ED478714 2002-09-00 Fundamental

Skills in Science: Observation. ERIC

Digest.

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Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation. ERIC Digest................. 1

OBSERVATION IN SCIENCE CLASSROOMS............................3

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND RESEARCH.................... 4

REFERENCES.................................................................. 6

ERIC Identifier: ED478714

Publication Date: 2002-09-00

Author: Haury, David L.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science Mathematics and Environmental Education

Columbus OH.

Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation.

ERIC Digest.

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"We value our sight above almost everything else. The reason for this is that of all the

senses sight makes knowledge most possible for us and shows us the many differences

between things." Aristotle, "Metaphysics", Book I

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"You see but you do not observe." Sherlock Holmes to Dr. Watson in "A scandal in

Bohemia"

Long before our ancestors invented writing, they created art representing their

observations, and detailed observations of the night sky were being systematically

recorded nearly 3,000 years ago (Kavassalis, 2000). Though the early Greeks

recognized the importance of our senses in constructing knowledge, the primacy of

observations was formally put to the test by Galileo who faced charges of heresy for

supporting the heliocentric theory of the universe. Risking his life for the sake of ideas,

Galileo not only believed in what he observed through the newly invented telescope, he

believed in the newly emerging views of scientific knowledge based on reasoning and

observations.

De Duve (2002) has characterized science as being "based on observation and

experiment, guided by reason" (p. 285), and this combination is what distinguishes

science from other paths to knowledge. Derry (1999) makes the same point by saying

that "well constructed scientific arguments, defending a scientific conclusion, generally

rests on two foundations: reliable empirical evidence and sound logical reasoning" (p.

89). Martin (1972) was more explicit:

"Scientific theories are primarily tested against observation and accepted, rejected, or

modified mainly because of observational data. Observation is thus generally

considered to be the touchstone of objectivity in science; it seems to be primarily

observation that provides an independent standard for the evaluation of theories and

hypotheses. If it were not for observation, there would be little reason for choosing

between scientific theories and fictional accounts, between science and pseudoscience,

between warranted assertions and fanciful hopes. "

He goes on to caution, though, that "observation clearly cannot be maintained as

infallible or certain. The existence of perceptual illusion, hallucinations, and other less

dramatic perceptual errors proves that people can be deceived by their senses" (pp.

112-113).

Despite the apparent centrality of observation to the development of scientific

knowledge, there has long been a debate about the exact role of observation and its

supposed contribution to objectivity in science. It is acknowledged that observations can

be both unreliable and theory-dependent (Hodson, 1986). Martin (1972) has made the

argument "that a trained observer with certain knowledge and training can observe

things that a person without this knowledge and training cannot observe." Further, "a

person's background will influence what properties he [or she] visually attends to in a

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particular object, or indeed whether he [or she] attends to any properties of the object at

all. Finally, the theoretical background of a scientist leads him [or her] to observe

noncognitively objects which the layman, because of his [or her] lack of theoretical

background does not observe at all" (p. 107).

Ironically, observations are seemingly at the heart of both stability and change in

scientific understanding. Writers associated with Project 2061 (AAAS, 1989) stated that

"sooner or later, the validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of

phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data. Such evidence is

obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations that range from natural

settings...to completely contrived ones (such as in the laboratory). To make their

observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments...that enhance those senses,

and instruments that tap characteristics quite different from what humans can sense

(such as magnetic fields...Because of this reliance on evidence, great value is placed on

the development of better instruments and techniques of observation, and the findings

of any one investigator or group are usually checked by others" (pp. 26-27).

Shermer (1997) identified observation as accounting for the difference between science

and pseudoscience and being the means by which scientific knowledge changes over

time. He claims "science is different from pseudoscience...not only in evidence and

plausibility, but in how [it changes]. Science [is] cumulative and progressive in that [it

continues] to improve and refine knowledge of our world...based on new observations

and interpretations" (p. 38). Derry (1999) points out that science needs better

observations and more precise measurements for progress in understanding to occur.

Though human senses are limited in range and are easily deceived, observation

remains at the heart of science and is the final arbiter in constructing and testing

scientific ideas. Observation in science is more than "seeing"; it refers to skills

associated with collecting data using all the senses, as well as instruments that extend

beyond the reach of our senses, and it is influenced by the assumptions and theoretical

knowledge of the observer.

OBSERVATION IN SCIENCE CLASSROOMS

For over three decades a focus on "science process skills", including the skill of

observation, has been highly promoted in school science. Indeed, one influential

elementary curriculum developed during the science curriculum reform flurry of the

1960s-"Science: A Process Approach"--was organized around the development of skills

(AAAS, 1975). More recently, curriculum standards in science related to observation

have typically appeared in sections related to learning through inquiry. According to the

National Research Council (NRC,1996), students in the earliest grades should be

expected to use simple tools--magnifiers, thermometers, and rulers--to gather data and

learn what constitutes evidence (pp.122-123). Strategies for helping young students

make detailed observations have been described (i.e., Checkovich & Sterling, 2001),

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and ways of linking observations to familiar readings have been offered (i.e.,

Angus,1996).

Students in the middle grades should learn to conduct systematic observations,

interpret data, use computers to collect and display evidence, and base explanations on

observations (NRC, 1996; p. 145). In high school, students are expected to design and

conduct investigations that involve the use of equipment and procedures to collect data,

the use of computers to analyze data, and the development of models or explanations

based on the evidence from investigations (p. 175). As an example of how to engage

students in constructing a model from data, Cummins, Ritger, and Myers (1992)

described an activity using observational data of the moon to construct a model of the

sun-earth-moon system. More generally, "everyone should acquire the ability to handle

common materials and tools...for making careful observations, and for handling

information. These include being able to do the following" (AAAS, 1989):

* Keep a notebook that accurately describes observations made, that carefully

distinguishes actual observations from ideas and speculations about what was

observed, and that is understandable weeks or months later.

* Store and retrieve computer information using topical, alphabetical, numerical, and

key-word files, and use simple files of the individual's own devising.

* Enter and retrieve information on a computer, using standard software.

* Use appropriate instruments to make direct measurements of length, volume, weight,

time interval, and temperature. Besides selecting the right instrument, this skill entails

using a precision relevant to the situation.

* Take recordings from standard meter displays, both analog and digital, and make

prescribed settings on dials, meters, and switches (pp.137-138).

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND

RESEARCH

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In the view of the AAAS (1989), science teaching consistent with the nature of scientific

inquiry will:

* Engage students actively. Students need to have many and varied opportunities for

collecting, sorting, and cataloging; observing, note taking, and sketching; interviewing,

polling, and surveying; and using hand lenses, microscopes, thermometers, cameras,

and other common instruments (p. 147).

* Concentrate on the collection and use of evidence. Students should be given

problems--at levels appropriate to their maturity--that require them to decide what

evidence is relevant and to offer their own interpretation of what the evidence means.

This puts a premium, just as science does, on careful observation and thoughtful

analysis. Students need guidance, encouragement, and practice in collecting, sorting

and analyzing evidence, and in building arguments based on it. However, if such

activities are not to be destructively boring, they must lead to some intellectually

satisfying payoff that the students care about" (p. 148).

Typical of resources to assist teachers in these tasks is a handbook (Gabel, 1993) that

includes a section on observation as a basic science skill to be taught in elementary

school. Another teaching guide (Pauker & Roy, 1991) includes activities that present

observing as a science process skill and thinking skill. Similar resources are available in

many commercially available instructional materials.

Though curriculum standards and the professional literature of science education

promote attention to science process skills, and observation in particular, the research

on student conceptions of the role of observation in science seems limited. Reviews of

research have shown that when science process skills are emphasized in the

classroom, student proficiency on individual skills increases, some transfer of skills to

new situations is noted, and skills are retained over time (Padilla, 1990). One study,

however, (Haslam & Gunstone, 1996) provides evidence that students tend to view

observation as a teacher-directed process rather than a self-directed pursuit of

evidence. Student conceptions of evidence-based inferences also seem limited.

Surprisingly, many students do not see the process of observation as being particularly

relevant to the science learning process (Haslam & Gunstone, 1998). Evaluation studies

associated with the current trend toward increased proficiency testing in science will

undoubtedly shed more light on student performance in using the tools of observation

and the level of skill development in observation techniques. Still there will be open

questions regarding the extent to which students can purposefully observe in a

self-directed manner to gather evidence in support of their ideas. This is at the heart of

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doing science, and we have little direct evidence of the extent to which students can

couple observations with reasoning to construct models and explanations of natural

phenomena.

REFERENCES

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). "Science for all

Americans: A Project 2061 report on literacy goals in science, mathematics, and

technology". Washington, DC: Author. [Available online at:

http://www.project2061.org/tools/sfaaol/sfaatoc.htm]

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1975). "Science: A process

approach". Lexington, MA: Ginn.

Angus, C. (1996, Fall). Sciencing with Mother Goose: Observation activities with

Chicken Little. "CSTA Journal", 4-6.

Checkovich, B. H., & Sterling, D. R. (2001, January). Oh say can you see. "Science and

Children", 38 (4), 32-35.

Cummins, R. H., Ritger, S. D., & Myers, C. A. (1992, March). Using the Moon as a tool

for discovery-oriented learning. "Journal of Geoscience Education", 40 (2), 142-46.

de Duve, C. (2002). "Life evolving: Molecules, mind, and meaning". New York: Oxford

University Press.

Derry, G. N. (1999). "What science is and how it works". Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press.

Gabel, D. (1993). "Introductory science skills", 2nd Edition. Prospect Heights, IL:

Waveland Press. [ED 396 929]

Haslam, F., & Gunstone, R. (1996). "Observation in science classes: Students' beliefs

about its nature and purpose". Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National

Association for Research in Science Teaching (69th, St. Louis, MO, April). [ED 396 909]

Haslam, F., & Gunstone, R. (1998). "The influence of teachers on student observation in

science classes". Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for

Research in Science Teaching (San Diego, CA, April 19-22). [ED 446 927]

Hodson, D. (1986). The nature of scientific observation. "School Science Review", 68,

28.

Kavassalis, C. (2000, December). "The role of observation in the history and philosophy

of science". Online publication: http://www.softwareimpact.com/cathy/Observation1.htm

www.eric.ed.gov ERIC Custom Transformations Team

Page 6 of 7 ED478714 2002-09-00 Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation. ERIC Digest.
Martin, M. (1972). "Concepts of science education: A philosophic analysis". Glenview,

IL: Scott, Forseman.

National Research Council. (1996). "National science education standards".

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. [Available online at:

http://books.nap.edu/html/nses/html/index.html]

Padilla, M. (1990, March). "The science process skills". Paper 9004 in the series,

"Science matters-to the science teacher", published by the National Association for

Research in Science Teaching. [Available online at:

http://www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/research/skill.htm]

Pauker, R. A., & Roy, K. R. (1991). "Strategies for learning: Teaching thinking skills

across the curriculum through science. Analyzing information and data". Teacher's

Edition. Annapolis, MD: Alpha Publishing. [ED 388 505]

Shermer, M. (1997). "Why people believe weird things: Pseudoscience, superstition,

and other confusions of our time". New York: W. H. Freeman.

Wilson, C. (1996, April). A classroom who-dunnit to sharpen science skills. "Teaching

PreK-8", 26 (7), 52-54.

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This digest was funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.

Department of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0024. Opinions expressed in

this digest do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the U.S.

Department of Education.

Title: Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation. ERIC Digest.

Document Type: Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs)

(071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073);

Available From: ERIC/CSMEE, 1929 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1080. Tel:

800-276-0462; Fax: 614-292-0263; e-mail: ericse@osu.edu; Web site: www.ericse.org.

Descriptors: Elementary Secondary Education, Inquiry, Observation, Science

Instruction, Science Process Skills

Identifiers: ERIC Digests

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