

home-visitors often provide invaluable

services such as translating the family’s

mail or helping family members fill out

job applications. 

These home-visiting programs in

New York and the District of Columbia

receive positive feedback from parents

for their innovative approaches and

bilingual and multilingual staff capabilities. As Ms. Quezada notes, home-visitors empower these families to navigate

the largely English-speaking world

around them “by enhancing parents’

abilities to contribute to the positive

development of their children, providing

resources, and helping them with the

challenges of daily life.” ■

Written by Bulletin staff based on interviews with the home visitors.

Home visitors support the cultural and linguistic

diversity of all families served.

Photo by D. Mentzer.

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Research (Gutiérrez-Clellen & Kreiter 2003) indicates that the amount of input, frequency of use, and the parents'

estimates of their child's language ability highly relate to the child's level of proficiency in the language.

Excerpt from Vera Gutiérrez-Clellen, Assessment of English Language Learners: Challenges and Strategies 

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

OFFERING FAMILIES A LANGUAGE CHOICE

DURING HOME VISITS

BY BULLETIN STAFF WITH ERICA QUEZADA, SWATI MUKHERJEA, AND PATRICIA MOLINA
44 2005

In 1974, I immigrated from Hong Kong to the United States

to attend college. I am fluent in both Mandarin and Cantonese.

For more than seven years, I worked as a Program Manager and

later as an Education Specialist for an Early Head Start/Head

Start Program in Honolulu, Hawaii. More recently, I was a

Mentor-Coach Specialist in Region IX, the Pacific area. All of my

work in Head Start has included close contact with Pacific Island

and Asian immigrants. Most of the Head Start staff are Englishonly speakers. As a team, we have worked together to meet the

growing needs of the increasing non-English speaking population

who need Head Start services. 

Who Are Asians?

According to the most recent Program Information Report

(PIR), over 11,000 Head Start children are speakers of East Asian

languages, making them the second largest group of English language learners (after Spanish speakers). However, the term

“Asian” does not lend itself to an easy definition. In fact, it is an

umbrella term referring to over 20 ethnic groups from Japan,

Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, China, India, Pakistan, and other countries. These ethnic groups have different languages, child-rearing

practices, and approaches to learning. 

Asian Approaches to Schooling and Learning

In most Asian countries, schools are formal and structured

institutions. The children have limited time in free choice learning. Even very young children are expected to sit in desks. To

show respect, they listen to or talk to their teachers with their

heads down; they avoid eye contact. They do not ask questions

(which would appear disrespectful), and they follow the teachers’

instructions with absolute attention.

Traditionally, Asian families have entrusted their children

to the teachers and the school system. They think that it is the

teacher’s responsibility to teach their children. The role of parents as teachers of their young children—a cornerstone of Head

Start—is an unfamiliar concept. At first, Asian parents may

think this concept means giving “rules” and “dos and don’ts”

such as: Sit properly in class and speak only when asked. Some

parents think that learning means being able to memorize, read

and write, and that playing is a waste of time. They expect

teachers to give their young children daily homework.

Recommendations for Head Start Staff 

I have seen first-hand how much a child’s reaction to a new

place, to different customs, and to changed expectations is colored by their prior experiences. When my son was three years

old, we moved from Texas to Hawaii. I read books to him about

moving and talked with him about what changes to expect. I

thought he was well-prepared for the transition, but when he

started preschool in Hawaii, he insisted on wearing his Texas

cowboy boots and refused to take them off when he entered the

room, which is the Hawaiian custom. This went on for several

weeks. When he attended his first Hawaiian luau (feast) at his

preschool, he refused to sit on the floor as is customary and

AN ASIAN PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE ISSUES

Both parents and teachers need to consider a child’s prior

language experience. by Anita Yuen Wah Choy

Photo by W. Siegel. Parents and Children Together EHS/HS.

Young children can acquire a second language if exposed to it in meaningful experiences. They become increasingly

fluent in a second language as they have opportunities to speak it with a variety of individuals on many different

topics and for a range of reasons (California Department of Education 1998; Quiñones-Eatman 2001).

Excerpt from Phillip C. Gonzales, Becoming Bilingual: First and Second Language Acquisition

(http://www.headstartinfo.org/English_lang_learners_tkit.htm)

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak

Providing a print-rich environment helps children learn a new language.
Head Start Bulletin 45

insisted on sitting on a chair to eat his food. It took about a year,

with lots of assurance and encouraging words, before he was able

to adjust to and accept the Hawaiian way of living.

When Asian families and children enroll in Head Start, they

encounter many new experiences, not unlike my own son. Not

only may they be hearing English more than they ever have

before, but they are now exposed to new routines, unfamiliar

food and eating habits, and different expectations for appropriate

behavior. What they face in the new environment can be very

confusing. How can we help them adjust to Head Start? How

can we respect their Asian cultures and promote their new learning? How can we help the children achieve positive outcomes?

Based on my personal and professional experience, I offer

these suggestions:

Build a Trusting Relationship with Children and Families.

Mutual trust opens the channel of communication and cooperation. In order to establish a trusting relationship with Asian families, the Head Start team needs to learn about the family’s unique

background, culture, and practices. Each ethnic group is different—for example, the parenting style of a Chinese family from

Hong Kong is different from the parenting style of a family from

Vietnam, Taiwan, or mainland China. How can staff be informed

about the diverse cultures and practices? Besides reading books

and materials on a particular Asian group, one of the best ways is

to have open dialogue with parents and children. 

In Hawaii, the term “talk story” refers to informal conversation about everyday matters. It can take place at any time and in

any place—during a Head Start gathering or a home visit or during a chance meeting in the grocery store or on the bus. It is a

way of making connections with people through causal dialoguing. Head Start staff use this avenue to meet with families, learn

their interests, and know their needs and problems. Learning

about the families and their culture shows respect and appreciation for who they are. With this information, the program staff

can provide continuity as the child transitions from home to

school, and can plan how to individualize the services to meet the

family’s unique needs.

On numerous occasions, I have witnessed the positive effects

of trust-building between program staff and families. Take the

case of Sonja and Sophia, three-year-old twins in Head Start in

Hawaii, whose family came from mainland China and spoke

Cantonese. The mother understood simple English sentences, but

the children had little prior exposure to English and neither

understood nor spoke the language. 

At first the twins often cried in class; when teaching staff

tried to comfort them, they would scream and cry louder. During

outdoor playtime, the twins would stay together and watch 

others play. Everyone was concerned, including the mother. 

The teachers, program specialists, and family support staff

worked with the mother to establish a plan to ease the children’s

transition. Every morning as Mom walked the twins to Head

Start, she talked with them in their home language about the

school’s daily schedule. She explained what they were going to do

and emphasized that these were going to be fun activities. She

also reassured them that she would be back at the end of class to

pick them up. 

At school, teachers greeted them upon arrival. I taught the

teachers to say some simple Chinese phrases, such as, “Jao su

hn” (Good morning), and “Nei hou ma?” (How are you?). At

the same time, Mom learned English phrases from the teachers to

describe the classroom routine and taught them to the twins at

home. Gradually, with consistent support, repeated practice, and

encouragement from the program staff and from Mom, the twins

adjusted to the changes. Soon, they enjoyed class activities and

became active learners. 

Provide Parenting Education and Home Language

Support. Parenting education is a very powerful tool and a foundation of Head Start programs. Workshops or classes help parents to gain knowledge about nurturing and raising their young

children. They can also create networks of parent support. Topics

that are relevant to Asian parents include:

• child development milestones 

• how children learn to play

• appropriate ways to discipline young children

• school policies and regulations

• learning strategies for young children 

Asian parents feel more confident when they hear the information in their home languages. Because I am trilingual, I was

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak
46 2005

able to assist English-speaking Head Start staff with Mandarinor Cantonese-speaking parents and children. I acted as a teacher’s

translator during classroom orientation to help the Chinesespeaking parents become familiar with their children’s daily routine and schedule. I translated documents and program notices

from English to Chinese. I also translated during parent/teacher

conferences and meetings with specialists. 

Teachers have found creative ways to support the home language and, at the same time, involve parents in their children’s

learning. At parent meetings, teachers demonstrate how to make

word or number games and create concept books, such as an

alphabet book, in their home language. One mother created a

numeracy book featuring both English and Chinese. The games

and books are displayed in the classroom and can be borrowed

for at-home activities.

Provide a Language-Enriched Learning Environment.

Using labels with accompanying pictures enhances learning significantly for young children. For example, the daily schedule in

the classroom can indicate lunch time with the words and a picture of children eating at the table. When the signs are posted at

their eye-level, children can easily refer to them, and they will

feel more comfortable when they can predict what will happen

next in their environment. Seeing the words and pictures also

may prompt some children to verbalize and to recognize words

and their meanings. All of this learning occurs at the children’s

own pace. 

One Head Start teacher created a multilingual book for her

class, where at least four different Pacific and Asian languages

were spoken by the children. To help them learn the school routine, follow directions, and develop positive self concepts, she

guided a discussion about how to make the class a safe place for

learning. They generated a few class rules which she wrote down;

the teaching team and the children illustrated them and posted

them in class. She invited parents to translate the rules into the

children’s home languages. Then she put the rules together into a

book format and placed it in the reading area. Throughout the

day, she used paraphrases, gestures, and body language to reinforce the rules. The children would often look at the book as if to

check on their understanding of what was expected of them.

Indeed, her children adjusted to the school environment very

quickly because of this dual support for their home language and

for their learning of English.

Access Resources in the Community. As a first generation

immigrant from Hong Kong to the United States, I know how

important it is for immigrant children and parents to have access

to materials that will teach them about their new environment.

However, there were very few culturally and developmentally

appropriate children’s books available for the Pacific and Asian

families in Head Start. With the support of the Program Director,

I applied for a community grant and formed a literacy task force

to plan a Head Start resource library. For two years, we worked

on purchasing high quality children’s books written in English

and Asian languages and developed a lending library for teachers

and parents. 

We also applied for funding to hire qualified parents and

community leaders to be bilingual classroom assistants. Fluent in

both English and their home languages, they guided the nonEnglish speaking preschoolers in learning experiences. The bilingual assistants also provided support to parents and helped them

access resources in the community, such as ESL classes. They also

assisted parents during workshops on children’s literacy and language development. In addition, they assisted teachers during parent/teacher conferences. 

Concluding Thoughts 

One out of five individuals in the United States speaks a language other than English at home. Many speak Asian languages.

Are we prepared to nurture Asian families in our Head Start programs and help them to become contributing members of our

society? Do we know about their cultures? Do we incorporate

their diversity into our programs? Do we provide support in the

form of parenting education and language-rich learning environments? If the answers to these questions are YES, then our Head

Start programs are meeting the unique needs of Asian families. ■

Anita Yuen Wah Choy is an independent Education Services consultant for Region IX in Honolulu, HI. T: 808-371-5612; 

E: choy@hawaii.rr.com

AN ASIAN PERSPECTIVE

Teachers and Home Visitors Speak
Head Start Bulletin 47

How are our children doing? Head Start and Early Head

Start programs seek answers to this question in multiple ways.

Programs are required to:

• Perform an initial screning of each child to identify evidence

of developmental, sensory, or behavioral concerns and to

determine if the child should receive a more formal evaluation to identify disabilities. (Head Start Program

Performance Standards 1304.20(b)(1))

• Conduct ongoing assessments of each child to identify their

strengths and needs, to help individualize learning experiences and other services, and to support staff in communicating and working with parents and families. (Head Start

Program Performance Standards 1304.21(c)(2)

• Incorporate data on child outcomes for groups of children

over time into annual program self-assessment and continuous program improvement. (ACYF-IM-HS-00-18)

• Use the National Reporting System (NRS) to assess all 4-

and 5-year olds on a limited set of language, literacy, and

numeracy outcomes that have been legislatively mandated.

(ACYF-IM-HS-03-07)

Many Head Start programs have English language learners

who must be included in the multiple forms of assessment. How

can this be done in a way that is sensitive and respectful to the

children’s culture and language? How can children’s ongoing

progress be assessed if they speak a language other than English?

What kinds of tools or techniques provide valid information

about a child’s language development? How can assessment elicit

the most competent performance from a young child that indicates what they can do or know rather then what they can not do

or do not know?

The author of this article, Vera Gutiérrez-Clellen, has conducted research on assessment techniques with English language

learners in preschool and elementary schools. She describes some

of the observational and interview approaches that program staff

can use to measure the language usage and ability of children

whose home language is not English. She also addresses some of

the dangers in drawing conclusions about children’s progress when

assessments are only conducted in the new language, English.

The demographics of the Head Start population indicate that

more and more children enter the program speaking a language

other than English. How are teaching teams in classrooms and

home visitors going to evaluate progress made by these children in the general Domains of learning and development that

are identified in the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework—

specifically, how can staff assess the children’s language development, including their progress in listening and understanding, speaking and communicating in English?

The answer is: Whenever possible, a child’s progress should

be based on the child’s performance in both the first and second

languages. Known as a dual language, or bilingual, approach, this

assessment strategy is recommended rather than a single language, or monolingual, approach. Why?

The Value of a Dual Language Assessment

A dual language approach will provide a more accurate picture of a child’s progress than assessments focused only on performance in the child’s new language, English. One reason is that

Everyday conversations can provide insights into children’s language development. Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.

Assessment

A bilingual strategy is the recommended approach to measure

English language learners’ progress. 

by Vera F. Gutiérrez-Clellen

ASSESSMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS:

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES
48 2005

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES

while a child is learning English, she may show greater initial

progress in the home language and limited progress in her second language. Another reason is that research shows that

when the child’s achievements are examined in the home language, teachers can also make fairly accurate predictions

about the child’s potential for learning in the second language

(Gutiérrez-Clellen 1999). For example, a preschooler who

shows the potential for learning concepts (such as number and

color) in the home language has the potential for transferring

those skills to the second language. In contrast, children who

show limited performance in the home language may need further evaluation from the Head Start support staff and other

professionals in the community.

Furthermore, there are significant individual differences in

the language proficiencies of second language learners. Many

children are first exposed to the second language, English, when

they enter Head Start. Other children may have some prior

exposure to the language but may not have been exposed to

school-like language activities at home. For example, children

may be able to converse in English but lack the vocabulary or

the ability to manipulate sounds and letters in English which are

considered early literacy activities. 

Even children who appear fluent in the two languages may

show differences depending on the language tasks, contexts, and

assessment (Valdés & Figueroa 1994). For example, a child may

be proficient in one language for one task (e.g., counting, letter

naming) but not for another (e.g., listening comprehension).

Another child may be able to hold a simple conversation in

English but not be able to answer questions about a story or a

sequence of pictures (Gutiérrez-Clellen 2002). Because of this

variability and the fact that knowledge is mediated by language,

it is almost impossible to obtain an accurate measure of

progress without examining development in the two languages. 

Assessing only in English will underestimate the child’s

abilities and might raise questions about the efficacy of the

program in facilitating children’s learning. Limited performance or progress may be confused with a developmental or

language delay, leading to the inappropriate referral and/or

diagnosis of these children. Also, this approach has the potential of generating lower expectations for other English language learners who are not referred, but may have true and

unmet needs. 

Gathering Information About Dual Language Usage 

and Ability

There are multiple ways for Head Start staff to learn about

children’s language development in both the home language and

the new language, English. Parents, of course, can provide invaluable information about the family’s home language and the child’s

early exposure to English. Teaching teams and home visitors can

assess the child’s ongoing progress in speaking, listening to, and

understanding English as they interact with children in the context of everyday activities. By working together, parents and

Head Start staff can gain insight about the child’s progress and

find ways to promote development in both languages as recommended by the Head Start Program Performance Standards.

From Parents. If the parents do not speak English, a family specialist or other staff person who is bilingual can gather

information about the child’s language usage and ability during

the enrollment process. This information can be shared with the

teaching team and help them plan ways to support the child’s language development. Research indicates that the amount of input,

frequency of use, and the parents’ estimates of language ability

highly relate to the level of proficiency in the language (GutiérrezClellen & Kreiter 2003). Sample questions appear in the Parent

Form (see page 50). The questions ask the parents how well and

how often the child speaks and uses the first and the second

(English) language. (See Tabors and Lopez, page 14, for additional questions to ask parents).

Staff Observations of the Child. Based on staff observations of the child in the Head Start setting, the teacher or home

visitor can complete a form indicating how much and how well

the child speaks the languages. Research shows that teachers are

highly reliable in estimating a child’s level of proficiency and

English usage based on their observations of the child (GutiérrezClellen & Kreiter 2003). Observations and insights from other

staff who have contact with the child, such as bus drivers and

family or health specialists, also can be added to the form. 

Assessment
Head Start Bulletin 49

A sample Teacher’s Form is included (see page 51). This

form can provide baseline data when the child enters Head

Start. It could be used several times during the year to 

note the child’s progress in first and second language usage

and proficiency.

In addition to questions addressed by parents and teachers, proficiency in the languages can be assessed directly by

asking children to provide spontaneous narrative samples, also

known as story retellings. 

Narrative Samples and Story Retellings. Across cultures and languages, narratives are used to share past information within families and communities. Children are exposed 

to narratives at a very early age; their retellings can provide

important information about their ability to produce and 

comprehend a language(s). 

Classroom staff or home visitors in Head Start programs

can elicit narratives from the child by using a sequence of 

10-12 pictures (such as are used in the Renfrew Bus Story, a

standardized language assessment (Cowley & Glasgow 1997)).

Adults can model a statement about each picture (e.g., “This

is John and his frog”; “One day they went to the park”) and

then ask the child to retell the story. A child who is not proficient in the language will not be able to retell the different

parts of the story using appropriate sentences, even with the

visual support of the pictures. As the child retells the story in

whatever language he speaks, the teacher or home visitor (or

other adult) can count the number of parts the child is able to

include about the story. Then, the staff can ask the child 

questions about the pictures to assess comprehension (e.g.,

“What did the frog do?”). This approach can be used to 

compare the child’s proficiency in English and in the 

home language when staff or volunteers speak the child’s 

first language. 

Research indicates that narratives also provide information about a child’s progress with pre-literacy skills. For example, children’s language skills are important predictors of their

ability to blend or delete sounds in words, skills that are associated with learning to read (Cooper, Roth, Speece, &

Schatschneider 2002). 

Summary 

The best picture of children’s linguistic competence is based

on their performance in both their home language and the new

language, English. This dual language approach will provide the

most fair and accurate assessment of children’s ability to understand and use language. Information about the child’s progress in

both languages can be gathered from a variety of sources, including parent interviews, staff observations, and the child’s narrative

retellings. Head Start programs can also use information from the

National Reporting System (NRS) to measure the progress of

Spanish-speaking children in both their home language and their

new language, English. ■

REFERENCES

Cooper, D.H., F.P. Roth, D.L. Speece, & C. Schatschneider. 2002.

The contribution of oral language skills to the development

of phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics 23:

399-416. 

Cowley, J. & Glasgow, C. 1997. The Renfrew bus story.

Language screening by narrative recall. Wilmington, DE:

Centreville School.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. & J. Kreiter. 2003. Understanding child

bilingual acquisition using parent and teacher reports.

Applied Psycholinguistics 24: 267-288.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. 2002. Narratives in two languages.

Assessing performance of bilingual children. Linguistics and

Education 13: 175-197.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. 1999. Language choice in intervention

with bilingual children. American Journal of SpeechLanguage Pathology 8: 291-302.

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for preschool

educators of children learning English as a second language.

Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Valdés, G. & R.A.Figueroa. 1994. Bilingualism and testing: A

special case of bias. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Vera F. Gutiérrez-Clellen is Director of the Bilingual Child

Language Research Laboratory and Professor at San Diego State

University. T: 619-594-6645; E: vclellen@mail.sdsu.edu

Assessment
50 2005

Name of Child _______________________________

Age of the Child ______________________________ 

Head Start staff/other person who is speaking with the parent(s) ________________________________________

1. I will ask you to tell me your opinion about how well your child speaks each language. We will start with the

language spoken at home, which is ______________ (fill in the blank). Then, I will ask you for your opinion about 

the child’s English. [The numbers are for the interviewer’s use only; each category will be read to the interviewee.]

(0)My child cannot speak (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, etc.), has a few words or phrases, but cannot produce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”).

My child only understands a few words.

(1) My child cannot speak ____________, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(2) My child has limited proficiency in __________ with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of

what is being said.

(3) My child has good proficiency in _________ with some grammatical errors, has some social and school vocabulary, and understands

most of what is said.

(4) My child has native-like proficiency in ________ with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

2. Now, I will ask you for your opinion about your child’s English. [The ratings are for the interviewer’s use only; each category

will be read to the interviewee.]

(0)My child cannot speak English, has a few words or phrases, but cannot produce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”). My child only understands a few words.

(1) My child cannot speak English, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(2) My child has limited proficiency in English with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of what is

being said.

(3) My child has good proficiency in English with some grammatical errors, has some social and school vocabulary, and understands

most of what is said.

(4) My child has native-like proficiency in English with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

3. How much does your child use each language? Let’s start with the language spoken at home.

(0) Never speaks (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, etc.), never hears it.

(1) Never speaks __________, hears it very little.

(2) Speaks __________ a little, hears it sometimes.

(3) Speaks __________ sometimes, hears it most of the time.

(4) Speaks __________ all of the time, hears it all of the time.

4. How much does your child use English? 

(0) Never speaks English, never hears it.

(1) Never speaks English, hears it very little.

(2) Speaks English a little, hears it sometimes.

(3) Speaks English sometimes, hears it most of the time.

(40 Speaks English all of the time, hears it all of the time.

(Adapted from Gutiérrez-Clellen & Kreiter, 2003, pp. 286-288; see Tabors and Lopez, page 14, for additional questions)

PARENT FORM

GATHERING I NFORMATION ABOUT E NGLISH LANGUAGE L EARNERS

Assessment
Head Start Bulletin 51

Name of Child ______________________________________________________________________

Age of the Child ______________________________________________________________________ 

Teacher ______________________________________________________________________

1. Use refers to how much the child uses the home language and English. Circle the appropriate rank for 

each language. 

(0) Never uses the indicated language. Never hears it.

(1) Never uses the indicated language. Hears it very little.

(2) Uses the indicated language a little. Hears it sometimes.

(3) Uses the indicated language sometimes. Hears it most of the time.

(4) Uses the indicated language all of the time. Hears it all of the time. 

2. Proficiency refers to how well the child speaks each language. Circle the appropriate rank for each language. 

(0) Cannot speak the indicated language, has a few words or phrases, cannot produce sentences, and only understands a 

few words.

(1) Cannot speak the indicated language, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(2) Limited proficiency with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(3) Good proficiency with some grammatical errors, has some social and academic vocabulary, and understands most of what 

is said.

(4) Native-like proficiency with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

3. On the continuum, circle the % of time that the child is exposed to each language in Head Start (the total time

for the two languages should equal 100%):

English: 0% 20% 40% 50% 60% 80% 100%

Home Language: 0% 20% 40% 50% 60% 80% 100%

(Adapted from Gutierrez-Clellan & Kreiter, 2003, pp. 286-288; see Tabors and Lopez, page 14, for additional questions)

TEACHER FORM

Questions Home Language English

1. Speaks with you in class. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

2. Speaks with aides or other teachers. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

3. Speaks with classmates. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

Questions Home Language English

1. Speaks with you in class. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

2. Speaks with aides or other teachers. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

3. Speaks with classmates. Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4 Don’t Know 0 1 2 3 4

Assessment

GATHERING I NFORMATION ABOUT E NGLISH LANGUAGE L EARNERS
52 2005

Head Start’s National Reporting System (NRS) is the

nation’s largest assessment of the skills and progress of

preschoolers, including English language learners. In Fall 2003,

Spring 2004, and again in the Fall 2004, over 410,000 children

in Head Start programs, including more than 90,000 English

language learners, participated in a common, 20-minute one-onone assessment of language, literacy, and numeracy. Starting in

Spring 2004, Migrant and Seasonal Head Start programs participated in the NRS. 

Announced in President Bush’s Early Childhood Initiative

Good Start, Grow Smart in April, 2002, the NRS is designed to

strengthen Head Start program quality, effectiveness and credibility. It provides comparable information on children’s progress

on a limited set of learning outcomes for all programs nationwide. Child outcomes areas for the NRS are based on

Congressional mandates in the 1998 Head Start

Reauthorization Act. The legislation requires the assessment of

child outcomes in language, vocabulary, letter knowledge, and

early math skills. In addition, the Act requires the assessment of

the progress of non-English speaking children in listening to,

understanding, and speaking English (see the Head Start Child

Outcomes Framework in The Head Start Path to Positive Child

Outcomes available at www.headstartinfo.org).

Head Start programs have performed well in implementing the National Reporting System. Nearly all Head Start

agencies participated; staff were well-prepared to administer

the assessments; and both parents and children cooperated

with this new approach to documenting the benefits of Head

Start services. 

Assessing English Language Learners

Special efforts were made to prepare to assess English language learners. Over 500 staff from programs serving bilingual or Spanish-speaking populations were prepared and certified to train local bilingual NRS assessors, who administer

both the English and Spanish versions of the NRS assessments. 

The assessment begins with a screening procedure to determine a child’s English language proficiency. The assessment

process includes several options for English language learners:

• Children whose primary language is Spanish and who do

not attain the cutoff score on the English language screener

are given only a Spanish version of the NRS. 

• Children whose primary language is Spanish and who

attain the cutoff score in English receive both the English

and Spanish versions of the NRS (at two different times).

• Children whose primary language is other than Spanish or

English and who do not attain the cutoff score in the

English version do not receive any further assessment. 

The extra time and effort it takes to assess some children in

two languages makes it possible to compare their progress in

language, literacy, and numeracy skills in their home language

(Spanish) and in English. This comparative information is

important because English language learners may have strong

prior knowledge and skills in their home language (Spanish)

that would not be evident if they are assessed only in English.

They also may show different rates of progress from fall to

spring and attain different levels of proficiency on the NRS

measures by the end of their Head Start year, depending on the

language of assessment. 

THE NATIONAL REPORTING SYSTEM AND 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

NRS reports will support ongoing assessment and contribute to

program improvement. by Tom Schultz and Linda Jagielo

Assessment

Children enjoy learning

to write their names.

Photo by J. Brough Schamp. Higher Horizons HS/EHS.
Head Start Bulletin 53

Based on these procedures, of the 436,000 preschoolers

who participated in the Fall 2003 NRS effort:

• 78% were assessed in English only

• 12% were assessed in Spanish only

• 7.5% were assessed in both English and Spanish

• 1.7% were not assessed due to lack of proficiency in either

English or Spanish.

A similiar pattern emerged from the Spring 2004 and Fall

2004 data. 

NRS 2003-4 Assessment Information

Combining data from all Head Start programs, the Fall

2003 and Spring 2004 NRS results indicate that English language learners are showing progress over the course of the program year on all of the NRS measures. For example, the proportion of Head Start children who showed a basic understanding of spoken English sufficient to pass the language screener

increased from 90 percent in the fall to 96 percent in the spring.

This means that 60 percent of those children who could not

pass the English screener in the fall acquired sufficient language

skills by the spring to pass the screener.

For children who were classified as English language learners by their program and who passed the English language

screener, data from the Fall 2003 and Spring 2004 NRS assessment in English are presented in Figure 1. Their understanding

of spoken English increased during the program year, as evidenced by their answering 51% of the items correctly in the fall

and 72% correctly in the spring. Not surprisingly, their knowledge of English vocabulary also increased, though not as dramatically. From the fall to the spring, the English language

learners also became better at naming letters in the English

alphabet – from 22% correct responses to 53% in the spring.

When assessed in English, they also showed growth in their

early math skills from the beginning of the program year. 

Children who passed a similar Spanish language screener

and who were assessed in Spanish in the fall and spring also

showed growth in all skill areas (see Figure 2). Overall, children

assessed in Spanish showed growth in Understanding Spoken

Spanish. Their average scores on this section of the NRS went

from 66% correct in the fall to 75% correct in the spring. The

Spanish speakers also showed some growth in their Spanish

vocabulary knowledge. 

In the fall, children assessed in Spanish identified an average of 4 letters out of the 30 letters of the Spanish alphabet, or

11 percent. By spring, they identified an average of 10 letters,

or 34%. Spanish speakers also showed growth in their Spanish

Early Math Skills, from an average of 8 out of 21 items correct

in the fall or 39% to an average of 13 items correct in the

spring or 60%. 

How Is NRS Information Being Used?

Each Head Start grantee and delegate agency received

reports on their 2003-4 fall and spring assessments, allowing

Assessment

Figure 1

Figure 2
54 2005

them to chart the progress of their 4- and 5-year-old children

over the course of their Head Start year. This information,

along with an analysis of local ongoing child assessments and

other program information, will be used in program self-assessment and planning improvement initiatives. NRS reports have

expanded each program’s capacity to address questions such as:

• What is the progress of English language learners in the

areas of language development, vocabulary, knowledge of

letters and early mathematics in both English and Spanish?

• What is the progress of English language learners who

enter at different levels of initial skills and knowledge in

the areas assessed by the NRS?

• How do our results from the NRS compare with patterns

of progress for children in other Head Start programs?

• How do programs with similar proportions of English 

language learners compare in terms of fostering 

children’s progress?

In addition to their local program report, agencies may

access additional analyses of assessment information in the

internet-based NRS Reference Tables. These materials allow

programs to compare NRS results for programs with similar

characteristics on variables such as part-day vs. full-day 

program operations, proportion of English language learners

and minority group children, percentage of teachers with 

college degrees, and children in the first or second year of

Head Start.

The NRS also is designed to produce information to contribute to Head Start training and technical assistance efforts.

By analyzing NRS assessments of English language learners and

related descriptive information collected in the NRS and in the

Program Information Report (PIR) system, regional and Federal

staff can answer questions such as: 

• What are the characteristics of Head Start programs that

are unusually effective in promoting progress for English

language learners?

• Are there different patterns of NRS outcomes for English

language learners from programs using different curricula?

• Are there different patterns of NRS outcomes for English

language learners based on factors such as teachers’ level

of education or experience, fluency in Spanish, or use of

Spanish in the classroom?

The NRS data from the first program year (Fall 2003 and

Spring 2004) are currently being analyzed to provide answers to

these questions. As an example of an initial finding, children

attending Head Start programs in Puerto Rico show more substantial progress on the Spanish language assessments when

compared to children who attend Head Start in other states and

regions. This finding reflects the fact that Spanish-speaking children in Head Start programs in Puerto Rico receive instructional support in Spanish, whereas most children in U.S. mainland programs do not.

The NRS Is Evolving

The Head Start Bureau views the NRS as an evolving concept. We will continue to evaluate and work to improve the

procedures and the measures. For example, during the program

year 2003-4, Spanish-speaking children were assessed in English

first and then in Spanish. But as of Fall 2004, Spanish-speaking

children went through the language proficiency screener and

subsequent assessments first in Spanish and then in English.

This change was suggested by representatives of Migrant and

Seasonal Head Start who followed this procedure in their initial

Spring 2004 NRS assessments. We also anticipate working with

a Secretary’s Advisory Committee on Head Start Accountability

and Educational Performance Measures in the coming year to

review options for improving the NRS, such as incorporating

assessments of social and emotional development.

Over the long run, the NRS will complement and enhance

other ongoing Head Start quality efforts—Technical Assistance,

program monitoring, research and evaluation. The NRS is a

means to an end—the goal being to improve program effectiveness and promote the successful learning and healthy development of all Head Start children. ■

Tom Schultz is Senior Advisor on Outcomes in the Head Start

Bureau. T:202-205-8323; E: tschultz@acf.hhs.gov. 

Linda Jagielo is a Head Start Fellow at the Head Start Bureau. 

T: 202-205-8420; E: ljagielo@acf.hhs.gov.

THE NRS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

Assessment
Head Start Bulletin 55

Head Start preschool teachers and other early childhood

educators frequently observe the children in their care engaged in

child-centered learning and playing with peers in very appropriate ways. At others times, these teachers are very concerned

when they observe some children engaging in tantrums, being

noncompliant, or retreating into isolated activities. These behaviors might be labeled as challenging. 

The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for

Early Learning at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

defines challenging behaviors as, “any repeated patterns of behaviors, or perceptions of behavior that interfere with or are at risk

of interfering with optimal learning or engagement in pro-social

interactions with peers and adults.” However, these behaviors are

not always what they appear to be, especially for children who

come from homes where a language other than English is spoken. 

Since the school year started, Adrian, a 4-year-old, has

had difficulties adjusting to his new classroom. Every morning, he clings tightly to his mother and cries when she drops

him off at school. Throughout the day, he follows one of his

teachers around and participates in group activities as long as

the teacher is sitting right next to him. He and his family have

just moved to the community from another country. His father

speaks some English, while his mother does not speak English

at all. None of the teachers in the classroom speak the family’s

home language. Thus, very little communication occurs among

the teachers, Adrian, and his mother.

About 27% of the total number of children enrolled in

Head Start are from homes where languages other than English

are spoken. There are over 140 languages represented in Head

Start; Spanish is the most common language other than English

(Administration on Children, Youth, and Families 2000).

Interestingly, while Head Start personnel speak 93 of the 140

languages, there are still many children in Head Start programs

where there are no classroom staff who speak their languages

(Administration on Children, Youth, and Families 2000).

Head Start staff who work with families and children

who speak a language other than English at home have many

questions. Are children’s refusals to interact and communicate

with others, frequent tantrums, difficulty in attending, and

excessive shyness signs of behavior problems, or are these typical behaviors for young English language learners? Are children behaving this way because their home language is different from the language used in the classroom? Do challenging

behaviors represent frustration due to an inability to communicate in the early childhood environment? Head Start staff

want answers in order to understand children’s behavior and

how to support their learning so they will succeed in school

and in life. These questions, coupled with Head Start demographics, highlight a critical need for all Head Start staff to

understand the impact of language on children’s behavior and

overall development. 

Why Is Understanding the Impact of Language 

So Confusing?

Learning another language is not an easy task for many

children and even for adults! For many, acquiring oral skills in

the new language may take 2-3 years and an additional 5-7

years to acquire higher-level language skills for academic or

other uses (Brice 2000).

THE IMPACT OF LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES ON

PRESCHOOLERS’ CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR

Staff can build a blueprint to help second language learners

gain confidence and skills.

by Rosa Milagros Santos and Michaelene Ostrosky

Field trips can promote discussion and vocabulary development.

Photo by F. Huffmon. Bristol Bay Native Association HS.

Assessment
56 2005

The developmental pattern for learning English is fairly

consistent for all young children. This developmental pattern

includes four sequential stages (Brice 2002; Tabors 1997): 

• the continued use of the home language

• the silent or nonverbal period

• sound experimentation and use of telegraphic speech

(e.g., the use of a few content words as an entire utterance, such as when a child responds to, “What can I get

for you?” with comments such as “crackers,” “book,” or

“airplane” in the new language)

• productive use of the new language 

Although most English language learners progress

through these stages, they move through them at different

rates. The ease and the pace at which English is learned

depends on the child’s age, motivation, personality, knowledge

of the first language, and exposure to English (August &

Hakuta 1997; Brice 2002; Cummins 1991; McLaughlin 1984).

Disabilities, including speech delays evidenced in the primary

language, may impact the rate of second language acquisition

(Roseberry-McKibbin 1995).

Some of the behaviors that children might demonstrate

during these language-learning stages, such as playing in isolation and not speaking in either language, may be misinterpreted or mislabeled as a problem. In fact, children are simply

beginning to acquire the new language. These behaviors also

are similar to those exhibited by children identified with specific language or speech impairments (Brice 2002; Rice, Sell,

& Hadley 1991; Tabors 1997). Thus, it is not uncommon for

many of these children to be labeled as having challenging

behaviors or communication disorders when in fact they are

following a fairly typical developmental progression in acquiring another language. 

What Behaviors Might Young English Language

Learners Exhibit?

Some common behaviors associated with language acquisition that may be misinterpreted as challenging behaviors include

not talking, difficulty following directions, difficulty expressing

ideas and feelings, and responding to questions inconsistently

(Tabors 1997). For example, during the nonverbal period, staff

and parents, too, may be very worried about the child’s language development. Roseberry-McKibbin (1995) suggests that

children typically go through the silent period for about 3-6

months, which may cause great concerns for professionals when

children do not seem to be talking. In fact, at this stage, the

child is working actively to gather information about how to

communicate with peers and adults in the new language. 

During this non-verbal phase, researchers also note that

children may isolate themselves as they take on the role of spectator or observer (Brice 2002; Tabors 1997). In “safe” environments (such as solitary play), they may rehearse new words they

have heard. Although a teacher might interpret this tendency to

keep to themselves as problematic, the English language learners

are often watching classmates and adults and attempting to figure out how to communicate. 

Additionally, Tabors (1997) notes that some children use

cognitive and social strategies in acquiring a new language

that may be misinterpreted as “challenging behaviors.” One

strategy is “pretending” to understand interactions or activities, such as large group play, when they do not grasp clearly

what is going on. In these situations, English language learners

may be inconsistent in responding to directions given by their

peers or adults and, therefore, appear to be non-compliant. 

LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES AND CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR

Assessment

Some of the behaviors that

children might demonstrate

during second language

learning stages, such as

playing in isolation and not

speaking in either language,

may be misinterpreted or

mislabeled as a problem.
Head Start Bulletin 57

How Can I Tell if There Is Really a Behavior Problem?

Assessment is the key to pinpointing a child’s strengths

and needs and then designing instructional programs that

facilitate the child’s development. When assessing an English

language learner, Head Start staff should look at (1) the child’s

abilities in terms of cognitive, social-emotional, and physical

development (referring to the eight Domains in the Child

Outcomes Framework), (2) the child’s abilities in his/her first

language; and (3) the child’s capabilities in his/her second language (Brice 2002; McLean 2002; Ortiz & Maldonado 1986). 

These researchers note that because cognitive, social-emotional, and physical development are involved in and affected

by the process of second-language acquisition, it is important

to assess these areas. Knowing the child’s abilities in his or her

first language is critical in gaining a complete picture of the

child’s skills and knowledge, as is gathering information about

how a child is progressing in the development of the new language (McLean 2002). Similar to assessing children who are

monolingual or speak one primary language, conducting

authentic performance-based assessment helps teachers understand how a child uses language during day-to-day interactions (Brice 2002; McLean 2002). 

It is always important for the teaching team to work with

the Head Start disabilities coordinator, the mental health consultant, and other specialists to assess any situation where there

are concerns about a child’s development. These personnel

should be well-informed about the impact of language differences on child behavior. For example, in Adrian’s situation, his

inability to adapt to his new classroom is due in large part to

his inability to communicate with others in that environment.

Crying is his way of communicating the frustration and anxiety

that he is unable to verbalize in the new language.

What Can I Do to Support the Children in my Program?

Head Start teachers and other staff should understand the

process by which children learn language, whether it is their

home language or a new language. It is also important that they

gather information from a variety of sources and not rely on

one assessment tool to ensure that they have a complete picture

of a child’s skill development. Additional sources of information

include observations of the child in different settings, interviewing adults who provide care to the child, and collecting a sample of the child’s work (e.g, art work, writing, etc.). 

Professionals can learn from families about their children

and also about the families’ cultural, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds. With this knowledge and understanding of the children and their families, staff will be better able to distinguish

between a challenging behavior and behaviors associated with

the acquisition of a new language. They also will be able to

effectively support children’s overall development. The teaching

team will want to individualize instruction, because even two

children from the same cultural background might show different patterns and rates in learning English. Thus, it is critical for

Adrian’s teachers to find means to communicate with his parents and with him to be able to support his transition in the

new classroom. Strategies such as using pictures to communicate the classroom routines, rules, and expectations may help

alleviate some of Adrian’s anxiety about being in the classroom.

The Program Performance Standards require that programs provide a supportive and safe environment in which

children can use their home language while learning a new

language. Teachers can develop a systematic plan to promote

meaningful participation and inclusion of English language

learners in routines and activities in the classroom. They can

build upon what the children know and engage them in situations that at the beginning may not require them to give specific responses (e.g., low-demand situations). For example,

teachers might get children more involved in group activities

Assessment

Authentic performancebased assessment is

the key to pinpointing

a child’s strengths

and needs.
Subject tk

58 2005

by having them help carry materials such as books, name

cards, and musical instruments to circle time. The intentional

use of instructional strategies -- such as pairing new words

with gestures, pictures, and cues; commenting on what a child

does; expanding and extending upon children’s words; and

repeating what children have said -- are effective in young

children’s successful acquisition of a new language. 

Collaborating with families and other professionals, creating a supportive early childhood environment, and using evidence-based communication strategies are key ingredients to

working effectively with English language learners. Not only

will using these strategies help in distinguishing between challenging behaviors and behaviors associated with acquisition of

a new language, but it will also enable adults to effectively

support young children’s overall development.

This article is adapted from the What Works Brief series

produced by the Center on the Social and Emotional

Foundations for Early Learning (www.csefel.uiuc.edu). The

What Works Brief is a continuing series of short, easy-to-read,

“how to” information packets on a variety of evidence-based

practices, strategies, and intervention procedures. The Briefs

are designed to help teachers and other caregivers support

young children’s social and emotional development. They

include examples and vignettes that illustrate how practical

strategies might be used in a variety of early childhood settings and home environments. ■

REFERENCES

August, D. & K. Hakuta, eds. 1997. Improving schooling for

language minority children: A research agenda.

Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 

Brice, A. E. 2002. The Hispanic child: Speech, language, culture

and education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early

Learning. 2003. Facilitator’s Guide. University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign: Author.

Cummins, J. 1991. Interdependence for first and second

language proficiency in bilingual children. Language processing in bilingual children, ed. E. Bialystok, 70-89.

Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

McLaughlin, B. 1984. Second language acquisition in childhood: Preschool children. 2d ed. New Jersey: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates.

McLean, M. 2002. Assessing young children for whom English

is a second language. Young Exceptional Children

Monograph Series #4: Assessment: Gathering meaningful

information, eds. M. M. Ostrosky & E. Horn. Longmont,

CO: Sopris West. 

Ortiz, A. A. & E. Maldonado-Colon. 1986. Recognizing learning disabilities in bilingual children: How to lessen inappropriate referrals of language minority students to special

education. Journal of Reading, Writing, and Learning

Disabilities International 2 (1): 43-57.

Rice, M. L., M. A. Sell, & P.A. Hadley. 1991. Social interactions of speech- and language-impaired children. Journal of

Speech and Hearing Research 34 (6): 1299-1307.

Roseberry-McKibbin, C. 1995. Multicultural students with special language needs. Oceanside, CA: Academic

Communication Associates.

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for preschool

educators of children learning English as a second language.

Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Administration for Children, Youth and Families. Head

Start Bureau. 2000. Celebrating cultural and linguistic

diversity in Head Start. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Rosa Milagros Santos and Michaelene Ostrosky are faculty collaborators at the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations

for Early Learning at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. T: 217-333-0260. E: rsantos@uiuc.edu;

ostrosky@uiuc.edu

LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES AND CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR

Assessment

online...For more information on Head Start, visit our site at www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/hsb
Head Start Bulletin 59

RESOURCES

PRINT

THE MENTOR-TEACHER HANDBOOK

ON EARLY LITERACY FOR MIGRANT &

SEASONAL HEAD START

CLASSROOMS. 2003.

Migrant and Seasonal Head Start

Quality Improvement Center.

Washington, D.C.: Academy for

Educational Development.

This mentor handbook supports the

professional development of MSHS

teachers and family child care

providers. The handbook is organized

by early literacy topics and includes

discussion of research findings,

teaching strategies, and successful

mentor-coaching practices. Available in

Spanish. Available at www.mhsqic.org. 

A CREATIVE ADVENTURE:

SUPPORTING DEVELOPMENT AND

LEARNING THROUGH ART, MUSIC,

MOVEMENT, AND DIALOGUE. 2000.

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services: Administration

for Children, Youth and Families.

Commissioner’s Office of Research

and Evaluation, Head Start

Bureau. Washington, D.C.: Author.

This multimedia kit focuses on the

importance of creative opportunities in 

a child’s development and suggests

activities to stimulate creativity at home

or in the classroom. Contents include a

videotape, media guide, and poster.

Available in Spanish. 

Available at www.headstartinfo.org

Continued on page 61

WEBLIOGRAPHY

The following Web sites about English language learners

are recommended as further resources for teachers, parents,

and administrators

www.cal.org/topics/prek-12literacy.html 

CENTER FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS (CAL) is a private, non-profit organization

of scholars and educators who use the findings of linguistics and related

sciences in identifying and addressing language-related issues. CAL conducts a

wide range of activities, including research, teacher education, analysis and

dissemination of information, design and development of instructional materials,

technical assistance, conference planning, program evaluation, and policy

analysis. CAL's Language and Literacy Division specializes in projects that

center on literacy acquisition in the elementary and secondary grades,

particularly among learners for whom English is a second language. CAL is

headquartered in Washington, D.C. and contains the library of the ERIC

Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.

www.CLMER.csulb.edu 

CENTER FOR LANGUAGE MINORITY EDUCATION AND RESEARCH (CLMER)

promotes equity in schools and society. A priority is the creative use of

technology in service to communities at a local, national, and international

level. CLMER is based at the College of Education, California State University,

Long Beach.

www.crede.uscs.edu

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON EDUCATION, DIVERSITY AND EXCELLENCE

(CREDE) is a Federally funded research and development program focused on

improving the education of students of all ages whose ability to reach their

potential is challenged by language or cultural barriers, race, geographic

location, or poverty. Located at the University of California, Santa Cruz, CREDE

offers a wide range of multi-media products, print publications, and a useful

Web site for practitioners, researchers, and educators. 

http://clas.uiuc.edu 

EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH INSTITUTE ON CULTURALLY AND

LINGUISTICALLY APPROPRIATE SERVICES (CLAS) Institute identifies, evaluates,

and promotes effective and appropriate early intervention practices and

preschool practices that are sensitive and respectful to children and families

from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. CLAS is a Federally

funded collaborative effort of several universities, ERIC libraries, and the

Council for Exceptional Children.

Continued on page 60

RESOURCES
60 2005

Continued from previous page

www.ael.org/eric/ 

ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON RURAL EDUCATION AND

SMALL SCHOOLS (CRESS) encompasses American Indians

and Alaska Natives, Mexican Americans, Migrants, and

Outdoor Education. It acquires and screens materials, keeps a

bibliographic database (including Web-based materials),

answers requests for information, develops and disseminates

free and low-cost publications, and conducts workshops. The

host institution for ERIC/CRESS is AEL (Appalachian

Educational Laboratory) in Charleston, WV.

www.cal.org/ericcll 

ERIC CLEARINGHOUSE ON LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

(CLL) is operated by the Center for Applied Linguistics, a

private non-profit organization. ERIC/CLL provides a wide

range of services and materials for language educators, most

of them free of charge. All publications focus on current trends

and issues in the language education field, including bilingual

education and English as a second language. 

www.headstartinfo.org/infocenter/literacy_tk/links

_jun04.htm 

LINKS TO LITERACY. VOLUME 3, ISSUE 1 is a compilation of

Internet sites designed to support Head Start's literacy

initiatives. Three web sites are posted. The Center for Applied

Linguistics site discusses the benefits of knowing two

languages. The Colorin' Colorado site identifies activities and

resources parents can use with their children and is in English

and Spanish. The Public Library Association site reports on

the results of early literacy programs provided by public

libraries.

www.NABE.org 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR BILINGUAL EDUCATION

(NABE) is a professional organization at the national level

devoted to representing both English language learners and

bilingual education professionals. It represents over 5,000

educators and parents with affiliate organizations in 28

states. NABE advocates for a variety of programs that

provide language supports to English Language Learners.

www.ncela.gwu.edu

NATIONAL CLEARINGHOUSE FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION & LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS (NCELA) is funded by the U.S.

Department of Education. Its mission is to collect, analyze,

and disseminate information relating to the effective

education of linguistically and culturally diverse learners in

the U.S. NCELA provides information through its Web site

and topical publications and produces the Office of English

Language Acquisition’s weekly electronic news bulletin,

Newsline.

http://nnell.org

NATIONAL NETWORK FOR EARLY LANGUAGE LEARNING

(NNELL) includes educators involved in teaching foreign

languages to children. Its mission is to promote opportunities

for all children to develop a high level of competence in at

least one language in addition to their own.

www.ed.gov/offices/OELA

OFFICE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACQUISITION,

LANGUAGE ENHANCEMENT, AND ACADEMIC

ACHIEVEMENT FOR LIMITED ENGLISH PROFICIENT

STUDENTS (OELA’s) mission is to identify major issues

affecting the education of English Language Learners and to

assist and support state and local systemic reform efforts that

emphasize high academic standards, school accountability,

professional training and parent involvement. OELA was

formerly the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority

Languages Affairs (OBEMLA).

www.TESOL.edu

TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER

LANGUAGES (TESOL’S) mission is to ensure excellence in

English language teaching to speakers of other languages.

TESOL values professionalism in language education;

individual language rights; accessible, high quality education;

collaboration in a global community; interaction of research

and reflective practice for educational improvement; and

respect for diversity and multiculturalism.

WEBLIOGRAPHY
Head Start Bulletin 61

PRINT (continued)

CELEBRATING CULTURAL AND

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY IN HEAD 

START. 2000. 

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services: Administration

for Children, Youth and Families.

Commissioner’s Office of Research

and Evaluation, Head Start

Bureau. Washington, D.C.: Author.

The study was commissioned by ACYF

in order to better understand the

diversity in language and culture of the

Head Start population, to identify the

range of services provided to this

population, and to describe barriers

faced by Head Start programs as they

address the needs of an increasingly

diverse population. 

Available at www.headstartinfo.org

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

FOCUS GROUP REPORT: IDENTIFYING

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT ENGLISH

LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN HEAD

START AND EARLY HEAD START

PROGRAMS. 2002.

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services: Administration

for Children and Families, Head

Start and Early Head Start.

Prepared by Educational

Services, Inc., Washington, D.C.

The goal of the two-day focus group was

to solicit specific recommendations

regarding effective approaches for

addressing the opportunities and

challenges presented by working with

HS/EHS children and families who are

English language learners. Participants

included parents, program staff, and

researchers. 

Available at www.headstartinfo.org

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND EARLY

LITERACY: SERVING CULTURALLY

DIVERSE FAMILIES IN EARLY HEAD

START. TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 5. 2001. 

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services: Administration

for Children and Families, Head

Start Bureau. Prepared by Early

Head Start National Resource

Center @ ZERO TO THREE.

Washington, D.C.: Author.

This paper focuses on early language

development in children from culturally

and linguistically diverse families and

the implications for later literacy

development. Guidelines are provided

for program implementation. Two Early

Head Start programs are profiled and

their language policies are described. 

Available at www.ehsnrc.org 

MULTICULTURAL PRINCIPLES FOR

HEAD START PROGRAMS. 1992.

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services: Administration

on Children, Youth, and Families,

Administration for Children and

Families, Head Start Bureau.

Washington, D.C.: Author.

Developed by the Head Start

Multicultural Task Force, the 10

principles listed in this document were

expanded by regional and national

staff within ACF and experts in the field

of multicultural programming. These

principles stand as a challenge to Head

Start grantees and delegate agencies to

focus their efforts on individualizing

services so that every child and family

feels respected and valued. This

publication was incorporated into the

revision of the Head Start Program

Performance Standards, 1996.

Available in Spanish.

Available at www.headstartinfo.org

SUPPORTING THE HOME LANGUAGE

AND PROMOTING ENGLISH

ACQUISITION WITHIN MIGRANT

AND SEASONAL HEAD START.

Yandian, S. and J. Jones. 2002.

Washington, D.C.: Academy for

Educational Development. 

The intent of the paper was to: 1)

summarize the relevant research around

first and second language development;

2) provide guidance on creating

language rich environments in both

English and Spanish; and 3) provide

suggestions for achieving the mandated

documentation on Head Start children’s

progress towards English acquisition.

The paper includes discussion of

simultaneous vs. sequential bilingualism

and culture and language;

recommendations include best practices

and selected teaching strategies that

support early childhood bilingualism.

Available at www.mhsqic.org/init/

seclang/secondlang.pdf

Resources