Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS i

Human Trafficking

in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

JANUARY 2015
This report was written under U.S. Department of Education Grant Number Q184L070139 by Jeneé Littrell of the 

Grossmont Union High School District. Eve Birge served as the grant monitor. This report was designed for the 

U.S. Department of Education under Contract Number EDESE12O0035 with American Institutes for Research, Inc. 

Rita Foy Moss served as the contracting officer’s representative for the National Center on Safe Supportive Learning 

Environments technical assistance center (NCSSLE). The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the 

positions or policies of the Department of Education. No official endorsement by the Department of any product, 

commodity, service or enterprise mentioned in this publication is intended or should be inferred. For the reader’s 

convenience, this publication contains information about and from outside organizations, including 

hyperlinks and URLs. Inclusion of such information does not constitute the Department’s endorsement.

Office of Safe and Healthy Students

David Esquith

Director

January 2015

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While permission 

to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe

and Healthy Students, Human Trafficking in America’s Schools, Washington, D.C., 2015.

This report is available for free at http://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/human-trafficking-americas-schools.

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Content Contact: 

Eve Birge

Phone: 202.453.6717

Email: eve.birge@ed.gov
iii

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Child Sex Trafficking .

Child Labor Trafficking .

Deconstructing Perceptions and a Victim-Centered Approach .

Risk Factors and Indicators .

What to Do if You Suspect Trafficking .

Recruitment .

Impact on Learning Environment .

Community Involvement .

Awareness, Policies, and Protocols .

A Sample Protocol for School Districts  .

U.S. Government Entities Combating Human Trafficking .

Publications and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Trainings .

Services .

Terms and Definitions .

Endnotes .

Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 1

Introduction 

Human trafficking is modern slavery. It involves exploiting a person through force, fraud, or coercion for 

the purpose of forced labor, commercial sex, or both. Victims of human trafficking include men, women, 

boys, girls, and transgender individuals lured by the promise of a better life in the United States and 

adults and children who were born and raised in the United States.

The International Labour Organization estimated, in 2012, that children represented 26 percent 

(or 5.5 million) of the 20.9 million victims worldwide.1 Both U.S. citizen and foreign national children 

are trafficked for sex and labor in the United States.2In fact, many child victims of human trafficking are 

students in the American school system. School administrators and staff need to be aware that cases of 

child trafficking are being reported in communities throughout the nation. No community—urban, 

rural, or suburban—school, socioeconomic group, or student demographic is immune.

Few crimes are more abhorrent than child trafficking, and few crimes are more challenging for 

communities to recognize and address. For many people, the reality of trafficking in their community 

is difficult to comprehend, let alone confront. For educators and school personnel, the reality of these 

crimes and the severity of their impact are cause for a call to action. 

Schools can and should be safe havens for students, and even more so for some students whose lives 

are otherwise characterized by instability and lack of safety or security. In these cases, school personnel 

are uniquely well positioned to identify and report suspected abuse and connect students to services—

actions that can prevent trafficking and even save lives. Everyone who is part of the school community—

administrators, teachers, bus drivers, maintenance personnel, food service staff, resource officers, and 

other school community members—has the potential to be an advocate for child victims of human 

trafficking, but, first, school community members must learn the indicators of the crime, its warning 

signs, and how to respond when a student is an apparent victim. 
2 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

Though they play a crucial role, school personnel cannot, and should not, address these complex issues 

alone. Effectively responding to child trafficking demands increased awareness and a clearly defined 

course of action, supported by collaboration with child protective services, law enforcement, social 

services, and community-based service providers. This guide was developed to help school officials

 understand how human trafficking impacts schools

 recognize the indicators of possible child trafficking 

 develop policies, protocols, and partnerships to address and prevent the exploitation of children

Child Sex Trafficking

When a child (a person under 18 years of age) is induced to perform a commercial sex act, proving force, 

fraud, or coercion against the child’s pimp is not necessary for the offense to be characterized as human 

trafficking. There are no exceptions to this rule: No cultural or socioeconomic rationalizations may prevent 

the rescue of children from sexual servitude. The use of children in the commercial sex trade is prohibited 

both under U.S. law and by statute in most countries around the world. Sex trafficking has devastating 

consequences for minors, including long-lasting physical and psychological trauma, disease (including 

HIV/AIDS ), drug addiction, unwanted pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and even death. 

Each victim has a different experience, but experiences often share common threads due to the nature 

of the crime. Trafficking victims live under the control of their trafficker, subject to fear, abuse, and denial 

of their basic human rights. 

ONE OUT OF EIGHT endangered runaway 

youths is likely a victim of human trafficking.

—National Center for Missing and Exploited Children

Child Labor Trafficking

Labor trafficking or forced labor can take many forms, which include bonded labor or debt bondage, 

where a child incurs a debt he or she is never able to pay off, or involuntary domestic servitude, where 

a child is forced to work in someone’s home for long hours with little or no pay. Although children may 

legally engage in certain forms of work, there are legal prohibitions and widespread condemnation 

against forms of slavery or slavery-like practices, and yet these practices continue to exist as manifestations 

of human trafficking. A child can be a victim of labor trafficking, regardless of the location of the 

nonconsensual exploitation. Some indicators of possible forced labor of a child include situations 
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 3

in which the child appears to be in the custody of a nonfamily member who requires the child to 

perform work that financially benefits someone outside the child’s family and does not offer the child 

the option of leaving.

In the United States, labor trafficking often occurs in the context of domestic service, agricultural work, 

peddling, and hospitality industries (e.g., restaurants and hotels). Traffickers manipulate victims into 

working long hours in substandard conditions for little or no wages. Peddling is a prevalent yet lesser 

known form of child labor, where children sell cheap goods, such as candy, magazines, or other trinkets, 

often going door to door or standing on street corners or in parks, regardless of weather conditions 

and without access to food, water, or facilities.

Like victims of sex trafficking, labor trafficking victims are kept in bondage through a combination of 

fear, intimidation, abuse, and psychological controls. 

It is important to remember that child victims of labor trafficking also may be sexually 

abused or simultaneously victims of sex trafficking.

Deconstructing Perceptions 

and a Victim-Centered Approach

Until recently, the trafficking of children in the United States has been 

clouded by a lack of awareness and exacerbated by stigma and denial. Now, 

communities are beginning to familiarize themselves with the nature of the 

crime and to train law enforcement and legal and social service providers on 

how to protect victims and serve their needs. Child trafficking is child abuse, 

and properly understanding this reality allows educators and law enforcement 

and social service providers to minimize judgment, provide services, prevent 

revictimization, and focus on the safety and well-being of the boy, girl, or 

transgender individual. 

With the passage of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 

2000 (Pub.L.106-386), the trafficking of children for sex and labor was 

criminalized, with the crucial caveat that anyone under age 18 who is 

induced to perform a commercial sex act is a victim of child sex trafficking, 

regardless of whether force, fraud, or coercion are involved. Unfortunately, 

local practice and policy sometimes treat the exploited minor in a human 

trafficking incident, where sex is engaged in for profit, as a perpetrator 
4 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

of the crime rather than as a victim. It is a contradiction that public outrage 

occurs when an eighth grader is molested by a family friend, and yet, if that 

same adolescent is sexually abused by a stranger who pays for the sex act, the 

community often wrongfully perceives the act as willing criminal prostitution. 

The law recognizes that children cannot give meaningful consent to such 

a crime. Educators must remember that a child involved in prostitution 

should always be treated as a victim and that criminal responsibility rests 

with the trafficker. 

Not all traffickers are 

adults: A suburban 

Minneapolis high school 

cheerleader was arrested 

for allegedly recruiting 

and pimping a younger 

student by creating an 

online ad and driving 

the victim to potential 

customers.

—Star Tribune

Risk Factors and Indicators

Though there is no standard profile of a child-trafficking victim, several 

risk factors make certain children more susceptible. Reports indicate that 

traffickers often target children and youths with a history of sexual abuse, 

dating violence, low self-esteem, and minimal social support. 

Runaway and homeless youths—male, female, and transgender—are at 

particularly high risk for becoming victims, though some trafficked youths 

continue living at home and attending school. There is also a strong correlation between sexually 

exploited youths and childhood sexual abuse, chronic maltreatment and neglect, and otherwise 

unstable home environments. Research findings estimate that between 33 and 90 percent of victims 

of commercial child sexual exploitation have experienced these types of abuses.3 Evidence also 

suggests that lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBTQ) youths can be up to five times more likely 

than heterosexual youths to be victims of trafficking due to the increased susceptibility that comes with 

the feelings of rejection and alienation that are often experienced by LGBTQ youths.4

Possible risk factors associated with child trafficking include the following:

 lack of personal safety

 isolation 

 emotional distress

 homelessness

 poverty

 family dysfunction 

 substance abuse 

 mental illness 

 learning disabilities 

 developmental delay 

 childhood sexual abuse

 promotion of sexual exploitation 

by family members or peers 

 lack of social support

Social workers who provide services to these victims indicate that feelings of isolation and abandonment 

are often reported but that the lack of a support network increases the vulnerability to trafficking. It is 

important to note that many teenage girls may be at risk of being recruited into the commercial sex 
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 5

industry simply by virtue of their normal maturation process. Wanting to take risks, feeling 

misunderstood by parents, and seeking romantic relationships can increase girls’ susceptibility to 

the recruitment tactics of sex traffickers or pimps. Findings also suggest that low self-esteem 

accompanies school failure for girls, and the resulting sense of a lack of self-worth may make 

them more vulnerable to recruitment.

5

However, once a student is victimized, identifying him or her can prove difficult for a variety 

of reasons: (1) the student’s reluctance to disclose the problem due to a sense of shame 

and fear; (2) the stigma associated with forced prostitution; (3) the power and control of the 

trafficker’s seduction and manipulation; and (4) the student’s inability to recognize that he or 

she is a victim and, therefore, is unwilling to seek help.

Possible behavioral indicators of a child sex trafficking victim include, but are not limited to, 

the following:

 an inability to attend school on a regular basis and/or unexplained absences

 frequently running away from home 

 references made to frequent travel to other cities

 bruises or other signs of physical trauma, withdrawn behavior, depression, 

anxiety, or fear

 lack of control over a personal schedule and/or identification or 

travel documents

 hunger, malnourishment, or inappropriate dress (based on weather conditions or surroundings)

 signs of drug addiction

 coached or rehearsed responses to questions

 a sudden change in attire, behavior, relationships, or material possessions (e.g., expensive items)

 uncharacteristic promiscuity and/or references to sexual situations or terminology beyond 

age-specific norms 

 a “boyfriend” or “girlfriend” who is noticeably older and/or controlling

 an attempt to conceal scars, tattoos, or bruises

 a sudden change in attention to personal hygiene 

 tattoos (a form of branding) displaying the name or moniker of a trafficker, such as “daddy”

 hyperarousal or symptoms of anger, panic, phobia, irritability, hyperactivity, frequent crying, 

temper tantrums, regressive behavior, and/or clinging behavior

 hypoarousal or symptoms of daydreaming, inability to bond with others, inattention, forgetfulness, 

and/or shyness
6 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

Additional behavioral indicators for labor trafficking include the following:

 being unpaid, paid very little, or paid only through tips

 being employed but not having a school-authorized work permit 

 being employed and having a work permit but clearly working outside the permitted hours 

for students

 owing a large debt and being unable to pay it off

 not being allowed breaks at work or being subjected to excessively long work hours

 being overly concerned with pleasing an employer and/or deferring personal or educational 

decisions to a boss

 not being in control of his or her own money 

 living with an employer or having an employer listed as a student’s caregiver

 a desire to quit a job but not being allowed to do so

What to Do if You Suspect Trafficking 

In order to build healthy learning environments, educators and school personnel must be knowledgeable 

about the signs and symptoms of trafficking, ways to support disclosure, and the steps to take if there is 

a strong suspicion of trafficking. If a school staff member—a teacher, bus driver, administrator, counselor, 

or cafeteria worker—notices a student who shows signs of potential 

trafficking, the first rule is to always pay attention. Learn about the school’s 

policies and protocols. If the school does not have clear policies and protocols, 

talk to the principal about instituting them. Share this information with school 

staff, administrators, school boards, and members of the community. 

For more information, see “Sample Protocol for School Districts” on p. 10.

Recruitment 

A man from Millington, 

Tennessee, was accused 

of trafficking girls as 

young as 15. He 

reportedly used a boy 

under the age of 18 to 

help recruit girls from 

local high schools. The 

boy was paid $20 for 

every $100 the girls 

brought in.

—www.localmemphis.com

Traffickers, who may be male, female, or transgender, target vulnerable 

children and lure them into forced labor and prostitution and other forms of 

sexual exploitation. In fact, it is known that the vast majority of child victims 

in the commercial sex industry and in forced labor are recruited and controlled 

by traffickers.6 Understanding particular recruitment methods and how 

trafficking occurs in a community will greatly assist school personnel’s 

abilities to identify potential victims. 
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 7

Traffickers may systematically target vulnerable children by frequenting 

locations where children congregate—malls, schools, bus and train stations, 

and group homes, among other locations. With the advent of social media, 

traffickers recruit through Facebook and other Internet sites. They also use 

peers or classmates, who befriend the target and slowly groom the child for 

the trafficker by bringing the child along to parties and other activities. 

Often, traffickers will create a seemingly loving and caring relationship with 

their victim in order to establish trust, dependence, and allegiance, thus 

making their child target even more vulnerable. One of the most common 

variations of this is a romantic relationship. A trafficker often will spend time 

slowly isolating and convincing a child of his or her love before selling that 

child for sex. 

Young victims also are lured into sexual exploitation and forced labor through 

psychological manipulation, drugs, and/or violence.

I didn’t care about school 

at all. In fact, I was so 

uncomfortable there...so 

afraid that people were 

talking about me and 

telling others about 

what I was doing...I was 

constantly getting into 

fights. This gave me a 

way to keep people 

scared of me and get 

myself a suspension so 

that I could leave school.

—Child trafficking survivor, 

18 years old Impact on Learning Environment 

The shared priorities and beliefs that motivate a school community have 

an effect on student learning, achievement, and behavior. A safe learning 

environment is proven to be imperative for overall student success, and this 

success is sacrificed on a campus where there is exploitation and violence. 

Due to the abuse associated with child trafficking, many victims experience 

severe physical, emotional, and psychological trauma. The symptoms of 

trauma can impact the learning experience of students and may manifest 

as problematic behaviors, such as aggression and truancy. Bad behavior 

can be a key warning sign of an abusive background and may provide a clue 

about possible victimization. Of particular note for educators is research that 

has shown a correlation between the human trafficking of children and 

school-related problems, including learning disabilities.7

In order to build healthy learning environments, educators must be 

knowledgeable about the signs, such as signs of child trafficking, and the 

steps to take when behaviors at school are out of order. A best practice is 

when all members of a school campus, along with parents and community 

partners, have a shared commitment to work together to prevent crimes and 

protect victims. This collaboration is critically important to student success 

and will lead to a safer, healthier school culture. 

I had a feeling that my 

teacher knew something 

was wrong in my life.

 I would notice her 

looking at me . . . almost 

like she wanted to say 

something to me. I 

wanted to open up to 

her, but I was afraid she 

would judge me. I was 

afraid that she wouldn’t 

understand.

—Child sex trafficking survivor, 

16 years old
8 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

Community Involvement

Child trafficking is not solely a school issue; it is a community issue that impacts schools. Therefore, it is 

recommended that all members of the community play a role in protecting students. 

To prevent the trafficking of children, community members first need to admit the problem exists and 

then commit to educating other community members and increasing awareness of the impact of the 

problem. Standing up to child trafficking also means equipping leaders with the resources to have 

an authentic dialog about the issue—including demand—in their neighborhoods, jurisdictions, 

constituencies, or school districts and giving these leaders the tools to work toward solutions. 

Historically, law enforcement and probation departments across the nation have been the primary 

systems addressing the complex needs of survivors of child sex trafficking. Through sting operations, 

crackdowns on gangs, and curfew sweeps, a law enforcement agency may 

be the first agency to interact with a sex trafficking victim. Today, child welfare 

systems and runaway and homeless youth programs are increasingly 

elevating their responses to child trafficking. It is strongly recommended 

that each community develop cross-system mechanisms and infrastructure 

for collaboration among public agencies and other stakeholders, while 

building upon the structures, processes, and relationships already in place. 

Schools should partner with their school boards, service providers, 

governmental agencies, and local law enforcement partners to identify 

the nature, scope, and prevalence of child trafficking in their communities. 

By getting other partners involved, schools will create safer campuses and 

increase the chances for academic, social, and psychological student 

success. These same partners should work collaboratively to develop a 

comprehensive prevention awareness program targeted at students and parents, alerting them to the 

nature and danger of child trafficking, as well as to develop protocols for dealing with the crime and 

providing services to victims. 

Some pragmatic concerns contribute to most communities’ ambivalence in mounting an aggressive 

child trafficking prevention effort. Increased awareness and provision of services are invaluable, but 

there are limited resources to support child trafficking victims and other at-risk students. How should 

education, social services, and, above all, safety for a student who has been trafficked and safety for their 

friends, classmates, and community members be balanced? How should schools evaluate whether their 

responses are effective? These are questions that school districts need to confront as they develop 

responses to the crime. Although comprehensive solutions take time, educators need immediate 

options for students involved in child trafficking.

Trafficking statistics 

are often unreliable 

due to a variety of factors, 

including the clandestine 

nature of the industry 

and underreporting.

—United Nations 

Population Fund
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 9

Awareness, Policies, and Protocols

A 10th-grade student 

was identified by law 

enforcement as a victim 

of child sex trafficking 

when they arrested her 

pimp. The victim was 

referred for services 

with a case manager 

and therapist. The 

victim and her mother 

granted consent for her 

case manager to work 

with her high school 

counselor to transfer 

her to an alternative 

school. The new school 

provided her a fresh 

start as well as a safe 

location where her 

pimp and his associates 

could not locate her.

—Case Manager, 

San Diego Youth Services

Schools have several responsibilities regarding child trafficking. They must: 

(1) increase staff awareness and educate staff on the indicators and the 

nature of the crimes; (2) increase parent and student awareness of the risks 

and realities of trafficking; and (3) develop and clearly articulate districtor school-wide policies on and protocols for identifying a suspected victim 

or responding to a disclosure from a suspected victim. 

Training on risk factors for vulnerable children, the signs and indicators of 

exploitation and trafficking, and the victim-centered approach should be 

provided to all staff working with students. It also is imperative that school 

personnel understand best practices for interacting with trafficking survivors, 

who often struggle with shame and embarrassment and too frequently 

believe their victimization is their fault. Suspending all judgments and 

remaining open minded are critical to creating a trusting, safe relationship 

in which vulnerable students feel safe to confide and seek support. 

In order to be ready to assist a child victim, the school district should develop 

a procedure similar to the procedures used in cases of sexual assault or for 

reporting child abuse. Because trafficking of children is child abuse, the 

protocol may be an addendum to the existing child abuse reporting protocol.

An effective school policy should require that school administrators and/or 

authorities be notified immediately, while maintaining the student’s 

confidentiality to the extent possible under the law. Once a child victim 

is identified, it is imperative that all responding providers coordinate 

intervention and support for the victim as well as ensure minimal impact 

on other students.

To have an effective anti-trafficking protocol, schools should, at a minimum

 develop, adopt, enforce, and implement a policy to address 

child trafficking;

 make sure all school personnel are properly trained on the policy;

 make certain campus security is in place so that all visitors are screened;

 provide programs and roles for parents and guardians to make them part of their children’s 

safety and security, both at school and while going to and from school; 

 assess the environmental structure and take every possible step to help make it safe; 

 partner with local law enforcement experts to provide a parent awareness program on the 

dangers and warning signs of child sex trafficking; and

 partner with local law enforcement agencies to protect the routes that students use to travel 

to and from schools.
10 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

A Sample Protocol for School Districts 

SITUATION AND PROTOCOL
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 11

U.S. Government Entities Combating Human Trafficking

The U.S. government supports a victim-centered, whole government approach that brings together 

federal departments and agencies to address all aspects of human trafficking—enforcement of criminal 

and labor law, victim identification and protection, education and public awareness, international trade 

and development, enhanced partnerships and research opportunities, and international engagement 

and diplomacy. The U.S. government also funds numerous civil society organizations to conduct antitrafficking efforts according to the 3 Ps (prosecution, protection, and prevention) both domestically 

and around the world.

The following federal departments are involved in this effort:

 Department of Education

 Department of Health and Human Services

 Department of Homeland Security

 Department of Justice

 Department of Labor

 Department of State

Publications and Resources

Some of the best ways to help combat human trafficking are to raise awareness, learn more, and help 

school staff, administrators, and the community at large learn about how to identify victims. Information 

about human trafficking can be found at the following websites:

 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families

www.acf.hhs.gov/endtrafficking

 U.S. Department of Homeland Security Blue Campaign

http://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign/share-resources

 Institute of Medicine

http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Resources/guideforhealthcaresector.pdf

 National Center on Homeless Education

http://center.serve.org/nche/downloads/briefs/trafficking.pdf

 National Center for Missing and Exploited Children

http://www.ncmec.org

 National Human Trafficking Resource Center

http://www.polarisproject.org/what-we-do/national-human-trafficking-hotline/the-nhtrc/overview

 Runaway and Homeless Youth Training and Technical Assistance Center

http://www.rhyttac.net/resources/document/human-trafficking-resource-list

 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/what-is-human-trafficking.html
12 Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS

Trainings

 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Anti-Trafficking in Persons Division, Office 

of Refugee Resettlement, National Human Trafficking Resource Center, “Safe Harbor” Laws: 

A Systemic Approach to Addressing Child Sex Trafficking

http://polarisproject.adobeconnect.com/safeharbor/

 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Blue Campaign, Human Trafficking Awareness Training

http://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign/awareness-training

Services

 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Services Available to Victims of Human 

Trafficking: A Resource Guide for Social Service Providers

http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/resource/services-available-to-victims-of-humantrafficking

 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Blue Campaign, Victim Assistance Resources

http://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign/victim-centered-approach

 U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, Initiatives to Expand Services 

to Human Trafficking Victims

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/news/human_trafficking.html

 International Labour Organization, International Programme on the Elimination 

of Child Labour, Combating Trafficking in Children for Labour Exploitation: A 

Resource Kit for Policymakers and Practitioners

http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=9130

Terms and Definitions

Child (minor, juvenile, youth) Persons under the age of 18 unless, under the law 

applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.8

Exploitation Unfair, if not illegal, treatment or use of somebody or something, 

usually for personal gain.

Labor trafficking The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining 

of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion, for the 

purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.
Human Trafficking in AMERICA’S SCHOOLS 13

Pimp Any person who participates in the transporting, harboring, or selling of a person for a commercial 

sex act. This term can be interchangeable with sex trafficker.

Sex trafficking The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for 

a commercial sex act in which that act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion or in which the person 

induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age.

Endnotes

1. International Labour Organization. (2012). ILO global estimate of forced labour: Results and 

methodology. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Available at http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---

ed_norm/---declaration/documents/publication/wcms_182004.pdf

2. U.S. Department of State. (2013). Trafficking in persons report 2013. Washington, DC: Author. 

Available at http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/

3. Williamson, C., & Prior, M. (2009). Domestic minor sex trafficking: A network of underground players 

in the Midwest. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 2(1), 46–61.

4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth and Families. 

(2014). Guidance to states and services on addressing human trafficking of children and youth in 

the United States. Washington, DC: Author. Available at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/

files/cb/acyf_human_trafficking_guidance.pdf/

5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant 

Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. (2009). Human trafficking into 

and within the United States: A review of the literature. Washington, 

DC: Author. Available at http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/07/

humantrafficking/litrev/

6. Reid, J. A., & Jones, S. (2011). Exploited vulnerability: Legal and 

psychological perspectives on child sex trafficking victims. 

Victims & Offenders, 6(2), 207–231. 

7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of 

the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. (2009). 

Human trafficking into and within the United States: A 

review of the literature. Washington, DC: Author. Available 

at http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/07/humantrafficking/litrev/

8. UNICEF. (n.d.). Fact Sheet: A summary of the rights under 

the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Available at 

http://www.unicef.org/crc/files/Rights_overview.pdf/

Note: All references listed were last accessed on 

August 12, 2014.
The Department of Education’s mission is to promote student 

achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by 

fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access.

For further information, please contact Eve Birge at 202.453.6717 or eve.birge@ed.gov