How Does Technology Affect

Access In Postsecondary Education?

What Do We Really Know?

Report of the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative

Working Group on Access-Technology
How Does Technology Affect

Access In Postsecondary Education?

What Do We Really Know?

Report of the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative

Working Group on Access-Technology
The National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC) 

NPEC is a voluntary partnership of representatives from postsecondary institutions, associations, 

government agencies, states, and other organizations with a major interest in postsecondary education. Its 

mission is to promote the quality, comparability, and utility of postsecondary education data and 

information that support policy development at the federal, state, and institution levels. The National 

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) established NPEC and provides resources to support its activities. 

NPEC receives guidance for its activities from various working groups and committees that are composed 

of individuals from throughout the United States. 

NPEC publications do not undergo the formal review required for standard NCES products. The 

information and opinions published in them are the products of NPEC and do not necessarily represent 

the policy or views of the U.S. Department of Education or NCES. 

September 2004 

This publication and other NPEC publications may be found at the NCES website: 

The NCES World Wide Web Home Page is http://nces.ed.gov 

The NCES World Wide Web Electronic Catalog is http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch

The NPEC World Wide Web Home Page is http://nces.ed.gov/npec 

Suggested Citation 

National Postsecondary Education Cooperative. How Does Technology Affect Access in Postsecondary 

Education? What Do We Really Know? (NPEC 2004–831), prepared by Ronald A. Phipps for the 

National Postsecondary Education Cooperative Working Group on Access-Technology. Washington, DC: 

2004. 

For ordering information on the report, write: 

U.S. Department of Education 

ED Pubs 

P.O. Box 1398 

Jessup, MD 20794-1398 

Call toll free 1-877-4ED-PUBS; or order online at http://www.edpubs.org

Content Contact: 

Nancy Borkow 

(202) 502-7311 

Nancy.Borkow@ed.gov 
iii

FOREWORD

This report is a product of the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC). It was

undertaken as part of NPEC’s ongoing efforts to explore various dimensions of access to postsecondary

education.

A working group was brought together to provide guidance to a project that would examine the

relationship between technology and access to postsecondary education. The resulting study identified

four basic themes: technology and access to postsecondary education in general; access to technologybased learning; preparation for using technology; and the effectiveness of technology in learning. The

study reviewed the more recent literature concerning each of these themes and, where possible, carried

out some original analyses of available NCES and other data to provide additional insight into some of

the themes. This study also identified areas where there were insufficient data and information to

address important issues within these themes. It concludes with some recommendations for additional

data collection through NCES surveys. 

This report was reviewed and accepted by the NPEC Executive Committee as meeting NPEC’s standards 

and policies. We hope users of this document will find it informative and useful as they consider the role 

of technology in the availability and delivery of postsecondary education.

Brenda Albright Roslyn Korb

Executive Director Program Director

National Postsecondary Education Cooperative Postsecondary Cooperative Systems,

 Analysis, and Dissemination, NCES
iv
v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC) would like to take this opportunity to thank

the members of the Working Group for contributing their time, enthusiasm, insights, and expertise to this 

project and this report. We would also like to thank all those individuals who reviewed this report. They 

included Brenda Albright, Executive Director of NPEC and members of the NPEC Executive Committee; 

Roz Korb, Nancy Borkow, and Dennis Carroll of NCES; Denise Glover and Atsushi Miyaoka of Westat; 

and the following individuals who were asked to provide an independent review of the report:

Sally M. Johnstone

Executive Director

Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications (WCET)

Boulder, CO

James R. Mingle

President

Mingle & Associates

Littleton, CO

and

Director of the Distance Learning Policy Lab

Southern Regional Education Board

Patricia Gándara

Professor

University of California, Davis

Davis, CA
vi
vii

NATIONAL POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION COOPERATIVE (NPEC)

ACCESS-TECHNOLOGY WORKING GROUP, 2002–2003

Members:

Robert Haro, Professor Emeritus 

San Francisco State University

Larkspur, CA

Ed Apodaca, Associate Vice President 

University of Houston

Houston, TX

Cheryl Blanco, Director

Policy Analysis and Research

Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education

Boulder, CO

Edward Blews, Jr., President

Association of Independent Colleges and 

Universities of Michigan

Lansing, MI

Alfredo de los Santos, Research Professor 

Hispanic Research Center

Arizona State University

Tempe, AZ

Rene Gonzalez, Director

Program Collaboratives

Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities

San Antonio, TX

Donald Kraft, Professor 

Department of Computer Science

Louisiana State University

Baton Rouge, LA

Cheryl Lovell, Associate Professor and Assistant Dean

Higher Education and Adult Studies

University of Denver

Denver, CO

Andrew Malizio, Program Director

Assessment Development and Quality Assurance

National Center for Education Statistics

Washington, DC

Hyon Shin, Demographic Statistician

U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC

Sharon Thomas-Parrott, Vice President

External Relations and Regulatory Assurance 

DeVry University

Oakbrook Terrace, IL

John Villamil-Casanova, Executive Vice President and 

CIO

ASPIRA Association

Washington, DC

Consultant to the Working Group:

Ronald A. Phipps, Project Consultant and Senior 

Associate

Institute for Higher Education Policy

Washington, DC

NPEC Staff:

Brenda Albright, NPEC Executive Director 

Education Statistics Services Institute

Washington, DC

Nancy Borkow, NPEC Project Officer 

National Center for Education Statistics

Washington, DC

Denise Glover, Senior Research Analyst

Westat (NPEC Contractor)

Rockville, MD

Rosyln Korb, Program Director

Postsecondary Cooperative Systems

Analysis and Dissemination Program

National Center for Education Statistics

Washington, DC

Alison Leff, Research Assistant

Education Statistics Services Institute

Washington, DC

Hans L’Orange, Director

SHEEO/NCES Network 

State Higher Education Executive Officers

Denver, CO 
viii
ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Because knowledge-based economies, like that of the United States, require increasing levels of

education and training, augmenting access to postsecondary education is an issue of significant

importance to the nation. Technology, particularly the Internet, has broadened opportunities for students 

to participate in postsecondary education considerably. Thousands of online courses are now available,

and an increasing number of on-campus courses possess a technology component. Many colleges and

universities are finding the Internet to be an effective tool for use with their admissions programs. In

addition, education and training through the Internet is becoming big business worldwide.

These developments raise an important policy question. Does technology expand or serve as a barrier to 

access to postsecondary education, particularly to underrepresented groups? Put another way, has the

advent of technology in colleges and universities and other emerging postsecondary education providers

helped or hindered the ability of certain classes of people—such as racial/ethnic minority and lowincome groups—from enjoying the benefits of education beyond high school? 

These questions are becoming increasingly important—which prompted the National Postsecondary

Education Cooperative (NPEC) to attempt to answer them. Thus, NPEC identified the relationship of

access to postsecondary education and the role of technology as an important strategic area for study. 

This report provides commentary on a literature review of some 120 materials published since 1990 that 

addressed access to postsecondary education and the role of technology. In addition to the literature

review, new analyses of national data were conducted to expand and further inform the knowledge base. 

Finally, the author offers recommendations for further actions, including revisions to current national

surveys. 

To provide a coherent framework for discussing this topic, four basic themes were identified: (1) access 

to postsecondary education in general; (2) access to technology-based learning; (3) preparation for using 

technology, and (4) effectiveness of technology in the learning. The following are the major highlights

within each theme.

Theme I: Access to Postsecondary Education in General

This theme addresses the degree to which technology has facilitated the opportunity for students to enroll 

in postsecondary education. 

• Technology has expanded the ability of students to participate in postsecondary education

(Waits and Lewis 2003). About 127,400 distance education courses were offered in 2001–02, 

and there were about 3.1 million enrollments in distance education. Over one-half of all

postsecondary education institutions offered distance education, and another 12 percent

planned to offer distance education in the next 3 years. 

• Colleges and universities are taking advantage of the Internet to enhance the admissions

process and give potential students the opportunity to apply online (Green 1999). 

• Technology is opening up new markets of potential students without significantly diminishing

the number of students who would enroll in traditional colleges and universities (Jewett 1997a, 

b, c).
x

• Some have suggested that the federal student financial aid system is a barrier to the ability of

technology to enhance access to postsecondary education. The U.S. House of Representatives 

passed a bill to limit regulations that inhibit students from participating in distance education

(Carnevale 2001). The bill would, for some institutions, effectively eliminate the 50-percent 

rule, which restricts access to aid by institutions that enroll more than half their students or

offer more than half their courses in distance education. It would also change the 12-hour rule, 

which requires certain institutions to offer a minimum of 12 hours of course work a week to be 

eligible for federal financial aid. The bill stalled in the Senate. However, since the 12-hour 

rule is a federal regulation and not a statute, the U.S. Department of Education issued a final

regulation that eliminated this financial-aid restriction and replaced it with a regulation that

institutions must offer at least 1 day of instruction a week to qualify for aid. The Department 

also urged the Congress to revise or eliminate the 50-percent rule (Carnevale 2003). 

Theme II: Access to Technology-Based Learning

This theme addresses the extent to which postsecondary education students have access to technologybased learning. The term “digital divide,” which refers to the perceived gap between those who have

access to the latest technologies and those who do not, is a useful framework for this discussion. Digital 

divide can pertain to households and individuals or institutions.

• The evidence regarding whether there is a digital divide for households and individuals is

somewhat mixed (National Telecommunications and Information Administration 2000). 

Recent data suggest that the overall level of a digital divide in the United States is rapidly

decreasing. The rate of growth of Internet use is currently 2 million new Internet users per

month, more than half the nation is online, and about two-thirds of the population use

computers. Despite these encouraging data, the digital divide still remains, or has expanded

slightly for some groups, particularly Blacks and Hispanics. Individuals 50 years and older are 

among the least likely to use the Internet, and two-parent households are nearly twice as likely 

to have Internet access as single-parent households. Also, people with a disability are only

half as likely to have access to the Internet as those without a disability.

• Several analysts question whether or not there is an individual or household digital divide

(Fattah 2000). The real divide, some say, is not about access but relevance. Low literacy

levels are a major hindrance; the more mundane tasks of using a mouse and working on a

keyboard are problems as well. The dearth of germane information, literacy barriers, and

limited diversity of content are significant barriers to getting lower income users online.

• Many industry watchers have argued that a “post-PC” era, characterized by numerous

computing and communication alternatives, is coming. One analyst predicted that in less than 

10 years since the Internet became generally available to households, more than two-thirds of

all families may be connected to the Internet at home. By contrast, 75 years elapsed between

the invention of the telephone and its spread to two-thirds of American homes (Crandall 2001). 

• Focusing upon the institutional digital divide, an institution’s control and enrollment are

closely associated with its tendency to offer distance learning. In general, public institutions

are more likely to offer distance learning than private institutions, and larger institutions are

more likely than smaller institutions to do so (Educause 2000). 
xi

• At minority-serving and other institutions, there is no difference in the proportion of faculty

engaged in teaching distance education classes. Nevertheless, faculty in Black-serving 

institutions are less likely than faculty in all other institutions to look favorably upon the

quality of their personal computers and local networks, their centralized computer facilities, 

and the availability of Internet connections. 

• There were no significant differences in the percentage of faculty teaching distance education

with respect to employment status (full time or part time), race/ethnicity, or gender. However, 

the percentage of faculty teaching distance education courses was higher in the program area

of business compared to the fine arts, humanities, and natural sciences.

• Eight percent of undergraduates and 10 percent of graduate and first-professional students

enrolled in distance education courses in 1999–2000. Both undergraduate and graduate/firstprofessional distance education students tended to be those with family responsibilities and

limited time, and to be enrolled part time and working full time. For both undergraduate and

graduate/first-professional students, the Internet was the most popular delivery method (Sikora 

2002).

Theme III: Preparation for Using Technology

This theme targets the extent to which postsecondary education students are prepared to use technology.

• Ninety-eight percent of the schools had Internet access in 2000, regardless of the poverty

concentration of the students, location, or level of the school. While 77 percent of classrooms 

were connected to the Internet, there were differences in school characteristics. About four

out of five schools with low concentrations of poverty were connected to the Internet in

classrooms, compared to 60 percent of schools with high concentrations of poverty. The ratio 

of students to instructional computers in public school had decreased to 5 to 1, the ratio that

many experts consider a reasonable level for the effective use of computers. The ratio per

computer with Internet access was 7. But, again, differences remain. Schools with the highest 

concentration of poverty had nine students per computer with Internet access, compared to six 

in schools with the lowest poverty concentration (National Center for Education Statistics

2000a). 

• In 2000, over half of public schools with access to the Internet provided computers with access 

to the Internet to students outside of regular school hours. Schools with the highest minority

enrollment provided Internet availability outside of regular school hours more frequently than

schools with the lowest minority enrollment.

• In 1999, virtually all full-time regular teachers in the nation’s public elementary and secondary 

schools had access to computers or the Internet somewhere in their schools, and over one-third 

reported that they used computers or the Internet “a lot” to create instructional materials. Two 

of the major barriers teachers identified in using technology were an insufficient number of

computers and a lack of release time to learn how to use computers and the Internet. Teachers 

in schools with high poverty concentrations were about half as likely as teachers in schools

with low poverty to use computers or the Internet a lot. Also, teachers in high poverty schools 

complain that outdated, incompatible, or unreliable computers were significant barriers to the

effective use of computers (National Center for Education Statistics 2000b).
xii

• In spite of the considerable number of computers available to teachers in elementary and

secondary schools, some analysts assert that since teachers are not trained to use technology or 

given opportunities to develop creative uses for technology, computers are merely used as

glorified typewriters. Even teachers who became serious users of computers did not change

their classroom practices (Cuban 2001). 

• In 2000, about two-thirds of all children ages 3 to 17 lived in a household with a computer, and 

about one-third of all children used the Internet at home. There were, however, differences

with regard to race. About two-thirds of White, non-Hispanic and Asian and Pacific Islander 

children lived in households with computers, compared to 43 percent of Black children and

37 percent of Hispanic children. Also, over one-third of White, non-Hispanic and Asian and

Pacific Islander children used the Internet at home, while only 15 percent of Black and

13 percent of Hispanic children did so. Finally, White, non-Hispanic and Asian/Pacific

Islander high school students with a computer in the household were more likely than Black

students to complete school assignments online (Newburger 2001).

• Most 4-year college freshmen are computer literate. Almost four out of five freshmen reported 

using a personal computer frequently during the year prior to entering college. Family income 

appeared to be a factor in computer usage. The percentage of freshmen with higher family

incomes that used computers frequently was larger than freshmen with lower family incomes

(Sax et al. 2000).

Theme IV: Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process

This fourth theme looks at the effectiveness of technology in the learning process, with particular

attention to distance learning.

• The literature on this subject contains a plethora of references that conclude that technologymediated distance learning compares favorably with on-campus classroom instruction. 

However, an analysis of the literature on the effectiveness of technology-mediated distance

learning reveals that many of the documents are how-to articles, advocacy pieces, and secondhand reports. Original research is in short supply, and those limited studies suffer from poor

methodology (Phipps and Merisotis 1999).

• There are also important gaps in the research on technology-mediated distance learning,

including the dearth of studies dedicated to measuring the effectiveness of total academic

programs, an explanation of why the dropout rates of distance learners are so high, and the

inadequacy of the effort to address effectiveness of “digital libraries.”

• Internet-based distance education appears to be evolving its own pedagogy with the

introduction of more audio and video and broadband access. Online courses have

characteristics that are unique to the technology, which allows the exploration of new and

richer pedagogical models. Experimental studies comparing distance education courses with

campus-based courses are based upon the premise that campus-based courses are the “gold

standard,” which is open to question. Therefore, it may be advisable to abandon these studies, 

not only because of their inherent methodological problems, but because more productive

research can be conducted by addressing how students learn and focusing on outcomes

assessment.
xiii

• Several organizations have developed standards and guidelines to ensure quality distance

education. The study Quality on the Line: Benchmarks for Success in Internet-Based Distance 

Education reviewed these guidelines and identified 24 benchmarks considered mandatory for

quality distance education. The benchmarks covered areas such as course development,

evaluation and assessment, faculty support, and institutional support (Phipps and Merisotis

2000). 

• The American Federation of Teachers issued a report critical of distance education and alleged 

that much of distance education is built on corporate ideas about consumer focus, product

standardization, tight personnel control, and cost-effectiveness, which are not consistent with

the traditional model of postsecondary education decisionmaking (Kriger 2001).

• A large-scale national study of student participation in distance education addressed student

satisfaction of distance education classes (Sikora 2002). When asked how satisfied they were 

with their distance education classes compared to their regular classes, a majority of both

undergraduate and graduate students were at least as satisfied or more satisfied with the

quality of teaching in their distance education classes compared with their regular classes. 

Additional Actions

NPEC identified three areas of interest for additional analysis and review: postsecondary education

digital divide—the perceived gap between institutions that have access to the latest technologies and

those institutions that do not; preparation for using technology—the degree of exposure to technology

that students have prior to participating in postsecondary education; and the quality of distance

education, which pertains to the effectiveness of technology in the learning process.

In addition to new analysis, suggestions are offered for adding new questions to national surveys. A new 

question is suggested for the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty related to student outcomes

assessment for distance education courses. A new question is suggested for the Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System: Fall Enrollment Survey to monitor the number of student credit hours awarded 

for distance education courses. Finally, because of the importance of measuring the effectiveness of

technology-mediated distance learning, a case study of leading distance learning institutions is suggested 

to address value-added outcomes assessment.

Concluding Remarks

Although this report contributes to the ongoing dialogue regarding the relationship between technology

and access to postsecondary education, information becomes old news very quickly because of the

dramatic pace of technology growth. Good public policy requires valid and reliable current data. Thus, 

these data need to be updated at regular intervals. The issues are like quicksilver, and the environment in 

which they exist keeps shifting. Monitoring these phenomena requires continual vigilance through

periodic data collection and informed analysis.
xiv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

FOREWORD.................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................ v

NATIONAL POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION COOPERATIVE (NPEC)

ACCESS-TECHNOLOGY WORKING GROUP, 2002–2003........................ vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.............................................................................. ix

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1

1 WHAT DOES THE LITERATURE SAY? ..................................................... 3

Theme I: Access to Postsecondary Education in General............................... 3

Theme II: Access to Technology-Based Learning ......................................... 7

Theme III: Preparation for Using Technology in Postsecondary 

Education............................................................................................. 13

Theme IV: Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process.................. 16

2 ADDITIONAL ANALYSES, REVISIONS TO NATIONAL SURVEYS,

AND ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN ................................................................ 21

Postsecondary Education Digital Divide ......................................................... 21

Preparation for Using Technology ................................................................... 29

Revisions to National Surveys ......................................................................... 31

Effectiveness of Distance Education................................................................ 33

3 WHAT DO WE KNOW?................................................................................. 35

Theme I: Access to Postsecondary Education in General............................... 35

Theme II: Access to Technology-Based Learning .......................................... 35

Theme III: Preparation for Using Technology ................................................ 36

Theme IV: Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process.................. 38

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 41
xvi

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

LIST OF APPENDIXES

Appendix

A Definitions of Distance Education and Distance Learning.............................. A-1

B Definition of Technology Infrastructure for Postsecondary Education 

Institutions........................................................................................................ B-1

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary 

institutions offering distance learning, by enrollment, and institutional level and 

control: Fall 2001 ........................................................................................................ 23

2 Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary 

institutions offering distance learning, by institutional level and type of 

underrepresented minority-serving institution: Fall 2001 .......................................... 25

3 Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary 

institutions offering distance learning, by size of enrollment, institutional level, 

and type of underrepresented minority-serving institution: Fall 2001 ....................... 26

4 Number and percentage distribution of all faculty and staff teaching various types 

of distance education classes, by type of underrepresented minority-serving 

institution and all other institutions: Fall 1998 ........................................................... 27

5 Number and percent of all faculty and staff teaching various types of distance 

education classes, by employment status, race/ethnicity, gender, and program 

area: Fall 1998 ............................................................................................................ 28

6 Number and percentage distribution of all faculty and staffs’ ratings of computing 

resources, by type of underrepresented minority-serving institution, and all other 

institutions: Fall 1998 ................................................................................................. 29

7 Of high school students who had a computer in the household, number and 

percentage who said they completed school assignments online, 

by race /ethnicity.......................................................................................................... 30

8 Percentage of freshmen from selected 4-year institutions responding about the 

degree to which they used computers, by race/ethnicity and family income ............. 31
1

INTRODUCTION

The value of a college education, both to the individual and society in general, is evident. The earnings

gap of Americans based on educational attainment is widening. For instance, from 1978 to 1998,

inflation-adjusted annual earnings for persons with only a high school education actually declined by

4 percent, in contrast to those for persons with bachelor’s degrees, whose earnings increased by 15

percent (U.S. Bureau of Census 1999). Also, those with associate’s and bachelor’s degrees earn 29

percent and 73 percent more, respectively, than high school graduates over the course of their lifetimes. 

Increased educational attainment also accrues benefits to society, including greater productivity,

increased charitable giving and community service, enhanced quality of civic life, and decreased reliance 

on government financial support (Institute for Higher Education Policy 1998).

Because knowledge-based economies require increasing levels of education and training, augmenting

access to postsecondary education is an issue of significant importance to the nation. In the United

States, estimates of the proportion of future jobs requiring postsecondary education range from 70 to 90 

percent (Gladieux and Swail 1999). Even though U.S. enrollments in postsecondary education are at

record levels, virtually every state recognizes the need to expand access and increase enrollment in

education and training programs after high school. 

Compounding the issue of access is the role of technology. Particularly since 1990, when the World

Wide Web was developed, the opportunities for students to participate in postsecondary education have

increased considerably. Thousands of online courses are now available, and an increasing number of oncampus courses possess a technology component. Many colleges and universities are finding the Internet 

to be an effective tool for use with their admissions programs. In addition, education and training

through the Internet is becoming big business worldwide (Waits and Lewis 2003; Green 1999). 

These developments raise important public policy questions. Does technology expand or serve as a

barrier to access to postsecondary education, particularly to underrepresented groups? Put another way,

has the advent of technology in our colleges and universities and other emerging postsecondary education 

providers helped or hindered the ability of certain classes of people—such as underrepresented racial/

ethnic and low-income groups—from enjoying the benefits of education beyond high school? This

public policy issue engenders other corollary questions. To what extent do postsecondary education

students have access to technology-based learning, including access to faculty, information, and other

learning experiences? Does availability of computing resources or technology in secondary school affect 

access to postsecondary education? Indeed, how effective is technology in the learning process? 

Because of the ever-increasing pervasiveness of technology within the postsecondary education

community, and indeed all of education, these questions are becoming increasingly important. Thus, the 

National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC) identified the relationship of access to

postsecondary education and the role of technology as an important strategic area for study. This report

addresses this relationship by exploring the questions noted above.

Chapter 1 provides a commentary of a literature review that targeted sources published since 1990. Over 

120 materials were examined. To further inform these issues, chapter 2 provides additional analyses of

national data that have not been previously published and offers recommendations for revisions to

national surveys and other actions to be taken. Finally, chapter 3 reviews and synthesizes the data from

the previous chapters and presents some conclusions. 
2
3

1. WHAT DOES THE LITERATURE SAY? 

This chapter summarizes the literature on the relationship of access to postsecondary education and the

role of technology, especially that published since 1990. Materials reviewed included journal articles,

reports published by independent research organizations, testimony before government committees,

books and book chapters, postsecondary education association reports, federal government studies and

reports, dissertations, papers presented at association meetings, and monographs.

Four themes were developed to frame the topic: (1) access to postsecondary education in general;

(2) access to technology-based learning; (3) preparation for using technology; and (4) effectiveness of

technology in the learning process. Addressing each of these themes, interrelated in several respects,

provides an extensive overview of technology and access to postsecondary education.

Theme I: Access to Postsecondary Education in General

This theme encompasses the degree to which technology has facilitated the opportunity for students to

enroll in colleges and universities. What difference has technology made with regard to the ability of

colleges to reach new or expanded constituencies? Also, are there any barriers that inhibit the ability of

students to use technology when pursuing postsecondary education and training?

Distance Education Learners

To understand the breadth of the intended audience for technology-mediated distance learning,1 the

American Council on Education, in cooperation with Educause, has identified a sample set of learner

segments (Oblinger, Barone, and Hawkins 2001). Corporate learners work for corporations and are

seeking education to maintain or upgrade their skills. The purchasing decision is made by the employing 

corporation and not by the individual acting alone. Professional enhancement learners are seeking to

advance their careers or shift careers. They are working adults who make the educational purchasing

decision on their own. Degree-completion adult learners are working to complete a degree at an older

age. They frequently are working adults who must balance work and family needs with their educational 

goals. College experience learners are preparing for life (the traditional student). This segment includes 

many of the 18- to 24-year-old residential college students for whom the coming of age process is almost 

as important as academic achievement.

Other sets of learners include pre-college (K-12) learners who are interested in doing postsecondarylevel work prior to the completion of high school. This segment may be interested in getting a jump-start 

on college. Remediation and test preparation learners are focused on learning as a prerequisite to an

examination or enrollment in another program. Finally, recreational learners are interested in education 

for its own sake. They enjoy learning and view additional education as a hobby or as a source of

personal enjoyment.

 

1 Technology-mediated distance learning involves activities where the learners are at a distance from the originator of the teaching material, and 

a combination of media that may be used includes television, videotapes, videoconferencing, audioconferencing, e-mail, Internet, telephone,

fax, and computer software.
4

Institutions Participating in Distance Education and Using Technology

This array of potential students has not been lost on the colleges and universities in the United States. It 

seems that new programs and courses are developed virtually every day. The second edition of

Peterson’s Guide to Distance Learning Programs, published in 1998, includes programs from some 700 

accredited North American institutions, in contrast to the first edition, published in 1994, when there

were less than 100 such institutions (Peterson’s 1998). Any hard cover publication listing distance

education programs is outdated as soon as it hits the bookstores. Peterson’s website,

http://www.lifelonglearning.com, provides more updated information and shows that close to 3,600

academic programs were available at the start of 2003.

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) surveyed a sample of 2-year and 4-year Title IV

degree-granting institutions and collected information for the 1997–98 academic year (Lewis, Snow, and 

Farris 1999) and for the 2000–2001 academic year (Waits and Lewis 2003). The following summary of 

the findings suggests that distance education is becoming an increasingly visible feature of the landscape 

of postsecondary education. 

• During 2000–2001, 56 percent of all postsecondary education institutions offered distance

education. The percentage of public 2-year institutions that offered distance education was 90, 

and the percentage for private 2-year institutions was 16. Eighty-nine percent of public 4-year 

institutions offered distance education, as did 40 percent of private 4-year institutions. Larger 

institutions tended to offer distance education more frequently than smaller institutions; 95

percent of institutions enrolling more than 10,000 students provided distance learning

compared to 41 percent of institutions with fewer than 3,000 students. 

• Another 12 percent of the institutions planned to offer distance education in the next 3 years,

while 31 percent did not offer and did not plan to offer distance education courses in the next 3 

years.

• It was estimated that 127,400 different distance education courses were offered in 2000–2001.2

Of these, 118,000 were college-level, for-credit courses, mostly (76 percent) at the

undergraduate level (89,600). Public 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities accounted for 

78 percent of the total distance education course offerings and 78 percent of the college level, 

for-credit courses.

• The earlier NCES study (Lewis, Snow, and Farris 1999) indicated that 8 percent of all

postsecondary institutions offered a college-degree or certificate program that could be earned 

entirely through distance education. Degree programs were most prevalent at public 4-year 

institutions, where 30 percent offered degrees through distance education. Eight percent of

public 2-year institutions offered complete distance education programs, while 6 percent of

private 4-year institutions did so. Among the institutions offering distance education courses,

one-fourth offered a degree or certificate that could be completed entirely through distance

education.

 

2

 Course offering data are unduplicated.
5

• In the 2000–2001 academic year, there were approximately 3.1 million enrollments in distance 

education courses.3 Out of these, an estimated 2.8 million (93 percent) were in college-level, 

credit-granting courses. Public 2-year institutions showed the largest enrollments—1.4 

million. Public 4-year colleges and universities were close behind, with 888,000. Enrollments 

in private 4-year institutions were 480,000. 

• In examining the various technologies used in distance education, Waits and Lewis (2003)

reported that 90 percent of postsecondary education institutions made use of asynchronous

Internet instruction, which was the most widespread media for course delivery. Forty-three 

percent of institutions offered synchronous instruction over the Internet. Fifty-one percent of

institutions used two-way interactive video, and 41 percent used one-way prerecorded video.

The Internet is also influencing college admissions operations. In response to a December 2000 survey to 

the members of National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC), 100 percent of the

responding institutions used their institutional web site to present general and college admission

information to prospective students. Ninety-five percent of the responding institutions used the Internet’s 

electronic mail capability to respond to student inquiries. Eighty-six percent of the institutions reported

the use of their web site to permit students to download, complete, and mail the admission application to 

the institution, while 75 percent reported that they allow students to complete their application online and 

transmit it electronically4 (Burtnett 2001).

A far more comprehensive survey of 1,392 colleges and universities supports these data (Green 1999).

The survey researchers found that more institutions were providing more services via their campus web

sites. In 1999, more that two-thirds (70.2 percent) of the 530 responding institutions offered online

undergraduate applications, up from 55.4 percent in 1998. Three-fourths (76.9 percent) made the

complete course catalog available on the campus web site (up from 65.2 percent the year before), while

almost one-third (30.0 percent) offered online course registration, compared to 20.9 percent in 1998.

In General, Does Technology Increase Participation in Postsecondary Education?

Policymakers have asked if the availability of technology-mediated distance learning has increased

participation in postsecondary education. In a series of case studies to evaluate the benefits and costs of 

distance education, evidence suggests that distance learning efforts can increase the number of people

enrolling in postsecondary education (Jewett 1997a,b,c). For instance, at Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute, 75 percent of the respondents indicated that that they would not have been able to participate in 

a course if it had not been delivered to their workplace. In a cooperative program between SUNY

Brockport and the SUNY campuses in Western New York State, course sharing among campuses was

found to maintain degree programs and provide adequate course offerings in a significant way, even

where campus departments were relatively small. Also, a study of a collaborative distance education

program effort between Old Dominion University and community colleges in Virginia estimated that

participation of Virginia residents in 4-year public postsecondary education increased by over 4,000

individuals (a 3.3 percent increase in the participation rate).

 

3

 Enrollments included duplicated counts of students. Institutions were instructed to count the student for each course in which he or she was

enrolled.

4 The reader should be cautioned that only 122 out of 966 (13 percent) recipients completed and returned the survey.
6

It appears, then, that the introduction of technology can increase participation in postsecondary

education. Later in this report, a more detailed analysis is provided to examine the extent to which there 

may be differences in participation rates of certain classes of people.

Financial Aid for Distance Education

The ability of technology-mediated distance learning to reach new constituencies notwithstanding, it has 

been suggested by some that the current structure of financial aid programs in the United States is a

barrier to the ability of students to participate in distance education. Title IV of the Higher Education

Act, which authorizes the majority of federal student aid programs, restricts access to federal student aid 

programs by institutions that enroll more than half their students or offer more than half their courses in

distance education (commonly called the 50-percent rule). The federal regulations also stipulate an

academic year of at least 30 weeks for students to be eligible for the maximum amount of federal grants

and loans, and prohibit aid to distance education students for computers or living expenses. 

The U.S. Congress, recognizing the importance of financial aid in determining access to postsecondary

education, mandated that the U.S. Department of Education create a pilot project that waives these

regulations for some institutions and students. In July 1999 the department selected the first 15

institutions to participate in the project (Heller 2001). Ten more institutions have been added since then.

Responding to the Department’s pilot project, a group of colleges and universities in Colorado convened 

a roundtable to discuss key issues on financial aid for distance education students. The discussion

resulted in the development of the following six principles for future policy development (Institute for

Higher Education Policy 1998).

• Student aid should be available without regard to mode of instructional delivery.

• Delivery of student aid should be learner-centered, with aid following the student through the

academic program.

• Aid should be awarded only to those in accredited programs of study that confer a recognized 

credential, such as a degree or certificate.

• The awarding of student aid should be tied primarily to standards of academic progress and not 

arbitrary measures of time.

• Regulations should give institutions flexibility in determining how to calculate eligibility for

aid to pay for direct (tuition) and indirect (living expenses) cost of attendance.

• Aid amounts and limits should be focused more on lifetime standards than on annual or

institutional maximums.

In October 2001, the U.S. House of Representatives overwhelmingly passed a bill to curtail regulations

that inhibit students from participating in distance education (Carnevale 2001). The bill, H.R. 1992,

would, for some institutions, effectively eliminate the 50-percent rule and change the 12-hour rule. The 

latter requires postsecondary education programs that do not operate in a standard semester, trimester, or 

quarter system to offer a minimum of 12 hours of course work a week to be eligible for federal financial 

aid. In place of the 12-hour rule, students would have to spend at least 1 day a week interacting with
7

their professors, either face to face or at a distance. If the bill were to pass the Senate and be signed by

the President, any institution that is currently providing federal financial aid could ignore the 50-percent 

rule, provided that its loan default rate has been below 10 percent during the previous 3 years.

While many distance education administrators praise the bill, some faculty groups have criticized the

measure, saying that the regulations ensure quality in education and that if the rules are rescinded,

students could be defrauded by illegitimate operations. Since the 12-hour rule is a federal regulation, and 

not a statute, the U.S. Department of Education issued a final regulation in the November 1, 2002,

Federal Register that eliminated this financial-aid restriction and replaced it with a regulation that

institutions must offer at least 1 day of instruction a week to qualify for aid. Also, the Department, in a 

recent report, urged the Congress to eliminate or revise the 50 percent rule during its deliberations

regarding the renewal of the Higher Education Act (Carnevale 2003). This bill was referred to the

Subcommittee on 21st Century Competitiveness on June 20, 2003, where it currently resides.

Theme II: Access to Technology-Based Learning

This theme focuses on the extent to which postsecondary students have access to technology-based 

learning. In particular, how has technology expanded access to faculty, information, and other learning

experiences? Moreover, does access vary by characteristics such as race/ethnicity, age, gender, and

income?

The term “digital divide” can be a useful framework for this discussion. Digital divide refers to the

perceived gap between those who have access to the latest technologies and those who do not. 

Underlying this concept is the notion that since this is the Information Age, those not having access to

information through the latest technologies are considered to be disadvantaged. The concept of digital

divide achieved mass media attention when it became part of the title of the second National

Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) survey in 1998 (Compaine 2001). Today

the term has become part of the vernacular regarding technology “haves” and “have-nots” and 

postsecondary education.

There are several dimensions to the digital divide. Without becoming overly complex, it is helpful to

separate the concept into two basic categories: (1) household and individual digital divide—which refers 

to people; and (2) institutional digital divide—which refers to colleges and universities. 

Household and/or Individual Digital Divide

Throughout this section, household and individual digital divide are defined by the degree of access to

(1) a computer, and (2) an Internet connection. After exploring basic information regarding households

with computer and Internet access, this section provides more detailed analyses regarding various

individual demographic characteristics.

Overall Digital Inclusion. The most recent and comprehensive data on this issue when this review was 

written came from the latest of a series of reports by NTIA. A Nation Online: How Americans are

Expanding Their Use of the Internet provides comprehensive information on Americans’ connectivity to 

the Internet, broadband services, and computers (National Telecommunications and Information

Administration 2002). Using data from September 2001, the report shows that use of the Internet and

computers had grown substantially over the last few years. Some of the major findings are as follows.
8

• The rate of growth of Internet use in the United States was then 2 million new Internet users

per month.

• More than half of the nation was online. In September 2001, 143 million Americans (about

54 percent of the population) were using the Internet—an increase of 26 million in 13 months. 

In September 2001, 174 million people (or 66 percent of the population) in the United States

used computers.

• Children and teenagers use computers and the Internet more than any other age group, with

90 percent of children between the ages of 5 and 17 (or 48 million) using computers in 2001.

• Computers at schools substantially narrow the gap in computer usage rates for children from

high- and low-income families.

• Between August 2000 and September 2001, residential use of high-speed, broadband service

doubled—from about 5 to 11 percent of all individuals, and from 11 to 20 percent of Internet

users.

The rapid adoption of the Internet is occurring among most groups of Americans, regardless of location, 

income, education, race/ethnicity, age, or gender, according to another recent report by the NTIA (2000). 

Indeed, this report suggested that groups that have traditionally been digital have-nots were making

dramatic gains. Some of the findings from the report include the following:

• Location. The gap between the percentage of households in rural areas and the percentage of

households nationwide that access the Internet had narrowed from 4 percentage points in 1998 

to 2.6 percentage points in 2000. Rural households moved closer to the nationwide Internet

penetration rate of 41.5 percent. In rural areas, 38.9 percent of the households had Internet

access, a 75 percent increase from 22.2 percent in December 1998.

• Income. Americans at every income level were connecting to the Internet at far higher rates

from their homes, particularly for the middle-income levels. Internet access among households 

earning $35,000 to $49,000 rose from 29 percent of households in December 1998 to 46.1

percent in August 2000. More than two-thirds of all households earning more than $50,000

had Internet connections. 

• Education. Internet connectivity was expanding across every education level, particularly for

those with some high school or college education. Households headed by someone with

“some college experience” showed the greatest expansion in Internet penetration, rising from

30.2 percent in December 1998 to 49 percent in 2000.

• Gender. The disparity in Internet usage between men and women had largely vanished. In

December 1998, 34.2 percent of men and 31.4 percent of women were using the Internet. By

August 2000, 44.6 percent of men and 44.2 percent of women were Internet users.

• Age. Individuals 50 years of age and older—while still less likely than younger Americans to 

use the Internet—experienced the highest rates of growth in Internet usage of all age groups: a 

53-percent growth rate from December 1998 to August 2000, compared to a 36-percent growth 

rate for individual Internet usage nationwide.
9

• Race. While Black and Hispanic households still lagged behind others, they showed

significant gains in Internet access. The percentage of Black households having home access

rose from 11.2 percent in December 1998 to 23.5 percent in August 2000. Hispanic

households also experienced an impressive growth rate in Internet access during the same

period, rising from 12.6 percent to 23.6 percent.

Digital Divides Still Exist. In spite of these changes, the digital divide still remains or has expanded

slightly in some cases, even while Internet access rates and computer ownership rates are rising rapidly

for almost all groups. The data for August 2000 from the NTIA study show that divides still existed

between different racial and ethnic groups, old and young, single- and dual-parent families, and those

with and without disabilities (NTIA 2000). 

• Race and ethnicity. Asians and Pacific Islanders had the highest level of home Internet access 

at 56.8 percent; Blacks and Hispanics, at the other end of the spectrum, had the lowest

household Internet penetration rates at 23.5 percent and 23.6 percent respectively. When

measured against the national average, household Internet access among Blacks and Hispanics 

did not compare favorably with those of other racial/ethnic groups. The difference between

Internet access rates for Black households and the national average rate was 18 percentage

points in August 2000 (a 23.5-percent penetration rate for Black households, compared to 41.5 

percent for households nationally). This gap was wider than the gap that existed in 1998. The 

difference between the percentage of Hispanic households with Internet access and the

national average rate was virtually the same as for Black households, and the gap in 2000 was 

wider than in December 1998. With respect to individuals, while about a third of the U.S.

population used the Internet at home, only 16.1 percent of Hispanics and 18.9 percent of

Blacks did so.

• With regard to computer ownership, the divide seems to have stabilized, although it remains

large. The divide between the percentage of Black households with a computer and the

national average in August 2000 was 18 percentage points (a 32.6-percent penetration rate for 

Black households, compared to 51 percent for households nationally), about the same as the

gap that existed in December 1998. Similarly, the 17 percentage point difference between the 

share of Hispanic households with a computer (33.7 percent) and the national average

(51 percent) did not change between December 1998 and August 2000.

• Age. Individuals 50 years of age and older were among the least likely to be Internet users. 

The Internet use rate for this group was only 29.6 percent in 2000. It is interesting to note that 

individuals in this age group were almost three times more likely to be Internet users if they

were in the labor force than if they were not.

• Two-parent and single-parent households. Two-parent households were nearly twice as 

likely to have Internet access as single-parent households (60.6 percent for dual parent,

compared to 35.7 percent for male heads of households and 30 percent for female heads of

households). 

• Disability. People with a disability were only half as likely to have access to the Internet as

those without a disability: 21.6 percent compared to 42.1 percent. While fewer than 25

percent of people without a disability had never used a personal computer, close to 60 percent 

of people with a disability were in that category. Among people with a disability, those who
10

have impaired vision and problems with manual dexterity had even lower rates of Internet

access and were less likely to use a computer regularly than people with hearing difficulties.

Massaging the Numbers. In a study conducted in December 1999 based on data from a panel of 

households recruited as a random telephone sample of the U.S. population, Nie and Edbring

explored the myth or reality of the digital divide (Compaine 2000). Among their conclusions, they 

found that 21 percent of differences in Internet access could be explained by demographic factors. 

According to the authors, by far the most important factors facilitating or inhibiting Internet access 

were education and age, not income, nor race/ethnicity or gender, each of which accounted for less 

than 5 percent of the change in rates of access and were not statistically significant. In contrast, a 

college education boosted rates of Internet access by well over 40 percentage points compared to 

the least educated group. Also, people over 65 showed a more than 40-percentage-point difference 

in rates of Internet access compared to those under 25. 

Nie and Edbring also concluded that once people are connected to the Internet, they hardly differ in how 

much they use it and what they use it for—except for a dropoff after age 65, and a faint hint of a gender 

gap. Internet use increases dramatically, both in terms of amount of time and in terms of range of

activities, the longer people have been connected to the Internet. The activities include communication

(sending and receiving e-mail), accessing information, and shopping.

Behind the Numbers. It is instructive to review some of the interpretations regarding the digital divide. 

Several analysts suggest that there is no digital divide crisis in the United States. Hassan Fattah (2000)

argued that if Americans really want a personal computer and access to the Internet, they can obtain them 

at very little cost. Technology is so cheap, if not free, that almost anyone can have access to it. Thus,

access to computers alone is an incomplete measure of the digital divide. A growing chorus of

community activists and educators are warning that the real divide is not about access but relevance. A

different message needs to be sent about technology and its usefulness in people’s daily lives. In

addition, low literacy levels are a significant hindrance. Working on a keyboard can be a major hurdle

and manipulating a mouse can be daunting for many. Further exacerbating the problem is the lack of

online content tailored to the disadvantaged. In short, the author asserted that the dearth of pertinent

information, literacy barriers, and limited diversity of content are the biggest barriers to getting lower

income users online.

Another perspective from an economist reinforces these views. Robert Crandall (2001) of the Brookings 

Institution argued that it is hardly clear that there is a digital divide that needs immediate bridging

through deliberate public policy. By examining the determinants of household PC demand in 1994, and

using the results to predict the diffusion of PCs in 1998, he found that the 1994 equation substantially

underpredicted the diffusion of PCs among poor households and among Black and Hispanic households. 

He predicted that in another 4 years, or less than 10 years since the Internet became generally available to 

households, more than two-thirds of all families would be connected to the Internet at home. By contrast, 

the author noted that 75 years elapsed between the invention of the telephone and its spread to two-thirds 

of American homes. The “analogue divide” was much more difficult to bridge than the digital divide!

A survey by the Pew Internet & American Life Project identified some interesting information regarding 

the group of people called the “Nevers,” who indicated that they definitely would not go online (Lenhart 

2000). Fully 81 percent of the Nevers were over 50 years of age, and when asked their opinion of the

Internet, they were the most unenthusiastic of those surveyed. Nevers were strong backers of the view

that the Internet is dangerous (52 percent agreed), hard to use (33 percent agreed and 42 percent said they 

don’t know), and expensive (32 percent agreed and 51 percent didn’t know).
11

In contrast, the “Eagers” were those people who were without Internet access and said they would

definitely or probably go online. This cohort is weighted some toward women, Hispanics, and Blacks. 

Compared to the Nevers, Eagers had the largest proportion of relatively high household incomes and

relatively high levels of education. Most Eagers were young. About 65 percent of those under age 30

who did not have Internet access said that they wanted to get it. Finally, many of the Eagers have had

some experience with college. More than half of those with college degrees or with some college

experience who were not online said they want to use the Internet. By comparison, just 27 percent of

those without high school diplomas said they wanted to go online.

Institutional Digital Divide

Institutional digital divide pertains to the perceived gap between institutions that have access to the latest 

technologies and those institutions that do not. Educause (2000), in its report to the President’s 

Information Technology Advisory Committee, asserted that the federal information technology

investment in postsecondary education had resulted in a network capability at the largest universities that 

far outpaced that of other 4-year degree-granting institutions. These smaller institutions faced severe

challenges in meeting the advanced networking requirements necessary to educate the 21st century

student. The report identified the following obstacles from a technological perspective:

• Lack of campus infrastructure;

• Lack of reliable middleware (security, authentication, and network management tools); and

• Lack of cooperation from telecommunication companies in providing service.

Other significant obstacles, other than technological, to advanced network deployment included the

following:

• A difficult economic environment for information technology and networking at smaller

institutions because advanced networking is often a new budgetary item;

• Lack of high-level support from campus decisionmakers;

• A return on investment that is difficult to articulate; and

• Difficulty recruiting and retaining information technology staff.

A more recent report by the Institute for Higher Education Policy reinforced the conclusions offered by

Educause by noting that there are gaps in access to technology capital among different types of

institutions (Phipps and Wellman 2001). Large, well-financed institutions simply have greater access to 

information technology funding than do smaller colleges with fewer resources. Citing U.S. Department

of Education studies, the report showed that larger institutions were more likely to offer distance

education than smaller colleges: 87 percent of institutions with more than 10,000 students offered

distance-based classes, in contrast to 19 percent of institutions with fewer than 3,000 students. 

One could argue that differences in institutional approaches to distance learning may be the result of

simple institutional choice rather than a lack of funding. Yet, research by Kenneth Green (2000)
12

revealed disparities between research universities and teaching institutions that probably reflect resource 

differences more than institutional choices. Green found that public and private research universities had 

the best ratios of information technology staff to full-time-equivalent (FTE) students; were most likely to 

offer admissions, financial aid, course registration, and library resources over the Internet; and had offcampus, dial-up Internet services for students and faculty.

A survey of mostly 4-year institutions that do not offer doctorates provided more evidence of a digital

divide (Olsen 2001). The data from the Cost of Supporting Technology Services project (COST) show

that for 2000–2001, the median spending on information technology was $1,299 for each student and

employee at the most selective and wealthiest liberal arts colleges taking part in the study. By contrast,

the less selective and less endowed undergraduate colleges showed a median spending of only $459 per

student, professor, or staff member.

The findings of a report based on a nationally representative sample from the 1999 National Study of

Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99) of instructional faculty and staff that taught one or more classes for

credit hinted at an institutional digital divide. Among the conclusions, the study found that the type of

institution was shown repeatedly to be a key factor for access to technology. “In particular, those

postsecondary instructional faculty and staff at 4-year doctoral institutions were significantly more likely 

to use e-mail and course-specific web sites than those at 4-year nondoctoral or 2-year institutions”

(Wharburton and Chen 2002).

Although dated, a survey during the 1995–96 academic year of Hispanic-serving institutions (HSIs) 

revealed that less than one-half of students had institutional access to the Internet. Moreover, a review of 

web sites at HSIs indicated that outside the computer science department, the Internet was little used as a 

teaching tool by faculty. Most professors were reluctant to embrace the Internet and its associated

technology. Finally, there was a critical need for regular training and support of faculty on the use of

technology and adapting it to enrich their curriculum (Rodriguez, Gonzalez, and Cano 1996).

Who is Participating in Distance Education?

In its research into who enrolls in distance education, the U.S. Department of Education addressed which 

postsecondary students participated in distance education in 1999–2000 and what types of technology the 

students used (Sikora 2002). Eight percent of undergraduate and 10 percent of graduate and firstprofessional students reported taking distance education courses. Among undergraduates, females were 

more likely than males to take distance education courses (9 vs. 7 percent). Students whose primary

language was English were more likely to participate in distance education than students whose primary

language was not English (8 vs. 6 percent)—although there were no differences among racial/ethnic 

groups. Also, undergraduates age 24 and over were more likely than students under 24 to participate (10 

vs. 6 percent). Married students were more likely than those who were unmarried to participate (11 vs. 7 

percent), and among independent students, those who earned $50,000 or more were more likely to take

distance education classes than those earned less than $50,000 (11 vs. 9 percent). Twenty-nine percent

of undergraduate students who took distance education courses enrolled in distance education for their

entire program.

Students at the graduate/first-professional level exhibited similar patterns of participation in distance

education as undergraduates. However, unlike undergraduates, there were no gender differences,

although there were racial/ethnic group differences. White students (11 percent) were more likely than

Hispanic (5.8 percent) and Asian (5.5 percent) students to take distance education classes, but no

differences were found between White students and either Black or American Indian students. Thirty-
13

eight percent of graduate/first-professional students who took distance education courses enrolled in

distance education for their entire program.

Focusing on distance delivery methods, a majority (60 percent) of undergraduates used the Internet,

compared to 37 percent using live, interactive TV or audio and 39 percent using prerecorded TV or

audio. Among graduate/first-professional students who took distance education courses, two-thirds (67

percent) did so via the Internet, compared to 43 percent using live TV or audio and 28 percent using

prerecorded TV or audio.

Theme III: Preparation for Using Technology in Postsecondary Education

This theme targets the extent to which postsecondary education students are prepared to use technology. 

What exposure to technology have students had prior to participating in postsecondary education? What 

are the characteristics of students who are prepared to use technology? 

Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms

A fundamental question regarding students’ preparation for using technology during their postsecondary

education experience is the degree to which they are exposed to computers and the Internet while

attending grades K-12. The National Center for Education Statistics (2000a) has been tracking these data 

since 1994, when the White House’s National Information Infrastructure (NII) initiative challenged the

nation’s schools and classrooms to connect to the Internet by the year 2000. The most recent survey

indicated that the percentage of public schools connected to the Internet had increased each year, from 35 

percent in 1994 to 98 percent in the fall of 2000. It is important to note that by 2000, all schools,

regardless of level, poverty concentration, and metropolitan status, were equally likely to have Internet

access.

Looking at classrooms within schools, in 1994, only 3 percent of U.S. public school instructional rooms

were Internet connected. By 2000, 77 percent were connected, but differences by school characteristics 

remained. Sixty percent of classrooms had Internet access in schools with high concentrations of poverty 

(75 percent or more students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches), compared to 77 to 82 percent of 

classrooms in schools with lower concentrations of poverty. A similar pattern was evident by minority

enrollment. Schools with the highest minority enrollment (50 percent or more) showed a smaller

percentage of instructional rooms with Internet access (64 percent) than schools with lower minority 

enrollment (79 to 85 percent of instructional rooms). These continuing differences notwithstanding, the

percentage of instructional rooms with Internet access increased between 1999 and 2000 in these schools: 

from 38 to 60 percent in schools with the highest concentration of poverty, and from 43 to 64 percent in 

schools with the highest minority enrollment.

Another measure of students’ access to technology is the ratio of students per computer. In 2000, the

ratio of students per instructional computer in public schools was 5, which equals the ratio many experts 

consider a reasonable level for the effective use of computers within schools. The ratio of students per

instructional computer with Internet access decreased from 9 to 7 from 1999 to 2000. Again, differences 

remain across schools with different characteristics. For instance, in 2000, schools with the highest

concentration of poverty had 9 students per instructional computer with Internet access, compared to 6

among schools with the lowest poverty.
14

Making the Internet accessible outside of regular school hours allows students who would not otherwise

have the opportunity to have access to the Internet for school-related activities like homework. In 2000, 

over half (54 percent) of public schools with access to the Internet reported that computers with access to 

the Internet were available to students outside of regular school hours. Secondary schools were more

likely to provide this service than elementary schools (80 percent compared to 46 percent). Moreover,

schools with the highest minority enrollment provided Internet availability outside of regular school

hours more frequently than schools with the lowest minority enrollment (61 percent to 46 percent).

It is important to note that equal access to technology is not the same as equal access to equal technology. 

The data do not reflect the degree to which computers are not functioning, whether software is outdated, 

and the extent to which access to the Internet is provided. In short, the preceding information should be 

read with some caution.

Teacher Use of Computers and the Internet

Computer availability is, of course, essential. However, the degree to which computers are used in the

instructional process is perhaps even more important. This issue has also been addressed by NCES

(2000b), which commissioned a survey in the spring of 1999. The survey found that 99 percent of fulltime regular public school teachers had access to computers or the Internet somewhere in their schools. 

Thirty-nine percent of the teachers with access to computers or the Internet indicated they used

computers or the Internet “a lot” to create instructional materials, while less than 10 percent reported

using computers or the Internet to access model lesson plans or to access research and best practices for 

teaching. Newer teachers were more likely to use computers or the Internet to accomplish various

teaching objectives.

Teachers’ use of computers or the Internet at school varied for some types of uses by school poverty

level. Teachers in schools with a school poverty level of less than 11 percent were more likely to use

computers or the Internet “a lot” for creating instructional materials (54 percent) than teachers in schools 

with a school poverty concentration of 71 percent or more (32 percent). Moreover, teachers in schools

with the lower minority enrollments were more likely to have the Internet available in the classroom than 

teachers in schools with the highest minority enrollments.

Two-thirds of public school teachers reported using computers or the Internet for instruction during class 

time, while 41 percent of teachers reported assigning students work that involved computer applications

such as word processing and spreadsheets to a moderate or large extent. Almost one-third (30 percent)

reported assigning research using the Internet to a moderate or large extent. Elementary school teachers

were more likely than secondary school teachers to assign students practice drills using computers (39 vs.

12 percent) and to require their students to use computers or the Internet to solve problems (31 vs. 20

percent). Secondary school teachers were more likely than elementary school teachers to assign research 

using the Internet (41 vs. 25 percent). Teachers in schools with the lowest poverty level were more likely 

to assign students work involving computer applications, research using CD-ROMs, and research using

the Internet to a moderate or large extent than teachers in the highest poverty schools.

Barriers to Teachers’ Use of Technology

Classroom and school characteristics, such as equipment, time, and technical assistance, may be barriers 

or facilitators for using technology. The following barriers were identified in a study assessing teachers’ 

use of technology (Smerdon et al. 2000).
15

• In 1999, those barriers most frequently reported by teachers to be “great” barriers to their use

of computers or the Internet for instruction were an insufficient number of computers and lack 

of release time to learn how to use computers or the Internet.

• Secondary teachers, teachers in large schools, and teachers in city schools were more likely

than elementary teachers, teachers in small schools, and teachers in rural schools to report that 

not enough computers was a great barrier. Also, teachers in schools with more than 50 percent 

minority enrollments were more likely to cite outdated, incompatible, or unreliable computers

as a great barrier than teachers in schools with less than 6 percent minority students.

• As would be expected, teachers who reported insufficient numbers of computers as a great

barrier were less likely than teachers reporting that this was not a barrier to assign students to

use computers or the Internet to a “large extent.”

Cuban (2001) argued that teachers are not trained to use new technology or given a chance to develop

creative uses for it in school. Thus, computers end up being merely souped-up typewriters. Teachers and 

students use the new technologies more at home than in the classroom and most classroom use is

unimaginative. He concluded the following:

• Abundant availability of “hard” infrastructure (wiring, machines, software) and “soft”

infrastructure (technical support, professional development) in schools in the late 1990s has

not led, as expected, to frequent or extensive teacher use of technologies for tradition-altering 

classroom instruction.

• Students and teachers use computers and other technologies more at home than at school.

• When a small percentage of teachers using computers do become serious or occasional users,

they—contrary to expectations—largely maintain existing classroom practices rather than

change customary practices.

Others tend to agree with the above analysis. An article in Education Week on the Web (2001) proposed 

that inequities involve not so much access to computers, but the way computers are used to educate

children. Although Internet access was no longer reserved just for schools in middle-class or wealthy

communities, many questions remained to be answered. “How often are students using the Internet and

other computer resources to learn, and for what purposes? Are young people using school computers that 

can handle large amounts of data and employ sophisticated communication tools or are they working

with obsolete machines that do not belong in a 21st century classroom? Other questions add to the

complexity of the issue. Do some schools have the technical support necessary to keep machines running 

while others do not? Are teachers in one district getting better training to understand how to use

technology to enhance learning, while teachers in another district are left to themselves to figure it out? 

And lastly, do all kinds of students—low achievers and high achievers, minority and white students, girls

and boys, well-to-do and poor children—benefit equally from the technology available in schools?”

Computers at Home

To what extent do children have access to computers in their home? This question has been addressed

using data collected from a Current Population Survey of the U.S. Census Bureau (Newburger 2001). 
16

Sixty-five percent of all children ages 3 to 17 lived in a household with a computer in 2000, up from 55

percent in 1998. Almost one-third (30 percent) of all children used the Internet at home, compared to

just 19 percent in 1998. Girls were as likely as boys to use the Internet at home, yet children’s Internet

use varied with age. Seven percent of the youngest children, those 3 to 5 years old, used the Internet at

home, and 48 percent of children ages 12 to 17 years used the Internet at home. 

White, non-Hispanic children were more likely to have access to a computer at home or use the Internet 

than were Black or Hispanic children. Among children ages 3 to 17 years, over three-fourths (77 

percent) of White, non-Hispanic and 72 percent of Asians and Pacific Islanders lived in households with 

computers, compared to 43 percent of Black children and 37 percent of Hispanic children. Additionally, 

38 percent of White, non-Hispanic children and 35 percent of Asian and Pacific Islander children used

the Internet at home, compared to 15 percent of Black children and 13 percent of Hispanic children.

College Freshmen

The Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) has been surveying college and university

freshmen for 35 years.5 The principal purpose of CIRP is to assess the effects of college on students (Sax 

et al. 2000). An overview of the 2000 freshman norms showed that student use of personal computers

had escalated in the years just before the survey. A record 78.5 percent of college freshmen reported

using a personal computer frequently during the year prior to entering college, up from 68.4 percent the

previous year and 27.3 percent when this question was introduced in 1985. Also, the gender gap in use

had nearly closed, with 77.8 percent of women and 79.5 percent of men indicating frequent use of

computers in 2000.

Although the gender gap appears to be closing, a new survey item found that women lagged far behind

men when asked about their computing self-confidence. Women were half as likely as men to rate their 

computer skills as “above average” or “top 10 percent” relative to people their age (23.2 vs. 46.4

percent). This gap in self-confidence might have contributed to the fact that in 2000, men were five

times more likely than women to pursue careers in computer programming. With regard to the Internet,

women were less likely than men to participate frequently in Internet chat rooms and less likely to

report frequent Internet use for “other” reasons or activities (Sax et al. 2000). 

Theme IV: Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process

This fourth theme reviews the effectiveness of technology in the learning process, with particular

attention to distance learning. Many studies have been conducted comparing the effectiveness of

traditional classroom instruction versus technology-mediated distance learning. Other research includes

case studies and descriptive studies that attempt to explain experiences of faculty and students

participating in distance education courses. What have we learned from this research? Is technologymediated distance learning effective, and, if so, how? These are the questions that frame this section.

The Institute for Higher Education Policy explored this issue by reviewing the available evidence related 

to the quality and effectiveness of distance education published since 1990, including everything from

original research to policy papers to how-to articles. The study focused upon the validity of the research 

and gaps, if any, in the research literature (Phipps and Merisotis 1999). 

 

5

 Institutions volunteer to participate in the annual CIRP survey; therefore, it is not a scientifically drawn sample (see

http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/cipr.html). 
17

The Institute found that most reports and articles about distance learning were opinion pieces, how-to 

prescriptions, and second-hand reports. Since determining the effectiveness of distance learning was the

major interest, the Institute targeted its inquiry on original research, including experimental, descriptive,

correlational, and case studies.

A major conclusion of the report was that there is a relative paucity of original research dedicated to

explaining or predicting phenomenon related to distance learning. In the limited original research that

was available, three broad measures of the effectiveness of distance learning were usually examined.

• Student outcomes, such as grades and test scores;

• Student attitudes about learning through distance education; and

• Overall student satisfaction toward distance learning.

The vast majority of studies concluded that regardless of the technology used, distance learning courses

compared favorably with traditional classroom instruction. For example, several experimental studies

suggested that distance learning students had similar grades or test scores, or had the same attitudes

toward the course as those students in campus-based courses. Case studies and descriptive analyses

focused on student and faculty attitudes and perceptions of distance learning, and typically concluded

that students and faculty had a positive view toward distance learning. In short, the published research

strongly suggested that technology-mediated distance learning is effective.

A closer look at the research, however, suggests it may be premature to accept these findings at face

value. Fundamentally, the overall quality of the research methodology is questionable, which renders the 

findings inconclusive. Assessing the quality of original research requires a determination that the studies 

adhered to commonly accepted principles of good research. These principles are essential if the results of 

the study are to be considered valid and can be generalized. If a study does not comply with these

principles, the results can be misleading or erroneous.

Some of the key shortcomings of the Institute’s research included the following:

• Most of the research did not control for extraneous variables. Most experimental studies

of distance learning are designed to measure how a specific technology (the “cause”) impacts

upon some type of learning outcome or influences student attitudes toward a course (the

“effect”). To assess this relationship accurately, other potential causes must not influence the

measured outcomes. But, in virtually all of the experimental studies, there was inadequate

control of extraneous variables. Thus, it was often impossible to rule out differences other

than the technology as the causal agents.

• Most of the studies did not use randomly selected subjects. The best way of controlling for 

extraneous variables is to assign students randomly to both the experimental and control 

groups. Most of the published studies reviewed, however, used intact groups for comparison

purposes. Thus, the studies ran the substantial risk of having a number of variables—such as

student characteristics, time on task, instructional design—affect academic achievement or

student satisfaction, not just the technology used to provide the education at a distance. 
18

• The reliability and validity of the instruments used to measure student outcomes and

attitudes were questionable. An important component of good educational research is the

proper measurement of learning outcomes and/or student outcomes. A well-conducted study

should include evidence of the validity and reliability of the measurement instruments—final 

examinations, quizzes, questionnaires, attitude scales—so that the reader can have confidence

in the results. In almost all of the studies, this information was lacking.

There were also many gaps in the research concerning technology-mediated distance learning that were

identified, including the following.

• The research targeted student outcomes for individual courses rather than for total

academic programs. Perhaps the most significant gap in the research was the dearth of

studies dedicated to measuring the effectiveness of total academic programs. This raises

serious questions about whether a total academic program delivered by technology compares

favorably with a program provided on campus. This is especially important since public

policy is typically directed toward providing access to degrees or programs of study, not just a 

single course.

• The research did not adequately explain why the dropout rates of distance learners are

high. A number of studies revealed that higher percentages of students who participated in

distance learning courses dropped out before the course was completed compared to students

in conventional classrooms. The issue of student persistence is particularly troubling because

of the negative consequences associated with dropping out and because the research often

excluded these dropouts, thereby tilting the student outcome findings toward only those that

completed the course and were, therefore, “successful.”

• The effectiveness of “digital libraries” was not adequately addressed in the research. 

Some digital libraries boast an enormous array of resources, with the implicit notion that they

can provide the same service as the traditional library. Yet, do these libraries provide the

necessary support of the academic programs? Anecdotal evidence seems to suggest that the 

curricular objectives of some distance learning courses may have been altered because of a

limited variety of books, journals, and other resources online.

The study concluded, “Technology is having, and will continue to have, a profound impact on colleges 

and universities in America and around the globe. Distance learning, which was once a poor and often

unwelcome stepchild within the academic community, is becoming increasingly more visible as a part of 

the higher education family. But the research and literature reviewed for this paper indicate that the

higher education community has a lot to learn regarding how, and in what ways, technology can enhance 

the teaching/learning process, particularly at a distance.” 

Others agreed with these conclusions. In an analysis of comparative research on distance learning

technologies at the University of Oklahoma (Smith, Dillon, and Boyce 1994), the authors asserted that

designing studies, which address each of the critical factors, may be impractical in the settings accessible 

to most researchers. They noted that when the purpose of the research is to test hypotheses (such as the

relative learning benefit of one delivery system in contrast to another), studies failing to properly address 

the threats to external and internal validity lead to unwarranted conclusions. They concluded that,

“comparison studies in distance education are indeed limited by inadequate resources of funding to

support the implementation of sufficiently controlled experimental studies.”
19

Given the conclusions from these studies, it is tempting to infer that technology-mediated distance

education may be inferior, but it would be a mistake to rush to that judgment. Some have overreacted to 

the report by suggesting that it was hostile to the distance learning movement because the research was 

found to be wanting. But, it is important to understand that the conclusions by the Institute for Higher

Education Policy were simply that the research methodology on distance education did not meet

acceptable standards, and, therefore, the vast majority of the research was inconclusive. Indeed, in other 

studies conducted by the Institute for Higher Education Policy, the dedication of the faculty teaching

distance education at the institutions was quite apparent; they showed keen insights into the

teaching/learning process, and many were considered by their peers as some of the best teachers at the

institution (Phipps and Merisotis 2000).

As noted earlier in this report, it was estimated that over 50,000 different distance education courses

were offered during the 1997–98 academic year, and over 1.5 million students enrolled in these courses. 

Undoubtedly, many more courses are being offered now. Thus, it would be difficult, and even foolish, to 

argue that these courses are not effective or are of poor quality. It could be argued that because of the

difficulty of conducting rigorous experimental studies on distance learning, it may be advisable to focus

attention on the more fundamental question on how students learn, irrespective of the delivery system. 

Moreover, Internet-based distance education appears to be evolving its own pedagogy with the

introduction of more and more audio and video and broadband access. Online courses have

characteristics that are unique to the technology—which allows the exploration of new and richer

pedagogical models. Conducting experimental studies comparing distance education courses with

campus-based courses is based upon the premise that campus-based courses are the “gold standard,”

which is open to question. Therefore, it may be advisable to abandon these studies, not only because of

their inherent methodological problems, but because more productive research can be conducted by

addressing how students learn and focusing on outcomes assessment. 

Several organizations have developed principles, guidelines, and benchmarks to ensure quality distance

education. These organizations include the American Council on Education, the National Education

Association, the Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE), the Southern Regional Electronic 

Campus, the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and

Schools, and the Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications. The principles apply to a

wide variety of institutional contexts and consist of fairly broad statements. In response to these and the 

findings of the report outlined above regarding the research on distance education, a study was conducted 

to validate these principles, with specific attention to Internet-based distance education. A case study of 

six postsecondary education institutions recognized as among the leaders in distance education was

conducted to determine those benchmarks or principles that are essential to the quality of distance

education courses (Phipps and Merisotis 2000).

The report describing that case study identified 24 benchmarks as mandatory to quality distance

education. Benchmarks that are mandatory were defined as those for which the absence of the

benchmark would detract from quality. Stated positively, the benchmark must be essential or imperative 

to ensure quality. The benchmarks were separated into the following categories: institutional support,

course development, teaching/learning, course structure, student support, faculty support, and evaluation 

and assessment. Some examples of the benchmarks are technical assistance in course development is

available to faculty, who are encouraged to use it; courses are designed to require students to engage

themselves in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as part of their course and program offerings; and

intended learning outcomes are reviewed regularly to ensure clarity, utility, and appropriateness. It is

important to note that it has become increasingly evident that interactivity—between student and teacher, 
20

student with other students, and student with other information—is the essential element for

effectiveness in distance education.

The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) has expressed concern regarding the quality and

effectiveness of technology-mediated distance learning. In a recent report, the AFT is troubled by the

way distance education is being organized and conducted (Kriger 2001). The report states the following:

Much of the distance education under study here, whether non-profit or forprofit, is built on corporate ideas about consumer focus, product

standardization, tight personnel control and cost effectiveness (maximizing

course taking while minimizing the “inputs” of faculty and development time). 

These concepts are contrary to the traditional model of higher education

decision-making which emphasizes faculty independence in teaching and

research, academic control of the curriculum, academic freedom in the

classroom and collegial decision-making. 

The AFT has developed guidelines laying out 14 specific standards that address their concerns and will,

they claim, ensure high-quality distance education. The guidelines advance AFT’s belief that “broad

academic content, high standards, personal interaction and professional control are the key elements of

education quality.” The standards state that faculty must retain academic control, class size should be set 

through normal faculty channels, and faculty should retain creative control over use and re-use of

materials.

Student Satisfaction with Distance Education. The recent U.S. Department of Education large-scale 

study of student participation in distance education referred to earlier in this report addresses student

satisfaction with distance education classes (Sikora 2002). Undergraduate and graduate students were

asked, “Compared to other courses you’ve taken, are you more satisfied, equally satisfied, or less

satisfied with the quality of instruction you’ve received in your distance education courses?” A majority 

of both undergraduate and graduate students were at least as satisfied or more satisfied with the quality of 

teaching in their distance education classes compared with their regular classes. Among undergraduate 

students, 23 percent were more satisfied with the quality of instruction in their distance education classes 

than in their regular classes, 47 percent were equally satisfied, and 30 percent were less satisfied. At the

graduate level, 22 percent were more satisfied, 51 percent were equally satisfied, and 27 percent were

less satisfied.
21

2. ADDITIONAL ANALYSES, REVISIONS TO NATIONAL SURVEYS, 

AND ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN

Although the literature review outlined in chapter 1 was relatively comprehensive, a Working Group of

the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC) identified some gaps. Specifically, they

identified three areas that deserved additional analysis and review: (1) postsecondary education digital

divide—the perceived gap between institutions that have access to the latest technologies and institutions 

that do not; (2) preparation for using technology—the degree of exposure to technology that students

have prior to participating in postsecondary education; and (3) the quality of distance education, which

pertains to the effectiveness of technology in the learning process. 

A number of national surveys have been conducted that include data about the three areas: 

• NCES Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS);

• U.S. Census Bureau Current Population Survey;

• Cooperative Institutional Research Program Freshman Survey conducted by the Higher

Education Research Institute of UCLA;

• NCES National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99); and 

• NCES Postsecondary Education Quick Information System (PEQIS) survey of postsecondary

education institutions. 

Additional data analyses were conducted to further explore the themes of postsecondary education

digital divide and preparation for using technology using the information gathered from these surveys. 

To further inform these issues and expand the knowledge base, this chapter provides the results of new

analyses of existing national data. In addition, it offers recommendations for other actions, including

revisions to current national surveys. 

Postsecondary Education Digital Divide

As explained in chapter 1, there is good evidence that the information technology network capacity of

larger institutions far outpaces that of other 4-year degree-granting institutions. Smaller institutions face 

severe challenges in meeting the advanced networking requirements necessary to educate the 21st

century student. Also, according to NCES, technology-mediated distance education was related to

institutional size; distance education courses were more likely to be offered by medium and large

institutions than by small institutions (Lewis, Snow, and Farris 1999). 

To further inform this issue and to examine more recent information, it is useful to review recent IPEDS 

data.6 In the fall 2001 Institutional Characteristics Survey, institutions were asked to respond to the

inquiry if they offered “distance learning opportunities.” Recognizing that not all distance learning

 

6

 All postsecondary institutions that receive federal financial aid are required to complete the IPEDS surveys.
22

opportunities are offered through technology, it is not unreasonable to assume that many are, so this

question may help shed light on the extent of differences among types of institutions. 

Table 1 illustrates the number and percentage distribution of all degree-granting, Title IV-eligible 

postsecondary institutions offering distance learning, by institutional level and control, for fall 2001. The 

percentage of public institutions offering distance learning opportunities is much higher than the

percentage of private institutions, both not for profit and for profit. Within the 4-year sector, 71.9

percent of public institutions (493 institutions) offered distance learning opportunities, compared to 33.2 

percent of private not-for-profit institutions (540 institutions) and 48.5 percent of private for-profit 

institutions (149 institutions). It is interesting to note that about half of 4-year private for-profit 

institutions compared to approximately one-third of the 4-year not-for-profit institutions offered distancelearning opportunities. At the 2-year level, the difference is striking; 75.6 percent of the public

institutions (919 institutions) offered distance learning opportunities, compared to 8.2 percent of private

not-for-profit institutions (23 institutions) and 6.8 percent of private for-profit institutions (54

institutions). Additionally, table 1 indicates that larger institutions, regardless of institutional level and

control, are more likely to offer distance learning opportunities.

The percentage of all institutions offering distance learning opportunities ranged from 21.3 percent of

institutions with an enrollment under 1,000 to 86.5 percent of institutions with an enrollment of 10,000 or 

more. One in four 4-year public institutions with an enrollment under 1,000 offered distance learning

opportunities compared to almost 9 out of 10 (88.3 percent) public institutions with 10,000 or more

students. Also, about one-fourth (24.9 percent) of the 4-year private not-for-profit institutions with an

enrollment of less than 1,000 offered distance learning opportunities, compared to 57.4 percent of 4-year 

private not-for-profit institutions with an enrollment of 10,000 or more. 

Four-year private for-profit institutions did not show quite the same linear pattern, partly because of the

small number of institutions with enrollments of 5,000 or more. Nonetheless, a little under half (47.6

percent) of 4-year private for-profit institutions with an enrollment of under 1,000 offered distance

learning opportunities, compared with a little over half (51.5 percent) of 4-year private for-profit 

institutions with an enrollment between 5,000 and 9,999. Perhaps it is more interesting to point out that 

the percentage of small (an enrollment under 1,000) 4-year private for-profit institutions that offered

distance learning opportunities was almost twice as high as the percentage of small public and private

not-for-profit institutions. Also, focusing upon differences within the public sector, the percentage of 2-

year institutions offering distance learning was consistently higher than the percentage of 4-year 

institutions offering distance learning—regardless of enrollment size. 

It is interesting to compare the percentage of institutions offering distance education during 1997–98 

(which was reported earlier in this paper from NCES data) and 2001. Recognizing that the 1997–98 

report was drawn from sample data and the IPEDS data are census figures, during 1997–98, 34 percent of 

all postsecondary institutions offered distance education, compared to 44.4 percent in 2001. The

percentage of 2-year public institutions in 1997–98 offering distance education was 62 percent, compared 

to 75.6 percent in 2001. In contrast, the percentage of public 4-year postsecondary institutions offering

distance education decreased from 78 percent in 1997–98 to 71.9 percent in 2001. Finally, the

percentage of postsecondary institutions with 10,000 or more students increased slightly from 87 percent 

in 1997-98 to 88.3 percent in 2001.
23

Table 1. Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary institutions offering distance learning, by

enrollment, and institution level and control: Fall 2001

Enrollment size

Total Under 1,000 1,000 to 4,999 5,000 to 9,999 10,000 or more

Institution level and 

control

All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning

All institutions................................ 4,906 2,178 44.4 2,442 521 21.3 1,568 910 58.0 466 375 80.5 430 372 86.5

4-year institutions................................ 2,620 1,182 45.1 1,128 334 29.6 969 445 45.9 252 178 70.6 271 225 83.0

Public................................ 686 493 71.9 92 23 25.0 220 151 68.6 152 123 80.9 222 196 88.3

Private not-for-profit................................ 1,627 540 33.2 803 200 24.9 681 259 38.0 96 54 56.3 47 27 57.4

Private for-profit ................................ 307 149 48.5 233 111 47.6 68 35 51.5 4 1 25.0 2 2 100.0

2-year institutions................................ 2,286 996 43.6 1,314 187 14.2 599 465 77.6 214 197 92.1 159 147 92.5

Public................................ 1,216 919 75.6 295 119 40.3 549 457 83.2 213 196 92.0 159 147 92.5

Private not-for-profit................................ 279 23 8.2 269 21 7.8 9 1 11.1 1 1 100.0 0 0 0.0

Private for-profit ................................ 791 54 6.8 750 47 6.3 41 7 17.1 0 0 0.0 0 0 0.0

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Institutional Characteristics Survey, fall 2001.
24

Is there a digital divide with regard to distance learning opportunities between historically Black colleges 

and universities (HBCUs), underrepresented minority-serving postsecondary education institutions, and

all other institutions? Table 2 compares the number and percentage of institutions offering distance

learning opportunities by institutional level and type of underrepresented minority-serving institution. 

The table shows that the percentages of distance learning opportunities are very similar both at the 2- and 

4-year levels. In fact, although the differences are slight, minority-serving institutions tend to have a

higher percentage of distance learning opportunities than all other institutions. In some instances, the

differences are more substantial (i.e., 2-year HBCUs—61.5 percent, 2-year American Indian/Alaska

Native serving institutions—55.2 percent, and 4-year American Indian/Alaska Native-serving 

institutions—29.4 percent); however, the small number of these institutions must be considered. 

Table 3 addresses the question of whether enrollment size is a factor with respect to institutional level

and type of underrepresented minority-serving institution. As in previous tables, there remains a

relationship between enrollment size of the institution and the likelihood that the institution offers

distance learning opportunities—the higher the enrollment, the more likely the institution had such

offerings. The patterns are less clear, however, because of the small number of institutions in several

categories. Four-year Hispanic-serving institutions and American Indian/Alaska Native-serving 

institutions with enrollments under 1,000 have smaller percentages of distance learning opportunities

than other types of institutions with enrollments under 1,000 (11.6 percent and 7.7 percent, respectively). 

As a corollary to the percentage distribution of types of institutions offering distance education, another

question relates to the proportion of faculty who teach distance education classes. Using a sample

survey, the 1998–99 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, new analyses were conducted to

determine the percentage of faculty and staff who taught distance education classes at HBCUs,

underrepresented minority-serving, and all other institutions.7

Faculty were asked if they taught any for-credit class “through a distance education program,” but no

definition for “distance education program” was provided. The new analyses shown in table 4 provide

the percentage of faculty and instructional staff who taught at least one class through a distance

education program by type of underrepresented minority-serving institution. The percentage of faculty

and instructional staff at all institutions who taught any for-credit class through a distance education

program was 4.9 percent. There were no significant differences regarding faculty and instructional staff 

teaching distance education classes among Black-serving and Hispanic-serving institutions, and all other 

institutions. 

 

7

 The analysis was limited to HBCUs and Black- and Hispanic-serving institutions because (1) Asians are not considered underrepresented in

postsecondary education, and (2) since the NSOPF:99 sample excluded tribal colleges, it would not be appropriate to include American Indianserving institutions because the number of institutions would be too small. 
25

Table 2. Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary institutions offering distance learning, by

institutional level and type of underrepresented minority-serving institution: Fall 2001

Institutional level

Total 4-year 2-year

Type of institution

All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning 

All institutions1................................................................ 4,906 2,178 44.4 2,620 1,182 45.1 2,286 996 43.6

Black-serving institutions2................................................................ 637 267 41.9 235 115 48.9 402 152 37.8

Historically black colleges and universities3................................ 102 44 43.1 89 36 40.4 13 8 61.5

Hispanic-serving institutions................................................................338 152 45.0 125 56 44.8 213 96 45.1

American Indian/Alaska Native-serving institutions............................46 21 45.7 17 5 29.4 29 16 55.2

All other institutions................................................................ 3,931 1,751 44.5 2,256 1,014 44.9 1,675 737 44.0

1Underrepresented minority-serving institutions refers to institutions that have a Black student enrollment of 25 percent or more (Black-serving); 25 percent or more Hispanic student enrollment

(Hispanic-serving); or 25 percent or more American Indian/Alaska Native student enrollment (American Indian/Alaska Native-serving institutions). Historically Black colleges and universities are a

subset of Black-serving institutions.

2The number of minority institutions does not add up to the total number of institutions because some types of institutions are overlapping. For example, all HBCUs are Black-serving institutions, and 

some Black-serving institutions may also be Hispanic-serving institutions.

3The Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, defines an HBCU as "...any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the

education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality

of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation."

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Institutional Characteristics Survey, fall 2001.
26

Table 3. Number and percentage distribution of Title IV degree-granting postsecondary institutions offering distance learning, by size of

enrollment, institutional level, and type of underrepresented minority-serving institution: Fall 2001

Enrollment size

Total Under 1,000 1,000 to 4,999 5,000 to 9,999 10,000 or more

Institutional level and type of institution

All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning All

Number 

offering 

distance 

learning 

Percent 

offering 

distance 

learning

All institutions1................................................... 4,906 2,178 44.4 2,442 521 21.3 1,568 910 58.0 466 375 80.5 430 372 86.5

All 4-year institutions1.............................................. 2,620 1,182 45.1 1,128 334 29.6 969 445 45.9 252 178 70.6 271 225 83.0

Black-serving institutions...................................... 235 115 48.9 92 32 34.8 101 54 53.5 29 20 69.0 13 9 69.2

Historically black colleges and universities2.......... 89 36 40.4 26 6 23.1 47 20 42.6 14 9 64.3 2 1 50.0

Hispanic-serving institutions................................ 125 56 44.8 43 5 11.6 46 21 45.7 18 15 83.3 18 15 83.3

American Indian/Alaska Native-serving

institutions........................................................... 17 5 29.4 13 1 7.7 3 3 100.0 1 1 100.0 0 0 0.0

All other institutions.............................................. 2,256 1,014 44.9 984 297 30.2 821 369 44.9 207 145 70.0 244 203 83.2

All 2-year institutions1.............................................. 2,286 996 43.6 1,314 187 14.2 599 465 77.6 214 197 92.1 159 147 92.5

Black-serving institutions...................................... 402 152 37.8 259 35 13.5 102 81 79.4 23 20 87.0 18 16 88.9

Historically black colleges and universities2.......... 13 8 61.5 7 2 28.6 5 5 100.0 1 1 100.0 0 0 0.0

Hispanic-serving institutions................................ 213 96 45.1 107 13 12.1 45 26 57.8 22 20 90.9 39 37 94.9

American Indian/Alaska Native-serving

institutions ......................................................... 27 16 59.3 22 12 54.5 4 3 75.0 1 1 100.0 0 0 0.0

All other institutions.............................................. 1,675 737 44.0 946 127 13.4 453 356 78.6 172 158 91.9 104 96 92.3

1The number of minority institutions does not add up to the total number of institutions because some types of institutions are overlapping. For example, all HBCUs will be Black-serving institutions, and some 

Black-serving institutions may also be Hispanic-serving institutions.

2The Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, defines an HBCU as "...any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black 

Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is,

according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation." 

NOTE: Underrepresented minority-serving institutions refers to institutions that have a Black student enrollment of 25 percent or more (Black-serving); 25 percent or more Hispanic student enrollment (Hispanicserving); or 25 percent or more American Indian/Alaska Native student enrollment (American Indian/Alaska Native-serving) institutions. Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are a subset of

Black-serving institutions.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Institutional Characteristics Survey, fall 2001.
27

Table 4. Number and percentage distribution of all faculty and staff teaching various types of

distance education classes, by type of underrepresented minority-serving institution and 

all other institutions: Fall 1998

Type of minority- and non-minority-serving institution

Number of faculty teaching 

distance education classes1

Percent faculty teaching 

distance education classes

All institutions................................................................................................ 52,603 4.9

Black-serving institutions................................................................................................ 3,430 4.1

Hispanic-serving institutions................................................................................................ 2,993 4.8

All other institutions2................................................................................................ 43,857 4.9

1Weighted numbers.

2All other institutions category excludes American Indian- and Asian American-serving institutions.

NOTE: For purposes of this report, minority-serving institutions refers to Title IV postsecondary institutions with 25 percent or more Black

student enrollment (Black-serving), 25 percent or more Hispanic student enrollment (Hispanic-serving institutions), and 25 percent or more

American Indian student enrollment (American Indian-serving). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99). 

Again using the NSOPF:99 data, a new analysis was performed to describe more fully the characteristics 

of faculty who participate in distance learning, and, in addition, the academic program areas for distance 

education faculty. As shown in table 5, 4.9 percent of the full-time faculty and 4.8 percent of the parttime faculty reported that they taught at least one distance education class, as did 4.4 percent of male

faculty and 5.7 percent of female faculty. With respect to race/ethnicity, 5.0 percent of nonminority 

faculty and 4.2 percent of underrepresented minority faculty taught a distance education course. 

There were no significant differences in the percentage of faculty teaching distance education with

respect to employment status (full time or part time), race/ethnicity, or gender. However, the percentage 

of business faculty teaching a distance education course was higher than the percentage of faculty in the 

fine arts, the humanities, and the natural sciences. 

Because technology is becoming more and more important for both institutional administrative

operations and distance learning, it is informative to learn about faculty and instructional staffs’ opinions 

of the quality of computer resources at both underrepresented minority-serving institutions and other

institutions. 
28

Table 5. Number and percent of all faculty and staff teaching various types of distance education 

classes, by employment status, race/ethnicity, gender, and program area: Fall 1998

Faculty/staff characteristic

Number of faculty teaching 

distance education classes1

Percent of faculty teaching 

distance education classes

Total ................................................................................................................................ 52,603 4.9

Employment status

Full time.................................................................................................... 30,500 4.9

Part time.................................................................................................... 22,103 4.8

Race/ethnicity2

Non-minorities.......................................................................................... 48,217 5.0

White, non-Hispanic ............................................................................. 45,124 4.9

Asian, non-Hispanic.............................................................................. 3,093 6.1

Underrepresented minorities..................................................................... 4,386 4.2

Black, non-Hispanic.............................................................................. 1,756 3.4

Hispanic ................................................................................................ 1,728 4.4

American Indian, non-Hispanic ............................................................ 506 9.3

More than one race, non-Hispanic ........................................................ 396 5.9

Gender

Male.......................................................................................................... 27,552 4.4

Female ...................................................................................................... 25,051 5.7

Program area3

Agriculture/home economics.................................................................... 846 5.0

Business.................................................................................................... 5,881 8.1

Education.................................................................................................. 4,414 5.3

Engineering............................................................................................... 2,081 5.6

Fine arts.................................................................................................... 2,244 3.0

Health sciences ......................................................................................... 7,782 5.2

Humanities................................................................................................ 6,925 4.2

Natural sciences........................................................................................ 7,238 3.8

Social sciences.......................................................................................... 6,383 6.1

All other areas........................................................................................... 8,139 5.5

1Weighted numbers.

2Asians are not an underrepresented group in postsecondary institutions.

3Numbers do not sum to totals due to nonresponse.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99). 

Table 6 shows the number and percentage distribution of all faculty and instructional staffs’ ratings of

computing resources by type of underrepresented minority-serving institution and for all other

institutions. Faculty in Black-serving institutions were less likely than their counterparts in all other

institutions to rate their personal computers and local networks as excellent or good. Faculty in Black-
29

serving institutions were also less likely than their counterparts in all other institutions to rate their

centralized computer resources as excellent or good, and more likely to rate their centralized computer

resources as poor. Further, faculty in Black-serving institutions were less likely than faculty in all other 

institutions to rate the availability of Internet connections at their institutions as excellent or good, and

more likely to rate availability of Internet connections as poor. 

Table 6. Number and percentage distribution of all faculty and staffs’ ratings of computing

resources, by type of underrepresented minority-serving institution, and all other

institutions: Fall 1998

All institutions

Black-serving 

institutions

Hispanic-serving 

institutions

All other 

Various computing resources institutions

and their ratings Number 

faculty1

Percent 

faculty

Number 

faculty1

Percent 

faculty

Number 

faculty1

Percent 

faculty

Number 

faculty1

Percent 

faculty

Personal computers and local networks

Excellent or good....................................................... 715,865 75.1 53,427 71.9 38,518 72.0 599,133 75.6

Fair ............................................................................ 165,349 17.3 13,821 18.6 10,238 19.1 135,190 17.1

Poor ........................................................................... 72,578 7.6 7,047 9.5 4,712 8.8 58,355 7.4

Centralized computer facilities

Excellent or good....................................................... 550,157 73.5 39,393 69.7 30,496 71.6 459,587 73.8

Fair ............................................................................ 138,178 18.5 10,585 18.7 8,111 19.0 115,381 18.5

Poor ........................................................................... 60,325 8.1 6,500 11.5 4,009 9.4 47,829 7.7

Internet connections

Excellent or good....................................................... 758,872 81.4 55,515 77.6 41,195 78.0 635,903 82.0

Fair ............................................................................ 116,604 12.5 8,811 12.3 7,208 13.7 96,309 12.4

Poor ........................................................................... 57,128 6.1 7,218 10.1 4,391 8.3 43,545 5.6

Technical support for computer-related activities

Excellent or good....................................................... 575,197 62.7 42,010 60.5 31,856 62.3 481,984 63.1

Fair ............................................................................ 229,080 25.0 17,688 25.5 11,784 23.1 191,134 25.0

Poor ........................................................................... 113,020 12.3 9,797 14.1 7,471 14.6 90,536 11.9

1Weighted numbers.

NOTE: For the purposes of this report, minority-serving institutions refers to Title IV postsecondary institutions with 25 percent or more Black 

student enrollment (Black-serving); 25 percent or more Hispanic student enrollment (Hispanic-serving), and 25 percent or more American Indian 

student enrollment (American Indian-serving) institutions. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99). 

The reader should be cautioned that although there were statistically significant differences in the ratings 

of faculty in Black-serving institutions and the faculty in all other institutions, the differences may or

may not be substantially different in a policy sense. That is, although one can be reasonably assured that 

the differences of the rating percentages are real and not because of sampling error, judgments need to be 

made by policymakers whether the percentage differences are wide enough to require action. 

Preparation for Using Technology

As noted earlier, in 2000, about two-thirds of all children 3 to 17 years of age lived in a household with a 

computer, although the percentages of White, non-Hispanic and Asian and Pacific Islander children were 
30

higher than those of Black and Hispanic children. However, if a K-12 student lived in a household with a 

computer, to what extent did he or she use the computer to complete school assignments online—

therefore enhancing preparation for using technology in postsecondary education? Did students who

have a computer in their household and complete class assignments online differ from those who did not, 

by race and ethnicity?

Data from the September 2001 Population Survey provide a picture of the degree to which race/ethnicity 

was related to use of the Internet. The survey asked respondents in elementary and secondary school to

indicate if they “completed school assignments online.” As shown in table 7, over 80 percent of all high 

school students with a computer in the household completed school assignments online: White, nonHispanic students, 91.9 percent; Black students, 84.5 percent; Asian/Pacific Islander students, 94.3 

percent; and Hispanic students, 87.3 percent. There was no significant difference between White high

school students and Asian Pacific Islander and Hispanic high school students with regard to completing

school assignments online. Likewise, there was no significant difference between Asian/Pacific Islander 

and Hispanic students. However, Black high school students with a computer in the household were less 

likely than White and Asian/Pacific Islander students to complete school assignments online. Again, the 

reader is alerted to the caveat that a distinction should be recognized between statistical significance and 

whether a difference is wide enough to require policy action. 

Table 7. Of high school students who had a computer in the household, number and percentage

who said they completed school assignments online, by race/ethnicity: 2000

Race/ethnicity

Number with computer 

in household

Number completing 

assignments online

Percent completing 

assignments online

White, non-Hispanic ............................................... 10,321,905 9,486,385 91.9

Black ....................................................................... 1,384,039 1,169,981 84.5

Asian/Pacific Islander.............................................. 746,934 704,567 94.3

Hispanic (of any race) ............................................. 1,278,522 1,116,848 87.3

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, September 2001.

We do not know how many high school students who responded that they completed school assignments 

online will eventually attend college. However, the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP)

conducted by the Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA provides data regarding the computer 

literacy of college freshmen. The study surveyed over 400,000 freshmen from a voluntary national

sample of 704 4-year colleges and universities during the fall 2001. Table 8 shows the percentage of

freshmen, by race and family income, who responded that they “used computers frequently” the year

prior to entering college. As the table shows, a majority of college freshmen had used computers

frequently. Over four out of five White and Asian freshmen in this study (84.0 and 87.0 percent,

respectively) reported that they used computers frequently. Almost three-fourths of Black and Hispanic

freshmen (71.9 and 72.4 percent, respectively) reported that they used computers frequently. Focusing

on family income, the results suggest that the higher the family income, the more likely a freshman used 

computers frequently in the year prior to entering college. The percentage of freshmen in this sample

with a family income under $15,000 that used a computer frequently was 65.9 percent compared to 78.7 

percent of freshmen with a family income of $30,000 to $39,999 and 87.3 percent of freshmen with a

family income of over $75,000.
31

Table 8. Percentage of freshmen from selected 4-year institutions responding about the degree

to which they used computers, by race/ethnicity and family income

Race/income Used frequently Used occasionally Not at all

Race

White......................................... 84.0 13.0 3.0

Black ......................................... 71.9 20.1 8.0

Hispanic .................................... 72.4 19.3 8.4

Asian American......................... 87.0 10.1 2.9

Other.......................................... 79.6 15.1 5.3

Family Income

Under $15,000........................... 65.9 22.6 11.5

15,000-24,999 ........................... 73.6 18.7 7.7

25,000-29,999 ........................... 77.1 17.4 5.6

30,000-39,999 ........................... 78.7 16.0 5.4

40,000-49,999 ........................... 80.2 15.6 4.3

50,000-74,999 ........................... 83.2 13.7 3.1

75,000+ ..................................... 87.3 10.6 2.1

SOURCE: Cooperative Institutional Research Program, American Council on Education and the University of California, Los Angeles.

It is important to caution that community colleges are not included in the CIRP, and that the sample of 4-

year colleges is a voluntary one and may not be nationally representative. Since most community college 

students live at home and the majority are employed, issues of access to computers may be different for

them—and for other commuter students who are employed—than for residential students.

Revisions to National Surveys

Several national surveys could be revised to gather more information about access to postsecondary

education and technology by adding questions to expand the knowledge about this important topic. Two

criteria were used to suggest revisions: to enable the data to be more current, and to provide for a better 

understanding of the issues. The suggestions here are offered with attention to limiting the burden upon 

both those who complete surveys and those who are obliged to compile the data. These suggestions are 

placed under the following two categories: postsecondary education digital divide and effectiveness of

distance education. 

Postsecondary Education Digital Divide

Distance Education Courses. In December 1999, NCES reported on a nationally representative sample 

of distance education at postsecondary education institutions, Distance Education at Postsecondary

Education Institutions: 1997–98, which showed that distance education is “becoming an increasingly

visible feature of postsecondary education in the country.” The report updated a 1995 report by NCES. 

Because of the importance of distance education to policymakers at both the national and state level, it

would be very helpful to collect these data on an annual basis and expand the sample to all degreegranting and Title IV-eligible postsecondary education institutions. Thus, the number of student credit
32

hours offered through technology-mediated distance education could be added to the Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) surveys by adding the following illustrative question.

National Survey: Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System: Fall Enrollment Survey

Sample Questions:

• Under Part E – Additional Information

Total number of student credit hours awarded in 

technology-mediated distance education courses. _____________

 Undergraduate _____________

 Graduate _____________

As noted earlier in this paper, the IPEDS Institutional Characteristics survey asks institutions to indicate 

if they offer “distance learning opportunities.” Although of some utility, the question and resulting data

fail to distinguish between correspondence courses that are not facilitated by technology and courses

using computers, the Internet, television, etc. By slightly altering this question and providing a clear

definition of technology-mediated distance education, a wealth of additional information could be

gleaned. Given the widespread use of some forms of technology in many classes, the definitional

problems related to distance education are great. But given an appropriate and clearly understood

definition, policymakers could better understand the extent to which technology-mediated distance

education is part of the overall curricular offerings of postsecondary education institutions and how

technology-mediated distance learning is apportioned among sectors. Appendix A provides a list of

definitions of technology-mediated distance education used by various sources. 

Resources for Technology Infrastructure. Although the landscape of postsecondary education is being 

dramatically altered by technology, relatively little attention has been given to what technology costs and 

how to pay for it. This information gap persists despite the fact that technology costs are widely

perceived to be high and growing. Determining technology infrastructure costs is significant for

policymakers at the national, state, and institutional levels. A major obstacle in determining cost is the

lack of standard terminology for describing the components of technology infrastructure. A recent report 

by the Institute for Higher Education Policy, Funding the “Infostructure,” A Guide to Financing

Technology Infrastructure in Higher Education, provides a definition, or at least the beginnings of one,

that organizes technology infrastructure into three broad clusters: building infrastructure, systems

infrastructure, and personnel infrastructure. The definition, which is found in appendix B, was fieldtested through focus groups with state financial officers and campus information officials. It is important 

to note that the definition includes human resources at the insistence of technology practitioners. 

Before any such data are considered for collection, a group of affected parties should be convened to

review the definition of technology infrastructure to determine its utility. Although it would be desirable 

to add a question related to technology expenditures to extant surveys, the different accounting standards 

of public and private postsecondary institutions would prohibit them from responding to questions on this 

topic.
33

Effectiveness of Distance Education

As noted earlier, despite the surfeit of descriptive studies, case studies, opinion pieces, policy papers, and 

how-to articles, there is little rigorous research about the effectiveness of technology-mediated distance

learning. In addition, there are serious research gaps in several areas of distance learning. A significant 

contribution, therefore, would be to ascertain the degree to which faculty are appraising the effectiveness 

of distance education as part of the ongoing operations of the campus, particularly the assessment of

student outcomes. A vehicle for such an inquiry might be the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty,

but determining effectiveness is difficult for any medium of instruction, especially distance education.

This issue draws attention to the policy debate regarding distance education in postsecondary education. 

One school of thought is that distance education courses are essentially no different than traditional

courses and, therefore, do not require different methods for assessing effectiveness. Another asserts that 

distance education courses, particularly asynchronous Internet courses, are fundamentally different than

traditional in-class courses. This obliges the institution to develop methods for assessing outcomes for

distance education courses. 

Because of the importance of this subject, NPEC may want to consider case studies of institutions in the 

United States and internationally that focus on outcomes assessment of distance learning courses and

programs. In particular, it is recommended that value-added assessment be the focus of case studies. 

Value-added assessment instruments look at the difference between what students know when they arrive 

and what they know when they leave—providing a measure of what the institution did or did not teach or 

what the student did or did not learn.

The efforts thus far to determine the effectiveness of distance education have been scattered and less than 

systematic. In addition, a substantial majority of the published information strives to compare classroombased education with distance education. It may be time to abandon those comparisons and focus

instead on if and how students learn, regardless of delivery of instruction. As discussed earlier in this

report, Internet-based distance education in particular is evolving its own pedagogy. By adopting a

value-added approach to the study of outcomes, solid evidence can be developed to ascertain the

effectiveness of distance education.

Thus, it is recommended that several postsecondary education institutions be identified that are leaders in 

technology-mediated distance learning for participation in the case study. The case study approach

would focus particularly on outcomes assessment for distance education courses and programs. Many of 

these institutions are performing exciting research on student outcomes assessment and can contribute to 

the knowledge base and dialogue. 
34
35

3. WHAT DO WE KNOW 

This report addresses the nexus between access to postsecondary education and technology, specifically, 

how technology affects access to postsecondary education and how technology is used in postsecondary

education. In considering what we know based upon published literature and new information generated 

from the additional, unpublished analyses of national data, it is helpful to return to the four original

themes that provided a framework for this paper.

Theme I: Access to Postsecondary Education in General

It is increasingly clear that technology has expanded the ability of students to participate in

postsecondary education. Virtually every type of learner can benefit from technology, particularly the

Internet. In addition to the rapid proliferation of new courses and programs, colleges and universities are 

taking advantage of the Internet to enhance the admissions process and give potential students the

opportunity to apply online. There is also evidence that a portion of those students who participate in

postsecondary education in their homes or workplace would not otherwise enroll in postsecondary

education. Thus, it appears that technology is opening up new markets of potential students without

significantly diminishing the number of students who would enroll in traditional colleges and

universities, many of which also are offering technology-mediated distance education.

Distance learning advocates have suggested that a barrier to the ability of technology to enhance access

to postsecondary education is the student financial aid system, particularly Title IV of the Higher

Education Act. Title IV restricts access to federal student aid programs by institutions that enroll more

than half their students or offer more than half their courses in distance education (commonly called the

50-percent rule). Although Congress is aware of the obstacles of the various regulations and has

introduced legislation to ameliorate the barriers, concerns remain that loosening the restrictions will

reintroduce the fraudulent enterprises that plagued the Title IV program in the 1980s and early 1990s and 

resulted in unacceptable default rates. In a recent report, the Department urged the Congress to eliminate 

or revise the 50-percent rule during its deliberations regarding the renewal of the Higher Education Act

(Carnevale 2003). 

Theme II: Access to Technology-Based Learning

The evidence regarding whether or not there is a digital divide for households and individuals is

somewhat mixed. On one hand, recent data suggest that the overall level of a digital divide in the United 

States is rapidly decreasing. More than half the nation is online, and about two-thirds of the population

use computers. Internet users increase by 2 million a month. Moreover, the rapid adoption of the Internet 

is occurring among most groups regardless of location, income, education, race/ethnicity, age, or gender. 

In particular, the groups that have traditionally been identified as the have-nots are making extraordinary 

gains.

Although these data are encouraging, the digital divide for households and individuals still remains, and

has expanded slightly for some groups. Blacks and Hispanics continue to experience the lowest

household Internet penetration rates of any demographic group. In fact, the gap between access to the

Internet for Black and Hispanic households and the national average access rate widened from 1998 to

2000. Also, with respect to computer ownership, Black and Hispanic households have the lowest
36

penetration rate. Individuals 50 years of age and older continue to be the least likely to be Internet users. 

Two-parent households have a much higher rate of Internet access than single-parent households. 

Finally, people with a disability are only half as likely to have access to the Internet as those without a

disability. 

Some researchers have concluded that the most important factors facilitating or inhibiting Internet access 

are education and age. A college education increases rates of Internet access by over 40 percent

compared to the least educated group, and people under 25 use it more than 40 percent more than those

over 65.

These data notwithstanding, several analysts question whether there actually is a digital divide for

households and individuals. Because technology is so inexpensive, if not free, almost anyone can have

access to the Internet. The real divide, some say, is not about access but relevance. Low literacy levels 

are a major hindrance, in addition to the more mundane tasks of using a mouse and working on a

keyboard. The dearth of pertinent information, literacy barriers, and limited diversity of content are

significant barriers to getting lower income users online. Also, many observers claim that a “post-PC” 

era is set to dawn that will be characterized by many computing and communication alternatives. 

Another analyst suggests that in less than 10 years since the Internet became generally available to

households, more than two-thirds of all families will be connected to the Internet at home. In contrast, 75 

years elapsed between the invention of the telephone and its spread to two-thirds of American homes.

Focusing upon the institutional divide, it appears that there is strong evidence to support the conclusion

that institutional control and enrollment are closely associated with the tendency of institutions to offer

distance learning. That is, public institutions and larger institutions are more likely to offer distance

learning than private institutions and smaller ones. With respect to types of minority and other

institutions, there is no difference in the proportion of faculty engaged in teaching distance education

classes. Nevertheless, faculty in Black-serving institutions are less likely than faculty in all other

institutions to look favorably upon their personal computers and local networks, their centralized

computer facilities, and availability of Internet connections. 

There are no differences in the percentage of faculty teaching distance education with respect to

employment status (full time or part time), race/ethnicity, or gender. However, the percentage of faculty

teaching distance education is higher in the program area of business compared to the fine arts,

humanities, and the natural sciences.

In 1999–2000, 8 percent of undergraduates and 10 percent of graduate and first-professional students

were enrolled in distance education courses. Both undergraduate and graduate/first-professional distance 

education students tended to be those with family responsibilities and limited time. Also, they were more 

likely to be enrolled part time and to be working full time while enrolled. For both undergraduate and

graduate/first-professional students, the Internet was the most popular delivery method.

Theme III: Preparation for Using Technology

The United States has come a long way since 1994 in providing computer and Internet access to students 

in public elementary and secondary schools. Ninety-eight percent of the schools, and 77 percent of

classrooms, enjoyed Internet access in 2000, regardless of the poverty concentration of the students,

location, or level of the school. Yet, differences in school characteristics remained. About four out of

five schools with low concentrations of poverty compared to three out of five schools with high

concentrations of poverty had Internet access in classrooms. By the fall of 2000, the ratio of students to 
37

instructional computers in public school had decreased to 5 to 1, which equals the ratio that many experts 

consider a reasonable level for the effective use of computers. The ratio of students per computer with 

Internet access was 7. But, again, differences remained. Schools with the highest concentration of

poverty had 9 students per computer with Internet access, compared to 6 in schools with the lowest

poverty concentration.

Making the Internet accessible outside of regular school hours allows students who would not otherwise 

have the opportunity to have access to the Internet for school-related activities like homework. In 2000, 

over half of public schools with access to the Internet reported that computers with access to the Internet 

were available to students outside of regular school hours. Secondary schools were more likely to

provide this service than elementary schools. Also, schools with the highest minority enrollment

provided Internet availability outside of regular school hours more frequently than schools with the

lowest minority enrollment.

In 1999, virtually all full-time regular teachers in the nation’s public elementary and secondary schools

had access to computers or the Internet somewhere in their schools, and over one-third reported that they 

used computers or the Internet “a lot” to create instructional materials. However, teachers in schools

with high poverty concentrations were about half as likely as teachers in schools with low poverty

concentrations to use computers or the Internet a lot. Barriers identified by teachers to using computers

or the Internet for instruction included an insufficient number of computers and lack of release time for

teachers to learn how to use computers or the Internet. Moreover, teachers in high poverty schools

complained that outdated, incompatible, or unreliable computers were significant barriers to the effective 

use of computers.

In spite of the considerable amount of computers available to teachers in elementary and secondary

schools, some commentators suggest—or state unequivocally—that since teachers are not trained to use

technology or given opportunities to develop creative uses for technology, computers are used as

glorified typewriters. Even teachers who become serious users of computers do not change their

classroom practices. Several questions remain. How often do students really use computers and the

Internet and for what purpose? Are the computers in the schools up to date? Do the schools have the

appropriate technical staff to maintain new technology? Do teachers have sufficient training to use

computers and the Internet effectively? 

In 2000, about two-thirds of all children 3 to 17 years of age lived in a household with a computer, and

about one-third of all children used the Internet at home. Girls were as likely as boys to use the Internet 

at home. Differences remained, however, with regard to race. About two-thirds of White, non-Hispanic 

and Asian and Pacific Islander children lived in households with computers, compared to 43 percent of

Black children and 37 percent of Hispanic children. Also, over one-third, of White, non-Hispanic and

Asian and Pacific Islander children used the Internet at home, while only 15 percent of Black and 13

percent of Hispanic children did so. Finally, White, non-Hispanic and Asian Pacific Islander high school 

students with a computer in the household were more likely than Black students to complete school

assignments online.

Results from a survey of 4-year college freshmen revealed that most are computer literate. Close to four 

out of five men and women freshmen in the sample reported using a personal computer frequently during 

the year prior to entering college. Family income, however, appears to have been a factor. The

percentage of freshmen with higher family incomes that responded that they used computers frequently

was larger than freshmen with lower family incomes.
38

Theme IV: Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process

The determination of the effectiveness of technology in the learning process is an area of inquiry that is

somewhat elusive. The literature on this subject contains a plethora of references that conclude that

technology-mediated distance learning compares favorably with on-campus classroom instruction, and

many find that students and faculty have a positive view of their distance education learning experience. 

However, an analysis of the literature on the effectiveness of technology-mediated distance learning

reveals that it may be too early to reach these conclusions. Reviews of the body of literature on

effectiveness reveal that many of the documents are how-to articles, advocacy pieces, and secondhand

reports. Original rigorous research is in short supply, and those limited studies suffer from poor

methodology, which renders their findings questionable. Some of major shortcomings of the research

include the following:

• Most of the research does not control for extraneous variables, which makes it difficult to

identify cause and effect.

• Most of the studies do not use randomly selected subjects, which is the best way to control for 

extraneous variables.

• The reliability and validity of the instruments used to measure student outcomes and attitudes

are questionable, which can render a lack of confidence in the findings.

There are also important gaps in the research on technology-mediated distance learning. Perhaps the

most important is the dearth of studies dedicated to measuring the effectiveness of total academic

programs. Virtually all of the studies focus on individual courses. Another gap is that the research does 

not adequately explain why the dropout rate of distance learners is so high, which often skews the results 

when comparing distance learning with classroom instruction. Finally, there is some evidence that

curricular objectives may be altered because of a limited variety of books and periodicals online.

The research on the effectiveness of technology-mediated distance learning notwithstanding, it would be 

erroneous to conclude that distance learning is not effective or of poor quality. These studies found fault 

with the research methodology on distance education, not distance learning itself. There were well over 

50,000 different distance education courses offered to over 1.5 million students in 1997–98. 

Undoubtedly many more courses were being offered in 2003, and more students were enrolled in them. 

The vast majority of the institutions offering distance education courses are accredited, and a substantial 

portion of faculty teaching distance education courses are full-time regular faculty who are also teaching 

on-campus courses. 

Perhaps it is time to focus attention on the more basic question of how students learn, regardless of the

delivery system. Technology-mediated distance learning is evolving its own pedagogy, and with the

introduction of more audio and video and broadband access, new and richer models can be explored. 

Because experimental studies comparing distance education courses with campus-based courses have

been based upon the premise that campus-based courses are the “gold standard,” which may be open to

question, it may be advisable to abandon these studies. It appears that addressing how students learn and 

focusing on outcomes assessment would be more productive.

Several organizations have developed standards and guidelines to ensure quality distance education,

including the Southern Regional Electronic Campus, the National Education Association, and the

Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications. In 2000, Phipps and Merisotis reviewed
39

these guidelines and attempted to validate them through actual experience of postsecondary education

institutions recognized among the leaders on distance education. Focusing specifically on Internet-based 

courses, the report identified 24 benchmarks considered mandatory for quality distance education. The

benchmarks covered areas such as course development, evaluation and assessment, faculty support, and

institutional support. Among the benchmarks, interactivity—between student and faculty, student and

student, and student and information—is the essential element for effectiveness in distance education.

In a report critical of the way distance education is being organized and conducted, the American

Federation of Teachers alleged that much of distance education is built on corporate ideas about

consumer focus, product standardization, tight personnel control, and cost-effectiveness, which are not

consistent with the traditional model of postsecondary education decisionmaking. Fourteen standards are 

advanced that address their concerns and include key elements revolving around faculty independence in 

teaching and research and collegial decisionmaking.

A recent large-scale study of student participation in distance education addressed student satisfaction 

with distance education classes. When asked how satisfied they were with their distance education

classes compared to their regular classes, a majority of both undergraduate and graduate students were at 

least as satisfied or more satisfied with the quality of teaching in their distance education classes

compared with their regular classes. 

Because the efforts thus far to determine the effectiveness of distance education have been scattered and 

less than systematic, NPEC may want to consider a case study using institutions, both within the United

States and internationally, that focuses upon outcomes assessment of distance learning courses and

programs using a value-added paradigm. Comparisons of classroom-based education and distance

education should be replaced by a focus on how students learn, irrespective of the delivery of instruction. 

Internet-based distance education in particular is evolving its own pedagogy. By adopting a value-added 

approach to the study of outcomes, solid evidence can be developed to ascertain the effectiveness of

distance education. It is time that researchers identify several postsecondary education institutions, both 

within the United States and internationally, that are leaders in technology-mediated distance learning 

and are conducting research on outcomes assessment, for participation in the case study. 

Because of the dramatic pace of technology growth, information on the relationship between technology

and access to postsecondary education becomes old news very quickly. Thus, the data need to be

updated at regular intervals. The number of distance education courses and programs requires

continuous monitoring. The number and type of postsecondary education institutions providing

technology-mediated distance learning should be assessed on a regular basis. Looking at the broader

picture, the issue of computer and Internet access in the general populace, the elementary and secondary

schools, and among postsecondary educational institutions needs persistent observation. Also,

understanding the extent to which faculty in K-12 and postsecondary education use computers and the

Internet is an area that requires updating. 

While this report has comprehensively reviewed the research, it has become evident that other questions 

need to be addressed to paint a more complete picture of access and technology. The following issues

are recommended for future research and data collection.

Access to Technology-Based Learning

• Given the growth of immigrants, especially Hispanic students, the number of students with

limited English skills is increasing. A number of these students with limited-English-speaking 

and writing-skills reside in the rural agricultural areas of the country. Is distance learning an
40

option for this population? Are any online materials being developed that can assist this group 

of students?

Preparation for Using Technology

• Equal access to technology is not the same as equal access to equal technology. Although the 

data show that computers and Internet access are available to most students, the quality of that 

access needs additional exploration. How often are K-12 students using the Internet and other 

computer resources to learn, and for what purposes? Are K-12 students using school

computers that can handle large amounts of data and employ sophisticated communication

tools or are they working with obsolete machines? Is there a difference in types and levels of

K-12 schools with regard to adequate technical support? Are teachers in one district getting 

better training to understand how to use technology to enhance learning, while teachers in

another district are left to themselves to figure it out? 

Effectiveness of Technology in the Learning Process 

• In addition to determining the effectiveness of technology in the learning process by measuring 

learning outcomes and student satisfaction, attention should be directed to the notion of “social 

capital.” An important component of a college education is the on-campus socialization and

the social capital that is shared among faculty and peers. To what extent is socialization taking 

place through distance education? Is distance learning facilitated from home or at the

workplace different in its impact than distance learning that is accessed from a campus site? 

Also, does increased access come at the expense of the quality of the experience in terms of

noncognitive gains?

• In the fall of 2000, the Association of College and Research Libraries Board of Directors and

the American Library Association Standards Committee approved new guidelines. 

Recognizing the proliferation of distance education courses and programs, the guidelines state 

that library resources and services must meet the needs of faculty, students, and support staff

wherever they are located; in courses attended in person or by means of electronic

transmission; or any other means of distance education. To what extent are virtual and

traditional libraries providing appropriate and sufficient support to the curricula offered by

distance education providers?

• More students are receiving a certificate or degree totally through distance education. What

are the likely implications for economic returns for credentials that are achieved from distance 

coursework, compared to credentials awarded based on traditional courses?

Good public policy requires valid and reliable current data. Much has been written about access to

postsecondary education and technology. Yet, because of the striking pace of technological advances

and the proliferation of new players in the postsecondary education community, the issues are like

quicksilver, and the environment in which they exist keeps shifting. Monitoring these phenomena

requires continual vigilance through periodic data collection and informed analysis. 
41

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A-1

APPENDIX A

DEFINITIONS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION AND DISTANCE LEARNING

National Center for Education Statistics

Distance education refers to education or training courses delivered to remote (off-campus) location(s)

via audio, video (live or prerecorded), or computer technologies, including both synchronous and

asynchronous instruction. Courses conducted exclusively on campus, as well as classes conducted

exclusively via written correspondence, are not included in this definition of distance learning (although 

some on-campus instruction or testing may be involved, and some instruction may be conducted via

written correspondence). In addition, distance education does not include courses in which the instructor 

travels to a remote site to deliver instruction in person, although courses may include a small amount of

on-campus coursework or labwork, on-campus exams, or occasional on-campus meetings.

Institute for Higher Education Policy, Assuring Quality in Distance Learning: A Preliminary

Review. April 1998.

Distance learning possesses the following characteristics:

• The teaching/learning process involves activities where the learners are at a distance from the

originator of the teaching material;

• A combination of media may be used, including television, videotapes, audiotapes,

videoconferencing, audioconferencing, e-mail, telephone, fax, Internet, computer software, and print;

• Knowledge and content is available through a variety of sources, not necessarily only from the

teacher; and

• Course delivery can be offered anytime and anyplace, and direct interaction is available between

teacher and student, student and student, and groups of students.

Distance learning includes synchronous communication, which occurs when teacher and student are

present at the same time during instruction, even if they are in two different places. Distance learning

also includes asynchronous communication, which occurs when students and teachers don’t have personto-person direct interaction at the same time or place, such as through home computer-based study with

student-faculty communication via e-mail, including comments on homework assignments.

American Council on Education

Distance learning is a system and a process that connects learners with distributed learning resources. 

While distance learning takes a wide variety of forms, all distance learning is characterized by

• Separation of place and/or time between instructor and learner, among learners, and/or between

learners and learning resources.
A-2

• Interaction between the learner and the instructor, among learners, and/or between learners and

learning resources conducted through one or more media; use of electronic media is not necessarily

required.

American Federation of Teachers

The term distance education is commonly used to describe courses in which nearly all the interaction

between the teacher and student takes place electronically. Electronic communication may take the form

of audio, video, e-mail, chat, teleconferencing, and, increasingly, the Internet. Distance education

courses range from short-term training workshops to undergraduate and graduate programs for college

credit.

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Technical Report

1095, Training Through Distance Learning: An Assessment of Research Findings. June 1999.

Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching and as a

result requires special techniques for course design, special instructional techniques, special methods of

communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational and administrative

arrangements.
B-1

APPENDIX B

DEFINITION OF TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE 

FOR POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

INSTITUTE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY

Technology Infrastructure is comprised of three broad clusters, building infrastructure, systems

infrastructure, and personnel infrastructure.

Building Infrastructure describes those components that need to be incorporated into a facility 

to make any technology operate effectively. These components include: 1) the

conduits/raceways in which computer and network cables are laid in the building; 2) the cables

and electric wiring for computers and other communications technology; and 3) the electrical

power and related building features such as electric outlets.

Systems Infrastructure connects various technology components. For example, computer

network infrastructure consists of the software that runs the networking function linking all

computers in a class or college, or the external computers. It also includes hardware that runs the 

network, such as servers (computers with large information-storage capabilities that allow many

users to share information). Modems—devices that allow computers to communicate with each

other through telephone lines—are another basic component of systems infrastructure, in

addition to routers, switches, and hubs. Systems infrastructure links data, voice, video, and

multimedia systems. Wireless technology would also be included in this category.

• Data Systems include computers connected to peripheral devices, such as printers. In

addition to administrative purposes, a baseline data system enables instructional computers

to communicate with similar devices in the classroom or institution (local area networks). 

Optimally, a data system also encompasses computer networks compatible with outside

sources (wide area networks), such as the Internet, computers within the system office or at

other institutions, home computers and a variety of databases. In addition, data systems

include a set of software applications and services from external providers, such as licensed

library and research services, Internet services and other outsourced network sources. 

• Voice Systems include two-way voice communication and messaging (telephone) systems. 

An optimal system includes sufficient outgoing and incoming lines and capacity to allow for 

technologies such as voice processing and voice mail.

• Video and Multimedia Systems provide accessibility to televised communication and all

forms of video transmission within and outside the institution. An optimal system includes

capacity to send and receive instruction (i.e., two-way interactive video classes) within the

institution and other institutions.

Personnel Infrastructure includes the human resources necessary for the efficient operation of

the overall technology infrastructure. Specifically, personnel infrastructure encompasses the

human resources included for: 1) network management, 2) training and technical assistance,

3) course content development, 4) administrative support, and 5) student support services related 

to technology-aided instruction.