Measurement 

Science Roadmap 

for Net-Zero Energy 

Buildings 

Workshop Summary Report 

March 2010 

NIST Technical Note 1660 

 

NIST Technical Note 1660

Measurement Science Roadmap for 

Net-Zero Energy Buildings Workshop 

Summary Report 

March 2010 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Gary Locke, Secretary 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Patrick D. Gallagher, Director 

Joan L. Pellegrino 

Energetics Incorporated 

A. Hunter Fanney 

Chief, Building Environment Division 

Steven T. Bushby 

Leader, Mechanical Systems & Controls Group 

Piotr A. Domanski 

Leader, HVAC & R Equipment Performance Group 

William M. Healy 

Leader, Heat Transfer & Alternative Energy Systems Group 

Andrew K. Persily 

Leader, Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation Group 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8630 
 ii Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this 

 document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. 

Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note 1660 

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Tech. Note 1660 (March 2010) 

CODEN: NSPUE2 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks to all who participated in the workshop on Measurement Science Roadmap for Net-Zero 

Energy Buildings. The presentations and discussions that took place at the workshop provided the 

foundation for this report. A complete list of attendees is provided in Appendix B. 

Special thanks are extended to the members of the workshop planning committee, plenary speakers, 

session chairs, and members of NIST’s Building and Fire Laboratory that assisted in this effort, 

listed below. 

Planning Committee 

Patrick Hughes, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Steve Kennedy, Georgia Power 

Merle McBride, Owens Corning Research Center 

Steve Szymurski, Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute 

Plenary Speakers 

Dru Crawley, U.S. Department of Energy 

Danny Parker, Florida Solar Energy Center, University of Central Florida

Session Chairs/Report Out Presenters 

Onsite Energy Production 

Aaron Morrow, Geothermal Energy Association 

Intelligent Buildings 

John House, Johnson Controls 

Building Envelope Energy Reduction 

John McHugh, McHugh Energy 

Whole Building Integrated Energy Performance 

Harvey Sachs, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy 

Building Equipment Energy Reduction 

Glenn Hourahan, Air Conditioning Contractors of America

Members of the Building Environment Division within NIST’s Building and Fire Research 

Laboratory that made significant contributions to the planning and execution of the workshop and 

editing of this report are: Steven Bushby, Piotr Domanski, William Healy, and Andrew Persily. 

Thanks are also due to the administrative and conference support staff of NIST, especially Paula 

Svincek, Kathy Kilmer, Angela Ellis, and Teresa Vincente, who made sure that the many important 

meeting details were handled properly and efficiently. 

Special thanks are also due to the Energetics Incorporated team who provided support for workshop 

planning, facilitation, and preparation of the final report. This includes Joan Pellegrino, Melissa 

Eichner, Chris Clark, Jan Brinch, Fred Hansen, Aaron Kraus, and Janis Tabor. 

Hard copies of this report can be obtained by contacting Paula Svincek at 301-975-5864 or 

paula.svincek@nist.gov. 

Dr. S. Shyam Sunder 

Director, Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Cover Photo Courtesy Microsoft Online 

Dr. A. Hunter Fanney 

Chief, Building Environment Division 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings i

PREFACE

This report summarizes the results of the Measurement Science for Net-Zero 

Energy Buildings Workshop held on October 29, 2009 in Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

and sponsored by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. This effort 

supports and responds to the Federal Research and Development Agenda for 

Net-Zero Energy, High-Performance Green Buildings, issued by the National 

Science and Technology Council in October 2008 (NSTC 2008). Advances in 

measurement science are called out by the NSTC report as being critical to 

achieving the future promise of net-zero energy buildings. 

Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this 

document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. 

Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply 

that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for 

the purpose. 
 ii Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ....................................................................................................... i

Executive Summary ................................................................................ iii

I. Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

A. Background and Importance of Net-Zero Energy Buildings .. 1

B. Scope and Objectives ................................................................ 2

II. Broad Challenges for Net-Zero Energy Buildings ......................... 4

III. Onsite Energy Production ............................................................... 6

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment .................. 6

B. Critical Technologies ................................................................ 7

C. Broad Challenges ...................................................................... 8

D. Measurement Barriers ........................................................... 10

E. Priorities for Measurement Science ....................................... 11

IV. Intelligent Buildings ...................................................................... 23

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment ................ 23

B. Critical Technologies .............................................................. 24

C. Broad Challenges .................................................................... 25

D. Measurement Barriers ........................................................... 26

E. Priorities for Measurement Science ....................................... 29

V. Whole Buildings ............................................................................. 36

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment ................ 36

B. Critical Technologies .............................................................. 37

C. Broad Challenges .................................................................... 38

D. Measurement Barriers ........................................................... 40

E. Priorities for Measurement Science ....................................... 41

VI. Building Envelope .......................................................................... 49

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment ................ 49

B. Critical Technologies .............................................................. 50

C. Broad Challenges .................................................................... 51

D. Measurement Barriers ........................................................... 52

E. Priorities for Measurement Science ....................................... 54

VII. Building Equipment ...................................................................... 60

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment ................ 60

B. Critical Technologies .............................................................. 61

C. Broad Challenges .................................................................... 63

D. Measurement Barriers ........................................................... 64

E. Priorities for Measurement Science ....................................... 65

Appendices .............................................................................................. 71

Appendix A: List of Contributors ............................................... 72

Appendix B: References .............................................................. 74

Appendix C: Acronyms ................................................................ 75
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings iii 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Buildings account for nearly a third of the world’s energy use today, and this share 

is expected to rise along with population growth and levels of prosperity. In the 

United States, residential and commercial buildings consumed about 40 % of 

primary energy use, or about 38.7 quadrillion BTUs (40.8 exajoules) in 2008. 

Buildings today account for about 73 % of electricity and 55 % of natural gas 

consumption in the United States. In 2006, residential and commercial buildings 

were responsible for 58 % and 42 %, respectively, of the $392 billion U.S. building 

energy expenditures. (DOE 2009, DOE 2009a). 

Net-zero energy buildings (NZEB) ⎯buildings that produce as much energy as 

they consume over a defined period⎯offer the potential to substantially decrease 

building energy use and enable buildings to become energy self-sufficient. 

Achieving the vision of net-zero energy buildings will require the pursuit of 

multiple strategies, including development of new, cost-effective technologies and 

practices, integration of renewable energy into building designs, and adoption of 

innovative strategies for using energy and resources. A national goal has been set 

to achieve net-zero energy in 50 % of U.S. commercial buildings by 2050 (DOE 

2010). 

In 2008, the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) issued the Federal 

Research and Development Agenda for Net-Zero Energy, High-Performance Green 

Buildings (NSTC 2008). Advances in measurement science are cited by the NSTC 

report as being critical to achieving the future promise of net-zero energy 

buildings. 

In response to the NSTC report and to ensure 

that measurement science keeps pace with 

needed innovations, the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST) sponsored the 

Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy 

Buildings Workshop on October 29, 2009 in 

Gaithersburg, Maryland. Experts from industry, 

government, national laboratories, and 

academia came together to provide insights on 

critical technologies, major challenges, and 

related measurement issues for five major topics 

(see Figure E.1). 

This report summarizes the workshop results 

and will serve to guide NIST in pursuing a 

portfolio of programs that are focused on 

providing the measurement science needed to 

enable net-zero energy buildings. It can also be 

used by both the public and private sectors to guide policy, R&D, and other 

decision making relevant to this important area. Highlights from the workshop are 

summarized in Figure E.2. 

Figure E.1 Workshop Topics

• Onsite Energy Production⎯Stand‐alone and

building‐integrated alternative energy systems

• Intelligent Buildings⎯Integrated, intelligent

measurement and control technologies to improve

building environment and functionality

• Whole Building Integrated Energy

Performance⎯Assessment and projection of whole

building energy performance  

• Building Envelope Energy Reduction⎯Design,

construction, and inspection methods for building

envelopes, and  

• Building Equipment Energy Reduction⎯Advanced

and optimized building system components and

equipment such as heating, ventilating, and air

conditioning (HVAC), water heating, lighting, and

others
 iv Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Some of the broad challenges identified include financial incentives (the building 

industry and consumers are motivated by different and sometimes conflicting 

factors); industry structure and culture that is sometimes slow to change; 

uncertain, inconsistent, or insufficient policies and regulations that contribute to 

greater risk; lack of training and education to better inform all levels of 

stakeholders about energy issues; and a lack of public awareness about net-zero 

energy concepts and the potential benefits. 

Figure E.2  Critical Technologies and Measurement Science Priorities for Net‐Zero Energy Buildings

• Dynamic in-situ 

measurements of 

performance 

• Accurate tools to predict 

energy generation from 

on-site energy sources

• Representative thermal 

and electrical building 

load profiles 

• Methods/standard 

protocols for evaluating 

real time performance of 

onsite generation 

systems 

• Commissioning 

techniques that reduce 

“gap” between design 

and actual performance

• Standard tariff database

• Standards for 

collecting and sharing 

data

• Test beds for 

developing/evaluating 

NZEB technology

• Effective model inputs 

from standardized 

data

• Automated tools for 

commissioning

• Data requirements 

and analysis to 

assess building 

performance

• Best practice 

guidelines for 

intelligent system 

design, operation and 

maintenance

• Fundamental basis for 

green codes, standards 

and programs

• Equipment ratings to 

support system 

modeling and generate 

performance maps

• Accurate, affordable, 

low maintenance 

sensing and 

measurement

• Whole building energy/ 

environment model

• Performance 

degradation metrics for 

whole building and 

subsystems

• Universal standards 

/methods of 

measurement for 

buildings

• Wireless temperature 

and RH transducers 

with high accuracy, low 

power and cost and 

long life

• Accelerated aging tests 

for predicting long-term 

performance of 

envelope materials and 

systems

• In situ measurement of 

thermal resistance of 

existing wall assemblies

• Air-tightness 

measurement test and 

calibration metrics

• Analysis of energy bills 

to identify candidate 

buildings for energyefficiency retrofits

• Updated equipment 

methods of test and 

performance rating 

procedures

• Procedures for 

rating as-installed 

distribution 

effectiveness in 

buildings

• Continuous 

comparative 

analysis of 

measured vs 

expected 

performance of 

HVAC and 

refrigeration

• Nanolubricants for 

efficient chilllers

Measurement Priorities

• Electrical and thermal

energy storage systems

• More efficient/less 

expensive renewable 

systems

• “Plug and play” renewable 

energy systems

• Advanced CHP including 

CO-tolerant fuel cells

• Intelligent systems to 

interface renewable 

systems, storage, and 

energy providers

• Effective interconnection 

standards and interfaces

• Robust, adaptive, self 

configuring control 

strategies

• New, low cost, self 

checking sensors

• Intelligent models and 

feedback systems

• Technologies to enable 

whole building global 

optimization

• Inexpensive integrated 

metering

Critical Technologies

• Whole building design 

and methods for 

effective integration of 

envelope/ energy 

generation

• Performance 

assessment software, 

databases, and life 

cycle tools

• Controls/sensors for 

monitoring air, gas, 

water, volatiles, 

particulates

• Passive air cleaning 

technologies

• Daylighting

• Wireless sensor 

integration

• Zero-emission 

materials and rating 

processes

• High R-value building 

materials and 

comments

• Advanced design and 

construction methods 

to increase quality 

and efficiency

• Moisture-tolerant 

materials and 

assemblies

• Inexpensive long life 

wireless sensors and 

transmitters

• Fault detection/ 

diagnostics for all 

equipment

• Automated building/ 

equipment 

commissioning

• Better electrical 

‘sleep’ functions

• Design tools for 

efficient sizing 

• Improved water 

control and use

• Dynamic in-situ 

measurements of 

performance 

• Accurate tools to predict 

energy generation from 

on-site energy sources

• Representative thermal 

and electrical building 

load profiles 

• Methods/standard 

protocols for evaluating 

real time performance of 

onsite generation 

systems 

• Commissioning 

techniques that reduce 

“gap” between design 

and actual performance

• Standard tariff database

• Standards for 

collecting and sharing 

data

• Test beds for 

developing/evaluating 

NZEB technology

• Effective model inputs 

from standardized 

data

• Automated tools for 

commissioning

• Data requirements 

and analysis to 

assess building 

performance

• Best practice 

guidelines for 

intelligent system 

design, operation and 

maintenance

• Fundamental basis for 

green codes, standards 

and programs

• Equipment ratings to 

support system 

modeling and generate 

performance maps

• Accurate, affordable, 

low maintenance 

sensing and 

measurement

• Whole building energy/ 

environment model

• Performance 

degradation metrics for 

whole building and 

subsystems

• Universal standards 

/methods of 

measurement for 

buildings

• Wireless temperature 

and RH transducers 

with high accuracy, low 

power and cost and 

long life

• Accelerated aging tests 

for predicting long-term 

performance of 

envelope materials and 

systems

• In situ measurement of 

thermal resistance of 

existing wall assemblies

• Air-tightness 

measurement test and 

calibration metrics

• Analysis of energy bills 

to identify candidate 

buildings for energyefficiency retrofits

• Updated equipment 

methods of test and 

performance rating 

procedures

• Procedures for 

rating as-installed 

distribution 

effectiveness in 

buildings

• Continuous 

comparative 

analysis of 

measured vs 

expected 

performance of 

HVAC and 

refrigeration

• Nanolubricants for 

efficient chilllers

Measurement Priorities

• Electrical and thermal

energy storage systems

• More efficient/less 

expensive renewable 

systems

• “Plug and play” renewable 

energy systems

• Advanced CHP including 

CO-tolerant fuel cells

• Intelligent systems to 

interface renewable 

systems, storage, and 

energy providers

• Effective interconnection 

standards and interfaces

• Robust, adaptive, self 

configuring control 

strategies

• New, low cost, self 

checking sensors

• Intelligent models and 

feedback systems

• Technologies to enable 

whole building global 

optimization

• Inexpensive integrated 

metering

Critical Technologies

• Whole building design 

and methods for 

effective integration of 

envelope/ energy 

generation

• Performance 

assessment software, 

databases, and life 

cycle tools

• Controls/sensors for 

monitoring air, gas, 

water, volatiles, 

particulates

• Passive air cleaning 

technologies

• Daylighting

• Wireless sensor 

integration

• Zero-emission 

materials and rating 

processes

• High R-value building 

materials and 

comments

• Advanced design and 

construction methods 

to increase quality 

and efficiency

• Moisture-tolerant 

materials and 

assemblies

• Inexpensive long life 

wireless sensors and 

transmitters

• Fault detection/ 

diagnostics for all 

equipment

• Automated building/ 

equipment 

commissioning

• Better electrical 

‘sleep’ functions

• Design tools for 

efficient sizing 

• Improved water 

control and use

Onsite Energy

Production

Intelligent

Buildings

Whole

Buildings

Building

Envelope

Building

Equipment
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 1 

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Background and Importance of Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Buildings account for nearly a third of the world’s energy use today, and this share 

is expected to rise along with population growth and levels of prosperity. In the 

United States, residential and commercial buildings consumed about 40 % of 

primary energy use, or about 38.7 quadrillion BTUs (40.8 exajoules) in 2008 (DOE 

2009a). Buildings consume approximately 73 % of all electricity used within the 

United States, as shown in Figure 1. Buildings also account for 55 % of all U.S. 

natural gas consumption (including natural gas for electricity production) (DOE 

2009a). In 2006, residential and commercial buildings were responsible for 58 % 

and 42 %, respectively, of the $392 billion U.S. building energy expenditures (DOE 

2009). If current trends continue, buildings could consume more than industry and 

transportation combined (NSTC 2008). 

In addition, U.S. buildings are responsible 

for more than 39 % of world CO2 emissions, 

double the total emissions of India and 

more than the total emissions of the U.K., 

France, and Japan combined (UN MDGI2009). Buildings are also responsible for 

45 % of U.S. water use, or about 180 billion 

gallons (681 G·m3) per day (USGS 2004). 

The per capita water use for providing 

electricity to buildings (470 gallons [1.78 

m3] per day) far exceeds the per capita 

domestic water use of about 100 gallons 

[0.38 m3] Per day; a recent study projected 

that 36 states anticipate local, regional, or 

statewide water shortages by 2013. 

Without dramatically reducing energy 

consumption in the buildings sector, it will 

be difficult for the U.S. to make meaningful 

reductions in the fast-growing demand for electricity, water, and/or gas. 

Net-zero energy buildings (NZEB) ⎯buildings that produce as much energy as 

they consume over a defined period⎯offer the potential to substantially decrease 

building energy use and enable buildings to become energy self-sufficient. 

Achieving the vision of net-zero energy buildings will require the pursuit of 

multiple strategies, including development of new, cost-effective technologies and 

practices, revision of building codes, integration of renewable energy into building 

designs, and adoption of innovative strategies for using energy and resources 

within the building community. 

A national goal has been set to achieve net-zero energy in 50 % of U.S. commercial 

buildings by 2050 (DOE 2010). Greater use of existing technologies plays a key role 

Figure 1. U.S. Electricity Consumption By Sector, 2008

(DOE 2009a)

Industry 

26.4% 

Transportation 

0.2% 

Residential & 

Commercial 

Buildings 

73.4% Total Primary U.S. 

Electricity Use 

40.1 Quadrillion Btu 
 2 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

in achieving this goal. Studies have found that, by using currently available 

technologies, it is possible to reduce a building’s energy consumption by 30 % to 50 

% (Anderson et al. 2006; Griffith et al. 2007; Levine et al. 2007; USGBC 2007). 

Existing technologies by themselves, however, will not be adequate to achieve 

dramatic energy reduction goals for the buildings sector. 

Buildings are complex systems with many interacting elements. Past 

improvements in the energy performance of integrated and interacting materials, 

components, and systems within buildings have not produced the expected 

reductions in overall energy use. An integrated portfolio of advanced technologies 

is needed that not only supports performance improvements in the design and 

manufacturing of individual components, but also captures the system 

complexities and interactions seen in real buildings. Additional reductions of 

from 20 % to 40 % can be realized by using advanced technologies integrated 

holistically with the building design (Griffith et al. 2007). Additional energy 

requirements, after current and advanced energy saving technologies are in place, 

must be met through the use of renewable energy systems.

The environment in which technologies are deployed must be addressed as well. 

Challenges include a complex industry and regulatory structure, imperfect 

information, high first costs, technical and market risks, and lack of a trained and 

experienced workforce. Technology advances, combined with new policies that 

address or eliminate some of these challenges, will be needed to achieve dramatic 

improvements in building energy efficiency. 

B. Scope and Objectives 

In 2008, the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) issued the Federal 

Research and Development Agenda for Net-Zero Energy, High-Performance Green 

Buildings (NSTC 2008). This landmark report lays out goals for achieving dramatic 

improvements in building performance and sustainability. Advances in 

measurement science are cited by the NSTC report as being critical to achieving 

the future promise of net-zero energy buildings. 

In response to the NSTC report and the need to ensure that measurement science 

keeps pace with the needed technology innovations, the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST) sponsored the Measurement Science for Net-Zero 

Energy Buildings Workshop on October 29, 2009 in Gaithersburg, Maryland. 

Experts from industry, government, national laboratories, and academia (Appendix 

B) came together to provide insights on the characteristics of the future built 

environment, the critical technologies and system approaches that would be 

needed, and the technical challenges and measurement issues related to net-zero 

energy buildings. Five technical topics were explored, covering both existing and 

new buildings: 

• Onsite Energy Production⎯Stand-alone and building-integrated alternative 

energy systems 

• Intelligent Buildings⎯Integrated, intelligent measurement and control 

technologies to improve building environment and functionality 

• Whole Building Integrated Energy Performance⎯Assessment and projection 

of whole building energy performance 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 3 

• Building Envelope Energy Reduction⎯Design, construction, and inspection 

methods for building envelopes, and 

• Building Equipment Energy Reduction⎯Advanced and optimized building 

system components and equipment such as heating, ventilating, and air 

conditioning (HVAC), water heating, lighting, and others 

A wide spectrum of measurement science was covered in each 

topical area (see Figure 2), many of which are critical to 

achieving net-zero energy buildings. For example, technical 

guidelines and methods of test form the basis for standards, 

codes, and best practices. Reference materials, data, 

measurement methods, and other tools enable the 

development and validation of the performance of new 

technologies. 

Workshop Process and Results 

Participants were asked to provide input on the 

characteristics of the future built environment; critical 

technologies needed to enable net-zero energy buildings; 

broad technical and non-technical challenges to technology 

development and implementation; and critical measurement 

barriers. To determine priorities for measurement science, 

participants were given five votes and asked to assign these 

votes to the measurement barriers they considered to be most important in terms 

of meeting future goals for net-zero energy buildings. Those barriers receiving the 

most votes then formed the foundation for detailed measurement priorities in each 

topical area. 

The remainder of this report summarizes the results of the workshop and provides 

a perspective on measurement science challenges in both the near and long term. 

Each chapter provides the set of priority measurement topics that emerged as the 

most important challenges in moving toward net-zero energy buildings. 

The report will serve to guide NIST in pursuing a portfolio of programs that are 

focused on providing the measurement science needed to enable net-zero energy 

buildings. It can also be used by both the public and private sectors to guide policy, 

R&D, and other decision making relevant to this important area. 

Figure 2. Measurement Science Is

Broadly Defined to Include:

3⁄4 Reference Data

3⁄4 Reference Materials

3⁄4 Measurement Methods

3⁄4 Methods of Test

3⁄4 Test beds

3⁄4 Predictive Tools

3⁄4 Performance Metrics

3⁄4 Comparison Studies

3⁄4 Assessment of Technologies

3⁄4 Information Models

3⁄4 Protocols

3⁄4 Technical Guidelines
 4 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

II. BROAD CHALLENGES FOR NETZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS

A number of broad technology, policy, and cultural challenges were identified for 

net-zero energy buildings that cut across technologies and building types. 

The most notable broad challenges to achieve net-zero energy, high-performance 

green building technologies are listed in Figure 3 and discussed below.

Financial Incentives 

Low cost energy is a deterrent to implementation of 

efficiency projects in general, as financial incentives and 

return on investment are less attractive when energy is 

inexpensive. There is also conflicting motivation between 

the various stakeholders associated with a building during 

its life. 

The building industry is motivated by profit associated 

with the construction and sale of a building and not 

necessarily by reducing the operational costs of the 

building that will be borne by the building’s occupants. Buyers are generally 

focused on the up-front cost and tend not to invest in future savings, as a portion 

of the savings may not materialize during their ownership. Realtors base home 

pricing on comparisons (location, square footage, etc.) which typically ignore 

energy savings features. A rental or leased property where owners do not bear 

energy costs is another example; owners have no incentive to improve building 

energy efficiency because renters pay for energy use. A clear value proposition is 

needed to facilitate acceptance of net-zero energy buildings in the investment 

community and establish commercial viability and potential benefits. 

Policy and Regulation 

A massive market transformation will be necessary to achieve net-zero energy, 

high-performance green buildings. Dramatic reductions in building energy 

consumption can be achieved only through progressive policies that support the 

widespread diffusion of existing technologies and the development and 

deployment of new advanced building technologies. 

Policy disincentives (e.g., uncertain energy and carbon policy, outdated tax 

depreciation schedules) could discourage long-term thinking and are a major 

impediment. The near term focus of policy (government) actions can also be a 

deterrent; there is a need to focus on the longer term and changing realities to 

support demonstration of game-changing technology. The lack of consistent 

policies to support funding for R&D, as well as future policy uncertainties, also 

contribute to greater risk.

Codes and Standards 

Codes and standards are needed to move the Nation towards net-zero energy 

buildings. However, codes and standards are slow to change and adapt to 

Figure 3. Broad Challenges for Net‐Zero

Energy Buildings

3⁄4 Financial Incentives

3⁄4 Policy and Regulation

3⁄4 Codes and Standards

3⁄4 Industry Culture

3⁄4 Energy Training and Education

3⁄4 Consumer Behavior
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 5 

advances in technology and knowledge. Code adoption and enforcement is slow to 

occur, fragmented and inconsistent in many cases. 

Industry Culture 

Strong traditions in the buildings trades and professions create a culture where 

change is often slow. There is also skepticism regarding the use of technologies 

that are perceived to be risky and whether a net-zero energy buildings is a 

realistic goal. The industry is fragmented, with little centralized knowledge, 

which contributes to a lack of impetus and lack of collaboration on new technology 

adoption. 

Training and Education 

The lack of curriculum tools, interactive tools, and other information to 

support cradle to grave awareness of energy issues constitutes a broad 

challenge for net-zero energy buildings. Consumers as well as builders, 

installers, maintenance workers, and commercial building owners all need 

greater awareness of the net-zero energy building concept and its cost 

benefits. Technical assistance to support widespread technology diffusion 

and implementation in the residential and commercial building sectors must 

be scaled up. Workers must be trained across the spectrum of the trades to 

serve as the next generation of leaders via workforce development, 

retraining, certification, and education programs. 

Consumer Behavior 

More research is needed in behavioral economics to understand what motivates 

people to adopt energy efficient strategies. There is a general resistance to change 

that must be overcome. The desire to have a healthy, comfortable environment is 

not necessarily translated by the public into the concept of a building that uses 

less or no energy. Misinformation about new technology and ideas can also create 

public doubt and exacerbate the problem of inertia and resistance to change. 
 6 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

III. ONSITE ENERGY PRODUCTION

Alternative energy systems can be used to produce electricity and thermal energy 

at the building’s site, eliminating transmission and distribution losses. 

Enhancements to building efficiency and the use of advanced technologies are 

expected to yield a 70% improvement in today’s building energy profile; 

renewable energy systems are expected to provide the remaining 30 % to achieve 

net-zero energy. The nature of the technology used will depend on the electrical 

and thermal demands associated with the building, building design, access to 

alternative energy sources, and other site-specific factors. 

This topic area focuses on the technologies and measurement science needs 

related to the use of alternative⎯including renewable⎯energy systems in 

commercial and residential buildings. The scope encompasses solar (e.g., 

photovoltaics, including building integrated and both active and passive solar 

thermal technologies as well as combined photovoltaic and thermal systems); 

wind (e.g., wall- or roof-integrated, stand-alone); onsite hydropower; combined 

heat and power systems; and, building integration and grid interconnectivity of 

these systems. 

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment 

The potential future attributes of onsite power generation technologies are 

summarized in Table III-1. In the future, buildings are likely to become 

integrated generation units, utilizing renewable energy technologies and 

combined heat and power (CHP) systems to become active participants in 

utilities’ energy management activities. Ultimately, buildings would ideally 

become entirely self-sufficient entities, with dedicated central power generation 

facilities providing a minimal amount of additional electricity. 

Table III‐1.  Onsite Energy Production – Future Built Environment

Energy Production

• Energy systems are transparent in aesthetics and operation  

• Characteristics:

- Net positive power output from buildings to be dispatched

- Aggressive conversion efficiencies

- Dispatch‐able loads

- Low or no carbon emissions

- Integrated systems to include power requirements for  electric hybrid or electric vehicles  

• All natural resources available on the site to fully operate the building are utilized (not just solar, but

also wind, geothermal, etc.)

• Lower cost photovoltaics (PV); applications beyond roof tops

• PV systems are fully integrated into building materials

• Cost‐effective solar desiccant cooling
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 7 

Table III‐1.  Onsite Energy Production – Future Built Environment

Controls and System Integration

• Software advances that enable accurate predictions of the energy production potential associated

with various alternative energy sources

• Means for control and monitoring so consumers can regulate their own usage and induce long‐term

changes in behavior

• Provide immediate feedback to stakeholders that gives the actual power generation of renewable

energy systems compared to predicted/perceived performance

• Advanced on‐site power generation control systems

• PV, solar thermal, and energy storage systems fully integrated to optimize overall performance  

Energy Storage, Operations and Maintenance

• Code enforcement to ensure proper installation and operation

• Lower cost PV, solar thermal, wind, and energy storage technologies

B. Critical Technologies 

Advancements in both energy generation and building technology are essential 

for wide-scale deployment of the integrated systems that will enable buildings to 

generate their own energy and become largely independent of electricity supplied 

by the grid. Control systems, communication protocols, and materials 

development and testing are all vital to the emergence of net-zero energy 

buildings. 

The following is a summary of some technology developments that will be needed 

to facilitate the emergence of onsite energy production for buildings. Near term, 

mid term, and long term are defined as 0-3 years, 3-5 years, or 5-10 years, 

respectively, throughout this report. 

Energy Generation and Storage 

Near Term: Priorities include technologies that will enable greater utilization of 

low-quality heat sources. Materials that enable more efficient solar PV energy 

capture will need to be developed and deployed. 

Mid Term: Improved storage technologies will facilitate the integration of 

renewable energy with the grid while maintaining overall stability. 

Long Term: In the field of CHP, CO-tolerant fuel cell systems, onsite natural gas 

reformers, and neighborhood-scale geothermal and solar heat pumps will be 

deployed. Technologies are needed to ensure interactivity of electrical energy 

storage devices with the electric grid, and integration of thermal energy storage 

devices with the building’s heating and cooling equipment. 

Control Systems 

Near Term: Intelligent controls will manage multiple remote onsite energyproducing units in order to avoid start-up demand spikes. Advanced building 

management systems will include fault detection and price response in order to 

maximize benefits from generation capabilities; these smart controllers for 
 8 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

integrated power generation systems will include high-density energy storage for 

grid regulation. 

Mid to long Term: There will be continued development of smart controllers for 

integrated power generation systems. 

Integration of Systems 

Near Term: A single interconnection standard will be needed to incentivize 

development and reduce regulatory barriers to self-generation. Uniform utility 

control standards that facilitate installation and communication of networked 

devices. Standard interfaces will enable the integration of “plug and play” PV 

systems. Predictive cost benefit models will assess the performance of PV systems 

for individual customers. 

Mid to long Term: Generating technologies will be more responsive, particularly 

waste heat utilization and CHP; generation will be tightly managed and will be 

dispatch-able. 

C. Broad Challenges 

The broad challenges related to onsite energy production are both technical and 

non-technical. They involve barriers unique to the integration of generation 

systems with buildings, the need for energy storage, incentivizing investment for 

high risk, high cost renewable energy systems, and overcoming current building 

industry philosophies and structure. 

Technical Challenges 

Renewable energy systems face a number of challenges for use in buildings. Some 

of the most critical include reliability of renewable energy systems over time, and 

predicting the actual performance of these systems versus expectations based 

upon limited rating data⎯a practice that often leads to over-prediction of 

installed performance. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are impeded by the high 

investment required, which means long and unattractive payback periods for 

many building operators and owners. On 

the technology side, maintenance and 

reliability of concentrating solar 

collectors remains a challenge. Standard 

techniques to integrate PV on 

residential, commercial, and skyscrapers 

are also lacking. Communication 

barriers also exist between sensors, 

smart grid systems, and renewable 

energy systems. Related to this is the 

need for accurate predictive software 

and performance metrics for integrated 

power generation systems. 

Urban power challenges include natural 

hazard control (e.g., maintaining system reliability and energy production under 

conditions such as hurricanes, fire, snow, hail, thunderstorms) is a challenge that 

NIST’s outdoor residential photovoltaic test 

facility is used to collect performance data 

for model improvement and validation. 

(Photo: NIST) 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 9 

needs to be resolved for urban building-integrated power generation to become 

more widespread. Urban power generation inherently creates some difficulties, 

such as noise and aesthetic concerns. 

Grid-integration protocols are a major challenge to grid integration of onsite 

power systems. As grid interconnection becomes more widespread, there will be 

an increased need for communication protocols that enable utilities to provide 

price signals to producers and consumers of energy, as well as automatic 

scheduling of demand-response events. 

Uniform technical methods of test, rating methodologies, and standards are 

needed to determine the real-time performance of energy generation. It is 

important to be able to reconcile predicted output with actual energy production, 

allowing more accurate selection and design of systems. In addition, standards 

are needed that will allow data collection to establish benchmarks to identify 

underperforming units or facilities. 

Storage technology is an important issue, particularly for renewable energy 

technologies with variable production. The major challenge is the lack of highefficiency, low-cost, environmentally sound storage technologies for both electrical 

and thermal energy. A related barrier is the lack of high-density, highperformance energy storage materials, which could enable new storage 

technologies. 

Non-Technical Challenges 

Costs and financing represents a challenge on a number of fronts. The current 

cost of energy conversion technologies in general is high, making them 

impractical for some buildings. There is also a great deal of uncertainty in 

appraising the performance and determining the value of onsite energy 

production. Increased demonstration of technologies and better sharing of results 

and lessons learned could help to increase understanding of benefits and 

reliability, particularly for investors. On the policy side, there are widely varying 

financial incentives for energy production, and navigating these can be difficult 

for the average operator, owner, or investor. A key challenge is to convey the 

benefits to residential users so they can readily justify adoption of systems based 

on cost. 

Training and education is a challenge in a number of areas. First responders, for 

example, have limited understanding of and training with PV/energy production 

systems, which could raise safety concerns during hazardous or emergency 

conditions. On the technical side, trained installers are lacking, especially ones 

who understand permitting and other issues. There is also a broad lack of 

expertise with building-integrated energy systems in the design community. 

Non-uniform regulatory requirements are an important barrier. While many 

states mandate that renewable and distributed energy sources must be connected 

to the grid and provide for net metering, these regulations are not uniform and 

can vary significantly between jurisdictions. There is a need to develop one 

nationally consistent regulatory framework that governs the integration of onsite 

energy production with the grid while ensuring grid stability. 
 10 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Structural issues within the building industry also serve as impediments to onsite 

energy production. A key barrier is that the existing housing stock was not built 

with the application of future onsite power generation in mind, which means that 

significant cost could be incurred in retrofitting the building to accommodate 

these systems. From a cultural standpoint, the residential building industry in 

general is not receptive to an energy service company business model. 

Overcoming compartmentalized thinking in the building industry is a key 

challenge. 

D. Measurement Barriers 

A number of measurement barriers and challenges were identified that are 

critical to the development and implementation of onsite building energy 

generation. These are summarized in Table III-2 by topical area, with the relative 

priorities indicated. 

Some of the top measurement challenges include: 

• Clarification of the goals associated with renewable energy resources, 

• Performance and technology assessment, 

• Lack of predictive tools to optimize strategies and to evaluate energy 

production performance, 

• Lack of real-world testing protocols to capture actual energy production 

performance, 

• Closing the gap between design and actual performance, and 

• Dynamic performance measurements of energy generation systems. 

Table III‐2.  Onsite Energy Generation – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Performance Metrics

High  

Priority

• Uncertainty about goals and what to measure to determine performance⎯e.g., fuel

use, carbon, source energy ●●●●●●●●

Medium

Priority • Lack of a standardized or validated tariff model and database ●●

Lower  

Priority

• Difficulty capturing total financial savings, including externalities (CO2) that truly

reflect PV costs

• Inability to effectively determine the impact of excess PV generation on source‐to‐site

multiplier

• Developing standard rating methods that are realistic

Technology Assessment

High

Priority

• Closing the gap between design and actual performance due to lack of commissioning

●●●●

• Lack of dynamic performance measurements ●●●●

Medium

Priority • Lack of understanding of optimal controls schemes for integrated power systems ●●

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of customer training on how to assess technology and interpret results

• Limited ability to evaluate long‐term performance of integrated systems
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 11 

Table III‐2.  Onsite Energy Generation – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Predictive Tools

High

Priority

• Lack of predictive/design tools to optimize technology strategies (i.e., integration)

and demonstrate compliance ●●●●●

• Lack of predictive tools/models to evaluate energy production technologies ●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Limited ability to forecast energy collection and compare with actual collection ●●

• Lack of surface/shading measurements to identify obstructions to PV system ●

Lower  

Priority • Lack of a standard approach to predict annual power output for onsite generation

Reference Data

High

Priority

• Limited availability of representative electrical and thermal energy use profiles

●●●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of end‐use information relative to building energy use ●

• Insufficient standard irradiation data ●

• Lack of agreed‐upon values for CO2 offsets in each region

Measurement and Test Methods

High

Priority • Insufficient real‐world testing methods to evaluate annual energy production ●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Lack of consistent protocols for measuring and reporting performance results ●●  

• Lack of accelerated aging testing methods to assess onsite power generation

equipment ●●

• Limited test procedures to capture benefits of hybrid solar/thermal systems ●

Lower  

Priority

• Inability to monitor proper integration of energy systems within the building

envelope (leaks, water or air)

• Lack of verification and validation techniques for measuring devices

• Limited ability for real‐time performance monitoring for control of energy systems

• Lack of methods of test to evaluate various storage technologies/materials

• Inadequate/nonexistent guidelines on how to evaluate whether a PV warranty claim

is justified after being installed 20‐30 years

• No simplified test methods to credit appliances/equipment that respond to utility

power demand signals or offer energy‐efficient features (e.g., better humidity

control)

E. Priorities for Measurement Science 

Some of the most important measurement barriers and challenges described in 

Table III-2 were further refined and combined into a set of priority topics for 

measurement science needed for onsite energy generation in buildings. These are 

summarized below, and described in more detail in Exhibits III.1 to III.10. 

Methods for evaluating annual energy production: Onsite generation technology 

such as photovoltaics (PV) and micro-combined heat and power (CHP) is 

emerging for use in buildings. The performance of these systems must be 

evaluated in practical applications using standard test methods and predictive 

methodologies. 
 12 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Representative thermal and electrical profiles: Thermal and electrical profile data 

is needed to quantify the space conditioning, hot water, and plug loads for 

existing buildings. Using these data in conjunction with energy models would 

permit improved predictions of building energy performance. 

Integrated predictive tools for generation and use: Energy generation and use 

varies with onsite conditions; widespread acceptance depends on evaluation of the 

benefits, which cannot be accomplished with current tools. 

Methods of data collection and minimum data set: Standard communications 

devices for equipment, smart appliances, and other systems will be enabled via 

better data sets. These sets would create a database for “plug and play” 

standardization, and provide the basics or information for control. 

Develop consistent protocols for measuring and reporting performance results: 

Improvements to existing diagnosis, testing, and validation methods are needed. 

These improvements include accurate standards and rating methodologies, and 

open-protocol, minimum data sets to provide standard optimized reports.

Gap between design and performance commissioning: Higher performance onsite 

energy production systems are being developed; however, meeting net-zero energy 

goals depends on whether the actual system performance correlates with design. 

New methods would identify system problems and take corrective action.

Dynamic in situ performance measurements: The actual performance of energy 

production system needs to be captured in real time; production needs to be 

accurately monitored so that proper energy credits are given. 

Selection of measurement methods to meet societal needs: There are multiple 

societal goals related to measurement of net-zero energy buildings and all must 

be measured and balanced. Measuring the source energy and the carbon impact 

of renewables and nuclear is a challenge. 

Predictive design tools to optimize NZEB strategies: The ability to right-size 

equipment and maximize return on investment (ROI) by minimizing first costs 

will accelerate deployment of energy production technologies, supporting net-zero 

energy buildings by justifying costs. 

Standard tariff database: Existing methodology for calculating energy savings is 

highly variable and subject to manipulation. A standard energy tariff would 

enable market discounting of savings from onsite energy generation systems, 

reduce customer uncertainty and perception of risk, and increase marketplace 

confidence. 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 13 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . coordination; funding

National Laboratories . . . simulated use testing; test method development

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . field testing

Standards Organizations . . formalize test methodologies

On-site generation technology (e.g., PV, micro-combined heat and power) is emerging 

as an important approach for achieving net-zero energy buildings. To enable greater 

use of on-site generation in buildings, the performance of these systems must be 

evaluated using standard test methods. This will reduce technical and economic risk by 

demonstrating the performance of the technology in real world applications and 

enabling validation of predictive performance models. 

Exhibit III.1. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Methods for Evaluating Annual Energy Production 

Scope

Renewable and on-site generation for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Lack of appropriate test methods

• Insufficient data for predictive 

performance models 

• Testing and evaluation of available 

equipment under simulated use 

conditions

• Field-testing of on-site energy 

production equipment

• Development of appropriate test 

methods

*********

*********

*****

*****

*****
 14 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . coordination; funding

National Laboratories . . . data-gathering

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . utility participation in building selection and data 

gathering

Data on the space conditioning, hot water and plug loads for existing buildings, when 

combined with computer simulation models, allows a more comprehensive prediction of 

the building’s energy performance. Load data is essential for evaluation of on-site 

generation, particularly combined heat and power (CHP), which requires detailed 

thermal and electrical profiles. Improved thermal and electrical load profiles would 

enable better sizing, selection, and evaluation of on-site generation systems and help 

define appropriate operating strategies. 

Exhibit III.2. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Representative Thermal and Electrical Profiles 

Scope

Lighting/cooling equipment/water heating/heating equipment/plug loads/appliances 

for new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Non-existent data 

• Establishing a representative building 

model for evaluation

• Actual electrical/thermal loads often 

significantly greater than that 

supplied to models

• Statistical study of well monitored 

representative buildings 

*****

*********

*****

*****

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 15 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . coordination; funding

National Laboratories . . . develop models; gather data

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop and validate representative equipment

Standards Organizations . . develop metrics, formalize rating methodology

Widespread acceptance of on-site generation technology depends on evaluation of 

benefits which cannot be accomplished with current predictive tools. Both energy 

generation and use vary widely with on-site conditions; energy can also be used on-site 

or the excess can be returned to the grid. As a result, predicting the benefits of 

integrated generation systems can be complex and requires understanding of multiple 

parameters.

Exhibit III.3. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Integrated Predictive Tools for Energy Generation And Use

Scope

Renewable and on-site generation for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Descriptive models of equipment

• Representative thermal/electrical use 

data 

• Accepted metric to quantify the 

benefits 

• Testing and evaluation of available 

equipment to establish models

• Development of representative 

data through evaluation of sample 

building sets

• Validation of predictive tools 

*********

*********

*****

*****

*****
 16 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . research funding

National Laboratories . . . provide tests and certification standards

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop new devices and sensors

Private Research Institutes establish databases and communications standards

Standards Organizations . . provide testing and calibration devices

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . set standards

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide database for communications 

Addition of standard communications devices to equipment during manufacture (e.g., 

smart appliances and space conditioning equipment) or retrofit of existing equipment 

would enable better integration of on-site generation systems. Data sets created from 

communications devices would provide basic information to better understand energy 

use and enable more accurate generation systems monitoring and control. 

Exhibit III.4. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Data Collection Devices to Support On-site Generation

Scope

Integration of lighting/cooling equipment/water heating/heating equipment with onsite generation in new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Cost

• Devices or products not available 

• Lack of standard acquisition systems, 

databases, and certification protocols

• Low cost sensing devices

• Data storage systems

• Data transmission devices

*********

*****

*****

***

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 17 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . 

fund; organize; disseminate research National Laboratories . . .

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . implement new standards

Private Research Institutes develop open protocol

Standards Organizations . . develop standard data sets

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . define protocols

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . define protocols/tests

Improvements to existing diagnosis, testing, and validation methods are needed to 

measure and report on the performance of on-site generation. This includes accurate 

standards and rating methodologies, and open protocols to support standard, optimized 

reports. These are essential to support effective system service and maintenance and to 

monitor integrated system use, productivity and performance. New diagnostic methods 

would also provide reference data and efficiency improvements through better fault 

detection.

Exhibit III.5. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Protocols for Measuring and Reporting Performance Results

Scope

Lighting/water heating/heating equipment/photovoltaics and other on-generation for 

new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Proprietary protocols make it difficult 

for manufacturers to work together

• Manufacturing cost 

• Increased manufacturing complexity

• Open protocols

• Inexpensive wireless technology 

for data collection

• Low-cost data storage

*********

*****

*****

***

***
 18 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Laboratories . . . .

measurement protocols, technical assessment, and 

performance modeling

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop sensors

Standards Organizations . ASTM/UL/ASHRAE (advisory)

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . Solar/Wind Energy Association (advisory)

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . USGBC (advisory)

High performance on-site energy production systems are being developed and are 

necessary to achieve net-zero energy buildings. However, meeting the goals for net-zero 

energy buildings depends on whether the actual performance of the on-site energy 

generation system meets the design predictions. Tools are needed to accurately predict 

system performance, as well as identify system problems and enable corrective actions 

as needed.

Exhibit III.6. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Bridge Gap Between Design & Performance Commissioning

Scope

Renewable on-site generation for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Sensors to monitor system performance

• Models to predict system demand

• Tools to project optimal performance, 

compare to actual and provide troubleshooting and diagnostic information

• Low-cost sensor technology 

• Predictive performance modeling 

systems

• Field demonstrations of tools after 

lab development 

*********

*********

*********

*********

*********
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 19 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Laboratories . . . . . .

measurement protocols; technical assessment; test 

methods

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop sensor technology

Private Research Institute . . possible involvement

Standards Organizations . . . ASTM/UL/ASHRAE (advisory)

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar/Wind Energy Association (advisory)

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . possible involvement

On-site energy generation has the potential to reduce the burden on centralized power 

plants and enable greater use of distributed generation systems. However, accurate 

data on the in-situ performance of renewable energy systems (wind, solar, geothermal) 

is needed to enable more widespread use in buildings. Capturing and accurately 

monitoring the real-time actual performance of energy production systems will also 

ensure that proper credits are given toward achieving net-zero energy buildings goals.

Exhibit III.7. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Dynamic In-Situ Performance Measurements

Scope

Renewable on-site energy generation for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

Low-cost, durable technology:

• Sensors (module level)

• Wireless communication between 

sensor and monitoring system

• Ability to measure solar irradiance

• Identification and assessment of 

sensor and communication 

technologies that may be 

applicable

• Lab demonstrations and limited 

field demonstration

*********

*********

*****

*****

*********
 20 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . NIST, DOE, NOAA

National Laboratories . . . NREL

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . utilities

Standards Organizations . . performance metrics

There are multiple societal goals (secure energy supply, quality of life, environmental 

safety, climate change) related to net-zero energy buildings. Understanding how these 

are impacted by generation and other technologies depends on accurate measurement. 

Numerous challenges exist, such as accurately measuring source energy and the carbon 

impacts of all energy sources. Performance metrics must be measurable, precise, and 

support societal goals as well as those for net-zero energy buildings. 

Exhibit III.8. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Selection of Measurement Methods to Meet Societal Needs

Scope

On-site generation for new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Measuring source energy

• Lack of existing accurate methods

• Better measurement procedures 

and methods for carbon and source 

energy 

*********

*********

**

*********

*********
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 21 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mandate use of tool on government facilities

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes. . bench testing; software development

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . performance specifications

Standards Organizations . . . develop/implement labeling system

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . training

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . educate decision makers; conduct advanced research

The ability to right size equipment and maximize ROI by minimizing first costs will 

accelerate energy production into the market to support NZEBs into the market by 

justifying costs. Predictive design tools could ideally optimize building system

integration and demonstrate compliance of new systems. Software tools could be 

combined to perform integrated analysis (i.e., interactive loads, etc.); this includes 

integrating existing tools and improving algorithms. The user interface should be 

designed to address the parameters needed to facilitate market acceptance.

Exhibit III.9. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Predictive Design Tools to Optimize NZEB Strategies

Scope

New and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Lack of standard test data

• Integration of existing tools

• Determining reference materials and 

test methods for the tool

• Identifying tools which address all 

net zero analysis issues

• Validating tools against bench 

targets, especially those which will 

establish field validation 

*********

*****

*********

*****

*****
 22 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . mandate population of database

National Laboratories . . . develop interfaces with data; maintain database

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . provide data

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop algorithms database

The existing methodology for calculating energy savings is highly variable and subject 

to manipulation. A standard tariff database would enable market discounting of 

savings from on-site energy systems, particularly photovoltaics, and would reduce 

customer uncertainty and perception of risk, as well as increase confidence and 

acceptance in the market place. 

Exhibit III.10. On-Site Energy Production Measurement 

Priority

Standard Tariff Database

Scope

On-site energy generation systems for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Non-standardized reference data

• Continually changing data sets 

• Reference data protocols

• Unbiased information model 

*****

*****

*****

*********

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 23 

IV. INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS

Intelligent buildings apply a range of integrated, microprocessor-based 

measurement and control technologies to improve the building environment and 

functionality for occupants and tenants while controlling costs. An effective 

energy management system, for example, minimizes energy use, provides lowestcost energy, avoids energy waste by managing occupied space, and efficiently uses 

resources via centralized control and integration of information from different 

sources. Strategies for energy reduction may include programmed or optimal 

start/stop of building systems, adaptive controls, and electricity demand limiting; 

chiller or boiler optimization; optimized energy sourcing; and automated fault 

detection and diagnostics for building equipment. 

This topic area focuses on the technologies and measurement science needs 

relevant to computerized building systems, controls, sensors, data collection/ 

management and applications, integration of systems, grid integration, and other 

technologies needed to support intelligent systems in new and existing buildings. 

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment 

The potential characteristics of future intelligent building are summarized in 

Table IV-I. It is expected that buildings will become intelligent shelters, which 

adapt to human occupants and activities, possess the ability to learn from 

experience, and are operated with a minimum of human involvement. Ultimately, 

buildings will be able to seek, compare, and learn from the experiences of similar 

buildings, incorporating efficient practices and predicting the outcomes. 

Table IV‐I.  Intelligent Buildings – Future Built Environment

Intelligent Building Systems

• Buildings are intelligent shelters which adapt and respond to human needs  

• Buildings optimize performance to minimize operation costs and energy use, maximize desired

occupant conditions, and effectively integrate with the grid

• Buildings learn⎯they seek and find similar buildings and compare operations performance, learn

from past experience, track building activities and occupant preferences and habits, and then

interactively predict occupant energy use and needs  

• Integration with nearby buildings/communities enables shared resources and net‐zero communities

• Sensor‐rich systems share information across multiple applications

• Fully integrated, making use of wireless networks

• Information systems are user‐friendly and self‐diagnostic for unskilled users

Intelligent Building Operations and Maintenance (O&M)

• Building operations will become systems focused and an integral part of building design and

management rather than stand‐alone service functions  

• Buildings are operated and maintained automatically with minimum human involvement

• Operation systems include more ability for interactions with and feedback to occupants  

• Buildings are self‐aware and able to identify primary maintenance needs

• Smart integration of energy sources/end uses enables lower energy use
 24 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

B. Critical Technologies 

In general, technologies are needed to intelligently define measure, monitor, 

control, and create an optimal work and living environment in the building. To be 

readily accepted by occupants and operators, such systems should be userfriendly, have a familiar look and feel, and be enjoyable to use. Technology to 

facilitate changes in occupant behavior toward greater energy efficiency is 

essential. 

The following is a summary of some specific technologies needed to support the 

various aspects of intelligent buildings. 

Control Systems 

Near Term: Intelligent controls are needed to avoid start-up demand spikes and 

enable a smooth recovery from power failures. 

Mid Term: Robust and adaptive control 

strategies that adjust conditions to 

occupant activities, and provide simple 

instructions for manual adjustments 

will be essential. Building controls 

should be easy for building operators to 

use as well as fault-tolerant, selfcorrecting, and provide different levels 

of user interaction, but with real-time 

feedback. 

Long Term: Self-configuring distributed 

control systems (taking out the human 

factor) should be possible in the long 

term. One example would be systems 

that can be “trained” to achieve desired 

comfort level in the most energyefficient way, accounting for individual, 

unique comfort levels. Accurate 

occupancy detection will enable 

optimization of energy use (individual 

and multiple occupants, with identity 

opt-in, zoning control, or other 

approaches). 

New Sensors 

Mid to Long Term: A sustainable/nonproprietary sensor infrastructure would 

allow many sensor life cycles. Low-cost sensors that enable much more fine-grain 

monitoring of conditions are needed. In the longer term, self-checking sensors and 

calibration standards are essential. 

Intelligent Models and Feedback Systems 

Energy management system at NREL 

monitors the temperature, humidity, air 

pressure, duct pressure, light levels, and 

carbon dioxide levels of a research building 

and determines the most efficient method for 

maintaining a comfortable level in the 

occupied space. (Photo: NREL)
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 25 

Near Term: Systems that provide information to users through the web and cell 

phones would provide immediate feedback to inform users and provide incentives 

for behavioral changes. 

Mid Term: Advanced building information models, incorporating machine 

learning of building behavior and a high-quality user interface, are important for 

intelligent operations. Predictive models would provide information on the 

immediate energy and economic impact of occupant actions (statements such as, 

“Closing that door will cost...” or “Opening this window today will cost...” or 

queries like, “What can I do to save energy today?” or “Shall I run this device now 

or later?”). Every device should report or have the capability to poll 

performance/status information using a non-proprietary standard. 

Global Optimization and Systems Integration 

Mid Term: Technology is needed to enable whole building global optimization that 

incorporates multiple factors such as climate, weather, grid conditions, and all 

building systems. Low-cost, easy-to-use wireless communication for buildings 

operating under one industry-wide protocol would enable all systems to 

communicate easily. 

Mid to Long Term: Inexpensive, reliable, energy consumption metering for all 

systems is essential. Electronic standards will define relevant details of 

appliances, from furnaces to radios, so home energy management systems or 

models can assimilate and interpret integrated data. Standardized performance 

and system operation protocols will enable a component/device to communicate 

criteria to a central supervisory control device. Continuous commissioning and 

performance diagnostic technologies are essential to support intelligent buildings. 

C. Broad Challenges 

The broad challenges to development and implementation of intelligent buildings 

involve both technology limitations and impediments related to human and 

structural factors. 

Technical Challenges 

Existing systems for intelligent buildings are too complex to configure and 

maintain, and are not intuitive. This creates a major challenge to both 

implementation and use by building operators and occupants. Another key issue 

is the lack of experience and technology demonstration, which contributes to both 

technical and investment risk. A related barrier is the current high cost of 

maintaining low-energy building systems, which are fairly high-tech and 

complicated for the average building operator. 

Collection, management, and interpretation of information present numerous 

challenges. Information models and standards that capture the measurement and 

other issues related to intelligent control are lacking. The availability of 

information in itself is a key barrier. Sensors are not available for obtaining 

information and there are limited or no methods or standards for data collection 

and transfer using energy management systems that are suitable for 

comprehensive modeling. Ancillary to this is the inability to collect and use 
 26 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

information to “spotlight” or identify poor performing buildings. Another key 

limitation is the lack of data on fault frequency and its impact on energy use. 

Control systems are an essential enabling technology in intelligent buildings. 

Advancement of control system technology is impeded by a lack of dynamic 

simulation models and robust optimization techniques that work in discontinuous 

systems. 

Non-Technical Challenges 

Ownership of building energy use is an overarching challenge. One of the most 

critical barriers to adoption of intelligent building technology is the disconnection 

between who makes the initial decision to invest, or not, in the energy-efficient 

system and who actually pays the cost or reaps the benefits over time. The central 

issue comes down to determining who actually has ownership of the energy use in 

a building (e.g., the owner, manager, and occupant). 

Privacy concerns and human behavior are an impediment. Utilities, for example, 

are currently reluctant to share existing data due to privacy issues and are 

concerned that data could be used to penalize customers. Fundamental 

understanding about how occupants and buildings interface ⎯which has many 

complexities based on human behavior⎯is needed and will most likely require 

input and study by psychologists or social scientists. To use intelligent systems, 

consumers may need incentives other than just cost, such as “cool” gadgetry or 

aesthetics. 

D. Measurement Barriers 

A number of measurement barriers and challenges were identified that are 

critical to the development and implementation of intelligent building 

technologies. These are summarized in Table IV-2 by topical area, with the 

relative priorities indicated. 

Some of the most critical measurement challenges include: 

• Data and methods for assessing the performance of buildings, 

• Tests and test beds for the evaluation of controls technology and fault 

detection approaches, 

• Best practices guidelines for intelligent design and operation of buildings, 

• Measurements to support automation of commissioning processes, and 

• Low-cost, reliable energy metering systems. 

Table IV‐2.  Intelligent Buildings – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Data Sharing and Protocols

High  

Priority

• Lack of standards for collecting and sharing data ●●●●●●

– Standard data format that enables easy sharing of data

– Data protocols for all facets of data collection

– Lack of standard format for transferring data from systems to analysis tools

– Protocols for integrating large quantities of sensor data

– Clear data ownership⎯defined standards and methodologies to control flow of

data so building owner can select which data are sent “upstream”
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 27 

Table IV‐2.  Intelligent Buildings – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Data Sharing and Protocols (continued)

Medium

Priority

• Lack of protocols to measure equipment performance in situ  ●●

• Data sharing ⎯a universal database for actual energy performance data is not

available, and many are unwilling to share data ●●

Lower  

Priority

• Inability to measure privacy impacts on data, alone or in combination with other

data, or in models or predictive tools ●

• Lack of buy‐in from providers to feed data into database ●

Data Collection and Interpretation

High

Priority

• Challenging data requirements and analysis for assessing building performance,

including ●●●●●●●●●●●

– Identifying the critical parameters for building design, the accuracy needed, and

ways to measure these in real buildings

– Gathering a minimal set of data to assess building energy consumption (to within

a known accuracy)

– Metrics to measure performance (vs. models that use those measures)

– Lack of clear definition of how data will be used

– Inability to fix what is not understood, i.e., lack of ways to identify the worst

performing buildings

– Accuracy of sensors to measure inaccurate mechanical systems (e.g., dampers)

Medium

Priority • Lack of analysis tools to mine and interpret data ●●●

Lower  

Priority • Lack of effective methods for binning data (e.g., building type, vintage)

Sensors and Control Systems

High

Priority

• High cost of sensors/systems for measuring local consumption of electric power and

other energy sources⎯precludes broad application to systems, equipment, and end

users ●●●●●●

Medium

Priority • Difficult to evaluate control strategies due to in situ system interactions ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of systems integration focus and a centralized control grid/network ●

• Difficulty making sensors unobtrusive and integrated into structure or appliances ●

• Lack of a comfort sensor and algorithm to capture comfort and calibrate it to

different preferences

• Difficulty deploying efficient, comprehensive sensor networks and lack of methods for

placing sensors to achieve best results

• Understanding inputs from fusion of mobile data sources before deploying fixed

sensing sources

Models and Simulation

High

Priority

• Limited ability to extract effective model inputs by mining standardized data,

including  ●●●●●

– Data on behavior/use of energy‐consuming appliances and demand load on grid

– Energy models (linking measurable output to behavior/weather)

– Field data to reduce the uncertainty in energy savings (compared to

implementation costs) for energy efficiency strategies
 28 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Table IV‐2.  Intelligent Buildings – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Models and Simulation (continued)

High

Priority

– How to measure energy savings (kwh, kw, quads) and relate that to cost of energy

(e.g., diverse sources⎯hydro, natural gas, coal)

– Time‐consuming aspects of collecting and monitoring data

• Simulation tools are lacking and/or existing tools require custom configuration ●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Focus of current Building Information Models (BIMs) on design rather than

operations and facility maintenance ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of interpretive tools that convert data into information useful for building

operators and consumers (i.e., actionable information)

• Uncertain model validation methods and range of predictive capability (% accuracy)

Intelligent System Performance

High

Priority

• Lack of tools to automate labor‐intensive commissioning practices ●●●●●●●●●●

– Lack of intelligent techniques applied to building operation problems, from

whole buildings to individual components

• Inadequate/unavailable test beds and methods of test for evaluation of technology

controls and Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD) ●●●●●●●●●

– Virtual test beds (e.g., to simulate abnormal conditions)

– In situ evaluation of test bed results under various conditions

– Performance benchmarks for comparing control strategies (e.g., more complex

than just energy consumption)

– Building system performance metrics beyond “net‐zero energy”

– System level test beds (e.g., Virtual Cybernetic Building Testbed (VCBT)) to test

new monitoring and control systems

– Test beds to evaluate flow sensing technology (e.g., air, water, etc.)

• Insufficient best practice guidelines for “intelligent” system design, operation and

maintenance, including ●●●●●●●●

– Demonstrating value of added cost to obtain data  

– Lack of reliable data on cost‐effectiveness of measures and designs for specific

climate zones/regions  

– Ability to integrate available forecasted weather data and responsiveness to

actual or anticipated conditions

Medium

Priority

• Dependence on external factors, such as the grid; and challenges associated with

time dependence of energy use, power factors ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limited ability to determine measurement quality (e.g., via virtual sensor) ●

• Lack of codes and reinforcement to calibrate/maintain sensors

• Limited capability to effectively use wireless technology to collect useful

information

• Challenges with addressing existing (not new) building stock

• Lack of capabilities to develop and implement reliability measures

• Lack of smart components that communicate status/performance reliability, cost,

and needs
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 29 

E. Priorities for Measurement Science 

Some of the most important measurement barriers and challenges described in 

Table IV-2 were further refined and combined into a set of priority topics for 

measurement science needed to support intelligent buildings. These are 

summarized below, and described in more detail in Figures IV.1 to IV.6. 

Extracting effective model inputs by mining standardized data: Current lack of 

uniformity in energy-saving metrics (e.g., kilowatt-hours, $) makes it difficult to 

quantify energy savings for efficiency strategies. 

Automated tools for commissioning (Cx): Automated Cx of equipment 

(components), subsystems, and systems can improve performance and lower costs. 

Tools that automate single or multiple phases of Cx (design, construction, 

performance, testing, correction, and documentation) are needed. 

Test beds for developing and evaluating NZEB technology: A “cyber 

infrastructure” (such as that of the Network for Earthquake Engineering 

Simulation (NEES)) is needed to support physical, virtual, and hybrid test beds 

for intelligent building technologies. This would speed up and standardize 

evaluation and validation, provide a basis of comparison, and reduce need for 

duplicative test beds. 

Data requirements and analysis methods to assess building performance:

Performance assessment of the building, as opposed to just individual 

components or subsystems, is desirable. Data analysis methods will enable 

resolution of design intent versus actual building performance. 

Standards for collecting and sharing data: No mechanism exists today for data 

sharing, and a standard for collection of operational data is lacking, limiting 

comparison and analysis of data. 

Best practice guidelines for intelligent system design, operation, and maintenance:

Instrumentation, test methods, standard protocols, and best practices will enable 

development of algorithms that are responsive to exterior sources (actual/ 

forecasted weather conditions) and internal sources (occupancy sensors, 

thermostat, IEQ, illumination level) using intelligence (e.g., learning behaviors, 

use patterns). 
 30 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.1. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Extracting Effective Model Inputs by Mining Standardized 

Data 

Scope

All intelligent systems for new and existing commercial and residential buildings

There is currently a lack of uniformity in metrics used to quantity and monitor energy 

savings in buildings (e.g., kWh, dollars saved). Uniform data would provide consistent 

input to energy efficiency strategies and improve the reliability of models used to 

predict energy savings. Both are essential to determining the performance of net-zero 

energy buildings. Models are needed to incorporate both external and human (i.e., nonenergy) parameters, such as weather and behavior patterns. 

• Variations in cost and energy source

• Need to collect cost data along with 

measurement data in real time

• Standardized data collection 

methods

• Data analysis protocols

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . funding for mission-oriented programs

National Laboratories . . . .

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Private Research Institutes

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

model development

Standards Organizations. . writing standards, arbitration for final decision- making

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . aggregate data from industry

*********

***

*********

*****

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 31 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.2. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Automated Tools for Commissioning (Cx)

Scope

New and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Data identification, collection, and 

analysis

• Automated fault detection and 

diagnostics (FDD), and corrective 

tools

• Case studies of individual systems 

and components

• Test beds for testing and 

developing tools/approaches

• Models, methods, algorithms, and 

tools for automated FDD

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . funding, coordination, policy, direct research, codes

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes. . applied research, development and demonstration

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . product innovation, testing and demonstration

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . standard algorithms, best practice guidelines

Standards Organizations . . . standardization, information dissemination, training

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fundamental and applied research, model validation

*********

*********

*********

*********

*****

There is a lack of automated commissioning (Cx) of equipment (components, 

subsystems, and systems) in today’s buildings. Automation would improve 

performance (productivity, energy, and comfort), lower labor costs, and enable 

continuous Cx and the associated benefits. Tools that automate single or multiple 

phases of Cx (design, construction, performance, testing, correction, 

documentation), as well as tools specific to building systems (e.g., lighting, HVAC, 

water), are needed.
 32 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.3. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Test Beds for Developing and Evaluating NZE Technologies

Scope

All intelligent systems for new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Unwillingness of owners of resources 

(databases, software, labs) to share

• Assurance of quality and applicability of 

test bed elements (data, models)

• Cost and time to establish and maintain the test bed infrastructure

• Specify the scope and functional 

requirements of test beds with input 

from industry

• Define and implement test bed 

components and their operating 

parameters 

• Achieve stakeholder acceptance 

*********

*****

*****

*****

*********

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . requires technologies to be validated in test bed

National Laboratories . . . . . . participate in development/host test bed

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . participate in definition and support development of test methods and test bed itself

Private Research Institutes. .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . participate in definition and use of test bed

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . generate testing methods to be embodied in test bed

Standards Organizations . . . support/encourage adoption of test bed usage

There is a lack of test bed infrastructure for developing and evaluating NZEB 

technology. A NEES-like cyber infrastructure to support physical, virtual, and 

hybrid test beds would help speed up and standardize evaluation and validation, 

provide bases of comparison, and reduce duplication of effort. The infrastructure 

should include concepts of modularity and reuse-ability, standardized details, 

methods for tests and test beds that enable evaluation of different technologies, and 

a third party testing laboratory to do evaluations.
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 33 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.4. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Data Requirements and Analysis Methodologies to Assess 

Building Performance

Scope

Intelligent systems for all new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Difficulty of defining buildinglevel performance metrics and 

defining/quantifying subsystems 

interaction 

• Representation of building 

performance and subsystems 

interactions

• Ranked significance of subsystems 

interaction

• Standard building information 

modeling (BIM) platform 

*********

*********

--

--

*********

Government . . . . . . . . . . . pre-competitive program; too broad for industry and 

common approach needed

National Laboratories . . . program management

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . .

active participation to assure feasibility, 

implementation

Standards Organizations . . assure standard, hierarchical set of integrated 

standards

Performance assessment of the building as opposed to just individual components 

or subsystems is desirable; data analysis methods will enable resolution of design 

intent versus actual building performance. Numerous parameters should be 

assessed, including occupant comfort. The information collected is also needed to 

define performance-based codes and standards that can be applied to intelligent 

and other building systems.
 34 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.5. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Standards for Collecting and Sharing Data

Scope

All intelligent systems for new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Concerns about privacy/ 

ownership/proprietary issues

• Lack of well-defined usage criteria, 

needed to protect source

• Suitable, well-defined incentives to 

participate

• Data de-identification from source

• Standards for data collection, 

sharing, and utilization, developed 

collaboratively with stakeholders

• Central repository for 

standardized data with qualified/ 

controlled access 

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Funding

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes. .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Data collection and analysis

Standards Organizations . . . . Develop industry-wide standards

*********

*********

***

*********

*****

No mechanism exists today for data sharing, and a standard for data collection is 

lacking, which limits comparison and analysis of data. An enabling pathway is 

needed to develop standards and protocols for data sharing. This would encourage 

collaboration on the determination of best practices, accelerate analysis of collected 

data, and remove barriers to participation in the data collection process.
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 35 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Exhibit IV.6. Intelligent Buildings Measurement Priority

Best Practice Guidelines for Intelligent System Design, 

Operation and Maintenance

Scope

Monitoring and control systems for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Lack of information about sensors 

(costs, reliability, value added) 

• Need for added personnel training to 

respond to actionable information

• Lack of best practices repository (e.g., 

AHSRAE) in specific climate zones

• Tap into international best 

practices

• Establish a central repository for 

exchange of solution ideas

• Link to tested and evaluation 

platforms and standard protocol 

for data exchange 

*********

*****

*********

*****

*********

Government . . . . . . . . . . . Establish central repository of information

National Laboratories . . . Serve as the link between investors and industry

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active involvement in testing and implementation

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . Provide training and information dissemination 

Standards Organizations . . Supply standard data protocol

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Develop algorithms

Other non-profits . . . . . . . . Contribute to best practices

International . . . . . . . . . . . . International Energy Agency, Japanese (SHASE)

Instrumentation, test methods, standard protocols and best practices will enable 

development of algorithms that are responsive to exterior sources (actual/ 

forecasted weather conditions) and internal sources (occupancy sensors, 

thermostat, IEQ, illumination level) using intelligence (e.g., learning behaviors, use 

patterns). Failures often go undetected and result in significant energy use, 

impacting as much as ~40% of energy use in buildings. Best practices for FDD can 

be used to minimize operational costs (routine maintenance and unplanned 

maintenance) and improve load management. 
 36 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

V. WHOLE BUILDINGS

The Whole Building concept views the building as a system, rather than a 

collection of subsystems and components, and provides a broad, integrated 

perspective of overall building performance, including energy consumption. 

Viewing the building as a system allows full integration of energy management 

and other building processes, enabling better overall building performance. 

This topic area focused on identifying the technologies and measurement science 

needs relevant to a whole building energy indicator, assessment, and projection of 

energy performance including simulation models, intelligent design, systems 

integration, modeling and model validation, and other relevant systems and tools. 

Also addressed were indoor air quality control technologies that may enable 

energy savings, such as heat-recovery ventilation, novel ventilation concepts, and 

approaches to reducing outdoor air requirements, such as filtration, air cleaning, 

and low-emitting materials. Technologies applicable to both new and existing 

buildings were considered. . 

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment 

The potential characteristics of future whole buildings are summarized in Table 

V-1. Anticipated designs of whole building concepts begin with greater 

collaboration between the architects, engineers, and contractors in the planning 

phases. Ultimately, whole buildings will be designed with seamless integration of 

components into a single system that reduces energy consumption while 

maintaining occupant comfort and productivity. 

Table V‐1.  Whole Buildings – Future Built Environment

Whole Building Design

• Changes in the initial stage of design lead to more communication between architect, engineer, and

contractor.

• Climate‐specific solutions are utilized to take advantage of the local environment; i.e., Denver offers

different opportunities than Miami

• Buildings integrate passive cooling, cross‐ventilation, and alternative technologies

• Different technologies work together to save energy while maintaining focus on human comfort and

increased satisfaction

• Future performance metrics will focus on people, without needing to account for energy

Whole Building Systems

• Buildings perform as designed without losses due to single malfunctioning components

• Buildings are designed and operated to minimize source energy use and emissions

• An energy‐producing building that goes beyond net‐zero can operate off the grid or provide surplus

back to the grid

• Occupants work efficiently, as the whole building meets telecommunication needs

• Occupants can understand the energy implications of various decisions and actions
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 37 

B. Critical Technologies 

A wide variety of technologies will be combined to produce an integrated whole 

building design. These developments will range from major redesigns in the basic 

architecture and building envelope to minor, ongoing improvements in each 

subsystem. 

Whole Building Design 

Near Term: A redesign of the whole building development process may be needed 

to adapt to a continuously changing landscape. For example, better 

understanding of the requirements for integrating onsite renewable energy and 

their impact on design is needed. Effective quality systems to improve designs 

and allow buildings to perform as designed are also necessary. 

Mid Term: Optimized design (i.e., window and wall, overhang) using software 

tools and new design software accounting for integrated building physics would 

allow a better combination of architecture and engineering. Different “plans of 

attack” for different types and sizes of buildings are needed in order to move 

toward net-zero. Systems and tools for multi-zoned homes (i.e., insulated 

partition walls, different comfort levels, and variable temperature supply) 

leverage the unified system necessary for the whole building. 

Performance Assessment 

Near Term: Feedback between design-building and construction-performance 

identifies failures in practice. Architectural and engineering processes need to be 

more closely aligned for quality improvements in analysis and data. New 

technology (e.g., in-home dashboard) must be user-friendly with an intuitive 

system interface. Improved energy simulation software for entire buildings will 

also help with performance assessment in the near term. 

Mid Term: Publicly available databases with building, energy, and occupant data 

that allow for analysis of larger trends in performance are essential. 

Standardized guidelines for “house doctors” working to reduce energy use in 

existing buildings will accelerate the transition to whole building approaches. 

Increased standardization of building subsystems would produce less “one-off” 

construction. Energy modeler certification ensures accurate performance 

assessments. 

Long Term: Life cycle thinking—for both cost and environmental impact—is 

needed to ascertain long-term performance. Operator-independent building 

controls allow for automated assessment and optimization, as do equipment selfdiagnostics and self-commissioning of performance in real time. Performancebased rating and labeling at the building scale encourages efficient integration of 

subsystems. 

Controls and Sensors 

Near Term: Low-cost, accurate flow measurement technology for monitoring 

water, gas, and air is needed. Current technology is either accurate but 

expensive, or cheap but high maintenance. Hybrid measurement/modeling tools 

would provide fast quantification of total and component energy use. 
 38 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Mid Term: CO2, CO, VOC and 

particulate-sensing needs to be lowcost, accurate, low-maintenance, and 

wireless. “Micro-sensing”—wireless, 

low-cost measuring of temperature, 

RH, etc.—would facilitate automated 

fault detection, diagnostics, and 

commissioning for fine-tuning 

subsystems energy use. 

Long Term: Demand- and 

performance-based controls for all 

indoor environmental quality 

parameters (e.g., light, thermal, indoor 

air quality (IAQ)) ensure no wasted 

energy. Expanded use of Building 

Information Modeling (BIM) allows for 

more detailed analysis of potential 

systems. An intuitive, TurboTax-like 

user-interface for design could form the basis of design metrics⎯particularly in 

concept development. 

Indoor Air Quality 

Mid Term: Passive air-cleaning technologies need to be developed. Individualbased HVAC would reduce energy demand for maintaining air quality. Low-cost 

self-cleaning filters are also necessary. 

Long Term: Whole building IAQ design must be an integral part of the whole 

building system. 

C. Broad Challenges 

Technical Challenges 

Design and systems integration is a key issue in the implementation of whole 

building concepts. Lack of integration between design, analysis, and operation is 

one of the most critical barriers. In general, there is a lack of data, information, 

and education related to the use of integrated building design. Overly complex 

design and construction and under-developed quality management systems both 

contribute to making integration more difficult. The current architectural focus is 

on space and form, not on human performance⎯but the integration of both is 

necessary for effective whole building designs. Lack of user-friendly, detailed 

models in the design phase is also an impediment. Another major barrier is that 

building occupants do not account for building life cycle costs because they move 

frequently. 

Building performance monitoring and control is vital to whole building integrated 

performance and faces a number of challenges. Validation of energy cost savings 

with real data, not model predictions, is a major barrier. Useful (i.e., measurable, 

quantitative, and meaningful) criteria for IAQ control is also lacking, making it 

Commercial building systems control panel. 

 (Photo: MS Online)
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 39 

difficult to efficiently integrate air quality and energy systems. Performance 

metrics for novel technologies are lacking and could impede implementation of 

whole building systems where they are major components. 

Models are an essential tool for whole building performance monitoring and are 

challenged by difficulties in linking to existing proprietary tools (non-open 

source), and the greater complexity and functionality required for simulation of 

new building technologies. There are also limited modeling tools for HVAC 

systems and novel technologies. 

Standardization is lacking for many necessary test methods, which is a major 

barrier. In addition, existing building standards are insufficient to support the 

whole building concept, and current competing standards in some cases are a 

source of confusion for both consumers and the construction industry. 

Retrofit of the existing built environment remains an issue for adopting whole 

building concepts. For example, retrofitting of existing residential buildings is 

labor-intensive and requires well-trained individuals. There is also insufficient 

clear feedback on retrofit performance. 

 

Non-Technical Challenges 

Cost and reliability remains a critical issue for whole building systems. There is a 

perception that cheaper may be more important than better, making costeffectiveness of new systems is a key issue. Overcoming the first-cost barrier with 

the buyer is critical; the important message is that the installed cost is higher, 

but can lead to a lifetime of benefits, including improved comfort and better 

energy performance. There is also a perceived risk that implementing whole 

building systems reduces reliability, i.e., more technology increase the potential 

for failure modes. Occupant performance factors, which could be used to reduce 

economic risk, are also lacking for use in asset valuations. 

Industry cultural and business models can be inherently limiting. A primary 

challenge is the lack of energy accountability in the construction industry and 

poor feedback on energy performance. Another major problem is the over-used 

and sometimes unwarranted claim that buildings are “green,” primarily because 

there is little oversight on how this is defined. Architects, engineers, contractors, 

and investors also speak different languages, and finding common ground over 

paradigm-changing technologies may be difficult. The propensity to avoid change 

and stick with traditional methods is also a challenge that needs to be overcome. 

Consumer perceptions and behavior can create barriers to the use of whole 

building systems. Consumers are generally unwilling to change behaviors if they 

believe they might have to sacrifice some comfort or amenities. Overcoming 

behavioral issues will require more and better information dissemination, 

increased awareness of benefits, and greater understanding of how new 

technologies can be used. Legal risk also plays a role, particularly with privacy 

issues over the potential release of personal information. 

Education and training are key factors in deploying innovative new concepts such 

as whole buildings. Building design-, construction-, and operation-team education 
 40 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

is needed. There is inertia in the building industry workforce today in that 

workers are trained for business-as-usual methods, not new concepts. In addition, 

a continuing lack of qualified researchers is exacerbated by limited funding for 

new research projects in this area. 

D. Measurement Barriers 

A number of measurement barriers and challenges were identified that are 

critical to the development and implementation of whole buildings integration of 

energy systems. These are summarized in Table V-2 by topical area, with the 

relative priorities indicated. 

Some of the top measurement challenges include: 

• Whole building models with user-friendly interfaces, 

• Metrics to assess deteriorating building performance, 

• Lack of a fundamental basis for green building codes and standards for 

building performance and more universal standards for building 

measurements, 

• Building rating systems, 

• Affordable, robust systems for instrumentation and data analysis, and 

• Accurate and affordable systems for continuous IAQ monitoring, including 

the determination of what needs to be measured. 

Table V‐2.  Whole Buildings – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Design and Analysis

High  

Priority

• Lack of whole building energy and equipment model with “user friendly” interface ●●●●●●

• Inadequate equipment ratings to support system modeling or standard models ●●●●

• Lack of standards vs. performance maps for equipment ●●●●

• Difficulty defining what to measure for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) performance

●●●●

• Lack of short‐term energy model to determine energy performance overnight ●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Limited data visualization capability (turning data into information) ●●●

• Lack of real data for real buildings⎯model calibration, gap analysis, performance targets,

and others (BTU/sq ft., etc.) ●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limits of current predictive tools; these do not provide a single tool for whole design ●

• Lack of a technician‐friendly house “description” for load/energy calculations (e.g., manual

calculation inputs)

• Limited ability to incorporate human factors in simulation‐probability‐based modeling

Sensors

High

Priority

• Lack of an affordable, robust, instrumentation and data analysis package for non‐research

applications⎯energy supply/demand, occupancy, IEQ ●●●●

• Limited availability of accurate, affordable sensors for continuous monitoring of VOC, PM,

CO, and other contaminants for (IAQ) assessment ●●●●

• Lack of low‐cost wireless technology ●●●●

Medium

Priority • Limited tools to support robust, low‐cost variable ventilation systems ●●
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 41 

Table V‐2.  Whole Buildings – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Sensors (continued)

Lower  

Priority

• Insufficient sensor calibration⎯periodic or self‐calibration ●

• Insufficient methods for measurements of quality control of construction⎯e.g., imbedded

sensors in construction materials for feedback on performance ●

• Poor reliability of occupancy sensors⎯accounting for human interference with controls ●

• Lack of portable sensors for flu virus, formaldehyde, VOC, other parameters

• Relatively high cost of sensor installation, data loggers, labor

• Lack of sensors to measure PV cell temperature in operating systems

Building Operations

High

Priority

• Lack of performance deterioration metrics⎯estimations of whole building, envelope

tightness, equipment, and effectiveness of integration ●●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Inadequate capability for uncertainty analysis and methods for measured data ●●

• Limited measurement methods for human interaction with the built environment ●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limited ability to monitor occupant exposures, and lack of biofeedback systems ●

• Lack of sensors to detect human perception of indoor environment  

• Inability to measure equipment interaction in relationship to onsite system‐installed

performance (e.g., performance of individual HVAC components)

• Insufficient thermal capacitance and time constants for passive solar and load‐shifting

Standards and Mandates

High

Priority

• Lack of fundamental basis to create green codes, standards, and programs that cover

building performance⎯energy, IAQ, heat transfer ●●●●●●

• Limited universal standards/methods of measurement for buildings ●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Lack of consensus on a “mile per gallon” rating for designers, builders, appraisers, realtors,

buyers, and occupants⎯and no consensus on what it should be ●●●

• Limited BACnet* protocols and applications for all control parameters ●●●

• Lack of standards for embodied energy and recurring embodied energy in buildings ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limited understanding of the energy and economic impacts of carbon trading on building

energy investment decisions ●

• Complexity in creating new figures of merit that combine energy efficiency with occupant

productivity, comfort, and health ●

• Lack of risk metrics with regard to sustainability claims, i.e., determining what claims are

realistic; no performance probability index for life cycle cost assessments ●

*BACnet ‐ a data communication protocol for building automation and control networks, developed under the

auspices of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air‐Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).

E. Priorities for Measurement Science 

Some of the most important measurement barriers and challenges described in 

Table V-2 were further refined and combined into a set of priority topics for 

measurement science needed to support whole buildings. These are summarized 

below, and described in more detail in Figures V.1 to V.6. 
 42 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Fundamental basis for green codes, standards, and programs: Standards are 

needed to provide consistency in the definition of “green.” Current design metrics 

do not adequately predict long- and short-term performance, and may even 

reward poor design decisions. 

Equipment ratings that support system modeling and generate performance maps: 

Effective ratings would support whole-building simulation for design, and enable 

understanding of regulatory impacts. The perceived certification burden and 

definition of certification is a challenge. 

Accurate, affordable, low-maintenance sensing and measurement technologies:

Improved measurement methods would enable better ventilation designs leading 

to greater occupant productivity, health, and comfort, and energy savings by 

avoiding over-ventilation. 

Whole building energy/environment model with user-friendly interface: 

Integrating environmental and energy data and metrics within BIM tools would 

reduce data and input errors. Better input data and a consistent, transportable 

database are needed, as well as standard data and measurement protocols. 

Performance degradation metrics: Measurement protocols for whole building and 

subsystem performance over time are needed to help maintain peak building 

performance and support energy efficiency investments. The current lack of 

understanding of actual building performance is an impediment. 

Universal standards/methods for measurement: Similar standards exist that 

could be combined without comprising quality, which could reduce unnecessary 

extra testing and costs. These combined standards would require identifying the 

best of several existing test methods and determining the most important 

parameters. 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 43 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide central coordination; enforcement

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes. .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

conduct non-competitive research

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide data and market knowledge

Standards Organizations . . . write standards; serve as arbiter for final decisions

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . aggregate data from companies

Standards are needed to provide consistency in the definition of “green.” Current 

design metrics do not adequately predict long and short-term performance of new 

technologies, and may reward poor design decisions. A fundamental basis will provide 

assurance for expected building performance enhancements and cost savings over the 

long term, and provide defensible data to banks, appraisers, and other investment 

entities. 

Exhibit V.1. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Fundamental Basis for Green Codes, Standards, & Programs

Scope

New and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Increased cost over current methods

• Measurements have multiple 

parameters that are difficult to 

integrate

• Metrics are complex due to different 

geographic markets

• Study cost/benefit of new metrics 

and ratings

• Determine acceptable accuracy of 

metrics and develop standards 

using available information

*********

*********

*****

*********

*********
 44 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mandate ratings

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop rating methodology

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . support and participate in development of method

Private Research Institutes. . conduct independent tests

Standards Organizations . . . develop applicable standards, certify products

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . involve electric and gas utilities

Effective equipment ratings would support whole-building simulation for design, and 

enable a better understanding of regulatory impacts. The perceived certification burden 

and definition of certification is a challenge. Better equipment ratings would ultimately 

enable performance to replace point measurement of “standard” integrated part load 

values. 

Exhibit V.2. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Equipment Ratings that Support System Modeling & 

Generate Performance Maps

Scope

Any element that has performance that varies with load and ambient conditions in 

new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Perception that certification is a 

burden

• Defining certification elements (e.g., 

how many) 

• Define parameters, ranges, 

number of points (ambient 

conditions, degradation/ 

depreciation over time)

• Develop method of test and 

degradation rating 

*********

*********

*********

*********

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 45 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . Develop contaminant concentration limits, calibration 

standards, and guidance on sensor location

National Laboratories . . . conduct pilot projects (LBNL); coordinate with retailers (NREL)

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . validate test data/methods; develop sensors

Private Research Institutes consider the health aspect—identify organizations to help 

determine acceptable levels

Standards Organizations . . include ASHRAE (62.1, others)

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . include homeowners, building owners and managers

Exhibit V.3. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Accurate, Affordable, Low-Maintenance Sensing & 

Measurement Technologies

Scope

New and existing commercial and residential buildings

*********

*****

*****

*****

*********

• Lack of understanding of limits/ ranges 

moldof safe valve operation (particulates, 

VOC, , etc.)

• High cost needs to be brought down to 

“commercial off the shelf” levels

• Lack of adequate occupancy sensors

• Develop better occupancy sensors and 

“better,” smaller, cost-effective sensors 

for VOCs, etc.

• Integrate with building automation 

systems, including open, standard 

protocols: BACnet, ZigBee, Modbus, 

LonWorks, etc. 

Current standards for ventilation are based primarily on controlling human comfort 

and perceived indoor air quality as a function of space type and size. Improved 

standards and design methods would enable better ventilation designs leading to 

greater productivity, occupant health and comfort, and energy savings with less overventilation. Buildings and systems need to be controlled to serve occupied spaces. 

Possible benefits include lower emissions from building materials/off-gassing 

(manufactures pressured to produce lower emission products), new filtration 

technologies to control levels; and support for continuous commissioning.
 46 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

involve all stakeholders

National Laboratories . . . . . . .

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes . .

Standards Organizations . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integrating environmental and energy data and metrics within BIM tools would reduce 

data and input errors. Better input data and a consistent, transportable database are 

needed, as well as standard data and measurement protocols. An approach that is 

familiar to consumers but with a high level of utility would give real-time feedback to 

non-technical audiences; user-friendly interfaces would promote widespread use .

Exhibit V.4. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Whole Building Energy/Environment Model With UserFriendly Interface

Scope

Whole building technologies for new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

*********

*****

*****

*********

*********

• Lack of leadership to address multiattribute issue

• Developing a consistent, transportable 

database

• Improving input data, models that 

are harmonized and integrated

• Multi-disciplinary collaboration

• Validated models, demonstration 

projects

• Standard data, environmental 

modeling, and software validation 

protocols

• Usability testing
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 47 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . support data collection; develop metrics

National Laboratories . . . . . . .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . develop metrics

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . verify and apply metrics

Private Research Institutes. . . develop metrics; collect data

Standards Organizations . . . . establish unified methods

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . support data collection and verification

Measurement protocols for whole building and subsystem performance over time are 

needed to help maintain peak building performance, indoor air quality, and support 

energy efficiency investments. The availability of such data could also provide a basis 

for regulatory interventions. The current lack of understanding of actual building 

performance is an impediment.

Exhibit V.5. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Performance Degradation Metrics

Scope

New and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Current lack of baseline data and 

metrics

• Costly methods to collect data

• Diversity of building stock as it 

relates to usage, climate

• Whole building performance 

degradation metrics

• Indoor air quality degradation 

metrics

• Longitudinal data 

*********

*****

‐‐

*********

*********
 48 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . coordinate efforts

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adhere to standards/methods

Standards Organizations . . key players, can take the lead if background 

knowledge readily available

Similar standards exist that could be combined without comprising quality, which 

could reduce unnecessary extra testing and costs. This would require identifying the 

best of several existing test methods and determining the most important parameters 

in the standard. 

Exhibit V.6. Whole Buildings Measurement Priority

Universal Standards/Methods For Measurement

Scope

Whole buildings technologies in new and existing commercial and residential 

buildings

• Determining the best of several 

existing test methods

• Winnowing down to the core issues: 

defining what “really matters” in a 

standard

• Defining the differences among 

standards and determine best 

choices

• Effective communication among 

international participants

*****

*********

***

‐‐

*****
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 49 

VI. BUILDING ENVELOPE

Building energy consumption can be reduced by a range of improvements to the 

building envelope. These steps could include, for example: improved designs, 

construction methods, and inspection techniques to achieve walls, foundations, 

and roofs with high R-values; improved insulation; high-performance windows 

and doors; techniques and equipment to allow daylighting while minimizing any 

extra cooling loads; reductions in air infiltration through tighter envelope design 

and construction coupled with improved control of ventilation system airflows; 

and, use of architectural coatings that scatter and reflect UV, visible, and nearinfrared radiation to reduce solar gain or that minimize unwanted heat loss to the 

night sky. Any improvements to the building envelope must take into 

consideration potential unintended consequences in both durability and indoor 

air quality. 

This topic area focused on the technologies and measurement science needs 

relevant to reducing building envelope energy loads through a range of 

approaches for both residential and commercial buildings in both existing and 

new building construction. 

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment 

A summary of possible next-generation building envelope technologies and 

materials is shown in Table VI-1. The performance of building envelopes will 

benefit greatly from the development of thin, affordable, high R-value insulation 

materials and improved air barriers. Improved installation techniques will 

minimize errors and allow for enhancing the envelope of new and existing 

buildings. In addition, there will be increased installation and integration of 

sensors in the building envelope that monitor the air tightness of the structure. 

 

Table VI‐1.  Building Envelope – Future Built Environment

Building Design and Construction

• Buildings will be air‐tight with ventilation being  completely controlled through mechanical means

• We will find better ways to economically and practically insulate existing buildings

• Builder error will be eliminated⎯there will be no construction or installation errors to impair energy

efficiency

• We will have thin insulation materials with high thermal resistance to heat flow

Building Operations and Maintenance (O&M)

• Ventilation is needed to compensate only for products (emissions) of occupants, not

products/emission of materials and building⎯i.e., zero emissions or toxic products/effects from

building materials

• Buildings will automatically adapt to changing external conditions, not only seasonally but around

the clock

• Buildings will be able to self‐test for air‐tightness

• Building envelopes will be self‐regulating with regard to moisture
 50 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

B. Critical Technologies 

Priority technology advancements needed to enable improvements in the building 

envelope are listed below. 

Building Envelope Technology 

Near Term: Assembly-proof envelopes would improve quality and productivity 

and reduce front-end costs. Advanced lighting systems, including “daylight 

harvesting,” are achievable in the near term. Development of daylighting 

techniques will minimize HVAC loads and could apply to new construction and 

retrofits. Defining the building boundary (losses included) and the source and site 

of energy used will help to structure development of the building envelope. 

Mid Term: Integrated PV/flashing systems that roofers can install during reroofing will reduce costs and build time. Improving enclosure air tightness 

(including simulations and retrofits) will also reduce costs and improve efficiency. 

Long Term: Innovative concepts 

include electric power generation 

where PV configurations align with 

roof shapes (e.g., PV as roof shingles). 

Efficient glazing of the building 

envelope could maximize the 

insulating potential of the walls. 

Technologies that incorporate heatand energy-capturing surfaces 

throughout the building envelope (not 

just the roof) could be possible in the 

long term. 

Control Systems 

Mid Term: Wireless integration of 

remote sensors in the envelope that 

connect to building control systems 

will aid building performance; improved appearance and interface of technologies 

will increase marketability.

Materials of Construction 

Near Term: The increased market penetration of zero-emission material and 

rating processes will provide information to designers and builders to promote the 

use of less bothersome or harmful materials. 

Mid Term: Increased development of high R-value, moisture-tolerant, and 

adaptable building materials will both provide structural integrity and minimize 

heating and cooling loads. These products include materials such as insulation 

panels with structural integrity (including phase-change sheetrock that is capable 

of storing heat and can respond to controls), as well as sheetrock that can provide 

insulation in the R-30 to R-50 range. There will be greater use of “breathable” 

membranes and materials that are impervious to outside moisture but enable 

built up vapor to escape, and windows that change solar gain with the season. 

NIST’s High-Temperature Guarded Hot Plate 

Apparatus used to measure the thermal 

conductivity of building and industrial 

insulation products. (Photo: NIST) 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 51 

Long Term: Energy efficiency ratings for insulation that allow for identification 

of diminishing returns based on individual consumer specification should be 

developed. The insulating properties of windows should increase to R-10 ratings. 

Design and Construction Methods 

Near and Mid Term: Development of less labor-intensive ways of retrofitting 

existing building envelopes is needed. Additionally, materials will be designed to 

integrate together as a system and eliminate time-consuming and costly 

construction steps. 

Long Term: Automated building construction methods and automated 

installation techniques for envelope components will help to increase quality and 

minimize variance due to builder/installer competence or error. Design tools are 

needed that optimize orientation of windows and doors and system specifications 

to create envelopes that can readily accept solar technologies. 

C. Broad Challenges 

Technical Challenges 

Diagnostic and performance tools are an important element in creating a more 

efficient envelope. There currently are insufficient diagnostic measurement and 

identification techniques for energy losses in buildings. The lack of compatibility 

between current sensors and controls also poses a challenge. Currently, 

monitoring of the building envelope is very expensive relative to the energy 

savings. There are also few expense to benefit comparison tools or benchmark 

standards to aid in decision making. The performance of particular technologies 

may also be uncertain in specific regions due to climate variations. 

Innovative materials have the potential to make building envelopes more 

efficient, but are hampered in a number of ways. Research on advanced materials 

(e.g., very high R-value, thin materials) is high-risk, complex and/or nonexistent 

in some cases. Regarding material emissions, there is a lack of contaminant 

ratings for multiple reasons, including disagreement on contaminant risks, the 

perceived cost of ratings, adequate understanding of material emissions over the 

long term, and other factors. Balancing multiple needs for the same envelope 

component (e.g., fire, stability, integration with the rest of the building, 

aesthetics, etc.) can also make materials selection difficult. Lack of R&D funding 

(public and corporate funding) for materials development is a contributing factor. 

Existing building stock is difficult to retrofit and upgrade for various reasons. The 

non-uniformity of building stock requires builders/installers to start over and 

develop new solutions for each building. Long lives of buildings suggest that 

replacement and renovation occur infrequently. Upgrades are often not available 

in small increments or not advertised as such, making small retrofits 

unattractive. 

Non-Technical Challenges 

Industry culture and structure can be an impediment for some envelope solutions. 

The fragmented nature of the building trades, for example, complicates 

integrated solutions (e.g., little chance for “plug and play” parts or assemblies for 
 52 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

the envelope). The focus of building officials is usually on safety⎯and often does 

not extend to energy efficiency or environmental impacts. 

 

Education and training is currently inadequate in this field. A critical barrier is 

the lack of educated people at all levels (from research and design to installation) 

to advance the development and deployment of building envelope technology. 

Investment incentives are low for some new building envelope technologies. There 

is a lack of monetary investment to create “low-cost” technology due to the 

questionable or unclear return on investment for high risk R&D. In the 

construction industry, builders fear potential liability resulting from new 

materials or technologies. 

D. Measurement Barriers 

A number of measurement barriers and challenges were identified that are 

critical to enabling net-zero energy buildings through an improved building 

envelope. These barriers and challenges are summarized in Table VI-2 by topical 

area, with the relative priorities indicated. 

Some of the top measurement challenges include: 

• Data on materials aging and aging effects on insulation, 

• Wireless measurements for building envelope performance and conditions, 

• Quantified benefits of thermal upgrades in buildings, and 

• Measurement of effects of defects or compromises in the building envelope. 

Table VI‐2.  Building Envelope – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Design and Analysis

High  

Priority

• Inadequate measurements of materials aging, particularly the effect of aging on

insulation efficiency ●●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Lack of test methods for air barrier systems, and test methods that can be used to

evaluate hygrothermal performance and air infiltration of materials and assemblies ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limited integrated predictive tools that enable energy and airflow modeling and have

new component add‐in capability, for both design and R&D ●●

• Lack of data on ground heat loss, especially for highly‐insulated foundations and high

building density ●●

• Insufficient modeling studies and tools for structure‐property relationships of

foams/web/ composite envelopes (e.g., thermal, mechanical, mass transfer) ●

• Lack of measurement methods to assess combined heat, air, and moisture performance

of assemblies, for both lab and field use ●

• Lack of predictive tools for human comfort (temperature, radiant, air movement, RH)

integrated with energy tools, for validation as well as technology development ●

• Inadequate hygrothermal balance tools, especially for assessing mold generation versus

air tightness over time ●

Sensors

High

Priority • Lack of capability for wireless measurements (temperature, moisture, hygrothermal) to
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 53 

Table VI‐2.  Building Envelope – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

assess both envelope performance and ambient conditions ●●●●

Sensors (continued)

Lower  

Priority

• Limited metrics for detecting location of occupants so windows can respond (e.g., with

Phase Change Materials)  ●

• Lack of long‐term measurements of moisture in buildings, especially relative to air

tightness and insulation, are not available

• Lack of sensors to isolate component air leakage under normal operating pressures

• Limited capability for multi‐layer visualization of temperature and relative humidity in

envelope

Building Operations

High

Priority • Inability to measure effects of defects or compromises in building envelope ●●●●●

Medium

Priority • Limited methods for analyzing energy bills to identify problem houses/specific issues ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Limited capability to measure air infiltration on short time intervals to provide input and

feedback to other responsive systems (e.g., HVAC, air filtration) ●●

• Lack of a monitoring device to detect envelope changes (e.g., degradation of materials,

holes in walls, etc.) and methods to assess “damage” of envelope assemblies  ●●

• Lack of metrics to enable internal conditions (temperature, lighting, occupancy, etc.) and

external conditions to drive envelope responsive actions (e.g., air exchange, shutters)

• Lack of a low‐cost, multi‐gas concentration analyzer (especially for emissions from  

envelope materials) for use in building measurement and control

Standards and Mandates

Medium

Priority

• Insufficient reference materials for multi‐component envelope features (e.g., vacuum

panels, structural insulation panels) ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of a standard method of test for post‐occupancy building energy use ●

• Insufficient reference materials for optical properties of roofing and other envelope

materials, and a method to measure in situ

• Lack of measurement to support enforcement of current codes (e.g., to ensure that a

Home Energy Rating Score (HERS) 40 house is compliant, to support validation and

comparative analysis)

Retrofitting

High

Priority

• Insufficient methods for quantifying benefits of thermal upgrades in existing buildings

●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Current satellite data management does not support identification of widespread retrofit

opportunities (e.g., infrared scanning linked to Google Earth) ●●●

Lower  

Priority

• Insufficient methods to determine the best sequence of improvement in retrofits,

especially when to seal, when to insulate, when to upgrade equipment (e.g., what

sequence of improvements produces the most benefit overall?) ●

• Economics of building retrofits and cost‐ benefits are not established by climate zones

• Inadequate co‐heating tests to determine building insulation needs for retrofits
 54 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

E. Priorities for Measurement Science 

Some of the most important measurement barriers and challenges described in 

Table VI-2 were further refined and combined into a set of priority topics for 

measurement science needed to support building envelopes for net-zero energy 

buildings. These topics are summarized below, and described in more detail in 

Figures VI.1 to VI.5. 

Wireless temperature and relative humidity transducers with high accuracy, low 

power, small size, low cost, and long life: The development of wireless 

temperature and humidity sensors that can be distributed throughout a building 

and networked to a central control system will enable more finely tuned 

conditioning and temperature control, thereby maximizing energy savings. 

Predicting long-term performance of envelope materials and systems with 

accelerated aging tests: There are no long-term performance metrics that assess 

the suitability of different systems and materials under real-life operating 

conditions. To promote the adoption of these materials and building concepts, 

measures are needed to assure consumers that the new materials and 

technologies perform consistently over time, justifying their installation. 

Analyzing energy bills to identify retrofit candidate houses: Utility-level data is 

not currently available that would allow energy use trends to be identified. 

Developing algorithms and protocols that would index home audit data with 

actual utility usage would enable more accurate energy audits and decision 

making about cost-effective retrofits. 

In situ measurement of the thermal resistance of existing wall assemblies: There 

is a need to develop infrared sensing equipment and methodologies that enable 

onsite testing of the thermal resistance of walls, roofs, and foundations. These 

techniques can enable identification of buildings that are appropriate for retrofits 

and can assess the quality of newly constructed or retrofitted envelopes. 

Air tightness measurement: There are inadequate standardized test specifications 

and calibration metrics for assessing the permeability of a building’s envelope. 

This lack of standards prohibits faster and more accurate testing during the 

construction and use phases. New measurements will ensure an airtight 

envelope, establish a building benchmark, and make it easier to spot leaks as 

time progresses. 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 55 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . provide initial sponsorship

National Laboratories . . . . serve as developers and users

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . key roles in cooperative research and commercialization (include in pre-made building components)

Standards Organizations. . provide communication protocols and accuracy standards

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . ensure compatibility

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trial runs

Wireless transducers will enable more detailed and effective control links between 

envelope and HVAC, and move buildings closer to maximum conservation operation. 

This technology also supports automated commissioning and troubleshooting; airtight 

assemblies; more information on mold conditions; facilitates the use of asymmetric 

materials; and provides a check value for energy or vapor parameters.

Exhibit VI.1. Building Envelope Measurement Priority

Wireless Temperature and RH Transducers with High 

Accuracy, Low Power, Small Size, Low Cost, & Long Life

Scope

Thermal envelope in new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Size and reliability of RH sensors

• Power use for wireless transmissions

• Lack of common protocol to feed into 

data management systems 

• Develop and test instruments

• Build HVAC systems that could 

be used as control input

• Consider long-term 

conditioning, perhaps in master 

specifications

*********

*****

***

*****

*********
 56 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

• Physical correlations between measured 

parameters and service performance

• Long-term performance data on new products

• Test protocols for failure production

• Information on commonalities among 

established and new products

Government . . . . . . . . . . . provide initial sponsorship

National Laboratories . . . serve as developers and users

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . key roles in cooperative research and commercialization (include in pre-made building components)

Standards Organizations . . formalize methods for consistent industry-wide use

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . support data collection, preview new products (voice of 

the “customer”, i.e., include builders & architects)

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEMP as an early adopter

Exhibit VI.2. Building Envelope Measurement Priority

Predicting Long-Term Performance of Envelope Materials 

and Systems With Accelerated Aging Tests

Scope

Building thermal envelope in existing residential buildings

• Define cumulative environmental 

exposure/conditioning/inputs for 

multiple failure models (modes, 

cause, incidences, acceleration 

modes, life span, performance)

• Facilitate data mining/sharing 

among labs

*********

*********

*********

*********

*****

There are no long-term performance metrics to assess the suitability of different systems 

and materials under real-life operating conditions. For these to be marketable, consumers 

must be assured that they perform consistently over time and justify installation. Improved 

predictive capability would support better use of daylighting (testing birefringence optical 

mirrors for degradation, delamination, loss of properties over time); reflective coatings 

(testing or studying long-term durability and aging properties); mechanically or electrically 

operated components (long-term durability, e.g., self-operating shutters); and flex duct life 

(accumulated dirt/reduced air flow over time). 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 57 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . help coordinate

National Laboratories . . . develop algorithms and methods

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cooperation by utilities needed (billing data)

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . contribute and/or lead development

Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cooperation of homeowners to allow audits

The utility-level data are not currently available that would allow energy use trends to 

be identified. Developing algorithms and protocols which would index home audit data 

with actual utility usage would enable more accurate energy audits and decision 

making about cost-effective retrofits. Predictive tools would use a combination of utility 

records and simulation models, and provide identification of high profile candidate 

buildings with the most need (most to be gained from retrofit). These tools enable a 

better match of retrofit resources to needs, and provides more reliable prediction of 

savings than utility bills or simulation alone.

Exhibit VI.3. Building Envelope Measurement Priority

Analyzing Energy Bills to Identify Good Retrofit Candidate 

Houses

Scope

Existing residential buildings

• Gaining release of utility data

• Acquiring home audit data for 

simulation

• Streamlining procedures to reduce 

time required

• Algorithms and protocols to index 

simulation to utility records

• Potentially incorporating smart 

meters to allow simulations to be 

validated over short time scales 

*********

*****

*****

*********

‐‐
 58 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . assists with coordinating efforts

National Laboratories . . .

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

conduct R&D

There is a need to develop sensing equipment and methodologies that enable onsite 

testing of the thermal resistance of existing envelope assemblies to enable rapid 

assessments of buildings. This information is typically not known. Measurement 

methods would allow the identification of buildings that can be retrofitted most costeffectively

Exhibit VI.4. Building Envelope Measurement Priority

In-Situ Measurement of Thermal Resistance of Existing Wall 

Assemblies

Scope

Thermal envelope in new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Lack of process to digitize the image; 

algorithms to determine thermal 

resistance from image data and interiorexterior measurements

• Need ability to measure automatically in 

a short-term test under a wide range of 

outdoor conditions 

• Digital analysis of infrared images and 

heat flux meter for thermal resistance

• Test procedure to compare results with 

data for known walls

• Database of known conditions, 

including defects for testing the device

*********

*****

*****

*********

‐‐
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 59 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . establish performance/testing standards

National Laboratories . . . . . . develop measurement technologies

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . implement and integrate new monitoring 

technology with products

Private Research Institutes. . monitor/analyze data and make recommendations 

for improvement

Exhibit VI.5. Building Envelope Measurement Priority

Air-Tightness Measurement For Envelope Assemblies And 

Whole Buildings

Scope

Thermal envelope in new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Scaling up to full-scale application

• Lack of standards for in situ, in-progress 

testing

• Low-cost test that allows repeat testing 

during construction as well as cyclic 

testing for artificial aging 

• Calibrated variable high cfm fans

• Inexpensive airflow sensors, signal 

processing to remove wind noise, and 

embedded wireless sensors in 

thermal and air barrier material

• Measure passive air barrier leakage 

(ambient pressures)

*********

*****

***

*********

*****

There are insufficient standardized test specifications and calibration metrics for assessing 

the permeability of a building’s envelope. This lack of standards prohibits faster and more 

accurate testing during the construction and use phases. More air tightness data will 

ensure tighter building envelopes, establish a building benchmark, and make it easier to 

spot leaks as time progresses. They will also enable better understanding of transient 

material quality, and support development of air barrier systems and building envelope 

seals to prevent conditioned air leakage. Other benefits include better understanding of 

transient material quality (e.g., water and air effects) and air barrier systems. 
 60 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

VII. BUILDING EQUIPMENT

Building system components such as HVAC, lighting, elevators/escalators/moving 

walkways, computers, and appliances make a significant contribution to overall 

building energy use. Energy used by these components can be reduced by 

developing and implementing new technologies, improving existing technologies, 

or greater use of energy-efficient technologies and practices that are already 

available. In addition, there are opportunities to reduce energy use in building 

equipment through integrating technologies, and use of efficient thermal energy 

recovery and recycle systems. Successful implementation of novel solutions and 

new building technologies requires measurement science to quantify their energy 

performance. 

This topic area focused on the technologies and measurement science needs 

relevant to reducing building equipment energy loads in both existing and new 

building construction. The potential for improving or degrading indoor air quality 

associated with equipment design decisions and operational strategies for 

reduced energy consumption is also addressed. 

A. Characteristics of the Future Built Environment 

The potential characteristics of the future of building equipment are summarized 

in Table VII-1. In the future, it is expected that building equipment will be 

integrated in order to monitor the presence and activities of the occupants and 

use that information to minimize energy usage. Building equipment will operate 

as a complete system and will be capable of modifying operating characteristics as 

needed, including the ability to self-detect, diagnose, and notify the building 

occupants of deviations from optimal performance. Adapting equipment 

technology to both new construction and retrofitting equipment in old structures 

will be possible by using standardized connections and reduced equipment size. 

Table VII-1. Building Equipment – Future Built Environment 

Building Equipment Characteristics

• All equipment will be more efficient

• Waste heat from all equipment will be captured and reused either as a thermal resource or for

electricity production

• Equipment and systems will deliver services when and where needed

• All equipment will be “smart” (with onboard diagnostics), user‐friendly, capable of remote

monitoring/control, and will provide feedback to the user

• Consumers will be well‐educated about the capabilities and limitations of equipment in their homes

and well‐motivated to use and maintain it properly, enabling them to make smart choices

• Micro‐zoning will be the norm and the building systems will automatically adapt to the presence of

an individual occupant

• The consumer/designer will be able to benchmark the performance of a building against similar

homes and lifestyles

• Equipment will be easily adapted into existing structures through the use of common connections

and by reducing its size
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 61 

B. Critical Technologies 

More energy efficient building equipment technologies are needed in order to 

achieve NZEB. All aspects of both the building equipment and the owner/operator 

interface need to be addressed. Equipment must be smaller, easily installed in 

retrofits, and have the ability to adjust automatically to changing conditions. A 

summary of some of the specific technologies needed to support increased 

building equipment efficiency follows. 

Controls and Sensors 

Near Term: Inexpensive, reliable, long-life wireless sensors and transmitters 

that are easy to use are needed for more effective equipment communication and 

data collection. 

Mid Term: Fault Detection and Diagnostics is essential for all equipment, along 

with novel ways of notifying the operator. In addition to notifying the operator of 

a potential fault, the equipment will be able to “look forward” and adjust settings 

based on future events, including weather, occupant lifestyle, and energy cost 

fluctuations. 

Long Term: Ability to access the building environment and monitor equipment 

conditions remotely is needed. Access should be available for a variety of devices 

(e.g. televisions, smart phones, dedicated devices) and should be affordable and 

accessible for all income levels. 

HVAC 

Near Term: Standardized control algorithms for all HVAC equipment are needed 

to make the installation, maintenance, and operation more seamless for 

installers. Operators will be continually challenged by equipment that is more 

complex as the technology progresses. There is greater likelihood of achieving the 

desired outcome by standardizing as much of the installation process as possible. 

Mid Term: Cost-effective, personalized HVAC equipment that is modular for each 

person could be a reality. The HVAC system would modify its settings based on 

the presence and preference of the individual occupant. 

Long Term: A thermo-electric heat pump with a high coefficient of performance in 

a smaller size with no moving parts should be developed. Nanolubricants will be 

used as a means of improving efficiency of new and existing chillers. 

Electrical Systems 

Near Term: Increased efficiency through better electrical systems designs will be 

possible. Home and office equipment should reduce electricity consumption by 75 

percent thorough better “sleep” functions. 

Mid Term: More DC bus-driven equipment with improved plug load supply 

systems is needed; this will enable the elimination of rectification losses caused 

by voltage drops and self-correction. 
 62 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Thermal and Electrical Interchange 

Long Term: Equipment to provide for thermal and electrical interchange between 

neighboring tenants (floor to floor and side to side) is an innovative long-term 

strategy. When one unit is too warm, the heat can be redirected to the other unit 

to balance the thermal load. If electrical storage capacity has been reached in one 

unit, the electrical charging capacity can be redirected. 

Design and Economic Models 

Near Term: Better design tools are essential for practitioners to accurately size 

building equipment based on the structure type and lifestyle of the inhabitants. 

Architects, engineers, and other designers need to match the appropriate 

equipment with the intended use, structure, and needs of the inhabitants of a 

building. 

Mid Term: Simple economic models 

that interface with real-time and timeaveraged data would allow 

practitioners and consumers to 

examine “what if” scenarios. The 

designer or consumer should be able to 

evaluate quickly and easily the 

effectiveness of a variety of different 

heat pumps or appliances if there is an 

opportunity to replace them with a 

different model. 

Water Use Systems 

Near Term: Inexpensive, reliable, 

automatic toilet and lavatory leak 

sensor. Non-invasive leak detection is important where the building inhabitants 

may not be able to monitor leaks readily. 

Mid Term: High-efficiency point-of-use water heaters (both gas and electric) 

would enable reduction in the energy associated with water use. 

Mid to Long Term: Better thermal energy storage characteristics are needed in 

water system equipment, including integrated phase-change materials and 

thermal lag management. One significant improvement that would result is a 

decrease in the lag time for hot water to arrive at the faucet. 

Operations and Maintenance (O&M) 

Mid Term: Tools, sensors, and analytical techniques are essential to enable 

automated commissioning of the building and associated equipment. To 

synchronize the building equipment to operate at the greatest efficiency, the 

equipment must work as a system. 

Long Term: Building equipment should be self-calibrating, -adjusting, and 

-optimizing. Minimal interaction from the user would be ideal. Since equipment 

performance can degrade over time due to a variety of factors, the ability to selfEnergy-efficient lighting illuminates the solarpowered Virginia Tech house during the U.S. 

Department of Energy Solar Decathlon in 

Washington, D.C. (Photo: NREL)
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 63 

optimize and recalibrate when necessary is an important component in long-term 

energy efficiency. 

Metering 

Near Term: Water and gas meters for each end use that are small, inexpensive, 

easy to install, easy to use, and non-invasive are an important technology. Pointof-service meters will be critical for monitoring individual components. 

Long Term: Separately metered HVAC components are needed to monitor each 

aspect of the unit (e.g. fans, compressor, pump, and coil). 

C. Broad Challenges 

The broad challenges to developing and improving building equipment are 

centered on high capital costs and technical impediments. In order to encourage 

widespread integration of the equipment, these challenges will need to be 

overcome. 

Technical Challenges 

Compatibility of equipment is a major challenge. Incorporating a wide variety of 

equipment into a new building will require the systems to work together as 

efficiently as possible. Currently, progress is hampered by conflicting commercial 

interests in information protocols, interoperability standards, and 

interchangeability standards. When more than one company holds a market 

share, there can be a conflict with varying communication protocols. There is also 

a large amount of existing building stock that must be retrofitted with high 

efficiency equipment. The new equipment may be phased in as older equipment is 

replaced and the integration of a full system of equipment may take many years. 

Collection, management, and interpretation of information present numerous 

challenges. User-friendly interface and controls on equipment are virtually 

nonexistent. Consumers must have a way of simply monitoring the performance 

of the equipment and operators need concise information related to the technical 

aspects of the equipment to repair it or monitor performance. The lack of 

consensus on data communication protocols has lead to a diverse set of potential 

solutions that may not be compatible. 

Uniform Technical Standards are needed to determine the true performance of 

equipment. The standards will allow equipment to be compared on an “apples-toapples” basis. New resources are needed to optimize proper engineering of the 

equipment, including expanded ratings to ensure that the equipment is sized 

correctly for the intended use and occupant needs. 

Non-Technical Challenges 

High capital costs associated with the purchase and installation of high efficiency 

equipment prohibits many consumers from taking full advantage of existing 

equipment improvements. The lack of incentives plus the long payback period 

associated with the equipment can be barriers to deployment. This can be true 

especially in low-income areas where energy efficiency is usually worse. Parity in 
 64 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

equipment installations must be achieved across all income levels to provide for 

the greatest market penetration and highest desired effect. 

Workforce education is also an impediment. The current state of the building 

industry is fragmented and there is a lack of communication between technology 

sectors due to “component thinking” rather than “system thinking.” Changing the 

current practice of commissioning will take educating the installers and operators 

of the equipment. There is a need to develop a more educated workforce with 

high-efficiency equipment expertise to install and maintain the equipment. The 

training will need to occur in nearly every trade, and continuing education will be 

required since the equipment is continually evolving. 

D. Measurement Barriers 

A number of measurement barriers and challenges were identified that are 

critical to the development and implementation of building equipment 

technologies. These are summarized in Table VII-2 by topical area, with the 

relative priorities indicated. 

Some of the most critical measurement challenges include: 

• Data and methods for assessing the performance of buildings, 

• Tests and test beds for the evaluation of technology controls and fault 

detection, 

• Measurements to support automation of commissioning processes, 

• Best practices guidelines for intelligent design and operation of buildings, 

and 

• Lack of low-cost, reliable energy metering systems. 

Table VII‐2.  Building Equipment – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Test Procedures and Performance Data

High  

Priority

• Inadequate test procedures/methods to account for operation in NZEB, including

●●●●●●●

- Net‐zero performance evaluation standards

- Single test method/descriptor for small and large water heaters (energy input)

that is real‐world representative

- Updated method of test for performance rating of heat pumps and central air

conditioners (NZEB’s operating hours occur at more extreme conditions)

- Method of test for performance rating integrated heat pumps  

• Limited real‐time performance information vs. expected performance (FDD) ●●●●●●●

• Insufficient measures of the characteristics of the distribution systems related to air

and heat movement (ducts) as well as hot water lag; and competing definitions of

what constitutes duct leaks and envelope leaks ●●●●●

Medium

Priority

• Limited studies of alternative HFC refrigerant systems and heat transfer ●●●

• Lack of heat transfer and cooling/heating system COP measurements to determine

nanolubricants with best efficiency improvements ●●●

• Limited ability to assess part load performance of equipment (e.g., HVAC) vs. rating

conditions ●

Lower   • Lack of standard methods of reporting performance data from the field in real‐life
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 65 

Table VII‐2.  Building Equipment – Measurement Barriers and Challenges

(● = one vote)

Priority conditions and standards for performance reporting between OEMs; transient

behavior and steady‐state conditions must be evaluated

• Limited ability to measure the performance of adsorptive filtration media

• Limited ability to measure the total benefit of natural ventilation (ventilation rate is  

not sufficient and is very difficult to measure)

Tools and Sensors

High

Priority

• Lack of automated commissioning tools for HVAC equipment ●●●●

• Lack of low‐cost, easily‐installed, high‐resolution water and gas measuring sensors and

methods ●●●

- Should be installed on every device with the ability to report to a central database

Medium

Priority

• Insufficient indoor air quality measuring tools, including ●

- Lack of real time environmental measurements of VOCs, nanoparticles, etc.

- Insufficiencies in current “marker” contaminant methods

- Lack of air quality monitoring capabilities for new equipment installations (new

systems can create air quality problems)

Lower  

Priority

• Lack of occupant real‐time monitoring and predicting sensors, with the following

capabilities

- Baselines and rating systems for occupants based on similar characteristics

- Modeling of behavior, with a “learning” capacity

- Benchmarking against similar homes

• Lack of accurate, repeatable, time‐efficient air flow tools (measuring ducts, envelope,

registers, etc.)

• Inadequate methods/sensors for monitoring refrigerant charge⎯both initial charge

and during operation

• Limited ability to detect frost on the heat pump and adjust defrost operation

Models and Predictive Data

Medium

Priority

• Lack of information related to existing simulation codes vs. real‐world data, to aid in

validating and creating better predictive models ●●●

• Lack of simple predictive tools for both effective operation and maintenance and for

the selection of new equipment by consumers or designers ●●●

Lower

Priority

• Limited performance prediction capabilities, such as ●●

- Pre‐calculated suite of occupant behavioral tools

- Optimization of equipment for net‐zero energy operation using measurand data  

Standards and Protocols

Medium

Priority

• Lack of a fact‐based open wireless protocol ●●

- Numerous proprietary efforts are underway but standardization is lacking

• Reducing the cost of incremental efficiency improvements of systems and equipment ●

E. Priorities for Measurement Science 

Some of the most important measurement barriers and challenges described in 

Table VII-2 were further refined and combined into a set of priority topics for 

measurement science needed to support more energy-efficient building 

equipment. These are summarized below, and described in more detail in Figures 

VII.1 to VII.4. 
 66 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Update and develop equipment MOTs and performance rating procedures across 

the board: There is a lack of established test methods across most net-zero energy 

building applications. Accurate test methods need to be developed that can 

establish the appropriate linkages between models, building simulations, and 

actual usage; this will also promote the convergence of models with real data. 

Procedures for rating as-installed distribution effectiveness in buildings: 

Comprehensive rating criteria for ranking various HVAC and water system 

designs in order to select the components and specifications. The proper design 

and installation of these systems is essential for ensuring optimum operation 

with regard to energy consumption, maintenance costs and frequency, and noise. 

Continuous comparative analysis of measured vs. expected performance of HVAC 

and refrigeration equipment: There is a need to develop accurate and inexpensive 

fault detection and diagnostic schemes which can measure and map the 

performance of systems with respect to metrics such as temperature, pressure, 

humidity, flow rate, and power. This will enable building system operators to 

ensure that equipment is performing up to its rated specifications and allow 

changes to be made when performance parameters leave their expected range. 

Novel lubrication approaches for efficient thermal systems: Lubrication is a key 

area where improvements can be made to enhance system efficiency. Oil-free 

bearings are a case in point. A new generation of lubricants that reduce friction in 

bearings can also improve the thermal performance of heat exchangers (e.g., 

nanolubricants). 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 67 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide resources, regulations

National Laboratories . . . . . . develop data, MOTs/performance rating procedures

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes. . provide data, resources, validation

Standards Organizations . . . develop/support development of standards 

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . coordinate/mediate/provide voice for industry

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide future scanning

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . utilities facilitate field studies/implementation

There is a lack of established methods of test (MOTs) across most net-zero energy 

building applications. The development of accurate test methods can establish the 

appropriate linkages between models, building simulations, and actual usage; it will 

also promote the convergence of models with real data. These methods should also be 

revisited periodically as “actual use” changes as net-zero is approached. Equipment 

accounts for a large share of building energy use and is an important component of the 

NZEB strategy. Equipment replacement improves existing building stock, and 

improved tests will improve these purchase decisions.

Exhibit VII.1. Building Equipment Measurement Priority

Update and Develop Equipment Methods of Test (MOTs) & 

Performance Rating Procedures 

Scope

Lighting/cooling equipment/water heating/ heating equipment/plug loads/ appliances 

in new and existing commercial and residential buildings

• Characterization of “actual use”

• Lack of MOTs/performance ratings for 

some categories of equipment

• Developing linkage between 

MOTs/performance ratings and 

building simulation models

• Characterize “actual use” where 

possible though literature search, 

experts, and larger-scale field 

studies as needed 

• Create linkage between 

MOTs/performance ratings 

&building simulation models

*********

*****

***

*********

*****
 68 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Comprehensive rating criteria for ranking various HVAC and water system designs is 

needed to select components and specifications. The proper design and installation of 

these systems is essential for ensuring optimum operation conditions with regard to 

energy consumption, maintenance costs and frequency, and noise. The design (system 

configuration, sizing, material selection, etc.) and installation practices (insulation 

levels, fittings selection, leakiness) have a profound impact on the pressure drop, 

energy consumption, noise, operating parameters, and maintainability of HVAC and 

water systems and plumbing systems.

Exhibit VII.2. Building Equipment Measurement Priority

Procedure for Rating As-Installed Distribution Effectiveness 

in Buildings 

Scope

Cooling equipment/water heating/heating equipment/ ventilation effectiveness in new 

and existing commercial buildings

*********

‐‐

*****

*********

*****

Government . . . . . . . . . . . provide resources, regulations

National Laboratories . . . develop data & performance rating procedures

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Private Research Institutes provide data, resources, validation

Standards Organizations . . develop/support development of standards 

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . coordinate/mediate/provide voice for industry

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide future scanning

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . utilities facilitate field studies/implementation

• Lack of modeling tools to characterize 

different distribution systems in various 

applications & identify/correct faults

• Standards, procedures, and manuals to 

ensure design/installation meet 

requirements

• Case studies using a “whole 

building” test bed to measure 

various distribution system 

configurations and performance

• Standard(s) for distribution 

system losses

• Installation parameters database
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 69 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . research programs and market incentives

National Laboratories . . .

Private Research Institutes

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

conduct research

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . conduct research and training

Standards Organizations . . harmonize protocols

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . promote and provide training

HVAC and refrigeration equipment performance depends on installation, maintenance, 

commissioning, and monitoring operation procedures; performance can be easily 

degraded by as much as 20%. There is a need to develop accurate and inexpensive 

sensors and fault detection and diagnostic (FDD) schemes which can measure and map 

the performance of systems with respect to metrics such as temperature, pressure, 

humidity, flow rate, and power. This will enable building system operators to ensure 

that equipment is performing up to its rated specifications and allow changes to be 

made when performance parameters leave their expected range.

Exhibit VII.3. Building Equipment Measurement Priority

Continuous Comparative Analysis of Measured vs. Expected 

Performance of HVAC and Refrigeration Equipment

Scope

Heating equipment cooling equipment/water heating/refrigeration in new and 

existing commercial and residential buildings

• Cost and integration of sensors

• Fault detection/diagnostic (FDD) schemes

• Measurement and mapping of system

and components

• Accurate and inexpensive sensors 

(temperature, pressure, humidity, 

flow, power)

• Performance evaluation and FDD 

schemes

• Intelligent technology and friendly 

user interface 

*********

*****

*****

*********

**
 70 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

Technology Innovation or Improvement

Measurement Science Challenges and Potential Solutions

Challenges Potential Solutions

RELATIVE IMPACTS Low High

Stakeholders and Roles

Improves Energy Efficiency

Accelerates Innovation

Enhances Competitiveness

Provides Societal Benefits

Supports a Healthy Environment

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . provide coordination

National Laboratories . . . . . .

Academia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

conduct evaluations and measurements

validate measurements

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trade Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluate performance in chillers

Private Research Institutes. . validate data in the lab and field

Nanolubricants can potentially improve the performance of building chillers and 

cooling systems. Characterization of nanolubricants is needed to enable selection of 

those that will provide the best improvement of chiller efficiency. The measurement 

science is currently not available to characterizes the influence of nanoparticle size, 

shape, and material on refrigerant/nanolubricant boiling heat transfer. 

Exhibit VII.4. Building Equipment Measurement Priority

Nanolubricants for Efficient Chillers

Scope

Cooling equipment in new and existing commercial buildings

• Developing a model that characterizes 

nanolubricants that is based on 

systematic investigation of the 

fundamental mechanisms that govern 

refrigerant/nanolubricant boiling

• Create a flexible experimental design 

to determine specific nanoparticles 

(size and material) and concentration

• Conduct pool boiling tests to establish 

performance of R134a mixed with 

base lubricant and systematically 

selected nanolubricants

*********

*****

*********

*********

‐ ‐
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 71 

APPENDICES
 72 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

APPENDIX A: LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Name Affiliation 

Onsite Energy Production 

Gregg Ander Southern California Edison 

Don Brundage Southern Company 

Mark Davis National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Brian Dougherty National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Michael Ellis Virginia Polytechnic Institute 

Hunter Fanney National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Jim Katsaros DuPont 

Jeffrey Mazer National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Aaron Morrow Geothermal Energy Association 

John Collins BP Solar 

Bill Rittelmann IBACOS, Inc. 

Boggarm Setty Setty and Associates, Ltd. 

Michael Starke Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Steve Treado Pennsylvania State University 

Tania Ullah National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Intelligent Buildings 

Justin Baba Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Oliver Baumann Ebert & Baumann Consulting Engineers, Inc. 

Mike Brambley Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 

Steven Bushby National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Natascha Castro National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Namas Chandra University of Nebraska 

Lieko Earle National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Mike Galler National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Jim Garrett Carnegie Mellon University 

John House Johnson Controls, Inc. 

Clas A. Jacobson United Technologies Research Center 

Larry Markel Sentech, Inc. 

Ed Pollock Department of Energy 

Bill Swan Alerton/Honeywell 

Adrienne Thomle Honeywell International, Inc. 

Jin Wen Drexel University 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 73 

Whole Buildings 

Bill Bahnfleth Pennsylvania State University 

Sharon Dinges Trane 

David Eakin Setty & Associates, Ltd. 

Steve Emmerich National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Adam Hirsch National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Piljae Im Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Joshua Kneifel National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Bobbie Lippiatt National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Caitlin McRae National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Davor Novosel National Center for Energy Management and Building Technologies 

Cindy Reed National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Harvey Sachs American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy 

Jeffrey Taggart National Association of Home Builders Research Center 

Liangzhu Wang National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Shaojie Wang Climatemaster 

Mike Wassmer National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Building Envelope 

Marios Avgousti DuPont 

Daniel Bergey Building Science Corporation 

Bill Healy National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Merle McBride Owens Corning 

Jon McHugh McHugh Energy Consultants, Inc. 

Danny Parker U. of Central Florida, Florida Solar Energy Center 

Lance Robson Building Envelope Technologies, Inc. 

Debra Sagan National Association of Home Builders Research Center 

Therese Stovall Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Gren Yuill University of Nebraska 

Building Equipment 

Charlie Adams A. O. Smith Corporation 

J. Steven Brown Catholic University of America 

Greg Dobbs United Technologies Research Center 

Piotr Domanski National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Glenn Hourahan Air Conditioning Contractors of America 

Patrick Hughes Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Mark Kedzierski National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Jim Lutz Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

David Ruggiero ICF International 

Larry Schoen Schoen Engineering Inc. 

Steven Szymurski Air- Conditioning Heating & Refrigeration Institute 
 74 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

APPENDIX B: REFERENCES

Anderson et al. 2006. Anderson, R., R. Hendron, M. Eastment, and A. JalalzadehAzar. 2006. Building America residential system research results: Achieving 30% 

whole house energy savings level in hot-dry and mixed-dry climates. NREL/SR550-38201. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/38021.pdf 

DOE 2010. U.S. Department of Energy, Net Zero Energy Commercial Buildings 

Initiative. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/commercial_initiative/goals.html#arrow 

 

DOE 2009. U.S. Department of Energy, Buildings Energy Data Book. 2006 Data. 

http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/TableView.aspx?table=1.2.3 

http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/TableView.aspx?table=2.1.1 

http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/TableView.aspx?table=3.1.1 

DOE 2009a. U.S. Department of Energy, Annual Energy Review 2008. Tables 

2.1a, 2.1b, 2.1c, 2.1d, and 2.1e June 2009. 

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/contents.html 

 

Griffith et al. 2007. Griffth, B., N. Long, P. Torcellini, R. Judkoff, D. Crawley, and 

J. Ryan. 2007. Assessment of the technical potential for achieving net-zero-energy 

buildings in the commercial sector, NREL/TP-550-41957. 

www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/41957.pdf 

Levine et al. 2007. Levine, M., D. Ürge-Vorsatz, K. Blok, L. Geng, D. Harvey, S. 

Lang, G. Levermore, A. Mongameli Mehlwana, S. Mirasgedis, A. Novikova, J. 

Rilling, H. Yoshino. 2007. Residential and commercial buildings. In Climate 

change 2007: Mitigation. 

www.mnp.nl/ipcc/pages_media/FAR4docs/final_pdfs_ar4/Chapter06.pdf 

NSTC 2008. Federal Research and Development Agenda for Net-Zero Energy, 

High-Performance Green Buildings. National Science and Technology Council, 

Committee on Technology. October 2008. 

UN MDGI-2009. United Nations Millennium Development Goals Indicators. July 

2009. Based on 2006 data. 

http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid. 

USGBC 2007. USGBC Research Committee. 2007 (revised 2008). A national 

green building research agenda. 

http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=3402 

USGS-2004. Hutson, S.S., Barber, N.L., Kenny, J.F., Linsey, K.S., Lumia, D.S., 

and Maupin, M.A., U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, Estimated use of water 

in the United States in 2000. Published 2004. 

http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/water/save/use.htm. 
Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 75 

APPENDIX C: ACRONYMS

ANSI: American National Standards Institute 

ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning 

Engineers 

ASTM: ASTM International 

BACnet: ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 135, Data Communication Protocol for 

Building Automation and Control Networks 

BIM: Building Information Model 

BTU: British Thermal Unit 

cfm: cubic feet per minute 

cx: commissioning 

CHP: Combined Heat and Power 

CO: carbon monoxide 

CO2: carbon dioxide 

COP: coefficient of performance 

DOE: Department of Energy 

FDD: Fault Detection and Diagnostics 

FEMP: Federal Energy Management Program 

GSHP: geothermal ground source heat pumps 

HERS: Home Energy Rating Score 

HFC: hydrofluorocarbon 

HVAC: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system 

IAQ: Indoor air quality 

IEQ: Indoor environmental quality that encompasses all aspects of the 

indoor environment including air quality, thermal comfort, lighting, 

and noise. 

kWh: kilowatt hour 

LBNL: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

MOT: Methods of test 
 76 Measurement Science for Net-Zero Energy Buildings 

NEES: Network for Earthquake Engineering 

NIST: National Institute for Standards and Technology 

NOAA: National Oceanic and Aeronautics Agency 

NREL: National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

NSTC: National Science and Technology Council 

NZE: Net Zero Energy 

NZEB: Net-zero energy buildings 

O&M: Operation and Maintenance 

OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer 

PM: particulate matter 

PV: photovoltaic 

R&D: Research and Development 

RH: relative humidity 

ROI: return on investment 

SHASE: A major organization for heating, air-conditioning, and sanitary 

engineering in Japan with a history of over 80 years. 

TV: Television 

UK: United Kingdom 

UL: Underwriters’ Laboratory 

UN MDGI: United National Millennium Development Goals Indicators 

USBBC: U.S. Green Building Council 

USGS: U.S. Geological Survey 

UV: ultraviolet 

VCBT: Virtual Cybernetic Building Testbed 

VOC: volatile organic compound