IMPACT OF

CHARGE-TRANSFER

DEVICE TECHNOLOGY

ON COMPUTER SYSTEMS

mum

jf^ W, ^ *4 NBS Special Publication 500-5

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Vc ^ COMPUTER SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY:

Impact of Charge-Transfer Device Technology

T on Computer Systems

• <^ Robert B. J. Warnar

Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Issued April 1977
Reports on Computer Science and Technology

The National Bureau of Standards has a special responsibility within the Federal

Government for computer science and technology activities. The programs of the

NBS Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology are designed to provide ADP

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computer utilization in the Federal sector, and to perform appropriate research and

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of this publication.

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 500-5

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 500-5, 48 pages (Apr. 1977) CODEN: XNBSAV

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-608053

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WASHINGTON; 1977

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.10

Stock No. 003-003-01758-2
NOTE

Reports on commercial developments included

in this publication were obtained from the

open literature, supplemented in most cases

by site visits and meetings with appropriate

company representatives. No proprietary

information of any kind is included. Opinions

about comparative merits of the developments

were found in the published literature, and were not generated by the authors of this

report. Inclusions or exclusions of specific

developments are strictly reflections of

the published literature. NBS did not experimentally verify the accuracy of the

statements from the published literature or any of the companies cited. Specific

identifications of companies and developments

in this report cannot be construed as recommendation or endorsement by the

National Bureau of Standards.

iii

PREFACE

"Charge-transfer device" is a generic term that can be applied to a family of several

types of integrated silicon devices -- this document describes two such devices - the

bucket-brigade device and the charge-coupled device. Technical and economic aspects of

charge-transfer device research are addressed and compared. Conclusions are presented

which suggest future impacts of charge-transfer devices on current electronic systems,

especially computers. Capabilities and accomplishments of charge-transfer device

research facilities in Japan, Canada, Great Britain, The Netherlands, the Federal Republic

of Germany, and the United States are described.

Information contained in this report was derived from the open technical literature

and from private interviews with various U.S. technical experts. Where possible, references

in the open literature are cited, although the opinions of technical experts were checked

in order to substantiate the salient points.

j The technology assessment resulting in this report was conducted by the Information

'Technology Division of the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, National

Bureau of Standards, as part of an "Advanced Computer Technology Survey" project.

, Mr. Robert B. J. Warnar was the principal technical investigator and was responsible for

the preparation of this report. He was assisted by Mr. Peter J. Calomeris. NBS technical

consultants who contributed significantly were: Dr. Martin G. Buehler and Mr. Robert I. Scace,

I both of the Electronic Technology Division, Institute for Applied Technology, and

Mr. Sidney B. Geller of the Computer Engineering Division, Institute for Computer Sciences

land Technology. Mr. Edwin J. Istvan, Acting Chief of the Information Technology Division,

land Mr, George E. Lindamood, project leader, provided editorial assistance.

CONTENTS

Page

Note iii

Preface v

Abstract 1

1 . Charge-Transfer Device Overview 1

Charge-Transfer Devices 1 Principles of Operation of Charge-Transfer Devices 1 Charge-Transfer Device Electrode Structures 8

Technical Obstacles in Charge-Transfer Devices 10

Charge-Transfer Device Applications 10

Charge-Transfer Device Computer Application Trends 11 CCD Computer Main Frame Memories 12 CCD Computer Swap Memories 12

CCD Computer Mass Memories 12

2. Charge-Transfer Device Parameters . 1^

Bit-Storage Densities of Charge-Transfer Devices 14 Charge-Transfer Efficiency of Charge-Transfer Devices 14 Charge-Transfer Device Data Rates 14 Charge-Transfer Device Power Dissipation 19

Charge-Transfer Device Prices 19

3. Non-U. S. Charge-Transfer Device Technology 22

CTD Technology in Canada 22

CTD Technology in The Netherlands 23

CTD Technology in Japan 26

CTD Technology in Great Britain 27 CTD Technology in The Federal Republic of Germany 28

4. Summary and Conclusions 29

5. Gl ossary 32

Glossary of Terms Applicable to Charge-Transfer Devices 32

Glossary of Memory Terms 34

6. References 35

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1 - Simplified Charge-Transfer Device Equivalent Circuit 2 Figure 2 - The Discrete MOSFET flodel of a Charge-Transfer Device 2 Figure 3 - Phase 1 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register 3 Figure 4" - Phase 2 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register 3 Figure 5 - Phase 3 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register 4 Figure 6 - The Charge-Coupled Device Storage Element 4 Figure 7" - Charge Storage in a Charge-Coupled Device During Phase 1 . ^ Figure 8" - Three-Phase Clock Signals for Charge-Coupled Device 5 Figure 9 - Charge Transfer in a Charge-Coupled Device During Phase 2 5 Figure 10a - Input-Diode Electron Injection ... 6 Figure 10b - Avalanche Electron Injection in a Charge-Coupled Device 7 Figure 10c - Electron Injection by Light in a Charge-Coupled Device 1 Figure 1T~- Output-Diode Data Detection in a Charge-Coupled Device

Figure 12 - Charge-Coupled Device 8 Figure 13 - Bucket-Brigade Device 8 Figure iTa - Surface-Channel CCD. . 8 Figure 1^ - Buried-Channel CCD 8 Figure 15 - Construction of the Peristaltic Charge-Coupled Device ^ Figure 16 - Nonoverl apping Electrode 3<}) CCD ° Figure 17 - Overlapping Electrode 4(}) CCD 9 Figure 18 - CCD Computer Memory Application Trends ^1 Figure 1 9" - Bit-Storage Densities of Charge-Transfer Devices "15 Figure 20 - Charge Transfer Efficiency of Charge-Transfer Devices 16

Figure 2la,b - Charge-Transfer Device Data Rates 17, 18

Figure 22 - Power Dissipation of Charge-Transfer Devices. ... 20

Figure 23" - Charge-Transfer Device Prices ZL Figure 24 - Castellated CCD Structure 22

viii
LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1 - Developments in Memory CCD's (1975-1978) 13

Table 2 - Charge-Transfer Device Technological Accomplishments in The

Netherlands and the United States 25

Table 3 - Technological Accomplishments of Non-U. S. and U.S. CTD Facilities

(through 1975) 30

ix

IMPACT OF CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE

TECHNOLOGY ON COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Robert B. J. Warnar

ABSTRACT

This document assesses the status of charge-transfer device technology as displayed by

foreign research and manufacturing facilities for a period up to September 1975.

Capabilities and accomplishments of charge-transfer device research facilities in Japan,

Canada, Great Britain, The Netherlands, The Federal Republic of Germany, and the United

States are described. Technical and economic factors are addressed and compared.

Conclusions are presented which suggest future impacts of charge-transfer devices on current electronic systems, especially computers. Information contained in this report

was derived from the open technical literature and from interviews with various U.S. technical experts. The technology assessment resulting in this report was conducted by

the Information Technology Division of the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology,

National Bureau of Standards, as part of an "Advanced Computer Technology Survey" project.

Key words: Bucket-brigade; buried channel; Canada; charge-coupled device; Great Britain;

imager CCD's; Japan; peristaltic CCD's; surface channel; The Federal Republic of Germany.

The Netherlands; transfer channel;

1. CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE OVERVIEW

Charge-Transfer Devices

A device whose operation depends on the movement of discrete packets of charge along

or beneath a semiconductor surface is called a charge-transfer device (CTD). The first

fully integrated metal -oxide-semiconductor CTD, the bucket-brigade device, was developed

in 1969 by F. L. J. Sangster (U.S. patent 3,546,490), NV Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken

in The Netherlands, while W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith from Bell Telephone Laboratories,

are credited with the first U.S. version of a CTD, the charge-coupled device (CCD). [1]

More recently, L. J. M. Esser, another Philips scientist [2], noted that in chargetransfer devices, the transfer speed and efficiency are determined primarily by the transport

of the last fraction of each charge packet. Accordingly, he developed the peristaltic

charge-coupled device (PCCD), in which the transport of the last fraction of charge of each

packet is performed more efficiently than in the conventional CCD. [2]

Charge-transfer devices are clocked in order to move the charge packets. Single or multiple-phase clocking can be used. [3, 4, 5]

Principles of Operation of Charge-Transfer Devices

(Bucket-Brigade and Charge-Coupled Devices)

The theory of charge-transfer devices was first proposed by U.S. engineer K. Schlesinger

(U.S. patent 2,403,955) in the 1940's, but integrated circuit versions of CTD designs, such

as charge-coupled devices and bucket-brigade devices, did not occur until the late 1960's

and early 1970's. [6]

1

Figures in brackets indicate the literature references on page 35.

1
The theory of the charge-transfer device was based on the idea that the simplest mode

of storing information is as a charge on a capacitor. In addition, this charge must be

transferred easily and efficiently from its location to a destination where the charge can

be translated into meaningful data. Individual capacitors must, therefore, be connected

together with switches that alternately open and close in order to transfer the individual

charges (see Figure 1 )

.

SI/ S3^

OUT

Fi gure 1 : Simplified Charge-Transfer Device Equivalent Circuit

The above simplified circuit of a discrete charge-transfer device is characteristic of

an analog delay line or a serial shift register. Operation commences when switch SI is

closed while S2 is open and CI is charged to potential Vin. After a period of time SI is

opened and S2 is closed (S3 is open). Part of the charge of CI is now transferred to C2.

Some time later, S2 is opened and S3 is closed (S4 is open). At this time some of the

charge of C2 is transferred to C3. Finally, S3 is opened and S4 is closed--some charge of

C3 is now transferred to the output capacitor C4. A more efficient operation of this

model occurs when SI and S3 are positioned simultaneously in one direction while S2 and S4 are placed in the opposite position. One soleniod could therefore operate SI and S3 while the

other positions S2 and S4. Such an operation is called a two-phase approach and this

system is found in current CTD's. It should be noted that part of the charge is always

left behind during each transfer--thi s obstacle is evident in the ensuing description of CTD's

Krause in 1976 [1] applied the charge transfer principle to a transistor/capacitor

shift register and, Langster and Teer in 1969 [1] applied the theory subsequently to metaloxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET) as shown in Figure 2.

(V),Nt

(SI)

PIP2

(S2)

(CI)

(S3)

(C2)

(S4)

(C3)

J

(Vqut)

C4

J

Figure 2: The Discrete MOSFET Model of a Charge-Transfer Device [1

]

The characteristic low "on" resistance and high "off" resistance of MOSFET's SI, S2, S3,

and S4 combined with their relatively good frequency response makes the above circuit a practical device--whose operation is as easily understood as that of the circuit in

Figure 1. The MOSFET circuii. was eventually called the bucket-brigade device (BBD) and is

characterized by the fact that it uses the equivalent of one transistor and one capacitor per stage.

Following a different route, Bell Laboratories' Boyle and Smith [1] suggested that

closely-spaced capacitors on an isolated surface of a semiconductor would serve to store

and transfer electrical charges. These electrodes closely spaced from each other at micrometer distances would, when pulsed with proper potentials and waveforms, generate

"moving potential wells" carrying packets of charge, [1]

2
G, A. Atnelio (see reference 59) was able to provide a dramatic representation of such

a system (see Figure 3, 4, and 5).

Figure 3 : Phase 1 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register

Amelio visualizes the operation of the charge-transfer register as the operation of

a machine that consists of a repeating series of three reciprocating pistons with a crankshaft and connecting rods to drive them. The dark areas in part 1 of Figure 3 are fluids and are analogous of charge packets in charge-transfer devices. The crankshaft can

be turned either clockwise or counterclockwise. In the example, it is assumed that the

crankshaft turns in a clockwise manner. During this period, number 2 pistons rise while

number 3 pistons drop down (part 2). In part 3 of the Figure, all of the fluid is

transferred to the top of the number 3 pistons. The presentation is extremely graphic

even to the point that some fluid remains behind as it "sticks" to the top of pistons

which defect is analogous to the charge loss in charge-transfer devices.

2 1

3 2

^ Figure 4 : Phase 2 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register

Continuous clockwise rotation of the crankshaft transfers the fluid to the number 1 pistons thereby concluding phase 2 of the operation.

3
10 11

1 2

12

Figure 5 : Phase 3 - Mechanical Analogy of a Charge-Transfer Register

The final cycle, phase 3, is shown in Figure 5. The fluid is transferred from the

number 1 pistons to the number 2 pistons (in the case of the charge-transfer register, from

one storage cell to the next). The mechanical fluid transfer system is therefore called

a three-phase system.

It should be noted that the crankshaft could have been turned in the counterclockwise

direction. In this case, the fluid would be transferred from the right to the left, or oppositely from the example. The reverse operation should also hold true for symmetrical

charge-transfer registers. However, little information was found in the available

literature on this characteristic even though other types of silicon device registers are

not fully capable of bi-directional operation.

Figure 6 is a storage element of a charge-coupled device.

METAL ELECTRODE

ELECTRONIC POTENTIAL

SILICON DIOXIDE

WELL

®®®®®®"^}^stored;charge (electrons)

P-TYPE SILICON

7

-DEPLETION REGION

i

Figure 6 : The Charge-Coupled Device Storage Element

A metal electrode is applied to a silicon substrate (P-type silicon in this case). The

metal, usually aluminum, is separated from the substrate by a thin layer of silicon dioxide

(Si02). When a potential (+V) is applied between the electrode and its substrate, electrons

accumulate near the upper surface of the silicon beneath the electrode. When the source of potential is disconnected, the electrons remain under the electrode; but, the charge is reduced in time primarily due to electrical leakage through the large but still finite

resistance of the Si02 layer. This loss of charge is characteristic of dynamic memories.

The charge loss introduces the requirement for periodic replacement of the lost charges.

Commonly, this cycle is called the "refresh cycle" in dynamic memories of which chargetransfer devices are members. The region under the upper metal electrode that is occupied

by electrons, and is void of holes, is referred to as the depletion region. In general,

the capacitance of the above storage element is somewhere near 0,1 picofarads. When the

charge, about 1,5 picocoul ombs , is transferred from one element to the next, the output

signal current is 0,5 microamperes at speeds of around 1 megahertz.

4
Figure 7 shows a three-phase charge-coupled device with a charge-packet under the 01 electrode.

03 Q 01Q 02Q 03Q

j«OV T+V |»OV |»OV

Figure 7 : Charge Storage in a Charge-Coupled

Device during Phase 1

Since electrons are collected under the 01 electrode, a potential approaching the

device supply voltage (+V) exists between the 01 electrode and ground. The other electrodes

exhibit a near 0 volt potential at this time (tl ) as shown in Figure 8.

In order to move the charge from the 01 to 02 electrode position, an electric potential

well has to be introduced under the 02 electrode while at the same time the 03 electrode

potential well must repel the 01 electrons. This operation is accomplished by the use of

the following three-phase clock wave forms (Figure 8).

+V

«ov-i

02

03

01

02

03

02

03

PHASE2

PHASE 3

01 01—PHASEl

t2 t3 TIME

Figure 8 : Three-Phase Clock Signals for Charge-Coupled Device

Time tl in the above timing diagram is chosen as a starting point. This is the condition

of the CCD in Figure 7.

As time progresses, toward the right, the next positive pulse occurs in 02 (at time t2).

The condition of the CCD example is now as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 : Charge Transfer in a Charge-Coupled Device during Phase 2

5
At the conclusion of phase 2, all of the electrons should be transferred to a position

under electrode 02.

It should be noted that during the phase 2 transfer period, the 03 wells on either

side of the charge packets are very shallow. The 03 wells therefore act like very high

impedance paths for the electrons and therefore confine the electrons in the 01 and 02

wells. This is the major reason for using the described 3 phase transfer operation--it

provides charge packet isolation.

No amplification of signal is present during the process. Due to this fact and other

factors such as thermal, time, and trapping considerations, losses of electrons occur. These losses are expressed in terms of transfer efficiency. The transfer efficiency of

a charge-transfer device can be defined as the fraction of a charge packet that is

transferred completely and is shown later to be in the range of 98.00% to 99.999% per

stage.

The next positive pulse to be encountered in time is the phase 3 pulse. The potential

of the phase 2 clock is rapidly declining during this period (the charge packet, however,

remains intact). Most of the electrons are now moved to and are positioned under the

phase 3 electrode.

Thus far, only the transfer of charge packets has been discussed. The following sections

will now explain how electrons are "injected" into and "extracted" from the CCD arrays.

Several methods are used to introduce signal levels into CCD arrays; the most common techniques are the following:

Injection diode

Surface avalanche

Light projection

Figures 10a, b, and c show the different techniques of signal introduction to the

CCD array.

CONTROL

GATE

DEPLETION

REGION

Figure 10a : Input-Diode Electron Injection

Electrons are injected under the control of both the diode (P-N) and the Control Gate.

The diode acts as an infinite source of minority carriers, or electrons, in this case.

As the electrons appear in the depletion region under the diode, the Control Gate "funnels"

this charge to the 01 electrode at the 01 clock period.

Figure 10b shows the avalanche injection method.

6
>+V AVALANCHE O

Figure 10b : Avalanche Electron Injection in a Charge-Coupled Device

Electrons are injected into a well under the +V avalanche electrode by a high potential

that is applied to this electrode. The potential is much greater than the clock potentials

+V (clocking potentials are set at such levels as not to introduce distortion in the

stored information). The quantity of introduced electrons is thus related to the amplitude

of +V avalanche.

Figure 10c is a schematic diagram of a solid-state charge-coupled device image sensor.

//////////////////////////////////////

IMAGE SENSOR^ ^

Figure 10c : Electron Injection by Light in a Charge-Coupled Device

Electrons are introduced to the various electrodes of the image sensor by the amount of

light that is received on the side, or face, opposing the electrode structures. The

greater the amount of light on the face of the device, the more electrons are introduced

per unit area as is shown in Figure 10c. The collected charges under the electrodes are thus an analog replica of the light pattern impinging on the lower side of the chargecoupled device sensor. These charges can be scanned by the described clocking methods

and can be detected as trains of wave forms, the amplitudes of which are directly proportional

to the gray scale of the image. The array can therefore be called self-scanning, and is an analog application of the charge-coupled device.

V CONTROL - _ V OUTPUT

03 Q 01 Q 02 Q 03 Q

GATE

P-TYPE SILICON

OUTPUT

VOLTAGE

Fi gure 1

: Output-Diode Data Detection in a Charge-Coupled Device

7
Figure 11 shows a means of charge, or data, detection for a charge-coupled device.

This method is used almost universally and depends upon the characteristics of the reverse biased diode (the P-N junction in Figure 11). In addition, an output gate electrode

structure is installed to reduce the clock signal effect on the data as they are presented

to the P-N diode. Detection of data proceeds as follows; at the end of 03, the charge to- be-detected is located under the 03 electrode. When the 03 clock signal starts approaching

the ground voltage, the charge is passed by the output gate and is collected by the P-N diode. The collection of the electrons under the diode causes a current to flow in the load

resistor R|^, which in turn produces the desired output voltage, or data signal.

Charge-coupled devices and bucket-brigade devices are relatively similar in operation.

In both bucket-brigade devices (BBD's) and charge-coupled devices (CCD's), packets of

charge carriers are moved around beneath the surface of a semiconductor crystal without

a direct electrical connection to the crystal. The carrier packets are manipulated by means of localized electric fields called "potential wells," that are controlled by potentials

applied to electrodes that are deposited on a thin insulating layer at the semiconductor

(usually silicon) surface. But, whereas the CCD uses a completely homogeneous crystal and

relies upon potential wells which are induced into the lattice to hold the carriers together

as a packet (see Figure 12), the BBD uses wells of opposite impurity doping which are deposited on the main crystal (see Figure 13). [7, 8, 9, 10]

Electric Potential Well Impurity Well

Figure 12 : Charge-Coupled Device Figure 13 : Bucket-Brigade Device

Charge-Transfer Device Electrode Structures

Bucket-brigade devices from various manufacturers all appear to be constructed by

using similar methods. CCD's, on the other hand, are constructed with a greater variety

of structures. Generally speaking, two types of CCD's are noteworthy:

The Surface-Channel CCD (see Figure 14a) [11]

The Buried-Channel CCD (see Figure 14b) [12, 13, 14]

01 02 03 01 01 02 03 01

INTERELECTRODE lON-IAAPLANTED

Figure 14a : GAPS(l-6i,M) Figure 14b : LAYER

Surface-Channel CCD (SCCD) Buried-Channel CCD (BCCD)

8
The surface-channel CCD (SCCD) appeared on the scene first. It suffered from poorer

transfer efficiencies when compared to more recent buried-channel devices which can operate

at higher frequencies and which are relatively free of loss mechanisms such as surface

recombination. This disadvantage of the SCCD is due to interactions of the signal carriers

with conditions presented by the surface of the device. In other words, the channel

charge is exposed to the Si-SiOz interface where interface states cause charge recombinations

resulting in poorer transfer efficiencies. [11]

The peristaltic charge-coupled device (PCCD) is a special type of buried-channel

charge-coupled device (BCCD). As in all BCCD's, the effect of surface states on the charge

transfer efficiency can be greatly reduced by operating in the buried channel mode (see

Figure 14b). In the PCCD, increased efficiency is obtained by introducing two or more

layers (instead of one layer as other types of BCCD's) between the substrate and the surface

of the crystal (see Figure 15). [15]

ELECTRODE

ELECTRON CHARGE CLOUD

Figure 15 : Construction of the Peristaltic Charge-Coupled Device

In this Figure, layer number one (LI) is an ion-implanted layer that is placed on top of the

N-type epitaxial layer L2, Both layers rest on the P-type silicon substrate. The net effect of the double layer is to keep the charge cloud farther away from the surface of

the device, thereby preventing surface charge recombination. The extra layer construction__

insures a low charge loss and thereby a high charge-transfer efficiency for the PCCD. [16]

Many CCD manufacturers desiring advanced CCD operating characteristics, are dropping

the SCCD design and are presently developing BCCD's. Other CCD manufacturers, however,

will continue to use SCCD construction since the SCCD fabrication process is less costly

than either the BCCD or PCCD.

The attachment and position of the CCD electrodes are vital to the operation of chargetransfer devices. Several methods for electrode attachment are used, but most CTD electrodes

are fabricated by aluminum or polycrystal 1 ine silicon deposition. Interelectrode structures

are usually one of two types: [16, 17] (see Figure 16 and Figure 17 [18, 19])

04 m

Figure 16 : Figure 17 : Nonoverlapping Electrode 30 CCD g Overlapping Electrode 40 CCD
In nonoverlapping gate structure design, the distance between the electrodes has a great

effect on the device transfer efficiency and high frequency operation. The minimum

interelectrode gap distances are usually determined by the fabrication limits of the

photolithographic process of the manufacturer in question. Thus, the better the lithographic process of the manufacturer, the smaller the CCD gaps. Most current CCD's use the

overlapping gate design. [18, 20]

Technical Obstacles in Charge-Transfer Devices

Charge-transfer devices present a number of technical obstacles to the solid-state

device and equipment manufacturer: [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]

Volatility (complete loss of data with loss of power supply voltage)

Bit-Serial Operation (slow access time)

Poor Charge-Transfer Efficiency (partial signal loss)

Poor Radiation Resistance (signal distortion or loss)

Current Photolithographic Limits (leading to CCD production yield problems)

It is doubtful whether the obstacles of poor radiation resistance and imcomplete charge

transfer will ever be fully surmounted. However, the effects of these obstacles have little

influence on the operation of currently-used commercial devices. These obstacles become

important only in highly-specialized military applications. [21, 26, 27, 28]

The problems of volatility and bit-serial operation have some impact upon commercial

CTD products. The volatility of the CTD is a factor to consider when choosing between

CCD's and magnetic memories while the bit-serial operation influences the choice between

CCD's and current random-access-memories (RAM). It is anticipated that a certain degree

of nonvolatil ity will be attained in future CCD's through the use of metal -nitride-oxide

(MNOS) circuitry. [29] Complete random access to any bit in a CCD memory is regarded by

most scientists to be far more difficult.

Many U.S. manufacturers utilize conventional photolithographic techniques in producing

CTD's, If higher CTD storage densities are going to be required, very expensive scanning

electron-beam or X-ray lithographic equipment will be necessary. Another method which can

be utilized to produce higher bit-capacity CTD chips at reasonable yields, is to introduce

larger chips, thereby relaxing the demands on conventional photolithographic processing. At present only some U.S. companies are capable of producing large (up to 12 millimeter and

li-rger on a side) silicon chips. [1, 21, 30]

Charge-Transfer Device Applications

The charge-transfer device is probably one of the most versatile solid-state LSI products that has been intented. New applications of charge-transfer devices, in the

from of either BBD's, CCD's, or PCCD's, are still occurring. The following list identifies

most of the applications of the charge-transfer device proposed to date:

Computer Oriented CCD Memories [31, 32, 33, 34]

Optical CCD Sensors [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]

Digital and Analog CCD and BBD Shift Registers [40, 41]

Moving-Target- Indicator Filters for Radar Systems [42, 43]

Nonvolatile MNOS CCD Memories [29]

Disk and Drum Replacement CCD Peripheral Memories [41, 44] BBD Speech Compressors in Audio Equipment [45] BBD Tremolo, Vibrator, and Choral Effect Control in Electronic Musical

Instruments [46] BBD Telephone Time Compressors and Voice Scramblers in Communication

Systems [46, 47]

BBD Matched Filters [48]

CCD Integrated Imagers [30]

CCD Low Light Level Image Sensors [30]

10
Nonrecursive CCD Filters [50]

CCD Signal Processors [40, 51]

CCD Multiplexers and Demultiplexers [40, 41]

It is clear from the preceding list that charge-transfer devices can have a significant

technological impact on digital and analog systems. It is also clear from current,

researched literature that CTD's are still in the developmental process and require

additional development to further reduce ill effects of certain inherent characteristics

(such as volatility and charge-transfer inefficiency). The effort involved in overcoming

these undesirable characteristics will be intense and highly competitive since the process

is stimulated by the potential of creating a promising low-cost, versatile solid-state

product. [21 , 40]

Charge-Transfer Device Computer Application Trends

Of the devices presently recognized as charge-transfer devices, the technology most

often applied to computer memory applications by both U.S. and foreign manufacturers is the

CCD technology. Applications of CCD's fall into the following categories: [1, 52]

CCD Peripheral Mass Memories

CCD Swap Memories

Figure 18 shows how CCD's might have impact on computer memory systems. The figure

is divided into three sections: [1, 53]

Computer Main Memories

Computer Swap Memories

Computer Peripheral Memories

Currently, CCD memories can perform well in the computer mass memory area. [44]

10"^ 10** 10'^ 10"* lO''' 10'^ 10"^ ACCESS TIME (SECONDS)

Figure 18 : CCD Computer Memory Application Trends
CCD Computer Main Frame Memories

CCD memories cannot perform well in the computer main frame mode since CCD's are basically serial memories and therefore exhibit slow data access times. In order for CCD's

to successfully compete with MOS or core random-access-memories (RAM), CCD memory access

times should be between 0.1 and 1 microseconds with capacities of 10^ to 10^ bits, (see

Figure 18). A serially arranged (major and minor loop design) CCD main memory of 10^ bits

with an average access time of 0.5 microseconds would require data to be clocked in the

high gigahertz region. Hence, it is doubtful whether CCD's will replace conventional

random-access computer main frame memories. [32]

CCD Computer Swap Memories

Application of the CCD in commercial computer swap memory is feasible today. Intel

(U.S.) markets a one-million-bit CCD memory card which could serve very well as a computer

swap memory when storing blocks of data from slow peripheral memories. The swap data can thus be block-random-accessed and can provide the computer main memory with its necessary

data in shorter time intervals than the peripheral memories, [1]

Swap memories, currently used in advanced computer systems, are usually N-channel

metal -oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) or P-channel metal -oxide-semiconductor (PMOS) solid-state

memories. The replacement of these memories with CCD memories would be cost effective since

CCD's are potentially less costly. Advanced fast CCD swap memories, operating at speeds

greater than 100 MHz, could be built with capacities of >10^ bytes and average access times

of 100 microseconds and possibly even 10 microseconds. [40, 41]

CCD Computer Mass Memories

(Current and Future Designs

)

CCD's are most likely to be accepted initially in computer peripheral mass memories as replacement for disk and drum peripheral memory units. Bel 1 -Northern Research of Canada,

a subsidiary of Northern Electric, built a CCD memory in 1975, to replace the DEC RS64 disk

unit on a DEC PDP-11 Computer. Its operating characteristics are as follows: [52]

Capacity - 1 megabit

Number of words - 64,000

Access (latency) to any word - <200 microseconds, versus 11 milliseconds

on the RS64 disk

Chip capacity - 8 kilobit CCD

Data organization - 256 bit blocks

Clocking rate - >800 KHz System application - direct DEC RS64 replacement

System interface - PDP-ll Unibus

According to a Bel 1 -Northern Research paper (see reference 63), the incorporation of

the CCD disk replacement resulted in sizable reduction in power dissipation, and a marked

reduction in latency over the RS64 disk.

The Bell-Northern CCD disk replacement memory bears similarities to a million bit CCD

printed circuit card recently announced by Intel. However, the Intel product uses 16

kilobit chips as opposed to 8 kilobit chips in the Bel 1 -Northern memory. Furthermore,

Intel has announced the capability of producing 32 kilobit chips in the near future. [54]

Table 1 presents predictions make by a Bell Laboratory CCD scientist on the future

development of CCD memories.

12
Table 1 - DEVELOPMENTS IN MEMORY CCD's (1975-78)

1. MINIMIZING CHIP AREA/BIT USING PRESENT DESIGN RULES

(a) Use of SPS blocks (peripheral area savings over RAM.'\-25%)

(b) Use of interleaved parallel channels (50%)

(c) Use of high density electrode structures or electrode/bit

mode {"^SO'/o)

. ' . Packing density of memory CCDs ^6 times higher than RAM for

Ty^^ 'vSOO liS

2. IMPROVING ACCESS TIME

(a) Use of faster peripheral circuits

(b) Use of bulk channel CCDs

(c) Small area, stable regenerators for serpentine organization

.

' . Tfl^^ -\.10 - 100 ys

3. REDUCING POWER

(a) Careful peripheral design

(b) Lower dark current

(c) Longer access times

(d) Smaller cell sizes, lower voltages, thinner oxides

.'. Power 'vlW/MHZ/Mbit

4. HIGHER YIELD AND MORE BITS/CHIP

(a) Simple electrode structures

(b) Control of dark current

(c) Electron beam fabricated masks

(d) X-ray or electron lithography

. ' . 64k or 128 kbit chips

5. MULTILEVEL STORAGE

(a) Design of multilevel detection circuits

(b) Control of dark current

(c) Control of transfer inefficiency

256-512 kbit chips

6. NONVOLATILITY

(a) Use of MNOS structure

.

* . 16-64 kbit permanent memory chip

7. ADAPTIVE PROGRAMMING

(a) Applicable to block addressed structures

.

' . 256 kbit chips

Predictions made by M, F. Tompsett,

Bell Labs at the International Solid State

Circuits Conference

Philadelphia, Pa., February, 1975

13
2. CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE PARAMETERS

Bit-Storage Densities of Charge-Transfer Devices

In the silicon solid-state memory technology, bit-storage density of the charge-transfer

device currently surpasses the densities of all other LSI silicon storage devices. At present, commercial products exhibit a chip-bit density of about 10^ bits per square

centimeter (about 10^ per square inch). Initial CCD bit densities (in 1970) were about

one order of magnitude lower and were found in chips with three orders of magnitude lower

storage capacity than recent CCD's (see Figure 19). [24]

The CCD device development progress, from 16 bit chips with 10^+ bits per square

centimeter to 16 kilobit chips with 10^ bits per square centimeter (1975), in a period of

less than five years, is impressive. It is anticipated that chips with 32- and 64 kilobit

capacity and 10^ bits per square centimeter will be marketed in the near future. [33, 54]

Charge-Transfer Efficiency of Charge-Transfer Devices

Since a charge-transfer device is comprised of a string of analog delay elements,

each of which exhibits no gain, charge packet transfer occurs with certain losses. Such

losses are expressed in percentage of charge-transfer efficiency. Charge-transfer efficiency

directly influences the faithful reproduction of the processed signal. Regeneration of the

deteriorated, transferred packets within the charge-transfer device is necessary since charge

losses reduce the fidelity of the processed signal. Interstage amplifiers within the CTD

must therefore be used if the register is long and the accumulated charge-transfer inefficiency

interferes with the signal fidelity. On the other hand, it is important to minimize

interstage signal regeneration since the additional diffusions (etc.) required for the

amplifiers forces the use of more difficult fabrication techniques which can contribute to lower product yields. It is therefore extremely important to maximize transfer efficiency. [1

]

Early CCD's, such as those produced by Bell Telephone Laboratories (1970), displayed

typical charge-transfer efficiencies of 98%. This figure indicates an approximate 2% loss

of charge per transfer. Rapid improvement in the CCD efficiency occurred from 1970 to 1973

and ratings of 99.9% efficiency are claimed by several U.S. manufacturers during this period.

Hitachi, a Japanese firm, claims a 99.96% efficiency rating at 10 MHz operation. (The

pairing of the efficiency rating and its operating frequency is very important since chargetransfer efficiency is highly frequency dependent and charge is lost faster at higher

operating frequencies.) [55] (see Figure 20).

Currently, the most impressive charge-transfer efficiency ratings are those published

by Philips in 1974 and 1975 articles which described the operation of a peristaltic chargecoupled device with efficiencies of 99.999% at frequencies of up to 180 MHz. [15, 56]

Charge-Transfer Device Data Rates

As shown in Figure 21a and b, data rates for bucket-brigade devices are generally

slower than those for charge-coupled devices. In the period from 1971 through 1973, the

data rates of BBD's and CCD's show an average speed of about 1 MHz per device. Some

charge-transfer devices can be found that operate faster, but usually such devices are "tuned" laboratory models with low bit-storage capacities. [10]

A major breakthrough in CCD data rates occurred in 1974 when Philips introduced the

peristaltic charge-coupled device which operates at speeds greater than 100 MHz and has

the potential of gigahertz operation. [56]

According to Figures 21a and b, which were developed from information found in open

literature, Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA, and Intel are the U.S. producers in high speed data

rates for large capacity CCD's while Bel 1 -Northern of Canada is the foreign producer in these

respects. [52, 57]

14
BIT- STORAGE DENSITIES OF CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICES

(BITS PER SQUARE UNIT)

10' 10' 10' 10' 105 _l_10' 10' 10* 10 = BITS/CM2

10'

I 10-I 10' 10" 10'I 10' _l_

8 10- 1010 BITS/IN2

1970 NEW CCD'S

/ y , / ^ y y ^ , ,

1971

1972 HIGH DENSITY SERIAL CCD MEMORY

•^HIGH DENSITY CCD-^

///

1973

1974

1975

CCD MEMORY BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORY (BTL)

BTL

16 BITS BBO DUAL DYNAMIC

SHIFT REGISTER

14 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER

CCD MEMORY

VERY HIGH DENSITY CCD

BTLGENERALELECTRIC (GE)

RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA (RCA)

BTL INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES (IBM)

IBM

SERIAL CCD (SERPENTINE FLOW)

/////////////// //

HIGH DENSITY CCD

'V//////////////, //////////.'y/// // CCD'S IN LATE 70'S

' ///////////////

SERIAL CCD (PARALLEL FLOW)

FUTURE HIGH DENSITY CCD

16 KILOBIT CCD MEMORY

16 KILOBIT CCD 460 LARAM

CC16M1 (16 X 10^ BITS CCD MEMORY)

16 KILOBIT CCD 2416 MEMORY

THOMPSON, RAMO, WOOLDRIDGE CORP. (TRW)

RCA

RCA

TRW

TRW

1A

RCA

FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR

BELLNORTHERN RESEARCH

INTEL CORPORATION (IC)

= POTENTIAL

^ CANADIAN

^PROTOTYPE

FIGURE 19

15
CHARGE TRANSFER EFFICIENCY OF CHARGE -TRANSFER DEVICES

(AT MAXIMUM OPERATING SPEED)

.9450 .9500 .9550 .9600 .9650 .9700 .9750 .9800 .9850 .9900 .9950 1.0000

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CCD REGISTER BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORY (BTL) .9800 CCD IMAGER BTL .9800 RUN (s 2 MHZ

1071 EARLY CCD DEVICE BTL .9990 SHIFTED @ 500 KHZ

CCD DEVICE IMAGER BTL .9989 @ 2 MHZ

BUCKET-BRIGADE SHIFT REGISTERS TEXAS INSTRUMENTS (Tl) .9800 @ 10 KHZ*

1972 CCD DEVICE REGISTER BTL .9990 15) 1 MHZ BIT RATE

1<j> CCD DEVICE STANOFORD INTEGRATED CIRCUITS LABORATORY .9999 (s 1 KHZ*

10 BITS CCD MEMORY DEVICE ROCKWELL INTERNATIONAL (Rl)>.9800 @i 25 KHZ*

NONVOLATILE MNOS CCD MEMORY Rl .9850

4 BITS CCD WITH BURIED CHANNEL SHIFT REGISTER HITACHI LTD. ,.9950 @ 500 KHZ^*

64 BITS CCD DEVICE Tl .9990

1973 BULK CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE HITACHI LTD., .9996 (a 10 MHZl*

256 BITS VERY HIGH DENSITY CCD DEVICES

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES

(IBM).9998 1? 100 KHZ*

128 BITS VERY HIGH DENSITY CCD DEVICES IBM .9999 @ 100 KHZ*

4<P PERISTALTIC CCD PHILIPS RESEARCH LAB (PRL)

.9999 (si>100 MHZ2

64 BITS 2<p CCD

RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA

(RCA) .9999 (a 1 MHZ*

1974 30 330 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER RCA .9990 OPERATED @ 20 MHZ

JTHEORETICAL CCD OPERATION;;$$$:$$$$$: RCA .9999 (a 10 MHZ*

TWIN-LAYER PERISTALTIC CCD PRL .99999 ^ SPEEDS TO 180 MHZ2

1975 EXPERIMENTAL CCD IMAGE DEVICE NIPPON ELECT. CO. (NEC) .9990^

32 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS, U OF SOUTHAMPTON

.9990 OPERATED (31 MHZ3

* = CLOCK RATE 'JAPANESE

<()= PHASE 2QUTCH = POTENTIAL 2 BRITISH

FIGURE 20

16
CHARGE -TRANSFER DEVICE DATA RATES

(@MAXIMUM HERTZ)

10"

I

10'

I

10- 10"

I

10" 10' 10" 10'

I

10^" io"

_L

96 BITS CCD IMAGING DEVICE

1971 POLYSIUCONELECTRODE CCD?

BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORY (BTL) GENERAL ELECTRIC (GE)

RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA (RCA)

5,760 BITS CCD SERIAL MEMORY

^"/f^^"

256 BITS HfcV OeVsItVcCD MOd'eL

4 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER

8,196 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER

1973

P-CHANNEL CCD MEMORY

128 BITS EXPERIMENTAL CCD REGISTER

'

256 BITS EXPERIMENTAL CCD REGISTER

500 BITS 30 CCD DEVICE

^J^y>^^y>Jy>y'y>,'y>y>.>^y

32 BITS CCD SHIFT REGISTER

y ^ ^ ^ ^

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES (IBM)* BM*

IBM

HITACHI LIMITED, japan""* BELL NORTHERN RESEARCH (BNR)^ IBM*

IBM* IBM*

BTL* IBM*

10 BITS BBD SHIFT REGISTER

32 BITS CONDUCTIVELY CONNECTED CCD(C4D)

GENERAL ELECTRIC CORP. (GEC)

BTL*

32 BITS CCD MEMORY

DUAL512-STAGE BBD 20 ALUMINUM POLYSILICON GATE CCD

SERIAL CCD (PARALLEL FLOW)

SERIAL CCD (SERPENTINE FLOW)

HUGHES AIRCRAFT COMPANY (HAC)* MATSUSHITA

RCA*THOMPSON, RAMO, WOOLDRIDGE CORP. (TRW)

TRW

MULTIPLEXED-ELECTRODE-PER-BIT CCD (ME/B) 1974

8,192 BITS ARRAY CCD MEMORY

SERIES-PARALLEL-SERIES (SPS) CCD

16 KILOBIT SERIAL CCD MEMORYTEXAS INSTRUMENTS (TI,UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

BELL NORTHERN (BN)^ RCA

RCA RCA ^TRW

pfRlmtfl cThAR G E ^ COUPLEd'dEVICE :

ROYAL RADAR ESTABLISHMENT 3*

PHILIPS RESEARCH LAB (PRL) PRL** JAPANESE

= POTENTIAL

2 CANADIAN

3 BRITISH ^DUTCH

* CLOCK RATE

<t> PHASE

17
CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE DATA RATES

(@MAXilVIUM HERTZ)

10^ 10^ 10^ 10* 10^ 10^ 10^ 10^ IflS 10^''

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4,096 BITS SERIAL-PARALLEL-SERIAL (SPS) CCD RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA

CCD 2416 (16,384 BITS MEMORY) INTELCORPORATION (IC)

1975

8.4 X 10^ BITS CCD MASS MEMORY RCA (UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

CCD 450 (9,216 BITS) FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR (FS) CCD 460 (16 KILOBIT LARAM) 1 FS CC16M1 (16 X 10^ BITS CCD MEMORY) BELL NORTHERN RESEARCH

= POTENTIAL

CANADIAN

^PROTOTYPE

FIGURE 21b

18
Charge-Transfer Device Power Dissipation

Charge-transfer devices have very low power dissipation. However, power dissipation In CCD's must be measured under two conditions:

Standby Operation

Dynamic Operation

The difference between the above operating modes is that data are transmitted in the

dynamic mode whereas the memory is idle under the standby mode of operation.

The standby power dissipation of CTD's usually does not vary, given that environmental

conditions (temperature, humidity, power supply voltages, etc.) remain constant. The

standby power dissipation of the CTD is always less than the dynamic power dissipation when

measured under the same environmental conditions because the losses Incurred in charging

and discharging the MOS capacitors are frequency dependent. Since the CTD is operated at lower frequencies in the standby mode, relative to its dynamic operation, lower power

dissipation is realized in this mode. [31, 58, 59]

In assessing the dynamic power dissipation, it is Important to note the associated

frequencies. Generally, the higher the frequency, the higher the dynamic power dissipation.

Advertised CTD dissipation values usually assume some high frequency dynamic operation.

As shown in Figure 22, reported CCD and BBD power dissipation values range from

approximately 0.1 microwatts to 10 microwatts per bit. It should be noted that the Matsushita

BBD rating (1974) is given at a 10 KHz data rate operation while the CCD 460 from Fairchild

Semiconductor (1975) is rated about the same at 5 MHz operation. The advertised BBD power

dissipation is therefore only a relative value that can be expected to Increase (probably

drastically) when the unit is operated at higher frequencies. [21, 46]

Figure 22 shows that, of currently available devices, the lowest power dissipation

occurs in the Fairchild, RCA, Intel, and the Bell Northern CCD products. These units

dissipate about 10 microwatts per bit in the advertised operating modes. [54, 57]

Charge-Transfer Device Prices

Generally, the CTD price 1s highly dependent upon the quantity of devices being sold.

The price of a single unit can be three or more times the price of single units that are bought in quantities of a thousand.

British and Canadian facilities were the first to offer commercial CCD's. The British

unit (1974) is listed at a price of about 60 cents per bit in small quantities. Comparable

U.S. units from Fairchild Semiconductor, like the CCD 201 's can now be purchased at one tenth the British price, or about 6 cents per bit (see Figure 23). [60]

RCA currently advertises their SID 5000 series TV camera image sensors (512 x 320 bits)

for about 1 cent per bit; the RCA price varies according to sensor quality (low or high

blemish units). [61]

In the CCD memory market, Bel 1 -Northern competes with the U.S. firms of Intel, RCA, and

Fairchild Semiconductor. The Canadian firm charges of 0.1 cent per bit while Fairchild

and Intel are asking 1 cent and 50 millicents per bit respectively. [41, 62]

It is anticipated that. If current trends continue, the CCD price could fall below

the 10 millicents per bit in the near future. [40]

19
POWER DISSIPATION OF CHARGE -TRANSFER DEVICES

(WATTS/BIT)

10

•1 10' -3 10

-4 10" 10' _L

,-7 10r8

CCD MEMORY (a > lOMHZ OPERATING^ RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA (RCA)

y///////'^^'^c^ci':;^^'^<^c:c^_^,"-!;-;^-..^<^<:^^-^ ............ v.

1971

1972

////////////////////////////L / / /^///yx/'//////^/y/

CONCEPTUAL CCD MEMORY @ lO^BITS/SEC IN STANDBY: RCA

108 BITS CCD MASS MEMORY (3 32 x lO^ BITS/SEC OPERATING

CONCEPTUAL CCD MEMORY is) lO^BITS/SEC OPERATING '/////////////////////////////////.

lO^BITS CCD MEMORY@10 MHZ OPERATING

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES

(IBM)

RCA

RCA

DUAL 512-STAGE BUCKET-BRIGADE DEVICE

1974 16 TO 32 KILOBIT SERIAL CCD MEMORY'

8 X 10^ BITS CCD IN STANDBY

J0° BITS CCD MEMORY (a 10 KHZ IN STANDBY /////// -yy^ ^ /_// //

MATSUSHITA^

RCA

RCA(UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

RCA (UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

RCA

1975

CCD 450 (5) 3 MHZ OPERATING

16 KILOBIT 2416 CCD MEMORY OPERATING

CCD 460 @ 5 MHZ OPERATING

CCD 460 @ 400 KHZ IN STANDBY

CCD 450 IN STANDBY

8.4 X 106 BITS CCD MEMORY @ 2 MHZ OPERATING

8.4 X 10^ BITS CCD MEMORY IN STANDBY

FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR (FS) INTELCORPORATION (IC)

FS

FS

FS RCA (UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

RCA (UNDER DEVELOPMENT)

CC16M1 (16 X 103 BITS CCD MEMORY)

@10 MHZ OPERATING BELL NORTHERN 2A

= POTENTIAL

^ JAPANESE

2 CANADIAN ^ PROTOTYPE

FIGURE 22

20
CHARGE -TRANSFER DEVICE PRICES

(CENTS/BIT)

150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80

I !I

I I I 1_

60 50 _l_40 30 20 _l l_.1 .01 .001 J I L_

1,024 BITS CCD SENSOR/SHIFT REGISTER

i32 X 32i CCD110 256 BITS LINEAR SENSOR

GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY LIMITED (GEC LTD)^

*

I FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR (FS)®RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA (RCA)' ARTHUR LITTLE INC."

RCA*

CCD 450 DC DIGITAL MEMORY |9,216 X 1) FS CCD 211 DC IMAGE SENSOR ARRAY (244 X 1901 FSA

CCD QUAD 4 KILOBIT SHIFT REGISTER (4 K X 4) MIL

2416 CCD 16 KILOBIT SERIAL MEMORY (16,384 X 1)

2©

INTELCORPORATION ilC)

7777, = POTENTIAL

FIGURE 23

IN QUANTITY OF

' 1—9

1—24 + 25—99 * 1—100 ® 100-999

BRITISH 'CANADIAN

21
3. NON-U. S. CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE TECHNOLOGY

CTD Technology in Canada

Bell-Northern, a subsidiary of Northern Electric, is considered to be an important

foreign competitor in charge-coupled devices. Bel 1 -Northern, together with Microsystems

International (both subsidiaries of Northern Electric), has recently produced commercial

16 kilobit CCD's with highly competitive features. [63]

Charge-coupled device research was pioneered by Canadian universities. The University

of Toronto and Carleton University have experimented with CCD laboratory and mathematical

models since 1973. Canadian scientists experimented with bucket-brigade devices, special

metal -oxide-semiconductor transistors, and charge-coupled devices. [64, 65, 66]

Most experiments with the CCD's were aimed at improving high-frequency operation and

device efficiency. High-frequency operation of the CCD is strongly related to the width

of the interelectrode gaps of the device. Present photolithographic techniques allow

fabrication of CCD interelectrode gaps that approach 2 micrometers. Smaller interelectrode

gaps are difficult to fabricate since the limited resolution of the photolithographic

process causes low product yield when such small gaps are required.

A significant breakthrough occurred when a process invented at Carleton University

allowed the fabrication of 0.1 micrometer CCD interelectrode gaps. The Canadian process

allows the fabrication of superior CCD's while utilizing conventional lithographic techniques

The process uses a castellated oxide structure which is held at an angle in a beam of

aluminum atoms. Each raised (castellated) [66] structure provides the effect of a shadow,

the width of which is controlled by the angle of incidence of the beam of aluminum atoms

(see Figure 24).

BEAM OF ALUMINUM ATOMS

SHADOWED REGION

«^<0.1 MICROMETER

I Figure 24 : Castellated CCD Structure

Knowledge obtained from the various fabrication processes was applied to the production

of 4- and 8 kilobit CCD shift registers. The shift registers are said to have "overlapping"

gate structures. These structures combined with several "new techniques", according to

Bel 1 -Northern , were implemented in memory chips that were considerably smaller than other

CCD memory chips of the same capacity. [52, 63]

The new Bel 1 -Northern 16 kilobit device is capable of opera^.Ing at 10 MHz data rates. At the same time the unit offers extremely low operating and standby power dissipation. [63]

22
CTD Technology in The Netherlands

Philips, the Dutch electronics firm, is making important contributions to CCD technology.

In order to substantiate the commitment of the Philips facilities, the following events

are presented as indicators:

Invention of the BBD

F. L. J. Sangster, a Philips scientist holds the patents of

this device. The BBD is the predecessor of other chargetransfer devices (CTD's), such as the charge-coupled device

(CCD). [6, 67]

Invention of Integrated Injection Logic (FL)

Philips developed I^L simultaneously with IBM in Germany.

I^L offers several advantages over current LSI circuits (TTL,

NMOS, etc.) in the form of greater bit density at higher

operating speeds. [68]

Invention of the Peristaltic Charge-Coupled Device (PCCD)

L. J. M. Esser, another Philips scientist, invented this

type of charge-coupled device. The PCCD presently operates

more efficiently and at much higher frequencies than

conventional CCD's or BBD's. [56]

Entrance into the Complementary-Metal -Oxide-Semiconductor

(CMOS) Market

Philips recently produced a highly competitive CMOS product

line using a proprietary local oxidation process to build

standard CMOS devices. According to Philips, the new CMOS

line has three to five times the performance potential of

standard CMOS. [69]

Merger of the U.S. firm Signetics with the Worldwide

Philips Organization

The acquisition of the Signetics facility by Philips

provides the Dutch corporation with two significant

advantages: [70]

1. N-channel metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS)

knowledge (much U.S. silicon LSI circuitry is now NMOS and Signetics has a strong position

in NMOS technology)

2. Mass production capability located in the U.S.

23
As early as 1965, Philips was involved in MOS transistor improvement studies. [71]

Philips was the first corporation to offer a commercial BBD, called the M31 . It is

available through the Philips outlet Amperex, according to an advertisement in El ectronic

Design^. [45] BBD's are also used in a relatively new variable speech control system

( VSC) . The VSC system allows a two-hour recording to be compressed into less than 45

minutes. The BBD is designed as an audio delay line into a system, the operation of

which results in normal speech reproduction over a wide range of playback speeds. [45]

Since the invention of the CCD by Bell Telephone Laboratories, Philips has produced

new BBD products. One of the first products which was tried was the TETRODE BBD (TBBD).

The TBBD was designed as an audio delay line with very low distortion. A unique 512-stage

device was built on a 3 x 3 millimeter chip. The distortion of the device response was about 5% at a data bandwidth of about 10 kilohertz. [72]

Another product announced recently features a 512 bit BBD with a 5 to 500 kilohertz

operation. The unit, called a TDA 1022, operates over a temperature range of -20° to +55°C. The product is aimed at the commercial recording market for possible use in

variable speed control or speech compression circuits. [67]

Another Philips invention is the peristaltic charge-coupled device (PCCD). It is said

to have higher frequency operating characteristics than either the BBD, the TBBD, or the

conventional CCD. However, PCCD's are not yet commercially available. [73]

Conventional charge-coupled devices are speed limited since the individual charge

packets fail to transfer as a whole at high frequencies. Mobile charge carriers, which

are left behind, cause distortion in transferring packets. Per'istaltic charge-coupled

devices are designed such that fewer charge carriers are left behind from the packet that

is being transferred. The new Philips design has the potential of operating one hundred

(100) times faster, at comparable or greater charge-transfer efficiencies, than

conventional charge-coupled devices. Presently, all literature found on PCCD design

indicates that Philips is the sole source of this product, [15]

Leonard J. M. Esser, inventor of the PCCD, expects that his invention will eventually

operate in the gigahertz region. [56] If the PCCD is indeed capable of stable operation

at gigahertz frequencies, then the device could cause a revolution in modern day radar

system design by using the PCCD's as high frequency filters in radar receivers. This

design should be vastly superior to current radar designs. [56]

Indications are that the U.K. Royal Radar Establishment is buying some Philips product

for their experimental radar systems. Some sources state that the British (early pioneers

in radar) have made several major breakthroughs in moving-target-indicator filter designs.

Table 2 shows the Dutch devices and products from the U.S. market. Signal processing

CTD's can be reorganized in this table since they excel in either high transfer efficiency

or high speed. On the other hand, memory and image sensor CTD's exhibit characteristics

such as high bit-storage density. A comparison of the various CTD products reveals that

Philips charge-transfer devices are primarily aimed at the signal processing market whereas

the U.S. CCD's are usually for use as memory and image sensor devices. In addition, the

table shows that the Philips products address the signal processing market with devices

which exhibit higher frequency operating characteristics than any other charge-transfer

device.

24
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25
CTD Technology 1n Japan

The approach by Japanese firms towards charge-transfer technology appears similar to that of Philips. However, dates of articles indicate that the Japanese firms have been

involved in the charge-transfer technology for a period of less than five years, whereas

Philips articles date back at least six years. [55, 74, 75]

The Japanese experiments pursue the usual goals of high frequency operation, high

charge transfer efficiency, and high bit-density. Japanese research facilities presently

engaged in charge-transfer device research include the following:

Hitachi Ltd. [55]

Matsushita Electronic Corporation [76]

(Panasonic

)

Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co., Ltd. [77]

(Toshiba)

Nippon Electric Co., Ltd. [75]

(NEC)

In 1972, Hitachi fabricated a charge-coupled device by a unique technique. They

implemented a buried-channel CCD structure (similar to the Philips approach) fabricated with

nonoverlapping gate electrodes (unlike the current Bell Northern approach). The units were ion-implanted with boron (unlike Philips, which uses phosphorus and arsenic, but more like

the U.S. approach). The experimental four-bit, three-phase CCD did not exhibit outstanding

physical or operational parameters. The interelectrode gap lengths were 6 micrometers

(versus Bel 1 -Northern ' s 0.1 micrometer). The high frequency operating range was a low

500 KHz with a moderate 99.5% efficiency. However, these were 1972 results. [74]

Little charge-transfer device activity was reported in technical literature in the

period between 1972 and 1974. However, late in 1974 Electronic News carried Matsushita's

announcement of their commercial bucket-brigade device. The commercial BBD, model MN3001

,

was placed on the market in November 1974. Specifications supporting the MN3001 claim

an 800 KHz clocking rate and a 70dB signal-to-noise ratio. These are quite respectable

operating parameters. Matsushita plans an initial production level of 10,000 BBD's a month,

but the anticipated maximum output is reported to exceed 100,000 units a month, [46, 76]

The rate of progress of silicon technology in Japan in the development of charge-transfer

devices is indicated by a report in Journal of Electronic Engineering (Japan). According

to the article, Panasonic plans to introduce the Japanese BBD into a variety of applications,

such as: [46]

Variable Speech Control (VSC)

Voice Control of Tape Recorders

Reverberation Designs in Stereo Equipment

Tremelo, Vibrato, and Chorus Effects in Musical Instruments

Variable or Fixed Delay Lines for Analog Signals

Telephone Signal Time Compression and Voice Scrambling in

Communication Systems

NEC has also successfully developed a CCD imaging/memory device. It includes an imaging

array of 64 x 64 elements and a storage unit of 64 x 68 elements. Stored data are transmitted via a CCD shift register which consists of 69 stages. The imaging/memory unit

has marked similarities to other designs such as the Fairchild CCD imaging device which

was developed earlier in the U.S, [75]

26
Japanese companies have also adapted CCD's to their color cathode ray television tube

(CRT) instrumentation equipment. Units described in the Japanese trade press are reportedly

being used as variable delay lines in TV convergence alignment systems. Tokyo Shibaura

Electric Co. (Toshiba), produced a 64 bit CCD shift register which is said to operate

beyond the 20 MHz frequency range (the approximate limit of U.S. CCD device operation).

The Toshiba CCD Variable Delay Line (VDL) system delivers convergence quality superior to that obtained by conventional methods. [77]

In general, it appears that charge-transfer devices were first produced in Japan by

using knowledge transferred from foreign sources. Later models are using increasingly

unique and original methods. Products such as BBD's and CCD's are supported by specifications

which could be highly competitive with any CTD manufacturer's products.

The Japanese-manufacturered CTD products are generally not aimed at the computer memory

market. Most applications found in this survey placed these CTD products in the "small

electronic machine" category, which includes such devices as tape recorders, audio equipment,

and television cameras. [46, 77]

Once a CTD product application appears successful, the Japanese semiconductor

manufacturers apparently have no problems in mass producing large quantities of the

electronic devices.

CTD Technology in Great Britain

British Scientists have long been interested in charge-transfer devices. Early chargetransfer device experiments by the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE) used BBD's as delay

lines in radar designs. [42, 43] Several British universities and corporations are pursuing charge transfer research in conjunction with Canadian firms, and commercial CCD

products have been marketed by British companies. Some of the facilities prominent in

British CTD investigations are: [66]

Royal Radar Establishment - CCD experiments (in radar and

television design) [42, 43]

GEC Semiconductors Limited - CCD product applications

(imaging/memory and delay lines and radiation experiments)

University of Edinburgh - CCD experiments (math and lab models) [78]

Univeristy of Liverpool - Nonsilicon CCD experiments [79]

School of Electronic Engineering Science (Wales) - CCD experiments

(CCD bonding and fabrication techniques) [17]

In general, most British charge-transfer device development is oriented toward advanced

radar systems rather than computers. Little mention of memory application of the chargetransfer device is found in the literature, although British research facilities have used

CTD shift registers for various other applications.

In 1973, RRE developed a moving-target-indicator (M.T.I.) filter with the M31 Philips

bucket-brigade shift registers. This filter, when used in conjunction with a radar signal,

discriminates between the returns from stationary objects and those from moving objects by

comparing a "memorized," or previously returned radar signal with the presently returned

signal. The comparison of the two returns results in cancellation of returns from fixed

objects. This technique is used in many radar systems to prevent the display from being

cluttered by large echo signals produced by terrain features. [42]

The British MTI experiments showed that the BBD's could not be clocked faster than

100 KHz, which resulted in a distance resolution of only 1.5 kilometers for the

experimental radar equipment. However, later experiments used an improved MTI filter

with a 330 KHz clocking capability and 99,90% transfer efficiency resulting in a direct

increase in range and clarity of the display signal, [43]

27
Dr. Roy Eames, an RRE CCD specialist, has predicted that radar MTI designs are likely

to be the first application of the CCD shift register. He states that the. present 100

millisecond delay, 40 dB dynamic range, storage capacity of 100 samples, clock rates of

greater than 10 MHz, and simple serial access to data, makes the CCD ideal for radar MTI

signal processing designs. [80]

Dr. Donald J. MacLennan of the University of Edinburgh, formerly an RRE scientist, has

developed a unique technique to tap the analog signal nondestructi vely as it is passed along

from one cell to another. Dr. MacLennan claims that the tapping, with the shift registers

in parallel, uses the entire available system bandwidth, which promises to triple the data

rate now achievable only with complex three-phase CCD's. Moreover, the tapping design

may eliminate sample-and-hold circuitry in some applications. [78, 80]

Recent British experiments in CCD's show trends towards improving CTD fabrication

methods. One method, proposed by the University of Liverpool, suggests an experimental

gallium arsenide (GaAs) CCD. The goal of the design was to fabricate a CCD laboratory GaAs

model with practically zero interelectrode gap distances. The zero interelectrode gap

distance criterion is impossible to meet in silicon with the use of conventional lithographic

techniques. The GaAs technique is novel and has the potential of extremely high frequency

operation. [79, 81]

Late in 1974, GEC Semiconductors Limited, announced their CCD product, the CD200, at

a cost of $600 each. The 32 x 32-bit metal gate N-channel MOS charge-coupled device uses

a serial -parallel -serial mode of operation. The result is reduced degradation of the

analog signal and shorter delay times for digital words. Recently produced U.S. CCD's

operate by similar principles as the CD200. [60]

CTD Technology in the Federal Republic of Germany

Articles in open literature indicate that bucket-brigade research activity in Germany

was underway in 1973. An AEG-Telefunken scientist, W. Prey, reported the computer simulation

of an "improved" BBD shift register. The computer model implemented one additional transistor

and one "ohmic resistor" per cell as an effective means to reduce the charge-transfer

inefficiency of the BBD. [7]

The computer simulation indicated improved frequency operation due to a more complete

transfer of charge from one cell to the next. Operation of 10 MHz (versus the then usual

100 KHz limit) was found feasible, but only at the cost of doubling the chip area. No products implementing the described method have been reported in German literature. [7]

Siemens' literature presented at the International Conference in Edinburgh (1974),

included a nonvolatile CCD memory design. The memory, developed by German scientists,

introduced the metal -nitride-oxide semiconductor (MNOS) capacitor in a CCD memory in

order to achieve nonvolatil ity of data storage (U.S. Patent Numbers 3,508,211 and

3,590,337; R. Wegener). Supporting technical data suggests that the CCD MNOS memory design

is far from primitive. Deposited oxides of Si02 and Si^^^ were 20 angstroms thick which

is comparable to U.S. technology limits. The laboratory model combines the advantage of the

high packing density of the CCD with the nonvol ati 1 ity of MNOS circuits. Hov^ever, the

nonvol atil ity is achieved at the expense of device packing density since the MNOS capacitors

demand a great deal of chip area. No indication is given as to how long data can be stored

in the CCD/MNOS memory. (Nonvol ati 1 ity of MNOS stored data is time dependent in that the

charge on the oxide capacitors depends on the length of read-in time and the number of

read-out cycles. The CCD/MNOS memory, therefore, exhibits conditional long-term retention

of stored data rather than pure unconditional nonvolatil ity of data storage. Long-term

conditional retention is not as desirable as the nonvolatile characteristic shown by magnetic'

core or magnetic bubble memories which store their data indefinitely.) Perhaps the principal

point to be derived from the revelation of the CCD/MNOS memory design is the ability of the

German facilities to produce sophisticated CCD memories. [29]

28
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Information found in both non-U. S. and U.S. literature indicates that two types of

charge-transfer devices are currently produced--the bucket-brigade and the charge-coupled

device.

The bucket-brigade device was invented first and it differs in construction from the

charge-coupled device. Manufacturers of bucket-brigade devices form impurity wells in their

products for charge storage whereas charge-coupled devices depend upon electric potential

wells without doping. In general, the application of the bucket-brigade was found in low

frequency designs such as audio delay lines in audio systems. In some instances, however,

the application of the bucket-brigade was described when functioning in radar systems. The

literature revealed that many of the bucket-brigade units are produced by non-U. S. manufacturers. Particularly manufacturers in The Netherlands and Japan are producers,

although lately a few U.S. sources are also advertising BBD's.

Articles in the available literature on charge-coupled devices indicate that these

devices are researched vigorously in both U.S. and non-U. S. research facilities. Applications

of CCD's as described in the literature were exceedingly diverse.

Most digital applications of the CCD's were found to be in volatile memory systems.

Current advertisements show that digital storage capacity of the CCD has reached about

16,000 bits per chip with associated data rates of over 10 MHz. Peristaltic CCD's,

described in articles from a research facility in The Netherlands, operate as high as 180

MHz with better than 99.999% efficiencies. Predictions of gigahertz operation accompanied

such information. The combination of high-speed digital operation with large bit-storage

per chip was generally found to exist in products from the U.S. or Canada while lately

some from Great Britain were also noticed. High-speed CCD units with high-efficiency

operation were often described in literature from The Netherlands. Nonvolatile digital

memory operation has been accomplished by both U.S. and non-U. S. facilities. West German

researchers have published articles that describe how metal-nitride-oxide semiconductor

material was successfully implemented with CCD memories in order to obtain memory

nonvolatil ity.

In the analog field, many described applications are image sensors, delay lines, and

signal processors (filters, etc.). Activity in CCD sensor, or image, research was found

primarily in facilities located in the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. Many of

these facilities apply their CCD sensors to television cameras as substitutes for the vidicon

tubes. Manufacturers of television equipment in Japan report that CCD sensors are used in

instrumentation to facilitate and thereby speed-up the production of television sets.

The application of CCD's to radar systems (moving-target-indicator filters) has produced

significant results by clearing up unwanted clutter in radar displays. Literature indicates

that radar research with CCD's is conducted by the Royal Radar Establishment in Great

Britain

Table 3 is constructed from data found in available published information. The table

allows a comparison of technical accomplishments in the field of charge-transfer devices.

The realization that charge-transfer devices are here, are available, and are being implemented

into a variety of electronic systems is reflected by this table and a list of products

published in a current magazine. [82] The list reveals that charge-transfer device

application is directed mainly toward three areas. These areas are:

Computer memory

Image sensing, storage, and transmission

Both analog and digital data processing

29
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30
In reviewing the numerous articles on which this report is based, it was found that

computer memories and televison cameras (sensors) are the primary areas of application for

charge-coupled devices, whereas the area of signal processing appears to be addressed by

both CCD's and BBD's.

Competition between CCD memory products and several conventional memory technologies is

evident throughout most of the reviewed literature. One large solid-state product

manufacturer [83] is including CCD memory cells in their soon-to-be-announced 16 kilobit

RAM memory. Another manufacturer [84] has the following expectations:

65 kilobit CCD by the end of 1976

128 kilobit CCD within the next two to three years

400 to 500 kilobit CCD's with the use of electron beam lithography.

The latter manufacturer also offers a complete television camera system that uses charge-coupled device sensors. [85] The article states that the camera operates with

standard closed-circuit television and video recorders, is small size, light weight, low

power and exhibits long life when compared to conventional tube type imaging sensors. Other

facilities have produced similar devices [35, 61] and their literature and advertisements

indicate an eagerness to enter into the fast-growing solid-state image sensor market.

BBD's and CCD's are currently being used as signal processors in radar and audio

applications. But, when this activity is compared to the efforts found in CCD memory and

image sensing literature, CTD signal processing products appear to address only minor

markets. It is difficult to determine the cause of this slower development especially

since the CCD exhibits relatively superior characteristics when used as a logic element.

T. A. Zimmerman [86] points out in one of his technical papers that CCD's exhibit

a ten to one advantage in both device bit-storage density and speed-power product when

compared to characteristics of competing devices. He further adds that CCD's were initially perceived as analog devices and very few facilities recognized the aforementioned

digital advantages. According to Zimmerman, flexible, programmable digital CCD devices,

directly interfaceable with the currently available large CCD memories, can presently be

built. Computing systems, comprised of such CCD logic [86], large CCD memories, and

efficient CCD image sensing and storage systems, could exhibit highly competitive features over existing computers.

Even though such systems can be built today, says the author, the success of such

venture appears to be primarily a function of consistent investment in digital CCD research

and development.

31
5. GLOSSARY

Glossary Terms Applicable to Charge-Transfer Devices*

1. Background Charge - Synonym for circulating bias charge used mainly in imaging devices.

2. Bucket-Brigade Device - A charge-transfer device that (1) stores charge as majority

carriers in doped regions in the surface of a semiconductor that become reverse biased

with respect to the substrate and (2) transfers this charge as a packet along the

surface through a series of switching devices that interconnect the doped regions.

3. Bulk-Channel Charge-Coupled Device (BCCD) - A synonym for buried-channel charge-coupled

device.

4. Buried-Channel Charge-Coupled Device (BCCD) - A charge-coupled device that confines the

flow of charges to a channel lying beneath the surface of the CCD.

5. Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) - A charge-transfer device that stores minority carriers in

potential wells and transfers this charge as a packet by translating the potential

minima parallel to the device surface.

6. Charge-Coupled Image Sensor - A charge-coupled device in which an optical image is

converted into packets of charge that can be transferred as the electrical analog

of the image.

7. Charge Packet - A quantity of electrical charge that is the sum of the signal charge and

bias charge (if used) and is stored in potential wells.

8. Charge-Transfer Device (CTD) - A device in which operation depends on the movement of

discrete packets of charge along or beneath the semiconductor surface.

9. Charge-Regeneration Stage - A region of a charge-transfer device that is used to refresh

digital information stored in a bit location.

10. Circulating Bias Charge - A quantity of electrical charge that is inserted into the

potential well to define the low charge level.

11. Conductivity-Connected Charge-Coupled Device (C^D) - A charge-coupled device that uses doped regions between the potential wells and hence becomes a hybrid between a chargecoupled device and a bucket-brigade device.

12. Drift-Aiding Fringing Field - An electric field at the semiconductor/insulator interface

along the direction of charge propagation due to the potential of adjacent gate

electrodes and the potential on the gate electrode directly above.

13. Empty Zero - A condition where there is zero circulating bias charge.

14. Fat Zero - Synonym for circulating bias charge that is used mainly in digital devices.

15. Floating Diffusion - A diffused area into which a charge packet can be introduced,

thereby changing its potential; typically used in detection or regeneration schemes.

* Most of the presented glossary was extracted from material published by the Electron

Device Engineering Councils (EDEC Solid State Products Council Report, June 17, 1975).

32
16. Floating Gate - An electrically floating plate (pad) that is on an insulating surface over an active portion of the semiconductor surface; typically used in detection or regeneration schemes.

17. Gate Electrode: Transfer Electrode - A plate (pad) that is on an insulating surface over an active portion of the semiconductor surface and to which potential is applied.

18. JFET Bucket-Brigade Device (JFET BBD) - A bucket-brigade device in which the switching

devices are junction-gate field-effect transistors.

19. Junction-Gate Charge-Coupled Device - A buried-channel charge-coupled device that uses

a diffused junction as the gate electrode.

20. MPS Bucket-Brigade Device (MPS BBD) - A bucket-brigade device in which the switching

devices are MPS field-effect transistors.

21. Multiphase Charge-Coupled Device - A charge-coupled device that requires more than one clock for operation of the device.

22. N-Channel Charge-Coupled Device - A charge-coupled device fabricated so that the charges

stored in the potential wells are electrons.

23. Overlapping Gate Charge-Coupled Device - A charge-coupled device formed so that adjacent

gate electrodes overlap and are insulated from one another.

24. Peristaltic Charge-Coupled Device - An advanced form of a PCCD that depends upon complex

multilayer surface isolation techniques for operating in the high-frequency region

with extremely high efficiency,

25. P-Channel Charge-Coupled Device - A charge-coupled device fabricated so that the charges

stored in the potential wells are holes.

26. Potential Minimum - A local minimum of the electrostatic field.

27. Potential Well - A spatially defined depletion region of a charge-coupled device where

the potential minimum exists.

28. Schottky-Barrier Charge-Coupled Device - A buried-channel charge-coupled device that

uses a Schottky barrier junction as the gate electroce.

29. Signal Charge - A quantity of electrical charge in a potential well that, in conjunction

with the bias charge (if used), defines the signal level.

30. Surface-Channel Charge-Coupled Device (SCCD) - A charge-coupled device in which the

potential wells are created at the semiconductor-insulator interface and charge is

transferred along that interface.

31. Transfer Channel - The area of a charge-coupled device in which the charge flow is

confined. Note: This is physically accomplished by means of an oxide step, a channel -stopping diffusion or implant, or by a special edge-guard electrode.

32. Uniphase Charge-Coupled Device; Pne-Phase Charge-Coupled Device - A charge-coupled

device that has asymmetric wells so that only a single clock is necessary to transfer

the charge in the desired direction.

33
Glossary of Memory Terms

1. Access Time - The time between input memory addressing and output information availabiii

2. Bit Density - A measure of the number of bits stored per unit of length or area in the

storage medium.

3. Cache - A high-speed memory whose contents are continually updated in blocks from a larger, slower memory to make the effective memory access time approach that of the

higher speed (cache) memory.

4. Charge-Coupled Device - A semiconductor device which propagates signals by the movement

of charge packets.

5. CMOS (Compl ementary-Metal -Oxide-Semiconductor) - Circuitry and logic employing both

P-channel and N-channel MOS transistors with opposite, or complementary, switching

characteristics

.

6. Latency - A delay time in accessing information from a storage device.

7. LSI (Large-Scale-Integration) - A silicon (or other material) chip containing many gates

8. MOS (Metal -Oxide-Semiconductor) - A field-effect transistor where the gate is insulated

from the channel between source and drain by a metal oxide.

9. RAM (Random-Access-Memory) - A memory capable of being addressed in any sequence for

either reading or writing.

10. Semiconductor Memory - A memory whose basic storage elements are semiconductor devices.

11. TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic, or T^L logic) - A standard integrated logic structure

consisting of Interconnected transistors.

12. Volatile Storage - A memory device which loses data when power is removed.

34
6. REFERENCES

1. Sequin, C. H. and m. F. Tompsett, "CHARGE TRANSFER DEVICES," Academic Press, Inc . , New York

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35
18. Mohsen, A, M. , R. Bower, T. C. McGill, and T. Zimmerman, "OVERLAPPING-GATE BURIEDCHANNEL CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES," in Electronics Letters , 9:17 (August 23, 1973),

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36
36. "FC&I Adds CCD Sensor," in Electronic News , 19:967 (March 18, 1974), p. 46.

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Engineering , No, 95 (October 1974), pp. 63-64, (Japanese Publ i cation )

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devices filter complex communications signals," in Electronics , 47:23

(November 14, 1974), pp. 113-116, 2 refs.

i 48. Buss, D. D., W. H., Bailey, and D, R. Collins, "MATCHED FILTERING USING TAPPED

1 BUCKET-BRIGADE DELAY LINES," in Electronics Letters , 8:4 (February 24, 1972),

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i 49. Walsh, L. and R. H. Dyck, "A NEW CHARGE-COUPLED AREA IMAGING DEVICE," in a paper

1 presented at the Applications Conference ccd Proceedings , (September 18-20, 1973),

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i 3 refs.

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(February 1975), pp. 14 and 18.

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p. 25.

37
53. "CCD Memory Comes in At 10 for a Penny," in Datamation , 21:2 (February 1975),

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(advertisement)

.

55. Takemoto, I., H. Sunami , S. Ohba, M. Aoki , and M. Kubo, "BULK CHARGE-TRANSFER DEVICE,"

in the Supplement to the Journal of Japan Society of Applied Physics , Vol. 43

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SUBMICRON ELECTRODE SEPARATIONS," in Electronics Letters , 9:3 (February 8, 1973),

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p. 25.

38
70. "Signetics to Expand Memory Line, Sample Small MPU," in Electronic News , 20:1054

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under electrode gaps,' in Applied Physics Letters , 22:5 (March 15, 1973), pp. 286-287,

4 refs.

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77. Matsushima, K. , "Analog Signal Processing With CCDs Has Many Applications," in

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Publ ication)

78. McLennan, D. J., J. Mavor, G. F. Vanstone, and D. J. Windle, "NOVEL TAPPING TECHNIQUE

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'! 83. "CCD's gain ground for dense RAM designs," in Electronics , 28:25 (December 11 , 1 975),

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39
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

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1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS SP 500-5

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

COMPUTER SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY:

Impact of Charge-Transfer Device Technology on Computer Systems

5. Publication Date April 1977

6« Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Robert B. J. Warnar

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-608053 | 16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most si^ificant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

This document assesses the 'status of charge-transfer device technology as displayed by foreign research and manufacturing facilities for a period up

to September 1975. Capabilities and accomplishments of charge-transfer

device research facilities in Japan, Canada, Great Britain, The Netherlands,

The Federal Republic of Germany, and the United States are described.

Technical and economic factors are addressed and compared. Conclusions are presented which suggest future impacts of charge-transfer devices on current

electronic systems, especially computers. Information contained in this report was derived from the open technical literature and from interviews with various

U.S. technical experts. The technology assessment resulting in this report was conducted by the Information Technology Division of the Institute for Computer

Sciences and Technology, National Bureau of Standards, as part of an " Advanced

Computer Technology Survey" project.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Bucket-brigade; buried channel; Canada; charge-coupled device; Great Britain;

imager CCD's; Japan; peristaltic CCD's; surface channel; The Federal Republic

of GerTnany; The Netherlands; transfer channel

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