NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTERIM REPORT TO CONGRESS

U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
2002

Marsha Silverberg

Elizabeth Warner

David Goodwin

Michael Fong

U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary

NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTERIM REPORT TO CONGRESS
U.S. Department of Education

Rod Paige

Secretary

Office of the Under Secretary

Eugene W. Hickok

Under Secretary

Planning and Evaluation Service

Alan Ginsburg

Director

Postsecondary, Adult and Vocational Education Division

David Goodwin

Director

September 2002

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted.

While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: 

U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, Planning and Evaluation Service,

National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim Report to Congress, Washington, D.C., 2002.

This report is available on the Department’s Web site at:

www.ed.gov/offices/OUS/PES/NAVE/reports.html.

On request, this publication is available in alternate formats, such as Braille, large print, audiotape

or computer diskette. For more information, please contact the Department’s Alternate Format

Center (202) 260-9895 or (202) 205-8113.
Chairman John A. Boehner Chairman Edward M. Kennedy

Committee on Education and Workforce Committee on Health, Education, Labor, 

U.S. House of Representatives and Pensions

Washington, DC 20515 U.S. Senate

Washington, DC 20510

Dear Chairman Boehner and Chairman Kennedy:

In the amendments to the 1998 Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act, the

Congress called upon the Secretary of Education to appoint an independent panel of vocational and technical education administrators, educators, and researchers, as well as parents

and representatives of business, labor, and other interested parties to advise the U.S.

Department of Education on the evaluation and assessment of programs authorized under this

statute.

This Independent Advisory Panel—which has met a number of times to advise the Department

on research issues and priorities—wanted to use the occasion of this first, interim report of the

National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE) to express its views on several issues

related to the forthcoming reauthorization of the Perkins Act. This panel will have more extensive comments and recommendations when the final NAVE report is completed. However, this

interim report is rich in findings that should play an important role in shaping congressional

and public discussion of the future of career and technical education in the United States.

Vocational education has occupied a significant place in American education since the first

federal legislation was enacted in 1917 to help ensure that our nation’s young people had the

skills necessary to succeed in a changing world of work. Eighty-five years later, after 13 legislative reviews and revisions and far-reaching economic, social and technological changes, one

thing remains constant: America’s young people still need the skills to succeed in a changing

world of work, although the mix of skills is constantly evolving. 

Three points are especially worth bearing in mind:

1. At the beginning of the 21st century, vocational education remains an important part

of the high school curriculum, although its function may be changing. Many students

take vocational courses to prepare themselves both for the world of work and further

educational programs. Moreover, while high school students are taking increasing

numbers of academic courses, the decline in vocational course taking prior to the

1990s leveled off during the last decade. In short, these are courses that millions of students find valuable.

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress iii

Accompanying Statement from

Independent Advisory Panel
2. Whereas all students should be well-prepared academically and have the opportunity to pursue a bachelor’s degree or other postsecondary training, it is important

to recognize that two-thirds of America’s young people do not obtain a four-year

college degree and at least 25 percent go to work directly after high school. The

reality is that most young people must draw on skills learned outside of four-year

colleges to succeed in the workforce. That’s where good career and technical education at secondary schools and community and technical colleges comes in.

Moreover, these vocational students can be held to high standards. States such as

New York are working to provide rigorous career and technical courses, and the

standards embedded in them are reflected in state assessments. 

3. Against a backdrop of frequent business complaints that young workers lack both

general (literacy, numeracy, etc.) and specific technical skills, it is essential that our

education system produce young people whose skills are a match for the jobs in

our nation’s workforce. Many jobs require technical skills, as well as strong academic skills, that can be learned in secondary and postsecondary vocational courses but do not require a bachelor’s degree. That is one reason many Americans with

bachelors’ degrees are also turning to career and technical courses in community

colleges. In the Los Angeles transportation industry, for example, three-fourths of

all transit jobs do not require a degree yet demand high-level skills. These are wellpaying jobs, because these skills translate into the high productivity that has

brought the United States the world’s highest standard of living. For many young

Americans, career and technical courses can make the difference between living in

poverty or entering the middle class.

This interim report provides ample material to begin the debate on how best to support

quality career and technical education. On behalf of the entire panel (see list on next

page), we urge the reader to carefully examine the data and analysis in this report.

Sincerely,

Naomi Nightingale

NAVE Advisory Panel Chairperson

Nightingale & Associates

Paul F. Cole

NAVE Advisory Panel Co-Vice Chairperson

New York State AFL-CIO

Russ McCampbell

NAVE Advisory Panel Co-Vice Chairperson

Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (retired)

iv NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress v

Karl A. Anderson

Workforce Development Team Leader

Saturn Corporation

June S. Atkinson

Director of Instructional Services

North Carolina Department of Public

Instruction

John H. Bishop

Professor of Human Resource Studies

Cornell University

Gene Bottoms

Senior Vice President

Southern Regional Education Board

Betsy Brand

Co-Director

American Youth Policy Forum

Paul F. Cole

Secretary-Treasurer

New York State AFL-CIO

Jay Cummings

Dean of the College of Education

Texas Southern University

Philip R. Day, Jr.

Chancellor

City College of San Francisco

James H. Folkening

Director of the Office of Postsecondary

Services

Michigan Department of Career

Development

Stephen F. Hamilton

Professor of Human Development

Cornell University

James Jacobs

Director, Center for Workforce

Development and Policy

Macomb Community College

Jack Jennings

Director

Center on Education Policy

Dale Kalkofen

Assistant Superintendent of Instruction

Chesterfield County Public Schools

Christopher T. King

Director of the Ray Marshall Center for

the Study of Human Resources

University of Texas at Austin

Joanna Kister

State Director of Career-Technical and

Adult Education (Retired)

Ohio Department of Education

Russ McCampbell

Assistant Commissioner for Vocational

and Adult Education (Retired)

Missouri Department of Elementary and

Secondary Education

Mark D. Milliron

President

League for Innovation in the Community

College

Naomi Nightingale

Principal

Nightingale & Associates

Katharine M. Oliver

Assistant State Superintendent

Maryland State Department of Education

Robert A. Runkle

Administrative Director

Berks Career & Technology Center

Anthony R. Sarmiento

Executive Director

National Senior Citizens’ Education and

Research Center, Inc.

Ellen O’Brien Saunders

Executive Director

Washington State Workforce Training and

Education Coordinating Board

Independent Advisory Panel

| Independent Advisory Panel |
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress vii

Contents

Page

Accompanying Statement from Independent Advisory Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1998 Perkins Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

National Assessment of Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Interim Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 2 Context for Assessing Federal Support for Vocational Education 11

Overarching Education, Labor Market, and Policy Issues . . . . . . . . . 13

Objectives of Federal Vocational Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter 3 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Trends in Vocational Course Taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Participation by Occupational Program Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Academic Course Taking of Students Participating in Vocational 

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Characteristics of Vocational Education Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter 4 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education . . . . . . . 57

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

The Extent of Postsecondary Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

The Characteristics of Postsecondary Vocational Participants . . . . . . 71

The Varied Goals and Pathways of Participants through 

Postsecondary Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Chapter 5 Summary and Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Key Themes of the Interim Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

The Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Upcoming NAVE Study Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

| Contents |
viii NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

List of Figures

Page

1 Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a Percentage of 

Total U.S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980–2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

2 Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY 2001 . . xv

3 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Type of Course Work: 

1982–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

4 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Subject Area: 1998 . . . . .xviii

5 Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Age 

and Reported Primary Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

6 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and Number of

Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period . . . . . . . . . . . . xx

2.1 Relationship between Math Literacy and Earnings, by Level of Educational

Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a Percentage of 

Total U.S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980–2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.3 Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY 2001 . . 17

3.1 Secondary School Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.2 Percentage of Students Meeting Different Definitions of Vocational 

Participation: 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.3 Percentage of Students Participating in Vocational Education: 1982–1998 . . . 32

3.4 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Type of Course Work: 

1982–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.5 Average Credits Earned by High School Students, by Subject Area: 1998 . . . . . 33

3.6 Percentage of Occupational Investors Who “Concentrate” Their 

Occupational Courses in a Single Program Area: 1982–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.7 Percentage Distribution of Vocational Credits Earned, by Grade Level: 1982, 

1990, and 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.8 Average Credits Earned by High School Graduates in Computer Technology: 

1982–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

| List of Figures |
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress ix

List of Figures–continued

Page

3.9a Percentage of Students Concentrating in Various Occupational Programs: 

1982 and 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.9b Percentage Change from 1983 to 1996 in Number of Jobs, by Occupational 

Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1 Percentage of Students, by Degree Level and Program Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2a Percentage of Students Enrolled in Vocational Associate Degree Programs, 

by Field of Study: 1990 and 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.2b Percentage Change in Number of Jobs, by Selected Occupational Fields 

Requiring a Vocational Associate Degree: 1986–1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.3 Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Parents’ Highest

Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.4 Characteristics of Sub-baccalaureate Students in Credit and Noncredit 

Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 

4.5 Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Age 

and Reported Primary Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.6 Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and 

Reported Primary Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.7 Percentage of Postsecondary Vocational Students, by Number of Months of 

Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.8 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and Number of

Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-year Period . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

| List of Figures |
List of Tables

Page

1 Academic Credits and Course Taking for Occupational Concentrators and

Non-concentrators: 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii

1.1 Overview of Previous Federal Vocational Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Key Policy and Research Issues for NAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Outline of Interim Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 Key Secondary Participation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2 Changes in Vocational Education Participation Measures, by Change in 

State Graduation Requirements: 1990–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.3 Percentage of 1992 High School Graduates, by Level of 8th-Grade Math 

and Reading Achievement Test Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Academic Credits Earned by High School Graduates: 1982 and 1998 . . . . . . . 42

3.5 Academic Course Taking Patterns for Occupational Concentrators and

Non-concentrators: 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.6 Measures Used to Define Special Population Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.7 Factors Related to Becoming an Occupational Concentrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.8 Participation Measures, by Characteristics of the Students: 1990 and 1998 . . . 49

4.1 Illustrative Offerings of Vocational Associate and Certificate Programs, 

Florida Community Colleges: 1997–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.2 Percentage of Participants Taking For-credit and Noncredit, Job-Related 

Courses, by Provider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.3 Percentage of Students Completing Vocational Certificate Programs, by Field 

of Study: 1991–92 and 1996–97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4.4 Percentage Distribution of Baccalaureate and Sub-baccalaureate Students, 

by High School Test Scores and High School Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.5 Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students Who Report Taking Remedial 

Courses, by Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.6 Percentage of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Fields Preparing Them 

for High-Wage Occupations: 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.7 Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students’ Age and Attendance

Patterns, by Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

x NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

| List of Tables |
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xi

Acknowledgments

This first report of the National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE) benefited

from the contributions of many persons, both inside the U.S. Department of Education

and in other organizations. The NAVE staff would like to extend its appreciation to all of

these individuals and to acknowledge those whose assistance and advice were particularly crucial.

First, the work of the NAVE is conducted with the support of the Independent Advisory

Panel, whose names and affiliations appear at the front of this report. Their guidance has

been invaluable.

Several colleagues at the Department played important roles. At the Office of Vocational

and Adult Education (OVAE), we are especially grateful for the input and cooperation

provided by Assistant Secretary Carol D’Amico, Deputy Assistant Secretary Hans Meeder,

Dennis Berry, special assistant for research, and Sharon Belli, OVAE’s liaison to NAVE. We

would also like to thank former Assistant Secretary Patricia McNeil for providing the initial support for this assessment. Our partnership with Lisa Hudson, at the National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES), was extremely productive. We also received useful advice from Alan Ginsburg, director of the Planning and Evaluation Service (PES).

The foundation of this report is the analysis undertaken by several contractors with

whom we collaborated closely. In particular, we would like to thank Karen Levesque and

Gary Hoachlander at MPR Associates, and Tom Bailey of Teachers College, Columbia

University, for their careful work with the data and their help in interpreting results.

Finally, we appreciate the efforts of all those who helped with the production of the

report. Andrew Yarrow of PES provided editorial support. Angela Clarke and Ann Nawaz

from PES assisted with early document preparation and report dissemination. Barbara

Kridl and Leslie Retallick of MPR Associates are responsible for the cover and layout

design. 

In the end, however, the judgments expressed in this report are those of the authors.

While conducted by PES in the Office of the Under Secretary, this assessment is an independent study and does not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Department of

Education. 

Marsha Silverberg

Elizabeth Warner

David Goodwin

Michael Fong

| Acknowledgments |
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xiii

❿☎Executive Summary

Nearly half of all high school students and about one-third of college students are involved

in vocational programs as a major part of their studies. Perhaps as many as 40 million

adults—one in four—engage in short-term, postsecondary occupational training. Given the

magnitude of the vocational education enterprise, the ways in which students participate

and the benefits they may receive can have significant consequences for the nation’s workforce. 

1998 Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act

Federal support for vocational education, and for understanding its outcomes, has a long

history. Most federal objectives for improving the quality and availability of vocational programs are articulated through the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act

and its predecessors since the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. The most recent act (known as

Perkins III) was passed in October 1998, and reflects both continuity with previous vocational legislation and some substantive departures. As policymakers begin to consider further changes in law—in anticipation of the reauthorization scheduled for 2003—they will

be examining vocational education as a field in transition, prompted by sweeping changes

in federal, state, and local education and training priorities. 

As was true with previous vocational legislation, Perkins III directs the secretary of education to complete an “independent assessment of vocational and technical education programs.” This report, the first in a series by the new National Assessment of Vocational

Education (NAVE), provides information to help policymakers shape future improvements

in this particular component of American education. 

Interim Report Highlights

This interim report presents a small, but significant part of a comprehensive research agenda being conducted under NAVE. Studies still underway will examine the effect of vocational education on student outcomes, the quality of implementation, and the role of

accountability provisions and other aspects of federal policy; these results will be presented in a final report. The interim report provides both a context for examining vocational

education and a description of participation at the secondary and postsecondary levels, a

logical first step in evaluating the status and effectiveness of vocational education. Four key

themes emerged.
1. Current education, labor market, and policy trends are likely to broaden

Perkins reauthorization debates.

Each time Congress considers federal aid for vocational education, the outcome reflects

an understanding of the economic and educational priorities of the time and the

nature of the federal role in education. The upcoming reexamination of the Perkins Act

is likely to be shaped by several factors: 

❿ High schools increasingly emphasize academic reform and college preparation.

The poor performance of seniors on national and international tests, declining

graduation rates, and high rates of college remediation have raised concerns

about academic achievement at the high school level. Partly in response, nearly every state has set higher academic standards for high school graduation,

and many have begun to include exit exams. The challenge many students,

including those in vocational programs, face in meeting the new standards has

raised questions about the role of high school courses lacking clear academic

focus.

❿ Good jobs require at least some postsecondary education. Both high- and lowpaying employment are available in the labor market, but a college credential

of some kind is needed for the better-paying jobs. Employment growth in occupations requiring a vocational associate’s degree is projected to be higher (30

percent) than overall employment growth (14 percent) through 2008 (Erard

forthcoming). Thus, demand for postsecondary vocational education is likely

to remain strong.

❿ For the past 20 years Perkins has represented a declining share of federal education budgets, but it is still the largest single source of Department funds

spent on high schools. Perhaps because the primary objective of vocational

education has not appeared well aligned with other priorities, appropriations

for the Perkins Act and its predecessors have not kept pace with either inflation

or the expansion of other Department of Education (ED) programs and ED’s

overall budget. In fiscal year 1980, funding for vocational education represented

about 6 percent of total ED appropriations; it is now less than 3 percent (Figure

1). Despite the relative declining share, Perkins III remains the largest single

source of federal education funds used to support high schools. Comparing dollars spent at the high school level, vocational education appears to be of equal

federal priority as other programs focused on raising academic achievement

(Title I) and preparing students for college (TRIO) (Figure 2).

| Executive Summary |

xiv NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
2. Federal vocational policy attempts to achieve multiple goals and objectives.

Evolving priorities clearly have moved federal support for vocational education

toward fulfilling a broader set of objectives than training students for work in factories and on farms after high school, the original aim of federal vocational legislation

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xv

| Executive Summary |

1984 1990 1992 2000

Year

1980 1982 1986 1988 1994 1996 1998 2002

SOURCE: Internal NAVE Analysis.

Figure 1

Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a Percentage of Total

U. S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980–2002

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

Figure 2

Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY 2001

SOURCE: Internal NAVE Analysis.

NOTE: Figure reflects estimated portion of total appropriation spent on high schools.

TRIO Title I Vocational

education

$900

$600

$300

$0

(in millions)

$388

$465

$773
| Executive Summary |

xvi NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

at the turn of the 20th century. For example, the stated purpose of the 1998 Perkins

III is to enhance not only the vocational and technical skills of students who choose

to participate in vocational education but also their academic skills. In addition,

other sections of the legislation suggest that vocational education is expected to contribute to high school completion, entry into postsecondary education and training,

postsecondary degree completion, and employment. 

Currently, federal policy allows states, school districts, and postsecondary institutions to decide which objectives are the highest priority for Perkins spending. In contrast, Title I of the recently enacted No Child Left Behind Act, with funding now 10

times greater than Perkins, is unambiguously focused on one core mission: raising

the academic achievement of disadvantaged students. 

3. Secondary vocational education remains a large component of the high school

curriculum, but the full effects of academic reform are not yet evident. 

Although there has been little change in the amount of vocational course work taken

by high school students over the past decade, vocational education’s share of the

overall high school curriculum has declined as students earned more academic credits (Figure 3). 

Figure 3

Average Credits Earned by High Schools Students, by Type of Course Work: 1982–1998

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1Includes courses such as art, music, and driver’s education.

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2.6 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.9

4.7 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.0

17.6 18.3 16.7 17.2 14.3

Academic

Vocational

Enrichment1

24.2 25.2

23.9

21.6

23.6
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xvii

❿ Vocational participation rates have been relatively stable during the last decade.

Across most of the 1990s, almost 45 percent of all high school graduates earned

three or more occupational credits, the equivalent of three, year-long courses.

Most of these students (25 percent of all graduates) “concentrated” their courses

in a single program area (e.g., health or business). Occupational “concentrators”

are the closest proxy for vocational program completers.

❿ Many types of students continue to be involved in vocational education, including those in “special population” groups. For the most part, there has been little

change in who participates in vocational education over the last decade.

Vocational education serves a diverse set of students, with most coming from the

middle range of academic and income advantage. Still, some groups continue to

participate more substantially than others: students who enter high school with

low academic achievement, have disabilities, are male, English-language proficient, or from lower-income or rural schools. Gender differences remain. Girls’

vocational course taking has been declining while that of boys has remained consistent. Despite these trends, differences in the rates of participation in computer technology courses, geared to a potentially high-paying field, virtually disappeared by 1998.

❿ Students who participate most in vocational education have increased their

academic course taking, but important gaps remain between them and other

students. By 1998 the gap in academic credits earned between occupational concentrators and other students had grown smaller (from 1.6 in 1982 to 1.1 credits

in 1998). However, vocational students still take less rigorous academic courses

than do other students: for example, substantially fewer concentrators (26 percent) than non-concentrators (42 percent) completed a college preparatory curriculum (Table 1).

| Executive Summary |
| Executive Summary |

xviii NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

❿ Students take more vocational

than math or science courses

(Figure 4). Despite the emphasis

placed on academic reforms over

the last decade, high school students earn more credits in vocational education (4.0) than they

do in math (3.4) or science (3.1). 

These course-taking patterns may well

change, as school reform continues

and as rigorous state exit exams become

more common. By 1998–1999, nearly

20 states were already phasing in these

assessments, and 6 more were in the

process. Many students who pursue a

vocational program of study come to

Figure 4

Average Credits Earned by High School

Students, by Subject Area: 1998

Credits earned

Vocational

or technical

education

012345

English

Social

studies

Mathematics

Science

4.0

4.3

3.7

3.4

3.1

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

Table 1

Academic Credits and Course Taking for Occupational Concentrators1

and Non-concentrators: 1998

Concentrators Non-concentrators

Core Academic Credits Earned 13.7 14.8

“New Basics” Curriculum2 45.7% 59.4% 

College-Prep Curriculum3 25.9% 43.2% 

Algebra 1 87.1% 93.2% 

Advanced Math4 26.0% 42.4% 

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1Concentrator = A graduate earning three or more credits (years) of occupational vocational education in a single program area (e.g., business services or health care).

2New Basics = Four credits of English, three credits each of math, science, and social studies.

3College-Prep Curriculum = Four credits of English; three or more credits in math at the algebra 1 or higher level; two

or more credits in biology, chemistry, and physics; two or more credits in social studies with at least one credit in U.S.

or world history; and two or more credits in a foreign language.

4Advanced Math = Mathematics instruction including algebra 3, trigonometry, and above.
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xix

high school with lower levels of academic achievement and are therefore likely to face

the stiffest challenges in passing the new assessments. Participation in secondary vocational education and other electives may decline as students focus their efforts on passing these exams. Some evidence suggests that even the minimum competency exams

required for graduation in some states or districts in the early 1990s may have reduced

vocational course taking (Bishop and Mane forthcoming).

4. Postsecondary vocational education serves a diverse set of students, many of

whom will not complete the course work needed to fulfill their objectives.

About one-third of all students in undergraduate postsecondary education are considered to be in vocational programs. The Perkins Act defines vocational education as

occupational programs requiring less than a baccalaureate degree (P.L. 105-332, Section

3(29)), some of which are offered at four-year postsecondary institutions. Not only do

sub-baccalaureate students outnumber those in baccalaureate programs, but twice as

many sub-baccalaureate students choose a vocational over an academic major.

These sub-baccalaureate vocational students vary in age and work experience, and

they report enrolling for different reasons—to get an associate’s degree or institutional certificate, to transfer and pursue a bachelor’s degree, to enhance their job skills, or

to engage in personal enrichment activities (Figure 5). The students also differ in their

personal resources, with students enrolled in for-credit, degree-oriented course work

more economically disadvantaged than those who enroll in noncredit courses.

| Executive Summary |

Figure 5

Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students,

by Age and Reported Primary Goal

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Younger than 20 20–23 24–29 Older than 29

30.4

24.6

33.3

11.7

43.6

19.5

20.2

16.7

51.4

26.9

10.0

11.7

29.3

20.5

37.6

12.5

Personal enrichment

Transfer

Degree/certificate

Job skills

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1996.

Percentages may not add to 100.0 due to rounding.

Age
xx NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

However, like their academic counterparts, many vocational participants leave subbaccalaureate institutions and programs having completed few courses (Figure 6).

Just under half (47.5 percent) of the younger students—those less than 24 years old—

in vocational programs complete eight or fewer months of postsecondary course

work over a five-year time period. Nearly three-quarters (72.5 percent) of older vocational participants complete no more than eight months of course work. Eight

months of full-time equivalent course work corresponds to what might be considered

a year of postsecondary education and training.

For older students with substantial work experience who enroll primarily to improve

their job skills, a course or two may be exactly what is needed or desired. Some may

participate to help them obtain one of the newly emerging industry- or employerdeveloped certifications (e.g., Microsoft, Cisco, Automotive Service Excellence),

which may be an important way to realize labor market gains without actually earning a degree or institution-based certificate.

Those same one or two courses, though, fall well short of expectations for those

working toward a postsecondary education credential. About half of all postsecondary vocational students indicate wanting to earn a degree or certificate, includFigure 6

Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and

Number of Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-Year Period

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Less than or

 equal to 8

Total full-time-equivalent months3

Younger participants1 Older participants2

47.5

26.4

65.4

59.0 59.9

27.5

41.0 40.1

More

than 8

Less than or

 equal to 8

More

than 8

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 1989–1994.

1Younger=23 years old and younger.

2Older=24 years old and older.

3Eight full-time equivalent (FTE) months are approximately equivalent to one full year of course work.

All vocational programs Vocational associate degree program Academic program

73.6 72.5

52.5

34.6

| Executive Summary |
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress xxi

ing those who intend to transfer to obtain a bachelor’s degree (Figure 5). Many of

these students are younger, recent high school graduates with limited job history. For

these students, in particular, a college degree can lead toward labor market success as

well as the fulfillment of a personal goal. But it is likely that the half of younger vocational students who leave postsecondary education with fewer than eight months of

course work (Figure 6) do so without having achieved their objectives and without a

concrete signal of their skills.

Conclusions and Next Steps

Vocational education and its place in American education continue to evolve. The broadening of its goals, the increasing diversity of participants, and the changing education

and labor market climate in which it operates, suggests vocational education is a flexible

option for schools and students. 

With this flexibility comes some challenges, however. At the high school level, participation in vocational education is an elective choice that faces increasing pressure from

emphasis on academic improvement and testing. For both secondary and postsecondary

vocational education, the wide range of participants and objectives raises a question

about how effective a role federal policy plays and whether that policy can or should

promote a clearer set of priorities. 

The data in this initial report addressed one of several important questions for policy:

Who enrolls in vocational education and for what purpose? That analysis raises additional questions about the effectiveness of vocational education in improving student

outcomes, the consequences of new funding and accountability provisions for programs

and participants, the implementation and quality of vocational education, and its alignment with other major reform efforts. The final NAVE report, scheduled for submission

later this year, will provide more rigorous evidence to help policymakers and practitioners respond to these issues.

| Executive Summary |
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 1

Introduction

Nearly half of all high school students and about one third of college students

are involved in vocational programs as a major part of their studies. Perhaps as

many as 40 million adults—one in four—engage in short-term, postsecondary

occupational training (Darkenwald and Kim 1998). Given the magnitude of the

vocational education enterprise, the ways in which students participate and the

benefits they may receive can have significant consequences for the nation’s

workforce. This report, the first in a series by the new National Assessment of

Vocational Education (NAVE), provides information to help policymakers shape

future improvements in this particular component of American education. 

Federal support for vocational education, and for understanding its outcomes,

has a long history. Most federal objectives for improving the quality and availability of vocational programs are articulated through the Carl D. Perkins

Vocational and Technical Education Act and its predecessors since the SmithHughes Act of 1917.1 The most recent act, passed in October 1998, reflects both

continuity with previous vocational legislation and some substantive departures. As policymakers begin to consider further changes in law—in anticipation

of reauthorization scheduled for 2003—they will be examining vocational education as a field in transition, prompted by sweeping changes in federal, state,

and local education and training priorities. Solid evidence will be needed to

enable new policy to be responsive to these shifts.

1.

1Other federal programs, such as student financial aid and tax credits, help provide access to occupational training at the postsecondary level; these programs are an important source of federal

financial support for vocational education. 
1998 Perkins Act 

Signed into law on October 31, 1998, the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical

Education Act (referred to as “Perkins III”) represented almost four years of deliberations

over how to modify federal vocational legislation. Previous periods of legislative change

had focused on particular policy concerns (Table 1.1). Over time, these changes increasingly promoted educational equity, improvement in program quality, and movement

away from vocational education’s origins as a separate program or “track.” These objectives were also evident in the Perkins III debates, but the Congress that passed the 1998

law sought to address additional concerns and to do so in different ways. 

Key Changes

Congress made several important substantive changes to the Perkins Act in 1998. These

changes reflected certain themes, or priorities for education and the role of the federal

government in education policy:

❿ Increased emphasis on academics: Continuing the trend begun in earlier legislation, Perkins III further focused attention on improving the academic performance

of vocational students; the stated purpose of the 1998 law suggests that federal vocational education funds be directed toward improving both academic and vocationaltechnical skills, and new accountability provisions require state and local grantees

to ensure that vocational students be held to the same academic standards as other

students.

❿ Greater flexibility in the use of funds: Congress released state and local agencies

from certain federal rules governing how Perkins grants were allocated and used for

program improvement; set-aside funding streams for gender equity were eliminated, as were most other funding distribution requirements weighted toward special

population groups (e.g., students with disabilities).

❿ More funds directed to the local level: Congress wanted a larger share of funding

allocated to local programs, expecting that additional resources would reach the

classroom and have the potential to affect student outcomes more directly; elimination of the set-asides allowed a higher proportion of Perkins funds to pass to

local districts, schools, and postsecondary institutions.

❿ Creation of a “higher stakes” accountability system: Although states had been

expected to gather information on vocational students’ outcomes since 1990,

Perkins III imposed requirements for state reporting to the U.S. Department of

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

2 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 3

Table 1.1

Overview of Previous Federal Vocational Legislation 

Periods of Vocational Legislation Policy Objectives and Tools 

1917–1963 Provide trained workers for growing semi-skilled occupations and

retain more students in secondary education through: 

■ Expansion of separate vocational schools and programs.

■ Funds for basic maintenance of programs.

■ Focusing on agriculture, industry, and home economics for 

high school students.

1963–1968 Improve and expand vocational education through:

■ Separate funds for innovative programs, research, and 

curriculum development.

■ Support for construction of regional or area vocational schools.

■ Support for adult training and retraining (postsecondary 

vocational education).

■ Encouragement to states to promote vocational education 

equity, better service to “special populations.”

1968–1990 Improve vocational education and facilitate access through:

■ Periodic encouragement to states to distribute some funds by 

community’s economic need and levels of student 

disadvantage.

■ Establishment and expansion of set-aside funds to serve special

population groups.2

■ Prohibiting the use of most federal funds for maintenance of

programs.

■ Continuation of set-aside funds for program improvement.

1990–1998 Expansion of equal access and emphasis on academic quality

through:

■ Introducing intrastate and intra-district funding formulas: 

distribution to agencies and schools weighted by special 

populations.

■ Promoting “integration” of academic and vocational education and “all aspects of the industry.”

■ Set-aside funds for new program linking secondary and

postsecondary vocational education: Tech-Prep.

■ Requirement that states develop performance standards.

SOURCE: Millsap and Muraskin 1992; Boesel et al. 1994a.

2The precise number of groups regarded as “special populations” expanded over two decades.
Education and potential rewards and consequences for states that can and cannot

improve student performance, including the performance of special populations.

❿ Improved coordination with related initiatives: After debating but discarding the

option of combining the two laws, Congress enacted Perkins III right after passage

of the Workforce Investment Act (WIA); language in both laws were intended to

provide opportunities to integrate vocational education institutions into state and

local workforce development and job training systems. 

Continuity with the 1990 Perkins Act Amendments

Congress did not alter the basic structure of the Perkins Act in the 1998 reauthorization,

however. Perkins remains primarily a formula grant program.3 Funds are still distributed

to states based on population counts, while states allocate grants to local secondary and

postsecondary institutions based largely on the numbers of low-income students the

institutions serve. States continue to have discretion to determine the proportion of their

state grant that will be allocated to secondary versus postsecondary vocational education.

Moreover, Perkins III continues to emphasize the major programmatic strategies reflected in the 1990 Perkins amendments (Perkins II). Specifically, it promotes: 

❿ Integration of academic and vocational education, by implementing coherent

sequences of academic and vocational and technical instruction.

❿ Broadening the focus of vocational education content to emphasize industries

and careers in place of entry-level, job-specific training.

❿ Strengthening the links between secondary and postsecondary education through

Tech-Prep and other strategies. 

Unresolved Policy Debates 

While the strategies outlined in the 1998 Perkins Act can be interpreted as reflecting policymakers’ current priorities and guidance for vocational education, the legislation in no

way puts to rest fundamental questions that have been raised about its future role. Both

in congressional deliberations prior to passage of Perkins III and in continuing discussions in the vocational education community, several issues remain unresolved that

could have implications for reauthorization: 

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

4 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

3The Perkins Act contains some set-asides (e.g., 1.25 percent of appropriations for grants to Native American

tribes and tribal organizations) which are awarded by the U.S. Department of Education through a competitive

grant program. In addition, funds allocated to states by formula under Title II of Perkins III, the Tech-Prep

Education Act, can be awarded to local grantees using either a formula or a competitive grant process.
❿ How essential is vocational education at the secondary level? High schools’ and

policymakers’ priorities increasingly seem to be on academic improvement and college entry. Perhaps as a result, vocational programs have become a less substantial

part of the high school curriculum (see Chapter 3), and postsecondary institutions,

particularly community colleges, have come to play a much larger role in career

and job preparation. Given this trend, the limited federal resources available for

high schools, and the costs of keeping both secondary and postsecondary vocational programs up-to-date, some question whether vocational education as a program of study belongs in high school or whether this type of specialization should

occur at the college level. 

❿ Who is secondary vocational education for and what is its purpose? Vocational

education has long been supported, in part, as an important strategy—a “secondchance” opportunity—for high school students with weaker academic skills or little interest in pursuing college credentials. Over the last decade, however, federal

legislation and most state agencies have promoted the notion of vocational education as preparation for high-tech, high-skill careers—where the academic skills

required may be substantial. In fact, over the last decade, states and local programs

have sought to attract more academically talented students into vocational education programs (see Chapters 2 and 3).

❿ What is the federal role in postsecondary vocational education? To many, the

Perkins Act reads as a set of strategies designed to improve secondary vocational

education. In fact, policymakers’ concerns mostly have been with secondary vocational education, leaving little imprint of the specific goals or problems federal

Perkins funds are expected to address at the postsecondary level. Currently, Perkins

grants can be used for any of the wide array of offerings eligible institutions provide and to support any of the varied objectives pursued by those who participate

in postsecondary vocational education. One issue policymakers may consider is

whether Perkins can or should address all of these populations and purposes or

whether a targeted approach for federal resources might have benefits.

❿ Should vocational education be “education” or “training”? For the past decade,

the Perkins Act has emphasized teaching about “all aspects of the industry”—not

just an entry-level job. But much of vocational education remains organized

around traditional occupational categories (Hoachlander 1998). In recent years,

many schools have been attracted to—and policymakers have touted—vocational

programs offered by high-tech firms such as Microsoft and Cisco; to some, this

emphasis on firm-specific skill training seems inconsistent with the broader

approaches promoted in federal policy. At the postsecondary level, Perkins pro-

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 5
vides some legislative signals of preference for for-credit occupational programs

culminating in an associate’s degree (education), as compared to noncredit, shortterm training courses. But some groups reporting growth in noncredit enrollments

have wondered whether this federal emphasis is appropriate. 

❿ What is the best way to help special populations? Deep concerns that different

groups have uneven access to high-quality education, including vocational education, initially led policymakers to set aside funds for underserved groups. In 1998,

that approach was replaced by one focused on holding grantees accountable for

improving the education outcomes of all vocational education participants, including targeted special populations. It may be many years before the full effects of performance reporting will be known.

These debates are as much philosophical as practical, reflecting some divergence of opinion about the role of federal vocational education policy and the specific objectives it

addresses. Research and data can contribute to and inform these discussions but are not

likely to settle them. Federal policymakers may choose to take up these issues directly or

leave them to be determined by state and local agencies, as is currently the case.

National Assessment of Vocational Education

As was true with previous vocational legislation, Perkins III directs the secretary of education to complete an “independent evaluation and assessment of vocational and technical education programs under this Act” (Section 114 (c)(3)). This National Assessment

of Vocational Education (NAVE) is intended to support the broad goals of improving

vocational education and to provide Congress with information to guide reauthorization

of the Perkins Act, scheduled for 2003. Based on this schedule, the law called for the

NAVE to deliver an interim report in early 2002 and a final report later in the year.

Independent Advisory Panel

Following earlier legislative tradition, Perkins III also directs the secretary to appoint an

Independent Advisory Panel to provide advice on conducting NAVE. Such a panel was

selected in mid-1999, and includes employers, secondary school and district administrators, representatives of postsecondary institutions, state directors of vocational education

at both the secondary and postsecondary levels, union representatives, education and

workforce development policy experts, and researchers with experience in relevant fields. 

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

6 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
This panel has met on a number of occasions to: (1) identify the key policy and research

questions NAVE will address, (2) review the analytic framework and study designs, and (3)

receive and help interpret results from NAVE analyses, including those described in this

interim report. Perkins III requires the panel to submit to Congress and the secretary its

own independent analysis of NAVE findings and recommendations. The letter to Congress

found at the front of this report represents the panel’s first official communication.

Research Objectives and Questions

As a key source of policy information, NAVE will examine the status of vocational education across the country and, to the extent possible, evaluate the early impacts of the new

law on vocational education practice. The research agenda must also take into account the

wide range of topics Congress mandated in Perkins III (Section 114), including: (1) implementation of state and local programs; (2) the impact of changes in federal funding formulas; (3) teacher quality and teacher supply and demand; (4) student participation in

vocational education; (5) academic and employment outcomes; (6) employer involvement

and satisfaction with vocational education programs; (7) education technology and distance learning; and (8) the effect of accountability requirements on program performance.

At a broader level, however, NAVE is guided by three key policy issues (Table 1.2):

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 7
| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

8 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 1.2

Key Policy and Research Issues for NAVE

How does, or can, vocational education improve the outcomes of secondary students who choose to

enroll in vocational and technical programs?

Perhaps the most important issue for vocational education is who participates at the secondary level and

how well they fare in school and beyond. In an era of accountability for results, policymakers are interested

in both changes in vocational course-taking patterns and how the varied ways of participating contribute

to key student outcomes, such as academic skills, success in college, and earnings. NAVE will explore these

important trends, as well as the role of federal policy in efforts to improve vocational education. The evaluation will examine the extent to which federal strategies for improving program quality are reflected in

school and classroom practice and the relationship between vocational education and school reforms

under way in many states and communities. 

What is the nature and impact of vocational education at the sub-baccalaureate level, and what is its

relationship to current workforce development efforts?

Given the labor market value of college credentials, “life long learning,” and flexibility in skills, the role of

sub-baccalaureate vocational education may be of increasing policy interest. NAVE will assess patterns of

enrollment and participation in postsecondary vocational education, and their relationship to outcomes

and impacts. In examining the current and potential influence of federal vocational policy, studies will also

evaluate: (1) the role that postsecondary vocational education is playing in state and local workforce development strategies and (2) the extent to which the 1998 federal Workforce Investment Act is having an

effect on the delivery of postsecondary vocational education.

Is the policy shift from set-asides and legislative prescription to flexibility and accountability likely to

improve program quality and student outcomes? How do special populations fare?

For the past two decades, federal policy has focused on serving those most at-risk, commonly termed the

“special populations.” Perkins III represents a major shift in direction, eliminating both set-aside funds for

certain special population groups and requirements that local funds be prioritized to serve the highest concentrations of special populations. In their place is an increased emphasis on accountability, including the

requirement that states track the progress of special population groups. NAVE will assess whether: (1)

increased flexibility seems to be changing educational priorities or practices, (2) special populations are

being helped or hurt as a result, and (3) accountability requirements appear to be improving the quality of

vocational education for all students.
Evaluation Strategies

Addressing the primary vocational policy questions requires a set of interrelated but distinct studies. NAVE commissioned an extensive set of independent assessments (see

Upcoming NAVE Study Reports at the end of this report). The overall research agenda

calls for diverse data collection and analysis methods: qualitative case studies, national

surveys, use of state administrative databases, and both descriptive statistics and sophisticated econometric estimation of program effects. NAVE will also draw on relevant,

high-quality studies sponsored by other organizations and federal agencies. NAVE

reports, including this one, seek to integrate information from a variety of data sources

to address the key research and policy questions.

NAVE’s short time line ultimately affects the particular studies undertaken and the ways

in which the information can be used. First, NAVE often had to rely on existing data for

national estimates. Available national data, mostly from the Department’s National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES), are often not as current as policymakers would

like.

Second, Congress mandated both an interim and a final NAVE report in 2002. As with

other studies of federal legislation, NAVE is operating in a period when many of the

important changes in Perkins III will have barely begun. Most states opted for “transitional plans” which, in effect, deferred implementation of Perkins III provisions until fall

2000. Thus, new data collected to meet NAVE reporting dates will reflect very early efforts

made in response to new legislative provisions. Conclusions regarding the longer-term

prospects for Perkins III will require further evaluation.

Interim Report

This Interim Report presents a small, but significant part of the comprehensive NAVE

research agenda. The report is based on findings from analyses completed prior to

November 2001, with most of the NAVE studies still under way. As a result, any conclusions or policy recommendations will be included in the final report. Nonetheless,

important implications can be, and have been, drawn from the results described here.

The report focuses on describing patterns of participation at the secondary and postsecondary levels. Analysis of participation is a logical first step in examining the status and

effectiveness of vocational education. The extent and nature of involvement, how students combine vocational and academic course taking, and the characteristics and goals

of those who participate—are all important factors in determining the importance of

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 9
vocational education to current and prospective students and to society as a whole. An

evaluation of the contribution of vocational education to student outcomes will be a central component of the NAVE final report.

Organization of the Report

Specifically, the interim report is divided into five chapters (Table 1.3):

| 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n |

10 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 1.3

Outline of Interim Report

Chapter Title Description 

1 Introduction Overview of the 1998 Perkins Act, the National 

Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE),

and this interim report.

2 Context for Assessing Federal Support The education, labor market, and policy factors

for Vocational Education that are likely to shape vocational education and

Perkins reauthorization; the defining of vocational 

education and its objectives.

3 Participation in Secondary Trends in the nature of high school-level vocational

Vocational Education course taking and the academic courses vocational

students take; the characteristics of vocational 

students.

4 Participation in Postsecondary The characteristics, educational needs, and reasons 

Vocational Education for enrollment of those who participate in 

postsecondary vocational education.

5 Summary and Next Steps Summary of the key themes from the interim 

report and the topics and policy questions the 

final NAVE report will cover.
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 11

Context for 

Assessing Federal

Support for 

Vocational 

Education

It has been more than 80 years since the federal government first committed

to vocational education as a national priority. Thirteen reviews, revisions or

reauthorizations later, Congress enacted the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and

Technical Education Act of 1998 (Perkins III). Each time Congress considered

federal aid for vocational education, the outcome reflected an understanding

of the economic and education priorities of the time and the nature of the

federal role in education. Legislative actions often have sought to push vocational education in new directions.

The upcoming reexamination of Perkins III is likely to be no exception.

Policymakers will need to consider prevailing issues in deciding whether and

what kinds of changes in law are needed. This chapter reviews several factors

that are likely to shape policymakers’ considerations for vocational education

legislation. These same concerns have guided the design of the NAVE agenda:

1. Key education, labor market, and policy trends.

2. The evolution of federal objectives for vocational education.

2.

key findings ❿
❿ Key Findings ➛

Context for Assessing Federal Support for Vocational Education

❿ High schools increasingly focus on academic reform and college preparation. 

Nearly every state has set higher academic standards for high school graduation, including exit exams. In part, new requirements reflect students’ growing

expectation to attend college and their inadequate academic preparation for

college-level work. The challenges many students face, including those in vocational programs, in meeting the new standards has raised questions about the

role of high school courses lacking clear academic focus.

❿ Most well-paying jobs require postsecondary technical skills. 

Data from many studies clearly indicate that some postsecondary credential is

required for better-paying jobs, even those in technical fields; jobs requiring a

vocational associate’s degree are among the fastest growing. Thus, demand for

postsecondary vocational education is likely to remain strong.

❿ For the past 20 years, Perkins has represented a declining share of federal education budgets, but it is still the largest single source of U.S. Department of

Education (ED) funds spent on high schools. 

Perhaps because the primary objective of vocational education has not appeared

well aligned with other federal education priorities, increases in Perkins appropriations have not kept pace with either inflation or the expansion of other ED

programs and the overall ED budget. As a result, vocational education appropriations shrank from about 6 percent of ED funds in 1980 to less than 3 percent

in 2002. Still, comparing dollars spent at the high school level, vocational education appears to be of equal federal priority as other programs focused on raising academic achievement and preparing students for college. 

❿ Over time, legislative changes have broadened—not clarified—the goals of

vocational education. 

According to Perkins III, vocational education now must contribute to academic achievement, technical competency, school completion, college attendance,

and employment. Federal policy does not prioritize these objectives in promoting program implementation nor in judging the program’s success.

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

12 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
Overarching Education, Labor Market, and Policy Issues

External trends can affect vocational education in several ways. They can point to problems in society or areas of public underinvestment that federal legislation can help to

address. They can also underscore conflicts in priorities that may impede implementation of vocational education or legislative effectiveness. Because it straddles the education and job-training systems, secondary and postsecondary institutions, and local, state,

and federal agencies, vocational education legislation is always influenced by the larger

education, labor market, and policy considerations. 

High schools increasingly focus on academic improvement and college preparation.

Nearly 20 years ago, the Nation at Risk report identified a “sea of mediocrity” in education and called for a commitment to improving academic performance as a gateway to

college and careers. Several trends have been evident since then.

❿ Academic reform dominates the high school agenda. Academic performance at the

high school level has become a significant concern. The National Assessment of

Educational Progress (NAEP) shows little gain since the 1970s in test scores

(Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000), and the recent Third International

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) underscores the poor math performance

of American 12th-graders relative to those in other countries (Wirt et al. 2000, pp.

28–29).1 Nationally, the high school graduation rate has declined (Kaufman 2001),

with many nongraduates eventually obtaining GEDs or other alternative certificates that have less value in the labor market than traditional high school diplomas have (Boesel, Alsalam, and Smith 1998). 

Partly in response to this evidence, nearly every state has established new and higher standards for high school graduation. These include increases in total credits,

academic credits, and the rigor of minimum course taking required for graduation.

As of the 1998–99 school year, 19 states had established high-stakes exit exams for

high school graduation, and nine other states were developing such exams

(Council of Chief State School Officers 2000). The prospect that large numbers of

students, including those in vocational programs, could fail to meet new standards

has raised questions about the role of high school courses lacking clear academic

focus. These concerns also have led to a hypothesis that student enrollments in

elective courses such as vocational education will decline sharply.

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 13

1Results from the Third International Math and Science Study indicate that, while American fourth-graders do

relatively well, outperforming the international average in mathematics, by 12th grade their relative performance drops significantly, outperforming only Cyprus and South Africa. 
❿ College expectations have been growing, but the need for remediation is large once

students get there. One reason for the emphasis on academics is the growing belief

that nearly all students should, and expect to, attend college—at either a two- or fouryear institution. The most recent data indicate that more than 95 percent of 1992 high

school seniors reported expecting to attend college (Berkner and Chavez 1997, p. 17);

about 80 percent expected to do so immediately after high school and 60 percent

planned to earn bachelors’ degrees (Sanderson et al. 1996, p. 4). Students’ actual behavior does not always follow expectations; about three-quarters of the high school graduates had enrolled in postsecondary education two years later (Berkner and Chavez

1997) and fewer than half of those students—or just over a third of all graduates—are

likely to eventually earn their bachelors’ degrees (Wirt et al. 2001, p. 152). However,

students’ educational expectations can influence how they select high school course

work. 

High schools’ focus on academics also reflects an understanding that inadequate preparation is a serious barrier to success in college. The best available data, collected in the

1980s before the recent increases in college attendance, suggest that nearly half of

those enrolled in four-year colleges, and slightly more than 60 percent of those at community colleges, took some remedial course work (Wirt et al. 2000, p. 152). Another

measure, still high, puts the figures at one in five and two in five entering freshmen at

each type of institution, respectively (Smith et al. 1997, p. 102). Students who have

taken remedial course work are much less likely to persist and eventually earn a college

degree than are other students (Wirt et al. 2000, p. 52).

The gap between students’ expectations, their level of preparedness for college during

their last years in high school, and what they ultimately may do after graduation poses

a dilemma for teachers and counselors. Although high school vocational education has

often been viewed as a way to provide job skills for those not going on to college, at

the time when students actually choose electives, nearly all still say they plan to attend

college. Moreover, some guidance counselors, fearful of discouraging students from

aiming high, may be reluctant to suggest that students acquire backup occupational

skills while in high school should their college plans fail to be realized. 

❿ Academic skills are also important for employment and earnings. Students with

higher-level math skills earn substantially more—as much as 108 percent more—than

do students with the same level of educational attainment but weaker skills (Figure

2.1). A similar pattern exists with regard to reading skills. Other analyses indicate that

jobs with the highest literacy requirements are growing faster than those with the lowest requirements (Barton 2000, p. 14). Thus, even students who enter the job market

directly out of high school must have a strong foundation of academic competencies.

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

14 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
Most well-paying jobs require technical skills that can be obtained through 

postsecondary education. 

High- and low-paying employment are both available, but a postsecondary credential of

some kind is required for the better-paying jobs. In decades past, high school graduates

were able to get well-paying jobs in manufacturing and other occupational sectors. Few such

jobs exist today, although as recently as two years ago some vocational educators claimed

that a high school graduate with solid information technology skills could do quite well in

the computer industry. The evidence indicates that for most students, the skills and credentials acquired in college are, by far, the best route to good wages.

❿ Postsecondary education matters. Job projections through 2008 indicate that among

the 30 job categories with the largest expected growth, all those requiring at least an

associate’s degree (with the exception of social worker) are in the highest quartile of

median earnings (Braddock 1999, p. 73). Although many job opportunities are

projected in fields that require only short-term on-the-job training beyond high

school, none of these is in the highest quartile of median earnings, and most are

in the lowest quartile (jobs paying less than $7.76 per hour). 

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 15

 Figure 2.1

Relationship between Math Literacy and Earnings, by Level of Educational Attainment

Four-year

degree

or higher

Two-year

degree

Some

postsecondary

High school

diploma

GED1

SOURCE: Sum 1999, p.126.

1Insufficient sample size to yield reliable estimate for highest literacy level.

2Based on assessments across a broad range of quantitative tasks, Level 1 represents the lowest math proficiency while Level 5 represents the highest proficiency.

1234 5

Math literacy scale/level2

$0

$10,000

$20,000

$30,000

$40,000

$50,000

Earnings
❿ Occupational and technical skills and credentials that can be acquired at the subbaccalaureate level are in demand. Employment growth in occupations requiring a

vocational associate’s degree is higher than overall employment growth. The Bureau

of Labor Statistics projects a 14.4 percent increase in employment across all occupations between 1998 and 2008 but double that rate of increase—30.9 percent—in

those jobs requiring a vocational associate’s degree (Erard forthcoming). Other analyses suggest that the job market values technical skills in general (Bishop 1995).2

Competing policy objectives are likely to broaden reauthorization debates.

Perkins will be examined in light of these education and economic trends and also from

the point of view of current federal priorities. Taken together, several policy indicators

suggest that more than modest changes to Perkins may be considered. 

❿ Smaller relative funding increases for Perkins may indicate that policy priorities

are elsewhere. Federal budgets are widely regarded as a basic indicator of policy priorities. Although appropriations for the Perkins Act and its predecessors increased

over the last two decades, this increase has kept pace with neither inflation nor the

expansion of other Department of Education (ED) programs and ED’s overall budget.3 In fiscal year 1980, funding for vocational education represented about 6 percent of total ED appropriations; it is now less than 3 percent (Figure 2.2). This trend

suggests that, for two decades, vocational education may have been viewed as less

worthy of federal investment than other areas, perhaps because its primary objective

does not appear well aligned with other priorities. 

❿ Perkins is the largest single source of Department funds used at the high school

level (Figure 2.3). ED funding that goes to secondary vocational education is greater

than the funds spent in high schools either by Title I of the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act or by the TRIO (college preparatory) program, or only

slightly less than the two other programs combined.4 Thus, as far as high schools

are concerned, vocational education appears to stand on equal footing in federal

policy with academic improvement and college preparation. 

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

16 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

2Bishop found a positive relationship between general technical competencies, as measured by the Armed Services

Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) and hourly wages. 

3In current dollars, vocational education funding increased by 58.6 percent between 1980 and 2001 (from about

$784 million to $1.2 billion), compared to a 200.2 percent increase for ED funding overall (from $14 billion to $42.1

billion). In real dollars (converted using the 1996 GDP deflator) over the same period, vocational education appropriations experienced a 17.1 percent decline while overall ED appropriations increased by 57.0 percent. 

4In the case of the Perkins Act and Title I, the amount of federal funds spent on high school activities is determined

by state and local agencies. Estimates of national high school spending for these programs were calculated using

the most recently available evaluation data. The high school estimate for TRIO includes total spending on the

Upward Bound program for high school students and a fraction of Talent Search funds used for high school level

programs.
❿ Key laws related to workforce development are expiring shortly. Several major

laws—Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), the Workforce Investment

Act (WIA) and Perkins—are expected to expire in the next two years. Although enacted as separate legislation, Congress envisioned them, particularly WIA and Perkins,

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 17

1984 1990 1992 2000

Year

1980 1982 1986 1988 1994 1996 1998 2002

SOURCE: Internal NAVE Analysis.

Figure 2.2

Perkins Vocational Education Funding (Appropriations) as a Percentage of Total

U. S. Department of Education Budgets: 1980–2002

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

Figure 2.3

Selected U.S. Department of Education Spending on High Schools: FY 2001

SOURCE: Internal NAVE Analysis.

NOTE: Figure reflects estimated portion of total appropriation spent on high schools.

TRIO Title I Vocational

education

$900

$600

$300

$0

(in millions)

$388

$465

$773
as complementary and closely connected efforts to streamline the workforce development system. It is too early to determine whether the expected benefits of these

laws will be fully realized. However, policymakers may need to consider the tensions

that already have emerged between the “work-first,” short-term training philosophy

that underpins WIA and TANF, and the educational, credential-oriented philosophy

that many believe Perkins promotes (D’Amico 2001). 

Objectives of Federal Vocational Education Policy 

A variety of issues may influence how policymakers think about Perkins reauthorization, but

one good starting point is to examine what vocational education was, and is now, expected

to achieve. For example, when the Smith-Hughes Act was enacted in 1917, federal aid promoted a single objective: to train high school students for work in factories and on farms. 

Later versions of legislation addressed other salient issues. In the 1950s, it was the perceived

gap in U.S.-Soviet science and technology following the launch of Sputnik. In the 1960s

and 1970s, vocational legislation dealt with youth unemployment resulting from the postwar baby boom, and equity issues raised by the civil rights and women’s movements.

Concern about U.S. international competitiveness during periods of slow economic growth

was a focus in the 1980s. Throughout these periods, however, and for much of its history,

vocational education was intended for the large majority of students entering the job market immediately after high school. Employment and earnings were the primary measures

of success.

Vocational education today represents a wide range of activities, offered in many types

of institutions to a diverse set of students, with different goals. The extent to which state

and local implementation reflects the legislative evolution and current federal objectives

is a key issue for NAVE.

Current Federal Goals 

The most recent phase of federal policy corresponds to a period of great economic benefit for individuals who possess higher-level skills and education, and sharply diminished

opportunities for those who are less well educated. The pressing need for improving the

academic achievement of all students, reflected in the 1990 Perkins Amendments and

continuing in Perkins III, clearly moved federal support for vocational education toward

fulfilling a much broader set of objectives than in the past. 

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

18 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
These program objectives are conveyed through the stated goals of the law, the strategies it

emphasizes, the targeting of funds, and the measures by which the program’s effectiveness

will be judged. Nowhere is this more clearly identified than in the “Purpose” of the law

(Section 2):

“The purpose of this Act is to develop more fully the academic, vocational, and technical skills

of secondary students and postsecondary students who elect to enroll in vocational and technical education programs....”

❿ Academic performance. Perkins III language indicates the congressional expectation that vocational education will contribute to vocational students’ academic

improvement. The purpose statement suggests that programs funded under Perkins

should assume responsibility for this outcome. In addition, specified “core indicators of performance” for which states will be held accountable include student

attainment of: (1) challenging state-established academic skill proficiencies and (2)

a school diploma or degree or its equivalent. Perkins intends to support these goals

by promoting the integration of academic and vocational education as well as

teaching “all aspects of the industry.”5 In theory, these same goals hold true at the

postsecondary level. 

❿ Vocational and technical competencies. Not surprisingly, Perkins is expected to

develop students’ occupational skills. Not only is attainment of challenging stateestablished vocational and technical competencies a core accountability measure,

but many of the practices encouraged by Perkins are aimed at improving these

skills.

❿ Postsecondary education or training. Vocational education now must also encourage students to enroll and be successful in further education and training. The

Perkins Act promotes stronger links between high school and postsecondary vocational programs through Tech-Prep programs and articulation agreements that

enable high school students to earn postsecondary credit in their high school vocational courses. No comparable strategies are specified to encourage postsecondary

vocational students to pursue baccalaureate degrees, although Perkins includes further education and training as a core performance indicator for both the secondary

and postsecondary levels.6

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 19

5In addition, Sections 134 (Local Plan) and 135 (Local Use of Funds) of Perkins III refer to grantees’ responsibility

to strengthen the academic skills of students in vocational programs.

6One limited exception is Tech-Prep (Section 205), which requires that special funding consideration be given to

consortium applications that “provide for the transfer of Tech-Prep students to baccalaureate degree programs.” 
❿ Employment. What used to be the primary measure of a program’s performance is

now only one of several equally important indicators. 

❿ Access. Improving access of potentially at-risk students to high-quality vocational

programs has been a longstanding goal of federal policy. Despite the elimination of

set-aside grant funds for this purpose, enrollment in nontraditional programs of

study is one of the program’s core performance measures and states are expected to

report on all performance indicators for various special population groups.

Perkins III includes other goals and priorities, sometimes seemingly in conflict. For example, legislative language restricts vocational education to preparation for occupations that

do not require bachelors’ degrees, yet at the same time encourages preparing students for

high-wage, high-tech careers—where four-year college degrees are typically required. 

Programmatic Responses: The Changing Face of Vocational Education

Vocational education now has a variety of different missions. Over the past decade, federal legislation and emerging trends have encouraged the field to develop courses and

programs reflecting this wider set of objectives, and to target a broader group of students.

Aimed primarily at the secondary level, many of these efforts are intended to reduce the

stigma traditionally associated with vocational education and to encourage broad career

preparation as a beneficial strategy for all students. 

These initiatives were supported in various ways by the federal School-to-Work

Opportunities Act of 1994. This grant program provided states and local partnerships of

educators, employers, and community groups with “venture capital” to initiate strategies

that help students develop better educational foundations for long-term career preparation. Although the legislation has expired, many School-to-Work tenets can be found in

the “new vocational” strategies. 

Strategies geared toward improving academic performance are gaining momentum.

Reflecting the growing pressures of academic reform during the last two decades, two

occupationally oriented efforts to strengthen students’ academic skills and better prepare

them for college have gained substantial attention. 

❿ High Schools That Work (HSTW). Originally designed by the Southern Regional

Education Board (SREB) as a strategy to improve the academic achievement of

“career bound” students, HSTW emphasizes raising academic graduation requirements for all students, students’ completion of either an academic or career major

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

20 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
or both, new guidance and advising systems, and tutorial assistance for students

who need extra help. According to the SREB, HSTW began with 28 sites in 13 states

in 1987; it now has been adopted as either a vocational education or comprehensive school reform strategy by more than 1,100 schools in 36 states.

❿ Career Academies. Originally developed in the 1970s as a dropout prevention strategy targeted to at-risk students, career academies now serve a more diverse set of goals

and student groups. Academies are typically implemented as a school-within-aschool program of two to four years that offers students a sequence of vocational and

college preparatory academic course work organized around broad career themes. In

collaboration with an academy business partner, students may obtain work experiences, take field trips, or complete school assignments based on the career theme.

One recent study estimated that there are between 2,000 and 2,500 efforts called

career academies nationwide (Kemple 2001).

Initiatives to improve vocational and technical skills take two different approaches.

Efforts to expand vocational competencies have pursued somewhat separate approaches.

One strategy focuses on upgrading the rigor of occupational and technical training. 

❿ Skill standards and certification. For nearly a decade, efforts to develop national

skill standards and portable credentials for many occupations have received federal,

industry, and labor support.7 These standards were intended to identify the skills

required in particular fields and provide a focus for efforts to update vocational curricula. Employers were expected to value the certificates that students earned in the

upgraded vocational programs. While the results of the National Skill Standards

Board have been limited so far, some national, state, and regional industry groups

have produced their own sets of standards which local programs report using. A

1998 survey of School-to-Work partnerships nationwide suggested that 14.6 percent

of secondary schools offered students in at least some vocational program certificates denoting mastery of skills identified by industry groups at the partnership,

regional, state, or national level (Hulsey, Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

Skill standards and certifications recently have emerged in new ways and in new

fields. Perhaps the most prominent new offerings in vocational education are the

high-tech Cisco Academies, Microsoft A+, and Novell certification programs, which

emphasize the high-wage, high-demand end of vocational education offerings. 

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 21

7The National Skill Standards Board (NSSB), created as part of the federal Goals 2000 Act (1994), was charged

with developing a voluntary, national system of skill standards, assessments and certifications. Even before

the NSSB was formed, the U.S. Departments of Education and Labor funded 22 industry groups with similar

objectives.
❿ Youth apprenticeships. Developed as a precursor to the School-to-Work program,

youth apprenticeships are multi-year programs of academic and vocational courses

combined with work experience. Offered as preparation for a specific occupational

area, youth apprenticeships are designed to lead to related one- or two-year postsecondary programs, entry-level jobs, or registered apprenticeship programs leading to

journeyman status. A 1996 survey suggested that as many as one in five high schools

offered at least one youth apprenticeship program (Visher et al. 1998).

An alternative approach has been to broaden the content of the occupational training

rather than to deepen it. One perspective holds that as individuals have become more

likely to hold multiple jobs during the course of their working lives, focusing vocational

education on specific entry-level positions is less sensible. Several initiatives try to give

students wider exposure to the career or industry around which their vocational studies are

organized. 

❿ All aspects of the industry. Since 1990, the Perkins Act has emphasized teaching

about the diverse set of issues and occupational pathways related to a particular

industry or career focus (including financial, management, technology, and environmental roles and responsibilities). The 1998 School-to-Work partnership survey indicated that as many as half of all secondary schools have made efforts to

introduce “all aspects” into at least some of their vocational curricula (Hulsey,

Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

❿ Career majors or pathways. Promoted in the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of

1994, these were to be defined sequences of relevant academic and vocational courses that students could commit to follow based on their career interest. The vocational content of the majors was expected to be broad, allowing students a wide set of

postsecondary options. This definition easily overlaps with those of other careerfocused programs, such as career academies and youth apprenticeships. In the 1998

School-to-Work survey, nearly half of all partnership schools reported forming career

majors of some type around written course sequences used to help at least some students make course selections (Hulsey, Van Noy, and Silverberg 1999).

Tech-Prep is the primary strategy for improving transitions to college.

The growing emphasis on preparing all students to continue their education beyond

high school has led to special efforts to encourage stronger ties between secondary and

postsecondary vocational education.

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

22 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
❿ Tech-Prep. Tech-Prep was originally designed as a four-year program of related

academic and vocational course work spanning the last two years of high school

and first two years of community college in order to prepare students for technical careers. Rarely implemented in this programmatic form, many schools

instead have focused on establishing articulation agreements that allow students

to earn college credit for high school vocational course work that meets college

standards (Hershey et al. 1998). Since 1990, Perkins legislation has set aside specific funds to support Tech-Prep. A 1996 survey suggests that about half of all

high schools offer a Tech-Prep initiative of some sort (Visher et al. 1998).

Relatively few new approaches explicitly aim to increase employment.

The newer initiatives typically have shied away from the traditional outcome of vocational education: to help students obtain a good entry-level job after high school. Even

where workplace experiences have been promoted, their purpose is often described as

an opportunity for students to apply their academic learning or gain broader exposure

to a particular field while they are in high school, rather than as an explicit strategy

for finding employment. There are some exceptions:

❿ Youth apprenticeships. In many youth apprenticeship programs, the substantial

commitment of employers to provide training or paid work experience is at least

partly based on the hope that successful student participants will remain with

the firm.

❿ Cooperative education. Cooperative education has been available to vocational

education students for many years. In an organized co-op, students earn school

credit for work experience and typically there is an agreed upon training plan for

the students’ time at the workplace. It is not unusual for a student to continue to

work at their co-op placement after high school. About half of all secondary

schools in 1996 offered co-op experiences (Visher et al. 1998).

The result of these varied vocational efforts is a field that continues to evolve. New terminology abounds; in fact, the field now refers to itself as “Career and Technical

Education (CTE)” rather than vocational education. Some programmatic strategies

overlap; many are implemented in combination or as separate options within the same

school. Certainly, in many places vocational education has moved far beyond construction and cosmetology. Exactly what vocational education does look like and how

much it truly has changed on a broad scale is less clear but will be explored in the

NAVE final report.

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 23
Implications

As the economy, social conditions, and educational expectations have changed, so too

have general perceptions of vocational education’s relevance to contemporary concerns.

During the past decade, federal vocational education policy has come to embrace an

ever-expanding array of goals related to education, employment, and economic development and—perhaps in response—spawned a variety of program offerings. These

developments have made vocational education more flexible but left the answers to the

following fundamental questions less clear:

❿ What is the basic objective of federal policy in vocational education?

❿ For whom is vocational education intended?

❿ What are the key strategies by which objectives are to be achieved?

❿ How should the program’s success be measured? 

❿ Can vocational education be expected to meet all of these goals?

| 2. C o n t e x t f o r A s s e s s i n g F e d e r a l S u p p o r t |

24 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 25

Participation

in Secondary 

Vocational 

Education

One concern increasingly raised by policymakers is whether vocational education

is still relevant to the core mission of secondary education. While part of this

question requires examining the quality and impacts of vocational education,

participation trends are also a key indicator. Patterns of participation signal some

sense of priorities—on the part of schools that must decide to offer vocational

courses and programs, of students who choose to enroll in them, and of parents

who oversee student selections. 

This chapter examines three questions regarding participation in secondary

vocational education:

1. Has the nature of vocational course taking changed during the

past 15 years?

2. Are vocational students taking more—and more challenging—

academic courses?

3. Who participates in vocational education? To what extent are

these courses and programs attracting the same, or a different,

group of students over time? 

3.

key findings ❿
| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

26 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

❿ Key Findings ➛

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

❿ There is little evidence of a continuing drop in student participation during the

1990s. 

Despite earlier trends, declines in participation in the 1980s appear to have leveled

off during the last decade. 

❿ Vocational course work is a declining, though still significant, share of the overall high school curriculum. 

Even though the extent of vocational course taking steadied in the 1990s, academic course taking increased; as a result, students are spending less of their overall high school experience in vocational education. Vocational education, as a

share of average total credits earned, declined from 21.8 percent in 1982 to 17.8

percent in 1990, to 15.9 percent in 1998. Still, in 1998 students earned more credits in vocational education (4.0) than in math (3.4) or science (3.1).

❿ Like other students, those in vocational programs are now earning more academic credits, but these vocational students still take fewer and less rigorous

academic courses. 

During the 1990s, the gap between vocational and other students in the number of

academic credits earned dropped from 1.6 to 1.1 credits. However, substantially

fewer vocational students (about 26 percent) than other students (43 percent) complete the advanced course work considered a “college preparatory” curriculum.

❿ Vocational education serves a relatively diverse and consistent set of students. 

For the most part, there has been little change in who participates in vocational

education during the last decade. Although vocational education serves a varied

group of students, those with low prior academic achievement, with disabilities,

who are male, from lower-income or rural schools, and proficient in English continue to participate more substantially than do other students. However, some evidence suggests that, over time, vocational education may be serving relatively more

academically advantaged students.
Background

Far more than academic subjects, secondary vocational education is provided in diverse

ways in a varied set of institutions. Available data cannot measure participation along all

these different dimensions, but understanding where and how vocational education is

offered is important background for interpreting participation. 

Vocational Course Work and the Institutions That Offer It

The best evidence suggests that, in 1998–99, vocational programs were offered in at least

11,000 public secondary schools (roughly 66 percent of such schools nationally), including 9,450 comprehensive high schools, and 1,800 vocational schools (Phelps et al. 2001).

Vocational schools include two types. The first type, vocational high schools, emphasizes

vocational instruction but also offers the full set of academic courses required of a high

school curriculum; students spend their full day at the school. The second type, area or

regional vocational schools or centers (AVSs), usually provides only vocational instruction; students typically attend part-time and receive their academic instruction at their

home high school. Compared to comprehensive high schools, both types of vocational

schools are considered by many to offer higher-quality occupational instruction because

of their superior equipment and facilities and the greater depth and breadth of training

available at these specialized institutions. However, most secondary vocational education

is provided in comprehensive high schools (Boesel et al. 1994b, p. 3).

Regardless of where it is offered, secondary vocational education encompasses three

types of courses (Figure 3.1):

❿ Specific Labor Market Preparation (“occupational education”): Teaches skills and

knowledge required in a particular occupation or set of related occupations, such

as health, business, food service and hospitality; 10 broad occupational program

areas were defined by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), some

with subspecialty areas.1 

❿ General Labor Market Preparation (GLMP): Provides general employment skills

that are not specific to any particular occupational area, such as typing or keyboarding, introductory technology education, career education, and general work

experience courses.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 27

1The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) is developing an alternative to the NCES vocational program classification system, but it is not yet completed. 
| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

28 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 3.1

Secondary School Taxonomy

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/ laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Public and

Protective

Services

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/ laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Protective

Services

(and Public

Services)

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

TECHNOLOGY

Other Technology

Electronic technology

Electromechanical technology

Industrial production technology

Chemical technology

Engineering technologies

Communications Technology

Yearbook production

Broadcast management

Film making and production

Telecommunications

Radio/television production

Videotape production

Other communications

Other communications technologies

Computer Technology

Computer appreciation

Computer mathematics

Computer applications

Computer programming

Data processing

Computer and information sciences

Marketing and Distribution

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insturance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Agriculture and Renewable Resources

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Marketing

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insurance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Agriculture (and Renewable Resources)

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

BUSINESS

Business Services

Bookkeeping

Accounting

Recordkeeping

Office machines

Secretarial

Office procedures

Word processing

Business data processing

Business computer programming

Data entry operator

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills Health,Physical, and

Recreational

Education

Religion and

Theology

Military

Science

Vocational Enrichment/other

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

Academic

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills Health,Physical, and

Recreational

Education

Religion and

Theology

Military

Science

Academic Vocational/technical Enrichment/other

SOURCE: Adapted from Bradby and Hoachlander (1999).

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Personal and Other Services

Interior design

Cosmetology/barbering

Dry cleaning

Building and grounds maintenance

Custodial and housekeeping services

Clothing and textiles

Home economics occupations

General services occupations

Print Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing communications

Aviation powerplant

TRADE AND INDUSTRY

Mechanics and

Repair

Industrial mechanics

Radio and TV repair

Air conditioning,

refrigeration, and heating

Power mechanics

Small engine repair

Auto mechanics

Auto body/service

Aviation powerplant

Construction

Electricity

Bricklaying and

masonry

Carpentry

Building construction

General construction

trades

Building maintenance

Plumbing

Housewiring

Print

Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing communications

Transportation

Aeronautics

Aviation technology

Aircraft parts

management

Marine mechanics

Transportation

technology

Vehicle and equipment operation

Materials

Production

Machine shop

Metal

Welding

Foundry

Plastics

Woodworking

Cabinetmaking

Other Precision

Production

Electronics

Leatherwork and

upholstery

Meatcutting

Commercial

photography

PRECISION PRODUCTION
❿ Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS): Intended to prepare students for family

and consumer roles outside the paid labor market, including consumer and home

economics.

Students take these courses in varying numbers, and with different objectives in mind.

Many schools offer sequences (“programs”) of related, increasingly advanced courses in

one or several specific occupational areas (e.g., health, drafting, child care). However,

actual course taking does not necessarily follow these organized offerings. Most vocational courses and programs have no prerequisites; students are free to enroll in courses

across occupational areas and levels, although some choose to focus their course taking

on a single occupation (Boesel et al. 1994b, pp. 85–87). The exceptions are specialty programs like career academies and youth apprenticeships, in which students’ decisions to

enroll in the programs are at least tentative commitments to follow the programs’

defined course sequences.

Key Measures of Participation

Because students in the nation’s secondary schools take vocational education courses in

varying numbers and sequences, it is difficult to identify a group for evaluation purposes whose participation and outcomes would be best to measure.2 Previous research has

focused on “occupational concentrators”—students who take three or more credits (corresponding to approximately three, year-long, single-period courses) within a single

occupational program area—because they are the closest proxy to program completers

and are thought to be most intent on preparing for a job or career. 

From a policy perspective, however, concentrators are not the only group of interest. The

larger population of all students (43.8 percent) who earn three or more occupational credits, of which concentrators are a subset, is also important. Perkins grants are distributed to

institutions—districts and schools—to fund courses and programs not individual students.

Therefore the federal investment is similar whether students concentrate their vocational

course taking in a single occupational program area (25.0 percent) or “explore” across several areas (18.8 percent). Together, concentrators and explorers account for the vast majority of credits earned in vocational or occupational education (Figure 3.2).

To better assess the nature of vocational course taking, the remainder of this report will

examine several ways in which students can participate (Table 3.1).

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 29

2Historically, students could be clearly distinguished by the “track” or set of courses in which they participated—

college preparatory, vocational, and general. However, these labels and the patterns of course participation they

represent are no longer clear cut.
| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

30 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 3.1

Key Secondary Participation Measures 

Participation Measure Description

Total credits earned in vocational education The sum of all credits earned in occupational education,

general labor market preparation, and family and consumer science.

Vocational Course Taker Graduate earning any credits in any form of vocational

education.

Occupational Investor Graduate earning three or more credits in occupational

courses, regardless of how these credits are organized;

made up of two subgroups (below).

Occupational Concentrator Graduate earning three or more occupational credits but

in a single program area (e.g., health care or business

services).

Occupational Explorer Graduate earning three or more occupational credits but

in more than one program area (e.g., business services

and agriculture).

 Figure 3.2

Percentage of Students Meeting Different Definitions of Vocational Participation: 1998

No vocational courses (3.5%)

Occupational Investor

(43.8%)

Vocational

Course Taker

(96.5%)

(52.7%)

 Explorer

(18.8%)

Concentrator

(25.0%)

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

Percentages may not add to 100.0 due to rounding.
Data 

National trends in vocational and academic course taking come from analysis of public high school transcripts for the graduating classes of 1982, 1990, 1992, 1994, and

1998, collected by NCES.3 These data are too early to capture shifts in participation

that may result from Perkins III (passed in July 1998). Also, transcripts do not typically record participation in special programs—such as career academy, youth apprenticeship, or Tech-Prep programs. Nor do transcripts provide information on the type of

school at which the vocational courses were taken. Some of this information can be

obtained from recent data collections that have not yet been completed or released for

public use. If more current (class of 2000) and comprehensive data become available in

time, they will be included in the NAVE’s final report. The current limitations in the

data, however, do not impede the most important types of participation analyses.

Trends in Vocational Course Taking

Vocational education has long played a role in students’ high school experience. For

the last several decades, virtually every student has left high school with at least one

vocational course and some have taken many. Some aspects of vocational participation

are changing, however. School reforms, evolving social and economic conditions, and

other factors are helping to shape the availability of and interest in vocational education programs. 

Little evidence of an ongoing drop in student participation.

A common concern in the vocational education community has been that increasing

college aspirations and emphasis on academic achievement might reduce student participation in vocational education. However, at least through 1998, student involvement

has not decreased as dramatically as these concerns and some earlier reports seemed to

predict (Levesque et al. 2000). The most commonly used measure of participation indicates that a decade of decline through the 1980s appears to have leveled off; the share of

occupational concentrators fell substantially between 1982 and 1992 but has been fairly

steady since then, at about one quarter of all high school graduates (Figure 3.3).

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 31

3These data have both advantages and limitations. Nationally representative data collected and coded in a uniform manner allow researchers to construct definitions of student participation that are consistent across states

and localities. However, transcripts cannot provide reliable information about exactly what is taught in or what

students learned from a course, nor do they indicate students’ participation in special career-related programs

such as career academies, Tech-Prep programs, or youth apprenticeships.
Perhaps more importantly,

researchers have typically

ignored the larger share of

students who take at least

three occupational credits

(“investors”), of which concentrators are only a subset.

Examining the trends in this

broader measure suggests

that, in fact, there has been

little change over the past 15

years. Between 42.0 and 46.2

percent of all high school

graduates since 1982 have

invested in vocational education in this way. In part, this

level of participation in occupational courses has been

maintained because increasing numbers of students are taking at least one computer technology course, at the same time that enrollments in some other occupational program

areas have declined.

Vocational course work is a declining, though still significant, share of the

high school curriculum.

Despite relatively stable student participation rates over the last decade, however, vocational education is clearly a shrinking portion of the way students spend their time in

high school (Figure 3.4). Average credits earned in vocational education fell from 4.7 in

1982 to 4.0 in 1992 (mostly the result of fewer keyboarding or typing classes in high

school) and remained steady at 4.0 credits through 1998.4 At the same time, academic

credits increased substantially—from 14.3 to 18.3, making total credits rise. As a result,

vocational education’s share of total credits dropped from 21.8 percent in 1982 to 17.9

percent in 1990 to 15.9 percent in 1998.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

32 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

0

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 3.3

Percentage of Students Participating in

Vocational Education: 1982–1998

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Vocational course taker

Occupational investor

Occupational concentrator

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

4During the period 1982–1998, General Labor Market Preparation courses declined from 1.0 credits to 0.6 credits at the high school level. In particular, many fewer students are taking keyboarding or typing courses in high

school, perhaps because these courses are now offered in middle school. In contrast, average credits earned in

occupational education—courses such as health, business, trade and industry—have been relatively constant

since 1982.
Even with the overall declining share,

high school students still earn more credits in vocational education (4.0) than in

math (3.4) or science (3.1) (Figure 3.5).

Moreover, in 1998, the 4.3 English and

language arts credits students earned on

average are not statistically different from

the credits they earned in vocational education. These findings are particularly

striking, given the emphasis that has been

placed on academic reforms and higher

graduation requirements during the last

two decades.

Students may now be taking vocational education for different reasons.

Historically, students enrolled in vocational education to prepare for entry-level jobs

after high school. Meeting this objective called for skill development in a particular occupational area, and likely encouraged students to “concentrate” their course taking as a

way to maximize their appeal to potential employers. Federal law, particularly in Perkins

II and III, supported this goal by promoting school implementation of, and student participation, in “sequences” of related vocational courses. 

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 33

Figure 3.4

Average Credits Earned by High Schools Students, by Type of Course Work: 1982–1998

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1Includes courses such as art, music, and driver’s education.

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2.6 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.9

4.7 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.0

17.6 18.3 16.7 17.2 14.3

Academic

Vocational

Enrichment1

24.2 25.2

23.9

21.6

23.6

Figure 3.5

Average Credits Earned by High School

Students, by Subject Area: 1998

Credits earned

Vocational

or technical

education

012345

English

Social

studies

Mathematics

Science

4.0

4.3

3.7

3.4

3.1

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.
Despite these efforts, however, the clear trend in vocational course taking has been

toward “exploring” across

occupational program areas

rather than “concentrating”

(Figure 3.6). Among students

who earn at least three occupational credits (investors),

concentrating is a less common way to organize course

work now (57.0 percent)

than in 1982 (72.8 percent);

a higher proportion of students are taking their three

or more credits in multiple

program areas. In addition,

students are increasingly less

likely to take advanced course work in their area of concentration; in 1998, 56.3 percent

of concentrators earned credit in related advanced-level courses, down from 69.9 percent

in 1982.

These data suggest that fewer students may now view skill development in a specific program area to be their main objective for enrolling in vocational education. Some students

may take occupational courses for career exposure purposes, to help them select a college

major, to pursue a leisure interest, or because these courses present less of an intellectual challenge than do other courses. 

There are several possible, alternative explanations for the change in vocational coursetaking patterns. First, schools may be increasingly less likely to offer full sequences of

related courses, choosing to trade off depth in the programs they offer in favor of giving

students more breadth across program areas. Whether student or school preference, however, the priority on specific job skill development appears to be lessening over time.

It is also possible, however, that recent vocational course taking reflects broader conceptions of career preparation. Students may be organizing what appears to them and to

their counselors to be a logical sequence of occupational courses representing different

program areas as classified by NCES. For example, a student who wants to run a landscaping firm might appropriately enroll in both agriculture and business courses; a stu-

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

34 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

 Figure 3.6

Percentage of Occupational Investors Who “Concentrate” Their

Occupational Courses in a Single Program Area: 1982–1998

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

57.0

60.6

59.1

64.6

72.8
dent interested in pediatric nursing could view both child care and health care skills as

important preparation for later college courses. More analysis of students’ reasons for

enrolling in vocational education is necessary and will be presented in the next NAVE

report.5

Full effects of school improvement policies on vocational participation perhaps have not yet been felt; future declines are likely.

Most of the decline in vocational course taking occurred between 1982 and 1990, before

many would think the policies associated with school reforms were fully implemented.

During the decade of reform efforts since then, vocational participation in the aggregate

remained relatively stable, suggesting that these reforms have not had much of an

effect. 

Looking beyond tabulations of the aggregate participation measures tells a slightly different story, however, which foreshadows possible declines in vocational education

course taking.

❿ Course graduation requirements increased only slightly during the 1990s and not

across the board. While the 1990s often have been referred to as the decade of

school reform, certain reform policies that might be expected to affect vocational

participation were not as evident during this period. Between 1980 and 1990,

approximately 39 states increased their total course graduation requirements, and

vocational participation did decline substantially during that time. However, only

12 states increased or further increased graduation requirements between 1990 and

1998 (Education Commission of the States 1990; Snyder et al. 2001).

Moreover, the six states that increased their requirements by 2.0 credits or more

between 1990 and 1998 exhibited: (1) a significant decrease of 1.0 vocational credits earned by high school students and (2) a decline of 9.6 percent in the proportion

of occupational concentrators, both statistically significant results (Table 3.2). Many

factors could account for the decline in vocational participation in these states, but

the significant increase in graduation requirements is certainly a strong hypothesis.

Further efforts to raise graduation requirements may well have adverse consequences for participation in vocational education.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 35

5NAVE has commissioned a series of focus group discussions with students in order to examine reasons for

enrollment in vocational education courses and programs.
❿ Students mostly maintained vocational participation by expanding total credits

earned. Nationally since 1990, high school students greatly increased their academic course taking while reducing only slightly their vocational credits. If the

increase in academic credits reflects schools’ emphasis on academic improvement,

vocational course taking might have fallen further, if not for the fact that students

could make room for additional academic courses by increasing their total credits

earned. However, such expansion may have reached its limits by 1998; students on

average earned a total of 25.2 credits, out of a likely 28 possible credits in a traditional school schedule (Figure 3.4).6 Alternative “block scheduling” approaches

may allow students to increase their total credits further.

❿ Shifts in vocational course taking do not yet reflect emphasis on preparation for

academic assessments. A major reform policy that could have a direct effect on

vocational participation is the introduction of state assessments. As noted in

Chapter 2, by the 1998–99 school year, nearly 20 states had established high-stakes

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

36 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 3.2

Changes in Vocational Education Participation Measures, by Change in 

State Graduation Requirements: 1990–1998

Number Average Vocational Percent of Graduates

of States Credits Earned Who Are Concentrators

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change

Change in Total Graduation 

Requirements

Increase of 2 + credits 6 4.1 3.1 -1.00* 30.3 20.6 -9.6*

Increase of LT 2 credits 6 4.5 4.1 -0.4 33.8 28.7 -5.1

No increase 32 4.0 4.1 0.1 24.2 24.0 -0.2

Not applicable1 6 4.6 4.2 -0.4 29.5 29.6 0.1

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1States that allowed local school districts to set high school graduation requirements in one or both years.

*Statistically significant at 1.96 critical level for comparison between 1990 and 1998.

6The maximum of 28 credits was calculated based on the assumption that most high schools offer seven periods of courses each day (1 credit for each year-long course) over four years, for a total of 28 credits. New “block

scheduling” approaches can increase the total possible credits earned to 32.
exit exams for high school graduation, typically offered first at the end of 10th

grade so that students who fail have several opportunities to retake the tests. One

hypothesis was that schools would increasingly focus students in the early high

school grades on academic courses and preparation for the assessments, potentially crowding out vocational courses until later in the high school years. Such a shift

was not evident between 1990 and 1998, however. During that period, vocational

credits earned in 11th grade declined somewhat. As a result, students were taking

a similar or slightly higher share of their vocational credits before the typical 10thgrade state assessment (Figure 3.7). 

In fact, by 1998 few states had yet phased in the consequences for students who

passed or failed to pass the assessments. The aggregate decline in 11th-grade vocational participation is more likely due to increased graduation requirements in

those 12 states that raised them, leading to more academic rather than vocational

course taking in grade 11.7 As assessments become more fully implemented, and if

states maintain their high standards for passing, the hypothetical decline in vocational participation is much more likely. One piece of evidence that supports this

future scenario is a study (Bishop and Mane forthcoming) that suggests that even

the minimum competency exams required for graduation in some states or districts

in the early 1990s may have reduced vocational course taking. 

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 37

Figure 3.7

Percentage Distribution of Vocational Credits Earned, by Grade Level: 1982, 1990, and 1998

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1998

1990

1982 17

18

21 20

19

20

24

25

29

36

38

34

Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

Percentages may not add to 100 due to rounding.

7Most states, for example, increased the years of math or science (or both) required from two to three, which

would most likely affect 11th-grade course taking.
Participation by Occupational Program Area

Examining occupational course taking by program area is important for two reasons.

First, there is a presumption about the quality of programs in different fields: program

areas that prepare students for high-skill, high-wage jobs are generally considered more

beneficial than those that prepare students for jobs with fewer skill demands and lower

pay. A second, and more overarching, concern is that students who invest in vocational

education should be able to find jobs. Therefore, some match between vocational program offerings and labor market needs is desirable. Transcript analysis cannot adequately assess quality, so some judgment about program areas is necessary. 

Enrollment in computer technology courses does not yet reflect the “Internet

boom.”

While Perkins III does not emphasize one occupational program area over another, no

program has received as much recent attention—by educators, employers, policymakers,

and the media—as information technology (IT). By 1998, when Perkins III was passed,

the potential of the Internet and the demand for technicians skilled in hardware, computer programming languages and applications seemed limitless. At that time, some high

schools and area vocational centers began offering courses that prepared students for certifications in Microsoft office applications, Cisco “networking,” or other IT areas. 

Between 1990 and 1998, the data indicate that participation in computer technology

courses did increase in some ways. During this period, the proportion of high school students taking at least one course rose by 21.1 percent but the proportion concentrating in

computer technology (taking at least three credits in this program area) stayed roughly

the same. Although the average number of credits earned in computer technology was

small (.31), by 1998 34.3 percent of high school graduates took at least one computer

technology course.

However, trends in the national transcript data are not consistent with the more recent

increased attention and school demand. Average credits earned in computer technology

appear to have peaked in 1992, declining afterwards at the same time that employment

demands in this area were growing (Figure 3.8). Even if 1992 were an anomaly, the data

suggest at most level overall participation through most of the 1990s. Likewise, although

computer-related course taking occurs in other program areas—primarily business services and drafting—participation in those courses did not increase markedly during the

period.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

38 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
It seems likely that the available

national data, reflecting the course taking of seniors in 1998, is too early to

capture the effects of the Internet

expansion and school interest in offering IT courses. It is expected that transcripts now being collected for seniors

in the class of 2000 will show a marked

increase in computer technology participation.

Other changes in program participation are consistent with labor

market trends.

Policymakers have long called for

stronger linkages between employers

and vocational educators, in part to ensure that the availability and quality of vocational

programs reflect employer needs.8 Perkins III, for example, mandates funding for national

and state-level entities to coordinate and disseminate occupational and employment information. However, labor market demand may do more than influence administrative judgments about program offerings; students may be more likely to take courses or concentrate

in vocational program areas that prepare them for occupations with increasing job opportunities. 

A recent NCES analysis (Hurst and Hudson 2000) supports the hypothesis that vocational

course taking may be responsive to labor market demand to some degree (Figure 3.9). A substantial portion of the change in the proportion of concentrators in specific occupational

program areas between 1982 and 1998 appears to coincide with projected job growth from

1983 to 1996. For example, four programs experienced the largest gains in the proportion of

concentrators: health care, child care and education, food service and hospitality, and technology and communications.9 During the same period, the corresponding job categories—

health service occupations, child care workers and teacher aides, food preparation and service occupations, and technicians and related support occupations—had higher than average

employment growth. Similarly, the largest declines in vocational concentrators were in the

trade and industry and business program areas; these areas approximately correspond to

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 39

Figure 3.8

Average Credits Earned by High School Graduates

in Computer Technology: 1982–1998

Credits earned

.00

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

.10 .20 .30 .40 .50

.11

.30

.37

.23

.31

1982

1990

1992

1994

1998

8Perkins III requires that state plans describe how “vocational and technical education relates to state and

regional occupational opportunities” (Sec. 122 (c)(15).

9Although enrollments in these program areas grew significantly in relative terms, the absolute number of students participating in these programs is still small.
occupations that had experienced below average projected growth rates since the early

1980s. It is unclear whether the consistency in course taking and job growth reflects changes

in school program offerings, changes in student preferences, or both.

While some responsiveness to employment trends is desirable, it is worth noting that a substantial share of the recent vocational participation and job growth has been in low-wage

sectors. There can be great variation in wages and earnings within each occupational grouping, particularly in the technology and communications fields. However, recent data indicates that in 2000, average annual earnings were $21,040 for health care support workers,

$16,070 for food preparation and serving related workers, $18,770 for teacher assistants and

$16,350 for child care workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2001). Although these occupations

are certainly important to society, the data provide little evidence that vocational education

is concentrating its efforts on preparation for high-skill, high-wage jobs.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

40 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 3.9a

Percentage of Students Concentrating1 in Various Occupational Programs: 1982 and 1998

SOURCE: Hurst and Hudson 2000. Based on analysis of High School and Beyond (1982) and National Assessment of Educational Progress (1998) Transcripts.

1Taking three or more occupational courses in a single program area.

Child care and education

Food service and hospitality

Technology and communications

Health care

Personal and other services

Marketing and distribution

Agriculture and renewable resources

Business

Trade and industry

Total

0.6

0.5

2.2

1.9

0.8

1.8

2.6

4.8

9.8

25.0

0.2

0.2

0.5

0.6

1.3

1.8

2.8

11.6

14.8

33.7

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

1982

1998
Academic Course Taking of Students Participating in

Vocational Education 

With academic improvement increasingly the marker of a high school’s success, policymakers have sought to ensure that students who participate in vocational education are not

left behind. Perkins III accountability provisions, for example, require states to report on

the proportion of vocational students who meet state-established academic standards. 

Vocational educators and their academic colleagues face certain challenges. Historically,

many of the occupational concentrators and other students who take at least three credits

of occupational education have entered high school with lower academic achievement

than other students (Table 3.3). It therefore should not be surprising if vocational students’ academic course taking follows a different path than that of other students, as

described below.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 41

Figure 3.9b

Percentage Change from 1983 to 1996 in Number of Jobs, by Occupational Grouping

SOURCE: Hurst and Hudson 2000. Based on U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Industry-Occupational Employment Matrix

1983–1996 Time Series.

1Excludes health service occupations; homemaker-home health aides; child care workers; food preparation and service occupations; and cosmetologists

and related occupations.

2Excludes secretaries, typists, and teacher aides.

-2

7

13

16

19

32

34

36

37

39

42

43

56

69

-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Agriculture, forestry, fishing,

and related occupations

Secretaries and typists

Precision production, craft, and repair occupations

Operators, fabricators, and laborers

Cosmetologists and related workers

Administrative support, except as listed2

Service occupations, except as listed1

Food preparation and service occupations

Technicians and related

support occupations

Marketing and sales occupations

Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations

Professional specialty occupations

Health service occupations

Child care workers and teacher aides
Vocational students, like other students, are earning more core academic

credits than in the past, but a gap remains.

More than a decade of attention to school reform appears to have helped improve the academic course taking of all students, including those who participate in vocational education. Public high school graduates earned 2.6 more core academic credits—in English or

language arts, mathematics, science, or social studies—in 1998 than they did in 1982 (Table

3.4). This increase is equivalent to about two and one half full-year academic courses.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

42 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 3.3

Percentage of 1992 High School Graduates, by Level of 8th-Grade 

Math and Reading Achievement Test Scores 

Occupational Concentrators Non-concentrators1

Average math score 

Low 44.6 29.7 

Middle 36.0 33.4 

High 19.4 36.9 

Average reading score 

Low 47.4 28.9 

Middle 33.7 34.1 

High 18.9 37.0

SOURCE: Agodini forthcoming. Analysis of NELS 88 data.

1Among the non-concentrators, those who earned three credits in occupational vocational education but who did not “concentrate”

their course taking (i.e., the “explorers”) had math and reading test scores closest to the concentrators. 

Table 3.4

Academic Credits Earned by High School Graduates: 1982 and 1998

Average Academic Credits Earned, by Year

Type of Students 1982 1998 Change 

All public high school graduates 11.9 14.5 + 2.6 

Occupational concentrators 10.8 13.7 + 2.9 

Non-concentrators 12.4 14.8 + 2.4 

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.
Occupational concentrators increased their academic course taking even more than

other students, perhaps because they had farther to go in meeting new graduation

requirements. As a result, by 1998 the gap in academic credits earned between occupational concentrators and non-concentrators had been reduced (from 1.6 to 1.1 credits).

Most of the remaining gap is due to differences in science course taking.

Vocational students still take less rigorous courses than other students do.

Despite the success in increasing the number of academic courses that vocational students

take, not as much progress has been made in narrowing the gap in the types of courses

they take. During the 1990s, concentrators and other students became more similar in

their taking of such “gatekeeper” courses as Algebra 1 and in whether they completed

what has been termed, “the New Basics” curriculum—four years of English and three

years each of math, science, and social studies. However, in 1998, occupational concentrators were much less likely than non-concentrators to complete a more demanding college prep curriculum or to take advanced math (Table 3.5). 

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 43

Table 3.5

Academic Course Taking Patterns for 

Occupational Concentrators and Non-concentrators: 1998

Course Taking Occupational Concentrators Non-concentrators1

New Basics2 45.7% 59.4%

College Prep Curriculum3 25.9% 43.2% 

Algebra 1 87.1% 93.2% 

Advanced Math4 26.0% 42.4% 

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1Among the non-concentrators, the academic course taking of those students who earned three credits in occupational vocational

education but who did not “concentrate” their course taking (“explorers”) was most similar to that of the concentrators.

2The “New Basics” curriculum, as measured here, is equivalent to four years of English or language arts, and three years each of

math, science, and social studies.

3The “College Prep” curriculum is defined as earning four or more credits in English; three or more credits in mathematics at the

algebra 1 or higher level; two or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; two or more credits in social studies with at least one

credit in U.S. or world history; and two or more credits in a single foreign language (see Levesque et al. 2000).

4”Advanced Math” includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics, precalculus, introduction to analysis, and calculus.
This disparity in the rigor of course taking raises some concern. Because many students

who pursue vocational education as a major part of their studies begin high school with

lower levels of academic achievement, if they then take less challenging academic courses they are more likely to have difficulty passing state academic assessments required for

graduation. These problems have already become evident in states such as New York and

Massachusetts, where some local vocational educators have lobbied for a separate set of

passing standards or what they view as more relevant tests for vocational students. The

comparatively low rate at which vocational students complete a college preparatory curriculum is also a consideration for the future of vocational education, as more and more

students aspire to baccalaureate degrees.

Characteristics of Vocational Education Students

Who participates in vocational education has been a continuing policy concern. While

federal legislation in the 1960s and 1970s aimed to improve access to vocational education for certain special populations, the current debate is whether vulnerable groups are

overrepresented in and well-served by vocational education. Some previous reports suggested that, by the early 1990s, vocational education had come to be stigmatized as a

high school track for students with poor academic capabilities, special needs, or behavioral problems (Boesel et al. 1994b). 

During the last decade, however, career education has been given new prominence by

several initiatives targeted to students other than those traditionally served by vocational programs (see Chapter 2). In addition, some states and districts have worked to

strengthen the appeal of vocational courses—for example, moving away from training

for what used to be considered blue-collar jobs, such as manufacturing, secretarial work,

and child care, and toward programs in pre-engineering, information technology, and

education. 

Policymakers and educators remain committed to providing students from special populations access to vocational education. However, many believe that the quality of vocational programs is unlikely to improve without attracting a broader segment of the student

population or that the participation of a more diverse set of students will signal that quality improvements are being made. 

For these reasons, it is important to examine the characteristics of students involved in

vocational education. While a variety of characteristics were analyzed, particular attention

was paid to those that define the special population groups named in Perkins III (P.L. 105-

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

44 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
332, Section 3(23)) and that can be identified in available data (Table 3.6).10 The participation of two other groups defined in the law—single parents and displaced homemakers—

could not be addressed with the current data and are probably more important to examine

at the postsecondary level.

Historically, low college aspirations, prior achievement, and socioeconomic status have been the strongest predictors of participation in vocational education.

Vocational education has long struggled with the perception that it mostly serves students

who are disadvantaged in some way—who have no plans for college, are struggling academically, are disabled, are low-income, exhibit behavioral problems, or are from minority

racial or ethnic groups. Previous studies have contributed to this impression, but most have

relied primarily on qualitative impressions from school site visits and descriptive statistics

of seniors who meet certain thresholds of participation. These efforts provide a useful picture of participants. However, few have explored how the various student characteristics are

related to each other in determining who participates. Prior research has also failed to identify which characteristics or factors make the greatest difference in attracting students to

vocational education or, as some see it, in how school counselors encourage students into

high schools’ various curriculum paths.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 45

Table 3.6

Measures Used to Define Special Population Groups

Special Population Group Measures Used

Individuals with disabilities

Individuals from economically disadvantaged 

families 

Individuals preparing for nontraditional training

and employment 

Individuals with other barriers to educational

achievement, including individuals with limited

English proficiency (LEP)

Students with Individual Education Plans 

Students in schools in which more than 50.0 

percent of students are eligible for the National

School Lunch Program

Students in occupational programs that are 

nontraditional for their gender

Students who: (1) take low-level math in 9th grade

(proxy for prior achievement) or (2) are limited

English proficient (LEP) 

10Unfortunately, transcripts do not contain many indicators of student characteristics; some measures were

constructed based on the characteristics of the students’ school.
A recent study commissioned for NAVE suggests that several of the factors previously

thought to influence participation do matter, while others may not (Agodini, Uhl, and

Novak forthcoming). Using multivariate regression techniques so that many characteristics could be simultaneously taken into account, the study estimated the relationship

between each factor or characteristic and whether or not a student became an occupational concentrator. The analysis indicates (Table 3.7):

❿ Low prior academic achievement is associated with participation in vocational

education, but it is not the only factor that has an effect. Consistent with earlier

research, low 8th-grade test scores are highly correlated with becoming an occupational concentrator, investor, or explorer, even taking other characteristics into

account. However, among students with similar 8th-grade scores, many other factors also affect the program of study the students pursue. 

❿ College plans have the strongest relationship with vocational education participation. Regardless of their demographic characteristics, disability status, prior

achievement, or behavior in school, students who in 8th grade did not plan to pursue postsecondary education were more likely (by about 15 percentage points) to

become occupational concentrators than those who planned to earn baccalaureate

degrees. This finding suggests that, for many students, vocational studies may be

a planned strategy for life after high school.

❿ Socioeconomic status (SES) has an independent effect on participation. Even

among those with similar prior achievement, college plans, and other characteristics,

students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to participate in

vocational education than are students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds.

This result suggest that low-income students regardless of academic ability, are more

likely to choose or be encouraged to choose vocational programs of study.

❿ Disabilities, problem student behaviors, and minority racial or ethnic statuses do

not appear to increase the likelihood that students participate in vocational education, as some other studies have suggested. Certainly, a higher proportion of students with disabilities, problem behaviors, and minority status participate in vocational education than do other students. However, in contrast to previous research

examining participation rates (e.g., Levesque et al. 2000), once prior achievement,

SES, and college plans are controlled for, disability is no longer a factor. The same

is true when examining the role of problem behaviors, such as tardiness, class cutting, and suspensions. Although some studies of a few select high schools have

suggested that African American and Hispanic students are more likely to be counseled into vocational programs, on a national level students from minority racial

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

46 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 47

Table 3.7

Factors Related to Becoming an Occupational Concentrator

Overall Student Subgroups

1992

High School Low In Poor Non-College 

Graduates Achievers Schools Bound 

Demographics

Sex (male v. female) + + + 

Race/ethnicity (black or Hispanic v. white/other) – – – 

Socioeconomic status (low v. high) + + 

Disability (yes v. no) 

Ever held back (yes v. no) + 

Number of risk factors (one or more v. none) – + 

Advanced 8th-grade course taking (yes v. no) – 

8th-grade achievement (low or average v. high) + NA + 

Mother’s education (HS/less v. more than HS) 

School location (North-Central/South v. other) + + + 

School urbanicity (rural v. other) + + + 

Type of school (public v. other) +

School enrollment (small v. large) 

School reduced-price lunch participation (high v. low) NA 

Behaviors (select list from those examined) 

Problem student behaviors: 

Misbehave (yes v. no) 

School problems (yes v. no) 

Fight (yes v. no) 

Cut/skip class (yes v. no) 

Tardy (yes v. no) – 

Good student behaviors: 

Homework done per week (a lot v. little) 

Discuss program with counselor (yes v. no) + 

Discuss courses with counselor (yes v. no) – 

Parental involvement: 

Attend school meetings (yes v. no) – 

Speak to teacher/counselor (yes v. no) + 

Check student’s homework (yes v. no) – 

Expectations

Student’s college plans (HS/less v. more than HS) + + + NA 

Locus of control (low or average v. high) 

Parent’s college plans for student (HS/less v. more than HS) 

School has high academic standards (yes v. no) 

SOURCE: Agodini, Uhl, and Novak forthcoming. Analysis of NELS 88 data.

+ Indicates a positive and statistically significant influence on vocational education participation, all other characteristics in the table equal.

- Indicates a negative and statistically significant influence on vocational education participation, all other characteristics in the table equal. 

NA indicates not applicable because the subgroup only includes students with this characteristic. HS = high school

NOTE: In reading the table, for example, the “+” in the row labeled “sex” and the column labeled “Overall 1992 High School Graduates”

indicates that males were more likely than females to become an occupational concentrator, all other characteristics in the table held equal.

The presence of a “+” or “-” indicates that a relationship is statistically significant.
or ethnic groups are not more likely to participate in vocational education, once

adjustments have been made for other characteristics such as SES and prior academic achievement. In fact, Hispanic students are less likely to participate, holding

all else equal.

However, these results are based on data for 1992 seniors, the last time comprehensive

national data on high school students was collected. Whether these factors play the same

role in how current students become occupational concentrators (or investors or explorers)

is less clear. New programs and initiatives implemented during the last decade—many

intended to change the mix of high school students interested in career preparation—

could affect the stability of these findings. It is therefore important to examine whether

the characteristics of contemporary students are similar to those of graduates in 1992. 

For the most part, there has been little change in who participates in vocational education during the last decade.

The data suggest that vocational education serves a diverse group of students, with most

coming from the middle range of academic and income advantage. Some groups of students are more likely to participate substantially, although most characteristics of the

vocational student population were relatively stable throughout the 1990s (Table 3.8). 

❿ Vocational education continues to serve a somewhat disproportionate share of

students with disabilities. In 1998, students with disabilities represented 2.8 percent

of all high school graduates but 4.2 percent of all occupational concentrators. As in

previous years, these students were much more likely to become concentrators (37.5

percent) and earned substantially more credits in vocational education (5.9) than did

students without disabilities (24.6 percent and 3.9 credits). In fact, students with disabilities take a much higher share of their total credits in vocational education (23.5

percent) than do other students (15.7 percent). 

However, there is little recent support for a prediction of a report produced under the

previous NAVE (Boesel et al. 1994a)—that students with special needs are becoming

more concentrated in vocational education. Data between 1982 and 1990 show a modest trend in that direction, but it is not sustained during the 1990s. In addition, with

special needs students accounting for less than five percent of all concentrators

nationally, the notion of vocational education in general as a “dumping” ground for

these students is not warranted. On the other hand, students with disabilities are overrepresented in some of the more traditional vocational program areas—agriculture,

construction, mechanics and repair, and materials production.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

48 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 49

Table 3.8

Participation Measures, by Characteristics of the Students: 1990 and 1998

Average Number of Percent of Students Who Are

Vocational Credits Earned Occupational Concentrators

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change

All Students 4.2 4.0 -0.2 27.8 25.0 -2.8* 

Gender 

Male 4.3 4.3 +0.0 32.3 30.7 -1.6 

Female 4.1 3.8 -0.3* 23.6 19.9 -3.6* 

Race or Ethnicity 

Native or American Indian 4.6 4.0 -0.6* 38.0 25.5 -12.5* 

Asian or Pacific Islander 3.1 3.2 +0.1 16.6 16.8 +0.2 

African American, Black 4.4 4.3 -0.1 27.3 27.2 -0.1 

Hispanic 4.1 4.0 -0.1 27.9 22.9 -5.0 

White 4.2 4.0 -0.2 28.5 25.3 -3.2* 

Disability Status 

Has disability 6.0 5.9 +0.1 42.2 37.5 -4.7 

None indicated 4.1 3.9 +0.2 27.4 24.6 -2.8* 

English Proficiency 

Limited (LEP) 2.9 3.2 +0.3 12.4 8.7 -3.7 

Proficient 4.2 4.0 -0.2 27.8 25.1 -2.7* 

Grade 9 Mathematics 

Geometry or Higher 2.7 3.0 +0.3 12.0 17.5 +5.5* 

Pre-algebra or Algebra 1 3.9 4.1 +0.2 25.3 26.2 +0.9 

No or low math 5.3 4.8 -0.5** 39.3 29.6 -9.7** 

School Locale1

Urban 3.7 3.6 -0.1 21.4 23.1 -1.7 

Suburban 3.6 3.6 0.0 21.9 21.5 -0.4 

Rural 4.8 4.8 0.0 31.3 31.0 -0.3 

School Income Level 

Low n/a 4.7 n/a n/a 29.2 n/a 

Medium n/a 4.1 n/a n/a 26.8 n/a 

High n/a 3.2 n/a n/a 15.7 n/a 

SOURCE: Levesque 2001. Analysis of National High School Transcripts.

1A comparable school locale variable was not available in 1990, so 1992 data were used instead.

n/a = not available *Significant at the 1.96 critical level for comparison between 1990 and 1998

LEP = Limited English proficient
❿ Participation in vocational education is highest in low-income schools. Despite

reform efforts during the 1990s that targeted low-income schools for academic

improvement, students in these schools were taking more vocational education than

were students in the most advantaged schools. In 1998, students in schools with

more than 50.0 percent of students eligible for the federal free- or reduced-price

lunch program earned 4.7 vocational credits, while students in schools with 5.0 percent or less eligible for the federal lunch program earned only 3.2 credits. Students in

“moderate income” schools earned 4.1 vocational credits, an amount that is statistically similar to those in the lowest-income schools. The proportion of students who

concentrate in an occupational program also follows this pattern based on school

poverty levels. Changes between 1994 and 1998—the only years for which comparable data on school poverty are available—are not statistically significant.

Importantly, while students in low-income schools are involved in vocational education at high rates, their participation does not appear to be concentrated in the traditional, blue-collar vocational program areas or in those that prepare students for

generally low-wage jobs. That is, economically disadvantaged students are no more

likely than more advantaged students to concentrate in construction, materials, production, mechanics and repair, personal services, or food and hospitality. Moreover,

disadvantaged students are as likely, if not slightly more likely, to concentrate in the

growing fields of health care and computer technology.

❿ Some progress has been made, although substantial disparities remain, in participation by gender. On average, high school preparation for occupations and

careers has become neither more nor less gender balanced, despite the goals of

Perkins gender equity provisions. Females still dominate enrollments in programs

that prepare students for occupations such as health care, child care and education,

and personal services (e.g., cosmetology). Males continue to dominate participation

in agriculture and the traditional trade and industry programs (e.g., construction,

mechanics and repair, print and materials production), fields that generally command higher wages than those for which female high school students are preparing.

However, there are two notable program areas in which participation rates for males

and females have moved closer together.

• Computer Technology: The gender difference in credits earned in computer

technology has grown smaller. By 1998 girls earned .30 credits while boys

earned .32 credits, a statistically insignificant gap of 6.7 percent, down from

17.9 percent in 1990. This narrowing of the gap was accomplished largely by an

increase in girls’ participation in this vocational field while boys’ participation

remained relatively steady. 

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

50 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
• Business Services: The reverse trend has occurred in business services; girls

have been increasingly less likely, while boys are now more likely, to concentrate in this program field. One hypothesis is that interest in secretarial

training has declined at the same time that computer-related business courses (e.g., spreadsheets, business data processing), which might have more

appeal to boys, have become increasingly available. 

Overall girls’ vocational course taking has declined since 1990, at the same time

that their academic course taking has risen substantially. In 1998 girls earned a

lower share of their total credits in vocational education (14.9 percent) than did

boys (17.1 percent).

❿ Students in rural schools are more likely to be involved in vocational education than are students in other locales. As historically has been the case, much

of vocational education happens in small, generally rural communities.

Although nationally, rural schools serve 32.3 percent of all public high school

graduates, these same schools serve about 40.1 percent of all occupational concentrators. Urban and suburban schools account for 26.2 and 33.8 percent of

concentrators (compared to 28.4 percent and 39.3 percent of all graduates).

Although there have been modest declines in participation across all types of

locales, students in rural schools earn more vocational credits (4.8 in 1998) than

do students in urban and suburban schools (both groups earned 3.6 credits on

average in 1998).

❿ African American students participate in vocational education somewhat

more, and Asian students somewhat less, than students in other racial or ethnic groups. There is little evidence of any statistically significant change in vocational education participation by race or ethnicity during the last decade.

However, African American students do earn more credits in vocational education (4.3) and Asian students earn fewer credits (3.2) than do other racial/ethnic

groups (4.0 for Hispanic, white, and Native American students). Among all students in 1998, African Americans earned a higher share of their total credits in

vocational education (17.4 percent) than did Asians (12.6 percent), and Asian

students earned a lower share than did students from all other groups. 

❿ Students with limited English proficiency (LEP) are much less likely to participate in an occupational program. The participation of LEP students in vocational education has fluctuated since 1990 (when data on this group first

became available), perhaps because of the small sample of these students who

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 51
can be identified in the data. However, LEP students earn significantly fewer

credits in vocational education (3.2 in 1998) and are much less likely to be occupational concentrators (8.7 percent) than are students who are English-language

proficient (4.0 credits and 25.1 percent concentrators).

Whether these participation patterns are viewed as reassuring or with concern

depends on whether vocational education improves student outcomes in general and

specifically for those who participate at high rates. Analysis of the effects of vocational education on subgroups of students is under way and will be discussed in the

final NAVE report.

Vocational education may be attracting somewhat more academically talented students.

During the past two decades, students overall have entered high school more prepared to take higher level math. In large part, this trend is due to the higher proportion of students now taking algebra in middle school—one consequence of many

states’ efforts to raise academic standards. 

Students who become occupational concentrators are no exception to this trend. For

example, more occupational concentrators entered high school taking high-level

mathematics (geometry or higher) in grade 9 in 1998 than in 1990, an increase similar to that of non-concentrators (Table 3.8). Perhaps more importantly, the increase in

middle-level 9th-grade math course taking (pre-algebra and algebra 1) was greater for

occupational concentrators than for other students. Conversely, the proportion of

occupational concentrators taking low-level mathematics in ninth grade declined more

between 1990 and 1998 than did the proportion of other students taking low-level

math. This suggests that, over time, vocational education may be serving relatively

more academically advantaged students. Certainly, recent data from a NAVE collaboration with Texas and Florida suggests that the eighth-grade test scores of 1998 concentrators were relatively evenly distributed across quartiles of achievement—indicating

that vocational education in those two states is drawing an academically diverse group

of students (Hoachlander et al. forthcoming). These patterns are consistent with efforts

during the 1990s to broaden the appeal of vocational education, as described in

Chapter 2.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

52 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
Implications

Vocational education remains an integral part of the high school experience. Nearly all

students participate to some degree, and more than 40 percent do so substantially. While

a comprehensive assessment of vocational education requires additional types of analyses (forthcoming in the final report), some implications can be drawn from the participation data. These data may help to address three policy concerns.

Is secondary vocational participation likely to decline as school reforms

progress?

Vocational participation must be viewed against the backdrop of academic reform and

changing school priorities. During the last decade of school improvement efforts, students have faced pressures to increase their academic course taking but have maintained

their vocational participation largely by increasing the total number of credits they earn

(e.g., eliminating study hall periods). If academic graduation requirements were to rise

further, a reduction in vocational education course taking seems likely. These new

requirements are most likely to affect students with disabilities and those in low-income

schools, groups that take particularly high numbers of vocational courses relative to academic courses.

Far more important for vocational education is what will happen once state academic

assessment programs are fully in place.11 While vocational education may be attracting more academically able students, the overall population of students who pursue a

vocational program of study come to high school with lower levels of academic

achievement. These same students are likely to face the stiffest challenges in passing

rigorous state exams. Some schools, like Patterson High School in Baltimore, will

choose to double up on math and language arts courses in ninth grade to help students

achieve necessary proficiency levels (McPartland and Jordan 2001). Other schools will

require extra academic course work and remediation for those who fail the initial

round of testing. In either case, participation in vocational education and other electives may decline as students concentrate their efforts and course taking on passing the

exams.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 53

11 Although many states are now implementing high-stakes testing, most are still gradually phasing in the

penalties for students who are unable to pass. For example, the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment

System (MCAS) has been in place since 1998, but students who were 10th-graders in fall 2001 were the first for

whom the testing could have serious consequences. 
There is an alternative possibility. Several high school strategies that have gained popularity in recent years may generate more vocational course taking, particularly among students who might not be as challenged by state assessments. New programs such as career

academies have proliferated since the mid-1990s and are increasingly available and targeted to high academic achievers. High Schools That Work, another reform effort, promotes the notion that all high school students should major in some field, pursuing

some subject in depth whether it is academic or vocational. As large high schools seek to

implement smaller learning communities, the use of careers as an organizing theme for

course planning has expanded and may draw in some students who might not ordinarily have taken vocational courses. Block scheduling is allowing more students to earn

more credits, providing room for students to expand vocational participation or maintain current levels even in the face of increased academic course taking. Additional NAVE

studies will bring more information to bear on the relationship between high school

reform and vocational education.

Is there evidence that the academic performance of vocational students has

been—or can be—improved? 

The answer to this question is almost certainly yes. During the last two decades of school

improvement efforts, students who become occupational concentrators, investors, and

explorers have taken increasingly more and more rigorous academic courses, although a

gap remains between them and other students who take few vocational courses. These

trends demonstrate that it is indeed possible to impose higher academic course requirements on this group of students. Whether academic achievement has improved over time

as a result of the more advanced course taking cannot yet be measured, but trends in

NAEP 12th-grade test scores will be analyzed for the NAVE final report. 

The larger issue is whether further advances in academic performance have to come at

the expense of vocational course taking. Based on current data, some tools for improvement—academic standards and assessments—appear likely to have an adverse effect on

vocational participation although, in the end, the students who do participate are more

likely to be academically prepared for both college and employment. Given the poor performance of American high school students on international tests of math and science,

and the fact that students earn more credits in vocational education than they do in

either of those subjects, some educators would argue that a trade-off in courses might be

beneficial to student outcomes. Such an analysis is being conducted for NAVE and will

be discussed in the later report.

Other strategies, such as emphasizing academic skills in vocational course work, have

been promoted in both Perkins II and Perkins III, although with some ambiguity. The leg-

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

54 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
islative call for “integration of academic and vocational education” does not explicitly

place responsibility on vocational educators for academic content. And so far, there is little evidence of its prevalence or effectiveness. Additional information on how states and

local communities are working to improve the academic performance of vocational students also will be presented in the final report.

What do vocational course taking patterns indicate about the purpose and

objectives of vocational education and of federal policy?

Some trends suggest that vocational education in high schools is on a trajectory away

from its traditional objective of providing well-trained technical workers. First, students

are less likely to concentrate their occupational course taking. This pattern may indicate

that students’ participation is less about preparation for entry-level jobs, whether sought

immediately after high school or after some postsecondary education. Some might argue

that the less vocational education represents a defined program of related and advanced

courses, the more similar it is to other electives—designed for personal exploration and

enrichment rather than for society’s economic benefit. On the other hand, many educators view less “concentrated” vocational course taking as consistent with labor market

trends, which increasingly emphasize the need for workers to have broad-based skills and

adaptability across jobs.

Second, the more vocational education attracts academically talented students, the less

relevant are some aspects of federal policy. In particular, Perkins III and its precursors

have emphasized preparation for occupations requiring less than a sub-baccalaureate

degree. This stipulation largely runs contrary to recent state and local efforts to broaden

career education and make it appealing to a wider set of students. This provision also

does not take into account the reality of students’ education aspirations, which increasingly emphasize baccalaureate degrees. Although students may not ultimately achieve

that goal, in high school they believe it is possible.

| 3. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n S e c o n d a r y Vo c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 55
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 57

Participation in 

Postsecondary 

Vocational 

Education

Vocational education is both a postsecondary and high school program, but the

fundamental policy concerns for each are quite different. At the postsecondary

level, few doubt the value or benefit of supporting vocational education. Rather, the

issues are, first, whether postsecondary activities supported by the Carl D. Perkins

Vocational and Technical Education Act (Perkins III) can or should be better integrated with those conducted under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA). The second is whether or not legislative language reflects federal priorities and is aligned

with current postsecondary vocational education activity. Postsecondary vocational programs can help students to obtain a postsecondary degree or certificate, provide entry level skill training, skill upgrading, or retraining so that individuals can

find jobs or get better jobs, and build capacity in particular strategic industries or

occupations. Although not mutually exclusive, each of these objectives has different implications for the ways in which funds are used, key educational strategies

are pursued by institutions, and criteria by which performance is best judged.

This chapter examines three questions about participation in postsecondary vocational education that can help address these policy concerns: 

1. What is the extent and nature of postsecondary vocational education?

2. Who participates?

3. What are the goals of participants and to what extent are their patterns

of participation consistent with their objectives?

4.

key findings ❿
58 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

❿ Key Findings ➛

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

❿ Participants in vocational programs are a significant proportion of all undergraduates. 

One third of all students taking courses leading to a postsecondary credential—

baccalaureate or sub-baccalaureate—are considered “vocational students.” Postsecondary vocational students are defined as those who choose a vocational

major and either attend a sub-baccalaureate institution or pursue an educational goal that does not include a baccalaureate degree or higher.

❿ Postsecondary vocational students, like the sub-baccalaureate population

more generally, are often academically challenged and economically disadvantaged. 

As is true for sub-baccalaureate students majoring in academic fields, a significant

share of vocational students are from households with annual earnings of no more

than $25,000 (about 30 percent of students still living with their parents and 57

percent of independent students). Among those who enter a sub-baccalaureate

program soon after high school, a majority of vocational students (67 percent)

score in the lowest two quartiles on a 12th-grade standardized academic test compared to 56 percent of those in academic programs. 

❿ Students participate in postsecondary vocational education for different reasons,

which only partially explains why many do not complete the course work needed to obtain a degree or certificate. 

The majority of postsecondary vocational students completes eight months or less

of postsecondary course work within a five-year time period. This amount of

course taking may be consistent with acquiring job skills—the primary stated goal

of just over 40 percent of sub-baccalaureate vocational students. However, it falls

well short of attaining a less-than-baccalaureate’s degree or the ability to transfer—

the primary reason for course taking given by 46 percent of students majoring in

vocational programs. 
Background

The nature of postsecondary vocational education has evolved in the past 30 years.

Education is no longer, if it ever was, a one-time event preceding employment. Rather,

lifelong learning and training are both increasingly important to the success of the modern labor force. The new model more likely involves a cycle of education and labor market experiences. In response, the nature of postsecondary offerings has significantly

expanded and changed form, with students able to choose from a multitude of

providers—including business, industry associations, and unions—for their education

and training. Increasingly students also can decide whether they want their instruction

in conventional classroom settings or online. This evolving environment, though, presents new challenges for federal policy. 

Enrollment patterns tell only one part of the story about postsecondary vocational education, which receives about 40 percent of Perkins funds (Boesel et al. 1994b).

Subsequent NAVE reports will examine how participating students benefit from their

education. The combination of participation in, and the impacts of, postsecondary vocational education are intended to provide policymakers with a complete picture of postsecondary vocational education if, and whether, federal objectives in supporting vocational education are to be further specified at the postsecondary level. 

Key Definitions and Participation Measures

The Perkins Act defines vocational education as a sequence of courses that provide academic and technical skills needed for careers requiring less than a baccalaureate degree (P.L.

105-332, Section 3(29)). Many types of institutions are eligible to receive Perkins grants,

with community and technical colleges the most common postsecondary recipients.1

Institutions that receive Perkins funding typically offer a range of vocational education and

training activities—degree and certificate programs as well as job-related, noncredit

courses and customized contract training.2

❿ Sub-baccalaureate: Refers to programs offered in less-than-four-year institutions or

those that lead to less than a bachelor’s degree (including no degree) at a four-year

institution. Sub-baccalaureate students are those who participate in these programs

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 59

1The legislative definition of eligible postsecondary institutions can be found in P.L. 105-332, Section 3(10).

Less common, although eligible, institutions include: four-year institutions that offer sub-baccalaureate vocational programs, adult centers, secondary districts and area vocational schools serving postsecondary students,

education service agencies, and tribally or Bureau of Indian Affairs-controlled colleges.

2Customized contract training consists of courses and programs provided by a postsecondary institution to

meet the specific training needs of an employer and its employees.
or indicate no degree goal or the goal of attaining less than a baccalaureate degree.

Because of the stipulation in Perkins policy, this level of activity is the main focus of

NAVE analysis.

❿ Vocational students: According to NCES classifications, postsecondary vocational

students are defined as sub-baccalaureate students who major in the following areas:

agricultural business and production, agricultural sciences, business, computer and

information science, engineering, health professions, health-related professions,

business management, communication technologies, personal services, engineering

technologies, home economics, vocational home economics, science technologies,

protective services, construction, automotive technology, precision production, and

transportation (Choy and Horn 1992).

❿ Vocational associate degree programs: Generally comprised of both academic and

vocational for-credit course work, totaling roughly 60 credits. Typically individual

institutions decide whether vocational associate programs culminate in an associate

of arts (AA), associate of science (AS) or associate of applied science (AAS) degree in

fields defined as vocational. As a group, these programs can take two or more years

to complete, depending on how many credits students earn each term. Despite the

open-enrollment policies of most public sub-baccalaureate institutions, students

still may need to apply and be accepted to a specific vocational program, particularly those in high demand (e.g., nursing). 

❿ Institutional certificate programs: Typically designed to upgrade job-related skills,

these programs require about one year’s worth of full-time instruction in for-credit

courses (24–30 credits) and, compared to associate degree programs, involve far less, if

any, academic courses. However, certificates can be of varied duration and can be

earned for quite diverse activities. Examples range from a floral arranging program

lasting only a few weeks to a two-year certificate program in airframe and power plant

mechanics (see Table 4.1 for additional examples). Like associate degree programs,

these certificates are awarded by institutions based on credits accumulated. They are

distinct from the increasingly popular industry skill certificates described below. 

❿ Industry skill certifications: These industry-developed and recognized certificates

designed to signal job skills are awarded to students based on their demonstrating

well-defined skills (often through a test). Preparation for these tests includes selfstudy and courses offered at postsecondary institutions and other training providers.

However, an industry association or employer group, not the training provider,

grants the certificates.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

60 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
❿ Noncredit course work: Intended mostly to accommodate those seeking specific

job-related skills, e.g., Introduction to Windows 98 (3 hrs), Introduction to Fiber

Optics (20 hrs), Catering and Food Preparation (96 hrs), and Real Estate License

Exam Preparation (20 hrs) or personal enrichment activities, e.g., ceramics or aerobics. Like courses within certificate programs, noncredit courses are diverse in their

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 61

Table 4.1

Illustrative Offerings of Vocational Associate and Certificate Programs, 

Florida Community Colleges: 1997–98

Associate in Science Vocational Certificate

Accounting Airframe and Power Mechanics

Architectural Design Auto Collision Repair

Automotive Service Management Automotive Machine Shop

Aviation Operations Automotive Service Technician

Building Construction Technology Barbering

Business Administration Brick Masonry

Business Marketing Management Carpentry

Civil Engineering Technology Child Care Center Operator

Computer Engineering Corrections Officer

Criminal Justice Technology Cosmetology

Culinary Management Credit Union Service Marketing

Dental Hygiene Dental Assisting

Drafting and Design Electricity

Early Childhood Management Facials Specialty

Electronics Technology Heating and Air Conditioning

Fire Science Technology Massage Therapy

Graphic Design Technology Medical Secretary

Interior Design Nails Specialty

Legal Assisting Network Support Services

Medical Laboratory Technician Office Systems Specialist

Nursing, Registered Nurse (RN) Paramedic

Radiography Plumbing

Respiratory Care Practical Nursing

Teller Training

Travel Agency Operations

Webmaster and Web Development 

SOURCE: Teitelbaum, Bradby, and Hoachlander forthcoming.
content and contact time. These can be stand-alone courses or sequenced courses in

a nondegree-granting program (sometimes similar or even indistinguishable from

for-credit courses offered in vocational degree or certificate programs).

Data Sources

This report draws on multiple, nationally representative surveys conducted by the

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): the National Postsecondary Student Aid

Study (NPSAS 1996), National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES 1995,

1999), High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study (HS&B 1992 follow-up), Beginning

Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (BPS 1994) and, to a limited extent, the

National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS 1994 follow-up).3 Although no single survey sufficiently covers the entirety of the diverse populations and the many providers, in

combination, the surveys offer a fairly comprehensive description of postsecondary vocational education. As is true with the secondary vocational education analysis, current

NCES postsecondary data are not able to capture changes in participation that might

result from Perkins III provisions specifically. If more current data become available, a

further assessment of postsecondary vocational participation will be included in the

NAVE final report.

Postsecondary Vocational Education and Training Institutions and

the Courses They Offer

Vocational education at the postsecondary level is a complex enterprise. There are many

types of providers, programs, and credentials as well as single, noncredit courses that do

not lead to degrees. Institutions eligible for Perkins grants often provide a full array of

these offerings and are free to determine which of the many choices to support with

Perkins funds. Whether all of these types of programs and courses are equally worthy of

federal investment is a potentially important issue for policymakers. Understanding the

full extent and nature of the different offerings therefore provides important context

(Table 4.2).

❿ Community colleges are the main provider of for-credit vocational courses. Based

on student counts in 1999, 40.4 percent of those participating in for-credit vocational courses—those that could lead to a postsecondary credential of some kind—

do so at a community college. Fewer participate in for-credit course work at proprietary institutions (22.6 percent), postsecondary technical schools (13.5 percent),

or at baccalaureate-granting institutions (5.2 percent). 

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

62 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

3For additional information about these surveys, see: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/. 
❿ Most noncredit courses are taken at institutions that are not eligible for Perkins

grants. By far, business and industry account for most of the noncredit, job-related

classes, seminars, and training programs offered nationally (36.7 percent of participants). Government agencies and professional associations or labor unions each serve

10.4 percent of noncredit vocational participants. In contrast, a small share of job-related noncredit participants report taking their courses at “formal” postsecondary education institutions, such as a four-year college or university (11.9 percent), a community

college (4.3 percent) or public two-year vocational or technical school (1.9 percent).

❿ Noncredit vocational course participation is substantial, but for-credit courses

still dominate in formal postsecondary institutions.4 Of those who pursue job-

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 63

Table 4.2

Percentage of Participants Taking For-credit and Noncredit, 

Job-Related Courses, by Provider

Provider Credit Noncredit

Area Vocational Centers 0.9 4.3 

Two-year Community College 40.4 4.3 

Public Two-year Vocational or Technical School 13.5 1.9 

Four-year College or University 5.2 11.9 

Proprietary School 22.6 9.1 

Adult Learning Center 2.2 1.3 

Business or Industry 5.2 36.7 

Professional Association or Labor Union 2.0 10.4 

Government Agency and Public Library 4.9 11.6 

Community, Religious, or Other Organization 3.1 8.6 

Total 100.0 100.0 

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Household Education Surveys Program 1999.

4State financing policies, which vary from state to state, may play a role in the extent of noncredit offerings at

public postsecondary institutions. For example, in Arizona the state does not pay individual institutions for

noncredit courses and, perhaps as a result, for-credit enrollments are proportionally higher than in other states.

In contrast, Texas reimburses its postsecondary institutions for enrollments in noncredit courses, and participation in these courses is relatively high. The prevalence of job-related noncredit courses varies widely from

institution to institution as well. In Florida “supplemental vocational courses”—noncredit courses for people

seeking to enhance their job skills—are about 25 percent of a given institution’s headcount. In contrast, a community college in Michigan reports that noncredit courses are less than 10 percent of their course offerings and

less than half of those are job-related.
related courses in and outside of the formal postsecondary education system over

the course of a year, most (81.7 percent) take noncredit courses exclusively. Only

13.7 percent are exclusively in for-credit courses, with another 4.6 percent participating in both credit and noncredit courses simultaneously. Even so, most

participants (64.1 percent) with a vocational emphasis at community colleges

enroll in for-credit courses. 

This distinction between credit and noncredit vocational participation is important to

Perkins policy for several reasons. First, Perkins has a long history of promoting equal

access to services by providing relatively more financial support to institutions serving

large numbers of economically disadvantaged students. This approach is executed at

the postsecondary level by requiring that, within states, Perkins grants are allocated to

postsecondary institutions based on a formula weighted toward the number of Pell

grant—federal financial aid—recipients the institutions serve.5

However, Pell grants are available only to income-eligible students who pursue for-credit

(degree-oriented) course work; federal policy supports noncredit education and training

through the Lifelong Learning Tax Credit and Individual Training Account vouchers

available under WIA. Still, community colleges serve a significant number of noncredit

vocational participants and some have questioned whether Perkins’ funding allocation

emphasis on for-credit course work is appropriate. In considering this question, policymakers may want to know whether participation in noncredit courses is consistent with

Perkins compensatory goals and other objectives.

The second related concern about credit versus noncredit course work regards accountability. New Perkins III accountability provisions include “completion of a postsecondary degree or credential” as a key measure of performance (P.L. 105-332, Section

113(b)). Perkins III contains no language that prevents institutions from spending

grant funds on shorter-term noncredit training but, if taken seriously, the accountability requirements provide further incentive to emphasize for-credit programs and credentials. This legislative signal may or may not be well aligned with current federal

policy priorities. These issues will be explored in this chapter, and in more detail in the

NAVE final report.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

64 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

5Under P.L. 105-332, Section 132(b), the law does permit the secretary to approve alternative formulas that

more effectively target funds to eligible institutions that have the highest numbers of economically disadvantaged individuals.
The Extent of Postsecondary Vocational Education 

Although a majority of high school students aspire to a bachelor’s degree (Sanderson et

al. 1996), by some key measures, most postsecondary students actually enroll in sub-baccalaureate programs, including vocational ones.6 The relative size of these groups is

important, given that transitions to and completion of a college degree remains a key

goal of federal education policy generally, particularly for disadvantaged students.

Participants in vocational programs are a significant share of all undergraduates.

In 1996, one-third of all for-credit postsecondary education students—nearly 5.5 million

youths and adults—were enrolled in sub-baccalaureate vocational courses and programs

(Figure 4.1). These vocational student enrollments (33.6 percent) nearly equal those in programs that lead to bachelor degrees (39.3 percent). 

❿ All sub-baccalaureate students

outnumber baccalaureate students. Among those pursuing

for-credit course work, a substantially higher proportion of students are sub-baccalaureate (60.7

percent)—vocational, academic,

and undeclared—than baccalaureate (39.3 percent). If noncredit

participants were included in

the sub-baccalaureate counts, of

course the share of all postsecondary students that are enrolled

in sub-baccalaureate education

would be even greater.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 65

Figure 4.1

Percentage of Students, by Degree Level

and Program Type

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study 1996.

Baccalaureate

program

Academic subbaccalaureate

program

Undeclared

sub-baccalaureate

Vocational

sub-baccalaureate

program

39.3

33.6

10.9

16.2

6National data on postsecondary enrollment are reported in different ways. Most commonly, the figures are based

on fall enrollments provided by individual institutions of higher education (e.g., to NCES through the Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)). However, limiting enrollment data to the fall greatly reduces the

number of reported participants at the sub-baccalaureate level because many of these students enroll throughout

the year. In addition, enrollment data in IPEDS are reported separately by institution type (four-year and twoyear). Since 12.5 percent of sub-baccalaureate programs are offered at four-year institutions, aggregate IPEDS

enrollment figures for just two-year institutions further underreport sub-baccalaureate program participation.
❿ At the sub-baccalaureate level, more students choose a vocational than an academic major. Among sub-baccalaureate students, twice as many (55.3 percent)

choose a vocational major as an academic major (26.7 percent). The remaining students are “undeclared” (18.0 percent).7 There is some evidence of a shift during the

1990s from vocational majors to “undeclared,” but whether this signals a real

decline in interest in sub-baccalaureate vocational programs is unclear (Levesque et

al. 2000, p. 161).

Both institutional certificates and industry-developed skill certifications are

not as popular as associate degrees, but the industry credentials appear to

be growing in popularity.

Postsecondary institutions supported by Perkins grants traditionally have offered both

associate degree and institutional certificate programs, each resulting in a different credential based on institutional and, in some cases, state requirements. Both are credentials

conferred by higher education institutions and are included in the data collection efforts

of NCES. 

Institutional certificates are distinct from skill certificates conferred by industry, trade,

and professional associations (e.g., information technology (IT) certifications offered by

Novell, Cisco, and Microsoft; Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) certifications offered

by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence). Although formal postsecondary institutions may be increasingly offering courses to support these emerging

industry-developed skill certificates, the institutions do not grant the certificates and

therefore are not a systematic source of information on certification attainment. As a

result, there are no national statistics that measure the number of industry certificates

awarded. Still, available data from industry and associations do suggest some trends.

❿ Enrollment in vocational associate degree programs far exceeds that in institutional certificate programs. Among students declaring a vocational major, twothirds aim to obtain associate degrees while only one-third pursues institutional

certificates. In addition, there is some indication that the number and proportion

of certificates conferred by Perkins-eligible postsecondary institutions may have

declined slightly in recent years.8

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

66 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

7The percentage of students by major—vocational, academic, or undeclared—reported here differ from those

reported in Levesque et al. 2000 primarily due to sample differences. The calculations for this report exclude

students who did not answer the NPSAS question about their major (i.e., missing values for this question). In

contrast, the Levesque et al. 2000 report included these students as undeclared majors. 

8Although NCES data indicate a small decline in institutional certificates earned, changes in data collection

and reporting definitions over time make the accuracy of comparisons across years somewhat uncertain

(Snyder et al. 1992–99).
❿ The number of industry-developed certifications is growing, but the role of Perkins

institutions in this growth is still unclear. Although NCES data do not provide

information on certificates conferred by employers or by national industry, trade,

and professional associations, the groups themselves report that the number of certifications both offered and granted is increasing. For example, there was nearly a tenfold increase in Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer (MCSE) certificates awarded

between the years 1997 and 2000—from about 35,000 to more than 280,000. Much

of this growth, however, may have no bearing on Perkins-eligible postsecondary

institutions; at least in the prominent area of IT, courses supporting this growth are

predominantly taken outside the formal postsecondary education system, offered

instead by commercial training providers (Adelman 2000). 

Enrollments in vocational associate degree programs appear responsive to

labor market trends.

The primary purpose of postsecondary vocational education is to prepare individuals

to enter and succeed in specific occupations in the labor market. The ability of postsecondary institutions to offer up-to-date programs that are responsive to fluctuations

in employment supply and demand is crucial to maintaining program quality and

enrollments. At the postsecondary level, it is often argued that these market forces

should encourage participation in those programs that increase wages and employment the most. This outcome, however, presumes that consumers are sufficiently

informed about job opportunities to make enrollment decisions based on them.

Examining the relationship between national labor market trends and postsecondary

occupational education patterns partially tests these assumptions and has implications

for federal policy.

The data indicate that, between 1990 and 1996, enrollments in vocational associate

degree programs grew substantially (27.0 percent), perhaps in response to strong

employment growth during a comparable period in fields that require such training.

Both health- and computer-related fields have experienced and are expected to continue to have substantial job growth. Possibly in anticipation of good employment

opportunities, the proportion of sub-baccalaureate vocational students enrolled in

health programs has increased. The share of students enrolled in computer associate

degree programs has also increased, although by a small amount. Similarly, those fields

that have experienced relatively slow or even declining job growth are also the fields

in which the proportion of postsecondary vocational enrollments has fallen. For example, relative enrollments in the business field declined at the associate degree level

(Figures 4.2a and 4.2b).

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 67
Some evidence suggests that the relationship between certificate program participation

and job growth may be more mixed. Unfortunately, the categories used to classify major

fields of study for the certificate program enrollment data are not sufficiently comparable between 1990 and 1996 to allow an analysis of certificate program enrollment and

employment trends by field. However, certificate completion data have been consistent

for this time period.9 These data indicate that, among the occupations with the highest

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

68 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 4.2a

Percentage of Students Enrolled in Vocational Associate Degree Programs,

by Field of Study: 1990 and 1996

SOURCE: Erard forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1990 and 1996.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

6.7

11.4

10.3

6.7

3.5

29.1

0.8

29.9

1.7

6.4

6.6

11.6

6.3

4.5

22.3

1.9

35.1

0.8 Agriculture

Business and office

Marketing/distribution

Health

Home economics

Computers/data

processing

Engineering/science

technology

Other professional/

technical

Trade and industry

1990

1996

9Unlike in associate degree programs, a majority of participants in certificate programs complete the program

requirements and earn the credential. Thus, completion is a reasonably accurate proxy for enrollment. 
historical and projected rates of employment growth (emergency medical technician,

medical assistant, library technician, surgical technologists and technicians, and dental

assistants), the proportion of students completing related certificate programs significantly increased between 1992 and 1997. However, there are several occupations (e.g.,

hairdressers, automotive body repair and other related occupations, automotive mechanics, bus and truck mechanics) in which actual and projected employment growth is

below average, and yet certificate completion in these fields has increased (Table 4.3).

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 69

Figure 4.2b

Percentage Change in Number of Jobs, by Selected Occupational Fields Requiring

a Vocational Associate Degree: 1986–1996

SOURCE: Erard forthcoming. Analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment data.

-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 140% 100% 120%

All associate degree occupations

Science and mathematics technicians

Engineering technicians

Funeral directors and morticians

Computer programmers and aides

Food service and lodging managers

Teacher aides and paraprofessionals

Paralegal personnel

Other health occupations

Dental hygienists

Nuclear medicine technologists

Registered nurses

Respiratory therapists

Radiologic technologists and technicians

Occupational therapy assistants and aides

Medical records technicians

Physical and corrective therapy assistants and aides

-2.5

0.7

20.6

21.6

40.9

45.5

119.7

138.0

54.9

96.5

96.7

33.3

75.6

37.4

12.7

51.2

54.2
| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

70 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 4.3

Percentage of Students Completing Vocational Certificate Programs, 

by Field of Study: 1991–92 and 1996–97

Percent

Detailed Field of Study 1991–92 1996–97

Fields with an increasing proportion of students completing:

Dental Assistant 1.40 3.63 

Emergency Medical Technician 1.98 5.04 

Surgical Technician and Technologist 0.51 1.21 

Medical Assistant 8.25 16.02 

Practical Nurse 7.03 13.25 

Medical Secretary 1.98 3.55 

Electroneurodiagnostic Technician 0.01 0.03 

Technical Assistant, Library 0.03 0.06 

Human Service Worker, including Resid. County Welfare Interviewers 0.03 0.05 

Tool and Die Maker 0.12 0.19 

Welder and Cutter 2.23 3.11 

Motorcycle Repairer 0.14 0.46 

Automotive Mechanic 4.07 5.49 

Automotive Body Repair and Other Related Occupations 1.08 1.32 

Bus and Truck Mechanics and Diesel Engine 1.11 1.24 

Drafter 2.41 2.88 

Broadcast Technician 0.74 0.75 

Other Telecommunications Mechanics, Installers, or Repairers 0.18 0.18

Hairdressers, Hairstylists, and Cosmetologists 18.77 19.26 

Fields with a decreasing proportion of students completing: 

Survey and Mapping Technicians and Scientists 0.11 0.09 

Mobile Heavy Equipment Mechanic 1.12 0.88 

Secretary, except Legal and Medical 17.59 14.67 

Legal Secretary 1.48 1.11 

Stenographer and Court Reporter 0.55 0.31 

Interior Designer 0.40 0.16 

Aircraft Mechanic 1.63 1.07 

Small Engine Specialist 0.77 0.30 

Travel Agent 8.14 2.77 

Photographer and Camera Operator 1.93 0.35 

Dancer and Choreographer 0.08 0.01 

Sales Agent, Real Estate 14.18 0.56 

All Listed Fields 100.00 100.00 

SOURCE: Erard forthcoming. Analysis of the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 1991, 1996.
The Characteristics of Postsecondary Vocational

Participants

If policymakers choose to reexamine the role of Perkins at the postsecondary level, it will

be important to have an accurate picture of whom vocational programs serve. Sub-baccalaureate students are quite distinct from their peers in bachelor degree programs. They

are far more disadvantaged, both academically and economically, and are more likely to

pursue their postsecondary education at any time (not just immediately following high

school), with less intensity and continuity. In contrast, there are fewer differences between

sub-baccalaureate students who choose vocational rather than academic programs. 

Students in postsecondary vocational education tend to be academically challenged. 

Sub-baccalaureate students, overall, often enter college lacking the necessary academic

skills to succeed (Coley 2000). As noted in Chapter 2, nearly two-thirds of students

enrolled in community colleges take some remedial courses. The educational needs signaled by these statistics are particularly important for federal policy, because academic

ability and prior academic preparation are among the strongest predictors of postsecondary persistence and completion (Horn and Kojaku 2001). Vocational students, at least

those in for-credit courses and programs, may face some particular challenges.

❿ Postsecondary vocational students tend to enter with low levels of academic

achievement.10 Examination of 12th-grade achievement test scores for younger subbaccalaureate students indicates that a higher proportion of vocational than academic students (66.5 percent compared to 56.2 percent) are in the lowest two test

quartiles (Table 4.4). 

❿ Postsecondary vocational students are somewhat less likely to have pursued a

rigorous high school program. Like their academic peers, vocational students in

sub-baccalaureate programs are typically not as well prepared for college as are those

who pursue baccalaureate programs. Although substantial proportions of younger

sub-baccalaureate academic (84.7 percent) and vocational (79.0 percent) majors met

the “New Basics”11 standard for high school course taking, both are less than the

percentage of younger baccalaureate students (94.5 percent) who met those same

requirements. Postsecondary vocational students are also more likely than their academic peers to have pursued a vocational program in high school (Table 4.4).

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 71

10Detailed high school preparation and academic test scores are available only for younger students who

transitioned right after high school and therefore do not represent the full population of postsecondary vocational students.

11The New Basics is defined as a high school program of study that includes math, English, science, and

social studies courses totaling at least 12 high school credits.
❿ Postsecondary vocational students report less remedial course taking than do academic students, probably because vocational programs have fewer academic

requirements. Among all students beginning postsecondary study (younger and older)

vocational students are less likely than academic students to take remedial courses,

particularly in math (Table 4.5).12 However, this measure does not necessarily reflect

a difference in the need for improvement in basic skills. Rather, a significant proportion of sub-baccalaureate students who choose vocational majors pursue programs

that have few academic requirements (e.g., certificate programs), and therefore the

students are less likely to be required to take any remedial courses.

❿ Few students who pursue a sub-baccalaureate vocational major already have a

postsecondary credential. Although some measures suggest that vocational students

are less academically prepared than those in academic majors, there seems to be little

difference in terms of the credentials they bring to their sub-baccalaureate education. There is no evidence for either group that large numbers of students with prior

postsecondary degrees are returning for additional education in the degreed pro-

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

72 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 4.4

Percentage Distribution of Baccalaureate and Sub-baccalaureate Students, 

by High School Test Scores and High School Program

Standardized Reading

and Math Test Quartiles High School Program1

Lowest Highest At Least Both

Two Two New Vocational/

Program Quartiles Quartiles Basics2 New Basics Vocational General

Baccalaureate 22.4 77.6 90.8 3.7 0.7 4.8

Sub-baccalaureate 61.2 38.9 71.1 10.0 5.1 13.9

Vocational 66.5 33.5 67.5 11.5 7.0 14.1

Academic 56.2 43.8 76.1 8.6 2.7 12.6

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Education Longitudinal Study 1992.

1Based on high school transcripts

2New Basics=Math, English, Science, Social Studies totaling at least 12 high school credits

12Because recent national surveys do not contain postsecondary transcript information, these are self-reports

of remedial course taking and are likely to be underreported. However, the bias is likely to be similar for both

academic and vocational students; hence the difference by major is still informative. Additionally, information

from Florida community college participants based on institutional student records demonstrates the same

finding that students in vocational programs are less likely to take a remedial course than their academic peers.

Students who are enrolled in certificate programs are the least likely to take a remedial course.
grams, as some have suggested. In fact, the vast majority of students in for-credit subbaccalaureate programs (80.5 percent) have no prior postsecondary degree. And

among those who do have a postsecondary credential, most have attained only an

institutional certificate. In contrast, recent analyses conducted by the American

Association of Community Colleges (AACC) and ACT, Inc. suggest that over a quarter of noncredit enrollees at community colleges had already attained a bachelor’s

degree or higher (Phillippe and Valiga 2000).

Vocational education serves somewhat more disadvantaged students.

For nearly four decades, federal vocational policy has encouraged the participation of students from specific groups that Congress believed to be underserved or facing particular

barriers to involvement in postsecondary education and ultimately in the labor market.

Whether due to these legislative provisions or simply individuals’ personal preferences and

circumstances, it is certainly the case that in the 1990s many of the “special populations”

were well represented in sub-baccalaureate vocational as well as academic programs.

As described in Chapter 3, these designated “special populations” include individuals with

disabilities, individuals from economically disadvantaged families, individuals preparing

for nontraditional training and employment, single parents, displaced homemakers, and

individuals with other barriers to education achievement, including limited-English proficiency. Nationally representative data on the postsecondary participation of each of these

groups are limited and available only for those students taking for-credit courses. 

❿ Students with disabilities are about equally likely to be enrolled in a vocational

or an academic major. Students with disabilities make up a small share of either

baccalaureate or sub-baccalaureate students—both are less than two percent. These

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 73

Table 4.5

Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students Who Report Taking1

Remedial Courses, by Major

Some Specific Remediation

Remediation Math Writing Basic Skills

Vocational 11.1 8.0 4.9 2.8

Academic 15.4 11.2 5.3 3.1

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1996. 

1Self-reports of course taking
students participate in vocational education and in academic sub-baccalaureate

programs at similar rates. 

❿ In terms of economic disadvantage, vocational students may face greater challenges. Sub-baccalaureate students in households earning less than or equal to

$25,000 a year are about

equally likely to select a vocational as compared to an academic major.13 However, a

significantly higher share of

vocational students (55.9 percent) than academic students

(47.4 percent) are the first in

their families to attend college, an indicator highly associated with limited economic

resources and significant barriers to postsecondary enrollment and success (Warburton,

Bugarin, and Nuñez 2001;

Figure 4.3).

❿ Single parents are more likely to pursue vocational than academic programs. A

higher share of sub-baccalaureate vocational students (16.1 percent) than academic students (11.4 percent) are single parents, a group that, until Perkins III in

1998, were the focus of targeted programs with set-aside funding.

❿ Enrollments in vocational programs preparing students for high-wage occupations

follow gender-traditional patterns, but neither males nor females are clearly

advantaged.14 Female enrollment dominates in fields such as nursing and social

work. Male enrollment dominates in engineering, mechanics, and electronics.

However, among other majors that prepare students for high-wage occupations (such

as finance, mortuary science, and design), enrollment is fairly balanced by gender.

Computer programming and computer and information sciences also have balanced

male-female enrollments (Table 4.6).

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

74 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 4.3

Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students,

by Major and Parents’ Highest Education Level

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid

Study 1996.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

High school

or less

Some

college

AA or

higher

55.9

47.4

8.9 11.0

35.2

41.6

Vocational Academic

13Among students in these low-income households, similar proportions of those living with their parents pursue vocational (29.5 percent) and academic (28.9 percent) programs, and similar proportions of independent

students choose vocational (56.7 percent) and academic (54.1 percent) majors. 

14In 1998, the mean annual wage among sub-baccalaureate occupations was $30,775. Promoting gender equity in vocational education is of greatest interest in the high-wage occupations; therefore the high-wage occupations are defined as those with a mean annual wage greater than $35,000.
❿ Vocational students, like all sub-baccalaureate students, are racially and ethnically diverse. A higher proportion of African Americans choose to enroll in subbaccalaureate vocational programs (16.1 percent) compared to academic programs

(10.7 percent). Hispanic students, however, are more likely to pursue academic

(16.8 percent) than vocational programs (11.1 percent). Asian Americans and

Native Americans are just as likely to enroll in an academic as in a vocational subbaccalaureate program (Figure 4.4).

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 75

Table 4.6

Percentage of Male and Female Students Enrolled in Fields Preparing Them

for High-Wage1 Occupations: 1996

Gender

Major Field of Study Male Female

Precision Production (e.g., lithography, upholstery, metal work, 

drafting, welding) 96.3 3.7

Mechanics: Transportation 96.1 3.8

Electronics 93.1 6.9

Engineering Technology 83.8 16.2

Communications Technology 81.6 18.4

Computer and Information Sciences (hardware and software other 

than programming) 51.7 48.4

Computer Programming 51.4 48.6

Allied Health: General and Other 50.1 49.9

Business: Finance 49.2 50.9

Design (e.g., graphic, illustration, industrial, interior, product design) 47.3 52.7

Mortuary Science 41.2 58.8

Data Processing Technology 30.4 69.6

Social Work 28.0 72.0

Allied Health: Therapy and Mental Health 27.9 72.1

Allied Health: Dental and Medical Technician 19.6 80.4

Nursing: Registered Nurse 9.7 90.3

Nursing: Nurse Assisting 4.3 96.7

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1996; Erard forthcoming.

Analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment data.

1High-wage occupations are defined as those with average annual wages in 1998 that were greater than $35,000.
Credit and noncredit courses at postsecondary institutions serve different

populations.

Students who participate in sub-baccalaureate vocational education are a diverse group,

with many facing economic and educational challenges. Within the group, however,

there are some differences in characteristics by the types of courses students take—forcredit versus noncredit. In general, job-related noncredit courses serve more advantaged

populations. 

❿ Participants in noncredit vocational courses have higher incomes. The vast majority of noncredit participants in job-related courses (82.0 percent) have a household

income greater than $25,000. In comparison, only 54.7 percent of students

enrolled in for-credit vocational courses have household incomes greater than

$25,000 (Figure 4.4).

❿ Noncredit courses are primarily taken by those already employed. Perhaps helping

to account for the income differences, virtually all participants in noncredit courses

(90.1 percent) work while they are enrolled in job-related noncredit courses.15 Most

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

76 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 4.4

Characteristics of Sub-baccalaureate Students in Credit and Noncredit Courses

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analyses of National Household Education Surveys Program 1995; National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1996.

1The data source for noncredit students, NHES, does not allow separate reporting of Native Americans.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

White Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific

Islander

Native American1 Household

income

greater than

$25,000

82.0

64.2

1.2 1.0 3.8 2.8 4.8 4.8

16.1 16.8

9.8

67.2

80.7

66.4

Vocational credit Vocational noncredit Academic

11.1 10.7

54.7

15Among the noncredit students who were unemployed and seeking work, nearly one-third reported public

assistance as a source of funds for their education (Phillippe and Valiga 2000). National statistics show that only

2.1 percent of community college students participating in noncredit work in 1999 were unemployed.
of them (88.4 percent) report “improving in their current job” or “training for a new

job” as their primary reason for taking the noncredit courses. In contrast, 84.9

percent of students in for-credit courses work while participating in postsecondary

vocational courses. Of those who work, just over half (52.5 percent) view themselves

primarily as a student working to meet expenses.

❿ Students of color are less likely to pursue noncredit course work. Many of the noncredit vocational participants are white (80.7 percent), while only 67.2 percent of

vocational students in for-credit courses are white (Figure 4.4).

The Varied Goals and Pathways of Participants through

Postsecondary Vocational Education

Many, perhaps including policymakers, view “college participation” in a traditional way.

They think of 18-year-olds attending college in the fall immediately following high

school graduation and continuing to attend full-time until they obtain baccalaureate

degrees approximately four years later. However, this description of participation does

not describe the vast majority of sub-baccalaureate students or of vocational students in

particular. Vocational students often do not participate full-time or continuously and

often have goals other than completing a degree. 

Postsecondary vocational programs serve many objectives, but whether or not Perkins III

can or is intended to address all of them is a question policymakers may wish to consider. If

so, then what constitutes completion is a key issue. Current legislated accountability

provisions emphasize completion of a postsecondary degree or certificate or transfer to

another institution for further education. However, the diversity of participants and their

objectives makes assessing achievement of these objectives complicated. On the other

hand, current accountability provisions may be appropriate given the long-standing

federal goal of promoting degree completion. 

Postsecondary vocational students have primarily “nontraditional” attendance

patterns. 

Students participating in sub-baccalaureate programs—both academic and vocational—

do not typically follow the attendance patterns often associated with “college” enrollment (Table 4.7). “Nontraditional attendance”—part-time, at multiple institutions, with

interruption—is common and has increased over time. About three-quarters of subbaccalaureate students (69.8 percent of the vocational and 83.0 percent of the academic

students) attend postsecondary education in nontraditional ways. Among students less

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 77
than 24 years old, the proportion pursuing vocational programs either part-time, at multiple institutions, or discontinuously increased from 46.1 percent in 1982 to 69.5 percent

in 1989. Several factors contribute to the prevalence of nontraditional attendance patterns.

❿ Most postsecondary vocational students work. A large proportion of sub-baccalaureate students (almost 90 percent of either vocational or academic majors) are

employed while in postsecondary education. Some work to defray expenses associated with pursuing postsecondary education. Some are primarily workers who are

pursuing additional education, perhaps to improve their skills for a better job.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

78 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Table 4.7

Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students’ Age 

and Attendance Patterns, by Major 

Vocational Academic

Worked while Enrolled 84.9 88.6

Age

Under 20 18.6 21.2

20–23 23.7 30.3

24–29 22.5 18.1

30 and older 35.2 30.4

Full-time, full-year participation 24.8 25.7

Delayed entry1 50.9 42.0

Nontraditional attendance2

1989 (all ages) 69.8 83.0

(24 and older) 70.4 83.0

(18- to 23-year-olds) 69.5 83.0

1982 (18- to 23-year-olds) 46.1 53.5

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of NPSAS 1996, BPS 1989–94, and HS&B 1982.

1Delayed enrollment follows the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study definition, which includes any student who

either enrolls in postsecondary education a year or more after high school graduation or is a General Educational

Development (GED) recipient prior to enrollment.

2Participating in postsecondary education less than full-time or less than a full year, with interruption, or at multiple institutions are all patterns of nontraditional attendance. Any combination of these participation patterns defines attendance

as nontraditional. In order to identify these patterns during a five-year period, both the High School and Beyond Study

(limited to the first five years immediately following enrollment in postsecondary sub-baccalaureate programs) and the

Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study (also five years) were used.
❿ Postsecondary vocational students tend to be older than their academic peers.

Most (57.7 percent) of those students declaring a vocational major are 24 years old

or older. Students 30 years of age and older make up 35.2 percent of all vocational

students. In comparison, just less than half (48.5 percent) of the sub-baccalaureate

students enrolled in an academic program are 24 years old or older and only 30.4

percent are aged 30 years and older.

❿ Delayed entry and part-time attendance in postsecondary sub-baccalaureate

education are common. Half of vocational program participants (50.9 percent)

begin postsecondary education more than a year after graduation from high

school. This delayed entry is somewhat more likely among vocational than academic sub-baccalaureate students. Only one-quarter of either vocational or academic students in sub-baccalaureate programs attend full-time, full-year. 

On the one hand, the ability for students to attend postsecondary institutions part-time,

as they can, and to attend the most convenient campus are all hallmarks of sub-baccalaureate institutions. On the other hand, these attendance patterns raise concerns

about the labor market prospects for sub-baccalaureate students, including those in vocational programs, because research indicates a relationship between nontraditional enrollment patterns and lower earnings (Scott and Bernhardt 1999; Light 1995). 

Postsecondary vocational students vary in their reasons for participation. 

Given the diversity of those who participate in sub-baccalaureate vocational education—

in age, employment status, income, and other circumstances—it is not surprising that

vocational courses serve a variety of purposes. Recent surveys asked students for the primary reason they enrolled in postsecondary course work, with a set of fixed possible

response categories: job skills, degree or certificate completion, transfer (to a higher-level

educational institution), or personal enrichment.16 The variation in students’ goals and

expectations has implications for judging the success of both students and institutions

(Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6). 

❿ Obtaining a sub-baccalaureate credential or transferring is the most common

objective for vocational students. Nearly half of all those enrolled in postsecondary vocational programs say they want to earn a degree or certificate (23.6 percent) or are intending to transfer (22.4 percent). Younger students are most likely

to be seeking these objectives: most vocational majors younger than 20 years of age

report earning a credential (20.5 percent) or transferring to further education (37.6

percent) as their primary reason for participating.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 79

16Even though students were forced to select a primary reason, these reasons may not be mutually exclusive. 
The goal of obtaining a degree or

certificate or of transferring to

another institution is even more

common among students in subbaccalaureate academic majors

(a total of 62.4 percent). The

biggest difference by major is

that fewer vocational students

(22.4 percent) than academic

students (38.0 percent) cite transferring as their primary reason

for enrollment. These differences

in transferring as an objective are

consistent with differences in

students’ stated educational aspirations. Vocational students are

less likely (75.4 percent) than

academic students (89.6 percent) to expect to complete bachelor-level or higher

degrees. Instead, certificate and associate degrees are a relatively more common aspiration among those who enroll in postsecondary vocational programs.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

80 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Figure 4.5

Percentage Distribution of Postsecondary Vocational Students,

by Age and Reported Primary Goal

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Younger than 20 20–23 24–29 Older than 29

30.4

24.6

33.3

11.7

43.6

19.5

20.2

16.7

51.4

26.9

10.0

11.7

29.3

20.5

37.6

12.5

Personal enrichment

Transfer

Degree/certificate

Job skills

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 1996.

Percentages may not add to 100.0 due to rounding.

Age

Figure 4.6

Percentage Distribution of Sub-baccalaureate Students,

by Major and Reported Primary Goal

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of National Postsecondary Student Aid Study

1996.

Percentages may not add to 100.0 due to rounding.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Vocational

Personal enrichment

Transfer

Degree/certificate

Job skills

19.7

24.4

38.0

17.9

41.0

23.6

22.4

13.0

Academic
❿ Many students enrolled in sub-baccalaureate vocational programs want to

increase their job skills. Among those choosing a vocational major, a significant

share (41.0 percent) do so to enhance their job skills, probably in hopes of better

employment opportunities. In contrast, only 19.7 percent of academic students

cite job skills as their primary reason for enrolling. 

Older vocational students are most likely to pursue this goal. Just more than half

(51.4 percent) of those 30 years and older cite increasing job skills as their primary

reason for participating in vocational courses and programs. However, even for

some older students, obtaining a credential is still important (36.9 percent cite a

sub-baccalaureate credential or higher as their primary objective).

❿ Some vocational students participate for enrichment purposes. Fewer vocational

and academic students (13.0 percent and 17.9 percent, respectively) cite personal

enrichment as their primary reason for enrolling in postsecondary course work. 

Many students do not complete

enough course work to achieve

their likely goals.

Many students, both vocational

and academic, leave sub-baccalaureate institutions and programs

having completed few courses. In

fact, most postsecondary vocational students (65.5 percent) complete

a year or less of courses within a

five-year time period (Figure 4.7).17

Given these low levels of participation, a large share will fail to obtain

any credential or to earn sufficient

credits for transferring to a baccalaureate program.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 81

17Additional comprehensive information about postsecondary course taking comes from postsecondary transcripts. Although NCES is currently preparing the postsecondary transcripts of a nationally representative sample

of 1992 high school graduates (NELS), the most up-to-date postsecondary transcript data currently available are

for students who graduated from high school in 1982 (The High School and Beyond Study). Among the 1982

graduates who attended two-year institutions, more than half completed a semester’s worth or less of credits over

a 10-year period (Kane and Rouse 1999). Since a large share of sub-baccalaureate students are older, and older students have lower persistence rates, the figure based on the 1982 high school graduates certainly underestimates

the proportion of sub-baccalaureate students who complete only a few courses.

Figure 4.7

Percentage of Postsecondary Vocational Students,

by Number of Months of Course Work Completed

within a Five-Year Period

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of Beginning Postsecondary Students

Longitudinal Study 1996.

1Eight full-time equivalent (FTE) months are approximately equivalent to one full

year of course work.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Total full-time-equivalent months1

Less than or

equal to 8

8.1–16 16.1–32 More

than 32

65.5

19.9

11.7

2.9
The varied reasons that individuals participate in vocational programs, and the influence

these reasons may have on the number of months students attend suggest that the only

or best measure of student success may not be whether or not they obtain a credential.

Another or perhaps better indicator might be whether students complete what they

intended to; this suggests examining postsecondary participation patterns by education

goals. The available data do not allow such analyses but do support comparisons by

age.18 Because older students are much more likely to report job skills as their primary

reason for enrolling, while younger students are more likely to cite degree completion or

transferring as a primary reason (Figure 4.5),19 examining the extent of participation by

age probably provides a picture similar to that of persistence by goal. Age is also a reasonable proxy for labor market experience. Therefore, comparing persistence by age may

also provide information about whether or not completion and credential attainment

might matter less to participants who have longer work histories (Figure 4.8). 

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

82 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

18It is not possible to examine participation patterns by goals over time because student goals are only identified in NCES surveys for which there is currently insufficient follow-up data to determine students’ completion.

19Younger students are defined as those enrolled at the ages of 23 years old and younger. Older students are

those older than 23 years of age who are enrolled in postsecondary education.

Figure 4.8

Percentage of Sub-baccalaureate Students, by Major and Age and

Number of Months of Course Work Completed within a Five-Year Period

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Less than or

 equal to 8

Total full-time-equivalent months3

Younger participants1 Older participants2

47.5

26.4

65.4

59.0 59.9

27.5

41.0 40.1

More

than 8

Less than or

 equal to 8

More

than 8

SOURCE: Bailey et al. forthcoming. Analysis of Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study 1989–1994.

1Younger=23 years old and younger.

2Older=24 years old and older.

3Eight full-time equivalent (FTE) months are approximately equivalent to one full year of course work.

All vocational programs Vocational associate degree programs All academic programs

73.6 72.5

52.5

34.6
❿ Older vocational students have short periods of participation. During a five-year

period, nearly three-fourths of the older students in vocational majors are enrolled

in the equivalent of eight full-time months or fewer of course work.20 In contrast,

just less than half of the younger vocational participants are enrolled for only eight

months. 

❿ Younger vocational students complete more postsecondary course work than older

students but less than their academic peers. Within the same five-year time period,

just over half of the younger vocational participants (52.5 percent) accumulate more

than eight months of course work, while only 27.5 percent of older vocational

participants do so. Even so, the persistence of younger vocational students falls well

short of that of academic sub-baccalaureate students; 73.6 percent of younger

academic students compared to the 52.5 percent of younger vocational students

complete more than eight months of course work. 

The comparatively short period of postsecondary participation among some vocational

students, particularly older students, is in keeping with their stated goals. First, many of the

older students cite improving job skills as their primary reason for enrolling (51.4 percent

among those 30 and older). These participants likely opt for shorter-term education and

training. Second, a significant proportion of vocational students enrolls to earn a certificate, and these programs are typically of short duration (about a year of full-time equivalent course work or sometimes less). Some of those certificate seekers probably complete the

necessary course work within an eight-month time frame; others probably do not. To the

extent that older students already have labor market experience, obtaining a postsecondary

credential may be less crucial for employability. 

However, the persistence of the youngest vocational students, those least likely to have

significant labor market experience, does raise some concern. Most of them (58.1 percent

of those less than 20 years of age) seek degrees, certificates, or transfers to a higher-level

educational institution. Degree completion requires many more courses than might typically be the case for job skill training and is not attainable within eight months or less. 

It is certainly possible that completing a few courses provides sufficient economic benefits

for this group of younger students. However, it is more likely that the 47.5 percent of

younger vocational students who leave postsecondary education with fewer than eight

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 83

20Given the limitations of the most recent data, the actual number of courses taken is not available. However,

the number of months of postsecondary participation along with the intensity of participation allow for a calculation of full-time equivalent (FTE) months. Eight FTE months are roughly equivalent to one full year of

course work.
months of course work (Figure 4.5) do so without having achieved their objectives and

lacking a sufficient signal of their job skills. Even among those younger students enrolled

in vocational associate degree programs, a significant proportion (34.6 percent) completes only a year or less of course work—a higher proportion than that of their academic

peers (26.4 percent completes only a year or less of course work). These results suggest

that the goal of increasing degree and certificate completion, as reflected in current

Perkins policy, at least for this younger group of participants, may be appropriate. The

NAVE final report will examine whether such students attain economic benefits despite

their limited attendance.

Implications

Vocational programs and courses are an important part of postsecondary education and

training. Not only do vocational students account for about one-third of all students in

postsecondary education, but also they tend to be more disadvantaged than academic students at either the sub-baccalaureate or baccalaureate level. 

Postsecondary vocational students are themselves a diverse group. They arrive at Perkinseligible institutions—community and technical colleges, area vocational centers, etc.—

with a wider and more disparate set of goals than do students with academic majors.

Younger students tend to enroll seeking a degree or certificate or seeking to transfer to

higher-level institutions. Older participants are more likely to enroll to upgrade their skills

to obtain better jobs. About one quarter of sub-baccalaureate vocational participants enroll

in noncredit course work, and they look different—they are more advantaged and less

interested in degrees and certificates—than the vast majority of participants who enroll in

for-credit courses and programs. Whether any of these students accomplish what they set

out to do is a key concern, given that most leave vocational education after a relatively

short period of enrollment. Their characteristics and participation patterns raise several

additional issues.

Are federal objectives aligned with actual participation in postsecondary

vocational education? 

Perkins III has many objectives, as discussed in Chapter 2: to improve academic and

technical competencies, to promote degree completion and further education, to encourage placement in employment, and to provide better access for disadvantaged and other

special populations. To what extent does participation in vocational education reflect

these priorities and support a federal investment in postsecondary vocational education? 

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

84 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
For the most part, enrollment patterns are consistent with the federal emphasis on promoting postsecondary attendance and completion, particularly for disadvantaged students.

First, Perkins funding mechanisms and accountability provisions support a preference for

for-credit programs that lead to a credential over short-term, noncredit, nondegree training. As it turns out, Perkins-eligible institutions serve almost twice as many vocational students in for-credit courses and programs than they do students in noncredit courses. In

addition, participants in for-credit programs are more likely to be disadvantaged, making

the for-credit emphasis consistent with Perkins’ priority on serving disadvantaged students.

Second, vocational students’ stated goals for participation suggest that high proportions of

students at least intend to pursue a degree or certificate (23.6 percent) or to transfer to a

baccalaureate program (22.4 percent). 

On the other hand, the objectives of some postsecondary vocational participants highlight a potential conflict with Perkins’ degree completion emphasis. A significant proportion of vocational students (41.0 percent) enrolls primarily to upgrade their job skills

rather than to obtain a credential. Moreover, because most of the job-skill seekers are

already working, as are other vocational students, they may not contribute to another

Perkins accountability measure—increased job placement. Further assessment of Perkins

accountability requirements will be included in the NAVE final report.

Although participation information is a first step in discussing whether or not and how

federal policy might support vocational education, it is only a first step. Perhaps of

greater importance is to understand the effect of participating in postsecondary vocational programs, particularly in light of the different circumstances under which students

enroll, their varied objectives, and the offerings in which they might participate. These

key issues will also be discussed in the final NAVE report.

To what extent is the population served by postsecondary vocational education

similar to intended participants in the WIA system?

When Congress enacted the Workforce Investment Act and Perkins III, it believed a

plethora of job training programs created excessive administrative burdens upon states

and discouraged access to services. The call for better coordination between WIA and

Perkins, in part, reflected a perspective that providers in the job training and education

systems already did or could offer similar services to similar groups of participants.

Although too early for the national participation data described above to measure any

actual changes in those served, the analyses can offer some indication of the potential

overlap in populations.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 85
These data suggest that the proportion of vocational participants with characteristics

similar to expected WIA participants is small. Training services are offered only to those

WIA participants who are unemployed, are below an income threshhold, and are identified as requiring further training to become employable or employed. Such individuals

are most likey to be found among the sub-baccalaureate vocational students who enroll

to enhance their job skills (41.0 percent), since an emphasis on improving “job skills” is

most in keeping with the short-term training envisioned in WIA.21 These vocational students are typically older and many are disadvantaged: 62.7 percent have parents whose

highest level of education was a high school diploma or less and 18.8 percent are single

parents. However, only about a third of the older students emphasizing a job skill objective—about one in ten vocational students taking for-credit courses—earn less than or

equal to $20,000 per year, the self-sufficiency income standards set by some local

Workforce Investment Boards.22

Thus, vocational programs currently appear to serve a relatively small number of individuals similar to those most likely to be targeted for intensive services under WIA. However, it

remains to be seen: (1) to what extent states allocate job training resources to services such

as those offered at postsecondary institutions and (2) how many of those receiving WIA

training vouchers (individual training accounts) actually enroll in Perkins-eligible institutions and programs. These actions will play a significant role in the potential integration of

vocational education and workforce development programs. A study examining these issues

is being conducted for the NAVE and its results will be discussed in the final report.

| 4. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education |

86 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

21Relying solely on the stated goal “job skill” to identify participants in vocational education who most resemble potential WIA participants may underestimate the WIA relevant population. Some WIA participants may

have a long-term goal of completing postsecondary degrees or certificates. Certainly, low-income students who

state degree completion goals as their primary reason for enrolling in vocational education have characteristics

consistent with potential WIA participants as well.

22A recent U.S. Department of Labor report (D’Amico et al. 2001) indicates that self-sufficiency standards were

set around $20,000 in some of the visited sites. 
NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 87

Summary

and

Next Steps

This interim report is one part of a broader assessment of vocational education in the United States. Though many students in secondary and postsecondary education are engaged in vocational studies, the most important

question is how the reexamination of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and

Technical Education Act (Perkins III)—scheduled for 2003—can be used to

improve student success.

In preparation for those discussions, this first NAVE report lays the groundwork for the more comprehensive report to follow. The interim report

describes historic trends in federal vocational education policy and the key

legislative changes that were enacted in 1998. To help policymakers understand what vocational education is today, the report outlined the current signals of federal policy objectives, the broad changes occurring in the field of

vocational education, and recent trends in both the number and characteristics of students engaged in vocational education at the secondary and postsecondary levels. The major results from this report are worth summarizing,

but much of the information central to an assessment of vocational education is yet to come.

5.
Key Themes of the Interim Report

Although several topics are addressed in this document, four themes stand out.

Federal policy attempts to achieve multiple goals and objectives.

Over time, federal vocational policy has attempted to address changing social, educational,

and labor market concerns. These evolving priorities have moved federal support for

vocational education toward fulfilling a broad set of objectives. For example, the stated

purpose of the 1998 Perkins III is to enhance not only the vocational and technical skills of

students who choose to participate in vocational education, but also their academic skills.

In addition, other sections of the legislation suggest that vocational education is expected to

contribute to high school completion, entry into postsecondary education and training,

postsecondary degree completion, and employment. 

Currently, federal policy allows states, school districts, and postsecondary institutions to

decide which objectives are the highest priority for Perkins spending. In contrast, Title I

of the recently enacted No Child Left Behind Act, with funding now 10 times greater

than Perkins, is unambiguously focused on one core mission: raising the academic

achievement of disadvantaged students.

Vocational programs vary, perhaps to meet different objectives. 

Though once regarded as programs to prepare students for jobs after high school, many

vocational programs at the secondary level are now much more than that. Over the past

decade, new program initiatives have been undertaken to promote other objectives—

such as academic improvement and college enrollment. Other efforts have tried to

broaden students’ knowledge of careers, both vocational education’s traditional ones as

well as those requiring four-year college degrees. Although students who are economically and educationally disadvantaged still participate at higher rates, the overall group

of participants is quite diverse and may be growing more so. There is some evidence that

vocational education has begun to serve relatively more academically talented students,

possibly as a result of the new programmatic efforts. 

At the postsecondary level, sub-baccalaureate vocational education is equally diverse.

Associate degree programs differ from certificate programs, and the for-credit courses that

make up these programs may or may not differ from the noncredit occupational courses

offered by the same institutions. These different ways of offering and organizing 

courses, in part, reflect the varying goals of those who participate in postsecondary vocational education. They come for different reasons—to get a degree or certificate, to trans-

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

88 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
fer to four-year degree programs, or to enhance their job skills. They also bring different

life experiences in terms of age and employment history, and some students are more

disadvantaged than others. Although there may be a trend away from degree seeking

among sub-baccalaureate students as a whole, the seeming priority in Perkins III on forcredit, degree-oriented course work is consistent with the law’s emphasis on serving disadvantaged students, because for-credits courses are more likely than noncredit courses

to be taken by these students.

Secondary vocational education remains a large component of the high school

curriculum, but the full effects of academic reform are not yet evident. 

Although vocational education’s overall share of the high school curriculum has

declined as students have earned more academic credits, there has been little change in

the amount of vocational course work taken by high school students over the past

decade. Students still earn more credits in vocational education than they do in math or

science. As challenging high-stakes exit exams become more common, however, vocational enrollments are likely to face serious challenges. 

Low levels of course completion in postsecondary vocational education is a

concern.

Students enroll in postsecondary vocational programs for varied reasons. Unfortunately,

many of them, like their academic counterparts, leave sub-baccalaureate institutions and

programs having completed few courses. For older students with substantial work experience who enroll mostly to improve their job skills, a course or two may be exactly what

is needed or desired. Some may even obtain one of the newly emerging industry- or

employer-developed certifications (e.g., Microsoft, Cisco, Automotive Service

Excellence), which may be an important way to realize labor market gains without actually earning a degree or institution-based certificate.

Those same one or two courses, though, fall well short of expectations for those working

toward a postsecondary education credential. About half of all sub-baccalaureate vocational students indicate they want to earn a degree or certificate, including those who

intend to transfer to obtain their bachelors’ degrees. These students tend to be younger,

and many are recent high school graduates with limited job history. For these students,

in particular, college degrees can lead toward labor market success as well as the fulfillment of personal goals. But it is likely that the nearly half of younger vocational students

who leave postsecondary education with eight or fewer months of course work do so

without having achieved their objectives and without a concrete labor market signal of

their skills. 

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 89
The Final Report

The data in this initial report addressed one of several important questions for policy:

Who enrolls in vocational education in high schools and postsecondary institutions and

for what purpose? That analysis, however, raised questions about the effectiveness of

vocational education for different subgroups of students, the consequences of new funding and accountability provisions for programs and participants, the implementation of

vocational education, and its alignment with other major reform efforts. All of these key

issues will be examined in the final report.

What is the contribution of vocational education to student outcomes?

Perhaps the most important issue is whether students are better off as a result of participating in vocational education, either in high school or at the postsecondary level. In

light of changing objectives for vocational education, the NAVE final report will use both

national and state-level data to examine a broad set of concerns:

❿ What effect does secondary vocational education have on students’ academic

achievement, chances of attending and succeeding in college, and wages and

earnings? 

❿ What is the “value added” at the postsecondary level in terms of labor market

success—for both those who complete a degree and those who leave without a

credential? How important is the degree? 

❿ How do impacts for secondary and postsecondary participants vary by course taking

patterns, by field of study (e.g., cosmetology as well as technical engineering), and by

student characteristics (academic achievement, disability status, income)?

❿ To what extent do the new secondary vocational education strategies (e.g., career

academies, Tech-Prep, High Schools that Work) make a difference in key student

outcomes? Is there evidence that these new programs are “better” than traditional vocational course sequences?

How effective are the performance measurements systems established by the

states?

For most federal education programs, establishing an effective, workable accountability

system has proven to be more difficult and time-consuming than initially thought to be

the case (Goertz, Duffy, and Le Floch 2001). Congress first enacted Perkins performance

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

90 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
measures in 1990, and in 1998 significantly raised the requirements for state reporting

on student performance. Today, state responses to federal accountability requirements

are still under development. Based on early implementation experiences, the NAVE final

report will examine: 

❿ How much progress has been made under Perkins III by states, schools, and postsecondary institutions in developing appropriate measures, standards, and datagathering systems?

❿ To what extent is performance data used to manage and improve programs versus

to comply with federal and state laws?

❿ Is there any evidence that incentive systems incorporated into Perkins and WIA

have the potential to affect behavior?

❿ Is the reporting of performance data for special populations feasible and useful?

To what extent have the new funding provisions changed grant distributions

and state or local practice?

In 1998, Congress enacted several changes affecting the allocations of federal Perkins

funds, including giving states and local entities greater flexibility by eliminating setasides for special populations and freeing up more money for use at the local level. Much

of the basic grant allocation process remained unchanged, however. The NAVE final

report will examine areas of both change and continuity in how federal resources are

allocated. The final report will address three main questions:

❿ What, if anything, has changed in the allocation of federal resources and the purposes for which they are used as a result of recent legislative provisions?

❿ Do federal resources, and the methods by which they are allocated, spur program

innovation and improvement or simply support program maintenance?

❿ What has been the effect on special populations of eliminating the set-aside funding streams?

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 91
What is the quality of vocational education and to what extent are federal

improvement strategies reflected in classroom practice and school organization?

For nearly a decade, federal policy has attempted to improve the quality of vocational

programs at the secondary level largely by strengthening the connection between vocational education and mainstream education objectives. Perkins III directs NAVE to examine a variety of issues regarding teachers, curriculum, employers, and program implementation that are loosely referred to as “program quality”:

❿ What are the qualifications and classroom practices of vocational teachers, as they

relate to achieving both the academic and technical objectives of federal legislation? 

❿ To what extent are Perkins program improvement strategies—integration of academic and vocational education, secondary-postsecondary linkages, and broadening the

focus on industries and careers—evident in state and local practice? 

❿ How and how much do employers participate in vocational education programs?

How satisfied are they with program graduates?

❿ What is the academic and technical rigor of vocational curriculum in different settings in the United States? What can we learn about rigor from vocational curricula

used in other countries?

How well aligned is vocational education with education reform efforts at the

secondary level and with workforce development efforts at the postsecondary

level?

Vocational improvements are intended to keep pace with and complement other reform

efforts in high school. For some districts and schools, meeting these objectives requires

substantial changes, including new vocational policies or requirements, shifts in instructional methods, or modifications to course content. The final report will assess the relationship between vocational education improvement and school reforms underway in

many states and local communities, as well as the role of federal policy in promoting or

impeding these relationships. 

Enacted months apart, Congress intended that Perkins III and WIA would be coordinated in a manner that helped make a fragmented job training system somewhat more

orderly and rational. Provisions for development of unified state plans, participation in

One-Stop Centers, and the potential for performance rewards were key provisions in WIA

with implications for how individuals gained access to vocational education, the types

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

92 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
of programs offered, and the outcomes by which performance was measured. The NAVE

final report will examine the early evidence of change in the direction intended by

Congress.

Conclusion 

Vocational education and its place in American education continue to evolve. The broadening of its goals, the increasing diversity of participants, and the changing education

and labor market climate in which it operates, suggests vocational education is a flexible

option for schools and students. 

With this flexibility comes some challenges, however. At the high school level, participation in vocational education is an elective choice that faces increasing pressure from

emphasis on academic improvement and testing. For both secondary and postsecondary

vocational education, the wide range of participants and objectives raises a question

about how effective a role federal policy plays and whether that policy can or should promote a clearer set of priorities. The final NAVE report will provide more rigorous evidence

to help policymakers and practitioners respond to these issues.

| 5. Summary and Next Steps |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 93
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
❿ References ➛

Adelman, Clifford. 2000. A Parallel Postsecondary Universe: The Certification System in

Information Technology. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement. PLLI 2000-8011.

Agodini, Roberto. Forthcoming. Achievement Effects of Vocational and Integrated Studies.

Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

Agodini, Roberto, Stacy Uhl, and Timothy Novak. Forthcoming. Factors Related to

Vocational Education Participation. Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy Research,

Inc.

Bailey, Thomas, et al. Forthcoming. A report prepared at the request of the U.S.

Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, National Assessment of

Vocational Education. Contract Number ED-00-CO-0023.

Barton, Paul. 2000. What Jobs Require: Literacy, Education and Training 1940–2006.

Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, Policy Information Center.

Berkner, Lutz and Lisa Chavez. 1997. Statistical Analysis Report: Access to Postsecondary

Education for the 1992 High School Graduates. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department

of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center

for Education Statistics. NCES 98-105.

Bishop, John. 1995. Expertise and Excellence. Working paper, 95-13. Cornell University,

Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. Ithaca, N.Y.

Bishop, John H. and Ferran Mane. Forthcoming. The Impacts of Tougher Graduation

Requirements on Course Selection and Learning in High School and on the Post High

School Experiences of Vocational Students. A report prepared at the request of the

U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, National Assessment

of Vocational Education.

Boesel, David, Nabeel Alsalam, and Thomas M. Smith. 1998. Education and Labor

Market Experience of GED Recipients. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. NLE 98-2023.

Boesel, David, Beverly Farrar, Debra Hollinger, Lisa Hudson, Charles Masten, Ron

Myers, Stefani Schneiderman, and Duc-Le To. 1994a. National Assessment of

Vocational Education, Interim Report to Congress. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department

of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

| References |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 95
Boesel, David, Lisa Hudson, S. Deich, and Charles Masten. 1994b. National Assessment

of Vocational Education, Final Report to Congress. Volume II: Participation in and

Quality of Vocational Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education,

Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Bradby, Denise and E. G. Hoachlander. 1999. 1998 Revision of the Secondary School

Taxonomy. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 1999-

06.

Braddock, Douglas. 1999. Employment Outlook: 1998–2008, Occupational Employment

Projections to 2008. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor

Statistics.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2001. 2000 National Occupational Employment and Wage

Estimates. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor Web site. Date accessed:

Nov. 15, 2001. http://www.bls.gov/oes/2000/oes.nat.htm.

Campbell, Jay R., Catherine M. Hombo, and John Mazzeo. 2000. NAEP 1999 Trends in

Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student Performance. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2000-469.

Choy, Susan P. and Laura J. Horn. 1992. A Guide to Using Postsecondary Transcript Data

and an Overview of Course-taking in Less-than-Four-Year Postsecondary Institutions.

Berkeley, Calif.: University of California, National Center for Research in

Vocational Education.

Coley, Richard J. 2000. The American Community College Turns 100: A Look at Its

Students, Programs, and Prospects. Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service,

Policy Information Center.

Council of Chief State School Officers. 2000. Key State Education Policies on K–12

Education. Washington, D.C.: Council of Chief State School Officers.

D’Amico, Ronald, et al. 2001. A Report on Early State and Local Progress Towards WIA

Implementation. A report prepared at the request of the U.S. Department of Labor,

Employment and Training Administration. Oakland, Calif.: Social Policy Research

Associates. Contract No. G-7681-9-00-87-30.

Darkenwald, Gordon and Kwang Kim. 1998. Statistics in Brief: Adults’ Participation in

Work-Related Courses: 1994–95. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education,

Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education

Statistics. NCES 98-309.

| References |

96 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
Education Commission of the States. July 1990. Clearinghouse Notes. Denver, Colo.:

Education Commission of the States.

Erard, Brian. Forthcoming. Study of Sub-baccalaureate Labor Market Trends and the

Relatedness of Postsecondary Enrollment Trends. A report prepared at the request of

the U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, National

Assessment of Vocational Education. Contract No. ED-00-PO-1283.

Goertz, Margaret E., Mark C. Duffy, and Kerstin Carlson Le Floch. 2001. Assessment

and Accountability Systems in the 50 States: 1999–2000. Philadelphia, Pa.: University

of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Consortium for Policy Research in

Education. 

Hershey, Alan, Marsha Silverberg, Tom Owens, and Lara Hulsey. 1998. Final Report of

the National Tech Prep Evaluation. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Education, Office of the Under Secretary. Contract No. LC92107001.

Hoachlander, Gary. 1998. Toward a New Framework of Industry Programs for Vocational

Education. Berkeley, Calif.: MPR Associates, Inc.

Hoachlander, Gary, Robert Fitzgerald, Peter Teitelbaum, Lee Holcombe, Marcel Paret,

and Chris King. Forthcoming. Who Participates in Vocational Education? Berkeley,

Calif.: MPR Associates, Inc.

Horn, Laura and Lawrence K. Kojaku. 2001. High School Academic Curriculum and the

Persistence Path through College. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education,

Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education

Statistics. NCES 2001-163.

Hulsey, Lara, Michelle Van Noy, and Marsha Silverberg. 1999. 1998 National Survey of

Local School-to-Work Partnerships: Data Summary. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary. Contract No.

EA95010001.

Hurst, David and Lisa Hudson. 2000. Stats in Brief: Changes in High School Vocational

Coursetaking in a Larger Perspective. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for

Education Statistics. NCES 2001-026.

Kane, Thomas K. and Cecilia Rouse. 1999. “The Community College: Educating

Students at the Margin between College and Work.” Journal of Economic

Perspectives, vol. 13(1), pp. 63–84.

| References |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 97
Kaufman, Philip. 2001. “The National Dropout Data Collection System: Assessing

Consistency.” Paper presented at conference, Dropouts in America: How Severe is the

Problem? What Do We Know about Intervention and Prevention? Meeting of the Civil

Rights Project, Harvard University and Achieve, Inc., in Cambridge, Mass. Jan. 13,

2001.

Kemple, James J. 2001. Career Academies: Impacts on Students’ Initial Transitions to PostSecondary Education and Employment. New York: Manpower Demonstration

Research Corporation.

Levesque, Karen. Oct. 22, 2001. “Analysis of National High School Transcripts.” Tables

sent to U.S. Department of Education, National Assessment of Vocational

Education.

Levesque, Karen, Doug Lauen, Peter Teitelbaum, Martha Alt, and Sally Librera. 2000.

Vocational Education in the United States: Toward the Year 2000. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2000-029.

Light, Audrey. 1995. “The Effects of Interrupted Schooling on Wages.” Journal of

Human Resources, vol. 30(3), pp. 472–502.

McPartland, James M. and Will J. Jordan. 2001. “Restructuring for Reform: The Talent

Development Model.” Principal Leadership. February.

Millsap, Mary Ann and Lana D. Muraskin. 1992. “United States: Federal Vocational

Education Policy.” The International Encyclopedia of Education, 2d. ed., ed. Torsten

Husen and T. Neville Postlethwaite. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

Phelps, Richard P., Basmat Parsad, Elizabeth Farris, and Lisa Hudson. 2001. Features of

Occupational Programs at the Secondary and Postsecondary Education Levels.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research

and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2001-018.

Phillippe, Kent A. and Michael J. Valiga. 2000. Faces of the Future: A Portrait of

America’s Community College Students. Washington, D.C.: American Association of

Community Colleges in conjunction with ACT, Inc.

Sanderson, Allen, Bernard Dugoni, Kenneth Rasinski, and John Taylor. 1996. National

Education Longitudinal Survey: 1988-1994, Descriptive Summary Report. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 96-175.

| References |

98 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
Scott, Marc and Annette Bernhardt. 1999. Pathways to Educational Attainment and Their

Effect on Early Career Development. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California,

National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Smith, Thomas M., et al. 1997. The Condition of Education 1997. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 97-388.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1992. Digest of Education Statistics 1992. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 92-097.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1993. Digest of Education Statistics 1993. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 93-292.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1994. Digest of Education Statistics 1994. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 94-115.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1995. Digest of Education Statistics 1995. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 95-029.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1996. Digest of Education Statistics 1996. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 96-133.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1997. Digest of Education Statistics 1997. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 98-015.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 1999. Digest of Education Statistics 1998. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 1999-036.

Snyder, Thomas D., et al. 2001. Digest of Education Statistics 2000. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2001-034.

Sum, Andrew. 1999. Literacy in the Labor Force: Results from the National Adult Literacy

Survey. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 1999-470.

| References |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 99
Teitelbaum, Peter, Denise Bradby, and Gary Hoachlander. Forthcoming. Descriptive

Profile of Florida Postsecondary Education. Berkeley, Calif.: MPR Associates, Inc. 

Visher, Mary G., Doug Lauen, Linda Merola, and Elliott Medrich. 1998. School-to- Work

in the 1990s: A Look at Programs and Practices in American High Schools. Berkeley,

Calif.: MPR Associates, Inc.

Warburton, Edward C., Rosio Bugarin, and Anne-Marie Nuñez. 2001. Bridging the Gap:

Academic Preparation and Postsecondary Success of First-Generation Students.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research

and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2001-153.

Wirt, John, et al. 2000. The Condition of Education 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2000-062.

Wirt, John, et al. 2001. The Condition of Education 2001. Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement,

National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2001-072.

| References |

100 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress
❿ Upcoming NAVE 

Study Reports

Reports to Be Delivered and Released in 2002 and 2003

Study to Assess the Quality of Vocational Education: Secondary School

Findings, Rand Corporation.

Access to Career Preparation Programs and their Key Support

Strategies, MPR Associates.

Analysis of Employer Participation in and Satisfaction with Vocational

Education, NAVE staff.

Secondary Vocational Teacher Quality: Analysis of the SASS, MPR

Associates.

The Role of Career Guidance Counseling, Westat Inc.

Information Technology External Certification Programs at the High

School Level: Program Implementation and Short-term Student

Outcomes, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

Examining Vocational Program “Rigor”: Performance and Content in

European Apprenticeship Systems and American Vocational Programs,

United States-European Network for Education and Training (USEURO-NET).

Trends in Vocational Course Taking: 1982–1998, MPR Associates.

Who Participates in Vocational Education? MPR Associates.

Factors Related to Vocational Education Participation, Mathematica

Policy Research, Inc.

Reasons for Enrolling in Vocational Education and Satisfactions with

Experiences: Student Perspectives, Branch Associates.

Trends in the Reading Achievement of Vocational and Other Students:

1990–1998, MPR Associates.

Achievement Effects of Vocational and Integrated Studies,

Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

Effects of Vocational Education on Dropping Out and College and

Labor Market Success, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

The Value Added of Secondary Vocational Education and Promising

Career Preparation Strategies in Two States, MPR Associates.

Evaluation of the High Schools That Work Initiative, MPR

Associates.

The Impacts of Tougher Graduation Requirements on Course Selection

and Learning in High School and on the Post High School Experiences

of Vocational Students, Cornell University.

| Upcoming NAVE Study Reports |

NAVE: Interim Report to Congress 101

Implementation and

Quality

Participation and

Impacts

Secondary Vocational Education
Study to Assess the Quality of Vocational Education:

Postsecondary Case Study Findings, Rand Corporation.

Information Technology External Certification Programs in

Community Colleges: Program Implementation and Short-term

Student Outcomes, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.

Analysis of Postsecondary Vocational Faculty Characteristics,

NAVE staff.

Study of Sub-baccalaureate Labor Market Trends and the

Relatedness of Postsecondary Enrollment Trends, Erard and

Associates.

Participation Patterns in and Labor Market Effects of

Postsecondary Vocational Education, Teachers College, 

Columbia University.

The Value Added of Participating in Postsecondary Vocational

Education in Two States, MPR Associates.

Assessment of Perkins Funding and Accountability Systems in

Vocational Education, Westat, Inc.

A Comparative Analysis of Evaluation Methods and Outcomes in

Four European Countries, Regional Technology Strategies, Inc.

Commissioned Papers

The Role and Scope of External Assessment Systems in Student

Credentialing and Accountability in States, Robert Sheets,

Northern Illinois University.

The Role of Distance Learning in Vocational Education, Jacque

Dubois, Synergy Plus, Inc.

Career and Technical Education in Indian Country, Carrie Billy,

American Indian Higher Education Consortium.

Efforts of Other Federal Agencies to Develop Occupational

Curricula, James Jacobs, Macomb Community College.

| Upcoming NAVE Study Reports |

102 NAVE: Interim Report to Congress

Implementation and

Quality

Participation and

Impacts

Postsecondary Vocational Education

Funding and Accountability
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
www.ed.gov