Preparedness

Response Recovery

Mitigation & Prevention

Practical Information

on Crisis Planning

A GUIDE FOR SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES
PRACTICAL INFORMATION ON

CRISIS PLANNING:

A GUIDE FOR SCHOOLS AND

COMMUNITIES 

JANUARY 2007

THE OFFICE OF SAFE AND DRUG-FREE SCHOOLS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
This report was produced under U.S. Department of Education

Contract No. ED-01-CO-0082/0006 with Westat. Connie Deshpande

served as the contracting officer’s technical representative.

U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings

Secretary

Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools

Deborah Price

Assistant Deputy Secretary

Bill Modzeleski

Associate Assistant Deputy Secretary

Connie Deshpande

Sr. Policy Analyst

Jennifer Medearis

Policy Analyst

Revised January 2007

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce 

it in whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint this 

publication is not necessary, the citation should be: 

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug-Free

Schools, Practical Information on Crisis Planning: A Guide for

Schools and Communities, Washington, D.C., 2003.

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write to: ED Pubs, Education Publications Center, U.S.

Department of Education, P.O. Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398;

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CONTENTS

Page

Section 1: Introduction

Introduction.....................................................1-1

Why This Guide? ............................................1-3

An Important Note on Research....................1-4

What Is a Crisis? .............................................1-5

The Sequence of Crisis Management.............1-6

Take Action! Key Principles for Effective

Crisis Planning ............................................1-8

Using This Guide ..........................................1-12

Section 2: Mitigation/Prevention

Action Checklist for Mitigation/Prevention

Mitigation/Prevention.....................................2-1

Mitigation ........................................................2-3

Prevention........................................................2-4

Action Steps.....................................................2-5

Section 3: Preparedness

Action Checklist for Preparedness

Preparedness....................................................3-1

Action Steps.....................................................3-3

Section 4: Response

Action Checklist for Response

Response ..........................................................4-1

Action Steps.....................................................4-2

Section 5: Recovery

Action Checklist for Recovery

Recovery...........................................................5-1

Action Steps.....................................................5-2

Closing the Loop..............................................5-7
ii

CONTENTS (C0NT.)

Page

Section 6: Closer Looks

Defining What Constitutes a Crisis ...............6-2

FEMA Resources.............................................6-3

Leadership .......................................................6-5

Terrorism.........................................................6-7

Volunteers........................................................6-9

Communication .............................................6-10

Preparedness..................................................6-13

Community Collaboration ............................6-17

Incident Command System...........................6-19

The Media......................................................6-22

Products .........................................................6-24

Considerations of Special Needs

Staff and Students .....................................6-30

Student Release .............................................6-32

Preparing Students, Staff,

and Stakeholders to Respond ...................6-35

Staff Training ................................................6-37

Tabletop Exercises.........................................6-40

Families..........................................................6-42

Models of Crisis Intervention for Students.....6-46

Appendix A.

Resources ........................................................A-1

Appendix B.

Emergency School Safety, Planning,

Response, and Recovery Meeting

Participants..................................................B-1

Appendix C.

Crisis Planning Interview Participants .........C-1

List of Exhibits

Exhibit 1.1 Cycle of Crisis Planning..................................1-7

Exhibit 3.1 Lockdown, Evacuation, or

Relocation Decisions ...................................3-9
1-1

“Knowing how to respond quickly and efficiently in a crisis is critical to ensuring the

safety of our schools and students. The

midst of a crisis is not the time to start

figuring out who ought to do what. At that

moment, everyone involved – from top to

bottom – should know the drill and know

each other.” 

--Margaret Spellings

Introduction
1-2

Families trust schools to keep their children safe during

the day. Thanks to the efforts of millions of teachers,

principals, and staff across America, the majority of

schools remain safe havens for our nation’s youth. The

unfortunate reality is, however, that school districts in

this country may be touched either directly or indirectly

by a crisis of some kind at any time.

Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, fires,

and tornadoes can strike a community with little or

no warning. An influenza pandemic, or other infectious

disease, can spread from person-to-person causing serious illness across the country, or around the globe, in a

very short time. School shootings, threatened or actual,

are extremely rare but are horrific and chilling when

they occur. The harrowing events of September 11 and

subsequent anthrax scares have ushered in a new age

of terrorism. Communities across the country are struggling to understand and avert acts of terror. 

Children and youth rely on and find great comfort in

the adults who protect them. Teachers and staff must

know how to help their students through a crisis and

return them home safely. Knowing what to do when

faced with a crisis can be the difference between calm

and chaos, between courage and fear, between life and

death. There are thousands of fires in schools every

year, yet there is minimal damage to life and property

because staff and students are prepared. This preparedness needs to be extended to all risks schools face.

Schools and districts need to be ready to handle crises,

large and small, to keep our children and staff out of

harm’s way and ready to learn and teach.

The time to plan is now. If you do not have a crisis

plan in place, develop one. If you do have a plan in

place, review, update and practice that plan regularly.
1-3

WHY THIS GUIDE?

Taking action now can save lives, prevent injury, and

minimize property damage in the moments of a crisis.

The importance of reviewing and revising school and

district plans cannot be underscored enough, and

Practical Information on Crisis Planning: A Guide for

Schools and Communities is designed to help you navigate this process. The Guide is intended to give schools,

districts, and communities the critical concepts and

components of good crisis planning, stimulate thinking

about the crisis preparedness process, and provide 

examples of promising practices. 

This document does not provide a cookbook approach

to crisis preparedness. Each community has its own 

history, culture, and way of doing business. Schools 

and districts are at risk for different types of crises and

have their own definitions of what constitutes a crisis.

Crisis plans need to be customized to communities, 

districts, and schools to meet the unique needs of local

residents and students. Crisis plans also need to address

state and local school safety laws.

Experts recommend against cutting and pasting plans

from other schools and districts. Other plans can serve

as useful models, but what is effective for a large innercity school district where the population is concentrated

may be ineffective for a rural community where schools

and first responders are far apart.

Children and youth rely on and find

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AN IMPORTANT NOTE ON

RESEARCH

The research on what works in school-based crisis planning is in its infancy. While a growing body of research

and literature is available on crisis management for

schools, there is little hard evidence to quantify best

practices. Fortunately, major crises, especially catastrophic events, are rare in our nation’s schools. Few

cases can be formally evaluated. Much of the information in this Guide draws heavily on what we know

about crisis management in many settings. These promising practices could effectively be adapted and applied

to school settings.

Furthermore, the Department conducted extensive

interviews with individuals who have experienced crisis

in a school first hand. We also benefited from input by

the multidisciplinary expert panel (see Appendix B) and

many other experts in the field. While not a large-scale

impact study, these interviews provide community and

educational leaders with the most current practical

information on crisis management.
1-5

WHAT IS A CRISIS?

Crises range in scope and intensity from incidents

that directly or indirectly affect a single student

to ones that impact the entire community. Crises

can happen before, during, or after school and 

on or off school campuses. The definition of a

crisis varies with the unique needs, resources,

and assets of a school and community. Staff 

and students may be severely affected by an 

incident in another city or state. The events 

of Columbine and September 11 left the entire

nation feeling vulnerable.

The underpinnings for this Guide can be found

in the definition for crisis: “An unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive

change is impending, especially one with the 

distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome (Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary,

1987).” Additionally, Webster notes that “crisis”

comes from the Greek word meaning “decision”

(Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary, 1987). 

In essence, a crisis is a situation where schools

could be faced with inadequate information, not

enough time, and insufficient resources, but in

which leaders must make one or many crucial

decisions.

All districts and schools need a crisis team. One

of the key functions of this team is to identify

the types of crises that may occur in the district

and schools and define what events would activate the plan. The team may consider many factors such as the school’s ability to handle a situation with internal resources and its experience in

responding to past events. 

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Crisis
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Plans need to address a range of events and hazards

caused both by both nature and by people, such as: 

Natural disasters (earthquake, tornado, 

hurricane, flood)

Severe weather

Fires

Chemical or hazardous material spills

Bus crashes

School shootings

Bomb threats

Medical emergencies

Student or staff deaths (suicide, homicide,

unintentional, or natural)

Acts of terror or war

Outbreaks of disease or infections 

THE SEQUENCE OF CRISIS

MANAGEMENT

The results of extensive interviews and a review of the

crisis literature reveal that experts employ four phases

of crisis management: 

Mitigation/Prevention addresses what
1-7

schools and districts can do to reduce or

eliminate risk to life and property. 

Preparedness focuses on the process of

planning for the worst-case scenario.

Response is devoted to the steps to take 

during a crisis.

Recovery deals with how to restore the

learning and teaching environment after 

a crisis.

Crisis management is a continuous process in which all

phases of the plan are being reviewed and revised (see

Exhibit 1.1). Good plans are never finished. They can

always be updated based on experience, research, and

changing vulnerabilities. Districts and schools may be 

in various stages of planning. This Guide provides the

resources needed to start the planning process and is 

a tool used to review and improve existing plans. 

Preparedness

Recovery Response

Mitigation & Prevention Mitigation & Prevention
1-8

Exhibit 1.1 Cycle of Crisis Planning
1-9

TAKE ACTION!

KEY PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE

CRISIS PLANNING

Crisis planning may seem overwhelming. It takes time

and effort, but it is manageable. Sections 2 through 5

provide practical tips on how to develop your plans.

These principles are crucial to the planning process. 

Effective crisis planning begins with

leadership at the top. Every governor,

mayor, legislator, superintendent, and principal should work together to make school crisis planning a priority. Top leadership helps

set the policy agenda, secures funds, and

brings the necessary people together across

agencies. Other leadership also needs to be

identified—the teacher who is well loved in

her school, the county’s favorite school

resource officer, or the caring school nurse.

Leaders at the grassroots level will help your

school community accept and inform the

planning process.

Crisis plans should not be developed in 

a vacuum. They are a natural extension of

ongoing school and community efforts to 

create safe learning environments. Good

planning can enhance all school functions.

Needs assessments and other data should

feed into a crisis plan. Crisis plans should

address incidents that could occur inside

Effective crisis planning begins with

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school buildings, on school grounds, and 

in the community. Coordination will avoid

duplication and mixed messages, as well as

reduce burden on planners.

School and districts should open the

channels of communication well before 

a crisis. Relationships need to be built in

advance so that emergency responders are

familiar with your school. Cultivate a relationship with city emergency managers, public works officials, and health and mental

health professionals now, and do not overlook local media. It is important that they

understand how the district and schools will

respond in a crisis. 

Crisis plans should be developed in partnership with other community groups,

including law enforcement, fire safety

officials, emergency medical services, as

well as health and mental health professionals. Do not reinvent the wheel. These

groups know what to do in an emergency

and can be helpful in the development of

your plan. Get their help to develop a coordinated plan of response.

A common vocabulary is necessary.

It is critical that school staff and emergency

responders know each other’s terminology.

Work with emergency responders to develop

Crisis

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1-11

a common vocabulary. The words used to

give directions for evacuation, lockdown, and

other actions should be clear and not hazard

specific. The Federal Emergency Management

Agency recommends using plain language to

announce the need for action, for example,

“evacuate” rather than “code blue.” Many

districts note that with plain language everyone in the school building including new

staff, substitute teachers, and visitors will

know what type of response is called for.

However, some districts have found it useful

to use—but streamline—codes. Rather than 

a code for each type of incident they use only

one code for each type of response. With

either approach, it is critical that terms and/or

codes are used consistently across the district.

Schools should tailor district crisis plans

to meet individual school needs. In fact, a

plan should not be one document. It should

be a series of documents targeted to various

audiences. For example, a school could use

detailed response guides for planners,

flipcharts for teachers, a crisis response toolbox for administrators, and wallet cards containing evacuation routes for bus drivers.

Plans should be age appropriate. Elementary

school children will behave much differently

in a crisis than high school students.

Plan for the diverse needs of children

and staff. Our review of crisis plans found
1-12

that few schools addressed children or staff

with physical, sensory, motor, developmental, or mental challenges. Special attention is

also needed for children with limited English

proficiency. Outreach documents for families

may be needed in several languages. 

Include all types of schools where appropriate. Be sure to include alternative, charter, and private schools in the planning

process, as well as others who are involved

with children before and after school. 

Provide teachers and staff with ready

access to the plan so they can understand

its components and act on them. People

who have experienced a crisis often report

that they go on “autopilot” during an incident.

They need to know what to do in advance not

only to get them through an incident but also

to help alleviate panic and anxiety.

Training and practice are essential for

the successful implementation of crisis

plans. Most students and staff know what 

to do in case of a fire because the law

requires them to participate in routine fire

drills, but would they know what to do in a

different crisis? Many districts now require

evacuation and lockdown drills in addition to

state-mandated fire drills. Drills also allow

your school to evaluate what works and what

needs to be improved.
2-1

Mitigation

& Prevention

Although schools have no control over some

of the hazards that may impact them, such

as earthquakes or plane crashes, they can

take actions to minimize or mitigate the

impact of such incidents. Schools in earthquake-prone areas can mitigate the impact

of a possible earthquake by securing bookcases and training students and staff what

to do during tremors.

Schools cannot always control fights, bomb

threats, and school shootings. However,

they can take actions to reduce the likelihood of such events. Schools may institute

policies, implement violence prevention

programs, and take other steps to improve

the culture and climate of their campuses. 
2-2

School safety and emergency management experts often

use the terms prevention and mitigation differently.

Crises experts encourage schools to consider the full

range of what they can do to avoid crises (when possible),

or lessen their impact. Assessing and addressing the safety and integrity of facilities (window seals, HVAC systems, building structure), security (functioning locks, controlled access to the school), and the culture and climate of

schools through policy and curricula are all important for

preventing and mitigating possible future crises.

Mitigation and prevention require taking inventory of

the dangers in a school and community and identifying

what to do to prevent and reduce injury and property

damage. For example:

Establishing access control procedures and

providing IDs for students and staff might

prevent a dangerous intruder from coming

onto school grounds.

Conducting hurricane drills can reduce

injury to students and staff because they 

will know what to do to avoid harm. Also,

schools in hurricane-prone areas can address

structural weaknesses in their buildings.

Planning responses to and training for incidents involving hazardous materials is important for schools near highways.

There are resources in every community that can help

with this process. Firefighters, police, public works staff,

facilities managers, and the district’s insurance representative, for example, can help conduct a hazard assessment. That information will be very useful in identifying

problems that need to be addressed in the preparedness

process. Rely on emergency responders, public health

agencies, and school nurses to develop plans for and

provide training in medical triage and first aid. 
2-3

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MITIGATION

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

has done considerable work to help states and communities in the area of mitigation planning. It notes that

the goal of mitigation is to decrease the need for response 

as opposed to simply increasing response capability.

[Mitigation is] any sustained action taken to

reduce or eliminate long-term risk to life and

property from a hazard event. Mitigation [...]

encourages long-term reduction of hazard vulnerability (FEMA, 2002).

Mitigating emergencies is also important from a legal

standpoint. If a school, district, or state does not take all

necessary actions in good faith to create safe schools, it

could be vulnerable to a suit for negligence. It is important to make certain that the physical plant is up to local

codes as well as federal and state laws.

Mitigating or preventing a crisis involves both the district and the community. Contact the regional or state

emergency management office to help get started and

connect to efforts that are under way locally. A list of

resources for state emergency management agencies is

in Appendix A.
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should be part of the crisis planning team.

PREVENTION

Creating a safe and orderly learning environment

should not be new to any school and district. Identifying

students (or in some cases staff) who may pose a danger

to themselves or to others is sometimes called “threat

assessment.” The U.S. Department of Education and

U.S. Secret Service recently released a guide, Threat

Assessments in Schools: A Guide to Managing Threatening

Situations and to Creating Safe School Climates that may

be useful in working through the threat assessment

process. The results of a threat assessment may guide

prevention efforts, which may help avoid a crisis.

Many schools have curricula and programs aimed at 

preventing children and youth from initiating harmful

behaviors. Social problem-solving or life skills programs,

anti-bullying programs, and school-wide discipline

efforts are common across the nation as a means of

helping reduce violent behavior. The staff in charge 

of prevention in a school (counselors, teachers, health

professionals, administrators) should be part of the 

crisis planning team. Information on effective and

promising prevention programs is on the Office of Safe

and Drug-Free Schools Web site.
2-5

ACTION STEPS

Know the school building. Assess potential hazards

on campus. Conduct regular safety audits of the physical

plant. Be sure to include driveways, parking lots, playgrounds, outside structures, and fencing. A safety audit

should be part of normal operations. This information

should feed into mitigation planning.

Know the community. Mitigation requires assessment

of local threats. Work with the local emergency management director to assess surrounding hazards. This

includes the identification and assessment of the probability of natural disasters (tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes) and industrial and chemical accidents (water

contamination or fuel spills). Locate major transportation routes and installations. For example, is the school

on a flight path or near an airport? Is it near a railroad

track that trains use to transport hazardous materials?

Also address the potential hazards related to terrorism. 

Schools and districts should be active partners in community-wide risk assessment and mitigation planning.

To help agencies work together, they may want to develop

a memorandum of understanding (MOU), that outlines

each agency’s responsibility.

Bring together regional, local, and school leaders,

among others. Given that mitigation/prevention are

community activities, leadership and support of mitigation and prevention activities are necessary to ensure

that the right people are at the planning table. Again,

leadership begins at the top. Schools and districts will

face an uphill battle if state and local governments are

not supportive of their mitigation efforts. 

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Make regular school safety and security efforts

part of mitigation/prevention practices. Consult 

the comprehensive school safety plan and its needs

assessment activities to identify what types of incidents

are common in the school. 

Establish clear lines of communication. Because

mitigation and prevention planning requires agencies

and organizations to work together and share information, communication among stakeholders is critical. In

addition to communications within the planning team,

outside communications with families and the larger

community are important to convey a visible message

that schools and local governments are working together

to ensure public safety. Press releases from the governor

and chief state school officer that discuss the importance of crisis planning can help open the channels 

of communication with the public. 
3-1

Preparedness

Crises have the potential to affect every

student and staff member in a school

building. Despite everyone’s best efforts at

crisis prevention, it is a certainty that

crises will occur in schools. Good planning

will facilitate a rapid, coordinated, 

effective response when a crisis occurs.

Being well prepared involves an investment

of time and resources—but the potential to

reduce injury and save lives is well worth

the effort. 

Every school needs a crisis plan that is 

tailored to its unique characteristics. Within

a school district, however, it is necessary

for all plans to have certain commonalities.
3-2

Also, it is impractical for all schools to work individually with emergency responders and other local agencies,

although school staff should meet the people who will

respond to a crisis before one happens. It is important 

to find the right balance and to assign district and

school roles early.

Set a realistic timetable for the preparation process. While

it is reasonable to feel a sense of urgency about the need

to be prepared for a crisis, a complete, comprehensive 

crisis plan cannot be developed overnight. Take the time

needed for collecting essential information, developing

the plan, and involving the appropriate people. 

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ACTION STEPS

Start by identifying who should be involved in developing the crisis plan. Include training and drills. Delegating

responsibilities and breaking the process down into manageable steps will help planners develop the plan. 

Identify and involve stakeholders. Identify the stakeholders to be involved in developing the crisis management plan (the people who are concerned about the

safety of the school and the people who will call assist

when a crisis occurs). Ask stakeholders to provide feedback on sections of the plan that pertain to them. For

instance, ask families to comment on procedures for

communicating with them during a crisis.

During this process, create working relationships with

emergency responders. It is important to learn how

these organizations function and how you will work

with each other during a crisis. Take time to learn the

vocabulary, command structure, and culture of these

groups. Some districts have found it useful to sign

MOUs with these agencies that specify expectations,

including roles and responsibilities. 

It is essential to work with city and county emergency

planners. You need to know the kinds of support municipalities can provide during a crisis, as well as any plans

the city has for schools during a crisis. For example, city

and county planners may plan to use schools as an

emergency shelter, a supply depot, or even a morgue.

Reviewing this information in advance will help you

quickly integrate resources. Participating in local emergency planning gives school and district administrators

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cement officers and emergency responders.

insight into all the problems they might face in the event

of a community-wide crisis and will help school efforts. 

Consider existing efforts. Before jumping in to develop

your crisis plan, investigate existing plans (such as those

of the district and local government). How do other

agencies’ plans integrate with the school’s? Are there

conflicts? Does the comprehensive school safety plan

include a crisis plan? What information from the district’s crisis plan can be used in the school’s crisis plan? 

If the school recently completed a crisis plan, efforts

may be limited to revising the plan in response to 

environmental, staff, and student changes:

Has the building been renovated or is it 

currently under renovation? 

Is the list of staff current? 

Have there been changes in the student population? Have other hazards revealed themselves?

Determine what crises the plan will address.

Before assigning roles and responsibilities or collecting

the supplies that the school will need during a crisis,

define what is a crisis for your school based on vulnerabilities, needs, and assets. 

Describe the types of crises the plan addresses, including

local hazards and problems identified from safety audits,

evaluations, and assessments conducted during the mitigation/prevention phase (see Section 2). Consider inci3-5

dents that may occur during community use of the

school facility and prepare for incidents that occur 

while students are off-site (e.g., during a field trip).

Define roles and responsibilities. How will the

school operate during a crisis? Define what should 

happen, when, and at whose direction—that is, create 

an organizational system. This should involve many of 

the school staff—important tasks will be neglected if 

one person is responsible for more than one function.

School staff should be assigned to the following roles:

School commander

Liaison to emergency responders

Student caregivers

Security officers

Medical staff

Spokesperson

During the planning process, both individuals and

backups should be assigned to fill these roles.

If the district has not already appointed a public information officer, or PIO, it should to do so right away.

Some large school districts have staff dedicated solely to

this function. Many smaller districts use the superintendent, school security officers, or a school principal 

as their PIO.
Work with law enforcement officers and emergency

responders to identify crises that require an outside

agency to manage the scene (fire, bomb threat, hostage

situations). Learn what roles these outsiders will play,

what responsibilities they will take on, and how they

will interact with school staff. Especially important is

determining who will communicate with families and

the community during an incident. 

Many schools and emergency responders use the

Incident Command System, or ICS, to manage incidents.

ICS provides a structured way for delegating responsibilities among school officials and all emergency responders during crisis response. An ICS and/or other management plan needs to be created with all emergency

responders and school officials before a crisis occurs. 

Develop methods for communicating with the

staff, students, families, and the media. Address

how the school will communicate with all of the individuals who are directly or indirectly involved in the

crisis. One of the first steps in planning for communication is to develop a mechanism to notify students and

staff that an incident is occurring and to instruct them

on what to do. It is critical that schools and emergency

responders use the same definitions for the same terms.

Don’t create more confusion because terms do not mean

the same to everyone involved in responding to a crisis. 

It is important to determine how to convey information

to staff and students by using codes for evacuation and

lockdown, or simply by stating the facts. FEMA recommends simply using plain language rather than codes. 

If students are evacuated from the school building, will

staff use cell phones, radios, intercoms, or runners to

get information to the staff supervising them? Be sure 

to discuss the safest means of communication with law

enforcement and emergency responders. For example,

some electronic devices can trigger bombs.

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Plan how to communicate with families, community

members, and the media. Consider writing template letters and press releases in advance so staff will not have

to compose them during the confusion and chaos of the

event. It’s easier to tweak smaller changes than to begin

from scratch.

Often the media can be very helpful in providing information to families and others in the community. Be sure

to work with local media before a crisis occurs to help

them understand school needs during an incident.

Obtain necessary equipment and supplies. Provide

staff with the necessary equipment to respond to a crisis.

Consider whether there are enough master keys for emergency responders so that they have complete access to the

school. Get the phones or radios necessary for communication. Ask for contact information for families. Maintain

a cache of first aid supplies. What about food and water

for students and staff during the incident? 

Prepare response kits for secretaries, nurses, and teachers so they have easy access to the supplies. For example,

a nurse’s kit might include student and emergency medicines (“anaphylaxis kits,” which may require physician’s

orders, for use in breathing emergencies such as severe,

sudden allergic reactions), as well as first aid supplies. A

teacher’s kit might include a crisis management reference guide, as well as an updated student roster.

Prepare for immediate response. When a crisis

occurs, quickly determine whether students and staff

need to be evacuated from the building, returned to the

building, or locked down in the building. Plan action

steps for each of these scenarios. 

Evacuation requires all students and staff to leave the

building. While evacuating to the school’s field makes
3-8

sense for a fire drill that only lasts a few minutes, it may

not be an appropriate location for a longer period of time.

The evacuation plan should include backup buildings to

serve as emergency shelters, such as nearby community

centers, religious institutions, businesses, or other

schools. Agreements for using these spaces should be

negotiated or reconfirmed prior to the beginning of each

school year. Evacuation plans should include contingencies for weather conditions such as rain, snow, and

extreme cold and heat. While most students will be able

to walk to a nearby community center, students with disabilities may have more restricted mobility. Your plan

should include transportation options for these students. 

If an incident occurs while students are outside, you

will need to return them to the building quickly. This 

is a reverse evacuation. Once staff and students are safely

in the building, you may find the situation calls for a

lockdown. 

Lockdowns are called for when a crisis occurs outside 

of the school and an evacuation would be dangerous. 

A lockdown may also be called for when there is a 

crisis inside and movement within the school will put

students in jeopardy. All exterior doors are locked and

students and staff stay in their classrooms. Windows

may need to be covered. Exhibit 3.1 illustrates the steps

in determining which action is most appropriate for

each situation. 

P

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S

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3-9

Move to

alternative

location.**

Is school

campus

afe?

Move

students

to school

campus.

Do

students 

need to

move?

Start

reunification

procedures.

Release to

parents?

Is remote*

shelter

needed?

Is 

offsite* 

safe? Lockdown.

Move

students

to off site

location.

Initiate

remote

relocation

plans.

Continue to

hold in place.

Yes

Yes

Yes No

No

No

No

Yes

* “Offsite” means off the school campus but in vicinity.

“Remote” means a location further from the school than offsite location.

** Be sure to prepare primary and secondary evacuation routes in advance.

Adapted from the San Diego school district.

Exhibit 3.1 Lockdown, Evacuation, or Relocation

Decisions 
3-10

Pre

p

are

d

n

e

s

s in

clu

d

es

emergency drills and crisis exercises.

Shelter-in-place is used when there is not time to evacuate or when it may be harmful to leave the building.

Shelter-in-place is commonly used during hazardous

material spills. Students and staff are held in the building and windows and doors are sealed. There can be

limited movement within the building.

Create maps and facilities information. In a crisis,

emergency responders need to know the location of

everything in a school. Create site maps that include

information about classrooms, hallways, and stairwells,

the location of utility shut-offs, and potential staging

sites. Emergency responders need copies of this information in advance. During a crisis designate locations—

staging sites—for emergency responders to organize, for

medical personnel to treat the injured, for the public

information officer to brief the media, and for families

to be reunited with their children. Student reunification

sites should be as far away from the media staging area

as possible. Law enforcement will help determine the

plans needed to facilitate access of emergency responders

and to restrict access of well-wishers and the curious.

Develop accountability and student release procedures. As soon as a crisis is recognized, account for all

students, staff, and visitors. Emergency responders treat

a situation very differently when people are missing.

For example, when a bomb threat occurs, the stakes are

substantially higher if firefighters do not know whether

students are in the school when they are trying to locate

and disarm a bomb.
3-11

Be sure to inform families of release procedures before 

a crisis occurs. In many crises, families have flocked to

schools wanting to collect their children immediately. 

A method should be in place for tracking student release

and ensuring that students are only released to authorized individuals. 

Practice. Preparedness includes emergency drills and

crisis exercises for staff, students, and emergency

responders. Many schools have found tabletop exercises

very useful in practicing and testing the procedures

specified in their crisis plan. Tabletop exercises involve

school staff and emergency responders sitting around 

a table discussing the steps they would take to respond 

to a crisis. Often, training and drills identify issues that

need to be addressed in the crisis plan and problems

with plans for communication and response. Teachers

also need training in how to manage students during 

a crisis, especially those experiencing panic reactions.

Careful consideration of these issues will improve your

crisis plan and better prepare you to respond to an 

actual crisis. 

Address liability issues. Consideration of liability

issues is necessary before crisis planning can be completed and may protect you and your staff from a lawsuit. Situations where there is a foreseeable danger can

hold liability if the school does not make every reasonable effort to intervene or remediate the situation. A

careful assessment of the hazards faced by the school

is critical. 

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Pre

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6-3

7

S

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Trainin

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T

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Ex

ercis

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4-1

Response

A crisis is the time to follow the crisis plan,

not to make a plan from scratch. This 

section summarizes some of the major 

recommendations gathered from 

experienced practitioners and other 

experts about points to remember when

called on to implement your crisis plan.
4-2

ACTION STEPS

Expect to be surprised. Regardless of how much time

and effort was spent on crisis planning, the members of

the crisis team should know that there will always be an

element of surprise and accompanying confusion when

a school is confronted with a crisis. 

Assess the situation and choose the appropriate

response. Following the plan requires a very quick but

careful assessment of the situation. Determine whether

a crisis exists and if so, the type of crisis, the location,

and the magnitude. Because the team has practiced the

plan, leaders are ready to make these decisions. After

basic protective steps are in place, more information 

can be gathered to adjust later responses. 

Respond within seconds. When a crisis actually 

happens, make the basic decisions about what type of

action is needed and respond within seconds. An immediate, appropriate response depends on a plan with

clearly articulated roles and responsibilities, as well as

training and practice. With proper training, district and

school staff and students will respond appropriately

within seconds. 

Notify appropriate emergency responders and the

school crisis response team. One common mistake 

is to delay calling emergency responders, such as the

police or fire departments. In the midst of a crisis, 

people often believe that the situation can be handled

in-house. It is better to have emergency responders on

the scene as soon as possible, even if the incident has

been resolved by the time they arrive, than to delay

calling and risk further injury and damage. For instance,
4-3

One common mistake is to delay calli

n

g

e

m

erg

e

n

c

y re

s

p

o

n

d

ers.

it is better to have emergency responders arrive at a

school to find a fire put out than to arrive too late to

prevent loss of life or serious property damage. 

Notifying a district’s or school’s crisis team allows them

to begin the necessary measures to protect the safety of

all persons involved. Unless informed otherwise by the

incident commander, school crisis team members should

proceed with their responsibilities.

Evacuate or lock down the school as appropriate.

This step is crucial and should be one of the first decisions made, regardless of the order in which initial decisions are implemented.

Triage injuries and provide emergency first aid to

those who need it. The plan should assign emergency

medical services personnel and school staff with relevant qualifications to determine who needs emergency

first aid. Designate a location for EMS to treat the seriously injured on the scene.

Keep supplies nearby and organized at all times. If

you move to another location, remember to take your

supplies with you. Monitor the amount of supplies and

replace them as needed.

Trust leadership. Trust the internal crisis team members and external emergency responders who have been

trained to deal with crises. Trust will help calm the 

situation and minimize the chaos that may occur 

during a crisis. 
During a crisis, leaders need to project a calm, confident, and serious attitude to assure people of the seriousness of the situation and the wisdom of the directions being given. This leadership style will help all

involved to respond in a similarly calm and confident

manner, as well as helping to mitigate the reactions of

anyone who might deny that a crisis has occurred. 

In certain situations it may be necessary to yield leadership to others in the plan’s designated command structure. In some jurisdictions laws state the protocol for the

command structure. This structure may vary from state

to state and even from community to community within

state. For instance, in a fire, the expertise of firefighters

should lead the way, with others filling designated roles

such as manager of family-student reunification.

Communicate accurate and appropriate information.

During a crisis, districts and schools will communicate

with the school community as well as the community at

large. Use the channels of communication identified in

the plan. For instance, all information released to the

media and public should be funneled through a single

public information officer or appointed spokesperson.

This will maximize the likelihood of presenting consistent and accurate information to the public.

The crisis team should communicate regularly with staff

who are managing students. A school’s most important

responsibility, the safety of the students entrusted to the

school by their families, cannot be fulfilled during a crisis without timely and accurate information to those

caring for students.

At a minimum, families need to know that a crisis has

occurred and that all possible steps are being taken to

see to the safety of their children. Additional details

about assembly and shelter procedures may also be 

4-4
4-5

provided, as determined by the plan or those managing

the crisis. At some point, families will also need to

know when and where their children will be released.

Activate the student release system. Always keep in

mind that the earliest possible safe release of students is

a desired goal. Often student release will be accomplished before complete resolution of a crisis. 

Allow for flexibility in implementing the crisis plan.

It is impossible for any crisis plan, no matter how complete, to address every situation that may arise during a

crisis. With proper training and practice, emergency

responders and staff will be able to respond appropriately

and to adapt the school crisis plans to the situation. 

Documentation. Write down every action taken during

the response. This will provide a record of appropriate

implementation of the crisis plan. Also necessary is

recording damage for insurance purposes and tracking

financial expenditures related to the incident. Keep all

original notes and records. These are legal documents.

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5-1

Recovery

The goal of recovery is to return to learning

and restore the infrastructure of the

school as quickly as possible. Focus on 

students and the physical plant, and to

take as much time as needed for recovery.

School staff can be trained to deal with

the emotional impact of the crisis, as well

as to initially assess the emotional needs of

students, staff, and responders. One of

the major goals of recovery is to provide a

caring and supportive school environment.
5-2

ACTION STEPS

Plan for recovery in the preparedness phase.

Determine the roles and responsibilities of staff and 

others who will assist in recovery during the planning

phase. District-level counselors may want to train school

staff to assess the emotional needs of students and colleagues to determine intervention needs. Experience

shows that after a crisis many unsolicited offers of assistance from outside the school community are made.

During planning, you may want to review the credentials of service providers and certify those that will be

used during recovery.

Assemble the Crisis Intervention Team. A Crisis

Intervention Team, or CIT, is composed of individuals

at either the district or school level involved in recovery.

A review of the literature shows that there are different

models for organizing a CIT. In one model, there is a

centralized CIT at the district level, which serves all

schools in that district. In another model, the district

trains school-based CITs. Even when crisis intervention

teams exist within individual schools, it may be necessary for the superintendent to allocate additional

resources on an as-needed basis. 

Service providers in the community may want to assist

after a crisis. With prior planning, those with appropriate skills and certifications may be tapped to assist in

recovery. This will help district and school personnel

coordinate activities of the community service providers

and see that district procedures and intervention goals

are followed.

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Crisis In

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5-3

One of the major goals of recovery is

to

p

r

o

vid

e

a

c

arin

g

a

n

d

s

u

p

p

ortiv

e

s

c

h

o

ol e

n

viro

n

m

e

n

t.

Return to the “business of learning” as quickly as

possible. Experts agree that the first order of business

following a crisis is to return students to learning as

quickly as possible. This may involve helping students

and families cope with separations from one another

with the reopening of school after a crisis.

Schools and districts need to keep students, families, and the media informed. Be clear about what

steps have been taken to attend to student safety. Let

families and other community members know what

support services the school and district are providing or

what other community resources are available. Messages

to students should be age appropriate. It may be necessary to translate letters and other forms of communication into languages other than English depending on the

composition of the communities feeding the affected

school(s). Be sure to consider cultural differences when

preparing these materials.

Focus on the building, as well as people, during

recovery. Following a crisis, buildings and their

grounds may need repairing or repainting/relandscaping. Conduct safety audits and determine the parts of

the building that can be used and plan for repairing

those that are damaged.

Provide assessment of emotional needs of staff,

students, families, and responders. Assess the emotional needs of all students and staff, and determine

those who need intervention by a school counselor,

social worker, school psychologist, or other mental

health professional. Arrange for appropriate interventions by school or community-based service providers.

In addition, available services need to be identified for

families, who may want to seek treatment for their children or themselves. Appropriate group intervention may

be beneficial to students and staff experiencing less

severe reactions to the crisis. Group interventions

should be age appropriate.

Provide stress management during class time.

Trauma experts emphasize the need to create a caring,

warm, and trusting environment for students following

a crisis. Allow students to talk about what they felt and

experienced during the traumatic event. Younger children who may not be able to fully express their feelings

verbally will benefit from participating in creative activities, including drawing, painting, or writing stories.

Young adolescents benefit from group discussions in

which they are encouraged to talk about their feelings,

as well as from writing plays or stories about their experiences. Engage older adolescents in group discussions,

and address any issues of guilt (“I could have taken

some action to change the outcome of the crisis”).

Conduct daily debriefings for staff, responders,

and others assisting in recovery. Mental health

workers who have provided services after crises stress

the importance of ensuring that those who are providing

“psychological first aid” are supported with daily critical

incident stress debriefings. Debriefings help staff cope

with their own feelings of vulnerability.

5-4
5-5

Allow students to talk about what they

f

elt

a

n

d

e

x

p

erie

n

c

e

d

d

urin

g

t

h

e

tra

u

m

a

tic

e

v

e

n

t.

Take as much time as needed for recovery. An individual recovers from a crisis at his or her own pace.

Recovery is not linear. After a crisis, healing is a process

filled with ups and downs. Depending on the traumatic

event and the individual, recovery may take months or

even years.

Remember anniversaries of crises. Many occasions

will remind staff, students, and families about crises.

The anniversary of crises will stimulate memories and

feelings about the incident. In addition, other occasions

may remind the school community about the crises,

including holidays, returning to school after vacations

and other breaks, as well as events or occasions that

seemingly do not have a connection with the incident.

This underscores the notion that recovery may take a

longer time than anticipated. 

Staff members need to be sensitive to their own as well

as the students’ reactions in such situations and provide

support when necessary. School crisis planning guides

suggest holding appropriate memorial services or other

activities, such as planting a tree in memory of victims

of the crises. Trauma experts discourage memorials for

suicide victims to avoid glorification and sensationalization of these deaths. 
Evaluate. Evaluating recovery efforts will help prepare

for the next crisis. Use several methods to evaluate

recovery efforts. Conduct brief interviews with emergency responders, families, teachers, students, and staff.

Focus groups may also be helpful in obtaining candid

information about recovery efforts. The following are

examples of questions to ask:

Which classroom-based interventions proved

most successful and why?

Which assessment and referral strategies were

the most successful and why?

What were the most positive aspects of staff

debriefings and why?

Which recovery strategies would you change

and why?

Do other professionals need to be tapped to

help with future crises?

What additional training is necessary to

enable the school community and the community at large to prepare for future crises?

What additional equipment is needed to 

support recovery efforts?

What other planning actions will facilitate

future recovery efforts?

5-6
CLOSING THE LOOP

At the beginning of this Guide, we 

discussed the cyclical nature of crisis 

planning. Recovery may seem like an end,

but it is also the beginning. You must close

the loop on the circle. A critical step in 

crisis planning is to evaluate each incident.

What worked? What didn’t? How could you

improve operations? Take what you have

learned and start at the beginning. Update

and strengthen the plan so that in a crisis,

no child is left behind.

5-7

6-1

This section provides information on specific

aspects of crisis management, and is

intended for key planners who need more

detailed guidance to help them implement

the crisis management process. As part of

these “closer looks” at crisis planning and

management, examples have been included

that illustrate how actual school districts

have implemented crisis planning. Selection

of these examples does not constitute an

endorsement of any school district’s crisis

plan by the U.S. Department of Education.

Given the vast differences in the ways 

educational systems and emergency 

responders are organized across the 

nation, crisis planning at the local level

should address individual community needs.

Closer Looks
DEFINING WHAT CONSTITUTES

A CRISIS

Those familiar with crises describe them as sudden,

unexpected, overwhelming incidents. However, within the

crisis planning field, there is no consensus on what constitutes a crisis, emergency, or disaster. Often, these terms are

used interchangeably. Below are some ways crisis management planners have defined the terms. We hope these

will help you craft your own definition based on local

needs, vulnerabilities to certain conditions, and assets.

The State of Florida. Emergency: A dangerous event

that does not result in a request for state or federal

assistance (Florida Department of Education, 2002). 

Olathe Unified School District #233 (Kansas).

People Crisis: An event dealing with people and their

physical or emotional well-being that impacts the school

population (Olathe Unified School District, 2002).

FEMA. Emergency: An emergency is any unplanned

event that can cause deaths or significant injuries to

employees, customers or the public; or that can shut

down your business, disrupt operations, cause physical

or environmental damage, or threaten the facility’s

financial standing or public image (FEMA, 1993).

The National Association of School Nurses.

Emergency and Disaster: [A]n emergency is an unexpected event that is usually managed by existing resources

and capabilities. A disaster is any incident that results 

in multiple human casualties or disruption of essential

public health services or any incident that requires an

increased level of response beyond the routine operating

procedures, including increased personnel, equipment, 

or supply requirements (Doyle and Loyacono, 2002). 

6-2
FEMA RESOURCES

FEMA recently has released a series of “how-to” guides

for state and local planners on mitigating disasters that

may be useful in learning about and understanding mitigation practices:

Understanding Your Risks: Identifying

Hazards and Estimating Losses. This guide

provides step-by-step instructions on assessing risk.

Getting Started: Building Support for

Mitigation Planning. This guide provides a

general overview of emergency management,

takes the reader through the stages of mitigation planning, and gives practical examples

on conducting a community assessment,

building a planning team, and engaging the

public in planning.

Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation

Planning. This guide was developed in the

wake of the September 11 attacks. The guide

addresses such incidents as technological

hazards and acts of terrorism. 

Are You Ready? An In-depth Guide to Citizen

Preparedness. This guide provides detailed

information in layperson’s terms on what to

do in specific disasters and what to do to 

survive one.

These documents can be downloaded from

http://www.fema.gov.

Some of FEMA’s online courses will also be helpful for

6-3
6-4

school and district staff. Basic Incident Command System

provides an introduction to the concepts and principles

of ICS including how ICS functions and the activities it

is responsible for during incidents. Exercise Design

teaches how to develop tabletop exercises and drills to

test the plan. The course addresses the communications,

logistics, and administrative structure needed to support

these activities. These courses can be downloaded at

http://training.fema.gov/emiweb.

Students may appreciate the FEMA for Kids Web site

http://www.FEMA.gov/kids. Materials on the Web site

are designed to make crises less scary to children by

helping them feel prepared. The Disaster Action Kid

program even provides certificates to students who 

complete a series of online activities. 
LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the key to crisis preparedness. An organized

management structure will be needed to respond to any

crisis—and this structure begins with strong leadership.

Major Elements

Leadership should start at the top. An

effective crisis plan requires strong leadership

from state, district, school, and community

leaders. Leadership should start at the state

level and continue down to the district and

school levels. In selecting team members,

remember natural leaders at the grassroots

level. 

Districts should be at the forefront in

the creation of crisis plans for all of

their schools. Schools should then tailor

plans to fit their needs.

At the school level, the principal serves as a leader.

He or she should do the following:

Identify stakeholders who need to be

involved in crisis planning, such as community groups, emergency responders, families, and staff. Cultivate relationships with

these groups.

Establish a crisis planning team.

Secure commitment to crisis planning

within the school and the larger community.

Create an incident management structure.

The structure should provide a comprehensive

organizational structure designed for all types

6-5
6-6

of emergencies. It is based on the premise that

every crisis has certain major elements

requiring clear lines of command and control.

Know available resources. This activity

includes identifying and becoming familiar

with resources in the school such as staff

members certified in cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR); in the community, including

everyone from emergency responders to

counselors; and, in organizations such as 

the parent-teacher association.

Set up time to train and practice with

staff, students, and emergency responders.

Training is multifaceted and can include

drills, in-service events, tabletop exercises,

and written materials. Also include time 

to review and evaluate the plan.

In times of crisis, the principal serves as the manager

and a leader. This does not always equate with being 

the person in charge of the entire crisis response; see

the closer look on ICS for more details. During a crisis, 

a principal should perform the following tasks:

Respond within seconds and lead with

a serious, calm, confident style.

Implement the crisis plan.

Yield authority, when appropriate, to others

in the plan’s designated command structure.

Facilitate collaboration among school staff

and emergency responders.

Remain open to suggestions and information

that may be critical in adjusting the response.

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IC

S
TERRORISM

Thorough crisis planning will carry the school and 

district a long way in responding to a terrorist incident.

While the risk of a terrorist attack on a school is much

lower than the risk of being impacted by many local hazards, it is very important to be prepared. As with other

incidents, a terrorist attack may result in the following:

Damage beyond school boundaries (as with 

a hurricane),

Victims who are contaminated (as with

a hazardous materials spill),

A crime scene to protect (as with arson), or

Widespread fear and panic (as with a school

shooting).

The response will need to involve securing student and

staff safety and supporting long-term recovery, just as

with any other incident.

As the Department of Homeland Security (DHS),

Advisory System signals increased threat, additional

protective measures are needed. Several districts have

incorporated the DHS system into their crisis planning.

The Red Cross has also issued some general guidance on

how schools may adapt these codes. It is useful to consult

with local emergency management offices and state or

county emergency terrorism task forces. Each state also

has a Department of Homeland Security liaison. Check

with the Governor’s office to identify the contact. 

The sample school advisory system is a useful tool to

adapt and incorporate into crisis planning. As the risk

of attack increases, consider action items under both

current and lower threat levels. It is important to assess

local conditions and implement actions accordingly.

6-7
6-8

Assign staff to monitor entrances at all times

Assess facility security measures

Update parents on preparedness efforts

Update media on preparedness efforts

Address student fears concerning possible terrorist attacks

Place school and district crisis response teams on standby alert status

Follow local and/or federal government instructions

(listen to radio/TV)

Activate crisis plan

Restrict school access to essential personnel

Cancel outside activities and field trips

Provide mental health services to anxious students and staff

Inspect school buildings and grounds for suspicious activities

Assess increased risk with public safety officials

Review crisis response plans with school staff

Test alternative communication capabilities

Review and upgrade security measures

Review emergency communication plan

Inventory, test, and repair communication equipment

Inventory and restock emergency supplies

Conduct crisis training and drills

Assess and update crisis plans and procedures

Discuss updates to school and local crisis plans with emergency

responders

Review duties and responsibilities of crisis team members

Provide CPR and first aid training for staff

Conduct 100% visitor ID check

LOW

(Green) 

GUARDED

(Blue)

ELEVATED

(Yellow) 

HIGH

(Orange)

SEVERE

(Red)

Sample School

Advisory System

Risk Suggested Actions
6-9

VOLUNTEERS

Volunteers can be a vital resource for planning. Recent

federal initiatives have focused on training civilians for

emergency preparedness. 

The USA Freedom Corps created the Citizens Corps to

funnel the energy and concern of volunteers into initiatives that prepare local communities to prevent and

respond effectively to the threats of terrorism, crime, or

any other kind of disaster. Citizen Corps is coordinated

nationally by the Department of Homeland Security

(DHS). In this capacity, DHS works closely with other

federal entities, state and local governments, first

responders and emergency managers, the volunteer

community, and the White House Office of the USA

Freedom Corps. One of these nationwide initiatives is

the Community Emergency Response Team (CERT), a

training program that prepares citizens in neighborhoods, the workplace, and schools to take a more active

role in emergency management planning and to prepare

themselves and others for disasters. 

CERT efforts include developing community action

plans, assessing possible threats, and identifying local

resources. As you explore neighborhood resources to

assist in mitigation, planning, response, and recovery, 

be sure to check whether a CERT is active in the area.

Additionally, knowing this national support structure

may provide the impetus needed for organizing volunteers who may surface at various points of the crisis

planning and management cycle.
COMMUNICATION

Clear lines of communication are crucial to a successful

response to a crisis. During the planning process, it will

be important to establish effective lines of communication among and within the state, district, school, and

community groups. When creating a crisis plan, there

are several communication needs that should be

addressed.

Communication is essential before crises occur:

Use common terminology across a district.

Terminology should be the same across

schools in a district. In most districts, there 

is a great deal of mobility from one school 

to another, for both staff and students. The

term or code for evacuation in one school, 

for example, should be the same as the term 

or code for evacuation in another school in the

district. The use of plain language is advised.

Identify several modes of communication

for both internal and external communication. Keep in mind that in times of crisis,

computers, intercoms, telephones, and even

cell phones may not work or may be dangerous to use. Plan for several methods of communication in a crisis. 

Make sure that schools have adequate

supplies of communication gear and that

the appropriate individuals have access

to it. One school’s crisis plan, for example,

calls for the principal to immediately grab 

a backpack containing a cell phone and a

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walkie-talkie. Communication gear is of no

use if no one can access it.

Verify that school communication

devices are compatible with emergency

responder devices. A cell phone or two-way

radio is of no use if it cannot be used with

the emergency responder’s phone or radio.

Also, check to see that the school’s communication devices do not interfere with the

emergency responder’s equipment. 

Create communication plans to notify

families that a crisis has occurred at

their child’s school. These pathways

should include several modes of communication, including notices sent home and phone

trees, so the pathways can be tailored to fit

the needs of a particular crisis. For example,

it may be appropriate in some crises to send

a notice home, while other crises require

immediate parental notification. Use these

pathways throughout the planning process 

to encourage parental input and support.

Establish communication pathways with

the community. This may be in the form of

a phone or e-mail tree, a community liaison,

or media briefings. It is crucial to keep the

community informed before, during, and

after a crisis.

Designate a PIO to deal with families, the

community and the media. The designation

of one individual will help all parties stay

informed with identical information.

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Good communication during a crisis is also crucial.

Below are some key points to keep in mind:

Keep staff who are managing the students informed. Regardless of the amount

of training staff members have received,

there is going to be chaos and fear.

Communication mitigates those reactions

and helps regain a sense of calm and control.

Notify families of action being taken.

Understand that parents are going to want

immediate access to their children. Safely

begin reunification procedures as soon as

possible. Keep families informed as much as

possible, especially in the case of delayed

reunification. 

Communication often stops after a crisis subsides.

However, during the recovery phase, keeping staff and

community informed remains critical.

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PREPAREDNESS

There is a great deal of variation in what districts do 

to prepare for crises. Different districts have different

needs and face different hazards. For example, Olathe

Unified School District in Kansas is likely to face a tornado, unlike San Diego City Public Schools in California.

Also, San Diego serves far more students than Olathe.

In contrast, the Boyertown Area School District in

Pennsylvania must address the hazards posed by its

proximity to a nuclear power plant. Volusia County,

Florida, is unique for its tests of whether staff and students follow proper procedures during a mock crisis situation. Despite their different needs, all four districts

have undertaken comprehensive preparedness efforts.

Olathe Unified School District, Kansas

“The question is not if an emergency happens, but

when it happens, how prepared are we to handle a 

situation,” says the assistant superintendent for general

administration for the Olathe School District. Olathe’s

crisis plan has been in existence since 1993. Every

school building is required to have its own all-hazard

crisis plans, which are also housed in the district office.

Building principals review and update their plans yearly

to make sure they are in compliance. Plans are continuously used by school buildings and are considered part

of the daily routine.

The district has two teams that have specific responsibilities needed to respond to crisis situations. The district crisis management team is responsible for coordination of all aspects of a crisis from the district level.

The building crisis management team assesses the 

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situation to determine whether the building crisis plan

should be set into motion. The district has also established drills and procedures for each building in the district. Training and drills are seen as essential components of the crisis plans. The district requires five types

of drills over the school year: fire, tornado, severe weather, code red (lockdown), and bus evacuation. Other drills

are left up to the schools’ discretion.

San Diego City Public Schools, California

San Diego has implemented a four-pronged approach for

the development and maintenance of its schools’ safety

plans and meeting safety needs of students, staff, and

the community: 

1 Revise emergency procedures and 

develop a quick reference guide. 

2 Create and distribute an emergency

response box to every school and child

development center in the district. 

3 Conduct ongoing crisis response planning and training with the San Diego

Police Department, San Diego School

Police Services, public safety, and 

district personnel.

4 Implement safe school plans. 

State law has required school safety plans since 1997.

School police services coordinates the annual review of

safe school plans for all schools and child development

centers in the district. Plans must be reviewed and

approved by the school site prior to submission to

school police services. The school board ultimately signs

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off on all plans. The district can be fined by the state for

any school that does not submit a plan.

Boyertown Area School District, Pennsylvania

Boyertown Area School District is only a few miles from

the Limerick Nuclear Generating Plant. Any school within 10 miles of a nuclear power plant has special needs for

crisis plans. Many Pennsylvania school districts have

found the Philadelphia Electric Company—Limerick’s

owner—very helpful in developing evacuation plans.

Boyertown has developed an All Hazards Plan, which

provides information on various emergency procedures,

including those for accidents, bomb threats, evacuation,

explosion, fire, hazardous materials, natural disasters,

radiological emergencies, security situations, casualties,

and crisis intervention. The All Hazards Plan goes to district administrators and school principals who in turn

develop site plans. School staff are given a staff emergency procedures folder to use in the event of an emergency. The district uses a color-coded system to facilitate

response and communication. One feature of the All

Hazards Plan is the checklist that appears at the beginning of each section. These checklists enable the person

in charge during an emergency to know exactly what to

do, whom to call, and how to react. Changes are made to

the plan as the district experiences emergencies or conducts routine drills. In addition to the routine drills, every

two years school buildings must conduct a radiological

drill with the help of emergency management staff. 

Volusia County Schools, Florida

“Overall, [Volusia County Schools] feel comfortable that

staff and students are prepared for an emergency,” says

the district director of student assignments. The district

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has implemented a security certification process for all

schools for the past four years. Schools must be in compliance with all 57 security standards which are divided

into six categories: 

1 training and implementation, 

2 violence prevention, 

3 emergencies and disasters, 

4 student and staff protection, 

5 physical plant, and 

6 community involvement. 

In addition to a copy of the standards and requirements

for certification, schools have access to a workbook that

outlines where they should be. A team of district,

school, and law enforcement administrators conducts

compliance monitoring and certification every third

year. To confirm that staff and students are aware of

procedures during a crisis situation, schools are evaluated

on their response to a crisis scenario. In order to pass,

schools must demonstrate that staff and students follow

proper procedures and are aware of steps they must take

when a situation arises. District staff annually spotcheck schools on identified standards. Schools found out

of compliance receive unannounced spot-checks within

a year after the initial review.

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COMMUNITY COLLABORATION

Crisis planning experts recommend that school districts

collaborate with community emergency responders in

developing their crisis plans. They note that emergency

responders have substantial training in this area, unlike

most school system staff. In some states, laws mandate collaboration among schools, school districts and emergency

responders in developing their crisis plans. For example,

the Georgia General Assembly wrote the following:

“School safety plans of public schools shall be

prepared with input from students enrolled in

that school, parents or legal guardians of such

students, teachers in that school, other school

employees and school district employees and

local law enforcement, fire service, public safety and emergency management agencies.”

Maine, Nevada, and Rhode Island are among the states

requiring law enforcement, firefighters, and local emergency services officials be included in the planning process.

Here are examples of how two school districts have worked

with community agencies to develop their crisis plans.

Bibb County School District, Georgia

School district staff in Bibb County, Georgia, through

the school police, have worked extensively with county

and community agencies to develop a comprehensive

crisis management plan. After their district-wide crisis

team (whose members included campus police, school

social workers, school psychologists, teachers from all

education levels, families, and students) had developed 

a draft crisis management plan, they worked with local

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police, sheriff, EMS, Red Cross, county health and mental health agencies, and family and children’s services to

determine how they would interact in a crisis and what

services each agency would provide. 

District staff have also participated in the communitywide emergency preparedness initiative. This effort to

address major incidents was convened by the sheriff

who recognized that the county emergency management

agency has plans to deal with floods and hurricanes, but

is not prepared for a weapons of mass destruction incident. All community agencies were asked to bring

copies of their crisis plans and a list of the resources

they could lend to manage such an incident. This group

has been meeting every two weeks and has conducted a

number of tabletop exercises. 

Hanover Public Schools, Virginia

Hanover Public Schools’ crisis plans developed out of 

a partnership with the Hanover County Sheriff’s

Department. Plans have been in existence for the past

eight years. The district’s plan consists of intervention,

crisis response, and critical incident procedures. An

important component of the district’s plan is its community collaboration. “The district has made every effort to

include a broad cross section of the community constituency in the development of crisis plans,” says the

district’s executive director of support services. The district has an interagency agreement that is both written

and verbal with a compendium of agencies to aid in

communication and to help coordinate services between

the agencies and individual schools or the entire school

district. In addition, each school must have a community representative on the school safety committee and on

the school safety audit committee. 

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INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM

Response to all crises requires a clear chain of command

between all responders. The ICS is based on the premise

that every crisis has certain major elements requiring

clear lines of command and control.

FEMA is a good source of information on the ICS.

FEMA has developed a self-study course that anyone

can take. The description of the ICS below borrows

from that course and from FEMA’s multihazard training

for schools—a program also offered by many state emergency management agencies. 

Before developing school and district ICS teams, work

with emergency responders to learn how they will

respond to different types of crises. Learn which types

of crises will result in fire and police departments leading the response. Learn how they will direct their personnel and interface with outsiders. Let these agencies

know who at the school will be their liaison during an

incident. Designate two backup liaison officers in case

the primary liaison is off site when the incident occurs. 

Although emergency responders may be managing the

incident, there is still much for school staff to do, including managing the care of students and the supplies and

staffing needs of the situation. While the ICS calls for

school staff to serve in all of the critical functions, be 

prepared for the incident commander to designate outside

personnel to manage these responsibilities. According 

to FEMA, the critical functions are as follows:

Incident commander. This person manages

the entire incident and will very often be an

emergency responder rather than a school

administrator.

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Public information officer. This person is

responsible for releasing information to families, community members, and the media

during a crisis. The media can be a tremendous help in getting information to families

and community members.

Safety officer. This person is responsible

for the safety of the scene and the individuals

at the scene. His or her role might include

determining whether students have been

evacuated far enough from the school. Often

this role will be filled by an emergency

responder.

Liaison officer. This person is responsible

for coordinating with all of the agencies that

have responded to the crisis. It is critical that

this person be a good communicator and able

to convey important information both to

responders about the situation or the school

facility and to school staff about necessary

actions. 

Operations officer. This person manages

student and staff care during a crisis. This

includes physical (food and water), medical

(CPR and first aid), and mental needs (psychological services), as well as student release.

Planning and intelligence officer. This

person is responsible for documenting the

event, analyzing what has transpired thus

far, and planning for possible further action.

Logistics officer. This person manages the

supply and staffing needs of the situation. The

logistics officer focuses on acquiring 
the supplies needed to assist the emergency

responders. The logistics officer’s school staff

logistics responsibilities will include long-term

needs (beyond the first four hours) for things

like food, water, and bathroom facilities, as

well as transportation (if students need to be

bused off campus). The logistics officer is also

responsible for locating and assigning staff to

fill various tasks for emergency situations.

This could include finding staff to carry messages from the operations officer to those staff

members directly managing students.

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THE MEDIA

Though there are not many certainties in school crises,

it is guaranteed that the media will be at the scene.

Instead of being overwhelmed and threatened by the

media, be prepared to work with them. The media can

be a valuable asset during a crisis. In the event of a catastrophic event, the media may be your only outlet for

communicating with families. However, as with all crisis planning, it is important to be proactive, not reactive.

If members of the media feel that they are not getting a

story, they will seek one out. 

Work with local media before a crisis

occurs to make sure they understand

your needs during an incident. The media

can even help report on preparedness

efforts—families and community members

will appreciate knowing about a plan for

dealing with the situation should a crisis

arise.

Designate one representative within

your crisis team to deal with the media.

This should be the PIO. The PIO may be the

principal or another team member designated

by the principal or the head of the response

team. There also may be media specialists at

the district level. Investigate this and make

sure that the school-level representative

immediately contacts the district-level media

representative in the event of a crisis.

Emphasize that only the designated representative will give information to the

media. In order to be proactive, only one

PIO/spokesperson should speak with the

media, even if there is nothing yet available

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to share. It is helpful for the representative to

introduce him or herself as the spokesperson

and say, “We don’t have/aren’t able to release

any information yet but we will keep you

updated as soon as we are able. We would

really appreciate your cooperation with staying in the media staging area. I will be making all announcements from this area and

will keep you informed.”

Designate a predetermined site for the

media to congregate in event of a school

crisis. If it is not possible to use the predetermined site that is away from students and

staff, the principal or head of the command

chain should designate an alternate site.

Prepare staff to deal with the media 

trying to get live coverage pictures and

interviews. Media personnel will often try

to get on campus and interview staff and students. Make it clear to staff that they should

direct media people to the media area and to

the school spokesperson or PIO. 

Arrange for a joint press conference with

emergency responders or choose one

media representative to disseminate information to all other media outlets. This will

give you some control over the content, flow,

and timing of information that is released.

Work with state and local emergency

management agencies to have the Federal

Aviation Administration restrict air space

over your site. This will prevent helicopters

flying over your school at a time of chaos.

Media helicopters can be very frightening 

to children.

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PRODUCTS

A three-ring binder detailing every aspect of response,

complete with floor plans, facilities information, and

roles and responsibilities is not the only product you’ll

need to be able to respond to a crisis. Teachers should

have abbreviated guides, principals should have crisis

response boxes, and emergency responders should have

floor plans and facilities information. Some school 

districts have found the following products useful.

Teacher Quick Reference Guides

The director of school safety in Bulloch County,

Georgia, discovered that teachers found having copies 

of the district’s safety plan inadequate for crisis

response. Using the master plan, they were unable to

quickly identify their roles and responsibilities in a 

crisis. Teachers recommended that the district develop

something they could hold in their hands and quickly

flip through. 

Staff at one high school, including teachers, nurses, and

media center staff, were drafted to develop such a tool.

Their Quick Guide was piloted by all teachers at that

school for one year. Overall, teachers were happy with

the guide but did report some bugs. Over the summer

the district-level team worked to refine the guide to

address the bugs and make sure the guide contained all

key information from the district-level plan. The guide

is a spiral-bound notebook with plastic insert pages. The

pages contain district- and school-specific information.

General district procedures are on the front pages and

school-specific information, such as evacuation locations

for fire drills, are on the back pages. The title of each

incident is at the bottom of the page so staff can quickly

flip to the procedures for the situation at hand. 

6-24
The Quick Guide has been designed to be a dynamic document that can be updated every year. Now all 

faculty members, from teachers to cafeteria workers, have a

copy of the guide and only principals and 

members of school safety team have the big book.

Crisis Boxes

The California Safe Schools Task Force realized 

school administrators should have crisis boxes so 

that they will immediately have the information 

essential for effective management of a critical 

incident. They created a monograph that can be found at

http://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/ss/cp/documents/crisisrespbox.pdf.

The monograph contains tips on how to 

organize the information that should be in the crisis

response box, recommendations for who should get copies

of the box, and details of what should be in 

the box and why. Recommended contents include such

items as:

Incident Command System (ICS) key responders’

phone numbers

Student attendance rosters

Student disposition forms and emergency data

cards

List of students with special needs 

Teacher/employee roster 

Staff roster

Keys

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Aerial photos of campus

Maps of the surrounding neighborhood

Campus layout

Evacuation sites

Designated command post and staging areas

Fire alarm turn-off procedures

Sprinkler systems turn-off procedures

Utility shutoff valves

Gas line and utility line layout

The guide also reminds schools of the importance of

having first aid supplies easily accessible from multiple

locations. 

Teacher Crisis Bags

Many experts recommend that each classroom be

equipped with a crisis bag. These can take the form of

backpacks, tote bags, or even five gallon buckets. The

contents should include the following:

Current class roster

Copy of emergency procedures

First aid supplies

Flashlight and extra batteries

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Activities for students

Paper and pens

Clipboard

Store teacher crisis bags in easily accessible locations.

Family Reunification Plans

Staff in Bibb County School District, Georgia, have put 

a lot of effort into developing the family reunification

procedures that are in the district crisis plan. They have

worked with the Red Cross to set up evacuation/reunification sites around the county. Not only does every

school have two evacuation kits that include student

rosters and emergency notification/contact cards, but

the district has a system-wide reunification kit. This 

kit includes drafts of notices that can be faxed to local

media outlets with information necessary to let families

know both that an evacuation has occurred and where

they can collect their children. Bibb County’s crisis

preparations included discussions with the media on

how media outlets could help distribute information in

the event of a crisis. The Chief of Bibb County School

Police noted that the media has been very cooperative 

in developing these protocols.

School Site Information

When a crisis occurs, emergency responders will immediately need a great deal of information about your

school campus. They will need to know the members 

of your crisis response team, how various sites can be

accessed, and the location of utility shutoff valves. Many

schools share this information with local police and 

6-27
6-28

rescue agencies during the crisis planning process. Some

schools give these agencies copies of floor plans that

indicate shutoff information. Some school districts compile site information for all schools on a CD-ROM and

distribute copies to responders; other schools post this

information on a secure Web site that responders can

access from laptops at the scene. The following are two

examples of how this information can be assembled.

Maryland Virtual Emergency Response System, 

or MVERS. MVERS was developed in partnership 

with the Maryland State Police, Maryland Institute for

Emergency Medical Services Systems, and the Maryland

Emergency Management Agency. This system can be

used to prepare an electronic plan that allows quick 

and easy access to information in order to expedite a

response to a critical situation. MVERS utilizes digital

floor plans with specific icons that link the viewer 

to photographs, panoramic pictures, or spreadsheets 

containing essential data. The images can include

instructions for disconnecting utilities, gaining access 

to a certain area, and locations of potential hazards. 

The combination of floor plans and associated information provides a virtual tour of the structure’s interior

and exterior, allowing responders to understand the

building layout prior to entering. Schools can also load

contact information into MVERS. The Virtual Emergency

Response System Construction Kit will provide the user

with a description of the MVERS, an appendix of

resources, and shareware for completing the plan. The

MVERS team estimates it takes about 60 hours to collect and load all information to create the digital floor

plan for each school. The bulk of this time will be spent

taking and editing pictures of the buildings. 
Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina Police

Virtual Tour. After a recent incident where there were

communication glitches between school staff and police,

the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department realized it

needed to better prepare for school crises. An officer

was detailed to create Virtual Tours for each school. The

Virtual Tour is a combination of the school plan and the

police plan. School resource officers, or SROs, develop

basic crisis plans around the plans their school has

already developed. The SROs identify on-scene and offscene command posts and initial road blocks. They also

collect information on crucial players at the school and

district (maintenance supervisors), bell schedules, aerial

photographs of the school and surrounding community,

and extensive photos of the school campus. 

For each school, a master Web page contains a picture 

of the school and links to the crisis plan, the Virtual

Tour, and aerial photos of the school and surrounding

neighborhood. The tour allows emergency responders 

to move around the school building from the safety of 

a laptop as they prepare to respond to the crisis. The

Virtual Tour opens with a map of the school. Users 

can zoom in on a door or window, click on a door 

and go through, walk down a hallway, look left, right,

up and down, and turn around. Each screen includes 

an orientation map that shows where you are on the 

site map. The program also flags potential hazards, such

as closets, windows in unusual spaces, and crawl spaces.

This information is loaded on police laptops and computers and updated monthly. This material is stored on

a private Web site and cannot be accessed by the public.

6-29
CONSIDERATIONS OF SPECIAL

NEEDS STAFF AND STUDENTS

Be sure to give special consideration to the unique needs

of staff and students with disabilities when developing

the crisis plan. Evacuation and relocation procedures

will need to address mental, physical, motor, developmental, and sensory limitations. For example, individuals who use wheelchairs or other auxiliary aids will not

be able to traverse the front steps of a building without

substantial assistance.

The following issues should be addressed:

In some cases, individuals with disabilities

may have limited mobility. In an evacuation

there may not be enough time to move

mobility impaired students and staff to 

traditional shelters. It is important to identify

alternative, accessible, safe shelter locations

and to communicate these locations to

emergency responders.

Individuals with hearing disabilities may not

be able to communicate verbally, to read lips,

or to hear fire alarms or other emergency signals. Consider providing basic sign language

training to designated school staff.

Visual impairments might impede reading

signs or traversing unfamiliar or altered terrain—consider whether debris might obstruct

the evacuation of such staff and students and

necessitate alternative shelter locations.

Debris may obstruct the evacuation of individuals with mobility impairments. Be sure

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to assign sufficient staff to assist these individuals during a crisis or consider identifying

alternative shelter locations.

Are staff trained to assist students with

developmental disabilities? These students

may become upset if routine patterns of

activity are disrupted. 

Do any students or staff have special needs

for medicines, power supplies, or medical

devices that are not likely to be available in

emergency shelters? Consider what alternative arrangements can be made to provide

these necessities.

In addition to addressing these concerns, find out

whether specific crises will require additional considerations for hazards, such as fire, severe weather, or earthquake. For example, mobility impairments might prevent

some staff or students from being able to bend over to

assume the protective position recommended during tornadoes. Also, during a fire, elevators will be unavailable

to transport wheelchairs. As noted earlier, it is critical to

identify safe and appropriate shelter areas inside school

buildings that can be reached quickly and accommodate

individuals with disabilities.

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STUDENT RELEASE

Student release is a crucial part of crisis planning. In 

all school crisis planning, the safety of the students is

the main priority. During a crisis, traditional student

release procedures are frequently unsafe or otherwise

inoperable. Accordingly, a comprehensive crisis plan

needs to include certain procedures:

Update student rosters. Rosters should be

updated at a minimum of twice a year; some

districts recommend updating rosters weekly.

Distribute updated rosters. All teachers

need updated rosters of all their classes. This

information should be stored in their classroom so that a substitute teacher could easily

find it. A copy of all rosters should also be

placed in the crisis response box, as well as

with the principal and any other stakeholder

as advisable. It is critical to know which students are present during a crisis.

Create student emergency cards. At the

beginning of the school year, make sure the

school has an emergency card for each 

student containing contact information on

parents/guardians, as well as several other

adults who can be contacted if the parent or

guardian is not available. The card should

also indicate whether the student is permitted

to leave campus with any of the adults listed

on the card, if necessary. Some districts recommend authorizing one or more parents 

of children at your child’s school to pick up

your child. The card should also include all

pertinent medical information, such as 

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allergies, medications, and doctor contact

information. These cards should be stored 

in the front office, both in hard copy and

electronically, if possible.

Create student release forms to be used

in times of crisis and store them with

crisis response materials. Create a back-up

plan if forms are not available.

Designate student release areas, as well

as back-up options. These areas should be

predetermined and communicated to families. If necessary, changes should be communicated through the designated channels.

Assign roles for staff. For example, a staff

member is needed to take the emergency

cards from the office to the release area,

while several staff members are needed to

deal with families and sign out students.

These roles should be assigned before a crisis

occurs. If roles change, the principal or designated leader should assign new roles.

Create student release procedures.

These procedures should create a flexible, 

yet simple, system for the release of students.

Families will want immediate access to their

children; emotions will be running high.

Create a system that considers this, and train

staff to expect it. Procedures should require

proof of identity; if necessary, wait until such

proof can be ascertained. It is important not

to release a student to a noncustodial guardian

if custody is an issue for the family. Do not

release students to people not listed on student emergency cards. A well-intentioned

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friend may offer to take a child home; however, school staff must be certain that students

are only released to the appropriate people so

students’ families will know where they are.

Arrange for transportation for students

who are not taken home by a parent or

guardian. Also arrange for shelter and provisions, if necessary.

Use all communication outlets to keep

families, the media, and community

informed during and after the crisis.

Signal the end of the crisis as well.

6-34
PREPARING STUDENTS,

STAFF, AND STAKEHOLDERS

TO RESPOND

Experts have noted that when a crisis occurs, individuals involved tend to go on autopilot. Therefore, when a

crisis occurs staff immediately need to know how to

react. They need to know, for example, the signals for

crisis, the protocol for lockdown and evacuation, how 

to dismiss students, and what to do if staff or students

need help. They should know these things ahead of

time. There will not be a time during the crisis to think

about what to do next. Chances of responding appropriately in a crisis will be much greater if all players have

practiced the basic steps they will need to take. Training

and drills are crucial. 

In the San Diego, California, school district, staff feel

that practice and training should constitute the majority

of the crisis planning process. In their “formula for success,” practice accounts for 50 percent of the process,

training for 30 percent, and planning 20 percent. While

the percentages are flexible, training and drills are

essential. Key components to facilitate training, and

thus a successful reaction, are as follows:

Provide regular, comprehensive trainings

for teachers and staff. At least once a year,

provide crisis response training for teachers

and staff. Also provide make-up trainings for

those unable to attend the regular training

session. Go through the crisis plan and procedures in order to familiarize all school personnel with it. Periodically remind staff of

signals and codes.

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Visit evacuation sites with staff and

stakeholders. Show involved parties not

only where evacuation sites are but also

where specific areas, such as student reunification areas, media areas, and triage areas

will be.

Give all staff, stakeholders, and families

literature corresponding to the crisis

plan. While all staff should have a copy of

the crisis plan, it will also be helpful to provide them with pamphlets reminding them 

of key principles. Families and community

members should also receive literature summarizing crisis procedures and information

pertaining to them. Provide each classroom

with a copy of the crisis plan and any relevant materials, supplies, and equipment.

Require a specific number of crisis drills

every year. Most states require fire drills; the

same should be true of crisis drills. This need

not be an extra burden; work with state and

district laws for possible options. In Arizona,

for example, schools are permitted to use some

of the mandated fire drills for crisis drills.

Also, speak with students about the importance of drills and explain that while they

are serious, students should not be frightened.

Conduct tabletop exercises and scenariobased drills regularly. While actual drills

and training are essential, it is also helpful to

have group brainstorming activities that can

be done informally around a table. These can

be held with stakeholders, staff, community

members, and first responders. Students can

be involved as well.

6-36
STAFF TRAINING

School staff need to be trained in how to respond in 

a crisis. 

Bulloch County School District, Georgia

In Bulloch County School District, Georgia, school district staff were able to illustrate to the school board the

need for training by using data from a faculty survey

showing teachers felt they lacked the skills to consistently and adequately respond in a crisis. The district

now uses a train-the-trainer model to provide important

skills to all school staff.

District staff now conduct trainings every month. Each

school sends a delegate from its crisis response team or

safety committee. Often the delegate is an assistant principal or lead teacher, but some training sessions focus on

the needs of specific groups, such as front office personnel, custodians, and cafeteria workers. Training sessions

have addressed topics from intruders to large assemblies. 

Generally the first hour of each training session is an

explanation/demonstration for the delegates. During 

the second hour, the delegates work in groups to devise

ways to present this information to the staff at their

schools. All school staff members are expected to receive

training from their delegates within a month of the district-wide training.

6-37
For the bomb threat training, a representative from the

Georgia Emergency Management Agency, or GEMA,

conducts an assessment at each school to identify 

common issues. The GEMA officer than conducts 

the training and covers the following issues:

What form the secretaries should complete

when a bomb threat is called in, 

How the secretaries can keep the caller on

the phone as long as possible, 

How to alert school staff and law enforcement based on their conversation with a 

perpetrator, 

Who is in charge of the situation 

(law enforcement versus fire chief), and

How the building will be screened when

emergency responders arrive.

The training also addresses how school staff should be

notified of the bomb threat, including those schools

without intercoms. In addition, staff learn that if the

caller reports that a bomb is in the gym, for example, 

it might not be necessary to evacuate the entire school.

During the month following the training, each school

will be required to conduct a bomb threat drill. These

drills will range from law enforcement responding as

though there really was a bomb in the building to a

staff-only tabletop exercise.

Every spring all school principals and safety representatives evaluate that year’s training to identify areas

where more training is needed.

6-38
Hudson School District, New Hampshire

The Hudson School District teamed with the New

Hampshire Office of Emergency Management

(NHOEM) to train district staff in emergency planning.

The district then teamed with local police and fire 

officials to conduct tabletop exercises, individual school

drills, and a town-wide mock drill.

The comprehensive town-wide drill began at a local 

elementary school when an intruder entered the school.

The school and local response agencies were faced with

a number of issues including that the intruder had a

weapon and had taken a hostage. During the drill, the

ICS was activated at both the school and the

Superintendent’s Office. The town-wide drill was evaluated by NHOEM and local experts. The experience

helped the district better prepare to manage emergencies. The district also gained valuable experience in

interfacing with local emergency responders.

6-39
TABLETOP EXERCISES

Tabletop exercises are “informal and stress-free exercises

intended to facilitate the testing, evaluation and practicing of a school facility’s crisis response plan and promote

group problem solving.” (Fairfax County, Virginia).

While drills and training are essential, it is also helpful

to have group brainstorming activities that can be conducted informally. For this reason, many districts are

adopting tabletop exercises. Fairfax County, Virginia,

has had great success with these exercises. In Fairfax,

the exercises consist of complete written scenarios and

“injects”—additional pieces of information or circumstances that can be injected to alter the scenario. These

injects range from “suspicious person with firearm

behind school” to “electrical service to cafeteria interrupted.” Injects include a list of possible responses to

assist the facilitator. 

The exercise begins with the reading of the scenario; 

scenarios are often tweaked to fit a particular school.

A facilitator then distributes injects to individual participants. Participants may handle the inject and implement an action individually or seek more information

and coordination from other group members.

Discussion ensues.

In Fairfax, the objectives include the following:

Test the ability of school personnel to identify, allocate, and utilize resources within their

school during a critical incident.

Assess the ability of school personnel to

implement their critical incident plan.

6-40
The director of safety and security for Fairfax County

Public Schools commented:

“We believe that the best type of training is

experience. Fortunately, most of our schools

do not have frequent critical events that

require these kinds of responses. Therefore,

many of our personnel do not have the

opportunity to experience the harsh realities

of having to manage these issues. The tabletop exercise allows us to provide an environment that can reasonably simulate the topics

and some elements of the stress that are

inherent in critical events. We have provided

tabletop exercises to all 234 of our schools

over the past two years. We now have a rotating schedule that provides an exercise facilitated by our office to all high schools and

middle schools every other year, and to each

elementary school every three years.”

6-41
FAMILIES

Many facets of school safety planning impact families.

Much of the literature on school safety planning provides guidelines for communicating with families and

advice for families on how to deal with their children

after a crisis. Additionally, verbatim statements from

families of children attending school near the World

Trade Center on September 11 provide insight into crisis planning. The following sections address the school’s

role in communicating with families both before and

immediately following a school crisis and what families

can do to facilitate their children’s recovery. 

Communicating Information 

to Families Before a Crisis

Families will appreciate information on crisis preparations. It is especially useful to explain family members’

roles before an incident occurs. Some school districts

send families letters describing the school’s expectations

for their response. Other school districts have found it

useful to work with local media to disseminate this

information.

School and district staff and emergency responders need

to be able do their jobs. Families need to know that they

should rely on media outlets for information during an

incident, rather than telephoning schools. It is very

important that families understand that during a crisis,

school phones will be needed to manage the situation.

Families should also know that they should wait for

instructions on student release rather than rushing to

the school. It is helpful to explain to families that emergency responders need the area clear to do their job.

Also explain that only after emergency responders

6-42
determine that a safe student release is possible will

families be reunited with their children. It is also useful

to remind families that in many situations, their children will be safer in the school building than outside 

or in a car, particularly in cases of severe weather.

Communicating Information

to Families During a Crisis

Communicating with families. It is important to have

a mechanism for communicating with families in the

event of a crisis. The mode of communication could be 

a telephone voice recording with information about 

welfare of the children, evacuation sites, or information

about releasing students. Arrangements could be made

with TV and radio stations to release such information.

In the case of an extended crisis, such as the sniper

attacks on the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area, 

a school official may want to write a letter to families

each day of the crisis to update them on safety measures

devoted to the safety of their children. Schools should be

sensitive to the communities they draw upon and enlist

volunteers to help communicate with families who do

not speak English. It is important to acknowledge 

cultural differences in responding to crises.

Contact information for students. Schools need 

contact information from families, including numbers

where they can be reached during the day. In addition,

each child should have several alternative contacts, such

as a relative or family friend who would be able to pick

up the child in the event of an emergency. One of the

backup adults should live outside of the immediate area,

if possible.

6-43
Guidelines for Families in Dealing with Their

Children After a Crisis

Remain calm. It is important to remain calm in the

aftermath of a crisis. Children are greatly influenced 

by their family’s sense of well-being, and anything that

families can do to reassure students will be helpful. 

At the same time, families need to be compassionate 

listeners when their children speak of the crisis. 

Attend to children’s reactions. Be alert to children’s

emotional needs. Individuals recover from crisis at their

own pace. Many children will benefit from mental

health services regardless of whether they were directly

or indirectly involved in the incident.

Return children to normal routine as quickly as

possible. Families should adhere to the schedule of the

school, and if the school remains open immediately after

the aftermath of a crisis, it is important to let children

return to school. Adhering to a typical routine will help

children in the recovery process.

Refer the Media to the PIO. Undoubtedly, the media

will try to interview families and children during or

after a crisis. Families can make a very positive contribution to the school by referring the media to the PIO.

Attend community meetings. Families will receive

invaluable information and support by attending community or school meetings. Community meetings often

provide information to help dispel rumors and establish

mechanisms of communication with parents, the media,

and other affected parties.

6-44
The following statement, made by a parent of a child in

a school near the World Trade Center on September 11,

2001, emphasizes the points made earlier.

“Children’s reactions are reflections of their

parents. Too many parents expose children to

their every emotion: fear, anxiety, anger,

worry, etc. The fact is that children want parents to be heroes. If parents can be strong,

this will benefit their recovery.”

6-45
MODELS OF CRISIS 

INTERVENTION FOR STUDENTS

There are many approaches to crisis intervention for

students. Most experts agree that school- or classroombased stress management needs to be conducted for all

students and that those with more severe reactions need

to be referred for evaluation and possibly counseling. 

Who provides interventions? Teachers, school counselors, and social workers, as well as community service

providers may be involved in conducting interventions

following a crisis. Families may also use school personnel as a resource for seeking outside counseling. During

the planning phase, districts should identify service

providers in the community that have the skills and

appropriate credentials and develop a list of referrals.

What are the types of interventions? The following

bullets briefly describe several approaches:

Group crisis intervention, or GCI, a

school-based intervention, is often defined as

“psychological first aid.” GCI is an efficient

and cost-effective way of helping students

cope in the aftermath of a crisis. Basically,

GCI is offered to homogeneous groups of 

students (class membership) and involves

guided group discussions in a supportive

environment. The agenda for GCI includes

an introduction and sessions on providing

facts, dispelling rumors, sharing stories, 

sharing reactions, providing empowerment,

and offering a closing. Students with severe

reactions to the crisis should receive more

intensive interventions (Brock et al., 2002).

6-46
Acute traumatic stress management for

educators, another school-based intervention,

offers a “road map” for educators to deal

with the aftermath of a crisis. ATSM takes 

a practical approach to dealing with the 

psychological consequences of a traumatic

event. The goal is to stimulate adaptive 

coping mechanisms and to stabilize more

severe reactions among students. ATSM has

10 stages:

1 Assess for danger/safety for self and

others.

2 Consider the mechanism for injury.

3 Evaluate the level of responsiveness.

4 Address medical needs.

5 Observe and identify.

6 Connect with the individual.

7 Ground the individual.

8 Provide support.

9 Normalize the response.

10 Prepare for the future.

Individual counseling. Students who experience severe symptoms after a crisis may

need individual counseling. It is important

for these individuals to be referred for further evaluation by a mental health professional. There are many forms of individual

6-47
counseling depending on the age of the child

and presenting symptoms. Some of the

approaches to individual counseling include

play therapy, art therapy, talking therapy,

drug therapy, and a combination of therapies.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, among others,

has shown to be an effective therapeutic

intervention in the literature. Dr. Robert

Pynoos, Director of Trauma Psychiatry at 

the University of California at Los Angeles,

developed an interview guide for working

with students who have been traumatized.

The interview guide contains the following

sections:

1 Triage questions

2 Individual’s reaction to the 

event/traumatic reminders

3 Life changes/changes in behavior 

4 Grief responses

5 Problem solving/taking constructive

action, affirmation

6 Affirmation and reinforcement of 

student’s strengths and assets

6-48
A-1

This resource list provides the reader with examples of

the types of programs that exist in crisis planning. This

information is current as of Fall 2006. Selection of these

programs does not indicate an endorsement by the

Department of Education. The Department is interested

in identifying other crisis planning Web sites. Please

contact emergencyplan@ed.gov if you have information

regarding other practical resources.

References

Brock, S.E., Lazarus, P.J., & Jimerson, S.R. (2002). Best practices

in school crisis prevention and intervention.

Bethesda, Md.:National Association of School Psychologists.

http://www.nasponline.org/publications/booksproducts/BPCPI.aspx 

Doyle, J. & Loyacono, T.R. (2002). Disaster preparedness

guidelines for school nurses. Scarborough, Maine: National

Association of School Nurses. http://www.nasn.org

Federal Emergency Management Agency. (1993).

Emergency management guide for business and industry.

Washington, D.C.: Author.

http://www.fema.gov

Federal Emergency Management Agency (2003)

Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning.

Web release 10. Washington, D.C.: Author.

http://www.fema.gov

Appendix A

Resources 
References (Cont.)

Lerner, M.D., Volpe, J.S., & Lindell, B. (2003). A practical guide for

crisis response in our schools.

Commack, N.Y.: American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress.

http://www.schoolcrisisresponse.com

http://www.atsm.org

http://www.traumatic-stress.org

http://www.aaets.org 

Olathe Unified School District, Kansas. (2002).

Crisis management manual.

http://www.sopriswest.com

Poland, S. & McCormick, J.S. (1999). Coping with crisis:

A resource guide for schools, parents, and communities.

Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West. http://www.sopriswest.com/

Pitcher, G.D., & Poland, S. (1992). Crisis intervention in the

schools. New York: Guilford Press. http://www.guilford.com

Schoenfeldt, M. (2000).School crisis response teams: Lessening

the aftermath. Marysville, Wash.: Schoenfeldt & Associates.

http://www.safer-schools.com/

U.S. Secret Service and the U.S. Department of Education. (2002).

Threat assessment in schools: A guide to managing threatening

situations and to creating safe school climates.

Washington, D.C.: Author.

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/resources.html

Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary. (1987).

Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, Inc.

Wong, M., Kelly, J. & Stephens, R.D. (2001). Jane’s school safety

handbook. Alexandria, Va.: Jane’s Information Group.

http://catalog.janes.com/

A-2
Helpful Web Resources

For more information on grants from the Department of Education

to strengthen and improve emergency response plans, as well as to

help fund education-related efforts in the immediate after math of a

violent crisis, please see http://www.ed.gov/emergencyplan

American Red Cross

http://www.redcross.org

Public Health Training Network

Centers for Disease Control

http://www2a.cdc.gov/phtn/

Crisis Management Toolkit

Department of Defense Education Activity

http://dodea.edu/instruction/crisis/

Fairfax County (VA) Public Schools

http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/

Federal Emergency Management Agency

http://www.fema.gov

Montgomery County (MD) Public Schools

http://mcps.k12.md.us/info/emergency/preparedness/index.cfm

National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities

http://www.edfacilities.org/

NEA Crisis Response Team

National Education Association

http://www.nea.org/crisis/b1home.html#response 

North Carolina Public Schools

http://www.ncpublicschools.org

Emergency Response and Crisis Management Technical Assistance Center

http://www.ercm.org

A-3
A-4

Helpful Web Resources (Cont.)

Ready Campaign

http://www.ready.gov

Emergency Planning

Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/emergencyplan/

Communication in a Crisis: Risk Communication Guidelines for

Public Officials, 2002

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 

http://www.riskcommunication.samhsa.gov/index.htm

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

http://www.dhs.gov
State Emergency Management Offices1

Alabama Emergency Management Agency

5898 County Road 41

P.O. Drawer 2160

Clanton, AL 35046-2160

Phone: 205-280-2238

Phone: 205-280-2200

Fax: 205-280-2495

http://www.ema.alabama.gov

Alaska Division of Emergency Services

P.O. Box 5750

Fort Richardson, AK 99505-5750

Phone: 907-428-7000

Fax: 907-428-7009

http://www.ak-prepared.com/

School Preparedness Page:

http://www.akprepared.com/training/toppage1.htm

Arizona Department of Emergency and Military Affairs

5636 East McDowell Road

Phoenix, AZ 85008

Phone: 602-244-0504

Fax: 602-231-6356

http://www.azdema.gov

Arkansas Department of Emergency Management

P.O. Box 758

Conway, AR 72033

Phone: 501-730-9750

Fax: 501-730-9754

http://www.adem.state.ar.us/ 

A-5

1 Please contact local emergency management offices prior to

contacting state offices.
A-6

State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services

Information and Public Affairs Office

3650 Schriever Avenue

Mather, CA 95655

Phone: 916-845-8510

Fax: 916-845-8511

http://www.oes.ca.gov/

Colorado Office of Emergency Management 

Division of Local Government

Department of Local Affairs

9195 East Mineral Avenue

Suite 200

Centennial, CO 80112

Phone: 720-852-6600

Fax: 720-852-6750

http://www.dola.state.co.us/oem/

Connecticut Office of Emergency Management

Military Department

360 Broad Street

Hartford, CT 06105

Phone: 860-566-3180

Fax: 860-247-0664

http://www.ct.gov/demhs

(Connecticut Emergency Management officials recommend

contacting the State Department of Education.) 

Delaware Emergency Management Agency

165 Brick Store Landing Road

Smyrna, DE 19977

Phone: 302-659-3362

Phone: 877-729-3362 (in-state only)

Fax: 302-659-6855

http://www.state.de.us/dema/
District of Columbia Emergency Management Agency

2720 Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue, SE

Washington, DC 20009

Phone: 202-727-6161

Fax: 202-673-2290 

http://dcema.dc.gov 

Florida Division of Emergency Management

2555 Shumard Oak Blvd.

Tallahassee, FL 32399-2100

Phone: 850-413-9969

Fax: 850-488-1016

http://www.floridadisaster.org 

Georgia Office of Homeland Security

P.O. Box 18055

Atlanta, GA 30316-0055

Phone: 404-635-7000

Fax: 404-635-7205

http://www.gema.state.ga.us

Training, Education & Information Branch 

Hawaii State Civil Defense

3949 Diamond Head Road

Honolulu, HI 96816-4495

Phone: 808-733-4300

Phone: 808-734-4246

Fax: 808-733-4287

http://www.scd.state.hi.us 

Emergency Planning 

Idaho Bureau of Homeland Security

4040 Guard Street, Bldg. 600

Boise, ID 83705-5004

Phone: 208-422-3040

Fax: 208-422-3044

http://www.bhs.idaho.gov

A-7
State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

Illinois Emergency Management Agency

2200 South Dirksen Parkway

Springfield, IL 62703

Phone: 217-782-2700

Fax: 217-524-7967

http://www.state.il.us/iema

State Planning Branch

Indiana Department of Homeland Security

302 West Washington Street

Room E-208 A

Indianapolis, IN 46204-2767

Phone: 317-233-6116

Phone: 317-232-3986

Fax: 317-232-3895 

http://www.in.gov/dhs/

Iowa Homeland Security and Emergency Management

Department of Defense

7105 N.W. 70th Avenue

Camp Dodge, Building W-4

Johnston, IA 50131

Phone: 515-725-3231

Fax: 515-725-3260

http://www.iowahomelandsecurity.org

Training Section

Kansas Division of Emergency Management

2800 S.W. Topeka Boulevard

Topeka, KS 66611-1287

Phone: 785-274-1409

Fax: 785-274-1426

http://www.kansas.gov/kdem

A-8
A-9

Kentucky Community Crisis Response Board

1121 Louisville Road, Suite 2

Frankfort, KY 40601-3460

Phone: 502-607-5781

http://www.kccrb.ky.gov

Or

Kentucky Emergency Management

EOC Building

100 Minuteman Parkway Bldg. 100

Frankfort, KY 40601-6168

Phone: 502-607-1600 or 800-255-2587

Fax: 502-607-1614

http://kyem.ky.gov

Louisiana Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness

7667 Independence Blvd.

Baton Rouge, LA 70806

Phone: 225-925-7500

Fax: 225-925-7501 

http://www.loep.state.la.us

Maine Emergency Management Agency

State Office Building, Station 72

Augusta, ME 04333

Phone: 207-624-4400

Fax: 207-287-3178 

http://www.maine.gov/mema/
State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

Maryland Emergency Management Agency

Public Information Officer

Camp Fretterd Military Reservation

5401 Rue Saint Lo Drive

Reisterstown, MD 21136

Phone: 410-517-3631

Toll-Free: 877-636-2872

Fax: 410-517-3610

http://www.mass.gov/mema

Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency

400 Worcester Road

Framingham, MA 01702-5399

Phone: 508-820-2000

Fax: 508-820-2030

http://www.state.ma.us/mema

Michigan Division of Emergency Management

4000 Collins Road

P.O. Box 30636

Lansing, MI 48909-8136

Phone: 517-333-5042

Fax: 517-333-4987 FAX

http://www.michigan.gov/emd

Minnesota Homeland Security and Emergency Management

Department of Public Safety

Suite 223

444 Cedar Street

St. Paul, MN 55101-6223

Phone: 651-201-7400

Fax: 651-296-0459

http://www.hsem.state.mn.us

A-10
Mississippi Emergency Management Agency

P.O. Box 5644

Pearl, MS 39208

Phone: 601-933-MEMA or 800-222-6362 (Toll-free)

Fax: 601-933-6800

http://www.msema.org/index.htm

(MEMA recommends contacting the State Department of

Education, Division of School Safety)

Missouri Emergency Management Agency

P.O. Box 116

2302 Militia Drive

Jefferson City, MO 65102

Phone: 573-526-9100

24-hour Duty Officer: 573-751-2748

Fax: 573-634-7966

http://sema.dps.mo.gov

Montana Division of Disaster & Emergency Services

1900 Williams Street

Helena, MT 59604-4789

Phone: 406-841-3911

Fax: 406-444-3965 

http://dma.mt.gov/des

Nebraska Emergency Management Agency

1300 Military Road

Lincoln, NE 68508-1090

Phone: 877-297-2368

Fax: 402-471-7433 

http://www.nema.ne.gov 

A-11
State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

Nevada Division of Emergency Management

2525 South Carson Street

Carson City, NV 89711

Phone: 775-687-4240

Fax: 775-687-6788

http://www.dem.state.nv.us/

New Hampshire Division of Safety

Bureau of Emergency Management 

State Office Park South

107 Pleasant Street

Concord, NH 03301

Phone: 603-271-2231

Fax: 603-225-7341

http://www.nhoem.state.nh.us/

New Jersey Office of Emergency Management

P.O. Box 7068

West Trenton, NJ 08628-0068

Phone: 609 538-6050 Monday-Friday

Phone: 609-882-2000 ext 6311 (24/7)

Fax: 609-538-0345

http://www.state.nj.us/njoem

New Mexico Department of Public Safety 

Office of Emergency Services & Security

P.O. Box 1628 

Santa Fe, NM 87504

Phone: 505-476-9600

Fax: 505-476-9695

http://www.dps.nm.org/emergency/index.htm

A-12
Planning Department

New York State Emergency Management Office

1220 Washington Avenue

Building 22, Suite 101

Albany, NY 12226-2251

Phone: 518-292-2200

Fax: 518-322-4978

http://www.semo.state.ny.us/

Support Services Branch

North Carolina Division of Emergency Management

116 West Jones Street

Raleigh, NC 27603

Phone: 919-733-3867

Fax: 919-733-5406

http://www.dem.dcc.state.nc.us/

North Dakota Department of Emergency Services

P.O. Box 5511

Bismarck, ND 58506-5511

Phone: 701-328-8100

Fax: 701-328-8181

http://www.nd.gov/des/

Ohio Emergency Management Agency

2855 W. Dublin Granville Road

Columbus, OH 43235-2206

Phone: 614-889-7150

Fax: 614-889-7183

http://www.state.oh.us/odps/division/ema/

Oklahoma Department of Emergency Management

2401 N. Lincoln Boulevard, Suite C51

Oklahoma City, OK 73105

Phone: 405-521-2481

Fax: 405-521-4053

http://www.ok.gov/OEM/

A-13
State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

Oregon Emergency Management

Department of State Police

P.O. Box 14370

Salem, OR 97309

Phone: 503-378-2911

Fax: 503-588-1378

http://egov.oregon.gov/OOHS/OEM/

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency

2605 Interstate Drive

Harrisburg, PA 17110

Phone: 717-651-2007

Fax: 717-651-2040

http://www.pema.state.pa.us/

Rhode Island Emergency Management Agency

645 New London Ave

Cranston, RI 02920-3003

Phone: 401-946-9996

Fax: 401- 944-1891

http://www.riema.ri.gov

South Carolina Emergency Management Division

2779 Fish Hatchery Road

West Columbia, SC 29172

Phone: 803-737-8500

Fax: 803-737-8570

http://www.scemd.org

South Dakota Office of Emergency Management

118 West Capitol Ave

Pierre, SD 57501

Phone: 605-773-3231

Phone: 605-773-6426

Fax: 605-773-3580

http://www.oem.sd.gov

A-14
Tennessee Emergency Management Agency

3041 Sidco Drive

Nashville, TN 37204-1502

Phone: 615-741-0001

Fax: 615-242-9635

http://www.tnema.org

Texas Division of Emergency Management

5805 N. Lamar Boulevard

Austin, TX 78752

Phone: 512-424-2138

Fax: 512 424-2444 or 7160

http://www.txdps.state.tx.us/dem/pages/index.htm

Utah Division of Emergency Services and Homeland Security

Room 1110, State Office Building

Salt Lake City, UT 84114-1710

Phone: 801-538-3400

Fax: 801-538-3770 

http://www.dhls.utah.gov

Vermont Emergency Management Agency

Department of Public Safety

Waterbury State Complex

103 South Main Street

Waterbury, VT 05671-2101

Phone: 802-244-8721

Fax: 802-244-8655

http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vem/

Virginia Department of Emergency Management

10501 Trade Court

Richmond, VA 23236-3713

Phone: 804-897-6500 or after hours 804-674-2400 to have

an on-call representative paged

Fax: 804-897-6506

http://www.vdem.state.va.us

A-15
State Emergency Management Offices (Cont.)

Washington Military Department

Emergency Management Division

Building 20, M/S: TA-20

Camp Murray, WA 98430-5122

Phone: 253-512-7000

Fax: 253-512-7200

http://www.emd.wa.gov/

West Virginia Division of Homeland Security and

Emergency Management

Building 1, Room EB-80 

State Capital Complex

1900 Kanawha Boulevard, East

Charleston, WV 25305-0360

Phone: 304-558-5380

(Toll-free) 866-723-3982

Fax: 304-344-4538

http://www.wvdhsem.gov

Wisconsin Emergency Management

2400 Wright Street

P.O. Box 7865

Madison, WI 53707-7865

Phone: 608-242-3232

Fax: 608-242-3247

http://emergencymanagement.wi.gov/

Wyoming Office of Homeland Security

122 West 25th Street

Herschler Building, 1st floor East

Cheyenne, WY 82002

Phone: 307-777-4663

Fax: 307-635-6017

http://wyohomelandsecurity.state.wy.us/ 

A-16
Puerto Rico Emergency Management Agency

P.O. Box 966597

San Juan, PR 00906-6597

Phone: 787 724-0124

Fax: 787-725-4244

Virgin Islands Territorial Emergency Management - VITEMA

2-C Contant, A-Q Building

Virgin Islands 00820

Phone: 304-774-2244

Fax: 304-774-1491

A-17
Safe School Centers

National School Safety Center

141 Duesenberg Drive, Suite 11

Westlake Village, CA 91362

Phone: 805-373-9977

Fax: 805-373-9277

http://www.schoolsafety.us

Colorado Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence

University of Colorado

1877 Broadway, Suite 601

Boulder, CO 80302

Phone: 303-492-1032

Fax: 303-443-3297

http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/ 

Connecticut Governor’s Prevention Partnership

30 Arbor Street

Hartford, CT 06106

Phone: 860-523-8042 ext. 28

Fax: 860-236-9412

http://www.preventionworksct.org

Florida Office of Safe Schools 

Florida Department of Education 

325 W. Gaines Street, Room 501 

Tallahassee, FL 32399-0400

Phone: 850-245-0668

Fax: 850-245-9978

http://www.firn.edu/doe/besss/safehome.htm

Indiana School Safety Specialist Academy 

Indiana Department of Education 

Room 229, State House 

Indianapolis, IN 46204-2798 

Phone: 317-234-0326 

Fax: 317-232-9140

http://www.doe.state.in.us/isssa 

A-18
Kentucky Center for School Safety 

Eastern Kentucky University 

105 Stratton Building 

521 Lancaster Avenue 

Richmond, KY 40475 

Phone: 1-877-805-4277 (Toll-free)

Fax: 859-622-8001

http://www.kysafeschools.org 

Mississippi Department of Education

Division of School Safety

359 North West Street, Ste. 168

Jackson, MS 39179

Phone: 601-359-1335

Fax: 601-359-3235

http://www.healthyschoolsms.org

Missouri Center for Safe Schools 

Univ. of MO. - Kansas City - School of Education. 

5301 Holmes Road 

Kansas City, MO 64110

Phone: 816-235-1042

Fax: 816-235-6184

http://education.umkc.edu/safe-school/ 

Montana Safe Schools Center

The University of Montana

Missoula, MT 59812-6376

Phone: 406-243-5344

Fax: 406-243-2197

http://www.montanasafeschools.org

Nebraska School Safety Office

Nebraska Department of Education

301 Centennial Mall South

Lincoln, NE 68509-4987

Phone: 402-471-1925

Fax: 402-471-8127

http://www.nde.state.ne.us/safety A-19
A-20

Safe School Centers (Cont.)

New York State Center for School Safety

175 Rt. 32 N.

New Paltz, NY 12561

Phone: 845-255-8989

Fax: 845-255-3836

http://www.mhric.org/scss

North Carolina Center for the Prevention of School Violence 

1801 Mail Service Center

Raleigh, NC 27699-1801

Phone: 800-299-6054

Fax: 919-715-1208

Ohio Safe Schools Center

University of Cincinnati

P.O. Box 210105

Cincinnati, OH 45221-0105

Phone: 800-788-7254 x2

Fax: 513-556-0782

http://www.ebasedprevention.org

University of Oregon

Institute on Violence and Destructive Behavior

1265 University of Oregon

Eugene, OR 97403-1265

Phone: 541-346-3592

Fax: 541-346-2594

http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~ivdb/

Pennsylvania Center for Safe Schools

275 Grandview Avenue 

Camp Hill, PA 17011 

Phone: 717-763-1661

Fax: 717-763-2083 

http://www.safeschools.info
A-21

South Carolina Center for Safe Schools

South Carolina Department of Education

1429 Senate Street

Columbia, SC 29201

Phone: 803-734-8101

Fax: 803-734-4458

http://ed.sc.gov/agency/offices/ssys/safe_schools/sccss/

Tennessee School Safety Center

5th Floor, Andrew Johnson Tower

Nashville, TN 37243 

Phone: 615-741-3248

Fax: 615-532-6638 

http://www.state.tn.us/education/learningsupport/index.html 

Texas School Safety Center

Texas State University

350 N. Guadalupe

Suite 140, PMB 164

San Marcos, TX 78666

Phone: 877-245-8082

Fax: 512-245-9033

http://www.txssc.txstate.edu/txssc.htm

Virginia Center for School Safety

Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services

202 North 9th Street

Richmond, VA 23219

Phone: 804-371-6506

Fax: 804-692-0948

http://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/vcss/

Effective crisis planning begins with

lea

d

ers

hip

a

t

t

h

e

t

o

p.
Washington State 

Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction

P. O. Box 47200

Olympia, WA 98504

Phone: 360-725-6044

FAX: 360-664-3575

http://www.k12.wa.us/Safetycenter/

A-22

Crisis

pla

n

s

are livin

g

d

o

c

u

m

e

n

ts. They need to be reviewed and revised regularly.
B-1

Working Group

Chris Stone - Facilitator

Vera Institute of Justice

New York, N.Y.

Christine Aguilar

Director of Safe Schools/Healthy

Students Grants

Poudre School District

Fort Collins, Colo.

William Brenner

Director

National Clearinghouse on

Educational Facilities

Washington, D.C.

Peg Carson

Risk Watch Field Advisor

National Fire Protection

Association

Warrenton, Va.

Karen Cleveland

Emergency Response

Coordinator

Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention

Atlanta, Ga.

Julie Collins

Operations Manager

Florida Department of Education,

Office of Safe Schools

Tallahassee, Fla.

Joan Crigger

Assistant Executive Director

U.S. Conference of Mayors

Washington, D.C. 

Elizabeth Davis

National Organization on

Disability 

Emergency Preparedness

Initiative

Brooklyn, N.Y.

Appendix B

Emergency School Safety,

Planning, Response, 

and Recovery Meeting

Participants 
Working Group (cont.)

Michael Dorn

Antiterrorism Planner

Office of Homeland Security –

Georgia Emergency

Management Agency

School Safety Division

Atlanta, Ga.

Steven Edwards, Ph.D.

Vice President

National Crime Prevention

Council

Washington, D.C.

Ted Feinberg

Assistant Executive Director

National Association of School

Psychologists

Bethesda, Md.

Robyn Ford

Workplace Improvement Analyst

U.S. Postal Service – Capital

District

Capitol Heights, Md.

Gabriella Hayes

Program Manager

National PTA

Chicago, Ill.

Kim Hogan

Behavior Teacher

Hudson School District

Hudson, N.H.

Bob Hull, Ph.D.

Assistant Superintendent

Olathe Unified School District

233

Olathe, Kan.

James Kelly

Police Chief

Palm Beach County School,

District Police and Safe

Schools Center

West Palm Beach, Fla.

Curtis S. Lavarello

Executive Director

National Association of School

Resource Officers

Sarasota, Fla.

Robert Lewandowski

Middle School Coordinator

Keys School

Park Hill, Okla.

Mike Logan

Director, Readiness

Disaster Services

American Red Cross National

Headquarters

Falls Church, Va.

Robert D. Macy, Ph.D.

Executive Director

The Center for Trauma

Psychology

Boston, Mass.

B-2
Working Group (cont.)

Peter Marcello

Program Analyst

Transportation Security

Administration

Arlington, Va.

Judy Marks

Associate Director

National Clearinghouse for

Educational Facilities

Washington, D.C.

Wesley Mitchell

Chief of Police (retired)

Los Angeles School Police

Department

Altadena, Calif.

Bebe Pinter

Manager

Harris County Department 

of Education

Houston, Tex. 

Judith Robinson, Ph.D., RN,

FAAN

Executive Director

National Association of School

Nurses

Castle Rock, Colo.

Gregory Thomas

Executive Director

Office of School Safety and

Planning – New York City

Department of Education

Brooklyn, N.Y.

Cynthia Wright-Johnson, MSN

RNC

Director

Maryland Institute for Emergency

Medical Services Systems

EMSC Program

Baltimore, Md.

B-3
B-4

Charlotte, N.C. 

Focus Group

Melissa DeRosier, Ph.D.

3-C Institute for Social

Development

Jerri Haigler

Executive Director

Public Information

Charlotte-Mecklenburg School

District

William Lassiter

School Safety Specialist

Center for the Prevention 

of School Violence

Lori Lumpkin

Durham Public Schools

Joe Park

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County

Ted Pearson

Director

School Law Enforcement

Department

Charlotte-Mecklenburg School

District

Marianne Peltier-Allison

Alamance-Burlington School

District

Althia Scriven

Health and Safety Officer

Durham Public Schools

Ralph Taylor, Ph.D.

Director

Alternative Education and Safe

Schools

Theresa Wahome

Coordinator

Safe and Drug-Free Schools

Durham Public Schools
Denver, Colo. 

Focus Group

Robert Anderson

Director

District Prevention 

and Intervention

Denver Public Schools

Larry Borland

Director

Safety and Security

Colorado Springs District 11

Jim Dorn

Director

Safety and Security

Jefferson County R1 School

District

Stephen Finley

Manager

Risk Management

Denver Public Schools

Melanie Haas

Assistant Superintendent

Sabin Elementary School

Denver Public Schools

Janelle Krueger

Program Manager

Prevention Initiatives

Colorado Department of

Education

Patricia Lopez

Co-Project Director

Psychological Services

Denver Public Schools

David Martin

Security Training Specialist

Department of Safety and

Security

Denver Public Schools

Greg Moore

Director

Organizational Support

Aurora Public Schools

Sharon Moore

Project Director

Highline Education Center

Leslie Paige

Project Director

RURAL: Safe Schools/Healthy

Students

Hays Unified School District

#489, Kan.

Lynn Popkowski

Teacher on Special Assignment

Safe and Drug-Free Schools

Denver Public Schools

B-5
B-6

Denver, Colo. 

Focus Group (cont.)

Edward Ray

Chief

Safety and Security

Denver Public Schools

Reggie Robinson

Principal

Mitchell Elementary School

Denver Public Schools

Chris Saiz

Psychological Services

Denver Public Schools

Betsy Thompson

Director

Student Services

Jefferson County Schools

Jim Trevino

Principal

Horace Mann Middle School

Denver Public Schools

Timothy Turley

Project Manager

Safe Schools/Healthy Students

Denver Public Schools 
Education Law

Policy

Gary Avery

Law Policy Institute

Chris Borreca

Bracewell and Patterson, LLP

Mandy Bingaman

Executive Director, Education

Law Association

Education

Organization

Bill Bond

National Association of

Secondary School Principals

Nancy Dorman

Policy Specialist, Wisconsin

Association of School Boards

Nora Howley

Project Director, School Health

Project, Council of Chief State

School Officers

Jerald Newberry

Director, Safe Schools Now

Network, National Education

Association

Ann Od’Done

National Education Association

Paula Rae Pawlowski

Member, National PTA Board 

of Directors

Ronald D. Stephens

Executive Director, National

School Safety Center

C-1

Appendix C

Crisis Planning 

Interview Participants 
Emergency

Management

Gordon Aoyagi

Fire Administrator, Montgomery

County, Md.

Emergency Management Center

Mike Austin

Director, Arizona Division 

of Emergency Management

Charlie Biggs

FEMA, Readiness Division

Gregg Champlin

Natural Hazards Program

Specialist,

New Hampshire Office 

of Emergency Management

Ann DeMueuse

Co-Chair, Door County Wisc.

Emergency Management

Director

Michael Dorn

Georgia Emergency Management

Agency, School Safety

Division

Renelle Grubbs

Executive Director, Kentucky

Community Crisis Response

Board

Trina Hembree

Executive Director, National

Emergency Management

Association

Kathee Henning

Coordinator, Montgomery

County, Md. Emergency

Management Center

Richard Meighen

Maryland Institute of Emergency

Management Systems

Karen Marsh

Branch Chief, FEMA, Office 

of National Preparedness,

Community and Family

Preparedness

Ralph Swisher

FEMA, Community and Family

Preparedness

Dawn Warehime

FEMA, Emergency Training

Institute

C-2
C-3

Health and Welfare

Susan Wolley

American School Health

Association

Local Education

Agency

Lois Berlin

Associate Superintendent for

Curriculum and Instruction,

Alexandria, Va. City Public

Schools

Sharon Boettinger

Superintendent for School

Counseling, Frederick County,

Md. Public Schools

Cindy Carlyle

School Counselor

Keith Grier

Director Student Services,

Charles County, Md. Public

Schools

Brian Marcum

Marion County District

Rowland Savage

Coordinator Department 

of Student Support Services,

Baltimore County, Md. Public

Schools

Mental Health

Jill Cook

American School Counselor

Association

Kendall Johnson

Author and Classroom Teacher,

San Antonio High School,

Claremont, Tex. Unified School

District

Scott Poland

Director, Psychological Services,

Cypress- Fairbanks, Alaska

Independent School District

David Schonfeld

Administrative Director,

Behavioral Pediatrics, Yale

University School of Medicine,

Department of Pediatrics

William Saltzman

Co-Director of the School Crisis

and Intervention Unit,

National Center for Child

Traumatic Stress

Ron Slaby

Professor, Harvard Graduate

School of Education,

Technology in Education

Judie Smith

School/Community Outreach 

and Crisis Coordinator, Irving

Independent School District
Mental Health/Crisis

Planning Consultant

Cheri Lovre

Director, Crisis Management

Institute

Mary Schoefeldt

Schoenfeldt and Associates

Kate Stetzner

Safe School Solutions

Cyrill Wantland

Consultant in Safe Schools

Strategies

National

Association

Ann Beauchesne

Director of Emergency

Management, National

Governors Association

Liam Goldrick

National Governors Association,

Education Policy Studies,

Center for Best Practices

Donald Murray

Vice Chair, Justice and Public

Safety Steering Committee,

National Association of

Counties

C-4
Public Safety

Terri Royster

Special Agent, FBI

Rob Schell

Vermont Department of Public

Safety

Terrance N. Treschuk

Chief of Police, Rockville Police

and Community Services

Departments

Researcher

Daniel Della-Giustina

West Virginia University College

of Engineering and Mineral

Resources Industrial and

Management Systems

Engineering, American 

Society of Safety

Engineers (ASSE)

Fred Hartmeister

Professor, College of Education,

Texas Tech University

Patty Weeks

Project Director, Stockton State

University, Calif.

C-5
Risk Management

Will Evans

Director of Safety Education,

Markel

Insurance

Ivan Hentschel

Training Coordinator, Public Risk

Management Association

Jim McGinty

Public Agency Training Council

Art Lang

Risk Manager, Orange-Ulster

Board of Collaborative

Education Services

State Education

Agency/School

Safety Center

Anne J. Atkinson

President, Policy Works, Ltd.

Julie Collins

Operations and Management

Consultant Manager, Florida

Department of Education

Arlene Cundiff

SDFS Coordinator, Va.

Department of Education,

Office of Compensatory

Programs/Division of

Instructional Support Services

Jean Eckhal

N.Y. State Center for School

Safety, Project SAVE School

Safety Plans Workgroup

Steve Kimberling

Director, Safe and Drug-Free

Schools, Kentucky

Marsha Lathroum

Maryland Department 

of Education

Lynn Widdowson

Maryland Department 

of Education

C-6
U.S. Department of Education