BUILDING 

& FIRE 

RESEARCH 

LABORATORY

Activities, 

Accomplishments 

& Recognitions

National Institute of 

Standards and Technology

Technology Administration, 

U.S. Department of Commerce

a
b

GOAL 1

GOAL 2

GOAL 3

GOAL 4

BFRL at a Glance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .� 1

Director’s Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .� 3

BFRL Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . .� 4

Enhanced Building Performance

Healthy and Sustainable Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Cybernetic Building Systems . . . . . . .� 9

Fire Loss Reduction

Fundamental Fire Science . . . . . . . . � 14

Advanced Fire Service Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Fire Standards, Codes and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Reduced Risk of Fire Spread . . . . . � 30

High Performance Construction Materials and Systems

Service Life Prediction (SLP) of Polymeric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

HYPERCON: Prediction and Optimization of Concrete Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Construction Integration and Automation Technologies (CONSIAT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Homeland Security

Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Research and Development for the Safety of Threatened Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Standards Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � 70

Staff Highlights and Awards . . . . . � 82

Finances and Organization . . . . . . . � 90

More Information About BFRL . . . . � 92

CONTENTS
1

B F R L M I SS I O N

Meet the measurement and standards needs of 

the building and fire safety communities.

B F R L V I S I O N

The source of critical tools – metrics, models, 

and knowledge – used to modernize the building and fire safety communities. Our programs are identified, developed, carried out, 

the results implemented, and consequences 

measured in partnership with key customer 

organizations.

B F R L G O A L S

The building and fire communities (builders, 

suppliers, owners and fire safety professionals) 

strive to increase productivity; construct better 

buildings, faster, at lower cost; and own buildings that are fire safe, less costly to operate, 

and have less impact on the environment. To 

meet the needs of these communities BFRL is 

focusing on four goals.

■ Enhanced Building Performance: to provide 

the means to assure buildings work (better) 

throughout their useful lives. The strategy for 

meeting this goal is to provide knowledge, 

measurements and tools to optimize building 

life-cycle performance.

■ Fire Loss Reduction: to enable engineered fire 

safety for people, products, and facilities; and 

enhance fire fighter effectiveness.

■ High Performance Construction Materials and 

Systems: to enable scientific and technologybased innovation to modernize and enhance 

the performance of construction materials and 

systems.

■ Homeland Security: to develop and implement the standards, technology, and practices 

needed for cost-effective improvements to the 

safety and security of buildings and building 

occupants, including evacuation, emergency 

response procedures, and threat mitigation.

B F R L R E S O U R C E S

■ 140 full time staff with expertise in measurement, material and system performance, 

mathematical modeling, non-destructive 

testing, and diagnostics

■ $40 million annual budget

■ Unique facilities including:

Building Integrated Photovoltaic Testbed

Mobile Solar Tracker Facility

High Temperature Guarded Hot Plate

Tri-directional Test Facility

Large Structures Testing Laboratory

Fire Emulator/Detector Evaluator

Large Fire Test Facility

Virtual Cement and Concrete Test Laboratory

Integrating Sphere UV Exposure Chamber

Virtual Cybernetic Building Test Bed

Well Stirred Reactor/Plug Flow Reactor

Residential Fuel Cell Testing Laboratory

Cone Calorimeter

B F R L W E B S I T E

www.bfrl.nist.gov

BFRL AT A GLANCE
2
3

T he Building and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL) at the 

National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (NIST) is the nation’s 

primary resource for measurements 

and standards for the building and 

fire safety communities. We strive to 

be the primary source of critical tools 

– metrics, models, and knowledge – 

needed to support innovation and 

industrial competitiveness in this 

sector of the economy.

The industries we serve are huge and 

disaggregated. U.S. construction and 

buildings was a $1.4 trillion industry 

in 2004, representing 13% of the 

gross domestic product and employing 

between 5 and 7 percent of the U.S. 

workforce or 10 million workers.

This value consists of the new facilities put in place plus significant investments in renovation and maintenance 

and repair. During the same period, fire 

costs totaled more than $200 billion, 

equivalent to 2% of the gross domestic 

product. These costs include property 

losses, injuries and deaths, the cost 

of engineering fire safety into today’s 

buildings, and the operating costs of 

the U.S. fire services.

Our investments are focused on 

reducing losses from fire and potential 

losses due to terrorism, as well as supporting the industry to innovate and 

3

MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR

improve performance of materials, 

products, and processes of construction. We are a leading advocate for 

the development of performance 

standards as a method of enabling 

innovation. The development of 

fundamental understanding and 

knowledge and its translation into 

accurate performance prediction is 

critical before effective performance 

standards can be put in place.

BFRL is involved in a wide range of 

scientific, engineering, and investigative 

work for the building and fire safety 

communities. The time has long passed 

when any single organization like ours 

can act alone and expect to make a 

major impact on the numerous issues 

facing the industries we serve. We must 

build an extensive network and work 

together to tackle these issues. This will 

greatly enhance all our chances for success. I encourage you to contact us to 

explore joint work.

Dr. James E. Hill

Director, Building and Fire

Research Laboratory
4

ENHANCED BUILDING PERFORMANCE

To provide the 

means to assure 

buildings work 

(better) throughout their useful 

lives. The strategy 

for meeting this 

goal is to provide 

knowledge, measurements and 

tools to optimize 

building life cycle 

performance.

The first strategic focus to achieve the goal 

of Enhanced Building Performance is to 

develop measurement methods, fundamental data, simulation models, and life 

cycle environmental and economic analysis 

tools to support Healthy and Sustainable 

Buildings.

The second strategic focus for achieving 

Enhanced Building Performance is to 

develop, test, integrate, and demonstrate 

open Cybernetic Building Systems. The word 

“cybernetics” comes from the Greek word 

“steersman” and is defined as the science 

of control and communication of complex 

systems. A Cybernetic Building System 

involves energy management, fire detection, 

security, transport systems, energy providers, one or more utilities, an aggregator, and 

numerous service providers, and information handling and complex control at many 

different levels.

Healthy and Sustainable Buildings

Intended Outcome and Background

The intended outcome of the Healthy and 

Sustainable Buildings Program is to make available 

measurement methods, test methods, fundamental data, simulation models, and life cycle 

environmental and economic analysis tools to 

support healthy buildings and the wide-spread 

use of sustainability in design, construction, 

and operation of buildings and their systems/

subsystems.

Global climate change is considered by many 

as one of the most pressing challenges of the 

21st century. Scientific opinion on this matter varies significantly, from the view that contributions 

to global warming are negligible, to the view that 

man-made carbon emissions are a disaster in 

progress, requiring immediate substantial reductions in the emission of the so-called greenhouse 

gases, principally carbon dioxide.

The purpose of the International Climate 

Change Conference, held in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, 

was to accelerate the pace of international action 

on climate change. If adopted by the United 

States, the legally binding international Kyoto 

protocol would translate for the U.S., into a 

7 percent reduction in the 1990 levels of carbon 

emissions by 2010. The U.S. building sector 

shares almost equally with the industrial sector 

and transportation sector in such emissions. 

Beyond regulated carbon emissions, the 

“green movement” is sweeping the building 
B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

5

industry. All major building product companies, building designers, and building 

operators need measurement methods, 

test methods, fundamental data, and 

life-cycle environmental and economic 

analysis tools to objectively promote 

their approaches and products to achieve 

sustainability. 

BFRL will apply its expertise in refrigeration systems, thermal insulation, building 

integrated photovoltaic systems, indoor air 

quality, and life cycle economic and environmental analysis methods to promote 

healthy and sustainable residential and 

commercial buildings.

BFRL’s research on Healthy and 

Sustainable Buildings will produce a wide 

range of data, measurement methods, test 

methods, simulation models, and analysis 

tools that will assist the U.S. in this “transition towards sustainability.” These BFRL 

products include: 

■ Building for Environmental and Economic 

Sustainability (BEES) software program; 

■ performance data on refrigerant/lubricant heat transfer;

■ artificial intelligence-aided design procedures for refrigeration heat exchangers;

■ new apparatuses/test methods/standard 

materials for advanced thermal insulation/

low-temperature insulation/high-temperature insulation;

■ validated design models for building 

integrated photovoltaic systems;

■ a new seasonal performance testing and 

rating methodology for residential fuel cells;

■ contaminant-based design procedures 

for predicting indoor air quality; 

■ methods to evaluate and predict the 

performance of residential ventilation and 

indoor air quality control approaches, 

including the use of different types of air 

cleaning devices; and 

■ new/revised test methods and rating 

procedures for evaluating the energy performance of residential and commercial 

appliances and products. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

BEES Life-Cycle Performance 

Measurement

BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability), a 

software package for measuring the 

life-cycle environmental and economic 

performance of building products, has 

had a major impact in the increasingly 

popular field of healthy and sustainable buildings. The tool implements a 

systematic methodology for synthesizing science-based environmental and 

economic performance data into a 

single score that can be understood and 

applied by the building community. 

Nearly 18,000 copies of BEES 3.0 have 

been requested by users in more than 

80 countries.

BEES is becoming the universally 

accepted metric for product performance measurement and is already having an impact on innovation and commerce. While BEES initially focused on 

green purchasing for the construction 

sector, its success has spawned multiple 

enhancements and applications. Most 

significant is the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA)-sponsored expansion of BEES to enable evaluation of 

environmental and economic performance for biobased products used in 

any industry sector. The 2002 Farm Bill 

(P.L. 107-171) tasked NIST with providing technical support for a preferred 

purchasing program for biobased products created by the law and managed by 

USDA. The Final Rule implementing 

the program, Guidelines for Designating 

Biobased Products for Federal Procurement

(7 CFR Part 2902), in which USDA 

establishes the guidelines for designating 

product categories made from biobased 

products that would be afforded Federal 

procurement preference, mandates that 
6

E N H A N C E D B U I L D I N G P E R F O R M A N C E

before a product category can be 

designated for preferred purchasing, a 

representative sample of products must 

undergo BEES evaluation and BEES 

results must be made available to the 

Federal procurement community.

www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/bees.html

CONTACT:

BARBARA LIPPIATT

OFFICE OF APPLIED ECONOMICS

(301) 975-6133

blippiatt@nist.gov

Residential and Commercial 

Photovoltaic Research

Residential buildings use  approximately 37 percent of 

the electricity consumed within the 

United States. Placement of photovoltaic modules on the roofs of new 

and existing structures offer an aesthetically pleasing means of reducing 

the ever increasing electrical demand 

on central power plants, eliminating 

transmission and distribution 

electrical line losses, and reducing 

environmental emissions. 

A three-year program that focused 

on the use of photovoltaic panels to 

replace building materials normally 

used in commercial building vertical facades has been completed. It 

accomplished the construction and 

operation of the only building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) test facility within the U.S.; improvements in 

photovoltaic performance prediction 

models that are now capable of predicting annual energy production to 

within 5 percent; and the delivery of 

validation data to system modelers. 

A recently-completed study in 

conjunction with Sandia National 

Laboratories demonstrated that 

photovoltaic measurements taken 

under outdoor conditions can be 

replicated and provided data required 

for the next phase of NIST’s photovoltaic program – improving the 

photovoltaic industry’s ability to 

accurately measure the power output 

of photovoltaic modules at standard 

rating conditions. 

A residential photovoltaic test 

facility has now been constructed that 

will result in improved models to predict the electrical energy production 

and demand load reduction potential 

of photovoltaic roofing products. The 

facility will also be used to provide 

BEES 3.0 Software.
7

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

a side-by-side comparison of various 

mounting techniques as well as provide data on the performance of various photovoltaic cell technologies. 

CONTACT:

HUNTER FANNEY

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-5864

hunter.fanney@nist.gov

Guarded Hot Plate Facility

A new 500 mm guarded-hot-plate  facility has been constructed for 

determination of the steady-state heat 

transmission properties of industrial 

insulation materials. Recent laboratory comparisons of high-temperature 

guarded-hot-plate apparatus have 

revealed a high level of scatter, on the 

order of ±20 percent, in the test data 

for different insulation materials. One 

of the primary goals of the new test 

facility is to provide high-temperature 

thermal insulation standards for the 

insulation user community.

The new apparatus builds on the 

concept of using line-heat-sources in 

circular metal plates, a concept pioneered by NIST researchers in 1964 

and later implemented in several 

room-temperature guarded-hot-plate 

apparatus constructed at NIST. The 

new apparatus will handle specimens 

500 mm in diameter and thicknesses 

from 10 mm to 100 mm. The apparatus has been designed to test insulation specimens over an extensive 

range of conditions – from 90 K to 

900 K and under vacuum conditions, 

if desired.

CONTACT:

ROBERT R. ZARR

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-6436

robert.zarr@nist.gov

Residential Building Photovoltaic Panel. 

Front view of the Guarded Hot Plate (top), Installation 

of edge-guard assemblies, cold-plate assemblies, and 

hot plate (bottom).
8

E N H A N C E D B U I L D I N G P E R F O R M A N C E

ACSIM Simulation Model

ACSIM is a software package  for simulating vapor-compression air-to-air refrigeration and airconditioning equipment operating 

with single-component refrigerants 

and refrigerant mixtures. The package combines simulation modules 

for a compressor, finned-tube heat 

exchangers, and connecting tubing. 

The goal of this software package is 

to facilitate the development of optimized systems. 

The evaporator and condenser 

simulation models used by ACSIM 

are those developed for BFRL’s 

EVAP-COND simulation package. 

These models use a “tube-by-tube” 

modeling scheme, which allows for 

specification of complex refrigerant 

circuits, modeling refrigerant distribution between these circuits, and 

accounting for non-uniform air distribution. A graphical user interface 

facilitates input of complex system 

and heat exchanger design data and 

provides a convenient platform for 

reviewing detail simulation results. 

For the evaporator and condenser, 

the simulation output include local 

parameters for each tube such as 

inlet and outlet quality, temperature, 

enthalpy, entropy, pressure drop, 

mass flow rate for the refrigerant, and 

inlet and outlet temperature for the 

air. The output for a complete system 

includes global performance parameters and detailed thermodynamic 

parameters at the key ten locations 

of the system.

Although ACSIM can be used for 

simulating various types of air-to-air 

systems, its basic features make it 

most suitable for simulating residential air conditioners. The package 

includes the option for automated 

simulations of a so called mixed system, where one condensing unit and 

several indoor sections are specified. 

With this option, ACSIM will perform simulations for all combinations 

of the condensing unit and indoor 

sections at a user-specified set of 

operating conditions. 

Currently, ACSIM is undergoing 

beta testing. After completion of testing, it will be placed on the BFRL 

Web site for free download. The 

demand for ACSIM is expected to 

match that of EVAP-COND which 

has been download by over 1000 

organizations from over 40 countries.

CONTACT:

PIOTR DOMANSKI

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-5877

piotr.domanski@nist.gov

Screen shots from the 

ACSIM Simulation Model.
9

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Indoor Air Quality Test Chamber.

Indoor Air Quality Chamber

Astainless-steel test chamber has  been designed and installed 

in NIST’s Building 226 for use in 

a wide range of indoor air quality 

(IAQ) research projects. This 32 m3

chamber is instrumented for the measurement of contaminant concentrations, environmental parameters and 

ventilation rates, and has a custom 

air conditioning system to supply 

clean air to the space with precisely 

controlled temperature and humidity levels. This system employs both 

high efficiency particle filtration and 

gaseous air cleaning to ensure highquality supply air to the space. 

This unique facility will be used 

to characterize contaminant emissions from building materials and 

furnishing as well as to test air cleaning and other IAQ technologies 

under well-controlled test conditions. Current research plans for the 

chamber include the development 

of full test methods for portable air 

cleaners, studies of emission characteristics of building materials and 

furnishings, and development of new 

tracer gas measurement methods for 

characterizing building ventilation. 

Other research possibilities include 

evaluation of gas and particle sensors, 

research into aerosol transport mechanisms, and indoor air chemistry.

CONTACT:

ANDREW PERSILY

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-6418

andrew.persily@nist.gov

Cybernetic Building Systems

Intended Outcome and Background

The intended outcome of the Cybernetic 

Buildings Systems Program is to make 

available tested and demonstrated 

open Cybernetic Building Systems for 

improved productivity, life-cycle cost 

savings, energy conservation, improved 

occupant satisfaction and market leadership. This work will be carried out in 

close cooperation with the U.S. building 

industry, industrial partners, building 

owners/operators and newly developing 

service companies. 

During the next ten years, the building 

controls industry in the United States 

will be undergoing a radical change 

from one with a vertical structure to one 

with a horizontal structure. Building 

control companies, equipment and 

system manufacturers, energy providers, 

utilities, and design engineers will be 

under increasing pressure to improve 

performance and reduce costs. Cost 

reduction can be achieved by developing Cybernetic Building Systems that 

integrate more and more building services, including energy management, 

fire and security, transportation, fault 

detection and diagnostics, optimal control, the real-time purchase of electricity 

and the aggregation of building stock. 

The BFRL program, which will include a 

full-scale demonstration of one or more 

Cybernetic Building Systems, will involve 

the following tasks:
10

E N H A N C E D B U I L D I N G P E R F O R M A N C E

■ develop standard communication 

protocols;

■ develop enabling technologies, such 

as fault detection and diagnostic (FDD) 

methods; 

■ develop performance evaluation tools; 

■ develop a standard-based information 

infrastructure supporting the design, 

commissioning, operation and maintenance of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning and refrigeration systems;

■ construct a Virtual Cybernetic Building 

System in the laboratory to facilitate 

the development and evaluation of new 

products and systems by manufacturers;

■ conduct basic research on the dynamic 

interactions of a fire, HVAC/distribution 

and the zones of a commercial building 

through utilization of existing and new 

simulation models, and validate this 

new simulation program through both 

laboratory and field studies;

■ develop a consortium of manufacturers and service providers interested in 

producing, testing, demonstrating and 

selling Cybernetic Building Systems;

■ test and evaluate different security 

concepts and supervisory security systems for the critical infrastructure protection of integrated building systems; and

■ conduct a full-scale demonstration of a 

Cybernetic Building System in a government owned office building complex. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Developing, Managing 

and Disseminating 

Building Information 

During Emergencies

There are multiple projects dealing with building information during emergencies. Their 

objectives are: (1) to develop standard 

building information services that 

enable ready access to building 

systems data by first responders; 

(2) to develop standard methods for 

managing heterogeneous wireless 

sensor networks in buildings, facilitating access by first responders and 

other emergency personnel; and 

(3) to develop methods for ensuring 

the secure dissemination of building 

information to emergency responders.

An emerging technology known as 

Web services is making it possible to 

provide Internet access to information sources and services that previously were locked in proprietary 

systems. At the same time, numerous 

researchers are developing sensor 

network technologies that make it 

possible for first responders to place 

sensors inside and outside a building 

and make them Internet-accessible 

via Web services or similar technology. While these developments hold 

great promise, several problems arise 

for first responders. For example, 

how can they find out what building 

systems information is available in a 

specific situation and then find the 

information they want? Second, how 

can they fuse the information from 

their temporary and possibly mobile 

sensors with systems information 

available from the building? 

To address the first problem, a 

top-down framework for describing 

building systems and sensors will be 

developed from the previous bottom-up Industry Foundation Classes 

(IFC)-based building information 

modeling work. This project previously explored the use of Web services and building information models 

generated for planning and design 

purposes in creating simulation models for threat analysis and mitigation. 

The framework will be implemented 

in a Web service that can answer the 

first-responders’ question: what can I 

know about the systems in this building or facility and how do I find it? 

This work will involve implementing 

the American Society for Heating, 

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning 

Engineers (ASHRAE) BACnet Web 

Services specification by placing 

BACnet-specific services (e.g., read a 
11

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Secure Dissemination of Building Information to Emergency Responders.

sensor) in the context of the building and its systems (e.g., what sensor 

should be read). This work will also 

establish the framework for two-way 

access to detailed systems information. To address the sensor-fusion 

problem, an auxiliary Web service 

will be developed that can translate 

among the various kinds of location data likely to be present in an 

emergency event. For example, this 

Web service will translate a geospatial 

location (e.g., a GPS datum from a 

mobile sensor) to a building-specific 

location such as a room on a floor, 

and vice versa. Following this, Web 

services will be developed to fuse data 

from sensors that are related by their 

proximity.

This project will also include an 

examination of issues surrounding the implementation of wireless 

sensor networks, using a manufactured house at NIST as a testbed. 

Experiments will be conducted with 

these networks to gather experience 

with competing wireless sensor networking technologies. Specific tasks 

to be carried out include the following: (i) selection of sensor networks, 

(ii) deployment of sensor networks, 

and (iii) exploration of Web services 

for data conglomeration.

Controlling access to this information, and limiting its availability to 

legitimate users without hampering 

the accessibility of the information 

to authorized users, is another critical 

aspect of any system for providing 

emergency responders with building 

information. This process is complicated by the fact that emergency 

responders can come from a wide 

range of departments, including fire, 

police, EMS, HAZMAT and public 

safety and health. Among these agencies are large numbers of individuals, 

as well as departments from various 

jurisdictions, including local, state 

and federal agencies. The proposed 

project will address authentication 

and authorization issues related to 

the secure dissemination of building 

information to emergency responders. Authentication refers to the verification of the identity of information 

requestors, including using biometric 

traits, passwords, smart cards or 

other methods. Authorization refers 

to the rights and privileges that an 

individual has at any point in time 

before or during an incident. The 

project will also include the development of standards and protocols for 

the representation and transfer of 

building information. One additional 

element will be the development of 

methodologies to allow the control 

of building systems by emergency 

responders, for example for smoke 

control, elevator operation or other 

emergency procedures.

CONTACT:

DAVID HOLMBERG

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-6450

david.holmberg@nist.gov
12

E N H A N C E D B U I L D I N G P E R F O R M A N C E

HVAC Fault Detection 

and Diagnostics

Building heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment routinely fails to satisfy performance expectations envisioned at 

design. Equipment and control failures often go unnoticed for extended 

periods of time. Additionally, higher 

expectations are being placed on a 

combination of different and often 

conflicting performance measures, 

such as energy efficiency, indoor air 

quality, comfort, reliability, limiting 

peak demand on utilities, etc. To 

meet these expectations, the processes, systems, and equipment used 

in both commercial and residential 

buildings are becoming increasingly sophisticated. These conditions 

necessitate the use of automated fault 

detection and diagnostics (FDD) to 

ensure fault-free operation.

BFRL has developed two fault 

detection and diagnostic (FDD) 

tools to assist operators in monitoring the performance HVAC systems: 

AHU Performance Assessment 

Rules (APAR) and VAV box 

Performance Assessment Control 

Charts (VPACC). AHU Performance 

Assessment Rules (APAR) uses a set 

of expert rules derived from mass 

and energy balances to detect common mechanical faults or control 

problems in air-handling units. 

Control signals are used to determine 

the mode of operation for the AHU. 

A subset of the expert rules corresponding to that mode of operation 

is then evaluated to determine if there 

is a fault or control problem. VAV 

Box Performance Assessment Control 

Charts (VPACC) implements an 

algorithm known as a CUSUM chart. 

The basic concept behind CUSUM 

charts is to accumulate the error 

between a process output and the 

expected value of the output. Large 

values of the accumulated error indicate an out of control process.

Air Handling Unit 

Temperature Control 

Schematic.

VAV Box Schematic.

A series of research projects were 

conducted in which batch implementations of APAR and VPACC were 

developed and refined using data 

collected from simulation, emulation, 

laboratory testing, and real buildings. 

The tools were found to be successful at finding a wide variety of faults 

including stuck or leaking dampers 

and control valves, sensor drift, and 

improper control sequencing. APAR 

and VPACC were then embedded in 

the control programming of commercial AHU and VAV box controllers. 

The advantage of embedding FDD in 

the local controller for each piece of 

equipment is that the algorithm then 
13

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

has local access to sensor data and 

control signals, eliminating the need 

to communicate this information 

over the building control network. 

This approach is highly scalable, and 

therefore suitable to larger HVAC 

systems. Any faults that are detected 

can be reported to the building operator using the control system’s alarm/

event handling capability. Several 

control system manufacturers are currently considering the commercialization of these FDD tools.

In addition to APAR and VPACC, 

a rule-based, system-level FDD method for HVAC systems was developed. 

It functions as an interface between 

multiple, equipment-specific FDD 

tools and a human operator. The 

method resolves and prioritizes conflicting fault reports from equipmentspecific FDD tools, performs FDD 

at the system level, and presents an 

integrated view of an HVAC system’s 

fault status to an operator. A simulation study to test and evaluate the 

method was recently conducted.

CONTACT:

JEFFREY SCHEIN

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-5874

jeffrey.schein@nist.gov

Virtual Cybernetic Building 

Testbed Includes Access 

Control Enhancements

The BFRL Virtual Cybernetic Building Testbed (VCBT) is a 

real-time emulator of a sophisticated 

building automation system, consisting of real controllers and a simulated 

building environment. The VCBT 

includes several building HVAC 

controllers, a fire alarm system, and a 

lighting controller, all on a local area 

network (LAN), along with a computer system with the capability of 

simulating the operation of an actual 

building. Thus, from the controllers’ 

point of view, all sensors and actuators are installed in a real building. 

The “virtual building” environment 

is provided by computer models 

of building operation, including 

HVAC systems, thermal interactions 

with the environment, and special 

scenarios, such as fires or other emergencies. Communication among the 

controllers is accomplished using the 

BACnet protocol. 

Enhancements have been made to 

the VCBT in order to develop and 

demonstrate methods for obtaining interoperability among the 

various controllers as part of an integrated building automation system. 

Following this approach, information 

on sensor readings, building occupancy, and control can be shared by 

the different sub-systems to improve 

overall system performance, capability and building security.

A building physical access control system, including biometric 

identity verification, was one of the 

enhancements added to the VCBT. 

The access control capability was 

incorporated in the form of an access 

controller application running on a 

server connected to the LAN. The 

access control system includes three 

virtual access zones, each associated 

with a virtual access point, at which 

identity is checked using an actual 

biometric device. A smart card reader 

was also incorporated at one access 

point. The smart card reader, the 

fingerprint reader and the iris scanner 

all connected directly to a computer 

workstation, while the hand shape 

reader is connected directly to the 

LAN. Users were enrolled individually on each biometric device, using 

a BioAPI application. 

CONTACT:

STEPHEN TREADO

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-6444

stephen.treado@nist.gov
14

FIRE LOSS REDUCTION

U.S. annual losses attributable to fire — 3600 

lives, 22 000 serious injuries, $10 billion in 

direct property loss, and $128 billion total cost. 

Core research to significantly reduce fire loss 

is organized around three technical programs: 

■ Advanced Fire Service Technologies 

Program — Enabling a shift to an information rich environment for safer and more 

effective fire service operations through 

new technology, measurement standards, 

and training tools. 

■ Reduced Risk of Fire Spread Program —

Reducing residential fire deaths and property loss by adapting measurement and 

predictive methods to better understand 

conditions leading to flashover and to external fire spread from vegetation and adjacent 

buildings; enabling early and certain fire 

and environment sensing; advancing costeffective fire suppression technologies; and 

enabling new/improved materials whose 

fire resistance does not negatively impact 

performance, cost, or the environment.

■ Advanced Measurement and Prediction 

Methods Program — Leading the world in 

fire measurement and prediction methods, 

and accelerating their transfer to practice, 

to enable engineered fire safety for people, 

products, facilities, and first responders.

■ Fire Standards, Codes, and Testing 

Program — Providing the infrastructure 

necessary to facilitate the transfer of 

BFRL-developed technology into practice 

through participation with codes and standards organizations, maintenance of the 

premier international research bibliography 

and electronic data for the fire community, 

and the development of laboratory facilities 

with a premium on accurate, innovative and 

safe large-scale fire experiments.

Fundamental Fire Science

Intended Outcome and Background

Engineering correlations to predict ignition, flame 

spread, fire growth and suppression developed 

through fire testing over the past 25 years have 

improved fire codes and technologies in the 

United States and produced a slow decline in the 

number of deaths and injuries due to unwanted 

fires (excluding the singular event of the WTC 

collapse); however, the total economic burden 

of fire in the U.S. continues to rise. To counteract 

these losses economically and to pre-empt the 

anticipated increase in fire-related deaths and 

injuries associated with a larger and more aged 

population, new fire safety technologies and 

performance-based codes are needed; these can 

be achieved with a higher level of understanding of the dynamics of fire and with more certain 

measurement methods. 

During the next ten years, the building industry 

in the United States and the rest of the world 

To enable engineered 

fire safety for 

people, products, 

and facilities; 

and enhance 

fire fighter 

effectiveness.
15

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

will be undergoing a radical change as 

prescriptive fire codes for built facilities 

are replaced by performance-based codes. 

Designers of fire protection systems for 

new buildings and retrofit situations will 

be under increasing pressure to improve 

performance and reduce costs by implementing new and clever passive and active 

fire protection, based on their expected

performance rather on their adherence to 

a prescribed building code. Of course, a 

key assumption in this approach is that it 

is possible to predict accurately the effect 

of design changes on the actual fire performance. NIST will take a leadership role in 

this coming “revolution” and assure that 

the basic tools used to predict fire behavior are accurate and appropriate. To enable 

this work to succeed, BFRL must create the 

scientific and engineering knowledge base 

that will allow the development of the 

predictive tools that are the foundation of 

performance-based design for fire protection systems.

The framework for organizing the wide 

range of BFRL’s knowledge of fundamental fire physics is the NIST Fire Dynamics 

Simulator, FDS. This open-source, NISTdeveloped and supported computational 

fluid dynamics code is used world-wide 

by combustion researchers, fire protection 

engineers, and fire researchers to predict 

flame spread and fire and smoke progression through a burning building. Much of 

the work in the Fundamental Fire Science 

Program is aimed at improving the underlying knowledge base used to develop the 

algorithms used in FDS. Advancements 

come both from accurate laboratory 

measurements at all scales and improved 

mathematical descriptions in the code. 

Many of the improved laboratory methods 

are aimed at increasing the accuracy of 

full-scale measurements made in the BFRL 

Large Fire Facility, while other small and 

intermediate scale tests are necessary 

for first understanding the underlying fire 

physics. 

The overall goal of reducing fire losses 

guides the research conducted in this 

program, and a conscious effort is made 

to impact other national and international 

fire laboratories, industrial partners, and 

standards-making bodies consistent with 

our vision in methods of measurement 

and prediction of the behavior of fire and 

its effects. During the next decade, BFRL 

will continue to work with industry, fire 

testing laboratories, national and international organizations that determine fire 

standards and codes, university researchers, other government agencies, and 

international fire researchers to reduce fire 

losses. This program will underpin that 

work, providing the knowledge and tools 

to reduce fire loss and become the recognized source of accurate measurement 

and the predictive methods used. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Fire Dynamics Simulator 

and Smokeview

The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is a computational fluid 

dynamics model of fire driven flows. 

It is used widely in the fire protection 

engineering community for a variety of 

applications including design, forensic 

reconstruction, and teaching. In the 

past three years, FDS and Smokeview 

played a significant role in both the 

World Trade Center and The Station 

nightclub investigations. In the WTC 

investigation, the model was used to 

predict the fire temperature and movement on the impact floors of both towers, and these temperature predictions 

were then used by structural engineers 

to assess the weakening of the steel and 

the eventual collapse of the buildings. 

In the nightclub fire investigation, 

FDS/Smokeview was used to model the 

ignition and spread of a devastating fire 

in a small nightclub in Rhode Island. 

A pyrotechnic display for a rock band 

ignited a fire that killed 100 people. 

In both investigations, the model was 

consistent with the observations of eye 

FDS/Smokeview prediction of fire movement on the 94th floor of WTC 1 (North Tower).
16

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

witnesses and the photographic evidence. 

This type of forensic reconstruction 

has been carried out by BFRL staff and 

outside fire protection engineers for 

numerous fire events where the model 

aids in tying together the physical and 

visual evidence.

CONTACT:

KEVIN MCGRATTAN

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-2712

kevin.mcgrattan@nist.gov

Consolidated Model of 

Fire and Smoke Transport

The Consolidated Model of Fire and Smoke Transport, CFAST, is 

a computer program that fire investigators, safety officials, engineers, architects and builders can use to simulate 

the impact of past or potential fires 

and smoke in a specific building environment. CFAST is a two-zone fire 

model developed by BFRL that is used 

to calculate the evolving distribution 

of smoke, fire gases and temperature 

throughout compartments of a building during a fire. These can range from 

very small containment vessels, approximately 1 m3 to large spaces on the 

order of 1000 m3.

The latest version of the software, 

until now a DOS program, has been 

rewritten to work with Windows and 

has been tested with Windows 2000 

and XP. The CFAST package 

includes NIST’s Smokeview program, 

which visualizes with colored, threedimensional animations the results 

of the CFAST simulation of a 

specific fire’s temperatures, various 

gas concentrations and growth and 

movement of smoke layers across 

multi-room structures. 

Available reports on the model 

include a Technical Reference Guide 

(NIST Special Publication 1026), 

a User’s Guide (NIST Special 

Publication 1041), and a number 

of journal articles on the evaluation 

of the model’s capabilities. The new 

software and documentation is 

available at http://cfast.nist.gov.

CONTACT:

RICHARD PEACOCK

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6664

richard.peacock@nist.gov

Fire Structure Interface and 

Thermal Response of the 

World Trade Center Towers 

Fire-driven movement of hot gases and smoke is becoming a 

well developed area of fire science. 

Nonetheless, with the recent total collapse of World Trade Center (WTC) 

buildings 1 and 2 due to the aircraft 

impact and ensuing fires, it is clear 

that there is an additional need to 

understand the interaction of the fire 

with the building mechanical structure. 

Following the collapse of the WTC 

towers, there was an active debate in 

the engineering community regarding 

the maximum temperature reached in 

the steel structure due to the fires and 

the role of thermal weakening of the 

steel in the building collapse. While 

photographic evidence could document 

the fire growth and movement through 

the building, no methods existed for 

coupling the thermal response of the 

structural elements to the observed fire 

behavior. The Fire-Structure Interface 

(FSI) was developed during NIST’s 

investigation of the WTC disaster to 

address this specific need.

The FSI couples the NIST Fire 

Dynamics Simulator (FDS) with an 

ANSYS-based finite element structural 

analysis package. FSI employs a technique borrowed from other compartment fire models, dividing the compartment into a hot, soot laden upper Images from the Consolidated Model of Fire and 

Smoke Transport.
17

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

layer and a cool relatively clear lower 

layer. The properties of the two layers 

are extracted from temporal averages of 

the results of an FDS simulation, and 

the resulting heat flux to the structural 

elements is calculated based on the heat 

conduction and thermal radiation from 

each layer. 

The methodology was used extensively in NIST’s WTC Investigation 

to predict the thermally-induced 

structural response to the fires which 

were growing in space and time. 

Structural and fireproofing damage 

due to aircraft impact was incorporated 

into the models. Four global simulations, 

two each for WTC 1 and WTC 2, 

were performed. Based on the results 

of the global simulations, fireproofing 

thickness and fireproofing damage 

due to aircraft impact were identified 

as the most important parameters 

having the largest effect on steel temperature and on the thermally-induced 

structural response.

CONTACT:

KULDEEP PRASAD

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-3968

kuldeep.prasad@nist.gov

Reduced-Scale Tests of the 

Fire Growth and Spread 

Prediction Capabilities of FDS

The prediction capabilities of the NIST Fire Dynamics Simulator 

(FDS) software are being extended 

to include fire growth and spread. 

Predicting these phenomena is challenging, and experimental data are 

required to validate the code’s accuracy. 

Clearly, intermediate and large-scale 

tests are required; however, they are 

expensive and time consuming. It is 

also necessary to validate the sub-grid 

scale models with small-scale tests. The 

ultimate goal of the present work is to 

improve the treatment of flame spread 

on the solid phase in FDS. As a first 

step, experiments were conducted in 

which small-scale polymer samples were 

subjected to increasing radiant flux, and 

the burning rate and its surface variation were measured. FDS was used to 

predict the average burning rate as well 

as its variation over the sample surface. 

This provides a measure of the model’s 

capacity for predicting fire growth, 

since an ability to predict the burning 

of such a simple configuration is a clear 

prerequisite for modeling large fires 

which will also involve burning on 

the scale of cone samples. The figure 

below shows some images of the burning polymer samples in the cone calorimeter at increasing imposed radiant 

flux. The right-most image shows a 

color contour of the heat release rate 

(red ≈ 2.5 x 104 kW/m3, blue ≈ 0) 

predicted by FDS for a PMMA sample 

at 60 kW/m2 incident flux (since the 

calculation is axisymmetric, only a 

half-image is presented; the left side is 

the axis of symmetry). Following that 

are images of the remaining sample (from 

burning at an imposed flux of 0 kW/m2), 

and its measured and predicted 

topography. This project has delineated 

the relative importance of various 

numerical, physical, and experimental 

parameters on the model-predicted 

burning of the sample. The value of 

Figure shows the steel temperatures (in °C) of floor 96, 

WTC 1, at one instant in time. 

Flame image from burning PMMA polymer subjected to heat fluxes of (0, 5, 10, 25, and 75 ) kW/m2 in the cone calorimeter, 

along with a color contour (right-most image) of the FDS-predicted heat release rate per unit volume in the flame. (The 

simulation shows the radial and axial profile from the axisymmetric calculation; the yellow horizontal rectangle is the right 

half of the PMMA sample, and the thick yellow line at 45o is the right-side of the cone heater.) 
18

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

this research will be an understanding 

of the performance of FDS for such 

applications, allowing further improvements and accurate application of the 

code for predicting fire growth and 

spread in a building fire.

CONTACT:

GREG LINTERIS

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-2283

linteris@nist.gov

Advanced Measurements 

of Fire-Induced Flows

The behavior of an enclosed fire is controlled by doorway and window ventilation. Inflowing air provides 

the necessary oxygen to sustain the 

fire (but can also moderate hot temperatures), while out-flowing hot gases 

transport heat and toxic fumes to new 

locations, spreading the fire and the 

hazard. Hence, quantifying doorway 

flows is essential for understanding 

enclosure fire behavior.

The primary method of measuring 

gas velocity in fire-induced flows has 

been with bi-directional probes, which 

measure the gas pressure and temperature at a few points to allow estimation 

of the local mass flow rate of the gases. 

While these devices can withstand the 

harsh fire environment, they are limited 

in their coverage and are somewhat 

inaccurate. 

This project is improving fluid 

flow measurements in full-scale fires 

through state-of-the-art laser measurement techniques. Using Particle Image 

Velocimetry (PIV), the flow is seeded 

with particles, and carefully timed laser 

pulses and cameras track the location of 

the particles in two dimensions. From 

the particle location and time data, 

velocity vector fields are computed. 

Unlike the bi-directional probe, PIV 

is a non-intrusive technique that is 

capable of probing thousands of points 

simultaneously, therefore producing a 

planar interrogation of a region in a 

single measurement. Stereo PIV (SPIV) 

is an extended technique in which the 

full velocity vector, and therefore, threedimensional flows, can be measured.

Prior to full-scale tests, the SPIV 

technique was applied to a reducedscale flow analog. These tests revealed 

technical challenges, including the seeding of large quiescent flows and limitations to the scattered light as the scale 

increases. A methodology for conducting SPIV measurements in full-scale fire 

Actual sample and the measured and predicted sample mass 

topography for a PMMA sample at 0 kW/m2 incident flux.

Volumetric mapping of SPIV measurements in the 

reduced-scale fluid flow analog experiment (inflow in 

blue, outflow in red). 

Sectional view of the SPIV-measured flow velocity field 

in the doorway of an ISO 9705 test room (inflow indicated 

by blue, outflow by red). 
19

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

test was developed, and applied using 

a standard ISO 9705 test room and a 

steady natural gas fire. The measurements demonstrate the first ever PIV 

measurements in the doorway of an 

enclosure containing a fire, yielding 

three dimensional gas velocities at high 

accuracy. Such detailed measurements 

are essential to support the validation 

of high fidelity computer models such 

as the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), 

as well as to improve the use of existing 

standard measurement techniques such 

as the bi-directional probes. 

CONTACT:

RODNEY BRYANT

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6487

rodney.bryant@nist.gov

Visibility in 

Smoky Environments

I

n a building fire, visibility through 

smoke hampers both egress and 

rescue efforts. In a smoke-filled room, 

visibility is affected by the luminous 

intensity of objects (light emitting and 

reflecting), contrast, colors, external 

lighting, and the characteristics of the 

smoke, including its concentration, 

distribution, and physical properties. 

Experiments conducted by others in the 

past have examined human perception 

in smoke filled spaces, including psychological reaction to smoke and visibility limits of specific objects, in particular, exit signs. The present project 

Video images of an exit door in a corridor being filled by smoke from a propene-air flame at 0, 60 s, and 120 s 

(left, right: corridor lights off, on).

goes beyond previous work by collecting quantitative data on the visibility of 

such objects through smoke with simultaneous characterization of the smoke 

properties. Capabilities have recently 

been developed at NIST to predict the 

visibility through smoky environments. 

The Smokeview program, however, 

needs quantitative data to test and 

improve the computational algorithms. 

In this project, a series of experiments 

have been conducted to gather video 
20

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

images of and other data for well-characterized smoke-filled scenes to assess 

exit sign visibility performance, and to 

allow verification of the visibility degradation predicted by Smokeview for the 

experimental configuration. 

Tests were conducted in a 16m long 

corridor with a burn room attached. 

Measurements were made of exit sign 

luminous intensities, ambient light 

intensities, laser light extinction, spot 

luminance, and gas temperatures before 

and during smoke-filling of the corridor. Obscuring aerosols examined 

included black soot from propene combustion, pyrotechnic (white-colored) 

smoke bombs, and ISO test dust. Exit 

signs studied included: reflective signs, 

internally illuminated signs, photoluminescent signs, an electroluminescent 

sign, and a self-luminous tritium sign. 

Companion tests were performed on 

individual signs using the NIST Fire 

Emulator/Detector Evaluator. 

The data are being used to assess exit 

sign performance in smoky conditions, 

and are available for comparing with 

simulated scenes. A quantitative understanding of and a predictive capability 

for visibility through smoke will be 

useful in fire fighter training, fire 

reconstruction studies, and fire safety 

system design. 

CONTACT:

THOMAS CLEARY

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

301-975-6858

thomas.cleary@nist.gov

Advanced Fire Service 

Technologies 

Intended Outcome and Background

The Advanced Fire Service Technologies 

Program assists the fire service to take 

advantage of existing technologies such 

as thermal imaging and positive pressure 

ventilation techniques, and is anticipating 

the integration of new innovative technologies, such as tactical decision aids, training simulators, and improved protective 

clothing. The full capabilities and limitations of equipment and systems being 

introduced into the fire service need to be 

understood with respect to the needs of 

fire fighters. 

For existing technologies, it is critical 

that performance can be measured and 

evaluated in a scientifically sound method 

and that the technology can be successfully transferred to the fire service through 

training programs and fire fighting simulators. There is also a simultaneous need 

to look ahead to developing innovative 

technologies and understand how better 

protective equipment, tactical decision 

aids and training can allow the fire service 

to reduce fire fighter fatalities and injuries 

as well reduce property losses. 

BFRL has made many contributions to 

understanding the performance of fire 

fighter protective clothing. The measurement and modeling experience will now be 

used to examine the performance of new 

nano-carbon tube composite materials 

and passive protection systems for protective clothing. In 2006, BFRL research will 

help industry to move forward in delivering practical materials that can be used 

in advanced protective clothing. BFRL has 

also been successful in furnishing decision 

tools for law enforcement for the selection of equipment based on attributes 

weighted by the user and information from 

testing available to the public. 

Virtual training, long the norm in aviation, military combat, and law enforcement 

training, is being used by the fire service 

as part of education for incident commands and drivers. As BFRL research in fire 

modeling, understanding of the dynamics 

of fire fighting, and measurement of equipment performance come together, the 

opportunity to move forward with effective 

fire fighter simulations emerges. BFRL has 

generated effective visualizations of fire 

conditions as part of the work involved in 

fire and accident investigations. 

BFRL, in cooperation with the U.S. Fire 

Administration, produces a Web-based 

newsletter, FIRE.GOV, directed at providing information to fire service readers on 

current research and activities that can 

impact their work, published in an easily 

accessible electronic form. Also included 

in the newsletter are contact information 

and links to researchers and organizations 

involved in on-going research, serving to 

keep the research and fire service communities connected. 
21

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

BFRL is taking a leadership role that is 

recognized nationally for technology and 

standards that will enable the transfer of 

science, metrics, and technology, into the 

hands of fire fighters, incident commanders, and other first responders. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Performance Metrics 

for Infrared Cameras 

(Thermal Imagers)

The potential benefits of thermal imaging to fire fighters became 

evident in the early to mid 1990s. 

Since then IR technology for first 

responder applications has matured to 

the point that most emergency response 

organizations either have purchased or 

are considering the purchase of thermal imaging cameras (TICs.) Thermal 

imagers are a significant tool for the fire 

service, enabling fire fighters to find 

their way out of burning structures, 

locate fires and victims, provide guidance 

to fire attack teams, and perform overhaul operations and fire investigations 

more effectively. 

Currently no performance metrics 

or testing protocols are available to 

evaluate current technologies. Imager 

performance (noise, spatial and 

temperature resolution, time response, 

and display saturation) is being considered in terms of measurements made 

under conditions simulating realistic 

fire environments. 

NIST is investigating the effectiveness of various optical performance 

metrics applicable to TICs used in 

first responder applications. BFRL 

researchers have been conducting performance evaluations at NIST for the 

past two years, in which images from 

TICs having different detector types 

are compared in a variety of conditions. Preliminary results from these 

tests show that the image quality varies 

between detector types and between 

TICs for different conditions. An 

example of the differences found in 

image quality is shown, right, in which 

three TICs are viewing an identical 

scene. While each TIC provides valuable information on the location of hot 

gases and fire, the amount of information available to an observer differs considerably between the three TICs. 

The results of this research are being 

used to provide the strategies, technologies, procedures, best practices, research 

and development that can significantly 

improve thermal imaging technology 

for the first responder community.

View of a corridor with a heated mannequin on the floor, 

and a temperature target and reflective strips on the back 

wall. Hot, smoke-laden gases are entering the corridor 

from an adjacent room on the right. The three TICs are 

viewing an identical scene at the same moment.
22

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

Computer Modeling 

of Respiratory Protection 

for First Responders

Respirators protect the lungs of  first responders in a wide range 

of hazardous environments. However, 

the level of protection from inhalation 

of toxic materials under normal and 

high stress situations is not well understood. Respirators are used over a short 

time period during fire fighting and 

are recommended for continuous use 

during cleanup of debris and hazardous 

materials. Hazardous environments may 

include fine particulates and chemical 

and biological toxins. First responder 

exposure to these hazards is affected 

by leaks, poor fit, heavy breathing and 

coughing, and temporary removal of 

respirators to clean them or to communicate with coworkers.

Current performance and fit testing 

protocols for face pieces for self-contained, positive pressure, powered air 

purifying, and half-mask respirators 

relies on data collected by the U.S. Air 

Force over 40 years ago. The National 

Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health (NIOSH) has demonstrated 

that this database does not adequately 

represent the facial characteristics of the 

fire and law enforcement communities. 

In the post 9/11 environment, a need 

has emerged to understand how and 

where face pieces may leak and compromise the protection afforded a first 

responder. BFRL’s unique experience in 

computational fluid dynamics modeling 

and aerosol measurement has developed 

computer simulation of the mask/face 

scenario in combination with aerosol 

metrology inside the respirator face 

piece. BFRL researchers have generated 

a computer simulation that can 

input facial geometries directly from 

laser based head/face scanners. 

NIOSH is currently developing a more 

representative face geometry database 

using paid human subjects and a head/

face scanner. Utilizing BFRL aerosol 

measurement expertise, a prototype 

in-mask aerosol monitor has also 

been developed.

CONTACT:

KATHY BUTLER

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6673

kathryn.butler@nist.gov

Respirator face piece and head form are combined into 

single geometry for computer modeling of leaks.

Computer model image of leak from inside mask to 

outside environment.
23

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Carbon Nanotube Fabric for 

Fire Fighter Protective Clothing

The incidence of burn injuries may be significantly reduced if 

protective clothing could be made 

from fabrics with unidirectional heat 

conduction properties. It is now known 

that the thermal conductivity of carbon 

nanotubes (CNT’s) is at least three 

orders of magnitude greater along the 

tube axis than other materials used to 

make protective fabrics. If this enhancement in thermal properties could be 

realized in materials suitable for making protective clothing and combined 

with a passive chemical-based system 

to absorb the energy, it would lead to 

a dramatic improvement in protection 

for fire fighters. Furthermore, it has 

recently been demonstrated that CNT 

materials are highly reflective so that 

they will absorb only a small fraction of 

the radiation from a fire. This congruence of favorable thermal properties 

was previously thought to occur only 

in metals, which are clearly not suitable 

for clothing. 

The purpose of this research is to 

realize the potential for making woven 

or non-woven fabrics that exhibit 

these metal-like properties from CNT 

fibers. In this pursuit, a wide range of 

solvents, compatabilizers, and functionalized CNT’s have been examined 

in the effort to prepare flexible fibers. 

Once we have perfected the technique 

for making macroscopic fibers from 

CNT’s, we will test them using a fire 

fighter mannequin in experiments that 

will provide information about the temperatures that these materials reach in 

actual fires.

CONTACT:

MARC NYDEN

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6692

marc.nyden@nist.gov

Virtual Fire Fighter Trainer

The experience of fighting fires in a burning building has no equal, 

but is it the only way to train? Is it the 

only way to demonstrate how different 

tactics will affect a fire? BFRL is creating a virtual reality training simulation 

of various fire situations to demonstrate 

how life-threatening conditions can 

develop in structures. Using this technology, fire fighter training instructors 

can provide realistic visualization of fire 

growth and suppression and test fire 

fighting tactics using computers rather 

than in an actual emergency situation.

Two methods are being used to create 

a fire fighting training tool. The first 

and simpler method is to use the Fire 

Dynamic Simulator (FDS), and the 

fire visualization program, Smokeview 

to create animations illustrating various fire behaviors. These animations 

will be viewable in a standard DVD 

player. The DVD menus will be used 

to walk a fire fighter through a series 

of decisions. The second method will 

be more interactive. Using Smokeview, 

the trainee will “walk” through an FDS 

generated fire scene observing and making decisions. 

For use in these training tools, FDS 

and Smokeview have been re-worked by 

adding enhanced fire-related simulation 

Carbon nanotube (CNT) film dissipates heat better than 10 percent CNT film. Peak temperatures are significantly lower for CNT 

film as compared to peak temperatures for 10 percent CNT film.
24

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

technologies such as “real” visibility 

through smoke. Other features have 

been added to make the visualizations 

look 3D and to make it easier for the 

trainee to “move about” in the simulation scenario. Continued refinements 

of FDS will increase the system’s 

ability for simulation smoke and gas 

flow caused by fire, wind, ventilation 

and structural conditions.

CONTACT:

GLENN FORNEY

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-2313

glenn.forney@nist.gov

What is the True Cost 

of Fire Fighter Injuries

What is the cost of a fire fighter  injury on the fire ground? 

What is the probability of a fire engine 

accident when responding to an 

emergency call? The BFRL wanted an 

estimate of the economic consequences 

of injuries to fire fighters for the purpose of evaluating what new research 

would both positively impact costs and 

reduce injuries. A new report prepared 

by TriData Corporation, The Economic 

Consequences of Fire Fighter Injuries and 

Their Prevention, NIST-GCR-05-874, 

addresses the cost of these injuries not 

only to the fire fighters themselves, but 

also to their departments, the insurance 

industry, and society.

A TriData research team conducted 

the cost-of-injury research by reviewing the existing literature and looking 

at various models that could be used to 

calculate financial losses from injuries. 

The estimated cost of addressing fire 

fighting injuries and of efforts to prevent them is $2.8 to $7.8 billion per 

year. The cost elements that comprised 

the studies were based on workers compensation payments and other insured 

medical expenses, including long-term 

care, lost productivity, administrative 

costs of insurance, etc. The TriData 

team applied a new approach to the Townhouse at three different time steps during a 

simulated fire.

Different scenarios allow fire fighters to train 

via different “virtual” structures including 

ranch-house, colonial-house, and training tower. 
25

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

analysis and looked at costs that typically have not been factored into fire 

fighter injuries. These include the labor 

costs for investigating injuries, plus the 

time required for data collection, report 

writing, and filing, insurance coverage, 

and the cost for safety training, physical 

fitness programs, and protective gear 

and equipment. 

By suggesting ways to assess what 

injuries cost, the study provides local 

governments with ideas they can use 

to pursue their own injury impact and 

prevention analysis. At the state and 

federal level, larger-scale research and 

analyses can be pursued to identify 

what actions would be most likely to 

reduce the incidence and severity of 

fire fighter injuries.

CONTACT:

NELSON BRYNER

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6868

nelson.bryner@nist.gov 

Reconstruction 

of the Cook County 

Administration Building Fire

BFRL is often asked to assist in reconstructing specific fires that 

may involve multiple fire fighter or 

civilian fatalities, extensive property 

damage, or exhibit some unusual fire 

phenomena. Reconstructions may 

include simulating the incident using 

computer-based fire models, lab-scale 

tests of ignition, fire spread, and heat 

release rate, and full-scale experiments 

to document fire growth and spread. 

The Governor of Illinois asked NIST 

to provide technical assistance to the 

Governor’s Review Team who were 

investigating the tragic office fire in the 

Cook County Administration Building 

on October 17, 2003, that resulted in 

six fatalities and numerous injuries. 

The NIST team visited the fire scene 

to collect data for use in simulating the 

fire, including building dimensions, 

floor plans, door and window locations, 

materials of construction and furnishings, and fuels. The NIST team also 

documented the fire damage in order to 

compare fire model predictions with the 

observed physical damage. Interior finish 

materials and furnishings from the fire 

floor that were undamaged from flames 

were obtained for use in laboratory-scale 

heat release rate experiments. The heat 

release data was necessary for the fire 

model input and allowed better evaluation with the results from the fire model. 

The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) 

provided insight into the fire development in Suite 1240. The simulations 

examined the impact of the spread 

of smoke into the southeast stairway 

with and without a functioning smoke 

exhaust shaft. Another simulation 

examined the impact of automatic fire 

suppression sprinklers. The simulation 

suggested that had automatic sprinklers 

been present in the storage room where 

the fire is believed to have originated, 

they would have controlled the fire and 

limited the fire spread to the room of 

fire origin. The results of this reconstruction are available in NIST Special 

Publication SP-1021, Cook County 

Administration Fire, 69 West Washington, 

Chicago, Illinois, October 17, 2003: 

Heat Release Rate Experiments and FDS 

Simulations. 

CONTACT:

DAN MADRZYKOWSKI

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6677

daniel.madrzykowski@nist.gov

Report is available on CD and on 

the Web site: http://fire.nist.gov.

View of east side of the Cook County 

Administration building, Chicago, Illinois.

Computer animation showing flame iso-surface in 

office suite at 7 min 30 s after flaming ignition.
26

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

Rhode Island 

Nightclub Investigation

On February 20, 2003, at The Station nightclub in West 

Warwick, Rhode Island, stage pyrotechnics were used to initiate the performance of a band. Unfortunately, the 

pyrotechnics ignited the polyurethane 

foam insulation lining portions of the 

walls and ceiling of the platform and 

the fire raced along the ceiling and wall 

areas over the dance floor. In less than 

two minutes, the smoke appeared to 

fill the volume over the platform and 

dance floor, vented from exit doorways, 

and dropped to within two feet of the 

floor. Flames were observed breaking 

through the roof in less than five minutes. Egress from the non-sprinklered 

building was slowed down by crowding 

at the main entrance. There were 

100 fatalities.

NIST investigated this deadly fire. 

The nightclub platform area was reconstructed in NIST’s large fire laboratory 

to examine, in a controlled environment, how the fire may have spread in 

a full-scale reconstruction of the nightclub, and to measure the temperature, 

heat flux, and gaseous products. A nonfire retarded foam sample purchased by 

NIST ignited within 15 seconds when 

exposed to a pyrotechnic device in an 

experimental configuration similar to 

the setup on the nightclub’s platform. It 

took less than 90 seconds after ignition 

of the foam in the drummer’s alcove for 

conditions in the middle of the room 

to be lethal at head height. In addition 

to full-scale and small-scale fire tests, 

computer simulations were made and 

reviews conducted of the history of 

the building and the model codes and 

standards that could have applied to 

a building of this type. The results of 

this investigation are available in NIST 

NCSTAR2, Report of the Technical 

Investigation of the Station Nightclub 

Fire, Vol. 1 & 2. 

CONTACT:

NELSON BRYNER

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6868

nelson.bryner@nist.gov

Fire Standards, 

Codes and Testing

Intended Outcome and Background

New technologies and the knowledge 

generated by research can lead to substantial reductions in fire losses if they 

make their way into practice. However, 

the effective transfer of the results from 

theoretical studies, numerical simulations, 

and bench-scale experiments that are 

being conducted to reduce fire losses and 

improve security cannot be accomplished 

in the absence of the following elements: 

(i) well-instrumented laboratory facilities 

to demonstrate that the research results 

are meaningful under realistic full-scale 

conditions; (ii) a comprehensive network 

of international fire research information, 

and repository for BFRL data, to inform 

researchers, practicing engineers, the fire 

service, and code-making and regulatory 

bodies; and (iii) intimate relationships 

with building and fire codes and standards 

organizations established through committee work and leadership assignments. As 

the only federal laboratory responsible for 

building fire safety, BFRL has the mandate 

and capability to maintain this critical 

infrastructure.

The fire standards, codes and testing 

program provides the infrastructure 

Experimental recreation of The Station nightclub fire (top) 

compared to FDS prediction (bottom).
27

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

necessary to facilitate the transfer of 

BFRL-developed technology into practice 

in support of the BFRL Goals of Fire Loss 

Reduction and Homeland Security (including the implementation of recommendations from the NCST investigations of The 

Station nightclub fire and the World Trade 

Center disaster) through participation 

with codes and standards organizations, 

maintenance of the premier international 

research bibliography and electronic data 

for the fire community, and the development of laboratory facilities with a premium on accurate, innovative, and safe 

large-scale fire experiments.

This program is organized to produce 

the following outcomes:

■ the rapid adoption of the NIST recommendations from the WTC Investigation;

■ a Large Fire Laboratory (LFL) with 

advanced measurement capabilities 

that promote the understanding of full 

and reduced-scale fire phenomena;

■ reference data against which 

predictions can be compared and 

validated, as well as made available 

electronically to the fire community;

■ tools and knowledge that enable the 

implementation of performance-based 

fire codes, allow assessment of key test 

methods, and address international 

barriers to standards and the role of 

uncertainty in regulations;

■ transfer of BFRL research results to industry as well as to organizations that create 

fire standards and codes;

■ guidance to North American fire testing laboratories to identify and address 

research needs; and

■ a fire research information system (FRIS) 

that is the source of easily-accessible fire 

and building-related information for BFRL 

and our external customers. 

Activities in domestic and international 

standards with respect to trade are increasing, and BFRL is often requested to provide 

input or participate. The infrastructure 

established in this program supports 

standardization activities related to homeland security and fire investigations. NIST 

needs to actively support the adoption of 

the recommendations of any investigation. This program also provides support 

for the newly formed North American Fire 

Testing Laboratory (NAFTL) organization, the 

U.S./Japan Natural Resources Development 

Program (UJNR) Panel on Fire Research and 

Safety, the Inter-jurisdictional Regulatory 

Collaboration Committee (IRCC), 

International Council for Research and 

Innovation in Building and Construction 

(CIB), and the International Forum of Fire 

Research Directors (FORUM).

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Codes and 

Standards Support 

NIST staff are valued members of U.S. and international codes 

and standards development committees 

where they make significant technical 

contributions and provide leadership 

in ensuring a technical foundation for 

regulations. The opinions of NIST staff 

are widely recognized as objective and 

without commercial interest. Positions 

on key technical documents are identified and memberships sought through 

normal channels. In recent years, there 

has been an additional effort to hold 

positions at a policy level, particularly 

in the international arena which has 

an increasing influence on trade. A primary focus of activities in the United 

States and global codes and standards 

arena will be to facilitate the rapid 

adoption of the NIST recommendations from the WTC Investigation. 

This will require the development of 

strategic alliances, speaking in support 

during deliberations and at code hearings, and mounting an effective defense 

of criticisms. 

Key standards identified in the WTC 

Investigation report as targets of specific 

recommendations have representation 

by NIST staff who will be tasked to 

provide the support needed through the 

process of consideration and adoption. 
28

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

These include: ASTM International, 

National Fire Protection Association 

(NFPA), Society of Fire Protection 

Engineers (SFPE), American Society 

of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American 

Society of Mechanical Engineers 

(ASME), International Code Council 

(ICC), International Organization for 

Standardization (ISO), International 

Council for Research and Innovation 

in Building and Construction 

(CIB), International Forum of Fire 

Research Directors (FORUM), InterJurisdictional Regulatory Collaboration 

Committee (IRCC), and Council on 

Tall buildings and Urban Habitat 

(CTBUH.) 

Recent accomplishments include 

the following:

■ Provided leadership in many U.S. 

and international fire code and standards organizations (NFPA Standards 

Council, ISO TAG8, CIB W14, 

ICC Performance Code Committee, 

IRCC, CIB TG50, ISO TC92, NFPA 

Residential Sprinkler and Fire Test 

Committee, Fire Fighter Protective 

Clothing Committees, and ASTM E5 

Fire Standards, ASTM E515 Contents 

and Furnishings, ASTM F23 on 

Protective Clothing.

■ Worked with the U.S. Fire Alarm 

Industry Consortium to develop a 

standardized information display system and to incorporate BACnet as 

an underlying communication protocol into the National Fire Alarm 

Code (NFPA72) and into a National 

Electrical Manufacturer Association 

(NEMA) standard. 

■ Provided leadership to get ISO documents 19706 (guidance) and 16312-1 

(criteria for toxicity test methods) 

approved as Technical Specifications. 

■ Developed a technical plan to support 

Federal Trade Commission and New 

York State regarding legislation on less 

fire-prone cigarettes. 

Domestic and international regulations and reference standards have a 

growing role in assuring free access 

to global markets for U.S. companies 

and in reducing non-tariff barriers to 

such trade. Not only are these activities 

important to addressing NIST’s role 

in trade but also to ensuring the rapid 

introduction of the benefits of NIST 

research into practice.

CONTACT:

RICHARD W. BUKOWSKI

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6853

richard.bukowski@nist.gov

Reduced-ignition propensity test method (ASTM E2187) 

developed by a team led by Richard Gann of the Fire 

Research Division, and adopted by the States of New York, 

Vermont and California and the Dominion of Canada to 

reduce cigarettes as an ignition source for fires.

NIST’s new SRM 1082 consists of 10 

packs of cigarettes that have been 

specially made to be less likely to 

ignite household furnishings.
29

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

BFRL Research Information 

Service (BFRLRIS) and the 

BFRL Digital Library (FireDoc)

As of June 2005, BFRL’s Digital  Library, FireDoc, has over 71,000 

citations and has been growing at a rate 

of roughly 2,400 a year. The number 

of publications available online in PDF 

format has increased, not just by adding 

new publications, but also by adding 

older publications as interest indicates. 

BFRL Publications Online currently 

has 3,500 abstract pages available to 

the public. 

To continue to meet the growing 

information needs of the building and 

fire research communities, BFRLRIS is 

expanding the availability of electronic 

building and fire research test data and 

the key international bibliographic 

database for fire research, FireDoc. 

FireDoc is a major resource to the fire 

community worldwide because of its 

unique service as a searchable database 

for more than 60 journals, numerous 

conferences as well as other resources. 

BFRL also continues to support development of Experimental Database 

for Fire Sciences (EDaFS) to make 

data and videos from fire experiments 

available online in an interactive 

environment. 

BFRLRIS is working with other 

organizations through a digital library 

effort, Fire and Building Educational 

Resource Collection (FABREC), in an 

effort to combine BFRL databases and 

outside resources within a searchable 

Web portal. Worcester Polytechnic 

Institute (WPI), the National Science 

Foundation (NSF), and BFRL have 

formed a partnership to create this 

digital library, which consists of an 

online collection of resources that are 

pertinent to the fire science community 

and related building fields, and are 

accessible through a central Web site. 

Because so much information is 

being published in nontraditional 

means through the Internet, BFRL 

will continue to develop FABREC so 

that the fire and building communities 

have a single starting point to discover 

needed information.

The information that BFRL generates 

is becoming more visible to the world 

because of the speed and ease of use 

of BFRLRIS, with BFRL publications 

becoming available on the Web within 

a week of notification of publication. 

BFRLRIS is making information from 

around the world easily available to the 

building and fire research communities, and will continue to expand and 

evolve to meet the changing needs of 

researchers.

http://bfrlris.nist.gov

CONTACT:

PAUL RENEKE

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6696

bfrlris@nist.gov

Large Fire Laboratory 

Operations

The Large Fire Laboratory (LFL) is a key part of the BFRL infrastructure necessary to facilitate the transfer 

of BFRL-developed technology into 

practice. The LFL has a 9 by 37 meter 

test area where three hoods, instrumented for oxygen calorimetry, are used 

to exhaust combustion products. The 

smallest calorimeter is 3 by 3 meters 

with a range of 10 kW to 750 kW. 

The intermediate calorimeter is 6 by 6 

meters and is designed to operate from 

100 kW to 3 MW, while the 9 by 12 

meter calorimeter has a lower operating 

range of 200 kW and can accommodate 

peak heat release rates up to 15 MW. 

The Large Fire Laboratory is equipped 

with a 600 channel data acquisition system and a 3,300 standard cubic meters/

min emissions control system. 

The LFL is used to facilitate technology transfer in the area of heat release 

rate (HRR) measurements, a key 

parameter used to characterize fires. 

Energy release, in the form of HRR, is 

essential to fire research and is explicitly 

required in many standard fire tests 

used for product listing. 

BFRL is continuously developing 

and improving its HRR measurement capabilities. The publication of 

NIST IR 7052 The NIST 3 Megawatt 

Quantitative Heat Release Rate Facility

in 2004 was a significant step towards 

establishing the LFL as a world class 
30

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

facility for large fire measurements. 

This document provides a detailed 

description and uncertainty analysis for 

the 6 meter square hood calorimeter. 

With the recent addition of the 3 meter 

square hood, the LFL facility can now 

measure HRR from small appliances and 

furniture (tens of kW) to fully developed 

room fires (10 MW in the 9 x 12 meter 

hood). The 3 meter hood exhaust duct 

contains instrumentation for measuring 

smoke and convective enthalpy.

The addition of an instrument for 

measuring natural gas composition 

allows for precise determination of the 

energy value used with a standard reference burner. A liquid fuel spray burner 

was developed in order to obtain a well 

controlled reference fire using fuels that 

produce soot and other products of 

incomplete combustion.

Current activities include the development of a tracer gas dilution technique and CFD modeling to validate 

and improve the exhaust duct flow 

measurements. The results of the CFD 

modeling will be used to optimize the 

location of transducers in the duct and 

modify flow conditioning hardware. 

New instrumentation is being installed 

to directly account for the effects of 

water and NOx on HRR.

The WTC investigation and subsequent interactions with the fire 

and structures communities have 

highlighted the need for a national 

Structural Fire Endurance Laboratory 

to investigate the effects of severe thermal loading on structural members. 

A preliminary design study for the 

proposed Structural Fire Endurance 

Laboratory is underway. 

CONTACT:

ALEXANDER MARANGHIDES

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-4886

alexander.maranghides@nist.gov

Reduced Risk of Fire Spread 

Intended Outcome and Background

Annual fire losses in the United States 

remain higher than in most industrialized 

countries, despite significant reductions 

during the past two decades. Statistics 

for 2004 indicate that there were 3,900 

fire deaths, 17,785 fire injuries, and nearly 

$10 billion in direct fire losses in the U.S. 

The actual financial cost of fire to the U.S. 

economy is many times higher than the 

direct losses due to such associated costs 

as fire insurance and fire departments. 

Of these totals, fires in residences were 

responsible for 3,190 of the fire deaths, 

over 14,000 of the injuries, and $6 billion 

of the total $8.3 billion in structural fire 

losses.

Analysis of fire statistics suggests that 

roughly 80 percent of the fire deaths and 

property losses in structures are associated with the occurrence of flashover. 

Flashover is the dramatic and sudden transition from a relatively small, slowly developing fire spreading systematically across 

adjacent fuel surfaces within a room to a 

much larger and dangerous fire in which 

all flammable surfaces within the enclosure are involved. Flashover is generally 

accompanied by a significant increase in 

the heat release rate, extension of flames 

out of open doors and windows (with a 

corresponding increase in the likelihood 

of fire spread to adjacent rooms), and 

2.0 MW heptane fire from 

liquid spray burner.

CFD model results of 3 MW fire plume velocity 

field interaction with 9 m x 12 m exhaust hood 

and 2 m duct. 

Large Fire Laboratory (left) and Flue Gas 

Cleaning System (right).
31

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

a dramatic increase in the production 

of toxic fire products. Clearly, reducing 

the risk of flashover in residential fires 

provides an opportunity to significantly 

reduce the high human and property costs 

of fire to the nation. This is one of the two 

major areas of focus for the Reduced Risk 

of Fire Spread (FRR) Program.

Total property losses due to fire in 2004 

were reduced by 20 percent from those of 

2003. Fire property losses in 2003 were 

unusually high due to a series of wildfires in October of that year in Southern 

California that caused an estimated $2.04 

billion in property damage and destroyed 

over 3,000 structures, mostly residences. 

The high losses were due to fires burning in wildlands that spread into areas 

at the edges of urban areas, igniting the 

structures. Such fires are referred to as 

wildland/urban interface (WUI) fires. While 

still infrequent, highly damaging WUI fires 

are occurring with increasing frequency 

due to increased construction in wildland 

areas around cities, a widespread build up 

of wildland fuel due to the effective suppression of small wildland fires that would 

otherwise limit the accumulation of such 

fuels, and a persistent drought in parts 

of the United States that increases the 

likelihood and severity of wildland fires. 

When these conditions are combined with 

high winds, the conditions are present 

for difficult-to-contain, catastrophic wild 

fires capable of causing immense damage. Despite the demonstrated potential 

for heavy property loss, there is a poor 

understanding of WUI fire behavior that 

hinders the development of countermeasures designed to protect structures from 

ignition by such fires. The second area of 

focus for the RRF Program is providing this 

understanding and aiding the development of effective countermeasures for 

protecting structures.

The intended outcome of the flashover 

component is to reduce the risk of flashover 

cost-effectively by enabling new/improved 

materials whose fire resistance does not 

negatively impact performance, cost, or the 

environment; and early and certain fire and 

environment sensing and automatic fire 

suppression technologies compatible with 

occupants and the environment.

Reducing the risk of flashover can be 

equated with reducing fire spread, fire 

growth, and the maximum value of the 

heat release rate. There are two general 

approaches for accomplishing these goals. 

The first is to limit the availability of fuel 

(e.g., through the use of fire-retarded 

fuels) and air (e.g., by controlling ventilation) such that a fire cannot become sufficiently intense to induce flashover. The 

second is to provide physical intervention 

(e.g., through automatic sprinklers, or by 

a fire company following early detection) 

to reduce the fire size before it can grow 

to a dangerous level. Both approaches are 

important and are included in this program.

BFRL is working to develop cost-effective 

approaches that reduce the flammability 

of polymers while maintaining or even 

improving their physical characteristics. 

Success in this approach will provide a 

strong incentive for polymer producers 

and product manufacturers to utilize safer 

materials in commodity applications.

Active measures to limit fire growth 

require reliable early fire detection and 

effective suppression approaches. 

Directed research designed to enhance 

fire detector response while reducing 

the number of false alarms and to 

improve fire suppression effectiveness 

is being conducted.

As noted above, the understanding of 

WUI fire behavior and ignition processes 

for structures exposed to such fires is 

poor. Part of the reason for this lack of 

understanding is that the subject falls 

between traditional studies of building 

fires and forest fires, which are usually 

the responsibility of different branches of 

the Federal Government. BFRL researchers, working with the U.S. Forest Service, 

have recently initiated studies designed 

to fill this gap. Initial efforts are aimed at 

characterizing the conditions generated 

by WUI fires, developing improved models 

for predicting their spread, and identifying 

mechanisms for structure ignition by 

burning vegetation.
32

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

BFRL Initiates Studies 

of Wildland/Urban 

Interface (WUI) Fires

Fires occurring in the wildlandurban interface, where houses and 

vegetation are both present, can result 

in significant damage to communities. 

In the 2003 fires near San Diego, 

over 3,000 homes were lost. Most 

houses, once ignited, were completely 

destroyed. Wildland-urban interface 

fires start as uncontrolled wildfires 

spreading through vegetative fuels 

to communities. Seasonal drought, 

increasing population in wildlandurban interface areas, and a historically 

high fuel load in today’s forests all 

contribute to the ongoing threat of 

wildland-urban interface fires throughout the United States. 

Vegetative fuels in the wildland-urban 

interface include surface fuels (such as 

grass), isolated trees and shrubs as well 

as groups of trees or shrubs. Through 

both experiments and computer modeling, BFRL is investigating how fires 

spread through these vegetative fuels 

and ignite structures, which then themselves become a part of the overall fire 

spread process. For example, very limited data exists on the heat release rate 

and firebrand production generated by 

a single burning tree. Both of the properties have significant impacts on the 

fire spread process. 

Trees of different heights and moisture contents are being burned in 

BFRL’s Large Fire Laboratory to measure their heat release rate, firebrand 

production, the influence of moisture, 

and provide data for model evaluation 

and development.

CONTACT:

WILLIAM E. MELL

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-4797

william.mell@nist.gov

BFRL Facility Ready to Aid 

Development of Fault-Free 

Fire Detection

BFRL has worked for several years developing the Fire Emulator/

Detector Evaluator (FE/DE), a unique 

facility designed to reproduce conditions representative of those that 

develop during typical residential fire 

scenarios, as well as those arising from 

common nuisance sources found in 

homes. The FE/DE provides a foundation for test procedures designed to 

simulate a range of both early fire and 

nuisance scenarios. It provides the capability to discriminate between the effectiveness of existing fire alarm technologies while encouraging the development 

of new technologies designed to provide 

improved fault-free detection of fires. 

The FE/DE is a single-pass wind 

tunnel designed to reproduce the local 

environment fire alarms may experience 

in use. The FE/DE controls airflow, 

temperature, and humidity, along with 

fire or nuisance aerosols and combustion gases. It was used extensively 

during a Home Smoke Alarm Project 

to calibrate smoke alarms and carbon 

monoxide detectors (NIST Technical 

Note 1455, Performance of Home 

Smoke Alarms). It has been used to 

study the response of current fire 

Top: A burning 3 m tall Douglas Fir tree 

20 s after ignition near the bottom of the 

tree. Information from these experiments, 

conducted in BFRL’s Large Fire Laboratory, 

is being used to develop and evaluate a 

computer model of burning trees. An 

example from the model is shown below.
33

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

detection hardware, along with novel 

particulate and gas-sensing technologies. The FE/DE has been used for 

research studies ranging from fire detection to visibility through smoke to ignition of substrates from flaming or glowing wood embers. A Chinese version of 

the FE/DE has been developed at the 

University of Science and Technology 

of China in Hefei, China and is being 

used for fire detection research. Given 

the mature state of development of 

the FE/DE, efforts are now under way 

to promote the adoption of detection 

standards based on its advanced 

testing capabilities.

CONTACT:

THOMAS CLEARY

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

(301) 975-6858

thomas.cleary@nist.gov

BFRL Research 

Underpins Standards for the 

Fire Safety of Mattresses

Each year, bed fires in homes cost the nation nearly 500 lives, over 

2000 serious injuries, and $250 million 

in property loss. For the past five years, 

NIST has worked closely with the mattress industry to understand how bed 

fires proceed from the ignition of bedclothes to the full involvement of the 

bed (as in the accompanying pictures 

of an unimproved bed, taken about 

5 min apart). 

The U.S. mattress industry requested 

that BFRL work with them to develop 

the technical underpinnings for a mattress/foundation standard that would 

serve as the basis for limiting the 

consequences of residential bed fires. 

In addition to developing the testing 

methodology, BFRL performed the 

hazard analysis necessary to determine 

the relationship between the size of the 

fire and the threat to life safety. The 

research led to an understanding of the 

relationship between reduction in the 

size of the bed fire and improvement 

in life safety. BFRL and the industry 

decided that the proper approach for 

improved fire safety was to limit the 

possible size of a bed fire. This size is 

characterized by the rate of heat release 

of the burning bed.

Recently, a mattress flammability 

regulation was adopted by the State of 

California that incorporates the standard test method developed by BFRL. 

When adopted nationwide, it is estimated that losses from bed fires would 

be cut in half. In the past, California 

flammability standards have rapidly 

become de facto national standards; 

the U.S. Consumer Product Safety 

Commission has announced their 

intention to adopt the standard nationally in 2006. Adoption of the national 

standard will allow the mattress industry to deliver the same improved products throughout the country.

CONTACT:

THOMAS OHLEMILLER

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

(301) 975-6481

tohlemiller@nist.gov

The Fire Emulator/Detector Evaluator.

Example of fire growth on a bed incorporating an 

unimproved mattress.
34

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

Flammability Measures 

for Electronic Equipment

Although fires originating from con- sumer electronics are rare, the hazard presented when exposed to a small 

external ignition source (such as a candle) is not well known. Even when the 

equipment is not the first item involved 

in a fire, its contribution to the total 

fire load and impact on flashover of a 

room can be significant. 

BFRL recently completed a threeyear experimental study examining 

the bench-scale and full-scale fire 

performance of commercial polymeric 

materials used in electronic equipment. 

The ignition resistance, self-extinguishing behavior, heat release rate (HRR), 

and combustion product yields of 18 

different materials at two thicknesses 

were characterized using three standard bench-scale fire tests. Five of these 

materials were made into 19" computer 

monitor enclosures for full-scale fire 

testing (using real and simulated internal components). The results of this 

study were used to assess the predictive 

value of the bench-scale tests in determining full-scale fire performance 

and to describe the fire hazard of the 

full-scale specimens when exposed to 

different ignition scenarios. 

The results showed that materials 

which passed the UL94 vertical burn 

test provided adequate resistance to fire 

spread from a localized ignition source 

(small flame) in the full-scale tests. 

However, when the ignition source 

was more severe (such as a nearby 

burning keyboard) the UL94 test was 

less likely to predict the materials fire 

performance. In this case, the HRR 

from the cone calorimeter test was 

shown to correlate well with the fullscale fire behavior.

There is a current international 

effort (IEC TC108) to develop a 

hazard based safety standard for 

electronic equipment. The findings 

of this study have been used to help 

develop a draft standard for external 

ignition of electronic equipment.

CONTACT:

MATTHEW BUNDY

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6880

matthew.bundy@nist.gov

Heat release rate 

curves of high-impact 

polystyrene with 

different levels of 

flame retardant.

Photograph shows the burning of a monitor made from 

high impact polystyrene (no flame retardant).
35

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Single Sprinkler Design 

Tests for Residential Use

Currently, residential sprinklers are an effective, yet underutilized 

means of reducing the loss of life, 

injuries, and property damage caused 

by uncontrolled fires in homes. It is 

estimated that less than 3 percent of 

single family homes have a fire sprinkler 

system. Economics play a major role in 

this regard, based in part on how much 

water a residential sprinkler system will 

require. In 2002, minimum sprinkler 

spray density design criteria of 0.05 

gpm/ft2 were specified in National Fire 

Protection Association (NFPA) 13D, 

Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler 

Systems in One- and Two-Family 

Dwellings and Manufactured Homes. 

This, coupled with the trend of smaller 

water meters in new homes, raised 

concerns about the expense of providing the water supply for the new twosprinkler design required by NFPA13D.

Anecdotal information indicated 

that in the majority of sprinklered 

residential fire incidents, only a single 

residential sprinkler was activated and 

mitigated the fire hazard. However this 

information is not well documented 

and may not reflect current sprinkler 

designs. 

Under the sponsorship of the U.S. 

Fire Administration (USFA), NIST is 

investigating the feasibility of a single 

sprinkler design option for NFPA 13D 

residential sprinkler systems. Working 

with Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL), 

a series of experiments were conducted 

to examine the capabilities of a single 

sprinkler design. The objective was to 

have a design that required 20 gpm 

or less. 

Fifteen fire experiments were conducted with the “standard” corner 

fuel package used by UL to perform 

listing tests on residential sprinklers. 

The single sprinkler controlled the fire 

in each of these experiments. Seven 

experiments were conducted with the 

fuel located between two sprinklers. 

This was done to force the activation 

of two sprinklers. With two sprinklers 

operating, the water flow was limited 

to 70 percent of the current listed 

requirements. With the fuel located 

between two sprinklers, the fire was 

only controlled in two out of the seven 

experiments. The results of this limited set of experiments indicate that 

some loss of reliability will result if the 

single sprinkler design is implemented. 

This information has been provided 

to the NFPA Technical Committee on 

Residential Sprinkler Systems to assist 

them in their decision making with 

regard to this design strategy.

CONTACT:

DAN MADRZYKOWSKI

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6677

daniel.madrzykowski@nist.gov

Two examples of results for fire test 

using sprinkler systems are shown. The 

top photograph demonstrates high wall 

wetting by the sprinkler, leading to rapid 

fire control with a single sprinkler in a 

corner test. The image below shows that 

flame extension occurred on the wall and 

ceiling for a wall test with two sprinklers 

in which the water flow was reduced below 

current design levels.
36

F I R E L O S S R E D U C T I O N

BFRL’s Two-Year Study 

Revisits Smoke Alarm 

Response

I

n the mid-1970s, a series of tests 

performed with funding from the 

National Bureau of Standards provided 

the understanding of smoke detector 

response and demonstrated the effectiveness of smoke detectors for sensing 

growing fires with sufficient sensitivity 

to allow people to escape fires in residences. This study played an important 

role in the subsequent development of 

code requirements and the wide-spread 

installation of detectors in residences.

In the following three decades, smoke 

detectors have played a dominant role 

in reducing per capita fire deaths in 

the United States. During these years 

there have been significant changes in 

building contents and smoke detector 

technology. As a result, it was deemed 

appropriate to update the earlier study. 

The findings of a two-year investigation on the Performance of Home Smoke 

Alarms are described in a series of 

reports that appeared in late 2003 and 

early 2004.

The findings indicate that the typical 

time available for individuals to escape 

a growing fire following detection 

had decreased from 17 minutes to 

3 minutes. Despite this significant drop 

in available escape time, the findings 

showed that the two primary types of 

smoke detectors, ionization and photoelectric, used widely in residences 

provided sufficient time for escape as 

long as evacuation was initiated quickly 

following alarm.

The findings also showed that variables such as open or closed doors, 

placement of smoke alarms and interconnectability of the devices (so that 

all sound an alarm when one detects 

fire) all affected an individual’s chances 

of survival during a fire. The response 

times of smoke detectors and sprinkler 

systems were also compared, confirming earlier findings that smoke detectors were more sensitive and responded 

faster than sprinkler systems.

The response of smoke detectors to 

nuisance sources (non fire signatures 

such as cooking or shower aerosols) 

remains a major problem. Nuisance 

alarms vastly outnumber alarms due 

to actual fires. Alarms due to nuisance 

sources can cause individuals to ignore 

legitimate alarms or to even disable 

the detector. During this study, various 

types of nuisance sources were 

characterized along with the response 

of smoke detectors to the sources. 

This information will prove useful 

in the development of more reliable 

smoke detectors.

CONTACT:

RICHARD W. BUKOWSKI

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6853

richard.bukowski@nist.gov

This photograph shows the wide range of instrumentation used to characterize the environment around smoke 

detectors during the recent investigation on home smoke 

alarms.
37

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

High Throughput 

Nanocomposite Flame 

Retardant Program Produces 

Layered Double Hydroxide 

Nano-Flame Retardant 

BFRL researchers have demonstrated for the first time that a new 

class of nano-based additives for polymers acts as an effective fire retardant at 

levels which do not adversely affect the 

polymer properties to the same degree 

as additives currently in widespread use. 

The new type of nano-flame retardant, 

layered double hydroxide, LDH, (see 

figure) gives intumescent, self-extinguishing properties when combined 

with conventional flame retardants. 

The LDH was produced using high 

throughput synthesis equipment (colloid mill) and is capable of increasing 

the volume of intumescent char formed 

when nano-dispersed with ammonium 

polyphosphate in epoxy coatings. This 

new nano-flame retardant is also useful 

in fire-resistant coatings on steel and in 

flame-retarding thermoplastics. Future 

work will focus on use of LDH in these 

applications, in polyurethane flexible 

foams, and in polyurea blast coatings.

Due to environmental concerns related to the halogenated flame retardants 

widely used today, new flame retardant 

nano-additives such as these are of great 

interest to industry since they are inherently non-halogenated and because they 

Drawing shows the layer structure of the LDH formed by the combination of the two metal hydroxides along 

with the “gallery” anions (carbonate, CO3

--2) and water located between the layers.

impart improvements in the modulus 

of the polymers with which they are 

combined, in contrast to most nonhalogenated flame retardants that usually reduce the modulus and flexibility 

of the polymer.

CONTACT:

JEFFREY GILMAN

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6573

jeffrey.gilman@nist.gov
38

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONSTRUCTION 

MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS

To enable 

scientific and 

technology-based 

innovation to 

modernize and 

enhance the 

performance of 

construction 

materials and 

systems.

The strategy to meet this goal includes 

the development of world-class science 

based tools – measurements, data, models, 

protocols, and reference standards – to 

■ fully integrate and automate the 

construction process to achieve significant 

cycle-time reductions;

■ predict and optimize the performance 

and minimize the environmental impact 

of concrete in the built environment;

■ predict the service life of highperformance polymeric infrastructure 

materials; and

■ enhance the safety and performance 

of structures under extreme loads.

The desired outcomes are to enhance 

global competitiveness of U.S. industry and 

the safety and sustainability of the nation's 

buildings and physical infrastructure.

Service Life Prediction (SLP) 

of Polymeric Materials

Intended Outcome and Background

The lack of a methodology for generating accurate, precise, and timely service life estimates 

for polymeric materials, components, or systems 

exposed in their intended service environments 

has greatly hindered product innovation as well 

as the acceptance of polymeric materials into 

new applications. Product innovation is hindered 

by the long times-to-market. These long times-tomarket arise due to the lengthy field exposures 

that companies require before a product can 

be introduced into the market. Field exposure 

results are viewed as the only true exposures. It 

takes a long time to generate a field exposure 

history of sufficient length and depth to convince 

a decision maker that the risk of introducing a 

new product into the marketplace is low. Long 

exposure times, and, correspondingly, long 

times-to-market, can be reduced if a link can be 

established between field and laboratory results. 

Laboratory exposures often can be designed to 

greatly accelerate degradation. Establishing such 

a link, however, has remained elusive.

The goal of the SLP program is to address 

these needs through the implementation and 

validation of a reliability-based methodology and 

associated metrologies and life testing protocols. 

Specifically, the objectives of the program are: 

(1) to establish an experimental and mathematical link between field and laboratory exposure 

results, (2) to predict the service life of polymeric 

materials exposed in their intended operating 

environment, (3) to gain a fundamental understanding of the failure mechanisms causing a 

polymer to degrade, and (4) to determine the 

contribution made by individual components 

and constituents of a polymeric material to the 

service life of the product. This research is being 

conducted under the auspices of a number of 

NIST/industry consortia and through collaborative efforts with researchers in other NIST laboratories, Federal agencies, universities, and foreign 

research institutes. 

Linking field and laboratory exposure results 

and, thus, predicting the service life of weathered 

polymeric materials exposed in their intended 
39

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

service environments has been a task 

that has defied all attempts at a coherent, scientific solution over the last century. About a decade ago, the Polymeric 

Materials Group of BFRL implemented, and 

is currently validating, a reliability-based 

methodology for predicting the weathering service life of polymeric materials. 

This methodology has been adapted from 

those used in “high-tech” industries like 

the electronics, aerospace, nuclear, and 

pharmaceutical fields. In these realms, 

predicting the service life of products 

manufactured in these industries has 

proven to be very successful. 

Unlike the conventional methodology 

that was designed to make comparisons 

among competing products (e.g., product A is expected to perform better than 

product C, which is expected to perform 

better than product B), the reliabilitybased methodology is a predictive one 

that is capable of generating service 

life estimates of known precision and 

accuracy. The underlying premises of the 

reliability-based methodology, however, 

are radically different from those of a conventional methodology. Probably one of 

the most important differences is the tenet 

that field exposure results can be used 

as the standard of performance against 

which laboratory exposure results must 

match. Field exposure results are neither 

repeatable nor reproducible, whereas 

well-designed laboratory experiments, the 

standard of performance in a reliabilitybased methodology, can be designed to 

be both repeatable and reproducible. Field 

exposure experiments are viewed as just 

another laboratory experiment, albeit one 

in which the exposure variables cannot be 

controlled, but they can be characterized 

in the same manner as these variables are 

characterized in the laboratory. 

Research continues also in developing 

advanced metrologies to elucidate the fundamental failure mechanisms that cause 

a polymeric material to degrade. These 

advanced metrologies include nanomechanics, nanochemistry, particulate dispersion, photoreactivity of pigmentary and 

nanoparticles, and macro- and nanoscale 

photochemical and photophysical measurements for filled-polymers. Much of 

this research is pioneering and is aimed 

at satisfying metrological needs that have 

become apparent during our service life 

prediction research.

Finally, several research tools are 

being developed to automate the data collection process and to improve productivity in processing the collected data. These 

tools include the development of a highthroughput measurements laboratory and 

the creation of an informatics system. The 

high-throughput measurements laboratory, which is being designed to speed 

up the analytical measurement process 

by a factor of ten or more, is under construction. An informatics system also 

has been created that is designed to 

collect, integrate, and process the massive 

amount of experimental data at near 

real-time speeds. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Coatings Service Life 

Prediction 

The introduction of new coatings, as well as the improvement of the 

service life of existing ones, has been 

hindered by the lack of a methodology for generating accurate, precise, 

and timely estimates of the service life 

of these materials in their intended 

operating and service conditions. The 

objective of this project is to validate a 

reliability-based methodology to link 

laboratory and field exposure results 

and to quantitatively predict the expected weathering service life of an organic 

coating when exposed in its targeted 

operating and service environment. 

In 2005, we established an experimental link between field and laboratory exposure results for a model 

epoxy coating, and are presently in 

the process of validating a cumulative 

damage model for mathematically linking the results from these two sources. 

Our ability to establish these links 

depended upon a number of incremental advances that have been made over 

the last decade. These advances include: 

(1) the construction of the NIST 

Simulated Photodegradation by High 

Energy Radiant Exposure (SPHERE) 

that essentially eliminates or, at least, 

greatly mitigates all known sources of 

experimental error from laboratory 
40

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

exposure studies, (2) the derivation and 

validation of a number of models for 

characterizing field exposure environmental variables in the same manner 

that these variables are characterized 

in the laboratory, (3) the observation 

that appearance-related degradation is 

almost always heterogeneous and occurs 

initially at nanoscale dimensions, 

(4) the use of the total effective dosage 

model for characterizing the severity 

of an exposure environment, and 

(5) the establishment of mathematical 

links among the different physical and 

chemical measurements and the total 

effective dosage. In addition, we have 

made significant advances in validating 

some links between field and laboratory experiments. Specifically, we have 

verified that both the reciprocity and 

additivity laws are obeyed for the study 

polymer over wide temperature and 

relative humidity conditions.

Starting in 2006, we will begin to 

assess the contribution that individual 

constituents make to the service life of 

a polymeric product. The model constituent that has been selected will be 

pigments. Pigments make up between 

30 percent and 90 percent of the total 

cost of a polymeric material and, therefore, any improvements realized in this 

area could have great economic benefits. This research sets the foundation 

for engineering polymeric materials 

with respect to their service life. This 

new phase will also introduce several 

metrologies that we have been developing and perfecting over the last five 

years. These include measuring particular dispersion in a polymeric matrix, 

quasi-static and dynamic bulk and 

nanomechanical measurements of polymers, assessing the photoreactivity of 

pigment filled polymeric systems, and 

chemical characterization of unaged 

and degraded filled systems. In 

addition, we expect to introduce 

working prototypes of both our 

high-throughput measurement and 

informatics capabilities. 

CONTACT:

JONATHAN W. MARTIN 

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6707

jonathan.martin@nist.gov

BFRL researchers 

with the NIST 

Simulated 

Photodegradation by 

High Energy Radiant 

Exposure (SPHERE).

BFRL researchers 

using atomic force 

microscopy to 

characterize the 

nanoscale morphological properties of 

pigmented polymeric 

coating films.
41

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Sealants Service Life 

Prediction Exposure 

Consortium

Modern building design increasingly relies on elastomeric building materials to provide waterproofing, 

blast protection, and energy conservation. The most easily recognized elastomeric building materials are window 

seals and sealants. Although these materials represent a small percentage of the 

initial construction cost of a structure, 

their failure represents a very large fraction of the energy loss, maintenance, 

and repair costs of constructed facilities. Furthermore, the failure of aged 

building joint sealants is often detected 

only after substantial water damage to 

and thermal loss from a structure has 

already occurred, making repair costs 

much higher than they need to be. 

Water intrusion is the most commonly 

cited complaint made by homeowners. 

Despite the importance of joint sealants in the building envelope, their 

longevity has always been questioned. 

Moreover, conventional methods for 

assessing durability are capable only of 

generating a subjective assessment of 

longevity. In the absence of quantitative predictions of known precision and 

accuracy, building joint sealant selections must be based on first-cost.

To address these issues, BFRL 

researchers have participated since 

October of 2001 in a NIST-led 

State-of-the-art field exposure apparatuses for naturally 

stressing sealant samples are positioned on BFRL’s roof. 

Numerous physical and environmental variables continuously are being monitored, including stress and strain 

within the sealant while environmental variables, as well 

as sealant temperature and moisture content, are varied.

Custom designed, state-of-the-art, laboratory, sealant testing chambers attached to 

the NIST SPHERE. Temperature, humidity, 

ultra-violet, and mechanical load can be 

independently controlled for eight ASTM 

C719 sealant specimens.

industrial consortium including ten 

major sealant companies plus three 

federal agencies. In 2005, significant 

progress was made in establishing the 

importance of mechanical strain in 

concert with the established factors 

(temperature, humidity, UV radiation) 

that affect the in-service performance 

of organic building materials, including 

sealants. Additionally, new outdoor and 

laboratory exposure devices are being 

used to challenge long-held beliefs 

about material weathering, and are 

critical in developing a firm scientific 

basis for a greater understanding of 

these processes.

 Taking the first steps in developing 

new methods to predict the in-service 

performance of elastomeric building 

materials requires knowledge of the 

relative importance of each of the primary weathering factors on the durability of the sealant. In conjunction with 

two monitored outdoor exposure sites, 

this data will form the foundation of 

new methods to assess the service life 

of elastomeric building materials. 

CONTACT:

CHRISTOPHER WHITE

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6707

christopher.white@nist.gov
42

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Life Testing Protocols 

for Soft Body Armor Yarns

I

n 2003, a police officer was shot 

and seriously wounded in the line 

of duty when a bullet penetrated his 

body armor. This incident alarmed the 

law enforcement community, not only 

because it was the first reported case in 

which a National Institute of Justice 

(NIJ)-certified body armor vest was 

penetrated by a bullet that it was rated 

to protect against, but also because the 

body armor in question was just six 

months old. This premature field failure 

of a widely used model of body armor 

focused attention on the need for a 

fundamental understanding of ballistic 

fiber degradation as well as scientifically 

based accelerated aging protocols to aid 

in service life prediction of body armor.

 To meet this research need, BFRL 

researchers have been performing 

research to: (1) identify the environmental and operational variables, acting 

individually or in combination, that 

physically and chemically degrade vest 

fibers, (2) identify and understand the 

underlying chemical and physical degradation mechanisms, and (3) initiate 

the development of standardized test 

protocols for accelerating, predicting, 

and monitoring the service lives of 

ballistic fibers and body armor.

Recent research has focused on the 

identification of chemical indicators 

of PBO fiber tensile strength loss. In 

particular, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has proven 

extremely useful in elucidating chemical changes that occurred in the fibers. 

Other measurement techniques utilized in this program include dynamic 

mechanical thermal analysis, quasistatic tensile testing, microscopy, and 

moisture sorption analysis. 

Preliminary investigations also have 

been initiated to determine the effect of 

fiber bending and fatigue on yarn and 

fabric mechanical properties in conjunction with environmental factors. 

As experimental data becomes available, scientific models will be derived 

and refined to explain the degradation 

mechanisms observed in ballistic fibers 

as a function of the environmental factors, individually and combined. 

CONTACT:

JOANNIE W. CHIN

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6815

joannie.chin@nist.gov

A useful technique for obtaining information on the molecular structure of polymeric materials is attenuated total reflectance (ATR) infrared spectroscopy, shown 

here in the process of analyzing a ballistic 

fiber bundle.

Scanning electron micrograph of ballistic 

fibers, revealing fiber surface morphology 

on a micron scale.

Extraction of yarns from body armor panel for chemical 

and mechanical analysis.
43

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Photoreactivity of 

Semiconductor Nanoparticles

Commercial polymers are comprised of a large number of chemical constituents. Each constituent contributes 

to the performance, in particular the 

service life performance, of a polymer. 

Identifying methodologies and metrologies for ascertaining the contribution 

that individual constituents make to the 

service life performance of a polymer 

could lead to the formulation of dramatically improved polymeric performance. 

One of the most expensive constituents in a polymer is the pigment. 

30 percent to 90 percent of the total 

cost of a polymer is often attributed to 

the cost of the pigment. All pigments 

are photoreactive and, depending on 

its degree of photoreactivity, a pigment 

can affect the service life of a polymer. 

Industry currently uses semi-quantitative titration-style methods to assess the 

photoreactivity of pigments. A need 

exists for a fast, quantitative, reliable, 

and scientifically based metrology for 

in-line measurement of the photoreactivity of pigments. 

Research efforts have focused 

on developing methodologies and 

metrologies for understanding the 

fundamental mechanisms that govern 

the photoreactivity of TiO2 pigments 

by themselves and when they are 

imbedded in a polymer matrix. In 

most commercial applications, a low 

photoreactivity is desirable; while in 

homeland security and healthcare 

applications, a high photoreactivity is 

preferred. BFRL has developed several 

metrologies for assessing photoreactivity, 

including electron paramagnetic 

resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, chemical 

assay methods, and photoconductivity 

measurements. Much of this research is 

done collaboratively with researchers in 

other NIST laboratories. Ongoing 

measurements include the chemical 

nature, number density, and mobility 

of the activated species produced in a 

photoreactive process. Models will be 

derived that relate these parameters to 

material physico-chemical properties, 

thereby improving our understanding 

of the semiconductor photoreactivity.

CONTACT:

STEPHANIE S. WATSON

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6448

stephanie.watson@nist.gov

A BFRL researcher uses the electron 

paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer 

to determine the generation of free radicals 

in titanium dioxide (TiO2) suspensions; inset 

shows EPR data, concentration changes of the 

nitroxide free radical traps, 3-amino proxyl 

(AP) as a function of UV irradiation time for a 

series of TiO2 materials.
44

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Structure and Dispersion 

Measurements of Particulates 

in a Polymeric Matrix

Poor dispersion of the pigment in commercial polymeric products 

can be expensive as well as detrimental 

to a product’s appearance and service 

life performance. The objective of this 

research is to develop a non-destructive, quantitative, efficient, and effective method for characterizing pigment 

dispersion and coating structure via 

light scattering. Particulates of interest 

include nanoparticles and pigmentary 

particles. Dispersion in both the cured 

and uncured state is of interest to the 

polymeric research community.

In 2004, BFRL completed the construction of its state-of-the-art light 

scattering laboratory for characterizing materials. The equipment in this 

laboratory is capable of characterizing 

the morphology (nano-domain due to 

dispersion in mixing or phase separation) and dispersion of particulates in a 

cured and uncured resin under various 

processing conditions. Current research 

efforts focus on metal oxide nanoparticulates because of their cost and their 

contributions to a product’s appearance and service life performance. 

The metrologies being developed, 

however, are generic to all structureproperty relationships for nanoparticles 

and nanoparticle-polymer systems. 

We have shown that light scattering 

(dynamic and static) methods can be 

used in characterizing nanoparticles 

dispersed in a polymer network over 

a wide temperature range in liquid to 

gel (quasi-solid) state matrixes, and we 

can determine the mobility and size of 

the nanoparticle clusters in these states. 

Additionally, by studying optical scattering profiles reflected from unexposed 

and weathered coatings, we can measure the optical property and surface 

morphology changes in nanoscale and 

microscale, and relate these changes 

to mechanical and chemical changes 

resulting from photodegradation. 

CONTACT:

LI-PIIN SUNG 

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6737

li-piin.sung@nist.gov

(a) Surface morphology and optical 

scattering profiles from a weathered 

PVDF coating (masked vs. exposed 

areas). (b) BFRL researcher measures 

the optical scattering from a coating 

surface using a five-axis goniometric 

optical instrument equipped with a 

two-dimensional (2-D) detector. 

2-D Optical Scattering Profiles

(b)

Masked Exposed

(a)

 Surface Morphology from Weathered Coatings

2-D

Detector

Laser
45

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Physical and Optical 

Characterizations of 

Polymer Surfaces 

Scratch, mar and abrasion resistance greatly affect a coating’s appearance. 

These variables have become among the 

most important performance factors in 

determining the service life of interior 

architectural and automotive coatings. 

The propensity of a polymeric coating to scratch and mar depends on 

many physical, chemical, environmental, and geometrical factors including its 

hardness, the morphology of the scratch 

or mar, viewing angle, and scratch 

conditions. Although many metrologies 

have been developed, none are capable 

of generating repeatable and reproducible results. NIST’s mission is to develop a standard protocol, with a strong 

engineering and scientific basis, which 

is capable of generating repeatable 

and reproducible results. This research 

is being conducted in cooperation 

with industry via the NIST/Industry 

Polymers Interphase Consortium. 

The protocol development has three 

steps. First, instrumented indentation 

has been used to quantify coating properties such as elastic modulus, hardness, 

and yield stress over length scales that 

are relevant to the scratch resistance 

and material heterogeneity. Second, a 

scratch test followed by a well-defined 

test protocol using the same-instrumented indentor is used to induce 

surface damage. Scratch characterization includes the measurement of morphology, residual depth, and frictional 

coefficients. Finally, optical scattering 

measurements are conducted to identify 

the onset of plastic deformation by analyzing specular and off-specular intensities. The ratio of these two scattering 

(specular and off-specular) signals provides information on surface roughness, 

substrate color, incident wavelength, 

and angle, and is used to evaluate the 

visibility of the scratch. The combination of absolute physical and optical 

measurements permits the quantitative 

evaluation of scratch resistance for each 

material. Therefore, performance (e.g., 

durability, appearance) may be objectively related to material/mechanical 

properties. Future research will expand 

to include polymeric materials and their 

appearance-based scratch resistance as a 

function of environmental aging.

CONTACT:

LI-PIIN SUNG

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6737

li-piin.sung@nist.gov

BFRL researcher characterizes 

the damages on the coating 

surface morphology (an illustration of damage is shown 

in the right) due to a scratch 

test, using a laser scanning 

confocal microscope. A corresponding optical scattering 

profile due to the scratch also 

is shown in the lower graph.

Schematic of the iterative 

methodology used in the appearance 

base scratch resistance metrology under 

development through the NIST/Industry 

Polymer Interphase Consortium.
46

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Nanochemical 

Characterization of Filled and 

Unfilled Polymer Systems

I

nitial indications of the weathering 

of a polymeric product are often 

observed as nanoscale defects dispersed 

heterogeneously over the surface of 

a weathered film. Over time, these 

nanoscale defects tend to grow in size, 

aggregate, and coalesce. At some point 

during the aggregation and coalescence 

processes, the defects become humanly 

perceptible. Thus, both nanoscale 

and macroscale measurements provide important information regarding 

weathering. Nanoscale measurements 

help elucidate the fundamental failure mechanisms causing a polymeric 

product to degrade, whereas macroscale 

measurements provide critical customer 

perceived failure information. This 

project addresses nanoscale chemical measurements for both filled and 

unfilled polymers.

Techniques to achieve nanoscale 

chemical measurements are still in 

early stages of evolution, with vanguard 

efforts in only a few laboratories worldwide. NIST has developed an AFMbased technique that can map chemically 

heterogeneous surfaces at a nanoscale 

spatial resolution (5 nm – 10 nm). This 

novel technique requires a combination 

of three components: (1) phase imaging 

in tapping mode AFM, which is 

sensitive to material properties at the 

nanoscale, (2) NIST-patented environmental chamber to provide the required 

amount of moisture at the tip-sample 

environment (Fig. 1), and (3) hydrophilic AFM tips. By controlling the 

appropriate RH of the tip/sample 

environment, we have successfully 

applied this technique to image 

nanoscale chemical properties of a 

variety of model samples, including 

patterned self-assembled monolayer 

that contains hydrophilic and hydrophobic nanodomains (Figures 2 and 3) 

and hydrophobic/hydrophilic polymers 

using unmodified and functionalized 

Figure 1: AFM 

measurement using 

NIST-patented 

relative humiditycontrolled chamber. 

Figure 2. Effect of RH on AFM phase image contrast for a 

hydrophilic/hydrophobic gradient sample; (unmodified 

Si tip; stripe: hydrophilic; matrix: hydrophobic).

Figure 3: Effect of RH on AFM phase image contrast for a 

hydrophilic/hydrophobic patterned sample using plasmatreated CNT tip (a) and Si tip (b); stripe: hydrophilic; 

matrix: hydrophobic.
47

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

conventional AFM and carbon nanotube (CNT) tips. For all samples, we 

found that, in the low relative humidity 

(RH) range (<25 percent), the image 

contrast between a hydrophilic region 

and a hydrophobic region is poor 

even for cases where the surface free 

energy difference between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions is large 

(∆γ ≈ 35 mJ/m2). However, in the RH 

range between 25 and 80 percent, the 

image contrast is greatly enhanced even 

between regions that have relatively 

small difference in surface free energy 

(∆γ ≈ 5 mJ/m2). 

This NIST-developed chemical 

force microscopy is a useful technique 

to provide chemical information at 

the nanoscale spatial resolution. 

The potential application of this 

nanochemical technique in materials 

and biomaterials is very high. Another 

use of this technique is to identify 

and characterize the chemical nature 

of the nanodomains where degradation 

initiates. GM Corporation has 

expressed a strong interest in using 

this technique to map the hydrophilic 

domains in fuel cell membranes, which 

affect membrane performance. 

CONTACT:

TINH NGUYEN 

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6707

tinh.nguyen@nist.gov 

Mechanical Property 

Characterization of Polymer 

Film Surfaces and Interfaces

Over the last two decades, instrumented indentation (IIT) has 

proven to be an invaluable tool for 

characterizing the mechanical properties of metal and ceramic thin films. 

Recently, IIT research has focused on 

the characterization of mechanical 

properties of polymeric films. 

IIT has the potential to provide 

the mechanical property information 

required to predict structural changes 

in coatings exposed to weathering, and 

facilitate a more comprehensive prediction of coating service life. The service 

life of these coatings highly depends on 

changes in the polymer matrix, filler 

particle size, shape, and distribution, 

processing variables, and weathering 

conditions. Current work involves the 

measurement of static and dynamic 

surface nano-mechanical properties as a 

function of surface loading rate, indentation strain, and indentation geometry. 

Specific materials of interest include 

industrially relevant filled and unfilled 

thermoplastic and thermoset polymeric 

films subjected to a controlled accelerated aging atmosphere. Mechanical 

property measurements are correlated 

to chemical and thermal characterization to provide a complete picture of 

material property changes as a function 

of the aging environment and time. 

CONTACT:

AARON M. FORSTER

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-8701

aaron.forster@nist.gov

BFRL researcher uses the MTS Nano Indenter XP to characterize the surface mechanical properties of a polymeric 

film subjected to an accelerated weathering environment.

(A) Confocal microscopy image of an indent into a thermoplastic film using a Berkovich indenter. The measured 

mechanical properties can be influenced by the local crystallinity surrounding the indentation. AFM phase images 

of (B) a thermoplastic film quench cooled that exhibits 

small crystallites. (C) Slow cooling the film increases the 

size of the crystallites.
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H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

HYPERCON: Prediction 

and Optimization of 

Concrete Performance

Intended Outcome and Background

The objective of the HYPERCON program 

is to develop and implement materials 

science-based tools for concrete that will 

enable the prediction and optimization of 

the initial cost and service life performance 

of concrete for public and private uses. As 

of 2005, the concrete industry is in a period of rapid change – rapid positive change 

that needs these kinds of performance 

prediction tools in order to reach a successful outcome. Two examples illustrate 

the current industrial climate, which in 

turn demonstrate the need for HYPERCON 

research on more accurate and reliable 

ways to predict concrete properties. 

The National Ready-Mixed Concrete 

Association (NRMCA), which represents 

most of the ready-mixed concrete producers in the U.S., is progressing in its 

sweeping P2P initiative. P2P stands for 

“Prescription to Performance” and indicates the desire of the NRMCA to change 

all concrete specifications from a prescriptive form, which does not allow innovation 

and proprietary formulation, to a performance form, which will drive innovation 

and research for proprietary advantage in 

the marketplace. This initiative will make 

an enormous change in the industry. The 

Strategic Development Council (SDC) of 

the American Concrete Institute (ACI), an 

organization of top executives from all 

parts of the $110 billion/year concrete 

industry, has published Roadmap 2030, a 

30-year research roadmap that is designed 

to achieve momentous goals and drastically change the cement and concrete 

industry. One of these goals is: The concrete industry will reduce the time required 

for the acceptance of new technology from 

fifteen to two years. The SDC Accelerated 

Technology Acceptance program has 

begun to make progress toward this goal.

HYPERCON research is designed, working closely with industry, to help the 

cement and concrete industry transform 

itself into a performance-based entity 

using the tools of computational and 

experimental materials science. This task 

requires not only cutting edge research but 

also high quality knowledge transfer, so 

that research becomes embedded in practice at an accelerated rate. BFRL researchers carry out this dual task by working 

directly with industry in joint projects like 

the Virtual Cement and Concrete Testing 

Laboratory (VCCTL) consortium, and by taking leadership roles in various standards 

committees of importance to the cement 

and concrete industry. These leadership 

roles include chair of the ASTM C01.123 

Cement Characterization sub-committee, 

membership on the Advisory Board for 

the C01 Executive committee, and chair of 

the ACI 226 Materials Science of Concrete 

committee. 

Performing world-leading concrete materials science in collaboration with industry, and transferring that research into 

practice, is how HYPERCON is delivering 

value to the cement and concrete industry. 

Computational tools like finite element 

techniques revolutionized structural 

design, so that today no one would consider designing a major building without 

the use of these programs. The intended 

outcome of the HYPERCON program is that 

industry adoption of HYPERCON research 

will be such that nobody will design concrete mixtures for major construction projects without using HYPERCON materials 

science-based tools. 
49

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

The Virtual Cement and 

Concrete Testing Laboratory 

(VCCTL)

The Virtual Cement and Concrete Testing Laboratory (VCCTL) 

is a computational materials science 

software package designed to reduce 

the reliance of the concrete industry 

on empirical tests, replacing them with 

well-validated, scientifically based models that operate on extensive scientific 

databases. This software package, developed in close collaboration with an 

industrial consortium, mimics a complete physical testing laboratory, with 

databases of cement and aggregates 

instead of bins and hoppers, material combination and concrete curing 

models instead of mixers and molds, a 

software interface instead of a cart to 

take materials and samples around the 

laboratory, and accurate models for performance prediction instead of instrumented testing machines. Industrial 

consortium members, who have contributed both financial and research 

resources to the joint project through 

2005, include: W.R. Grace, Holcim, 

Cemex, SIKA, Degussa, Portland 

Cement Association, International 

Center for Aggregate Research, VDZ, 

and ATILH. Thus the VCCTL consortium includes cement, aggregates, 

chemical admixtures, and concrete 

producers, uniting all the major 

materials aspects of the concrete 

industry in a joint project that will be 

of major benefit for the entire industry. 

The consortium started in January 

2001 with VCCTL 1.0, and is currently in Phase II as of December 

2005, with VCCTL 6.0 scheduled to 

be released in spring, 2006. VCCTL 

5.0 is already being used by some of 

the industrial members to help them 

in their research and development and 

quality control work. 

Many accomplishments have been 

made as of 2005. Two of special note 

include the current development of 

HydratiCA, a new, third generation 

cement hydration model that will have 

detailed dependence on known chemical and physical equations governing 

hydration and the processes it involves, 

and which will have realistic kinetics, 

something that has not been possible 

with previous hydration models. The 

second is the total rewriting of the 

software interface that controls the 

VCCTL software (the “lab cart” that 

ties together materials and measurements) from HTML to Java. This allows 

vastly improved ease-of-use, and the 

potential for much greater functionality. 

CONTACT:

EDWARD J. GARBOCZI

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6708

edward.garboczi@nist.gov

Sample of a cementitious 

mineral microstructure that 

has undergone dissolution, 

diffusion, and precipitation 

according to exact chemical 

and physical equations with 

real kinetics. 
50

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Concrete Rheology

Measuring and controlling the rheology of the concrete is 

crucial for correct placement to occur. 

In HYPERCON, rheology/processing 

of concrete is studied experimentally, 

using quantitative multi-scale rheometry, and computationally, using dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) methods 

on parallel computers. There is tight 

synergy between the two parts, using 

experimental measurements of cement 

paste and mortar rheology as the input 

to DPD computer programs that compute the rheology of concrete by adding 

virtual aggregate particles to a cement 

paste matrix or cement particles to a 

water matrix. By using a multi-scale 

approach, HYPERCON researchers 

are rapidly becoming able to predict the 

rheology and hence the flowability of a 

concrete from its constituent ingredients. 

Recent accomplishments include pushing the experiments to the field concrete 

level, completing the multi-scale measurement range, and adapting the DPD 

code to be able to predict the rheology 

pf dense aggregate packings like those 

found in real concrete.

CONTACT:

NICOS MARTYS

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-5915

nicos.martys@nist.gov

Measuring the rheology of concrete from 

the cement paste to the mortar to the lab 

concrete to the field concrete levels, with all 

measurements united by quantitative modeling of the rheological effects of real-shape 

and size aggregates.
51

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Material Characterization

The ASTM standard C-150, “Standard Specifications for 

Portland Cement,” specifies composition limits for Portland cement that are 

based upon a bulk chemical analysis 

and theoretical calculation of potential 

phase composition; calculations developed by R.H. Bogue at NIST more 

than 75 years ago. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) measurements have 

been demonstrated to provide a more 

complete direct mineralogical analysis 

with greater accuracy than that provided by the Bogue calculations. 

XRD capabilities extend to the more 

complex hydraulic cements of today, 

which incorporate other materials like 

limestone, fly ash, and blast furnace 

slag. BFRL has been leading an effort 

within the ASTM C-1 committee to 

develop the new standard ASTM C1365, which uses XRD measurements 

and Rietveld analysis to directly measure the phase abundance of clinker 

and cements. Using the new standard 

ASTM C1365 will open the door for 

innovation in the American cement 

manufacturing industry. 

Direct imaging of cement microstructure promises new insights into material 

property – performance relationships. 

The scanning electron microscope, 

along with advanced image processing 

and analysis methods, provides 

another means for direct analysis of 

cement microstructure: mineralogy, 

distribution, and surface area. 

CONTACT:

PAUL STUTZMAN

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6715

paul.stutzman@nist.gov

A close-up shot of 

the X-ray diffraction 

unit the results of 

which are utilized 

in the Rietveld 

analysis.

This image is a color-coded composite image of a cement (250 micrometer field width) made from 

a series of SEM backscattered electron and X-ray images. The color-coding facilitates phase identification with individual minerals having a distinct color.
52

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Aggregate Shape

The three-dimensional shape of aggregates and cement particles 

controls many concrete properties like 

rheology and early-age strength and 

hydration kinetics. “Aggregate” means 

anything from the microfine (less than 

75 micrometers) size all the way up to 

rocks that are tens of millimeters in 

diameter. Models in the past could only 

represent aggregates as spheres. Now 

X-ray microtomography, tomography, 

and laser range-finding have been used 

to characterize aggregate and cement 

particle surfaces, with mathematical 

techniques like spherical harmonics 

used to produce a nearly exact analytical mathematical model of the particles. 

The figure below shows Virtual 

Reality Modeling Language (VRML) 

pictures of cement particles, microfine 

aggregates, sand, and gravel particles. 

These real shapes, because they are now 

mathematically modeled, can go into 

VCCTL aggregate and cement particle 

databases, which serve as computational 

bins and hoppers to supply the computations in the VCCTL software package. These improved aggregate models 

allow VCCTL to more realistically 

simulate concrete behavior.

CONTACT:

EDWARD J. GARBOCZI

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6708

edward.garboczi@nist.gov 

Internal Curing with 

Lightweight Aggregates

I

nternal curing refers to the process 

by which the hydration of cement 

occurs because of the availability of 

additional internal water that is not 

part of the mixing water. For many 

years, concrete has been cured from 

the outside in. Internal curing is for 

curing from the inside out. Internal 

water is generally supplied via internal 

reservoirs, which in this project are 

saturated lightweight fine aggregates. 

Internal curing distributes the extra curing water throughout the 3-D concrete 

microstructure so that it is more readily 

available to maintain saturation of the 

cement paste during hydration, avoiding self-desiccation (in the paste) and 

reducing autogenous shrinkage. 

Recently, NIST has used X-ray 

microtomography at the Pennsylvania 

State University (with Dr. Philip 

Halleck) to study water movement at 

the fine aggregate scale during hydration. Since X-rays are sensitive to density, an empty pore shows contrast with a 

pore that is full of water, so that emptying pores can be imaged during hydration. Of the following two images, the 

first image shows the 3-D blue (empty 

pore) regions that have emptied during 

hydration as water is pulled out of the 

lightweight aggregates to supply the 

water demand of the hydrating cement 

paste. The second image shows a 2-D 

Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) pictures of cement particles, microfine aggregates, sand, 

and gravel particles.
53

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

slice where the blue empty pore regions 

have been overlaid on the mortar 

microstructure, showing clearly that the 

extra water came from the (formerly) 

saturated lightweight aggregates. Better 

control of the curing process will lead 

to improved concrete performance.

CONTACT:

DALE BENTZ

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-5865

dale.bentz@nist.gov

2-D image with water evacuated regions (pores) overlaid 

on original microstructure (4.6 mm by 4.6 mm).

Three-dimensional subtracted image of 1 d hydration – 

initial microstructure showing water-filled pores that 

have emptied during internal curing (4.6 mm on a side).

Construction Integration 

and Automation Technology 

(CONSIAT) 

Intended Outcome and Background

The focus of CONSIAT research at NIST is 

to continuously reduce cycle time and lifecycle costs in the delivery of construction 

projects by providing the critical sciencebased performance measurement tools 

that will enable early industry integration 

and automation of the construction process. 

The Construction Industry Institute 

(CII) – an organization with about 100 

members representing the Nation’s leading owners, contractors, and suppliers 

of constructed facilities – has made the 

development of Fully Integrated and 

Automated Project Processes (FIAPP) a top 

priority. However, the construction industry 

faces special challenges including low 

R&D investment, the fragmentation of the 

industry, and the strong project-oriented 

nature of its processes. 

The CONSIAT program is providing the 

critical science-based performance measurement tools to enable: integration of 

construction site metrology data and other 

field information into project information 

management systems; delivery of just-intime information to guide field operations; 

and automation of the construction process – including development of necessary 

measurement and calibration procedures. 

CII, with the support of NIST, created 

FIATECH, a collaborative, not-for-profit 

consortium that will conduct leveraged 

research and development in partnership 

with suppliers, with firms in the software/

information technology industries, and 

with the public sector. NIST is working 

in close partnership with the FIATECH 

Consortium to maximize the relevancy 

of the projects and the leveraging of 

resources on both sides, and to minimize 

the time to implementation of the program 

results. NIST is also participating in the 

FIATECH-led Capital Projects Technology 

Roadmapping effort. The resulting industry roadmap is being used to help align 

CONSIAT research areas with appropriate 

industry needs.

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

3-D Imaging Systems for 

Construction Applications

NIST researchers have been working to facilitate the use of 

LADARs (laser detection and ranging) on 

a construction site for rapid capture of 

3-D information and to aid in automating some construction processes. Efforts 

have been focused on 1) developing test 

protocols and prototype test artifacts; 

2) establishing a LADAR performance 

evaluation facility; and 3) performing 

construction object recognition.

There are currently no standard test 

methods for evaluating the performance 

of 3-D imaging systems nor their 
54

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

end-products derived from the data. 

This lack of standard test methods is 

inhibiting wider market acceptance of 

these systems, not only in the construction sector, but also in the manufacturing and transportation sectors. Standard 

test methods for the performance evaluation and use of 3-D imaging systems 

will provide a basis for fair comparisons 

of such systems, reduce the confusion 

with regard to terminology, and increase 

user confidence in these systems.

Since 2003, three workshops have 

been held at NIST on the Performance 

Evaluation of 3-D Imaging Systems. 

Participants of these workshops included most of the instrument vendors, 

users, and researchers. Results of the 

workshops indicated there was a strong 

need to develop standard test protocols for the performance evaluation 

of ground-based 3-D imaging systems 

such as laser scanners, 3-D range cameras, and flash LADARs and methods 

for assessing the accuracy of the derived 

output such as 3-D models, volumes, 

or geometric dimensions. Immediate 

efforts should focus on developing a 

protocol for determining range uncertainty of an instrument.

One application for 3-D imaging 

systems is the identification and location of construction objects of interest. 

BFRL is currently experimenting with 

large-scale pick-and-place of structural 

steel, where the data from the laser 

scans are used to identify the general 

pose (position and orientation) of a 

target object for initial positioning of 

a robotic crane. Previous efforts have 

focused on segmenting an object from 

a high resolution point cloud obtained 

from a 3-D imaging system and identifying the object and its pose.

CONTACTS:

GERALDINE CHEOK

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

(301) 975-6074

cheok@nist.gov

Innovative Technologies for 

Automated Construction

The Construction Metrology and Automation Group (CMAG) has 

been conducting research in automating 

the structural steel erection process for 

the past four years. This effort focuses 

on developing methodologies and performance metrics for advanced concepts 

in construction automation, laser-based 

Test facility and the scans of a sphere using two different instruments. site metrology, laser radar (LADAR) 
55

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

imaging, construction component 

tracking, sensor-based data exchange, 

and construction process visualization. The American Institute of Steel 

Construction (AISC) has supported 

CMAG’s efforts and continues to be an 

active participant in this research.

CMAG researchers have successfully 

equipped a unique cable-suspended six 

degree of freedom robotic crane – the 

NIST RoboCraneTM – with real-time 

laser tracking and demonstrated an 

autonomous steel assembly process 

using a simple two-column frame and 

ATLSS connectors. The build sequence 

was driven by a script generated from a 

commercial 4-D CAD package which 

was parsed for the robot controller, and 

used to create a sequence of goals or 

tasks for the robotic crane. The beams 

were gripped using a CMAG-designed 

automated gripping mechanism.

CMAG researchers are focused on 

improving the robotic crane’s performance and functionality, and on 

experimenting with several technologies that will be integrated into the 

robot’s systems over the next two years. 

The improvements include increasing the laser tracking system’s data 

update rate to 20 Hz, thus allowing 

real-time laser-based pose tracking of 

the robot; designing and implementing a rudimentary load sensing system 

to prevent the robot from releasing 

a beam if the load is not supported; 

conducting experiments to evaluate the 

robot’s performance; developing new 

data exchange software to allow the 

laser tracking data to be shared with 

multiple clients over the network; and 

upgrading the CMAG-developed robot 

controller to include automated homing, ground liftoff and landing, and 

motion characterization functions. A 

preliminary version of an Intelligent Job 

Site visualization tool – JobSight – was 

also developed which can display the 

robotic crane (and other robots), some 

construction components, and LADAR 

data within a graphical environment, and 

which can be used to display the proposed planned path of the robotic crane.

In addition to the above improvements in the robot’s performance 

and functionality, CMAG researchers have also conducted experiments 

with a radio frequency identification 

(RFID) system and a high frame rate 

LADAR unit, both of which will be 

used in future efforts for construction 

component identification and locating 

and collision detection and avoidance, 

respectively. Finally, in a related effort, 

steel beam pose determination in a 

non-cluttered scene using LADAR data 

was demonstrated (though not integrated in the automated assembly process). 

This capability will be used in future 

efforts to provide pose information of 

various construction components to the 

robot’s task planner.

Future efforts will focus on integrating the high frame rate LADAR system 

for obstacle detection, and combining 

the RFID system with high resolution 

LADAR scanning for construction 

object recognition and tracking. In 

addition, CMAG will continue efforts 

toward expanding the functionality 

of JobSight to include the ability to 

display a model of the construction 

site and to display the objects within 

its database in real-time (whenever 

that information is available). Finally, 

a new controller for the robotic crane, 

based on the NIST Real-Time Control 

System (RCS) architecture, will be 

developed and will integrate the various 

systems already developed as part of 

these efforts into a cohesive and 

modular framework.

CONTACT:

ALAN LYTLE

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

(301) 975-6048

alan.lytle@nist.gov

The NIST RoboCraneTM outfitted with a specially-designed 

steel-beam gripping mechanism.
56

H I G H P E R F O R M A N C E C O N S T R U C T I O N M A T E R I A L S A N D S Y S T E M S

Harmonization of Structural 

Steel Product Data Models

BFRL researchers have been working to support the harmonization 

of the CIMsteel Integration Standards 

(CIS/2) product data model with the 

representation of structural steel in the 

Industry Foundation Classes (IFC). 

CIS/2 is the product data model that 

has been endorsed by the American 

Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 

for their Electronic Data Interchange 

Initiative. The purpose of the initiative 

is to create a means for collaboration 

and data sharing among the various 

parties involved in steel construction. 

The IFC are the product data model 

developed by the International Alliance 

for Interoperability (IAI) to facilitate 

interoperability in the building industry. Harmonization of CIS/2 and IFC is 

important so that structural steel product information can be coordinated 

with other parts of the building such as 

windows, walls, doors, floors, HVAC, 

MEP, and cladding that have been 

modeled in other CAD software. The 

harmonization work has identified areas 

in the IFC product model that need to 

be modified to accommodate structural 

steel information. 

In the past year the world’s first 

CIS/2 to IFC translator was released by 

NIST. The IFC capabilities were added 

to NIST’s existing CIS/2 to VRML 

(Virtual Reality Modeling Language) 

Translator. The translator generates an 

IFC file from a CIS/2 file that has been 

exported by a steel analysis, design, or 

detailing software package. Options in 

the translator allow for generating IFC 

files with different shape representations, 

element representations, and versions 

of the IFC schema including IFC2x2 

and the recently released IFC2x3. 

These options are important because 

the multiple methods for representing the same object in IFC are not all 

supported by applications that import 

IFC files. The resulting IFC files have 

been used by software vendors to test 

their IFC import capabilities and in 

a separate research effort to develop 

a mapping between IFC and CIS/2. 

Users are also using the IFC files for 

coordinating the structural steel with 

the rest of the building. The translator 

has been downloaded by over 800 users 

worldwide.

NIST researchers are members of 

the CIS/2 International Technical 

Committee. Current work by the committee is focused on what modifications 

are needed for CIS/2 to better harmonize with IFC. 

CONTACT:

ROBERT LIPMAN

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

(301) 975-3829

robert.lipman@nist.gov

Interoperability Standards 

for Capital Facilities – 

Improving Equipment Design, 

Specification, Purchase, 

Fabrication, and Installation

The Construction Industry Institute (CII) Project Team 180, 

eCommerce for Construction, reported 

at the August 2002 CII Annual 

Conference that leading adopters of 

eCommerce for capital facilities projects 

have not succeeded in exploiting this 

technology for the design and delivery 

of equipment. The lack of interoperability standards is a primary barrier.

To address this need, BFRL established and is leading the Automating 

Equipment Information Exchange 

(AEX) Project in collaboration with the 

FIATECH Consortium, and with participation from owners, engineering and 

construction companies, equipment suppliers and software suppliers. The AEX 

Project is documenting industry information requirements and transaction 

priorities for the design, procurement 

and delivery of a variety of equipment 

types. In addition, the AEX Project 

established collaboration agreements 

with relevant industry organizations, 

e.g., American Petroleum Institute, 

Process Industry Practices, American 

Society for Heating, Refrigerating, and 

Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 

and the Hydraulic Institute on the delivery of XML schemas for information on 

The CIS/2 to VRML and IFC Translator translates a CIS/2 

file of a steel structure into a 3-D interactive model in the 

form of a VRML file and an IFC model.
57

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

engineered equipment. In July 2004, the 

AEX Project published the AEX XML 

Schemas, Version 1.0. 

During 2005, the AEX Project 

developed software implementations 

of the AEX schemas and conducted 

the AEX pump interoperability 

demonstration across all stakeholders 

in the pump supply chain from initial 

design requirements to completing 

mechanical design, procurement, request 

for quote, quote, quote assessment and 

supplier selection. Eight organizations 

participated with nine applications 

demonstrating implementations of the 

AEX schemas. Building on the success 

of the AEX interoperability demonstrations, DuPont started a pilot project 

in November 2005 to begin use of the 

AEX XML specifications for automating information exchanges with key 

suppliers.

CONTACT:

MARK PALMER

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

(301) 975-5858

mark.palmer@nist.gov

Costs of Inadequate 

Interoperability in 

Construction – NIST 

Report Released

I

nadequate interoperability (the ability to exchange and use information) 

increases the cost burden of construction industry stakeholders and results 

in missed opportunities for creating 

significant benefits for the construction 

industry and the public at large. The 

lack of quantitative measures of the 

annual cost burden imposed by inadequate interoperability, however, has 

hampered efforts to promote the use 

of integration and automation technologies in the construction industry.

To address this need, BFRL and 

NIST’s Advanced Technology Program 

commissioned a study to identify and 

estimate the efficiency losses in the 

U.S. capital facilities industry resulting 

from inadequate interoperability among 

computer-aided design, engineering, 

and software systems. Although the 

focus of the study is on capital facilities—commercial/institutional buildings and industrial facilities—it benefits 

key stakeholders throughout the construction industry.

Cost Analysis of Inadequate 

Interoperability in the U.S. Capital 

Facilities Industry (NIST GCR 

04-867), prepared for NIST by 

RTI International and the Logistic 

Management Institute, estimates the 

cost of inadequate interoperability in 

the U.S. capital facilities industry to 

be $15.8 billion per year. These cost 

impacts are of interest to owners and 

operators of capital facilities; design, 

construction, operation and maintenance, and other providers of professional services in the capital facilities 

industry; and public- and private-sector 

research organizations engaged in developing interoperability solutions.

The material contained in the report 

will promote an increased awareness of 

interoperability-related issues—both 

challenges and opportunities—in the 

capital facilities industry. The report 

addresses the cost burden issue by presenting both quantitative and qualitative findings and identifying significant 

opportunities for improvement. The 

report also analyzes the barriers to 

improved interoperability in the capital 

facilities industry and recommends 

actions for NIST and others to address 

these barriers.

Since August 2004, 120 thousand 

requests have been made for the 

pdf file of the report on the BFRL 

Web site. Electronic copies of NIST 

GCR 04-867 are available at 

http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae. 

CONTACT:

ROBERT E. CHAPMAN

OFFICE OF APPLIED ECONOMICS

(301) 975-2723

robert.chapman@nist.gov

AEX Interoperability Demo— Round 1.
58

To develop and 

implement the 

standards, technology, 

and practices needed 

for cost-effective 

improvements to 

the safety and security 

of buildings and 

building occupants, 

including evacuation, 

emergency response 

procedures, and 

threat mitigation.

HOMELAND SECURITY

The strategy to meet this goal is a three-part 

NIST-led public-private response program 

that includes:

■ a federal building and fire safety investigation to study the most probable factors 

that contributed to post-aircraft impact 

collapse of the World Trade Center (WTC) 

Towers and the 47-story WTC 7, and the 

associated evacuation and emergency 

response experience; 

■ a research and development (R&D) program to (a) facilitate the implementation of 

recommendations resulting from the WTC 

Investigation, and (b) provide the technical 

basis for cost-effective improvements to 

national building and fire codes, standards 

and practices that enhance the safety of 

buildings, their occupants, and emergency 

responders; and 

■ a dissemination and technical assistance 

program (DTAP) to (a) engage leaders of the 

construction and building community in 

ensuring timely adoption and widespread 

use of proposed changes to practices, standards, and codes resulting from the WTC 

Investigation and the R&D program, and 

(b) provide practical guidance and tools to 

better prepare facility owners, contractors, 

architects, engineers, emergency responders, and regulatory authorities to respond 

to future disasters.

The desired outcomes are to make buildings, occupants, and first responders safer 

in future disaster events.

Investigation of the 

World Trade Center Disaster

On August 21, 2002, the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) announced its building and fire safety 

investigation of the World Trade Center (WTC) 

disaster. This WTC Investigation was then 

conducted under the authority of the National 

Construction Safety Team (NCST) Act, which 

was signed into law on October 1, 2002. 

The specific objectives were:

1. Determine why and how WTC 1 and 

WTC 2 collapsed following the initial 

impacts of the aircraft and why and how 

WTC 7 collapsed;

2. Determine why the injuries and fatalities 

were so high or low depending on location, 

including all technical aspects of fire protection, occupant behavior, evacuation, and 

emergency response;

3. Determine what procedures and practices 

were used in the design, construction, 

operation, and maintenance of WTC 1, 2, 

and 7; and 

4. Identify, as specifically as possible, areas 

in current building and fire codes, standards, 

and practices that warrant revision.

To meet these objectives, NIST complemented its in-house expertise with an array of 

specialists in key technical areas. In all, over 

200 staff contributed to the Investigation. 

NIST and its contractors compiled and 

reviewed tens of thousand of pages of documents; conducted interviews with over a 

thousand people who had been on the scene 

or who had been involved with the design, 
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B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

construction, and maintenance of the 

WTC; analyzed 236 pieces of steel that 

were obtained from the wreckage; performed laboratory tests, measured material properties, and performed computer 

simulations of the sequence of events 

that happened from the instant of aircraft impact to the initiation of collapse 

for each tower.

The scarcity of physical evidence that 

is typically available in place for reconstruction of a disaster led to the following approach:

■ Accumulation of copious photographic 

and video material. With the assistance 

of the media, public agencies and individual photographers, NIST acquired 

and organized nearly 7,000 segments of 

video footage, totaling in excess of 150 

hours and nearly 7,000 photographs 

representing at least 185 photographers. 

This guided the Investigation Team’s 

efforts to determine the condition of the 

buildings following the aircraft impact, 

the evolution of the fires, and the subsequent deterioration of the structure. 

■ Establishment of the baseline performance of the WTC towers, i.e., estimating the expected performance of the 

towers under normal design loads and 

conditions. The baseline performance 

analysis also helped to estimate the ability of the towers to withstand the unexpected events of September 11, 2001. 

Establishing the baseline performance 

of the towers began with the compilation and analysis of the procedures and 

practices used in the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the 

structural, fire protection, and egress 

systems of the WTC towers. The additional components of the performance 

analysis were the standard fire resistance 

of the WTC truss-framed floor system, 

the quality and properties of the structural steels used in the towers, and the 

response of the WTC towers to the 

design gravity and wind loads. 

■ Simulations of the behavior of 

each tower on September 11, 2001, 

were conducted in four steps:

1. The aircraft impact into the tower, 

the resulting distribution of aviation 

fuel, and the damage to the structure, 

partitions, thermal insulation materials, 

and building contents.

2. The evolution of multi-floor fires.

3. The heating and consequent 

weakening of the structural elements 

by the fires.

4. The response of the damaged and 

heated building structure, and the 

progression of structural component 

failures leading to the initiation of the 

collapse of the towers.

For such complex structures and 

complex thermal and structural processes, each of these steps stretched the 

state of the technology and tested the 

limits of software tools and computer 

hardware. For example, the investigators advanced the state-of-the-art in the 

measurement of construction material 

properties and in structural finite element modeling. New modeling capability was developed for the mapping 

of fire-generated environmental temperatures onto the building structural 

components.

The output of the four-step simulations was subject to uncertainties in the 

as-built condition of the towers, the 

interior layout and furnishings, the aircraft impact, the internal damage to the 

towers (especially the thermal insulation 

for fire protection of the structural steel, 

which is colloquially referred to as 

The published results of the NIST World Trade Center 

Disaster Investigation.
60

H O M E L A N D S E C U R I T Y

60

fireproofing), the redistribution of the 

combustibles, and the response of the 

building structural components to the 

heat from the fires. To increase confidence in the simulation results, NIST 

used the visual evidence, eyewitness 

accounts from inside and outside the 

buildings, laboratory tests involving 

large fires and the heating of structural 

components, and formal statistical 

methods to identify influential parameters and quantify the variability in 

analysis results. 

■ Combination of the knowledge gained 

into probable collapse sequences for 

each tower, the identification of factors 

that contributed to the collapse, and a 

list of factors that could have improved 

building performance or otherwise mitigated the loss of life.

■ Compilation of a list of findings that 

respond to the first three objectives and 

a list of recommendations that responds 

to the fourth objective.

The results of this extensive research 

led to the conclusion that the tragic 

consequences of the September 11, 

2001, attacks were directly attributable to the fact that terrorists flew large 

jet-fuel laden commercial airliners into 

the WTC towers. Buildings for use by 

the general population are not designed 

to withstand attacks of such severity; 

building regulations do not require 

building designs to consider aircraft 

impact. In our cities, there has been 

no experience with a disaster of such 

magnitude, nor has there been any in 

which the total collapse of a high-rise 

building occurred so rapidly and with 

little warning.

While there were unique aspects to 

the design of the WTC towers and 

the terrorist attacks of September 11, 

2001, NIST has compiled a list of 

recommendations to improve the safety 

of tall buildings, occupants, and emergency responders based on its investigation of the procedures and practices 

that were used for the WTC towers. 

The recommendations call for action 

by specific entities regarding standards, 

codes and regulations, their adoption and enforcement, professional 

practices, education, and training; and 

research and development. 

The extensive details of the investigation, results and recommendations can 

be found in the report Federal Building 

and Fire Safety Investigation of the World 

Trade Center Disaster: Final Report of 

the National Construction Safety Team 

on the Collapse of the World Trade 

Center Towers (NCSTAR 1) and the 42 

companion reports. These reports are 

available on the Web site: http://wtc.

nist.gov/reports_october05.htm. 

CONTACT:

SHYAM SUNDER

DEPUTY DIRECTOR, BFRL

(301) 975-6850

sunder@nist.gov

Research and Development 

for the Safety of 

Threatened Buildings

Intended Outcome and Background

Building and fire codes in the United 

States exist, among other reasons, to 

ensure the safety of occupants in the 

event of anticipated excessive loads due 

to wind, earthquake, and snow, and the 

likelihood of a probable worst case fire. 

The tragic collapse of the World Trade 

Center in 2001 (along with the terrorist 

attacks on the Pentagon, Hart Senate 

Office Building, and the Murrah Federal 

Building) has focused the general public, 

governments at all levels, and the construction and building products industries 

on the need to understand the possible 

impacts of terrorist acts on building operations, structural integrity, and emergency 

response procedures, and on the need to 

develop economically justifiable strategies to mitigate the potential loss of life 

from future extreme threats. The standard 

test methods and building practices upon 

which current building and fire codes 

are based rank the performance of one 

material, component or system against 

alternative designs, with the expectation 

that some minimum rating translates into 

a sufficient level of safety of the material, component or system when installed 

in the actual building. Safety factors are 

used to account for our ignorance about 

the magnitude of actual loads, and of the 
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B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

uncertainty in response of the complex 

building frame to these loads. The prediction of failure modes in a closely-coupled 

building system is beyond our current 

capability, and standard test methods 

tell nothing of the expected performance 

of the building should the mechanical or 

thermal load exceed a prescribed value. 

In addition, building designers, operators, 

occupants and first responders are now 

faced with chemical and biological threats 

that were unforeseen as little as four 

years ago. How should HVAC systems be 

designed and operated to contain a poisonous aerosol or gas? How have people 

changed their behavior in response to an 

emergency since 9/11? Should the same 

emergency egress and fire service access 

techniques and strategies be used in the 

case of a biological threat as for a fire? Can 

new technologies be developed or design 

practices be adapted to increase the safety 

of the building occupants without undue 

economic burden on the owners/operators? Additional research and development is being conducted in this program 

to answer questions like these, to provide 

guidance and tools to assess and reduce 

future vulnerabilities, and to better prepare 

facility owners, contractors, designers, and 

emergency personnel to respond to future 

disasters, natural or intentionally initiated. 

The Safety of Threatened Buildings 

Program is part of the response of NIST to 

the events of 9/11, and has been developed through extensive discussions and 

partnerships with industry, academia, professional societies, codes and standards 

organizations, emergency services, and 

other government agencies. The Program 

is responsive to recommendations from 

the 2002 FEMA Building Performance 

Study and the 2005 NIST Federal Building 

and Fire Safety Investigation of the World 

Trade Center Disaster: Final Report. The 

program is also responsive to the specific 

hazards posed by the introduction of a 

noxious aerosol into the environment 

such as occurred in the Hart Senate Office 

Building, and a blast such as occurred in 

the Murrah Federal Building. However, 

the fruits of the research are not limited 

to these specific structures, and will be 

applicable to the built environment in 

general. The overarching goal of all of this 

work is to provide a technical foundation 

that supports improvements to building 

and fire codes, standards, and practices 

that reduce the impact of extreme threats 

to the safety of buildings, their occupants 

and emergency responders, and to restore 

public confidence in the safety of tall 

buildings nationwide.

Four general outcomes are anticipated 

that support near- and long-term improvements reducing the vulnerability of the 

structure, building occupants and first 

responders to extreme threats: 

increased structural integrity, 

enhanced fire resistance,

improved emergency egress and access, and

building emergency equipment standards 

and guidelines.

Increasing Structural Integrity– 

Structural integrity is being increased 

through the development and implementation of performance criteria for codes 

and standards, tools and practical guidance for prevention of progressive structural collapse. System design concepts, 

retarded collapse mechanisms, built in 

redundancy, and hardening structures 

though retrofit are being considered. 

Performance criteria for fire safety design 

and retrofit of structures are being developed through examination of five key factors: the suitability of standard fire resistance test methods; the role of structural 

connections, diaphragms, and redundancy 

in enabling load transfer and maintaining 

overall structural integrity; the effectiveness of alternative retrofit, design and fire 

protection strategies to enhance structural fire endurance; the fire behavior of 

structures built with innovative materials; 

and models to predict the fire hazard to 

structures from internal and external fires. 

Guidance on methods to enhance fire 

resistance of steel and concrete structures 

based upon our current state of knowledge 

are being developed as well. 

Enhancing Fire Resistance – Fire resistant 

steels exist and are in use elsewhere in the 

world. More efficient and accurate tests 

for performance of steels under building 

fire conditions are needed and are being 

developed to help industry incorporate 

fire resistant steels into U.S. construction 

practice. Fundamental mechanical and 

thermal properties of fire protective materials are being measured. This requires the 
62

H O M E L A N D S E C U R I T Y

development of new test methods and 

instrumentation, and a data base that 

spans the full range of expected temperatures and mechanical loads. These data 

will supplement, or may even replace the 

need for, the ASTM E119 test in certain 

situations, and in any case are key to the 

implementation of meaningful performance codes and design criteria.

Facilities do not yet exist that are suitable for demonstrating in a quantitative 

manner the improved performance of new 

materials, systems and processes in their 

end-use within a building under actual 

fire conditions. Hence, simulations are 

required to bridge the fundamental data 

and the results of bench- and pilot-scale 

tests to the environment in which they 

would be exposed during extreme fire conditions. The severity of a fire is dependent 

upon many parameters that are beyond 

the control of the building designer, 

especially when one considers the range 

of terrorism threats that are possible. The 

performance in a fire of non-structural elements such as walls and ceilings is directly 

linked to the structural integrity of the 

building because a collapsed wall, ceiling 

or floor exposes more areas of the building 

to the fire while providing additional fuel 

and air upon which the fire can feed. The 

technical basis for accurate measurement 

methodology and simulation tools for the 

inclusion of fire-resistant properties of 

walls and ceilings in performance-based 

fire safety design is being developed 

under this program.

Improving Emergency Egress and 

Access – By working with the primary 

stakeholders (elevator and construction 

industries, fire services, professional 

societies and code making bodies), the 

role of elevators in providing access by the 

fire service to a fire in a high-rise building 

is being greatly enhanced over current 

practice. The development of hardened 

fire service elevators and new emergency 

operation procedures/controls will lead 

to improved egress capabilities from tall 

buildings, especially for mobility-impaired 

or injured occupants. However, the behavior of people in an emergency situation 

has been altered in unpredictable ways by 

the events of 9/11. Current egress models 

are inappropriate and/or insufficient for 

the design and placement of doors and 

stairways and the control of elevator 

movement to handle the total emergency 

evacuation of a tall building. Behavioral 

and engineering studies are being conducted, drawing on experts in academia 

and elsewhere, to enable the development 

of simulation tools that better capture the 

movement of people within a building 

under fire and other emergency situations.

Developing Building Emergency 

Equipment Standards and Guidelines –

Partnering with ASHRAE and other 

federal agencies, NIST-developed 

indoor air quality (IAQ) simulation tools 

are being extended to analyze and guide 

the assessment and subsequent reductions in the vulnerability of buildings to 

chemical/biological/radiological attacks. 

Standard building information models 

that facilitate the simulation of building 

system behavior during adverse events are 

being developed to allow communication 

among IAQ controls and other building 

controls associated with, for example, 

security, transportation, energy and fire 

alarm systems. A user-friendly tool is being 

developed for building owners and managers to aid in the selection of cost-effective 

strategies for the management of terrorist 

and environmental risks. 

A C T I V I T I E S A N D A CCO M P L I S H M E N T S

Prevention of Progressive 

Structural Collapse

Progressive collapse refers to the spread of a structural failure, by a 

chain reaction, that is disproportionate to a localized triggering failure. 

Progressive collapse can result not only 

in disproportionate structural failure, 

but also disproportionate loss of life 

and injuries. The triggering event can 

result from abnormal loads such as 

blasts, accidental fires, and deliberate 

terrorist acts. There is no accepted, science-based design practice to provide 

overall structural integrity that considers both traditional design loads and 

abnormal loads. The building industry 

needs criteria and guidelines to address 

explicitly progressive collapse resistance 
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B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

design. In addition, methodologies are 

needed to retrofit existing buildings to 

enhance progressive collapse resistance. 

The project considers four distinct 

but interrelated strategies to mitigate 

progressive collapse:

■ system design concept,

■ retard collapse after triggering event,

■ built-in redundancy for alternate 

load paths, and

■ retrofit and design to “harden” structure. 

The project is guided by the recommendations from two national industry 

workshops. Advanced modeling and 

simulation tools are being developed to 

evaluate the vulnerability of complex 

structural systems, including the evaluation of new system design concepts, as 

well as predicting the progressive collapse potential of buildings. The project 

will exploit knowledge gained from 

controlled demolition technology. The 

project will also be developing performance criteria and methods to mitigate 

progressive structural collapse for the 

development of pre-standards for both 

new and existing structures.

CONTACT:

FAHIM SADEK

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975- 4420

fahim.sadek@nist.gov

Fire Safety Design and 

Retrofit of Structures

Current building design practice does not consider fire as a design 

condition to predict and evaluate 

structural performance in the presence 

of an uncontrolled fire. Instead, fire 

endurance ratings of building members, 

derived from a standard fire endurance 

test (e.g. ASTM E-119), are specified 

in building codes. There is an urgent 

and critical need to develop and implement verified and improved standards, 

technology, and practices that explicitly 

consider structural fire loads in the 

design of new structures and the retrofit 

of existing structures. 

The technical approach calls for the 

development of a unified performancebased methodology to evaluate the fire 

behavior of concrete and steel structures 

by incorporating current knowledge 

concerning fire load, material response, 

and overall structural response into 

the methodology. The methodology 

will include key factors not considered 

in the current practices such as actual 

structural performance of structural 

components – including connections 

and diaphragms – in a real fire environment; state-of-the-art knowledge in 

properties of innovative materials at 

high temperature; the need to couple 

thermal and structural analysis in a 

practical, verified model; and the need 

for a reliability-based approach for 

specifying the magnitude, location, 

and spatial distribution of fire hazards 

on structures.

This project will partner with U.S. 

industry to develop a consensus national R&D roadmap for fire safety design 

and retrofit of structures to focus industry and NIST resources into developing 

and implementing improved fire safety 

design provisions and methodologies. 

In the longer term, the project will 

develop measurement-based simulation 

models and tools to predict structural 

fire performance, combining expertise 

in fire dynamics and thermal-structural 

modeling. This project will also develop 

risk and reliability-based models to 

predict and specify the fire hazard and 

structural fire loads and the loss in 

structural resistance. Such a comprehensive model-based approach to structural fire safety will enable sensitivity 

studies to establish the most important 

factors affecting the fire performance of 

the complete structure and to evaluate 

the effectiveness of alternative retrofit, 

design and fire protection strategies.

CONTACT:

JOHN GROSS

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6068

john.gross@nist.gov
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H O M E L A N D S E C U R I T Y

Fire Resistive Materials 

for Structural Steel

The WTC investigation and numerous contacts with fireresistive material (FRM) manufacturers 

have indicated that both adhesion and 

the thermal properties of the FRMs 

are critical as primary influences on 

their successful performance during 

actual fires. The project addresses both 

issues. Underlying both, however, is the 

FRMs’ microstructure. Quantitative 

3-D characterization of microstructure 

has received a significant emphasis 

during the initiation of this project. 

In these areas, existing techniques have 

been successfully applied to a new 

class of materials, new experimental 

techniques have been developed, and 

computer models have been used to 

demonstrate the fundamental linkages 

between microstructure and performance properties. Recognizing that the 

durability of these materials must be 

addressed as part of any comprehensive 

program, the staff members of this 

project are actively participating in the 

activities of UL STP 263 Committee 

on Fire Tests of Building Construction 

and Materials, where a first-of-its-kind 

durability standard for FRMs is currently being drafted.

By establishing strong collaboration with the FRM manufacturing 

industry, the foundation has been laid 

for what will hopefully lead to the 

formation of a NIST/industry consortium on Performance Assessment 

and Optimization of Fire Resistive 

Materials. The goals of the consortium 

will be to continue to develop a new 

metrological infrastructure to support 

the industry and to facilitate the all 

important technology transfer from 

BFRL’s research labs to the industry. 

CONTACT:

DALE BENTZ

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 

RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975- 5865

dale.bentz@nist.gov

Standard Test Method for 

Evaluating the Fire Resistance 

of Structural Steel

Current standard tests for fire resistance (ASTM E 119, ISO 834) 

are expensive, difficult to interpret, 

and use heating curves that represent a 

limited subset of real fires. More importantly, these tests are known to provide 

little useful data for ranking different 

steel grades or for predicting actual 

fire performance. In addition, most 

modern types of structural steels have 

not been characterized for performance 

under building fire conditions, and new 

fire-resistive (FR) structural steels have 

recently been developed. Manufacturers 

claim that these new steels possess superior elevated-temperature strength compared to ordinary structural steels. Such 

FR steels, with or without protection, 

may significantly improve building 

performance in fires. As a result, a more 

meaningful, cost- and time-efficient test 

method to evaluate the actual fire resistance of steels, rather than assemblies, 

is needed. 

Research is assessing the performance of the temperature ramp test 

and several other possible standard 

tests. If warranted, we will develop a 

new ASTM standard test method. In 

a parallel thrust, we are characterizing 

the isothermal, high-temperature deformation of ordinary and fire-resistive 

(FR) steels, and are using these data and Model and test of sprayed fire resistive material exposed 

to heat. 
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material models to validate results of the 

temperature ramp test. We anticipate 

that researchers will find the material 

models useful to simulate the deformations of structures involved in fires. In 

addition to characterizing their hightemperature deformation resistance, we 

are using them to evaluate the proposed 

test methods. 

CONTACT:

WILLIAM LUECKE

METALLURGY DIVISION

301-975- 5744

william.luecke@nist.gov

Methodology for Fire 

Resistance Determination

Compartmentation has been the cornerstone of limiting compartment-to-compartment and buildingto-building fire spread. At present, 

standard fire resistance testing of 

wall/floor/ceiling assemblies provides a 

relative indicator of resistance on a scale 

that is arbitrary but has proven valuable 

over time. However, these procedures 

have significant limitations that restrict 

their value for performance-based 

design and especially for high-risk occupancies. The initial focus is on the most 

common partitions, which are based on 

gypsum panels attached by screws to 

a steel lattice frame. The thrust of the 

project is to provide a means for assessing the performance of building partitions in actual fires, and possible effects 

on the fire from the changing geometry 

of the building. 

Concepts that could satisfy the proposed objective are:

■ Additional instrumentation of the 

current large-scale furnaces, combined 

with computer simulation of the arbitrary fire, that could provide for a more 

absolute (i.e., non-relative) estimation 

of time to failure.

■ Reduced-scale testing that could provide information on residual strength 

and thermal transport, providing the 

sample surface area were large enough 

to include proper spacing of fasteners, 

backing, etc.

■ Estimation of the time to failure of 

the partition from knowledge of the 

rigidity of the framing/fastening of the 

partition assembly or some measure 

of embrittlement upon heating. (This 

would not necessarily indicate whether 

the damage to the partition resulted in 

a large opening or just cracks.)

There are nine components being 

pursued:

■ Work in close collaboration with fire 

safety engineers and other fire performance modeling efforts to define the 

types of data and the spatial resolution 

appropriate to characterize the fire 

performance of partition assemblies.

■ Review the various domestic and 

international standard apparatus and 

procedures to establish a candidate set 

of apparatus modifications and revised 

operating protocols.

■ Conduct real-scale compartment 

fire tests for a range of fire types, 

characterizing the thermal and 

mechanical performance of gypsum/

steel partition assemblies.

■ Develop software tools to predict 

fire resistance performance of gypsum 

panel fasteners.

■ Calculate the thermal effects from 

a given fire using finite element 

techniques augmented to include the 

constitutive equations for gypsum 

wallboard. The model will be formulated to accommodate other materials.

■ Couple the thermal response of 

gypsum wallboard assemblies with 

FDS simulations for real fires. 

■ Examine crack initiation and 

propagation, the integrity after the 

initial failure, and the criteria at which 

fasteners separate.

■ Adapt or develop bench-scale 

methodology for determining the 

thermo-physical, mechanical properties 

and residual strength of the panels and 

the adherence of fasteners.

■ Validate the partition integrity model 

through comparison with literature 

data (e.g., ASTM E119) and/or parallel 

experiments.

We are working with manufacturers, 

engineering firms, and standards bodies 

to integrate the results of this project 

into practice. ISO TC92 Committee on 

Fire Safety (SC2 – Fire Containment), 
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H O M E L A N D S E C U R I T Y

which maintains ISO 834, is currently examining the extent to which 

ISO standards for fire resistance can 

be adapted to provide information 

for fire safety engineering. ASTM E5 

Committee on Fire Standards, which 

maintains ASTM E119, is undertaking 

a similar effort for its standards. Once 

a technically sound methodology has 

been established for gypsum and glass 

based wall partitions, this project will 

develop the framework for walls of 

arbitrary construction and extend this 

methodology to ceilings and floors. 

CONTACT:

SAMUEL MANZELLO

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6891

samuel.manzello@nist.gov

Emergency Use of Elevators 

and Fire Fighter Lifts

The use of elevators during fires has been prohibited in the United 

States and permitted in some countries 

for fire service use but not for occupant 

egress. In tall buildings, egress and 

access times utilizing only stairs are too 

long, and stair capacity is insufficient 

for simultaneous evacuation of buildings in excess of about 40 stories. Use 

of protected elevators is the only practical means of egress for people with 

limited mobility, who may make up 

more than 6% of the population of 

tall buildings. 

ASME A17.1 Emergency Operations 

Committee has established task groups 

to develop the needed system design 

and operational requirements for the 

Elevator Code. Both model building 

code organizations are participating 

in this activity and are holding building code language for proposals at an 

appropriate time to coordinate with 

A17.1. Protected elevators are planned 

by the developers and designers of 

Freedom Tower following the emerging 

guidance in A17.1. Protected elevators are also being included in several 

buildings in London by Arup Fire at 

the request of clients, and facilitated 

directly by NIST activities.

NIST has established a coalition of 

the elevator and fire alarm industries, 

relevant codes and standards developers, 

fire service, disability advocates, and 

interested parties to develop the needed 

design, installation, and operational 

protocols to permit the use of protected 

elevators. These activities are moving 

forward in a coordinated manner such 

that the regulatory community will permit these systems in the United States 

and in a number of other countries.

The relevant codes and standards in 

the United States and Canada may be 

changed to permit these systems by 

2009. Other countries could recognize 

these systems within their disability regulations on a similar time frame. The 

adoption of nearly identical requirements across numerous countries will 

open global markets for the U.S. elevator and fire alarm industries. 

CONTACT:

RICHARD W. BUKOWSKI

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-6853

richard.bukowski@nist.gov

Response of glass-based partition to a real-scale fire.
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B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Occupant Behavior 

and Egress

The objective of this project is to provide the technical foundation 

that supports improvements in best 

practices for design and performance 

prediction of egress in large buildings, 

including the interaction of building 

occupants and first responders. Current 

prescriptive code requirements base 

egress capacity on single-floor loads, 

independent of the number of stories, 

which can lead to multi-hour evacuation times for tall buildings. Egress 

design based on system performance 

rather than prescriptive requirements 

would allow innovative and economical building design by architects and 

engineers. Unfortunately, the safety 

of economical and innovative design 

alternatives cannot be assessed due to 

limitations of current egress models. 

While there are dozens of models to 

simulate the evacuation of occupants 

from a given building geometry, there 

is limited contemporary data to support 

the model inputs or assumptions and 

even less information available to validate the models for actual emergencies. 

Collection and analysis of such data 

would provide a basis for performancebased building code requirements, the 

practice of egress system design, and 

ensure robustness for analysis of emerging issues. 

NIST held a workshop on building 

occupant movement during fire emergencies. Participants at the workshop 

representing varied disciplines – psychology, human factors, sociology, engineering, computer science, government 

agencies, and toxicology – discussed 

common efforts towards more accurate 

prediction methods and information 

on human behavior in fires and other 

emergencies. Research needs expressed 

during the workshop included the need 

for real-time data of occupant evacuation, design, and code requirements 

that reflect the risk inherent in specific 

building designs, a central repository 

for this type of data in one place 

available to the public and accurate 

guidance on development of emergency 

plans for different types of emergencies. 

We will be archiving existing evacuation data, as well as any new data 

developed in efforts related to this 

project. The foundation of a long-term, 

systematic collection of evacuation 

data is being established. This project 

collaborates with the General Services 

Administration to collect baseline 

data from selected federal buildings 

to obtain first order statistics. These 

include occupant flow speeds, preevacuation activities, exit discharge 

rates, occupant densities, along with 

appropriate details of building geometry. In addition to collection of data 

during fire drills, the project will work 

with GSA to monitor existing buildings and collect data in the event of an 

actual emergency. As appropriate, these 

data will be made available through the 

BFRL Research Information Service.

Evaluation of the validity and sensitivity of models applied to building 

egress is at least as complex as the evaluation of fire growth models. A current 

grant to Ove Arup is providing selected 

data sets to evaluate the uncertainty in 

two egress models. Through the analysis 

of two available egress models, the grant 

developed a guide for the evaluation 

of egress models to be submitted as an 

ASTM guide. The work spotlights the 

need to understand the uncertainty and 

variability associated with the model, 

and model application for a specific 

People movement data through stairwells in WTC 1 and 2 

provides researchers with unique data on occupant behavior during an extreme fire emergency. 
68

H O M E L A N D S E C U R I T Y

scenario, in addition to the data issues 

already discussed above. 

The application of a range of wellcharacterized egress models to design 

alternatives for building egress would 

assist in identifying important design 

alternatives and quantifying their 

impact on building egress. Analysis 

with current and future models should 

easily be able to account for the effects 

of stairway width or doorway restrictions at building exits, but may be 

less able to account for potentially 

important effects such as stairway counterflow, elevator-assisted egress, or the 

impact of fire conditions on egress. 

Such analyses would provide the basis 

for improved codes and standards for 

building egress, and in particular, provide the basis for the evolution of a 

new generation of fire safety evaluation 

systems that include trade-offs based on 

important egress design parameters.

BFRL reviewed nearly 30 available egress models published as NIST 

Technical Note 1471. This review provides information on newly developed 

models, a detailed explanation of model 

features and theoretical basis, and each 

model’s validation methods and limitations. It is intended to provide model 

users with a resource to narrow choices 

on the appropriate model or models to 

use for specific projects.

CONTACT:

JASON AVERILL

FIRE RESEARCH DIVISION

301-975-2585

jason.averill@nist.gov

Cost-Effectiveness Tool for 

Managing Terrorists Risks 

in Constructed Facilities

The owners and managers of constructed facilities are now faced 

with the task of responding to the 

potential for future terrorist attacks 

in a financially responsible manner. 

Economic tools are needed to direct 

limited resources to investments in 

mitigation strategies that will provide 

the most cost-effective reduction in 

personal injuries, financial losses, and 

damages to buildings, industrial facilities, and infrastructure. Economic tools 

include evaluation methods, standards 

that support and guide the use of those 

methods, and software for implementing the evaluation methods.

The economic tools under development in this project focus on a decision 

methodology, embedded in user-friendly, decision-support software, that helps 

building/facility owners and managers 

choose the most cost-effective mix of 

mitigation strategies. Three mitigation 

strategies are considered: (1) engineering alternatives; (2) management practices; and (3) financial mechanisms. 

The cost-effectiveness software tool will 

provide decision makers with the basis 

for generating a risk mitigation plan 

that responds to the potential for future 

terrorist attacks, as well as natural and 

other man-made hazards, in a financially responsible manner.

Significant OAE products to date 

include the public release of version 

1.0 of the cost-effectiveness software 

tool (CET), a report documenting the 

decision methodology, and a series of 

ASTM standards. 

CET Version 1.0 includes a comprehensive case illustration, extensive 

on-line help features, and links between 

terms used in the software and technical resource documents. All analyses 

employed in the software are consistent 

with ASTM standard practices.

Cost-Effective Responses to Terrorist 

Risks in Constructed Facilities (NISTIR 

7073) has been in strong demand since 

its release in 2004. It presents a threestep protocol for developing a risk mitigation plan for optimizing protection 

of constructed facilities. This protocol 

helps decision makers assess the risk of 

their facility to damages from low-probability, high-consequence events, both 

natural and man-made hazards; identify 

engineering, management, and financial 

strategies for abating the risk of damages; and use standardized economic 

evaluation methods to select the most 

cost-effective combination of risk mitigation strategies to protect their facility. 

By using these economic evaluation 

methods, the owners and managers of 

constructed facilities can reduce the 

life-cycle costs associated with lowprobability, high-consequence events.

We have launched collaborative efforts with the Wharton Risk 

Management and Decision Processes 

Center, the Construction Industry 

Institute, ASTM International, the EPA 

Safe Buildings Program, and the DHS 
69

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

Science and Technology Directorate to 

produce a suite of standards to promote 

more cost-effective responses to natural 

and man-made hazards. We are working through the Building Economics 

Subcommittee (E06.81) of ASTM to 

produce the suite of standards. Thus 

far, two key standards have been significantly revised, balloted, approved, and 

reissued by ASTM. Three additional 

standards have been significantly revised 

and are currently being re-balloted. 

These standards cover all of the evaluation methods employed in the costeffectiveness software tool and a format 

for reporting the results of an economic 

evaluation. A sixth standard, which covers the decision methodology, has been 

drafted and is about to enter the ASTM 

balloting process. In addition to the 

standards, OAE is preparing a training 

course on how to apply the standards 

to aid the owners and managers of 

constructed facilities in the selection of 

cost-effective strategies for the management of risks associated with natural 

and man-made hazards.

CONTACT:

ROBERT E. CHAPMAN

OFFICE OF APPLIED ECONOMICS

301-975-2723

robert.chapman@nist.gov

Technologies and 

Advanced Building Airflow 

Models for CBR Protection

Assessing and then reducing building  vulnerability to airborne chemical, biological and radiological (CBR) 

releases is complicated by variations 

in buildings, ventilation systems, and 

agent characteristics. The expertise 

within BFRL in the areas of building 

infiltration and ventilation, airflow 

measurement and modeling, and contaminant transport prediction is providing technical support to the efforts of 

other federal agencies and the private 

sector in the area of CBR vulnerability. Already, the CONTAM model for 

predicting airflow and contaminant 

transport in multizone building systems 

has been widely used in analyzing CBR 

data, including the DARPA-sponsored 

Immune Building Toolkit and in the 

development of a high-fidelity model 

of the Pentagon as part of DARPA’s 

Pentagon Protection Program. 

BFRL will continue to work with 

other federal agencies and private sector partners to develop guidance to 

reduce building vulnerability to CBR 

incidents. For example, NIST continues 

to work with EPA’s Homeland Security 

Research Center on three major efforts 

under their Safe Buildings Program. 

In addition, BFRL will continue its 

development of analysis approaches to 

understand the impacts of enhanced 

filtration on building safety within the 

context of building envelope air-tightness improvements and pressurization 

strategies. In order to address the need 

for improved modeling capabilities, 

BFRL will enhance the capability of 

building airflow models in several 

critical areas that have been identified 

through the application of CONTAM 

to building protection. These areas 

include short time step simulations to 

better represent sensor performance 

and the use of sensor outputs to impact 

HVAC operation. Additional work 

will be pursued to integrate calculation 

methods for zones with non-uniform 

contaminant concentrations into 

general multizone analysis.

CONTACT:

ANDREW PERSILY

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

301-975-6418

andrew.persily@nist.gov

Summary of life-cycle costs for two risk mitigation 

strategies (CET Version 1.0).

Airflow Models for CBR protection.
70

STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

AASHTO

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE 

HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS

AASHTO Materials Reference 

Laboratory (AMRL)

Established at NIST (then NBS) in 

1965, the AASHTO Materials Reference 

Laboratory (AMRL) is a research associateship with a staff of 48 that provides a 

highly valued quality assurance mechanism for laboratories that use AASHTO 

standards for highway materials; it also 

provides technical assistance to the 

AASHTO Accreditation Program (AAP) 

that currently accredits about 1100 laboratories. With Mr. Peter Spellerberg as 

Manager and Mr. Robert Lutz as Assistant 

Manager, the AMRL provides, upon 

request, as reimbursable services, laboratory inspection and proficiency sample 

programs. In 2005, over 1600 laboratories 

participated in AMRL programs. For 

those laboratories that wish to participate 

in the AAP, results of the relevant laboratory inspections carried out by the AMRL 

and the ASTM-sponsored Cement and 

Concrete Reference Laboratory (CCRL) 

are the basis for accreditation. AMRL’s quality assurance services are complemented by 

standards-related research carried out in collaboration with BFRL researchers.

ACI

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

Dr. Geoffrey Frohnsdorff, guest worker 

in the Materials and Construction 

Research Division, is a member of ACI’s 

Board of Direction.

ACI Committee 216, Fire Resistance 

and Fire Protection of Structures

Dr. Long Phan, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, chairs 

the joint ACI/TMS (The Masonry 

Society) Committee 216 on Fire 

Resistance and Fire Protection of 

Structures. He led the effort to revise 

the committee guide for Determining 

the Fire Endurance of Concrete Elements.

ACI Committee 236, 

Materials Science of Concrete

Dr. Chiara Ferraris, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, chairs 

ACI Committee 236 on Materials Science 

of Concrete and Subcommittee ACI 

236A on Workability of Fresh Concrete. 

As the chair of ACI 236A, she led efforts 

to coordinate an international study to 

compare and correlate concrete rheometers. As chair of ACI 236 she is fostering 

a better understanding on how prediction 

of concrete properties could be improved 

by better knowledge of material science.

ACI Committee 318, 

Structural Concrete Building Code

Dr. H.S. Lew, Materials and Construction 

Research Division, serves on ACI 

Committee 318, which is responsible for 

developing ACI Standard 318—Building 

Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. 

Dr. Lew introduced new provisions for 

adoption by ACI 318. Dr. Lew serves on 

Subcommittee C on safety, serviceability 

and analysis and the subcommittee for 

new materials, products and ideas. 

Dr. Nicholas J. Carino, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, served 

on ACI 318 Subcommittee A, which 

is responsible for the portions of ACI 

Standard 318 dealing with construction 

through 2004. Dr. Carino has led efforts 

to update the code as a result of changes 

to applicable ASTM standards. He was 

also appointed as chair of the Editorial 

and Notation Task Group, which is 

responsible for general editorial issues 

in ACI 318.

ACI Committee 440

Fiber Reinforced Polymers

Dr. Dat Duthinh, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is an 

Associate Member of the Committee, 

whose mission is to develop and report 

information on fiber reinforced polymers 

for internal and external reinforcement 

of concrete. The Committee is currently 

working on a “Guide for the Design 

and Construction of Externally Bonded 

FRP Systems for Strengthening of 

Unreinforced Masonry” and updates 

of other documents.

TAC Specifications Committee

Dr. Nicholas J. Carino, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, served 

as chair of the TAC Specifications 

Committee, which is responsible for 

coordinating the standard specifications issued by ACI and maintaining 

the Specification Manual covering the 

standard format of ACI specifications.
71

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

ACI Concrete Research and 

Education Foundation (ConREF)

Dr. H.S. Lew, Materials and Construction 

Research Division, serves as vice-chair 

of the ACI/Concrete Research and 

Education Foundation’s Board of Trustees, 

which is responsible for establishing 

overall strategic goals for development 

of concrete technology and administering funds for education, research, and 

scientific purposes in order to increase the 

knowledge and understanding of concrete 

materials and improve concrete design 

and construction. 

AHAM HRF-1

Household Refrigerators/

Household Freezers

Dr. David Yashar, Building Environment 

Division, served on the committee 

responsible for revising AHAM HRF-1 

Household Refrigerators/Household Freezers. 

This standard governs the evaluation 

of volume measurement, performance 

measurement and energy consumption 

of household refrigerators and household 

freezers. The efforts of the committee 

have led to the publication of the first 

revision of the standard in 14 years to 

be approved by the American National 

Standards Institute (ANSI), ANSI AHAM 

HRF-1-2002. In 2002-2003, the task 

force continued to review and revise the 

text and diagrams to publish an edition 

which superseded the 2002 edition. This 

version of the standard contains information specifically relating to compact refrigerators that is based on BFRL research. 

Dr. Yashar also served as a member of the 

ANSI canvass board for this standard.

AISC

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Mr. Robert Lipman and Dr. Kent Reed, 

Building Environment Division, participate in the AISC Electronic Data 

Interchange Initiative. The purpose of 

the initiative is to create a means for 

collaboration and data sharing among 

the various parties involved in steel 

construction. In addition to serving on 

the International Technical Committee 

which continues to develop the CIS/2 

(CIMSteel Integration Standards) 

specification, they are participating in an 

international collaboration to harmonize 

CIS/2 with the Industry Foundation 

Classes of the International Alliance for 

Interoperability. This work will enable the 

seamless interchange of building information between the architectural and structural engineering communities.

AISC Committee on Specifications

Dr. John L. Gross, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, 

serves on the American Institute of 

Steel Construction Committee on 

Specifications. The Committee is responsible for developing requirements for the 

design, fabrication and erection of steel 

buildings and publishes the Specification 

for Structural Steel Buildings. Dr. Gross 

serves on Technical Subcommittee 3 

(TC3) – Loads, Analysis and Systems, 

and TC 8 – Temperature Effects.

ASCE

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

SEI/ASCE Executive Committee 

on Codes and Standards

Dr. H.S. Lew, Materials and Construction 

Research Division, serves on the SEI/

ASCE Executive Committee on Codes 

and Standards. He works closely with 

committees that develop standards for 

seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of 

buildings, for the testing and evaluation 

of seismic isolation systems and components, and for the blast load resistance 

of buildings.

ASCE Committee ASCE-7

Dr. Emil Simiu, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is a 

member of the ASCE Committee on 

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings 

and Other Structures (ASCE-7).

ASCE Committee on Structural 

Condition Assessment of 

Existing Buildings

Mr. James Pielert, AASHTO Materials 

Reference Laboratory, is on the 

control group of the ASCE Standards 

Committee on Condition Assessment 

of Existing Buildings.

ASCE Council on Natural Disaster 

Reduction Technical Committee on 

Risk and Vulnerability and Technical 

Committee on Mitigation 

Dr. Dat Duthinh, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is a 

Member of the Committee, whose mission is to develop goals and guide action 

for ASCE’s role in hazard mitigation and 

disaster reduction.
72

STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

ASCE Committee 29-99

Standard Calculation Methods 

for Structural Fire Protection

Dr. Long Phan, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is 

a member of the ASCE Standards 

Committee on Standard Calculation 

Methods for Structural Fire Protection.

ASHRAE

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING, REFRIGERATING 

AND AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERS, INC.

ASHRAE Standards Committee 

Mr. Brian Dougherty, Building 

Environment Division, served on the 

ASHRAE Standards Committee from 

July 2001 to June 2005. The committee 

is responsible for overseeing the development and maintenance of all ASHRAE 

standards, guidelines, and code language 

documents. Mr. Dougherty was a member of the Technical Committee Liaison 

Subcommittee and, for two years, chaired 

the Inter-Society Liaison Subcommittee.

Mr. Steven Bushby, Building 

Environment Division, began serving on 

the ASHRAE Standards Committee in 

July 2005. Mr. Bushby is a member of the 

Standards Projects Liaison Subcommittee 

and the Standards Reaffirmation 

Subcommittee. Mr. Bushby has responsibility for overseeing twelve standard and 

guideline project committees.

ASHRAE 16

Method of Test for Rating Room 

Air Conditioners and Packaged 

Terminal Air Conditioners

Dr. W. Vance Payne, Building Environment 

Division, is the Vice Chairman of the 

Standard Project Committee formed to 

update this standard. The standard prescribes a method of testing for obtaining 

cooling capacity and airflow quantity for 

rating room air conditioners and packaged terminal air conditioners. The committee is currently recruiting members 

from the manufacturing community and 

other interested parties. The last update 

of this standard was in 1983.

ASHRAE 37R-2005

Methods of Test for Rating 

Electrically Driven Unitary 

Air Conditioning and 

Heat Pump Equipment

Mr. Brian Dougherty of the Building 

Environment Division acted as the lead 

editor on this recently published revision 

of the standard, which was last updated 

in 1988. The revised standard reflects 

current laboratory practices and instrumentation and better addresses newer 

equipment features. The laboratory test 

methods described in the standard are 

used to obtain the performance data that 

is ultimately used in calculating federally 

mandated seasonal rating descriptors. 

ASHRAE Standard 62.2

Ventilation and Acceptable 

Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise 

Residential Buildings

Steven Emmerich, Building Environment 

Division, serves as vice-chair of ASHRAE 

SSPC 62.2. This committee is responsible 

for maintaining Standard 62.2 Ventilation 

and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in 

Low-Rise Residential Buildings. This 

standard was first published in 2003. 

Mr. Emmerich is also chair of the 

subcommittee that is developing a 

companion guideline and overseeing 

development of a users’ manual. 

ASHRAE Standard 116

Methods of Testing for Rating 

Seasonal Efficiency of Unitary 

Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps

Mr. Brian Dougherty, Building 

Environment Division, is a voting 

member on the Standards Project 

Committee working to update this 

companion standard to ASHRAE 

Standard 37. Each project committee 

member has been assigned a particular 

section of the 1995 standard to review 

and propose revisions. The project committee should have a revised standard 

ready for public review in 2007.

ASHRAE Standard 118.2

Method of Testing and Rating 

Residential Water Heaters

Dr. William Healy, Building Environment 

Division, is a voting member of ASHRAE 

SPC 118.2 Method of Testing and Rating 

Residential Water Heaters. This standard 

governs the evaluation of the energy factor which rates the thermal efficiency of 

residential water heaters and the first-hour 

rating which provides a metric for the 

amount of hot water provided by a tank. 

The committee is currently considering 
73

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

changes in this test procedure to correct 

errors in calculations and to make the 

procedure more consistent. Work has been 

undertaken to determine the differences 

between the ASHRAE procedure and the 

Department of Energy’s procedure in an 

effort to align the two methods of test. 

ASHRAE Standard SPC 41.4 

Standard Method for 

Measurement of Proportion of 

Lubricant in Liquid Refrigerant

Dr. Mark Kedzierski, Building 

Environment Division, serves on the 

committee responsible for revising the 

measurement standard for determining 

the mass concentration of miscible lubricant-and-liquid-refrigerant mixtures and, 

in limited cases, immiscible mixtures. The 

goal of this revision is to assure that the 

standard is applicable to new refrigerants 

and lubricants.

ASHRAE Standing Standards 

Project Committee 135

Mr. Steven T. Bushby, Building 

Environment Division, served in 

various positions on ASHRAE Standing 

Standards Project Committee 135 

(SSPC 135) and its predecessor committee from 1987 – June 2004, including a 

term as chair. In July of 2004 Dr. David 

Holmberg became a member of the 

committee and he currently leads the 

Utility Integration Working Group. 

SSPC 135 is responsible for maintaining 

the BACnet communication protocol 

standard (ASNI/ASHRAE Standard 

135) and a companion standard 

ANSI/ASHRAE 135.1 Method of Test 

for Conformance to BACnet. These 

standards have been adopted by CEN, 

ISO and over thirty countries around the 

world. The BACnet standard provides a 

way to integrate building automation 

and control products made by different 

manufacturers for applications such as 

heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning 

control, lighting control, access control, 

and fire alarm systems.

ASHRAE 135.1P

Method of Test for 

Conformance to BACnet

Mr. Steven T. Bushby, Building 

Environment Division, was the principal author of a draft standard, ASHRAE 

135.1P, Method of Test for Conformance to 

BACnet. This proposed standard defines 

detailed testing procedures for verifying 

that control products correctly implement 

the BACnet communication protocol. 

Although still in the public review process, 135.1P has already been adopted by 

the newly-created BACnet Manufacturers 

Association and the BACnet Interest 

Group – Europe (BIGEU), as the basis 

for testing and listing programs in the 

United States and Europe. Mr. Bushby 

served as Chairman of ASHRAE Standing 

Standard Project Committee 135 (SSPC 

135) that maintains the BACnet communication protocol standard for building 

automation and control systems. In 2001 

a revised version of the standard was published that included all addenda approved 

since 1995. Two new addenda have since 

been prepared and published for public 

review and comment. Addendum a to 

135-2001 adds a number of new features 

including more advanced scheduling 

capabilities, more detailed error reporting, 

and the ability to dynamically discover the 

presence of MS/TP slaves. Addendum b

to 135-2001 modifies trending features 

to fix some problems that have been 

encountered in deployed BACnet systems. 

BACnet has been translated into Chinese, 

Japanese, and Korean. It has been adopted 

as a Korean national standard, a European 

Community pre-standard, and has recently been adopted as an ISO standard.

ASME

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

ASME Solar Energy Division

Dr. A. Hunter Fanney, Building 

Environment Division, is an active 

member of ASME. He is an ASME 

Fellow, and past Chairman of the 

Solar Energy Division. This Division 

is responsible for coordinating all solar 

energy activities within ASME including 

the Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 

annual conferences, student activities, 

and awards. He has served as an Associate 

Editor of ASME’s Journal of Solar Energy 

Engineering and is currently serving as 

Senior Advisor to the Division as well as 

Chairman of the Frank Kreith Energy 

Award. Over the past seven years, Dr. 

Fanney and his colleagues have received 

four ASME best paper awards in the 

topical area of photovoltaics.
74

STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

ASTM International

ASTM Committee C01 Cement

Mr. Jan Prowell, Research Associate with 

CCRL, chairs ASTM Subcommittee 

C01.97, Manual of Cement Testing. 

ASTM C01.23

Subcommittee on 

Computational Analysis

Mr. Paul Stutzman, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is 

the official voting member for NIST 

on Committee 01, Cement, chairs the 

ASTM C 01.23 Compositional Analysis 

Subcommittee as well as the task groups 

on X-Ray Diffraction Analysis and 

Microscopy, and also is a member of the 

Executive, Administrative Coordination, 

Coordination of Standards, and Sulfate 

Content Subcommittees. Under his 

leadership, standards for improved 

characterization of Portland cements in 

terms of the phases present using these 

two techniques have been established. 

ASTM C01.25.01

Subcommittee on 

Particle Size Analysis

Dr. Chiara Ferraris, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is an 

active participant is this subcommittee. 

Recently, the Standard Reference Material 

(SRM) 114p certificate was amended 

to include the particle size distribution 

(PSD) measured by laser diffraction. 

A draft method for measuring PSD of 

cement by laser diffraction is under ballot 

to the ASTM subcommittee. SRM114q 

was developed and will include the PDS 

by laser defraction.

ASTM Committee C09

Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

Dr. Nicholas Carino, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, served as 

chair of ASTM Committee C09. In addition, 

he served on numerous subcommittees.

Mr. Paul Stutzman of the Materials 

and Construction Research Division 

serves on this committee and on 

the Petrography, Resistance to the 

Environment, and Concrete’s Resistance 

to Fluid Penetration Subcommittees. 

Mr. Peter Spellerberg, AASHTO Materials 

Reference Laboratory, is secretary of 

ASTM Subcommittees C09.61 on 

Testing for Strength, C09.96 on CCRL. 

Mr. Raymond Kolos, Research 

Associate with CCRL, chairs ASTM 

Subcommittee C09.97, Manual of Testing 

for Concrete and Concrete Aggregates.

Dr. Chiara Ferraris, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is a 

member of the Subcommittee C09.66 

on Resistance to Fluid Penetration 

and lead the effort to develop “Test 

Method for Measurement of Rate of 

Absorption of Water by HydraulicCement Concretes.” The document was 

approved as ASTM C1585-04.

ASTM C16

Committee on Thermal Insulation

Mr. Robert R. Zarr, Building Environment 

Division, chairs the ASTM C16 task 

group on computerized database formats 

for thermal transmission data obtained 

by ASTM C16 Standard Test Methods. 

Mr. Zarr also chairs the committee’s task 

groups on the design and operation of 

line-heat-source guarded-hot-plate apparatus.

ASTM Committee C24

on Building Seals and Sealants

Dr. Chris White, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is 

an active member of ASTM C24 and 

is also a member of the RILEM 

Committee on Sealant Durability.

ASTM Committee D04

Road and Paving Materials

Mr. Peter Spellerberg, Research Associate 

with AMRL, is the Secretary of ASTM 

Committee D04 on Road and Paving 

Materials.

ASTM Committee D18

Soil and Rock

Mr. Ronald Holsinger, Research Associate 

with AMRL, is on the Executive 

Committee of ASTM Committee D18 

on Soil and Rock; is the secretary of 

D18.05; and chairs D18.03.

ASTM Subcommittee D20.96 

Biodegradable Plastics Subcommittee

Ms. Barbara Lippiatt, Office of Applied 

Economics, has published a standard, 

“Standard Practice for Evaluating and 

Reporting Environmental Performance of 

Biobased Products” as ASTM D7075-04.

ASTM Subcommittee D22.05

Indoor Air Quality 

Dr. Andrew Persily, Building Environment 

Division, is vice-chair of ASTM 

Subcommittee D22.05. This subcommittee has approved and is currently developing a suite of standards related to indoor 

contaminant measurement, analysis and 

interpretation. Several of these standards 

are based directly on research and methods developed by BFRL.
75

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ASTM E5

Committee on Fire Standards

Mr. James Lawson, Fire Research 

Division, is currently the chairman of 

ASTM Subcommittee E5.15 on Fire 

Standards for Furnishings and Contents. 

This committee develops fire standards 

for building construction, transportation, 

and furnishings. These fire standards are 

used by the building codes and other 

regulating authorities throughout North 

America. In addition, Mr. Lawson is 

a voting member of the ASTM F23 

Committee on Protective Clothing. This 

technical committee develops standards 

for protective clothing and equipment 

used by the fire service in North America. 

ASTM Subcommittee E06.23

Lead Hazards 

Associated with Buildings

Dr. Walter Rossiter and Dr. Mary 

McKnight, Materials and Construction 

Research Division, served as members of 

many ASTM E06.23 task groups. Both 

have played key roles in the development 

and revision of standards. 

ASTM Subcommittee E06.41 

Infiltration and Ventilation Performance

Dr. Andrew Persily, Building 

Environment Division, chairs ASTM 

Subcommittee E06.41. Under his 

leadership, more than 15 standards for 

evaluating building airtightness, ventilation performance and other aspects of 

air leakage and airflow in buildings are 

approved or under development.

ASTM Subcommittee E06.66 

Performance Standards for Dwellings

Dr. Robert Chapman, Office of Applied 

Economics, completed and obtained 

approval of the economics attribute standard that ties together the E06.66 family 

of standards that define total building 

performance. The standard guide was 

published by ASTM with the designation 

E 2156. In addition to describing how 

to measure economic performance, the 

guide includes a detailed example of how 

to apply the methodology to a durability-related investment decision that builds 

on the companion durability attribute 

(ASTM Standard Guide E 2136.)

Dr. Andrew Persily, Building 

Environment Division, has recently 

initiated development of the health and 

hygiene attribute standard in collaboration with HUD.

ASTM Subcommittee E06.81 

Building Economics

Dr. Harold E. Marshall, Office of 

Applied Economics, has been the chairman of ASTM’s Building Economics 

Subcommittee, E06.81, since its inception in 1979. He has played major 

authorship, educational, and leadership 

roles in writing and shepherding successfully over 20 standards and two software 

products through the ASTM standardization process. One standard that merits 

particular attention is an elemental building classification called UNIFORMAT II. 

This standard is helping owners, project 

managers, designers, builders, and facility managers construct and manage their 

buildings more cost effectively. 

Dr. Robert E. Chapman, Office of 

Applied Economics, is the secretary 

and Techniques Task Group chairperson of ASTM’s Building Economics 

Subcommittee. In addition to his strong 

leadership role in the subcommittee, he 

has provided over the last two years the 

technical content and write-ups for 

revising two standard economic methods 

to provide case illustrations of economic 

decision making in support of improved, 

cost-effective protection against natural 

and man-made hazards affecting the 

nation’s infrastructure. Dr. Chapman has 

also drafted a new standard guide for 

developing a cost-effective risk mitigation 

plan for protecting infrastructure that 

has been submitted to the ASTM 

balloting process.

ASTM Committee E11

on Quality and Statistics

Mr. Ronald Holsinger, Research Associate 

with AMRL, is on the Executive 

Committee of ASTM Committee E11 

on Quality and Statistics.
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STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

ASTM E44.09

Dr. Hunter Fanney of the Building 

Environment Division is a member of 

subcommittee E44.09 that deals with 

numerous issues concerning the testing 

and evaluation of photovoltaics. Current 

areas of interest include developing rating methodologies for photovoltaics that 

use short-term data to predict long-term 

performance, and improved indoor and 

outdoor test procedures. 

ASTM Standing Committee 

on Publications

Dr. Mary McKnight, guest worker in 

the Materials and Construction Research 

Division, serves on the ASTM Standing 

Committee on Publications. The 

Committee advises the Society’s Board of 

Directors on the formulation of publications policy and administers the Society’s 

publications program, except for the 

Annual Book of ASTM Standards.

CCRL

CEMENT AND CONCRETE REFERENCE LABORATORY

Established at NIST (then NBS) in 1929 

as the Cement Reference Laboratory in 

response to a request from Congress, 

the ASTM-sponsored Cement and 

Concrete Reference Laboratory (CCRL) 

is a research associateship that provides a 

highly valued quality assurance mechanism for laboratories that use ASTM 

cement and concrete standards. With 

Mr. Peter Spellerberg of AASHTO as 

General Manager and Mr. Raymond 

Kolos of ASTM as Director, and a staff of 

25 ASTM research associates, the CCRL 

provides, upon request, as reimbursable services, laboratory inspection and 

proficiency sample programs. In 2005, 

over 1000 laboratories participated in the 

CCRL programs. For cement and concrete laboratories that wish to participate 

in the AASHTO Accreditation Program 

(AAP), results of laboratory inspections 

carried out by the CCRL are the basis for 

accreditation. CCRL’s quality assurance 

services are complemented by standardsrelated research carried out in collaboration with BFRL researchers.

CIB

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR RESEARCH AND 

INNOVATION IN BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION

CIB W14 Fire

Mr. Richard Bukowski, Fire Research 

Division, is chair of CIB Working 

Commission 14 on Fire. The oldest 

working commission in existence, 

W14 has a long history of making major 

contributions to the fire science and 

engineering fields.

CIB TG37

Performance-Based Buildings

Mr. Richard Bukowski, Fire Research 

Division, participates in CIB TG37, a 

task group that is developing infrastructure and policy in support of performance 

regulatory systems, internationally. TG37 

is closely linked to the Inter-jurisdictional 

Regulatory Collaboration Committee 

(IRCC) that is made up of the chief 

building code official for each member 

country and who share common experiences and problems in the operation of 

performance regulatory systems.

FIATECH AEX Project

Although most architecture and engineering organizations have adopted aspects 

of 3-D modeling, project Web sites, and 

information integration technologies in 

the design and initial documentation 

phases of capital facilities projects, the 

capabilities and benefits of these technologies are not being exploited in the 

supplier integration, procurement, fabrication, inspection, materials management 

and construction phases. Additionally, 

the use of engineering and construction 

information for facility commissioning, 

maintenance, repair and operations is 

restricted by the lack of effective information sharing and re-use capabilities. 

In collaboration with the FIATECH 

consortium, Mr. Mark Palmer, Building 

Environment Division, leads the 

Automating Equipment Information 

Exchanges (AEX) Project to develop 

interoperability standards for automating 

the design, purchase, fabrication, installation and operation of equipment for 

capital facilities. The AEX project developed and tested XML schemas to support 

a first set of priority types of equipment, 

as selected by industry participants. These 

included centrifugal pumps, centrifugal 

fans, electric motors and shell and tube 

heat exchangers. During 2005, the AEX 

project developed software implementations of the AEX schemas and conducted the AEX Pump Interoperability 

Demonstration across all stakeholders in 

the pump supply chain from initial design 
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requirements to completing mechanical 

design, procurement, request for quote, 

quote, quote assessment and supplier 

selection. Eight organizations participated 

with nine applications demonstrating 

implementations of the AEX schemas. 

These interoperability demonstrations 

were presented at numerous industry conferences and proved to industry that the 

use of the AEX XML schemas can automate the information exchanges among 

all participants in the equipment supply 

chain, with significant savings in cost and 

time and improved quality.

IAAI

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION 

OF ARSON INVESTIGATORS

IAAI Engineering Committee

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski, Fire Research 

Division, was reappointed as the Chair 

of the IAAI Engineering Committee. 

Under Mr. Madrzykowski’s leadership, 

the committee has been developing and 

reviewing articles for the IAAI Fire and 

Arson Investigator, assisting with the development of standards and a review process 

for IAAI technical training programs, 

and collaborating with IAAI chapters in 

mutually beneficial large scale fire experiments to address USFA and DoJ funded 

research programs at NIST. 

Learning at a Distance 

Steering Committee

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski, Fire Research 

Division, has been instrumental in 

the development of two programs 

for the IAAI CFItrainer.net Web site; 

Introduction to Fire Dynamics and 

Fire Modeling and An Analysis of the 

Station Nightclub Fire. CFItrainer.net 

(www.cfitrainer.net) is an online training resource for fire investigators around 

the world. After viewing a program and 

completing the assigned reading, a student can take an on-line skills assessment 

in order to receive credit. The education 

and training modules also will help fire 

investigators to meet requirements in 

NFPA 1033 Standard for Professional 

Qualifications for Fire Investigators. The 

site is sponsored by the U.S. Department 

of Homeland Security, the Bureau of 

Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms, and the 

Insurance Committee for Arson Control. 

The site has been featured as a DHS Fire 

Prevention and Safety Grant success story, 

http://www.firegrantsupport.com/stories/

fps_stories.aspx.

IAI

INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCE FOR INTEROPERABILITY

NIST is a government member of the 

International Alliance for Interoperability/

North America. Dr. Kent Reed, Building 

Environment Division, represents NIST 

in the IAI/NA, is a member of the IAI 

technical Advisory Group that functions 

at the international level, and participates 

in the Model Support Group that 

develops the Industry Foundation 

Classes (IFC) Specification. The IAI is 

a global standards-setting organization 

dedicated to promoting effective means 

of exchanging information among all 

software platforms and applications 

serving the Architecture, Engineering, 

Construction, and Facility Management 

(AEC+FM) community.

ICC

INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL

ICC Performance Committee

Mr. Richard Bukowski of the Fire 

Research Division completed a threeyear assignment to the ICC Performance 

Building Code and ICC Performance 

Fire Code drafting committees. These 

two committees eventually merged and 

produced the ICC Performance Code for 

Buildings and Facilities, the first combined U.S. building and fire code and the 

first U.S. performance based code. This 

document has entered into the ICC code 

development process where it is open to 

code change proposals prior to formal adoption. Mr. Bukowski has been named to the 

ICC Performance Code development committee, which is responsible for accepting 

or rejecting these proposed changes.
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STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

IEC

INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING CONSORTIUM

IEC/TC 59 A Electric Dishwashers

Ms. Natascha Castro, Building 

Environment Division, is a member of 

the U.S. Technical Advisory Group to 

IEC/TC 59A. This committee determines 

the U.S. position on issues related to IEC 

standards related to the performance and 

energy consumption of dishwashers. 

IFSTA

INTERNATIONAL FIRE SERVICE 

TRAINING ASSOCIATION 

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski, of the Fire 

Research Division, was appointed to the 

“Essentials of Fire Fighting” Validation 

Committee. The Essentials of Fire Fighting 

Handbook is the principle document used 

to train fire fighters in the United States. 

Mr. Madrzykowski’s committee position provides an opportunity to integrate 

NIST research results into this document 

and the instructors’ multi-media packages 

as a means to improve fire fighters’ understanding of fire behavior and the impact 

of fire fighting tactics on fire behavior. 

ISO

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION 

FOR STANDARDIZATION

ISO TAG8

Mr. Richard Bukowski, Fire Research 

Division, is the U.S. representative to 

ISO TAG8. TAG8 is a technical advisory 

group to the Technical Management 

Board (TMB) of the International 

Organization for Standardization (ISO) 

which develops ISO standards. A current 

activity is the development of an ISO 

policy on performance standards.

ISO TC 86 Refrigeration 

and Air-Conditioning

ISO’s Technical Committee 86 

Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning is 

composed of eight subcommittees that 

address topics such as terms and definitions, safety, and testing and rating methods for refrigeration and space-conditioning equipment. Mr. Brian Dougherty, 

Building Environment Division, participates as a member of the U.S. Technical 

Advisory Group (TAG) for ISO TC 86. 

The TAG monitors and formulates the 

U.S. position on all TC 86-sponsored 

standards activities. Mr. Dougherty serves 

as a member of Panel 6 that makes recommendations to the full TAG on ISO 

standards activities dealing with factory 

made air-conditioning and heat pump 

units. Brian Dougherty is also a member 

of the U.S. delegation on ISO Working 

Group 1 within Subcommittee 6. WG1 is 

revising two testing and rating standards 

that apply to unitary air-conditioners 

and heat pumps while developing a third 

testing and rating standard for multi-split 

air-conditioners and heat pumps.

Dr. David Yashar, Building Environment 

Division, served on Panel 5 of the U.S. 

Technical Advisory Group to ISO/TC 86 

for Household Refrigerators. This committee was formed to review and comment on the latest version of the ISO 

test procedure, ISO 15502 Household 

Refrigerating Appliances – Characteristics 

and Test Methods, which encompasses test 

procedures for different types of refrigerating appliances. This standard was ratified 

in October 2005, under the condition that 

a revision of ISO 15502 be initiated. Dr. 

Yashar is currently serving as a member of 

the working group for this revision, ISO 

TC 86/SC 5/WG 1, alongside delegates 

from standards bodies representing the 

Americas, Asia, and the South Pacific 

in addition to those representing the 

European Union. The ultimate goal of this 

WG is to work towards a globally acceptable test procedure. This effort is estimated 

to continue through the end of 2008.

ISO TC92 Fire Safety

Dr. Richard G. Gann of the Fire Research 

Division chairs SC3, Fire Threat to People 

and the Environment, and participates 

in the Technical Program Management 

Group. He has formulated an agenda for 

standardization documents for the use of 

toxic potency information in fire risk and 

hazard assessment. The Subcommittee 

has now issued its first eight documents 

in a decade and has seven more documents in various stages of development. 

Dr. Gann also chaired the subcommittee’s 

first Workshop on Fire Threat to the 

Environment, beginning the development of an agenda in that area. Dr. Gann 

led the adoption of ASTM E2187-02b, 

“Standard Test Method for Measuring 

the Ignition Strength of Cigarettes,” and 

its revision E2187-04 with consensus from 

regulators, public safety advocates, and 

the cigarette industry. This method has 

attracted attention both domestically and 
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internationally. It is cited in regulations 

in the States of New York, California, 

Vermont, New Hampshire, and Illinois 

and in Canada. The method is under 

consideration in legislation in the United 

Kingdom and Australia. A coalition of 

organizations has been formed by the 

National Fire Protection Association to 

promote the use of the method in regulations in the remaining 45 States.

The International Standards 

Organization Technical Committee on 

Fire Safety (TC92) is divided into 4 

subcommittees (SC1-SC4). Dr. Walter 

Jones, of the Fire Research Division, 

is the U.S. expert for SC4, Fire Safety 

Engineering. He is the principal author 

of the guide on model validation and 

verification that is now being balloted as 

an international standard (ISO 16730, 

Fire Safety Engineering: Assessment, 

Verification and Validation of Calculation 

Methods), and will continue this work 

by developing a guide to implementing 

this standard using examples.

ASTM International (formerly 

American Society for Testing and 

Materials) has a similar organization for 

fire safety engineering, Committee E5. 

Dr. Walter Jones leads two technical 

groups of this committee on “Uses and 

Limitations of Models” which sponsors 

E1895 (Determining Uses and Limitations 

of Deterministic Fire Models), and “Model 

Assessment,” which has developed E1355 

(Evaluating the Predictive Capability of 

Deterministic Fire Models).

Dr. John Gross of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division participates in SC4 WG12, Structures in Fire, 

and in WG8, Fire Terms and Definitions.

Dr. William Grosshandler, of the Fire 

Research Division, is a member of SC1, 

the subcommittee on Fire Initiation and 

Growth, and a member of SC2, Fire 

Containment.

ISO TC 205 WG 3

Building Control System Design

Mr. Steven Bushby, Building 

Environment Division, is convener of 

ISO/TC 205 WG 3 Building Control 

System Design. The working group is 

developing a multi-part international 

standard that addresses several issues related to building control systems including 

control system functionality, communication protocols, system specifications, and 

project management. ANSI/ASHRAE 

standards 135 and 135.1 (BACnet and 

its companion testing standard) have 

been adopted as ISO standards through 

this committee.

ISO TC 205 

Maintenance Agency for EN ISO 

16484-5 and EN ISO 16484-6

Mr. Steven Bushby chairs a maintenance 

agency created by ISO TC 205 Building 

Environment Design for the purpose of 

streamlining the process for updating and 

maintaining EN ISO 16484-5 and EN 

ISO 16484-6. These standards are the 

international versions of the ASHRAE 

BACnet standard and are its companion 

testing standard. The purpose of this activity is to keep these European and ISO 

standards synchronized with the underlying 

ASHRAE standards upon which they 

are based.

NFPA

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION

NFPA Standards Council

Mr. Richard Bukowski, of the Fire 

Research Division, is a member of the 

NFPA Standards Council. The Standards 

Council is the body that administers 

the NFPA Codes and Standards system 

including making all committee appointments, initiating and terminating standards projects and issuing all documents. 

This is an especially important time for 

the Standards Council in administering 

the development of the NFPA Building 

Code and related codes through strategic 

partnerships. Appointments to the 

thirteen-member Council run for two, 

three-year terms.

NFPA Alternative Approaches 

to Life Safety Committee

Mr. David Stroup, Fire Research Division, 

chairs NFPA 101A Committee on 

Alternative Approaches to Life Safety. 

The Alternative Approaches to Life Safety 

standard provides methodologies for 

measuring equivalency to the prescriptive 

requirements of NFPA 101, Life Safety 

Code. The document includes several 

Fire Safety Evaluation Systems (FSES) 

developed at NIST for various building 

occupancy types. As chair of the 

committee responsible for this fire safety 

standard, Mr. Stroup presents the committee’s report for adoption at the NFPA 

fall meeting. 
80

STANDARDS ACTIVITIES

NFPA Toxicity Advisory Committee

Dr. Richard G. Gann, Fire Research 

Division, chairs the NFPA Toxicity 

Advisory Committee. This committee 

brings special expertise on combustion 

toxicity to advise any other NFPA 

technical committee on toxicity issues 

that might be part of any proposal 

under consideration.

NFPA Automatic 

Sprinkler Committees

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski, Fire 

Research Division, is chair of the 

Technical Committee on Residential 

Sprinkler Systems. This committee is 

responsible for developing the standard 

on the design and installation of sprinklers in one-and two-family dwellings, 

and in residential occupancies up to 

4 stories in height. In addition, Mr. 

Madrzykowski serves on the Technical 

Correlating Committee on Automatic 

Sprinklers and is the NIST alternate 

on the NFPA Technical Committee 

on Sprinkler System Discharge. Mr. 

Madrzykowski revised the residential 

sprinkler section in the NFPA Automatic 

Sprinkler Systems Handbook, 9th ed., and 

was principal author on the Residential 

Sprinkler Chapter in the NFPA Fire 

Protection Handbook.

NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and 

Explosion Investigations

Mr. W. D. Walton, Fire Research 

Division, is a member of the NFPA 921 

Committee, Guide for Fire and Explosion 

Investigations. This committee provides 

guidance to investigation professionals 

based on scientifically defensible materials and referenced technical data. NIST 

utilizes its research expertise to provide 

the latest technical and scientific research 

information to the committee. At the 

current time, NIST is studying the formation of fire burn patterns, which is 

one of the tools used by investigators to 

determine the origins and causes of fires 

and explosions. The burn pattern research 

is supported by the National Institute 

of Justice via the NIST Office of Law 

Enforcement Standards and the United 

States Fire Administration. Mr. Daniel 

Madrzykowski, Fire Research Division 

serves on this committee as alternate.

NFPA Technical Committee on 

Gaseous Fire Extinguishing Systems

Dr. Jiann Yang, Fire Research Division, 

is a member of the NFPA Technical 

Committee on Gaseous Fire Extinguishing 

Systems developing standards for 

replacements for halon extinguishing 

agents. This activity is coordinated with 

the BFRL research on halon replacements.

NFPA National Fire Alarm Code 

Technical Correlating Committee

Mr. Richard Bukowski, Fire Research 

Division, serves on the TCC for the 

National Fire Alarm Code. Like other 

TCC’s this committee addresses technical 

consistency and correlation among the 

technical committees responsible for 

specific parts of the Code. 

NFPA and ASTM Rail 

Transportation Committees

Mr. Richard Peacock, Fire Research 

Division, represents NIST on the NFPA 

130 committee and the ASTM E5.17 

committee developing standards for fire 

safety in passenger rail vehicles.

NFPA Safety to Life 

Correlating Committee

Mr. Richard Bukowski, Fire Research 

Division, is a member of the Technical 

Correlating Committee (TCC) for the 

Safety to Life Project. The TCC provides 

oversight to the technical committees 

developing requirements for individual 

topics and assures that the requirements 

are consistent and correlated throughout 

the document.

NFPA Urban/Wildland 

Interface Committee

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski, of the Fire 

Research Division, served as member 

of the NFPA Technical Committees 

on Forest and Rural Fire Protection 

through 2004 and has contributed to 

the standards and guides on Application 

of Class A Foam in Structural Fire 

Fighting and Fire-Fighting Chemicals 

for Class A Fuels. (Dr. William Mell, 

also of the Fire Research Division, 

replaced Madrzykowski in 2005.) Mr. 

Madrzykowski also serves as NIST’s 

principal member on the Water Mist Fire 

Protection Systems Technical Committee.
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NFPA Committee for the Standard 

on Protective Ensemble for 

Structural Fire Fighting 

Mr. James Lawson of the Fire Research 

Division serves on this committee, while 

Mr. Robert Vettori serves as alternate. 

This standard specifies the minimum 

design, performance, and certification 

requirements, and test methods for structural protective ensembles that include 

protective coats, protective trousers, protective coveralls, helmets, gloves, footwear, 

and interface components.

NFPA Fire Test Technical Committee

Mr. James Lawson is a voting member 

of this committee. This committee has 

responsibility for documents on fire testing procedures, for reviewing existing 

fire test standards and recommending 

appropriate action to NFPA, for recommending the application of and advising 

on the interpretation of acceptable test 

standards, and for acting in a liaison 

capacity between NFPA and the committees of other organizations writing fire 

test standards.

NFPA Research Section

Mr. Dan Madrzykowski, Fire Research 

Division, was elected as the Chair in 

2004. The Research Section’s principle 

activity is the facilitation of communication between researchers and research end 

users. One means the Research Section 

uses to provide a forum for technology 

transfer is the development of technical 

programs for the Annual NFPA World 

Safety Conference. 

OASIS

ORGANIZATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF 

STRUCTURED INFORMATION STANDARDS

In technical work funded by the NIST 

Systems Integration for Manufacturing 

Applications program, Mr. Edwin Begley 

of the Building Environment Division 

completed the specification of the 

Materials Markup Language (MatML) 

during 2002 and delivered it to the industry-based MatML Steering Committee. 

The MatML Schema, currently available 

at http://www.matml.org, contains the formal specification for the materials markup 

language and represents the efforts to 

date of a cross section of the international 

materials community with contributions from private industry, government 

laboratories, universities, standards 

organizations, and professional societies. 

The specification has been submitted 

as the base technical document to the 

newly formed OASIS Materials Markup 

Technical Committee.

RILEM

INTERNATIONAL UNION OF RESEARCH AND TESTING 

LABORATORIES FOR MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

RILEM Technical Committee HTC 

Mechanical Concrete Properties at 

High Temperatures: Modeling and 

Applications

Dr. Long Phan, Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is a 

Senior Member of RILEM Technical 

Committee HTC, Mechanical Concrete 

Properties at High Temperatures: Modeling 

and Applications. The committee is working to develop recommendations to standard methods for determining properties 

of concrete at high temperatures.

SFPE

SOCIETY OF FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING

SFPE Board of Directors

Mr. Daniel Madrzykowski of the Fire 

Research Division serves on the SFPE 

Board of Directors. The purpose of the 

Society is to advance the science and 

practice of fire protection engineering and 

its allied fields, to maintain a high ethical 

standard among its members and to foster 

fire protection engineering education.

UN/CEFACT

UNITED NATIONS CENTRE FOR TRADE 

FACILITATION AND ELECTRONIC BUSINESS

As part of the NIST work for the GSA 

Office of Governmentwide Policy to 

develop the technical foundation and 

strategy for the U.S. participation in 

UN/CEFACT (United Nations Centre 

for Trade Facilitation and Electronic 

Business), Mr. Mark Palmer, of the 

Building Environment Division, chairs 

the U.S. Technical Advisory Group 

for UN/CEFACT and is a vice chair 

for UN/CEFACT. As vice chair of 

UN/CEFACT, Mr. Palmer defined and 

instituted needed improvements in the 

UN/CEFACT organization, management, procedures and work program. 

Additionally, he led the development of 

the UN/CEFACT eBusiness standards 

strategy and the UN/CEFACT strategy 

for cooperation with other eBusiness 

standards development organizations.
82

STAFF HIGHLIGHTS AND AWARDS

Gold Medal 2005

The Gold Medal Award is the 

highest honor award conferred upon 

an employee by the Department of 

Commerce. It is bestowed for “distinguished performance characterized by 

extraordinary, notable, or prestigious 

contributions that impact the mission 

of the Department of Commerce 

and/or one operating unit and which 

reflect favorably on the Department.”

Shyam Sunder, Deputy Director of 

BFRL, was honored for outstanding 

leadership as the lead investigator of the 

three-year, $16 million investigation of 

the World Trade Center disaster, recognized to be the most complex and sophisticated building failure investigation in 

U.S. history.

Also recognized for scientific and engineering achievement and administrative 

and technical support in conducting the 

investigation of the World Trade Center 

disaster are:

Richard Gann, William Pitts, Kevin 

McGrattan, Anthony Hamins, Kuldeep 

Prasad, Thomas Ohlemiller, Kathy 

Butler, Howard Baum, Jiann Yang, 

Jason Averill, James Lawson, Robert 

Vettori, Richard Bukowski, Richard 

Peacock, Erica Kuligowski, and William 

Grosshandler of the Fire Research 

Division; Fahim Sadek, John Gross, 

Therese McAllister, Frank Davis, Emil 

Simiu, H.S. Lew, and Stephen Cauffman

of the Materials and Construction 

Research Division; and Stuart Dols, of 

the Building Environment Division.

Silver Medal 2005

The Silver Medal is the second 

highest honor awarded by the 

Department for “exceptional performance characterized by noteworthy 

or superlative contributions that 

have a direct and lasting impact”.

Piotr Domanski, of the Building 

Environment Division, was honored for 

the development of simulation models 

that design and evaluate the performance 

of vapor-compression refrigeration and 

air-conditioning systems. These models 

provide equipment manufacturers in a 

$30 billion per year industry with the 

most technically-sophisticated and userfriendly tools for optimizing air-conditioning systems working with a variety of 

Shyam Sunder

Deputy Director, BFRL

2005 Gold Medal Award winners.
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ozone-friendly refrigerants and refrigerant 

mixtures. Their use is enabling the manufacturers to successfully combat international competition and to meet increasing 

environmental demands from customers.

William Grosshandler, Nelson Bryner, 

and Daniel Madrzykowski of the Fire 

Research Division were awarded a Silver 

Medal for completing a comprehensive 

and sound technical investigation of a 

deadly nightclub fire in West Warwick, 

Rode Island, on February 20, 2003. 

This was the worst fire disaster in almost 

three decades in the United States, killing 

100 individuals. They reconstructed the 

event through test of mock-up sections 

of the nightclub in the NIST Large Fire 

Laboratory and subsequent simulation 

of the entire event using the NIST Fire 

Dynamics Simulator (FDS). The comprehensive set of recommendations included 

requiring sprinkler systems in all nightclubs, forbidding the use of certain finishing materials known to easily ignite, and 

changing the way safety is analyzed in the 

design of egress from such nightclubs.

Bronze Medal 2005

The Bronze Medal Award is the 

highest honorary recognition available 

for Institute presentation. The award, 

approved by the Director, recognizes 

work that has resulted in more 

effective and efficient management 

systems as well as the demonstration 

of unusual initiative or creative ability 

in the development and improvement 

of methods and procedures. It also is 

given for significant contributions 

affecting major programs, scientific 

accomplishment within the Institute, 

and superior performance of assigned 

tasks for at least five consecutive years.

James Barnett and Mark Palmer, of 

the Building Environment Division, 

along with representatives from the 

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory, 

were recognized for their outstanding 

technical support to the capital facilities 

industries in developing XML schemas, 

software tools, and test case data sets for 

the electronic data exchange of facilities 

equipment information. This work has 

demonstrated phenomenal reduction in 

the time required to execute the typical 

bid-specification-quote cycle involving 

owners, engineering companies, and 

equipment suppliers.

The short-term impact of this work 

is the accelerated adoption of the AEX 

project results among the FIATECH 

membership. The long-term impacts of 

this accomplishment will be the diffusion of improved eBusiness capability 

throughout the building and construction 

industries and the extension of the NIST 

AEX Testbed concepts to support other 

industry sectors.

Alexander Maranghides and Laurean 

Delauter of the Fire Research Division 

are recognized for conducting full-scale 

fire tests that were critical to the success 

Piotr Domanski

William Grosshandler, Nelson Bryner 

and Daniel Madrzykowski.

Alex Maranghides and Laurean DeLauter.
84

STAFF HIGHLIGHTS AND AWARDS

of the World Trade Center investigation. 

The experiments provided information on 

the burning behavior of combustibles and 

the effects of jet fuel to office workstations, the examination of fire growth to 

multiple workstations over the recreated 

large section of a floor and the heating of 

insulation and uninsulated structural steel 

by large fires. These tests required the 

construction and instrumentation of the 

largest test facility ever used in NIST fire 

tests. The experimentation test fixtures 

performed flawlessly under the extreme 

thermal conditions characteristic of total 

fire involvement and temperatures in 

excess of 200 degrees F.

Stephen Kerber, Kevin McGrattan, 

William Walton, and Erica Kuligowski 

of the Fire Research Division received 

Bronze Medals for their support to the 

National Construction Safety Team 

(NCST) investigation of The Station 

nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode 

Island on February 20, 2003. Each member applied unique expertise that was necessary to ensure accuracy and quality of 

the analysis, simulations, and preparation 

of the final report and recommendations. 

The simulation results closely matched 

the results of the mock-up experiments 

and video of the actual fire. This enabled 

NIST to extend the analysis beyond 

observation of the fire and experiments 

and state with confidence what would 

have happened in the nightclub with the 

use of alternate technologies such as an 

engineered sprinkler system.

Bronze Medal 2004

Richard Bukowski, Richard Peacock, 

Jason Averill, Thomas Cleary, Nelson 

Bryner, and Doug Walton of the Fire 

Research Division were recognized for 

their research into characterization of the 

performance of home smoke alarms. This 

two-year project, conducted in collaboration with the U.S. Fire Administration, 

the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, the Consumer Product Safety 

Commission, and the residential fire 

protection equipment industries, studied 

the response of smoke alarms in full-scale 

laboratory experiments and live-fire field 

tests in order to determine if current 

detection technology provides sufficient 

warning for occupants to escape residential fires. The study concludes that interconnected smoke alarms are required to 

provide sufficient warning for occupants 

to escape based on the observed reduction 

in escape time from the previous comprehensive study done in 1977. The observed 

reduction in the escape time is the result 

of new materials being used in home 

products, and this result should stimulate 

the research into and development of firesafe materials. It also supports the concept 

that smoke detectors as well as sprinklers 

are required to protect the occupants. The 

database for this comprehensive project 

has been made available on line and is 

likely to be the primary source for fire 

detection performance assessment over 

the next decade in supporting legislation 

and product development that will lead 

to safer homes. 

George Mulholland of the Fire 

Research Division was honored for 

exceptional scientific achievements in 

nano-particle metrology. His research has 

provided the semiconductor industry with 

a calibration method that significantly 

George Mulholland

2004 Bronze Medal Award winners for the home smoke alarms project.
85

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

increases the acceptance rate of silicon 

wafers. His work is cited by industry 

sources as being essential to alleviating 

a major roadblock to the continued 

reduction of semiconductor features. 

This work has saved the industry significant amounts of money by improving 

consistency of particle measurement and 

reduction in the number of wafers being 

rejected by customers. 

Alan Lytle and Geraldine Cheok of 

the Materials and Construction Research 

Division were honored as part of a team 

that was recognized for exceptional 

accomplishment in developing, implementing, and administering the first 

comprehensive Technology Readiness 

Level (TRL) assessment of unmanned 

ground vehicles. Alan Lytle provided 

key support for the experimental design, 

planning, execution, and analysis. Gerry 

Cheok provided critical technical expertise in 3-D laser imaging which enabled 

high-resolution modeling of the terrain 

ground-truth used in the robot performance assessment. The TRL assessment 

conducted by this team has been noted 

and referenced by key people throughout 

the Department of Defense, including the 

Office of the Secretary of Defense Joint 

Robotics Program. The work is related 

to both the development of performance 

measures for autonomous systems for 

construction and standards for capturing 

existing conditions of construction projects using 3-D laser imaging.

2005 William P. Slichter 

Award

Mark Palmer of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division is the 

2005 recipient of the NIST Slichter 

Award which is granted for outstanding 

achievements by NIST staff in building 

or strengthening ties between NIST and 

industry. Mr. Palmer was recognized for 

his work to enable electronic business 

in the U.S. building and construction 

industries, notably through his interactions with the FIATECH Consortium 

and the Construction Industry Institute 

and through his interactions with all U.S. 

industry with respect to UN/CEFACT. 

His past work with the U.S. shipbuilding 

and process plant industries to deliver 

technical solutions to information interchange problems was also noted.

2004 William P. Slichter 

Award

Jonathan Martin, of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division, is 

recognized for his continued efforts in 

establishing numerous industry consortia 

aimed at addressing critical research needs 

of the coatings and sealants industry. 

Over a 10-year period, industry consortia members (20 different companies) 

have provided $1.5 million in support 

of the consortia research. He created the 

Coatings Service Life Prediction (SLP) 

consortium in 1994, Sealants in 2001 and 

Polymer Interphase in 2001. Technical 

and scientific advances that are made in 

these consortiums are then transferred 

to industry through quarterly oversight 

board meetings and through international 

symposia co-organized between NIST 

and industry.

Jonathan Martin

2005 William P. Slichter Award Winner, Mark Palmer.
86

STAFF HIGHLIGHTS AND AWARDS

2004 BFRL 

Communication Award

Mark Kedzierski of the Building 

Environment Division received the 2004 

BFRL Communication Award for the 

best communication published in the 

calendar year. The award was established 

to recognize and stimulate excellence in 

bringing the Laboratory’s results to the 

attention of potential users. Kedzierski 

was cited for the paper entitled “A SemiTheoretical Model for Predicting R123/

Lubricant Mixture Pool Boiling Heat 

Transfer”, which was published in the 

International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 

27, No. 3. The paper presents Kedzierski’s 

fundamental research on pool boiling heat 

transfer of refrigerant/lubricant mixtures 

and includes a model that allows 

predicting the influence of lubricant on 

the heat transfer coefficient based on 

lubricant properties.

2004 BFRL 

Communicator Award

Glenn Forney of the Fire Research 

Division was awarded the BFRL 

Communicator Award for the development of elegant scientific visualization 

software, enabling comprehensive technical communication by engineers and 

scientists to a lay audience, and revolutionizing the nature of information 

exchange used in fire safety practice, fire 

investigation, personnel training, planning of costly large-scale fire experiments, 

and performance-based design of fire 

protection systems.

2003 BFRL 

Communication Award

Laura Schultz, Hayden Brown, and 

Stephen Weber of the Office of Applied 

Economics were awarded the 2003 BFRL 

Communication Award for the NEST 

Toolbox software. It is a Web-based program that allows homeowners to perform 

customized economic analysis of their 

homes. NEST helps users identify and 

evaluate durable materials to enable homeowners to select the building options 

with the lowest life-cycle cost while meeting 

their performance requirements. Within a 

year of its release, NEST had 8,600 users 

and was featured in a cover story in the 

Washington Post’s Real Estate section. 

2003 BFRL 

Communicator Award

Robert Chapman of the Office of Applied 

Economics is the recipient of the 2003 

BFRL Communicator Award. He produced studies, published reports, made 

presentations, drafted ASTM standards, 

designed software, and collaborated 

with public- and private-sector organizations to select cost-effective strategies to 

protect constructed facilities from manmade and natural hazards. His products 

reached a broad cross-section of government and industry managers tasked with 

making capital investment and facilities 

management decisions. His most widely 

distributed publication describing this 

work was Applications of Life-Cycle Costs 

to Homeland Security Issues in Constructed 

Facilities: A Case Study, October 2003. It 

provided metrics to help building owners 

and managers choose cost-effective ways 

to protect buildings and their occupants. 

2005 BFRL Safety Award

Michelle Donnelly of the Fire Research 

Division was honored for her meticulous implementation of the NIST 

safety policies within the Fire Research 

Division. She arranged with the NIST 

Fire Department to conduct CPR/

Defibrillator training for the division, 

with the result that a clear majority of 

the staff is now certified at some level. 

Michelle worked tirelessly to ensure that 

all the laboratories in the division met the 

deadline to comply with the new NISTwide compressed gas-cylinder restraining 

systems. In addition, she inspected the 

laboratories in the division regularly to 

enforce NIST laboratory safety policies. 

2005 BFRL 

Staff Support Award

Michael Selepak of the Fire Research 

Division was awarded for his work with 

the Fire Equipment Evaluator (FEE). 

Mike assisted in the design and procurement of the equipment used to build the 

FEE and then did a superb job in assembling the pieces and making the final 

adjustments that were required to provide 

an acceptable air flow in the test chamber. 

He then assisted in conducting the tests 

and reducing the data required to define 

the operating characteristics of the FEE. 
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B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

2004 ASHRAE Distinguished 

Service Award

Steve Bushby, of the Building 

Environment Division received the 

ASHRAE Distinguished Service Award 

in 2004. Bushby, previous chair of SSPC 

135, BACnet – A Data Communication 

Protocol for Building Automation and 

Control Networks, and SSPC 135.1, 

Method of Test for Conformance to 

BACnet, a convener for the International 

Organization for Standardization (ISO) 

TC 205, Building Environment Design, 

and a panel leader for the U.S. technical advisory committee to ISO TC 

205, created and managed the BACnet 

Interoperability Testing Consortium, a 

cooperative research and development 

agreement between NIST and 22 private 

sector partners. This work led to establishment of an industry-run testing and 

listing program for BACnet products in 

the United States and Europe. 

2004 Alice Hamilton Award

Andrew Persily of the Building 

Environment Division was co-recipient 

of the 2004 Alice Hamilton Award in 

the educational materials category from 

the National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health (NIOSH). Along with 

several other individuals, Persily received 

this award for leadership through science 

based on the publication of the document 

Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning 

Systems to Protect Building Environments 

from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or 

Radiological Attacks. This publication, 

developed by an interagency workgroup 

under the Office of Homeland Security, 

provides guidance to building designers, 

owners, and operators on options for 

using particulate filtration and gaseous air 

cleaning to increase building protection 

against intentional releases of harmful 

agents. The Alice Hamilton Award is 

issued by NIOSH annually in the field 

of occupational safety and health in 

recognition of significant contributions 

to the field.

ASHRAE Fellow

George Walton of the Building 

Environment Division was elevated to 

the grade of Fellow by the American 

Society of Heating, Refrigerating and 

Air-Conditioning Engineers. This award 

was based on his contributions to the arts 

and sciences of HVAC engineering in the 

areas of building simulation, energy calculations and multizone airflow modeling. 

ASHRAE Standards 

Achievement Award

Andrew Persily of the Building 

Environment Division received the 2004 

ASHRAE Standards Achievement Award 

for his service in the area of standards 

leadership during his tenure as chair of 

the committee responsible for ASHRAE 

Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable 

Indoor Air Quality.

EPA Award

Cynthia Howard Reed of the Building 

Environment Division received the U.S. 

EPA 2004 Scientific and Technological 

Achievement Award for her role in a 

research effort on continuous monitoring 

of ultrafine, fine and coarse particles in a 

residence. This work was recognized for 

its contributions to the development of 

particle measurement methods and the 

production of a high quality database of 

indoor and outdoor particle levels.

ASME Best Paper Award

Hunter Fanney, Mark Davis, and Brian 

Dougherty of the Building Environment 

Division were awarded an ASME Best 

Paper Award for the paper, “Comparison 

of Photovoltaic Module Performance 

Measurements,” at the 2005 International 

Solar Energy Conference. This paper 

was written jointly with Sandia National 

Laboratories’ researchers David King, 

William Boyson, and Jay Kratochvil. 

All authors received a certificate and 

were honored during the conference. 

The conference was sponsored by the 

International Solar Energy Society, 

the American Solar Energy Society, 

the American Society of Mechanical 

Engineers (ASME), the American 

Institute of Architects, the Wind Energy 

Association, and the American Society 

of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers.
88

Guest Worker Elected 

International Thermal 

Conductivity Fellow

Daniel Flynn, guest worker in the 

Building Environment Division, was 

elected a fellow of the International 

Thermal Conductivity Conferences 

in 2005. The fellow citation reads: 

“Recognition is hereby given for outstanding contributions to the field of 

thermal conductivity. This certificate is 

presented as a token of the high esteem 

in which this person is held by professional colleagues.” Flynn, who retired 

from NIST at the end of 1990, was 

employed by NIST for 31 years and has 

more than 70 publications in heat transfer 

and thermal conductivity measurements. 

Flynn was a founder of the International 

Thermal Conductivity Conferences in 

1961 and, in 1967, he was co-chairman 

of the Seventh International Thermal 

Conductivity Conference held at NIST 

with the largest attendance to date. Flynn 

has designed and operated techniques 

for measuring thermal conductivity from 

room temperature to over 2,000 degrees 

Celsius on a variety of metals, alloys, 

ceramics, and soils. Most recently, he has 

designed a new guarded hot-plate apparatus for development of high-temperature 

reference materials needed by the thermal 

insulation testing community.

IAFSS Phillip Thomas 

Medal of Excellence

Darryl W. Weinert, guest scientist from 

Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia, 

Thomas Cleary, George Mulholland, Fire 

Research Division, and Paula Beever, 

New Zealand Fire Service, were presented 

with the IAFSS Phillip Thomas Medal of 

Excellence at the International Association 

for Fire Safety Science (IAFSS) September 

2005 meeting in Beijing, China for 

their paper entitled “Light Scattering 

Characteristics and Size Distribution of 

Smoke and Nuisance Aerosols.”

Best SAE Technical Paper

David Urban, DeVon Griffin, Gary Ruff, 

NASA Glenn Research Center; Thomas 

Cleary, Jiann Yang, George Mulholland, 

Fire Research Division; and Zeng-guang 

Yuan, National Center for Microgravity 

Research were awarded an SAE (Society 

for Automotive Engineers) Best Paper 

Award for their paper entitled “Detection 

of Smoke from Microgravity Fires,” at 

the 35th International Conference on 

Environmental Systems and 8th European 

Symposium on Space Environmental 

Control Systems held in July 2005 in 

Rome, Italy.

Howard W. Emmons 

Lectureship Award

Howard Baum of the Fire Research 

Division was awarded the Emmons 

Lectureship Award and was invited 

to deliver the Emmons Plenary Lecture 

at the 8th International Association for 

Fire Safety Science Symposium, which 

is the premiere international fire research 

conference. Dr. Baum presented a 

lecture entitled, “Simulating Fire Effects 

on Complex Building Structures.” The 

lecture assessed the current state of our 

ability to simulate the consequences of 

a fire in a large building, and suggested 

some areas in which improvement is 

needed.

1st Place Roon Foundation 

Award and John Gordon 

Award

At the 2004 International Coatings 

Exposition held in Chicago, IL, with 

approximately 6000 participants in 

attendance. Joannie Chin, Jonathan W. 

Martin, Tinh Nguyen, and Eric Byrd

of the Materials and Construction 

Research Division received the 1st Place 

Roon Foundation Award in recognition of their paper entitled “Validation 

of the Reciprocity Law for Coatings 

Photodegradation”; while LiPiin Sung and 

Jonathan W. Martin received the John 

Gordon Award for their paper entitled 

“Relating Gloss Loss to Topographical 

Features of a PVDF Coating.” Both 

papers are related to the research activities 

of the Coatings Service Life Prediction 

Consortium. This consortium has been 

on-going at NIST since 1994.

SEI/ASCE’s 

Walter P. Moore, Jr. Award

H.S. Lew of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division received 

the 2005 Walter P. Moore, Jr. Award 

at the Structural Engineering Institute 

Award Luncheon, April 22, 2005, at the 

Structures Congress in New York City. 

The award recognizes Lew’s technical 

STAFF HIGHLIGHTS AND AWARDS
89

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

excellence in investigation of the causes of 

building failures due to natural and manmade disasters, which have led to significant improvements in structural standards 

and professional practice. The Walter P. 

Moore, Jr. Award is presented annually 

by the Structural Engineering Institute 

of the American Society of Civil 

Engineers to a structural engineer who 

has demonstrated technical expertise in 

and dedication to the development of 

structural codes and standards 

SFPE’s Harold E. Nelson 

Service Award 

David D. Evans of the Fire Research 

Division received the Harold E. Nelson 

Service Award from the Society of Fire 

Protection Engineers (SFPE). The purpose of the Harold E. Nelson Award is 

to recognize the dedicated and inspired 

service to the ideals and goals of the 

Society. Throughout his distinguished 

research career at NIST’s Building and 

Fire Research Laboratory, Evans’ focus 

has been on applying fire science to solve 

practical fire protection problems. He 

developed the first detector actuation 

model, DETACT, and has made critical 

advances in the understanding and modeling of fire sprinkler performance. He 

has served SFPE for over twenty years in 

various capacities ranging from membership in the editorial board of the Journal 

of Fire Protection Engineering as well as 

other scientific Journals, on the SFPE 

Education Committee, to long service on 

the SFPE Board of Directors culminating in his Presidency of the Society in 

1999. In 1998, Evans led the Society in 

the development of a strategic plan which 

fundamentally changed its direction 

toward meeting the needs of the practicing fire protection engineer.

American Concrete 

Institute’s Wason Medal 

for Materials Research

Long T. Phan and Nicholas J. Carino, of 

the Materials and Construction Research 

Division received the American Concrete 

Institute’s (ACI) Wason Medal for their 

co-authored paper entitled “Effects of 

Test Conditions and Mixture Proportions 

on Behavior of High-Strength Concrete 

Exposed to High Temperatures.” The 

award was presented at the Opening 

Session and Awards Program during ACI’s 

convention in Washington, DC, March 

14, 2004. The Wason Medal for Materials 

Research was established by ACI in 1917 

for “original research work on concrete 

materials and their use, or a discovery that 

advances the state of knowledge of materials used in the construction industry.”

American Concrete 

Institute’s Concrete 

Research Council 

Robert E. Philleo Award

Nicholas J. Carino, of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division received 

the American Concrete Institute’s (ACI) 

Concrete Research Council Robert E. 

Philleo Award at the Opening Session 

and Awards Program during ACI’s convention in Washington, DC, March 14, 

2004. This award is given “in recognition 

of a person, persons, or an organization 

for outstanding research in the concrete 

materials field, or for outstanding contributions to the advancement of concrete 

technology through application of the 

results of concrete materials research.” 

It is given in memory of an Institute 

past president and Honorary Member 

who was also chairman of the Concrete 

Materials Research Council, now the 

Concrete Research Council.

Standards Engineering 

Society Robert J. Painter 

Award

Nicholas Carino, of the Materials and 

Construction Research Division, was 

awarded the 2004 Robert J. Painter 

Memorial Award by the Standards 

Engineering Society. The award recognized Dr. Carino for special service in 

the field of standardization. Specifically, 

the award acknowledged his many 

technical and leadership contributions 

to ASTM Committee C09 on Concrete 

and Concrete Aggregates. 

Nicholas Carino
90

FINANCES AND ORGANIZATION

STRS – In-house 

research, NIST 

congressionally 

appropriated funds

O/A – In-house 

research, other 

agency funds

Other – Other 

funds including 

private sector

Grants – Grants to 

other organizations 

including academia

STRS

O/A

Other

Grants

45

40

35

30 

25

20

15

10

5

0

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

32.9

39.9

44.7

43.8

40.3

F Y 2 0 0 5

O/A $9.1M STRS $27.4M

Other $1.7M

Grants $2.1M

B F R L R E S O U R C E S 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 5

( $ M I L L I O N S )

FEDERAL AGENCIES

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Department of Agriculture

Department of Defense Agencies

Department of Energy

Department of Health and Human Services

Department of Homeland Security

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Department of Interior

Department of Justice

Department of Labor

Department of State

Department of Transportation

Department of Treasury

Environmental Protection Agency

Federal Emergency Management Agency

General Services Administration

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Institutes of Health

National Science Foundation

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Smithsonian Institution

PRIVATE SECTOR AND NON-FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Advanced Fire Alarm System Consortium

Air and Refrigerating Technology Institute

Air Products

Albemarle

American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials

American Fire Sprinkler Association

Association Technique l’Industrie des Liant Hydrauliques (ATILH)

ASTM International

Atlas Material Testing Technology, LLC

Atofina Chemicals

Barrier Dynamics

Building Joint Sealants Consortium

California Energy Commission (CEC)

Cemex

DAP

DeGussa

Dow Chemical Company

Dow Corning Corporation

Dupont Company

Dyckerhoff

FM Global

Holcim

International Center for Aggregate Research (ICAR)

Interphase/Interface Consortium

Kaneka

Master Builders Technology

MTS

National Association of Fire Testing Laboratories

National Electrical Manufacturers Association

National Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc.

National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association

New York State

Northwestern University

NYACOL Nano Technologies

Poly One

Portland Cement Association

PPG

Sasol

Samsung Cheil 

Sherwin Williams

Sika Technology AG

Sleep Products Safety Council

Solvay

Tremco

Underwriters Laboratories

Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ)

Virtual Cement and Concrete Testing Laboratory Consortium

Visteon

Wacker

W.R. Grace

Organizations Funding 

BFRL’s Research

Federal agencies and industry groups, which 

currently support about one-third of BFRL’s 

overall research, are recognized below:
91

B F R L A C T I V I T I E S , A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S & R E C O G N I T I O N S

■ Structures

■ Construction Metrology 

and Automation

■ Polymeric Materials

■ Inorganic Materials

■ HVAC&R Equipment 

Performance

■ Mechanical Systems 

& Controls

■ Heat Transfer & Alternative 

Energy Systems

■ Computer-Integrated 

Building Processes

■ Indoor Air Quality & 

Ventilation

■ Fire Fighting Technology

■ Fire Metrology

■ Analysis & Prediction

■ Integrated Performance 

Assessment

■ Materials & Products

B F R L O R G A N I Z A T I O N

BFRL Headquarters

J. Hill

BFRL Director

S. Sunder

BFRL Deputy Director

P. Domich

BFRL Associate Director

Office of Applied 

Economics

H. Marshall, Chief

harold.marshall@nist.gov

National Earthquake 

Hazard Reduction Program

J. Hayes, Director

jhayes@nist.gov

Materials and Construction 

Research Division

J. Martin, Acting Chief

jmartin@nist.gov

Building Environment 

Division

G. Kelly, Chief

george.kelly@nist.gov

Fire Research

Division

W. Grosshandler, Chief

wgrosshandler@nist.gov
92

Publications and 

On-line Information

Access to BFRL’s published 

research results, which now come 

in many forms including printed 

publications, Web sites, CD ROMs 

and more, can be found online at 

BFRL Research Information Services 

(http://www.bfrlris.gov). This 

includes access to BFRL Publications 

Online where many full texts of 

publications from 1994 to the present 

are available. To request copies of 

these free publications or to discuss 

BFRL’s research reports, contact 

BFRL Research Information Services, 

301-975-6696, bfrlris@nist.gov. 

BFRL Inquiries

If you have general questions about 

BFRL programs or are interested in 

working with BFRL, contact us at 

bfrl@nist.gov or call 301-975-5900. 

Questions about specific programs 

should be directed to the contacts listed 

under each Division in the Chapter, 

BFRL Finances & Organization. 

The mailing address for all BFRL 

personnel is:

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

100 Bureau Drive

National Institute of Standards 

 and Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8600

Visit the Laboratory

Potential collaborators are encouraged 

to visit BFRL when in the Washington 

area. To schedule a visit, contact us at 

bfrl@nist.gov or call 301-975-5900.

The National Institute of 

Standards and Technology

The National Institute of Standards 

and Technology (formerly the National 

Bureau of Standards) was established 

by Congress in 1901 “to assist industry 

in the development of technology...

needed to improve product quality, to 

modernize manufacturing processes, 

to ensure product reliability...and to 

facilitate rapid commercialization...

of products based on new scientific 

discoveries.” An agency of the U.S. 

Department of Commerce’s Technology 

Administration, NIST’s primary mission is to promote U.S. innovation and 

industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, 

and technology in ways that enhance 

economic security and improve our 

quality of life. It carries out this mission through a portfolio of four major 

programs:

Measurement and Standards

Laboratories that provide technical 

leadership for vital components of 

the nation’s technology infrastructure 

needed by U.S. industry to continually 

improve its products and services; an 

Advanced Technology Program providing cost-shared awards to industry for 

development of high-risk, enabling 

technologies with broad economic 

potential; a grassroots Manufacturing 

Extension Partnership with a network 

of local centers offering technical and 

business assistance to smaller manufacturers; and a highly visible quality outreach program that confers the Malcolm 

Baldrige National Quality Award in 

recognition of business performance 

excellence and quality achievement by 

U.S. manufacturers, service companies, 

educational organizations, and health 

care providers.

MORE INFORMATION ABOUT BFRL
0c

Editors:

Kellie A. Beall

Information Specialist

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards 

and Technology

James E. Hill

Director

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards 

and Technology

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

Technology Administration

Robert Cresanti,

Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of 

Standards and Technology 

William A. Jeffrey, Director

NIST SP 838-19

March 2006

Disclaimer: any mention of commercial 

products is for information only; it does 

not imply NIST recommendation or 

endorsement, nor does it imply that the 

products mentioned are necessarily the 

best available for the purpose.
0d