NBS BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES 100

BuildingToResist The Effect OfWind

Zf^^^-ME 1. Overview

.U58

NO. 100

V. 1 RTMENT OF COMMERCE • NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

1977

r 7

NBS BUILDING SCIENCE SERIES 100-1 m

Building To Resist ^ The Effect Of Wind c

in five volumes 0 1^ -Xj-W^' ^ sv^^'^ v j VOLUME 1: Overview

Richard D. Marshall and

Noel J. Raufaste, Jr. Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

and

Stephen A. Kliment, Architect

663 Fifth Avenue

New York, New York 10022

Sponsored by:

The Office of Science and Technology

Agency for International Development

Department of State Washington, D.C. 20523

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Issued May 1977

I
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 77-600013

National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series 100-1

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Bldg. Sci. Ser. 100-1, 34 pages (May 1977)

CODEN: BSSNBV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1977

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

(Order by SD Catalog No. 013.29/2:100-1). Stock No. 003-003- Price $1.40 (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing).
PREFACE

This Overview is Volume 1 of a five-volume series.' The series describes the activities and accomplish- ments of a research project undertaken by the National Bureau of Standards for the Agency for hiternational Development to develop improved design cri- teria for low-rise buildings to better resist extreme

winds.

Tiie purpose of the Overview is to provide the reader with a complete summary of this three and a half year

project. It is presented for the benefit of the decision maker. The information in this volume is arranged in gradually increasing degrees of detail from an

abstract, to an executive summary, to a detailed summary. Detailed technical information is presented in the four companion volumes noted below.

The first section, Introduction, contains three parts: goals and objectives of the project; background infor- mation (including selection of the three developing

countries that participated in the project—the Philippines, Jamaica and Bangladesh); and a review of pre- paratory project activities. These activities included

establishment of the Philippine Advisory Committee

to coordinate local activities in that country, where

the bulk of the wind measurement activities were

performed.

Grouped under the heading Review of Project Activities, the reader will find a discussion of the two

methods used to collect data during the course of this project. The first addresses the accomplishments of the wind measurement program through full-scale

field tests and through wind-tunnel modeling. The

second summarizes the process of collecting data through other means, including literature searches and workshops. This section also summarizes the contents of the four companion volumes. The essence of other related work carried out by individuals and in- stitutions not connected with the NBS/AID project also is presented. Included are results of complementary studies performed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Carnegie- Mel Ion University.

The next section. Information Transfer, is devoted to a review of actions aimed at disseminating draft project

findings to the users. Workshops, a 16-mm sound film and user-oriented materials are described.

The report concludes with two sections. Accomplish- ments and Needs and Recommendations.

The reader also will find appendices that provide

supporting information. The first lists the participating organizations in the three participating countries

and organizations from other countries who contributed to the outcome of the project. A second ap- pendix references publications arranged under four

categories: publications and articles developed during

the course of the research; wind measurements and

design loads; socio-economic factors and housing

characteristics; and planning, design and construction

technology.

'Tlie titles of the other four volumes are: Volume 2: Estimation of Extreme Wind Speeds and Guide to the Determination of Wind Forces: Volume 3: A Guide for Improved Masonry and Timber Connections in Buildings; Volume 4: Forecasting the Economics of Housing Needs: A Methodological Guide: c\nd Volume 5: Housing in Extreme Winds: Socio-economic and A rchitectural Considerations.

Hi
ABSTRACT

This document presents the background, goals, pro- cedures and results of a project to develop improved

design criteria that can lead to low-rise buildings in developing countries that can better withstand the

effects of extreme winds. The project stemmed from

the belief that additional research on wind loads was

needed to reduce loss of life and property, human

suffering, disruption of productive capacity and costs of disaster relief. The three and a half year project

began in early 1973. Results from the project include:

a methodology for the estimation of extreme wind

speeds; the development of wind tunnel modeling

techniques; a heightened awareness of the wind

problem and the need to guard against it; and the documentation of information in the areas of design

wind speeds and pressure coefficients, economic

forecasting, socio-economic and architectural concerns, and construction detailing practices. Also during the course of the project, a program began in the

training of professionals and technicians in developing countries to carry out wind measurements and

analyses. In addition, methods to ensure transfer of information to user groups were employed.

Project results are presented in five volumes. Volume

2 presents a methodology to estimate design wind

speeds and a guide to the determination of wind

forces. In Volume 3, a guide is presented for improved

use of masonry connectors and timber fasteners. Volume 4 furnishes a methodology to estimate and

forecast housing needs at a regional level. Socio- economic and architectural considerations applicable

to the Philippines, Jamaica and Bangladesh are pre- sented in Volume 5.

Key words: Codes and standards; disaster mitigation; housing; low-rise buildings; socio-economics; structural connections; technology transfer; wind loads.

Cover. Laborers erect a prefabricated wood test house, do- nated by the National Housing Corporation (Philippines),

Quezon City.
CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. INTRODUCTION 5

1.1 Goals and Objectives 6

1.2 Background 5

1.3 Preparatory Activities 6

2. REVIEW OF PROJECT ACTIVITIES y

2.1 Development of Information Through Measurement 9

2.1.1 Full-Scale Field Tests 9 2.1.2 Wind Tunnel Studies 20

2.2 Collection of Complementary Data 23

2.2.1 Literature Search 23

2.2.2 Workshop/Conferences 23 2.2.3 Summaries of Companion Volumes 23

2.2.4 Summaries of Other Related Reports 25

3. INFORMATION TRANSFER 27

3.1 Regional Workshop/Conferences 18

3.2 Wind Reference Collection 18 3.3 16-mm Sound Movie 18

4. ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE NBS/AID HIGH WIND PROJECT 29

5. NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 22

Appendix A Participating Organizations 4-2

Appendix B References 6-2

Chronological Project Output References B-2 Wind Measurements and Design Loads B-2 Socio-Economic Factors and Housing Characteristics B-3 Planning, Design and Construction Technology B-3

Figures

Fig. 1 Geographic Locations of Wind Prone Countries Participating

in the Study 7

Fig. 2 Field Test Sites 8

Fig. 3 Two Test Houses at Quezon City Site 11 Fig. 4 Photograph of Scale Model of Field Test House Installed

in University of Philippines Wind Tunnel 11 Fig. 5 Bayanihan School Building 22

V
CONTRIBUTORS

The Center for Building Technology's project team

wishes to acknowledge in particular six persons among the very many participants and contributors

who all have made this project a success. They are:

Dr. Ernesto G. Tabujara, Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Philippines and Cliairman of the

Pliilippine Advisory Committee (a committee of leading

Philippine building professionals), wlio was responsible

for coordinating the overall wind research activities based in the Philippines.

Dr. Roman L. Kintanar, Administrator of the Pliilippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, who was responsible for all field data

collection activities on six full-scale buildings. A signifi- cant portion of tlie project's results is based on the full- scale field studies.

Stephen A. Kliment, Arcliitectural Consultant in New

York City, synthesized a great amount of material supplied by the Center for Building Technology, including

the three NBS/CBT progress reports prepared for the Agency for International Development, into this general

overview report, Volume 1, and authored Volume 5, Housing in Extreme Winds.

Dr. Jamilur R. Choudhury, Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Dacca University of Science and Technology. He represented Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal

countries in providing socio-economic, structural, architectural, and climatological data to the project and in transferring project results to iiis geographic area.

Alfrico D. Adams, of Douet, Brown, Adams and Partners, Consulting Engineers, Jamaica. He too provided the project with climatological, codes and standards, structural and socio-economic information and disseminated project results to the wind-prone countries of the Caribbean.

William H. Littlewood, the project monitor from the

Office of Science and Technology, Agency for international Development. He recognized the need for tiiis research and provided valuable guidance and support

during the course of the project. Many others provided valuable technical, logistical,

and administrative support without which the project

could not have been completed. These contributors are listed in Appendix A.

vi

Facing Page: High winds regularly cause damage to build- ings such as this schoolhouse near Vigan, Philippines.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The effects of natural disasters are all too well known.

Cost-effective improvements in building designs (such

as improved roof-to-wall connections, roof geometry

and structural bracing) tailored to the climates of developing countries can greatly reduce loss of human life and property, disruption of development,

and the cost of disaster relief in those countries.

This research project originated from a recognition of the need for additional research to supplement

limited existing data regarding the effects of wind on

low-rise buildings, especially in developing countires. This research and the resultant development of design

criteria and methodologies will reduce loss of life and

property damage in the countries where the criteria are properly applied. As a result of this project, the National Bureau of Standards (NRS) developed and

transferred improved knowledge on the performance

of buildings under extreme wind conditions, with

resulting benefits to communities world wide that are threatened by high winds.

The purpose of this Overview report is to summarize

the efforts of this project and to serve as a guide to the other volumes of this publication and related articles and reports published during the course of the project

(see page B-1).
BENEFITS

The activities and results of the project have produced

the following benefits:

• Improved wind load design criteria have been

developed to guide members of the building community in developing countries, • Vital training of professionals and technicians has begun in developing countries for carrying out wind

measurement and analysis. • By means of workshops and other forms of information transfer, there is a growing sensitivity of the design profession to the need for improved ways to guard against the effects of extreme winds, and methods to improve building practices. • Technical information has been tailored to the user's needs in developing countries. • Essential but scattered documentation on good build- ing practices has been identified for use by the build- ing community.

• Interaction between members of the building community representing government, industry, profes- sional and academic organizations was stimulated by

this project in all participating countries. FIELD TESTS AND WIND TUNNEL STUDIES

Three field test sites in the Philippines were selected

for recording wind load data on buildings. The wind

tunnel at the National Hydraulic Research Center,

University of the Philippines, was used to carry out a

series of test on models of full-scale test buildings.

These model studies were used in the planning of full- scale studies and the interpretation of test results. NBS

project staff also arranged for a series of comprehensive wind tunnel tests to be carried out at the Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University where a more accurate simulation of atmospheric surface flows was established. The results of these and other

studies are discussed in detail in the NBS Interagency

Report NBSIR 75-790, reference 8, page B-1. ADDITIONAL PROJECT INVESTIGATIONS

To complement the information collected from full- scale tests and wind tunnel studies, NBS staff and consultants developed special information in key subject

areas. This information is in the form of four companion volumes to this Overview. These companion

volumes are further described in section 2 of this Overview.

Volume 2 consists of two reports. The first, Estimation

of Extreme Wind Speeds—Application to the Philippines,

reviews probabilistic techniques for the analysis of existing data and the selection of design wind speeds. It also states that design speeds currently used in the Philippines can be reduced in some areas but should

be increased in others. The techniques may be used to perform similar analyses in other countries. Simplified procedures for the calculation of wind

pressures acting on building surfaces were developed.

These procedures and associated design criteria pro- vide building professionals with more reliable design

loads. This information is presented in the second

report, A Guide to the Determination of Wind Forces. The

report describes the basics of wind flow around build- ings and the pressures created by these flows on build- ing surfaces. The data can form the basis for wind load design standards in developing countries. Volume 3 of this series, A Guide for Improved Masonry

and Timber Connections in Buildings, presents recom- mendations for good construction practices and

details, especially for countries experiencing extreme

winds. The report serves as a reference for improving

building practices.

The project also produced a method to allow a country's planners, economists, public officials, and other

decision makers to assess housing needs for up to 20 years into the future. The method is described in Volume 4 of the series. Forecasting the Economics of Housing Needs: A Methodological Guide.

Information on the cultural and socio-economic fac- tors that affect building practices was developed as Volume 5, Housing in Extreme Winds: Socio-economic

and A rchitectural Considerations. It shows how strong,

inexpensive, locally available building materials can be integrated with good building design. The report is user-oriented and addresses the Philippines, Jamaica

and Bangladesh. Materials that are cheap, strong and

locally available are recommended, and several in- novative methods of construction are discussed. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Project results were discussed at two regional conferences; one in Manila, Philippines (May 1975) and

the other in Kingston, Jamaica (November 1975). These conferences provided linkages for transferring

project results to the building community composed

of government agencies, private developers, design

professionals, regulatory officials, as well as university staff from Asian and Caribbean wind-prone

countries. Summaries of the workshops are discussed later in

this Overview and are described in further detail in NBS Interagency Reports 74-567 and 75-790 cited below. To stimulate the general public to improve

their buildings to better resist extreme winds, user- oriented material has been developed which contains

concise and graphic descriptions of technological

issues, and research findings. One such item titled, 43 Rules: How Houses Can Better Resist High Winds, has been published as an NBS Interagency Report and

could be translated and modified by the local AID

2
missions and/or appropriate in-country housing

organizations to meet each country's unique require- ments.

Another user-oriented product is an 18 minute, 16 mm movie summarizing the project and its results. Starting with the destructive effects of winds on

buildings, it moves to the NBS field-testing activities, the wind tunnel-testing program and the project's

outputs. Additional information about the movie may

be found in section 3.3 of this volume.

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

Several important vehicles communicating the results of this project have been made available to the public.

Chief among these is a scries of three NBS Interagency

Reports (NBSIR) which describe in detail the progress

of the project through Fiscal Years 1973, 1974 and

1975. Each report includes not only a progress sum- mary for that year but also the full texts of associated papers, reports, minutes of meetings and workshop

agendas developed during the fiscal year. They are

cited as references 1, 2 and 8, page B-1.

In addition to these documents, the proceedings of a special 1973 workshop in Manila which identified the

state-of-the-art of wind technology in developing

countries was published as NBS Building Science

Series 56, Development of Improved Design Criteria to Better Resist the Effects of Extreme Winds for Low-Rise

Buildings in Developing Countries. This report is identified as reference 3, page B- 1. NEEDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Several recommendations evolved from the project.

They include the need for comprehensive post-disaster surveys and prompt reporting of findings; further improvement of transfer of user-oriented in- formation to local craftsmen; incorporation of project

test results in the codes and standards of developing

countries; and recognition by US standards-generating committees of the findings of this project as they

consider the development of new or revised stan- dards for wind loading.

3
Facing Page: A typical low-cost village home in Daet,

Philippines.
1. INTRODUCTION

The US Agency for International Development (AID)

and the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) recog- nized a need for design criteria that would improve

the ability of low-rise buildings in developing countries to withstand the effects of extreme winds. By

1976, over three years after it began, the project that grew out of this recognition drew to a close. Among

its accomplishments were the development of improved design criteria for wind loading; a methodology for the estimation of extreme wind

speeds; a greater awareness of the urgent need for better ways to guard against the ravages of extreme

winds; the productive interaction between members

of the building community in the three de\ eloping

countries involved with the project; and tiie documentation of essential information in the areas of design wind speeds and pressure coefficients,

economic forecasting, scicio-economic and architectural concerns, and construction detailing practices.

The project also maugurated the training of profes- sionals and technicians in developing countries to carry out wind measurement and data analysis. In addition, the project set out deliberately to create linkages for transfer to, and information use b\' mem-
bers of the building community, including the general

public.

The following text presents the goals and objectives of

this project, reviews the procedures used to carry out

the assignments, and identifies benefits and future needs.

1.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The project's primary goal was to reduce loss of life and property, human suffering, disruption of productive capacity, and expenditures for disaster relief resulting from the effects of extreme winds on lowrise buildings.

The objectives for carrying out this goal were: 1) to learn more about the effects of high winds on low-rise

buidings; 2) to develop improved siting, design, and

construction information which would improve the

resistance of buildings to extreme winds and be

culturally acceptable to the general public; 3) to pro- vide training to local professionals and technicians in performing wind-load measurement and analysis and

wind-tunnel testing; and 4) to provide a large-scale transfer of technology to promote use of these improvements in design and construction, as well as new climatological, sociological and economic findings.

1.2 BACKGROUND

Wind loading of tall buildings has recieved considerable attention during the past ten years, but little parallel work has been devoted to buildings less than

10 m high. Post-disaster investigations of wind

damage suggest that design pressure coefficients contained in most current codes and standards do not adequately reflect wind characteristics near the ground, nor the true nature of pressure fluctuations on

low-rise buildings. Highly localized wind pressures on buildings tend to be underestimated, whereas

overall pressures tend to be overestimated. This is in agreement with the results of full-scale tests carried out during this program.

No less important to understanding wind loads on

buildings is the selection of appropriate design wind

speeds in areas having a high frequency of tropical storms. By taking into account local storm frequencies

and terrain effects, design speeds can be specified such

that the risk of wind damage to properly designed

and constructed buildings is acceptable. This will allow the building designer to specify more realistic design loads and should result in better performance

of buildings during their expected life.

High-level decision makers in the Philippines,

Bangladesh and Jamaica took part in the study. The

individuals participating in this project were selected on the basis of their potential for carrying out this

research effort and their ability to transfer research

results, including their implementation, to their respective geographic areas. The project was centered in the Philippines. There,

Luzon Island experiences the highest annual frequen- cy of tropical storms^ in the world, and 50 percent of the Philippine population lives within this area. Because of the area's climatology and the variety of problems created by the rapidly spiraling population

(36.7 million people estimated by the 1970 census, with an annual growth rate of three percent), loss of

life and property can be expected to increase in the years ahead. Post-disaster reports on the impact of typhoons indicate millions of dollars of property are damaged annually, and hundreds of lives lost due to these typhoons. In 1970, the Philippines experienced

four typhoons; these caused over 1,000 deaths and $45

million damage to property, including, the loss of 9,000 public school classrooms. Over 300,000 school children were affected by the storms. The Philippines

therefore is a natural laboratory to measure wind

loads on buildings.

The other areas selected also are heavily populated

and experienced extreme winds; they include the Bay

oflBengal countries and the northern Caribbean Is- lands (see fig. 1). Stars on figure 1 denote countries

directly participating in this project.

1.3 PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

Early in the project the NBS project team traveled to seven developing and developed nations to introduce

the study to members of the local building community

and to assess the ability of building research organizations in developing countries to carry out research

into the effects of wind on buildings.

After the Philippines had been selected as the site for the principal measurement effort the need arose to establish a board of leading officials in the Philippines

to advise and participate in the project. This board,

called the Philippine Advisory Committee (PAC),

consists of over 20 leading individuals representing

governmental agencies, an academic institution,

housing authorities, building research laboratories, fi- nancial lending institutions, professional societies plus the AID Mission to the Philippines and the NBS.

Representatives of CARE Inc. in Bangladesh and

building consultants from Jamaica and Bangladesh

also took part in PAC's discussions. PAC has met

regularly during the project, and is expected to continue to meet, to continue the data collection and

analysis program and to further integrate the project's results into that nation's everyday planning, design

-Wind speeds greater than 1 8 m/s.

and construction practices. Similar advisory and support arrangements were set up with the building communities in Bangladesh and Jamaica.

Early in the project, sites were identified by PAC for conducting full-scale tests. The three sites chosen were

weather stations operated by the Philippine At- mospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services

Administration (PAGASA) at Quezon City, Daet and

Laoag City (see fig. 2). Site selection criteria included: frequency of extreme winds, easy access, reliable commercial power, type of wind exposure and site security. Arrangements with individual representatives of PAC were made to build test houses at the

sites and to instrument these for measuring and

recording wind speed and pressure.

Full-scale field tests were supplemented by wind tunnel model studies at the University of the Philippines'

National Hydraulic Research Center. An aeronautical tunnel was modified to make it suitable for simulating

atmospheric surface flows. Models of the full-scale buildings were built by local technicians and tested in the tunnel. These model tests were designed to aid in the positioning of instrumentation on the full-scale

test houses and interpretation of field test results.

Finally, since research findings are valuable only if the technical, economic and cultural environment is right for their acceptance, NBS retained consultants from Bangladesh, Jamaica and the U.S. to develop in- formation on the socio-economic features of the three countries being studied, on the economic aspects of predicting housing need, and on recommended sitmg,

design and construction practices.

8
2. REVIEW OF PROJECT

ACTIVITIES

2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION

THROUGH MEASUREMENT

The bulk of the research centered around field studies

(direct measurement of wind loads on six low-rise buildings at the three separate sites in the Pliilippines)

and wind tunnel studies (scale models of the field test buildings and models of other typical dwelling

geometries). The chief purpose of these studies was to develop design pressure coefficients for low-rise

buildings.

2.1.1 Full-Scale Field Tests

Single-story test houses were built at the Quezon City

site (three houses) and at the Laoag City site (two

houses). An existing single-story weather bureau

building was used at the Daet site. The houses were instrumented with pressure sensors and each field site was equipped with a propeller9
vane anemometer to measure wind speed and direc- tion and a data acquisition system developed at NBS.

The data acquisition equipment used in the full-scale

test program consisted of five basic systems; 1) the sensors or transducers, 2) a logic system, 3) a signal

conditioner, 4) a recorder, and 5) a power supply.

These systems were designed to continuously monitor

wind speed and to initiate a recording sequence when

the speed exceeded a preset level (about 20 m/s). The

system then would record speed and pressure data for approximately 20 minutes and then enter a 30-minute

"hold" period. The total recording time available on a

reel of tape was approximately six hours. Thus, the

total time period between changes in tape reels (six hours of recording plus six hours of "hold" periods

during continuous high wind conditions) was over12

hours; this was enough tape for most typhoon

passages. Wind speed ai\d direction were measured by a pro- peller-vane anemometer mounted on a 10 m mast lo- cated far enough from the test buildings to register undisturbed wind speeds. The recording sections consisted of a 14-track analog tape unit with reels containing 1100 m of magnetic tape. To ensure uninterrupted power in a storm, all three

sites were equipped with a back-up system of batteries. Whenever commercial power is interrupted, the batteries automatically pick up the load for about

eight hours of continuous operation.

Since typhoon winds can come from any direction, it

is difficult to determine a "best" configuration or ar- ray of pressure transducers. Because roof structures are the most susceptible to wind damage, they were

allocated the greatest number of transducers. Extreme

pressures acting along ridge lines, eaves and roof cor- ners were of interest, as were the average uplift presures acting on the overall roof area. Pressure transducers were arranged differently on each tost building to provide a wider range of transducer combinations for the assessment of localized and overall pressure fluctuations. Transducers also were installed inside the building to measure internal pressures, as these pressures strongly influence the net roof up lift loads Over the three years of the study, approximately for- ty hours of recordings were obtained and processed.

2.1.2 Wind Tunnel Studies

While full-scale tests provide valuable information on

the nature of wind forces and the response of buildings to these forces, they generally do not allow

detailed and systematic study of the various

parameters involved. It is usually necessary to resort

to modeling techniques to provide sufficient data on which to base design criteria, using the full-scale

results to check the validity of the model. For this reason, and also to provide a facility to meet future research needs, the wind tunnel at the National Hydraulic Research Center (NHRC), University of the

Philippines, was modified so that the lower portion of the atmospheric boundary layer could be modeled.

Techniques used to establish an acceptable degree of similitude were developed for this particular application in a similar wind tunnel at Colorado State University and involved the installation of tapered

spires at the entrance to the test section, followed by

surface roughness elements placed on the floor of the tunnel and extending downstream to the location of the building model. Details of the modeling technique

are described in Simulation of Atmospheric Flows in Short Wind Tunnel Test Sections, which may be found

in reference 2, page B-1

The NHRC wind tunnel has a test section 1.2 m square and 3.7 m long. Maximum air speed with a clear test section is approximately 30 m/s. While a tunnel with

a larger test section would have simplified the modeling problem, surface pressures measured on a 1:80 scale model of Test House No. 1 at Quezon City (see

fig. 3) correlated well with the full-scale measurements. This model, installed on a turntable at the downstream end of the test section, is shown in figure

4. In addition to providing guidance for the optimum

location of pressure transducers in the full-scale studies and aiding in the interpretation of records ob- tained from these studies, the NHRC tunnel was also used to study a model oLaBayanihan School Building.

A large number of these buildings were constructed with AID funding following the typhoons of 1970 and

the objective of this wind tunnel study was to evaluate the loads used in the original design and refine these loads for future construction. A typical

Bayanihan School Building is shown in figure 5 and

results of the study are presented in a report. Wind

Tunnel Studies ofRP-US Bayanihan Permanent School Buildingisee reference 17, page B-1). The NBS initiated a series of comprehensive wind

tunnel tests at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University (VPI and SU) where a larger test sec- tion was available and the atmospheric boundary

layer had previously been modeled successfully. The

tests covered 32 combinations of roof slope, height-towidth ratio, length-to-width ratio and size of roof overhang. Detailed discussion of the test results is reported in the VPI and SU report. Wind Tunnel Model

Investigation for Basic Dwelling Geometries (see reference 12, B-1). The influence of roof slope on wind

loads for the models tested is summarized below.

Zero-degree roof slope.Peak pressures occur at points

close to the upstream roof edge with the wind normal

to the edge and deviating ± 60 degrees from the nor- mal direction. Towards the center of the roof the mag20

FIGURE 5 BAYANIHAN SCHOOL BUILDING.

nitude of the peak pressures decrease and the sector in which these peak pressures occur becomes smaller. The presence or the absence of roof overhangs does

not seem to influence the magnitude of the peak

pressures or the sector in which they occur. The same

is true for the length-width ratio; this variable does

not seem to affect the peak pressures. Ten-degree roof slope.Again, the peak pressures oc- cur at the upstream edges of the roofs and decrease in magnitude towards the middle of the roof. The pre- sence of the roof ridge does not show any effect on

pressures near the ridge. The maximum pressures oc- cur along the upstream sloping edges of the roofs with

the wind direction parallel to the roof ridge and in a sector deviating ±50 degrees from this direction. No

significant effects due to the presence of roof over- hangs can be detected except for the case with winds

parallel to the roof ridge. The magnitudes of the peak

pressures along the sloping upstream edge of the roof

are smaller than in the case where no overhangs are

present. There is clear evidence that the larger lengthwidth ratio decreases the magnitude of the peak

pressures.

Twenty-degree roof slope. For this geometry, the presence of the roof ridge becomes important. Ex- tremely large negative pressures do occur on the leeward side of the ridge with the wind direction making an angle of 45 degrees with the roof ridge.

The overhangs and the length-width ratio do not seem to have any effect on the magnitude of the peak

pressures. Winds parallel to the roof ridge create low

peak pressures at the leading and sloping edges of the

roof. In general, the magnitudes of the pressures towards the center of each roof slope are larger than

previously experienced with winds normal to the

ridge, both on the windward and leeward side.

Thirty-degree roof slope. The peak pressures occur at the leading edge of the roof with the wind parallel to the roof ridge in a sector of approximately 50 degrees on either side. In addition, large negative pressures

are encountered on the leeward side of the roof, with

the wind direction making an angle of approximately

45 degrees with the roof ridge. However, these peak

negative pressures are not as low as those encountered at the same location and with the same wind

direction for twenty-degree roof slopes. In cases

12
where the winds are normal to the roof ridge, tiie upstream (horizontal) edge of the roof is not exposed

to the large negative pressures encountered with flat- ter roof slopes. The largest negative pressures are en- countered over the entire leeward roof area with the wind direction making an angle of approximately

forty-five degrees with the roof ridge. Overhangs and

length-width ratio do not seem to have any appreciable effect on the peak pressures in this case. These

studies indicated that additional research is needed

for roof slopes near 10 degrees.

In addition to the wind tunnel investigation of basic dwelling geometries just described, studies were also conducted at the test site in Quezon City. Results indi- cated that there was no unusual sensitivity of the building geometry to extreme winds. These studies, were published as. Wind Tunnel Investigation of CARE,

Inc. Single-Family Dwelling, (see reference 14, page

B-1).

2.2 COLLECTION OF COMPLEMENTARY

DATA

Throughout the project the systematic use of literature searches, workshop/conferences and consultants yielded comprehensive information on listings of printed resources, socio-economic data, and

guidelines for siting, design and construction detailing

practices.

2.2.1 Literature Search

Reports concerned with wind effects and building

technology were collected from the NBS, the Department of State, AID, the National Oceanic and At- mospheric Administration, the Forest Products

Laboratory, the Portland Cement Association, the National Technical Information Service and various US

and overseas universities. Additional documents came from the Building Research Establishment in the United Kingdom through a collaborative research program with the NBS on wind loads on buildings.

Copies of approximately 75 documents collected in this search were transferred to the PAC and the bibliography was sent to other participating developing countries. A list of all these documents appears as Appendix C of NBSIR 74-567 (reference 2, page B-1).

2.2.2 Workshop/Conferences

One workshop and two conferences were held during

the course of the project, two in the Philippines and

one in Jamaica. These served to elicit information on wind design, construction and socio-economic experiences; the conferences served as a key vehicle for the timely dissemination of project findings.

The workshop was held in Manila November 14-17,

1973. Entitled "An International Workshop on Effects

of Extreme Winds," it addressed the state-of-the-art in mitigating building damages caused by winds. Four themes were discussed: climatology and aero- dynamics; structural engineering; socio-economic and

architectural considerations; and codes and standards. The workshop, attended by 140 professionals from

Jamaica, Bangladesh, the United Kingdom, the Philippines and the United States, identified defects in data gathering procedures, identified gaps in wind loading

data and the building process, developed recommendations to correct these defects and suggested improvements for good building practices. The proceedings of the workshop were published as NBS Building

Science Series 56 (see reference 3, page B- 1 ).

The first of two regional conferences was held in Manila, on May 16-17, 1975. The second was held in Kingston, Jamaica, on November 6-7, 1975. The pur- pose of these conferences was to provide project

results to the professional building community in wind-prone developing countries. This was done to avoid long lag-time until publication of results (about

I 1/2 years in this case), thus allowing the countries to begin to implement results as quickly as possible. At

the same time, it gave the NBS team a chance to receive technical feedback as to the relevance of project research to date. This feedback was of assistance

in subsequent data collection and analysis and guided

the preparation of final technical reports. The conference programs are contained in reference 8, page

B-1.

2.2.3 Summaries of Companion Volumes

The other volumes in this Building Science Series deal with design wind speeds and pressure coefficients; timber fasteners and masonry connectors leading to improved construction practices; forecasting housing

needs; and socio-economic and architectural implications. Each is published separately. A summary of each is presented below.

Volume 2, Estimation of Extreme Wind Speeds and Guide

to the Detemiination of Wind Forces, contains two rel- ated reports. The first report. Estimation of Extreme Wind Speeds—Application to the Philippines, concludes

that design speeds currently used in parts of Mindanao can be reduced, whereas those in use for Northern Luzon and certain coastal exposures should be in- creased. The report also focuses on problems of estimating basic wind speeds for very long mean

recurrence intervals in tropical storm areas where

wind records are often incomplete and many

typhoons pass without being recorded.

The report contains a comprehensive re\ iew of probabilistic techniques for analyzing extreme wind

speeds. It also provides for the correction of annual extreme speeds for the tvpe of instrumentation used.

13
averaging time, height above ground, and type of ex- posure so that homogeneous data sets can be

estabUshed. The two types of extreme value distribu- tions in common use (Fisher-Tippett Type I and Type

11) are then applied to the annual extremes for several Philippine stations using an NBS developed computer

program. The author then compares the results of the analysis with design speeds currently specified in the National Structural Code of the Philippines.

The second report, A Guide to the Determination of Wind Forces, presents a method for calculating wind

pressures acting on building surfaces. This report also describes the basics of wind flow around buildings

and the pressures created by these flows on building

surfaces. Effects of such features as roof slope, roof overhang, and building openings are discussed. The

report refers to material covered in its companion

report and assumes that the basic wind speed either is known or can be calculated by the designer. A pro- cedure for determining the design speed is presented.

It takes into account general terrain roughness, local topographical features, height of building, expected'

life of building, and risk of exceeding design loads. Once the design speed has been obtained, the mean

dynamic pressure may be calulated and pressures act- ing on walls, roofs, and internal protions of buildings

may be determined by use of appropriate pressure

coefficients presented in the report. Corrections then

can be applied to the calculated pressure to account

for terrain roughness and height of building. Finally, the pressures are multiplied by the appropriate surface areas to obtain wind forces. The steps required to calculate pressures and total drag and uplift forces are summarized. The paper concludes with worked ex- amples. These improved design criteria provide

building professionals with more reliable design loads and are intended as the basis for wind load design

standards in developing countries. Volume 3 in this series, A Guide for Improved Masonry

and Timber Connections in Buildings, contains material on recommended construction practices. The report

discusses three basic structural systems: pole type,

masonry bearing wall and timber. Examples of wind

damage are included through use of text and photographs. Cases in which inadequate fasteners and im- proper design contributed to roof damage or lift off followed by collapse of the entire structure are

described. The authors, from NBS and Forest Products Laboratory, evaluate current construction practices in the tropics, and discuss local building products and stan- dards compliance with the aid of photographs of buildings during various stages of construction. They

also present current building practice in the United

States, along with illustrations of various types of connectors and fasteners. While many of these connectors

and fasteners are not currently used in developing

countries, they serve as a reference for improving

local practices and customs. Volume 4, Forecasting the Economics of Housing Needs: A

Methodological Guide, presents a method for decision

makers in government and the private housing industry to determine the size of a region's unmet housing

needs. This is an important first step in planning and

enacting public policies and programs designed to improve the size, condition and quality of a nation's housing inventory. The procedure makes use of readily available data such as family income, housing

expenditure and the established regional poverty line. Procedures are developed to compare the costs with

the potential income redistribution effects of meeting

the housing need shortfall. They have been designed

to be flexible and adaptable to situations in which

housing and demographic data may be sparse. The

calculation of current housing needs is divided into 1

1

steps or tasks. These in turn are grouped into four major areas of investigation—description of housing in- ventory, determination of the housing standard,

determination of the need (or "shortfall matrix") and

calculation of the cost of meeting the housing needs. An extended example is included. Volume 5, Housing m Extreme Winds: Socio-economic

and Architectural Considerations, reviews the importance of cultural acceptance of planning, design and

construction improvements that differ from tradi- tional practices in developing countries. The report

focuses on the Philippines, Jamaica and Bangladesh

and pinpoints typical socio-ect>nomic condititms that planners should take into account. These conditions

include: strong respect for traditional materials and

methods of house construction and suspicion of in- novative forms and approaches; a rising proportion of urban poor who live in squatter settlements; a still high proportion of rural residents, remote both from new building concepts and from post-typhoon/

hurricane relief programs; a very high ratio of citizens (in a range from bO to 72 percent, depending

on the country) whose incomes are at a level where

thev cannot afford housing of anv kind—either on tiie open market or government-subsidized; and a chronic shortage of capital funds to stimulate or support a national program for the construction of windresistant housing. The importance of land from a social standpoint is stressed. The report cites benefits

of the "sites and services" concept whereby low in- come persons are provided (through gift, loan or

lease) a site equipped with water supply, sewerage

and electricity, but must erect and maintain a house

upon it.

Architecturally, recommendations include placement

of buildings to exploit the beneficial effectsof terrain,

and adherence to principles of good practice in the

14
configuration of roofs, walls, overiiangs and openings.

These recommendations are shown in the rept)rt by

drawings.

Materials that are cheap, strong and locally available are recommended, and several innovative methods of construction are mentioned. They include stabilized or strengthened soil, and indigenous fibers and

grasses for reinforcing concrete, adobe and brick.

Plastics have been produced using local and imported raw materials. If used for shelter, plastics could result in an excellent low-cost house once the housing configurations become more familiar to the population. At first, plastics may be used for community service buildings such as clinics and schools.

2.2.4 Summaries of Other Related Reports

At the mid-point of the project, additional information was collected from the December 25, 1974, cyclone which struck Darwin, Australia, and almost

totally destroyed the city's residential areas. Due to the widespread use of corrugated galvanized iron sheet and light frame construction, the behavior of housing in Darwin will have a definite bearing on the development of design criteria for housing in other

tropical regions of the world, especially those wilh

frequent intense storms. NBS was invited to take part

in post-disaster studies of Darwin. Close liaison developed and continues with Australian research establishments as they carry out follow-on projects related to Darwin. Some of these findings and recom- mendations such as improved fasteners for corrugated

iron roofing sheets should work well in other countries which are prone to tropical storms (see reference 21,pageB-4).

Dr. Jamilur R. Choudhury (Bangladesh) and A. D. Adams (Jamaica) were retained by NBS to prepare background reports on the wind conditions, socio- economic profile and construction circumstances in their respective countries and geographic regions.

Dr. J. R. Choudhury prepared a report entitled Lowrise, Low-cost Housing and Extreme Wind-related

Problems in Bangladesh. He sees a need for six million new rural houses over the next 10 years. The author

points to the following projections and facts: enor- mous expected rise in population in his country over

the next decade, to produce a high population density; a high frequency of disastrous typhoons; and

negligible natural resources. In spite of an influx of

rural families to the large cities raising urban ; .opulations by as much as 50 percent, the number of houses

has remained about the same. Furthermore, by

n\id-1975, the high cost of building materials had

brought new private building construction to a virtual

standstill.

Reliable wind speed records are lacking and weathei

stations are poorly equipped. The report suggests

wind speeds for return periods of 20, 50 and 100 years

at eight stations, but the author calls for a more

thorough analysis of existing wind data beft re using

the values for building design.

The author also reports briefly on housingand * ind conditions in India, Burma and Sri Lanka, Exislmf', data suggests lower design wind speeds for these three countries except for the West Bengal, Orissa and

Madras coasts of India where speeds compare with

tlibse for Bangladesh. This report appeared as Appendix B of the NBSIR 75-790 (see reference 8, page B-1 >. It may be ordered seperately from the National lechnical Information Service as PB 256-77 1 (see page B- 1 for the NTIS address).

Mr. A. D. Adams, a Jamaican consulting engineer pre- pared, Low-Cost Housing and Extreme Wind-Related

Problems in Jamaica and the Northern Caribbean Islands. This two-part report identifies low-cost housing

trends and their design problems in the region. It notes the influence of socio-economic factors on housing patterns and presents an analysis of housing needs over the next ten years. Between 1975 and 1985, the author sees an average annual need of about 15,000 units, two-thirds of them

for use by new households, the rest for replacement.

These estimates are based on an anticipated population increase of 400,000 over the decade.

The private sector provides housing for middle and

upper income groups. Only a small part of the government's housing effort has been directed at the lowest income groups. To relieve these pressures, the Ministry of Housing in 1972 began its Sites and Services Project aimed at providing 6,000 serviced lots in three years. The objective is to encourage self-help

projects for prospective home owners who are largely

unemployed.

The author presents extreme winds and wind damage

statistics. Included are maximum gust speeds for return periods of 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100 years. The

author notes that a basic wind speed of 54 m/s has been

recommended for design purposes in the region. This

is a three-second gust speed at 10 m above ground for a return period of 50 years.

In his conclusion, the author offers several solutions

for mitigating losses due to high winds. These include:

1) an adequate hurricane warning system; 2) strict adherence to accepted structural standards accompanied by tight inspection during construction; 3) simple instructions set out in a "Manual of Accepted

Practice" to guide engineers, architects, developers,

etc. as a supplement to building codes; 4) a professional engineering registration law for those nations

without one; and 5) special emphasis on the major

15
problem area of roof fastenings and anclioring provisions. Accurate data on design forces, or recom- mended standard details, would ensure both economy

and a consistent and adequate standard of safety. The

complete two-part report appears in reference 2, page

B-1. The paper, Socio-Economic and Architectural Considerations in Housing, was delivered at the November

14-17, 1973 Manila workshop by Geronimo V. Manahan and Dr. Josefina M. Ramos. The authors

note that 85 percent of the potential wage earners in the Philippines have basic economic problems—no

jobs or not enough income. This has led to malnutrition, ill health and environmental health hazards. Only 14 percent of urban families could afford housing in the open market; 36 percent could afford home

ownership provided they were extended long-term

financing at a reasonable rate of interest. The remaining 50 percent could not afford shelter even at reduced rates. The problems are too basic to be resolved merely by

upgrading shelter; rather, what is needed according to the authors is a system to eliminate urban poverty

and lack of education. In addition, there is annual

need for 100,000 units to cover new households,

population increases and replacement of slum and

squatter houses. The problems are aggravated by the high cost of land and building materials.

The authors offer four recommendations; 1) the long

tradition of indigenous building should be exploited

to develop concepts for architectural adaptations to a harsh environment; 2) not only economics and tech- nology, but the cultural practices and benefits of the people should be parameters in the design of their

shelters; 3) environmental design and landscaping ap- proaches may offer major benefits by reducing wind

loads on structures; and 4) a systematic analysis of building components, for resisting not only high

winds but also floods and earthquakes, should be undertaken. The proceedings, which include this paper, appeared as NBS Building Science Series 56 (see reference 3, page B- 1 ). A related low-cost housing design project was carried out by a Carnegie-Mellon University team headed by

Dr. Charles H. Goodspeed and Professor Volker H. Hartkopf. Results have been published as. Feasibility Test of an Approach and Prototype for Ultra-Low Cost

Housing. In 1974 and 1975 the team—which included

architects, engineers, planners and sociologists

developed a prototype, very low-cost (goal: $10 per person per shelter) housing unit for use in a variety of

relief and rural development situations in Bangladesh. The prototype an "A" frame modular

housing system, accomodates a wide variety of local, indigenous materials. The structure is cheap, labor in- tensive easily erected and reportedly resists wind and

floods. The prototype structure has yet to be

systematically tested in a high-wind situation, so its performance under such conditions is largely

unknown.

Dr. Vijai Singh, a sociologist on the team underscores

a theme found in Volume 5—that of importance of

cultural acceptance. He believes that the structures could be made more acceptable by lowering their height and changing their appearance to conform to the traditional structures. In this regard, several

different door styles were tried, but none proved

popular and residents suggested a bigger entrance and

a door that could be shut and locked.

Local people complained about the tightness of space

inside the structures and felt they had been built without due concern for the needs of the families living in them. Most complaints centered on lack of storage

and kitchen space. Residents in some areas felt the windows were too high, and should be lowered so some air could flow at the floor level. It was difficult to sleep inside in hot and humid weather.

Three related economic reports came to the NBS

team's attention as this project progressed and they

deserve mention here. All are by Professor Fred

Moavenzadeh, Department of Civil Engineering,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology.^ These un- published reports, prepared for various United Nitions agencies, offer the interested reader a useful overview of the typical economic status of housing in- dustries in developing countries. The author examines

these industries from the viewpoints of their management and financing problems as well as construction

technology and materials. He points out that technical solutions to housing should involve a high labor content since labor is plentiful but foreign exchange,

needed to import manufactured materials or to build elaborate domestic production plants, is scarce. In this regard, the author favors several new materials, such

as plastics, that require a reasonably simple production technology. He advocates that the sites-and-ser- vices concept be included in municipal or regional

zoning programs in developing nations.

^Moavenzadeh, Fred, Building Operation and the Choice of Appropriate Technologies for Conditions Prevailing in Developing CoM«fn>s (December 1975); Shelter: Experience, Problems and

Solutions Related to TormaV Building Industryilnd Draft, December 1975); and Industrialization of Production and Assembly of Prefabricated Elements and Components Prepared for Joint Consultation on Prefabrication for Industrial Construction (UN

Industrial Development Organization, Poland, Sept./Oct.

1975).

Facing Page: Millions worldwide live in houses highly

vulnerable to winds. Activities such as these under tech- nology transfer will make future homes, and lives, safer.

16
3. INFORMATION TRANSFER

A basic concern of the NBS/AID high wind project has been the need to transfer the project findings to the various organizations and individuals in developing

countries who face the possibility of human and pro- perty loss due to high winds. These target groups of users are:

• Government policy makers

• Private developers

• Regulatory officials • Financial lending institutions • Design professionals

• Manufacturers

• Professional architectural and engineering

societies • University staff • Local craftsmen

• The general public—as building user and ton- ant The proposed plan for transferring information to these groups recognizes their different backgrounds

and information requirements. For example, local craftsmen and the general public in some cases may

17
need ratlier unsopliisticated written information hut

will readily comprehend various types of visual material. Thus, drawings with minimum text are es- sential. By contrast, design professionals require in- formation at a higher technical level. Information

transfer, was initiated through several approaches.

They are discussed below.

3.1 REGIONAL WORKSHOP/CONFERENCES

As noted in section 2.2.2, one workshop and two conferences were held during the course of the project

two in Manila and one in Kingston. These meetings

gave individuals from the building community the opportunity to present papers, to learn about research

results to date, to ask c]uestions, and to speak out as to the future direction fo the project. Another benefit was that of establishing solid working relationships

witii many of the prospective users of the research

findings.

The results of these communication efforts are signifi- cant. In the i'hilippines, project information provided

the first step in revising the National Building Code

(Section 2.05, Wind Pressures) and this will lead to improved building practices. The Commonwealth

Caribbean countries are in the process of upgrading

their building code. This project's information will be

considered as their building code is revised. Bangladesh, Haiti and other developing countries will use portions of the technical information in revisions

of their building code.

Transfer is not limited to developing countries. Test data will be made available to the subcommittee on wind loads of the American National Standards Institute for possible incorporation into American National Standard A58.1

Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures.

3.2 WIND REFERENCE COLLECTION

Two copies each of 75 documents dealing with wind

effects on buildings and other engineering structures were transferred to the Philippines Advisory Committee. One copy was placed in the University of Philippines Library. These reports serve as a comprehensive library collection. The reports are listed in Appendix C of NBSIR 74-567 (see reference 2, page

B-1).

3.3 16-mm SOUND MOVIE

An 18-minute user-oriented 16-mm color and sound

movie, entitled "Extreme Wind Study," was pro- duced by NBS (see reference 9, page B-1) which summarizes the high wind research project, it is aimed at several audiences, technical, semi-technical and the general public.

By illustrating the destructive effects of winds on

buildings, the film tells viewers about the NBS field testing acitivities as well as the wind tunnel testing program. Computer graphics are used to depict the ac

tual effect of wind on buildings. Filmed mostly in the

Philippines, it shows the three test sites, the wind tun

nel, and the participation of the NBS team as well as

architects, engineers, building officials and university

staff at the workshop and test sites. Through December 1976, 28,000 individuals had

viewed the film. These people represent professional

societies, academia, trade groups, U.S. Federal Agencies and schools. The film was awarded a Silver CupFirst Place, at the 10th International Educational and

Television Film Show at th.e Rome Fair held from

May 29-June 13, 1976.

Facing Page: Technicians install pressure sensor on a test house at Daet, Philippines.

18
i

4. ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF

THE NBS/AID HIGH WIND

PROJECT

The project has demonstrated that it is possible to design and build safer low-rise buildings at an acceptable cost by: a) using improved criteria in determining

wind forces on low-rise buildings; b) reliable planning, design and construction practices; c) using a simplified method for forecasting housing needs; and

d) providing sound principles which allow for local housing preferences and traditions.

There have been six major benefits as a Yesult of this

project

Improved design criteria have been de\'eloped

to guide architects, engineers and builders. By means of workshops and the various other information transfer vehicles, greater concern

has emerged in developing countries for improved ways to guard against the effects of ex- treme winds, and for the methods to do the job. Interactions between members of the building

19
community representing government, industry, professional and academic groups and

decision makers in the participating wind

prone developing countries were stimulated by

this project. Vital training of professionals and technicians

has begun in developing countries for carrying

out wind measurement and analysis procedures.

Essential but scattered documentation on good

practices has been identified for use by the building community.

Technical information has been tailored to meet the user's needs.

Facing Page: Workmen lay a founda tion for one of the project's test houses. Such research will be the basis for im- proving building practices.

20
5. NEEDS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Important tasks remain to be completed if annual

losses of life and property due to extreme winds are to be brought under control. To this end nineteen recommendations were developed:

1. Establish a national center in developing countries to promote information exchanges with

meteorologists and climatologists, the design

professions, regulatory officials, building

authorities and local craftsmen on matters concerning the design of buildings to resist wind forces.

2. Establish comprehensive programs of improved land use planning to reduce the damage potential of extreme winds and heavy

rainfall.

3. Encourage meteorological agencies and related groups to collect mean-hourly wind speed and

peak gust data and disseminate this information in a useful form to private and govern- mental groups involved with building design

and construction.

4. The meteorological services in developing

21
countries which regularly experience hurricanes or typlioons should take the lead in improving the distribution, density and siting of wind observation stations.

5. Buildings iiaving unusual siiapes and structural characteristics that are not covered by

recognized codes of practice should be subjected to appropriate wind tunnel model

studies.

6. Provide for conducting post-disaster surveys by appropriate government and private

groups.

7. Establish an international wind research

center and support it through appropriate

organizations to study the effects of winds on

buildings.

8. Incorporate project test results in the codes

and standards of developing countries and

have these done in a format easily

understandable by local urban and rural officials.

9. Recommend that standards-generating committees in developing countries take note of the findings of this project as they consider

development of new or' revised standards for wind-resistant construction.

10. Architects and engineers in public and private

practice entrusted with building design and

construction supervision should be licensed by

an appropriate professional licensing board.

11. The professional engineering and architectural

societies should work closely with colleges

and universities to develop courses of study

for engineering and architectural students re- lated to the effects of wind on bi:,ldings.

12. Develop and carry out programs of continuing

education at all levels of society for in- dividuals involved in the design and construction of buildings.

13. Structural design for wind loads should take

into account the local wind climate and the

effects of surrounding terrain and neighboring

structures on the characteristics of surface winds.

14. The design of roofing and cladding elements

should consider the effects of local pressure

fluctuations near the corners of walls, along

the edges of roofs and under eaves.

15. Conduct a pilot program to develop, design,

build and evaluate housing in selected regions

subject to high winds, using recommended

good practice, and based on major involvement of local people in site selection, planning, design, manufacture of components and

erection.

16. Explore further the problems of maintaining

soundly built housing to preserve its resistance

to high winds.

17. Evaluate the actual use in participating nations

of the content and format as required to obtain the broadest possible dissemination in each of those nations.

18. Explore channels for expanding information

linkages with all nations and regions subjected

to extreme winds.

19. Investigate further the transfer of information

to the local craftsman level.

22
Appendix A PARTICIPATING

ORGANIZATIONS

The following organizations participated in and made

valuable contributions to the research project.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

CARE, Inc., Bangladesh

Haiti Ministry of Public Works

Jamaica Douet, Brown, Adams and Associates,

Consulting Engineers

Jamaican Bureau of Standards

Jamaican Institution of Engineers

Jamaican Meteorological Office Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation,

City Engineers

Ministry of Housing

Social Action Center

Japan

Kyoto University

Ministry of Construction

The Philippines

Association of Structural Engineers

of the Philippines* Bureau of Public Works*

Civil Aeronautics Administration*

Forest Products Research and

Industries Development Commission*

Government Service Insurance System*

Land and Housing Development

Corporation*

National Building Code Committee*

National Housing Corporation*

National Institute of Science and

Technology

National Science Development Board*

National Society for Seismology and

Earthquake Engineering of the

Philippines*

People's Homesite and Housing

Corporation*

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical

and Astronomical Services

Administration*

Philippine Institute Housing

Corporation*

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical

and Astronomical Services

Administration*

Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers*

*Member, Philippine Advisory Committee.

Philippine Standards Association*

Social Security System*

University of the Philippines*

Republic of China (Taiwan)

National Bureau of Standards

United Kingdom

Building Research Establishment

Department of the Environment

United Nations United Nations Economic Commission

for Asia and the Far East United States of America

Agency for International Development,

United States Department of State

(Project Sponsor)

Agency for International Development

Missions; Manila, Philippines; Kingston,

Jamaica; Dacca, Bangladesh; Port-au-Prince,

Haiti Care, Inc. Colorado State University

Forest Products Laboratory, Department

of Agriculture

National Bureau of Standards*,

Department of Commerce

United States Air Force

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univeristy

AA

Appendix B REFERENCES

This appendix is divided into four sections; a) project

output references, b) wind measurements and design

loads, c) socio-economic factors and housing cliaracteristics and d) planning, design and construction

technology. Each section lists reports and other docu- ments under various reader interest headings. Under

the first section are reports listed in chronological

order as they were developed during the course of the

project. The other three headings list reports used

during the course of this project and documents

which contain information relevant to the planning

and design of low-rise buildings in wind prone areas. Documents noted in the list of references by NTIS

may be ordered from National Technical Information

Service, US Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Va. 22161. Likewise, docu- ments noted by Superintendent of Documents may be

ordered from the US Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC 20402. Other reports may be ob- tained by writing the author or borrowed from an appropriate library.

CHRONOLOGICAL PROJECT OUTPUT

REFERENCES

(1) Raufaste, N. J., and Marshall, R. D , FY 1 973 Progress Report on Design Criteria and Methodology for Construction of Law-Rise Buildings to Better Resist Typhoons and Hurricanes, NBSIR 74-582 (Washington, D.C.; National Bureau of Standards,

1973). Available from NTIS, COM 74-1 1645.

(2) Raufaste, N. J. and Marshall, R. D., FY 1974 Prepress Report on Design Criteria and Methodology for Construction of Law-Rise Buildings to Better Resist Typhoons and Hurricanes, NBSIR 74-567 (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

1974). Available from NTIS, COM 74-11631.

(3) Raufaste, N. J., and Marshall, R. D., editors. Development of Improved Design Criteria to Better Resist the Effects of Extreme Winds for Law-Rise Buildings in Developing Countries, BSS 56 (Proceedings of Workshop at Manila, Nov. 14-17, 1973) (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

1974). Available from the U.S. Government Printing

Office, C 13.29/2:56.

(4) Peterka, ]. A. and Cermak, ]. E. Simulation of Atmospheric Flows in Short Wind Tunnel Test Sections, Report CER73-74 JAP-JEC32(Fort Collins: Colorado

State University, June 1974).

(5) Gong, R. D., "Seeking Safer Shelter Through

Science," Horizons-USA, (Manila: U.S. Information

Service, 1974), p. 32.

(6) Angeles, C. B., "Operation: typhoon-resistant buildings," Horizons-USA (Manila: U.S. Information Service, 1974), p.36.

(7) Nash, H., "To Survive the Wind," War on Hunger

(Washington, D.C.: U. S. Agency for International Development, August 1975), p.6.

(8) Raufaste, N. ]., and Marshall, R. D., FY 7975 Progress

Report on Design Criteria and Methodology for Construction of Law-Rise Buildings to Better Resist Typhoons and Hurricanes, NBSIR 75-790 (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

1975) . Available from NTIS, PB 250-848/9WB.

(9) Raufaste, N. J., and Meininger, R., "Extreme Wind

Study" (16 mm Color/Sound Movie) (Washington, D.C: National Bureau of Standards, 1975). Available from the National Audiovisual Center, General Ser- vices Administration, Washington, D C. 20409, or on free loan from Association Sterling Films, 600 Grand Avenue, Ridgefield, New Jersey 07657.

(10) Marshall, R. D., Reinhold, T. A. and Tieleman, H.

W., "Wind Pressures On Single-Family Dwellings"

(Proceedings, ASCE/EMD Specialty Conference on Dynamic Response of Structures) (Los Angeles:

University of California, March 1976).

(11) Tieleman, H. W., Reinhold, T. A., and Marshall, R.

D., "On the Wind Tunnel Simulation of the At- mospheric Surface Layer for the Study of Wind

Loads on Single-Family Dwellings" (Proceedings,

ASCE/EMD Specialty Conference on Dynamic

Response of Structures) (Los Angeles: University of California, March 1976).

(12) Tieleman, H. W. and Reinhold, T. A., Wind Tunnel Model Investigation for Basic Dwelling Geometries, Report VPI-E-76-8(Blacksburg: Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University, May

1976). Available from NTIS, PB 255-070/AS

(13) "Houses vs. High Winds," NBS Dimensions (Washington, D.C: National Bureau of Standards,

April 1976).

(14) Tieleman, H. W., and Gold, R., Wind Tunnel In- vestigation of CARE, Inc. Single-Family Dwelling,

Report VPl-E-76-22(Blacksburg: Virginia

Polytechnic Institue and State University, November 1976).

(15) Raufaste, N.J., "High Wind Study in the Philippines, " Wind and Seismic E//ects,"SP470(Proceedings

of 7th U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources Panel Conference) (Washington, D.C:

National Bureau of Standards, 1977).

(16) Raufaste, N. J., "Wind Loads on Low-Rise Buildings,"

Wind and Seismic Effects, SP477,(Proceedings of 8th

U.S.- Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources Panel Conference) (Washington, D.C:

National Bureau of Standards, 1977).

(17) Marshall, R. D., Wind Tunnel Studies ofRP-US

Bayanihan Permanent School Building NBSIR 77-1196 (Washington, D.C: National Bureau of Standards,

1977). (18) Kliment, S. A., Raufaste, N. J., and Marshall, R. D., 43 Rules: How Houses Can Better Resist High Winds,

NBSIR 77-1197 (Washington, D.C: National Bureau

of Standards 1977).

B-1
WIND MEASUREMENTS AND DESIGN

LOADS

(1) The Assessment of Winds Loads (consoWdaled new

edition of Digests 99, 101 and 105), Digest 119 , (United Kingdom: Building Research Station, July

1970). (2) Bearman, P. W., An Investigation of the Forces on Flat

Plates in Turbulent Flaw. NPL Aero Report 1296

(April 1969). <^9)

(3) Bearman, P. W., Some Recent Measurements of the Flow A round Bluff Bod ies in Smooth and Turbulent Streams (Symposium on External Flows, July 4-6, 1972) (Bristol: University of Bristol, 1972). (20)

(4) Bickford, Capt. J. M., The Design of Single and Double

Storey Hurricane Resistant Buildings, no. 18 (United

Kingdom: Royal School of Civil Engineering, May

1972). (21)

(5) "BSl CP3: Chapter V: Part 2; Wind Loads," Code of Basic Data for the Design o/BwiM/'wgs (London: British Standards Institution, September 1972).

(6) Cermak, J. E., "Laboratory Simulation of the At- mospheric Boundary Layer," Jl, vol. 9, no. 9(Presented at Session on Fluid Physics of Pollution, (22) American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

3rd Fluid and Plasma Dynamics Conference, June

29 - July 1 , 1970, Los Angeles, California) (Los (23) Angeles: American Institute of Aeronautics and

Astronautics, 1971).

(7) Cermak, J. E., and Sadeh, W. Z., Wmd-Tunnel (24) Simulation of Wind Loading on Structures, Preprint

1417 (National Structural Engineering Meeting)

(New York: American Society of Civil Engineers,

1971). (25)

(8) Cockrell, D. ]., and Lee, B. E., Methods and Consequences of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Simulation (AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 48 Aero- dynamics of Atmospheric Shear Flows) (Munich,

September 1969). (26)

(9) Cook, N. J., "A Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel for Building Aerodynamics," journal of Industrial Aero- dynamics, vol. I, no. 1 (June 1975). (27)

(10) Dalgliesh, W. A., and Garden, G. K., Influence of Wind Pressures on joint Performance, Technical Paper

264(Canada: National Research Council, September

1968). (28)

(11) Davenport, A. G., "Gust Loading Factors," /ourna/ o/

the Structural Division Proceedings, vol. 93, no. ST3 (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, (29) June 1967).

(12) Davenport, A. G., "Rationale for Determining

Design Wind Ve\ocii\es," journal of the Structural Division Proceedings, vol. 86, no. ST5, part 1 (New (30) York: American Society of Civil Engineers, May

1969). (13) Dikkers, R. D., Marshall, R. D., and Thom, H. C. S., Hurricane Camille, Technical Note 569 (Washington, (31) DC: National Bureau of Standards, 1969). Available from the NTIS, COM 74-10436.

(14) Eaton, K. J., and Mayne, J. R., Instrumentation and

Analysis of Full-Scale Wind Pressure Measurements, CP 1/69 (United Kingdom: Building Research Sta- (32) tion, 1969).

(15) Eaton, K. J., and Mayne, J. R., The Measurement of Wind Pressures on Two Story Houses at Aylesbury, CP

70/74 (United Kingdom: Department of Environ- (33) ment, 1974).

(16) Jones, M. E., A Review of the Literature on theStructure

of Wind Turbulence with Special Regard to its Effect on (34) Buildings, CP 85/68 (United Kingdom: Building Research Station, 1968).

(17) Leutheusser, H. J.,and Baines, W.D., "Similitude B-2

Problems in Building Aerodynamics," journal of the Hydraulics Division Proceedings, vol. 93, no. HY3

(New York: American Society of Civil Engineers,

May 1967). Marshall, R.D., Engineering Aspects of Cyclone Tracy, Darwin, Australia, BSS 86 (Washington, D.C.: Na-

"

tional Bureau of Standards, 1974). Available from

the U.S. Government Printing Office, C13.29/86. Marshall, R.D., "A Study of Wind Pressures on a Single-Family Dwelling—in Model and Full Scale," journal of Industrial Aerodynamics, vol. 1, no. 2 (Octo- ber 1975). Marshall, R.D., and Thom, H.C.S., editors. Wind

Loads on Buildings and Structures, BSS 30 (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

1970). Available from NTIS, COM 71-00141. Melbourne, W.H., "Comparison of Pressure Measurements on a Large Isolated Building in Full and Model Scale" (Proceedings of Third International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and

Structures, Tokyo, 1971) (Tokyo: SaikonCo. ltd., 1971) . Newberry, C.W., Significant Features of Wind Loading

in Relation to the Design of Structures, CP 49/69 (United Kingdom: Building Research Station, 1969). Newberry, C.W., and Eaton, K.J., Wind Loading Handbook {Building Research Establishment Report)

(London: Department of Environment, 1974). Simiu, E.,and Filliben, J.J. , Sfflfisf!Cfl//4nfl/i/sis o/Extreme Winds, Technical Note 868 (Washington, DC:

National Bureau of Standards, 1975). Available from

the U.S. Government Printing Office, C13.46:868. Somes, N.F., Dikkers, R.D., and Boone, T.H., Lubbock

Tornado: A Survey of Building Damage in an Urban

Area, Technical Note 558 (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, 1971). Available from

NTIS, COM 71-50072. Standen, N. M., Aspire Array for Generating Thick

Turbulent Shear Layers for Natural Wind Simulation in Wind Tunnels, Report LTR-LA-94 (May 1972). Sundaram, T. R., Ludwig, G. R., and Skinner, G. T., Modeling of the Turbulence Structure of the Atmospheric

Surface Layer, 7I-I36( AIAA 9th Aerospace Sciences Meeting) (January 1971). Teunissen, H.W., Characteristics of the Mean Wind

and Turbulence in the Planetary Boundary Layer, UTL AS Review 32, (October "1970). Thom, H.C.S., "New Distributions of Extreme Winds in the United States," journal of the Structural Division Proceedings, vol. 94, no. ST7 (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, July 1968). Vellozzi, J., and Cohen, E., "Gust Response Factors," journal of the Structural Division Proceedings, vol. 94, no. ST6 (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, June 1968). Vickery, B.J., and Kao, K., "Drag or Along-Wind

Response of Slender Structures," Journal of the

Structural Division Proceedings, vol. 98, no. STl (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers,

January 1972). Walker, G.R., Report on Cyclone Tracy—Effect on

Buildings—December 1974, vol. 1 (Melbourne;

Australian Department of Housing and Construction, 1975). Wind Environment Around Tall Buildings, Digest 141 (United Kingdom: Building Research Station, May

1972). Wright, R.N., Kramer, S., and Culver, C, Building

Practices for Disaster Mitigation, BSS 46

(Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

197.3). Available from NTIS, COM 73-50188.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS AND

HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

(1) Adams, A. D., Low-Cost Housing and Extreme WindRelated Problems in Jamaica, NBSIR 74-567 (Washington, D.C.; National Bureau of Standards,

1974). Available from NT1S74-11631.

(2) Bueneman, E., Special Report on Techniques of Aided

Self-help Ho«s;ng(Washington, D.C.: Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973).

(3) Choudhury, J. R., First Report on Law-Rise, Law-Cost

Housing and Extreme Wind-Related Problems in Bangladesh, NBSIR 75-790 (Department of Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and

Technology) (Washington, D.C: National Bureau of Standards, 1975). Available from NTIS PB 250-848.

(4) Choudhury, J. R., Second Report on Law-Rise, LawCost Housing and Exteme Wind Related Problems in Bangladesh {Dacca: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, 1976). Available from NTIS PB 256-771.

(5) Dybbroe, O., "A Proposal for Program and Staff- ing," Building Research in /(jmaica (Kingston: Build- ing Research Unit, 1966).

(6) Feasibility Test of an Approach and Prototype for Ultra Low-Cost HousingifoT Carnegie Mellon University,

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, AID Office of Science and

Technology) (Washington, D.C: Technical Assis- tance Bureau, November 1975).

(7) Housing in the Philippines, {Preparatory materials for the Conference on Housing) (Philippines: National Economic and Development Authority, 1973).

(8) "Human Settlements," Architectural Record{May

1976), p. 95-160.

(9) Improvement of Slums and Uncontrolled Settlements (Report of Interregional Seminar, Medellin, Columbia, February 15- March 1, 1970)(New York: United

Nations, 1970). Sales No. E71.IV.6.

(10) Koenigsberger, O., Mahoney, C, and Evans, M., Design of Low-Cost Housing and Community Facilities, Vol. 1: Climate and House Design,{hiew York: United

Nations, 1971).

(11) Rehabilitation of Transitional Urban Settlements (UNESCO, Committee on Housing, Building and

Planning, Report of the Secretary General,

e/C.6/115)(August 1971).

(12) Report on Slum and Squatter Problems in Metropolitan

Mfl«i7fl (Manila: Presidential Coordinating Council

for Housing and Urban Development, 1968).

(13) Reps, W. F., and Simiu, E., editors. Design Siting and

Construction of Low-Cost Housing and Ccmmunity

Buildings to Better Withstand Earthquakes and

Windstorms, BSS 48 (Washington, D.C: National Bureau of Standards, 1974). Available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, 13.29/2:48.

(14) Research Sfudy of the Socio-Economic Aspects of LowCost Housing in the Philippines (Makati, Rizal: Sycip,

Giorres, Velayo and Co., 1972).

(15) Rosser, K. C, Housing for the Lowest Income Groups:

the Calcutta Experience, Ekistics Magazine (February

1971).

(16) Self-Help Practices in Housing: Selected Case Studies, no. E73.IV.15(New York: United Nations; Depart- ment of Economic and Social Affairs, n.d.). (17) Shubert, C, Hope for Improvement of Slum Squatter Areas (Washington, DC: Newsbriefs of Foundation

for Cooperative Housing, August-September 1974).

(18) "Sites and Services Programs: the Experience and

the Potential," Human Settlements {hiew York: United Nations; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and Center for Housing,

Building and Planning, October 1972).

(19) Survey of Housing Conditions in Delacree Pen

(Kingston, Jamaica: Continuous Social and

Demographic Survey Unit, 1969).

PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

(1) American Standard Building Code Requirements for Mflsonri/(ANSI A41, 1954, Miscellaneous Publication 211) (Washington, D.C; National Bureau of Standards, 1954). Available from NTIS, COM

73-10871.

(2) Amrhein, J.E., Masonry Design Manual (Los Angeles:

Masonry Institute of America, 1972).

(3) Amrhein, J.E., Reinforced Masonry Engineering

Handbook{Los Angeles: Masonry Institute of America, 1972).

(4) "ANSI Standard A58.1-1972, Chapter 6; Wind

Loads," Building Code Requirements for Minimum

Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures (Uew

York: American National Standards Institute, 1972).

(5) "ANSI Al 19.1-1974, and Appendix D, ANSI

All9.\-\975," Standard for Mobile Homes(New York: American National Standards Institute, 1974).

(6) Code of Practice for the Design, Fabrication and Erection

of Structural Steel Members with Minimum Thickness

of 1/8" for Bui7di«gs (Manila: Philippine Association

of Civil Engineers, January 1968).

(7) Concrete Masonry Design ManuaULos Angeles: Concrete Association, 1955).

(8) Design Specifications for Light Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses (College Park: Truss Plate Institute, n.d.).

(9) Dikkers, R. D., and Saxer, E. L., Flexural Strength of Plain and Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls

(Arlington: National Concrete Masonry Association, 1957).

(10) Duke, T. J., "All About Timber Piling," AE Concepts

in Wood Design Na 8, (March - April 1976). (11) Egerup, A. R., Theoretical and Experimental Deter- mination of the Stiffness and Ultimate Load of Timber

Trusses, Report R62 (Copenhagen: Technical University of Denmark, 1975).

(12) Engineering Standards, CP 200 (Manila: Philippine

Association of Civil Engineers, January 1965).

(13) Excavations and Foundations, CP 201 (Manila: Philippine Association of Civil Engineers, January 1965).

(14) Fishburn, C, Effect of Mortar Properties on Strength of Masonry, NBS Monograph 36 (Washington, DC:

National Bureau of Standards, 1961). Available from

NTIS, COM 75-10175.

(15) Glaumann, M., and Westerberg, V., Klimat och Byg- gande i Trapikema, Report 1 (Climate and building in the tropics) (Stockholm: Royal Technical High

School, 1971).

(16) Housing and Urban Development in the Philippines

(USAID/Manila, January 1968).

(17) Industrial Construction Catalog File{New York: McGraw-Hill Information Systems Company, n.d.). (18) Livingston, A.R., Mangotich, E., and Dikkers, R.D., Flexural Strength of Hollow Unit Concrete Masonry

Walls, in the Horizontal Span (Arhngton: National Concrete Masonry Association, 1958).

(19) Manual Engineering Practice No. 1 (Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines) (Quezon

City: Private Practice of Structural Engineering,

1973).

B-3
(20) Masonry, CP 206 (Manila: Philippine Association of Civil Engineers, January 1965).

(21) Morgan,]. W.,and Beck, R. R, Sheet Metal Roof

Failures by Repeated Loading Technical Report 2 (Australian Department of Housing and Construction, 1975).

(22) Moss, P. J., and Scrivener, J. C, "Concrete Masonry

Wall Panel Tests, New Zealand Concrete Construction," Journal of the New Zealand Portland Cement AssociationWew Zealand, April 1968).

(23) Narajanamurty, D., and Mohan, D., The Use of Bamboo and Reeds in Building Construction, no. E.72. IV. 3 (New York: United Nations, n.d.). (24) National Design Specifications for Stress-Grade Lumber

and Its Fastenings (Washington, D.C.: National Forest Products Association, April 1973).

(25) National Structural Code for Buildings, { Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Philippine

Association of Civil Engineers) (1972).

(26) NEMA TEK Smes (Arlington: National Concrete Masonry Association, n.d ). (27) PACE Manual of Engineering Practice No. 1 (Manila:

Philippine Association of Civil Engineers, December 1960).

(28) Po/e House Construction (Prepared for Federal Housing Administration) (McLean: American Wood

Preservers Institute, 1976).

(29) Proceedings of Conference on Unified BuildingCode

(Kingston: Caribbean Council of Engineering

Organizations, n.d.). (30) Products in Action (Washington, D.C.: Timber

Engineering Company, n.d.). (31) Protecting Mobile Homes from High Winds, TR-75

(Baltimore: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency,

June- 1972).

(32) Report on Concrete Masonry Structures-Design and

Construction (ACI Committee 531, American Concrete Institute Journal) (May-June, 1970).

(33) Research Data, (With Commentary in Support of Specification for The National Concrete Masonry

Association, n.d.). (34) "SAA Loading Code, Part 2-Wind Forces," Australian Standard 1170 (Standards Association of

Australia, 1973).

(35) Saffir, H.S., Housing Construction in Hurricane-Prone

Areas, (Prepared for Interregional Seminar on LowCost Construction Resistant to Earthquakes and

Hurricanes) (Skopje, 1971).

(36) Salyer, I.O., Ball, G.L. IH, Usmania, A.M., and

Werkmeister, O.W., Development of Low-Cost Roofing From Indigenous Materials in Developing Nations (Monsanto Research Corporation, 1975). Available from NTIS PM-249 317/9WB.

(37) Schneider, R.R., Shear in Concrete Masonry Piers (Los Angeles: Masonry Research of Los Angeles, 1969).

(38) Scrivener, J.C., Static Racking Tests on Concrete Masonry Wfl//s (Austin: International Conference on Masonry Structural Systems, 1967).

(39) Specification for the Design and Construction of LoadBearing Concrete Masonry { Arlington: National Concrete Masonry Association, n.d.). (40) Specification for Portland Cement(Philippine Trade

Standard 661-01.02:1968, Manila: Bureau of Stan- dards) (1968).

(41 ) Standard Specifications for Construction Lime, 1-1-68 (Manila: Philippine Standards Association, March

1968).

(42) Standard Specification for Glazed Ceramic Tiles and

Tile Fittings, 1-10-72 (Quezon City: Philippine Stan- dards Association, November 1972).

(43) Standard Specification for Philippine Cold Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcment, 1-5-71 (Quezon City: Philippine Standards Association, November 1972).

(44) Standard Specification for Steel Reinforcement Bar,

1-7-71 (Quezon City: Philippine Standards Association, November 1975).

(45) Toennies, H., and Merteu, J.E., Concrete Masonry

Vocational Training Students' ManualiArUngton: National Concrete Masonry Association, n.d.). (46) Uniform BuildingCodeiWhittier: International Conference of Building Officials, 1973).

(47) Walker, G. R., Minor, J. E., and Marshall, R. D., "The Darwin Cyclone: Valuable Lesson in Structural Design," Civil Engineering-ASCE {December

1975).

(48) Winfield, A., and Winfield, B., Major Breakthrough in Low-Cost Plastic Housing Using Jute-Reinforced

Polyesters: the CARE/WinfieldlBangladesh House(Proceedings, 29th Annual Technical Conference)

(Society of Plastics Industry, Inc., 1974).

(49) Yokel, F.Y., Dikkers, R.D., "Strength of Load-Bearing Masonry Walls," Journal of the Structural Division (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, May 1971).

(50) Yokel, F.Y., Mathey, R.G., and Dikkers, R.D, Compressive Strength of Slender Concrete Masonry Walls,, BSS33(Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, 1970). Available from NTIS, COM 71-00159.

(51) Yokel, F.Y., Mathey R.G., and Dikkers, R.D., Strength of Masonry Walls Under Compression and

Transverse Loads, BSS 34, (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, 1971). Available from

NTIS, COM 75-10286.

(52) Yokel, F.Y., "Stability and Load Capacity of Members with No Tensile Strength," Journal of the Structural Division (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, July 1971).

B-4
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