BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM

BUILDERS CHALLENGE GUIDE TO

40% Whole-House Energy 

Savings in the Marine Climate

PREPARED BY

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 

& Oak Ridge National Laboratory

September 2010

September 2010 • PNNL-19517, Rev. 1

MARINE CLIMATE

VOLUME 11. BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

VOLUME 11.

Builders Challenge Guide to 

40% Whole-House Energy 

Savings in the Marine Climate

PREPARED BY

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Michael C. Baechler

Theresa Gilbride, Marye Hefty, Pam Cole, and Jennifer Williamson

and 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Pat M. Love

September 2010

Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy

under Contract DE-AC05-76RLO 1830

PNNL-19517, Rev. 1

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the 

United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency 

thereof, nor Battelle Memorial Institute, nor any of their employees, makes any 

warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the 

accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or 

process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned 

rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by 

trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute 

or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States 

Government or any agency thereof, or Battelle Memorial Institute. The views and 

opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of 

the United States Government or any agency thereof.
Preface

This best practices guide is the eleventh in a series of guides for builders 

produced by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Building America 

Program. This guide book is a resource to help builders design and 

construct homes that are among the most energy-efficient available, 

while addressing issues such as building durability, indoor air 

quality, and occupant health, safety, and comfort. With the measures 

described in this guide, builders in the marine climate can build 

homes that have whole-house energy savings of 40% over the Building 

America benchmark with no added overall costs for consumers. 

The best practices described in this document are based on the 

results of research and demonstration projects conducted by Building 

America’s research teams. Building America brings together the 

nation’s leading building scientists with over 300 production builders 

to develop, test, and apply innovative, energy-efficient construction 

practices. Building America builders have found they can build homes 

that meet these aggressive energy-efficiency goals at no net increased 

costs to the homeowners. To recognize builders who are producing 

the most efficient, sustainable, and comfortable homes on the market, 

DOE created the Builders Challenge. Homes that qualify for the 

Builders Challenge must achieve a 70 or lower on the EnergySmart 

Home Scale (E-Scale), which is described in this document. 

This document represents a step up from our first marine best practices 

document (Volume 5. Builders and Buyers Handbook for Improving 

New Home Efficiency, Comfort, and Durability in the Marine Climate), 

which aimed at achieving energy-efficiency savings of 15% above the 

benchmark. Building America has continued to develop systematic 

building strategies that meet more challenging efficiency goals over time. 

Currently, Building America homes achieve energy savings of 40% 

greater than the Building America benchmark home (a home built 

to mid-1990s building practices roughly equivalent to the 1993 

Model Energy Code). Note, since 1993, the national model energy 

codes have evolved and become more stringent while achieving 

greater energy efficiency than previously published codes. The 

national energy codes are revised on a 3-year cycle. The most recent 

versions are the 2009 International Energy Conservation Code 

(IECC) and the 2009 International Residential Code (IRC). The 

recommendations in this document meet or exceed the requirements 

of the 2009 IECC and 2009 IRC. 

Building America welcomes reader feedback on all volumes of the 

Best Practices Series. Please submit your comments via e-mail to 

George James (George.James@ee.doe.gov)

You can learn more about Building 

America and download additional copies 

of this document, other best practices, 

research reports, and case studies at 

www.buildingamerica.gov

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i Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Acknowledgments

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Building America Program 

comprises public-private partnerships that conduct systems research 

to improve overall housing performance, increase housing durability 

and comfort, reduce energy use, and increase energy security for 

America’s homeowners. Program activities focus on finding solutions 

for both new and existing homes, as well as integrating clean onsite 

energy systems that will allow the homebuilding industry to provide 

homes that produce more energy than they use. In addition to 

the DOE management and staff, the Building America Program 

includes several consortia, four national laboratories, and hundreds 

of builders, research organizations, manufacturers, and service 

providers. Building America works closely with the U.S. Department 

of Housing and Urban Development’s Partnership for Advancing 

Technology in Housing (PATH) program, co-manages the ENERGY 

STAR Program along with the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, and works with other federal agencies to coordinate research 

findings and disseminate information. These partners make the 

program a successful source of knowledge and innovation for 

industry practitioners and government policy makers. Together, 

these cooperating agencies have provided reviews and shared 

insightful comments, as well as making the authors aware of their 

technical libraries.

The U.S. DOE Building America Program funded the development 

of this series of handbooks. DOE also funded the Building America 

consortia and national laboratories to conduct the research that 

forms the basis for these best practices. The consortia listed to the 

right were Building America’s research teams through FY2010. The 

consortia have taken on the hard work of applied research, field 

testing, training builders, and transforming results into building 

practices. Numerous drawings, descriptions, photos, and case studies 

originated with these research partners. 

Hundreds of builders across the country have chosen to work with 

Building America and its partners on research projects to further 

our understanding of building science. These builders deserve 

thankful recognition for contributing to the success of the Building 

America Program and the Best Practices Series. Four builders from 

the marine climate are showcased in case studies in this document: 

New Tradition Homes of Vancouver, Washington; Quadrant 

Homes of Bellevue, Washington; Schneider Homes, Inc. of Burien, 

Washington; and Tom Walsh & Co. of Portland, Oregon. Examples 

from these and other marine climate builders are used throughout 

the document to illustrate construction best practices. 

2010 Building America 

Research Teams

These Building America research teams partner 

with all segments of the building industry to 

conduct research and demonstration projects 

that develop, analyze, and test strategies 

and technologies for improving building 

performance and energy efficiency. Building 

America teams who participated in the 

preparation of this document included

Building Industry Research Alliance 

www.bira.ws led by ConSol

Building Science Consortium 

led by Building Science Corporation 

www.buildingscienceconsulting.com

Consortium for Advanced 

Residential Buildings (CARB) 

www.carb-swa.com/index.html led by 

Steven Winter Associates, Inc. (SWA)

Building America Industrialized 

Housing Partnership (BAIHP) 

www.baihp.org led by the Florida Solar 

Energy Center of the University of 

Central Florida

Integrated Building and 

Construction Solutions (IBACOS) 

www.ibacos.com

National Association of Home 

Builders Research Center (NAHBRC) 

www.nahbrc.com

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010 ii

ii

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Several national laboratories participated in this project. Pacific 

Northwest National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

led the writing and production of this document. The National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory made its library of Building America 

documents available to the authors, reviewed this guide, and posted 

it to the Web. Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

reviewed the document as well.

The authors and DOE wish to thank the many contributors who 

have made this project a success. We would especially like to thank 

graphic artist Christina Van Vleck who designed this document and 

prepared many of its illustrations.

iii Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Contents

Chapter 1. Welcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1

Chapter 2. The Business Case for Building High-Performance Homes . . . 2.1

Builders and Building America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1

The Business Case for Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

Consumer Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3

Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4

Cost Neutral Energy Savings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4

Codes as Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8

Chapter 3. Business Management Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

Plans and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2

Scopes of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3

Job-Ready and Job-Complete Checklists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4

Integrated Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5

Traditional Design Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6

Integrated Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6

Value Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9

Managing Innovation with Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10

Chapter 4. Selling Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

Branding and Labeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

Training Sales Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3

Marketing Energy Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5

Reach Out to the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6

Chapter 5. The Marine Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

Climate Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2

Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2

High Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 

Seismic Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5

Forest Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6

Considering Solar Gain in Siting & Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7

Lot Orientation and Home Siting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7

Overhangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9

Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9

Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10

Chapter 6. Building Science and the Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1

The Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1

Building Science Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1

Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3

Vapor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4

Air Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6

Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7

Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Chapter 7. The Overall Building Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

Advanced Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4

Air Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8

The Thermal Bypass Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9

Chapter 8. Building Envelope Sub-Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1

Foundation Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1

Controlling Liquid Water in Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1

Controlling Water Vapor in Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3

Controlling Air Infiltration in Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6

Controlling Heat Flow in Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7

Basement Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9

Controlling Other Foundation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.10

Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.12

Controlling Liquid Water in Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.12

Controlling Water Vapor in Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.15

Controlling Air Infiltration in Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.18

Controlling Heat Flow in Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.20

Roof Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.21

Controlling Liquid Water in Roof Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.21

Controlling Water Vapor in Roof Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.21

Controlling Air Flow in Roof/Attic Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.21

Controlling Heat Flow in Roof Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.22

Window and Door Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.24

Chapter 9. Mechanical, Plumbing and Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

Heating and Cooling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2

Ducts and Air Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5

Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10

Plumbing and Water Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.14

Hot Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.15

Hot Water Circulation Pumps and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.15

Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.16

High-Performance Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.19

Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.21

EnergyGuide Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.21

ENERGY STAR Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.22

Comissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.22

Occupant Health and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.25

Chapter 10. Durability and Energy Efficiency Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

Foundation Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

Controlling Moisture in All Foundation Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1

Controlling Moisture in Crawlspace and Basement Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2

Controlling Air Infiltration in All Foundation Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2

Controlling Heat Flow in Slab Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2

Controlling Heat Flow in Crawlspace Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

Controlling Heat Flow in Basement Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

Other Foundation Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3

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Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4

Controlling Liquid Water in Wall Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4

Controlling Water Vapor in Wall Assemblies (Marine Climate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5

Controlling Air Infiltration in Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5

Controlling Heat Flow in Wall Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6

Roof Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6

Controlling Liquid Water in Roof Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6

Controlling Water Vapor in Roof Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6

Controlling Air Flow in Roof Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6

Controlling Heat Flow in Roof Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7

Whole-House Air Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7

Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7

Heating and Cooling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7

Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8

Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9

Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9

Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10

Occupant Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11

Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11

Chapter 11. Construction Site Scheduling, Training, and Inspecting . . 11.1

Construction and Contract Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1

Train Installers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3

HotSpot Inspections and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4

Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5

Inspections and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6

Walkthroughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6

Pre-Dry Wall Inspection and Duct Pressure Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7

Pre-Occupancy Inspection and Whole-House Pressure Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7

Chapter 12. Field Guides for Installers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1

Advanced Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3

Foundation System, Insulation, Moisture and Air Leakage Control . . . . . . 12.7

Masonry Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.11

Housewrap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.13

Window Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.15

Wall-to-Roof Flashing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.17

Interior Air Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.19

Exterior Air Sealing with Insulating Sheathing Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.23

Plumbing Air Sealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.25

Electrical Air Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.27

Installing Fiberglass Batt Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.29

Installing Windows in Walls with External Rigid Foam Insulation. . . . . . . 12.31

Duct Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.35

Air Handler and Duct Sealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.39

Radiant Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.41

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010 vi

vi

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CS.1

New Tradition Homes, Vancouver WA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Quantum, Bellevue WA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Schneider Homes, Burien WA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Tom Walsh & Co., Portland OR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Appendices

I. Homebuyer’s Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1.1

II. Counties in the Marine Climate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2.1

III. DOE Building Energy Code Resource Center Code Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3.1

IV. Energy & Housing Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4.1

V. Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A5.1

vii Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
“It is remarkable what you can 

accomplish when you simply ask 

the question: ‘Is there anything that 

we can do better?’”

Ben Walsh, construction manager of the Tom Walsh & Co. New Columbia Project 

and current owner of Green One Construction Services

Constructing energy-efficient, durable, and comfortable homes 

makes economic sense—for the builder, the consumer, the real estate 

professional, and the environment. In a time of significant challenges 

for the real estate community, Building America builders have 

made an important discovery—their homes are selling while their 

competitors’ homes are not. They are making some other exciting 

discoveries as well. They are having fewer callbacks and complaints. 

Instead, buyers are calling to thank them for lower utility bills. 

Builders of all sizes are discovering the benefits of teaming with 

Building America. In fact, nine of the nation’s ten largest builders in 

2009 were Building America partners. 

Discover what hundreds of builders across the country have already 

found out—it isn’t difficult to build energy-efficient homes that 

are more healthy, durable, and comfortable to live in, while cutting 

energy bills nearly in half. Building America will help show you how. 

This guide can help you apply Building America research to your 

own projects to achieve energy savings of 40% over the Building 

America benchmark (a home built to the 1993 Model Energy Code). 

Using these whole-house building principles, your homes will meet 

and exceed the new 2009 International Energy Conservation Code 

(2009 IECC) and the 2009 International Residential Code (2009 

IRC). Whether you’re a multi-state builder with managers, sales 

Chapter 1.

Welcome

Chapter 1. Welcome 

Argument for Energy-Efficient Construction

Chapter 2. The Business Case 

Chapter 3. Business Management 

Chapter 4. Selling Performance 

Marine Climate Building Science Basics

Chapter 5. The Marine Climate 

Chapter 6. Building Science Basics 

Recommendations

Chapter 7. Building Envelope 

Chapter 8. Sub-Assemblies 

Chapter 9. Mechanical/Plumbing/ 

Electrical 

Chapter 10. Checklist 

Installation Guidance 

Chapter 11. Construction Site 

Scheduling, Training, 

and Inspecting 

Chapter 12. Field Guides for Installers 

Case Studies: 

• New Tradition Homes, Vancouver WA

• Quandrant, Bellevue WA

• Schneider Homes, Burien WA

• Tom Walsh & Co, Portland OR

Appendices:

I. Homebuyer’s Checklist

II. Counties in the Marine Climate

III. DOE Code Notes

IV. Glossary

V. Acronyms

1.1

1.1

CHAPTER 1. WELCOME

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The 2009 IECC and 2009 IRC mandate a 

significant increase in energy efficiency 

in new home construction. Changes in 

the 2009 IECC and 2009 IRC represent 

an approximate 15% improvement in 

energy efficiency over the 2006 IECC. 

This guide will help builders meet and 

exceed these new requirements.

Building America welcomes 

reader feedback on all volumes 

of the Best Practices Series.

Please submit your comments via 

e-mail to: George James 

(George.James@ee.doe.gov). 

(top) Reworking their processes with 

changes like improving air sealing and 

moving ducts into conditioned space 

were enough to help Portland builder Ben 

Walsh qualify 20 homes for DOE’s Builders 

Challenge and the federal tax credit.

(bottom) Building America helped 

Schneider Homes of Burien, Washington, 

achieve energy savings of 50% and qualify 

28 homes for the federal tax credit.

staff, designers, site superintendents, and installers on your staff, 

or a small builder wearing many of these hats yourself, this guide 

can help you understand and apply the latest building science to 

differentiate yourself in a struggling new-construction market and 

to meet the new tougher energy codes.

Break open this guide and you’ll find the following:

Chapters 2 through 4 provide the data to make the case to upper 

management, yourself, and your shareholders for the value of energyefficient construction, including research on consumer preferences, 

competitive advantage, and incentives. Here you’ll also find business 

management tools, sales training tips, and marketing strategies. 

Chapters 5 and 6 explain the whole-house approach to building 

science and special considerations for building in the marine climate. 

Chapters 7 through 10 provide energy-efficiency construction 

recommendations to architects and engineers based on Building 

America research, with guidance on best practices for meeting 

and exceeding code in regard to moisture management, insulation, 

and air sealing of home foundations, walls, and roofs. Guidance 

is also provided on windows, and HVAC, plumbing, and electrical 

systems. Chapter 10 provides a useful checklist of all of these 

recommendations. 

Chapters 11 and 12 cover important site documentation for the 

site supervisor and how-to field guides on specific energy-efficiency 

measures for installers.

Throughout these chapters, real-life examples are highlighted from 

exceptional builders in the marine climate. Case studies at the back 

of the report tell how four builders achieved significant energy 

savings using Building America practices. 

Finally, appendices provide a homebuyers’ checklist, counties in the 

marine climate, a DOE–sponsored resource for meeting codes, a 

glossary, and acronym list.

For More Information

You can learn more about Building America and download additional 

copies of this document, other best practices, case studies, and research 

reports at www.buildingamerica.gov.

1.2

CHAPTER 1. WELCOME

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The number one reason identified by builders for building energyefficient homes is to differentiate themselves from their competition 

(NAHBRC 2007). Builders who use Building America principles are 

among the most successful in the United States today.

Builders and Building America

Building America has worked with production builders since 1995 

to improve the energy efficiency, durability, comfort, environmental 

performance, and quality of new homes. Building America and 

its partners have conducted building science field research with 

builders throughout the country to test techniques, materials, and 

processes in real-world situations. As of August 2010, the program 

has contributed directly to the energy-efficient construction of more 

than 42,200 homes, and builders and vendors that have worked with 

Building America have influenced over a million new homes. 

Nine of the nation’s ten largest builders are Building America 

partners. Twenty-three of Building America’s 350+ builder partners 

made Builder Magazine’s Builder 100 list of the top 100 builders of 

2009 (based on home sale closings). While new home starts in 2009 

dropped to their lowest on record since 1959, twelve of Building 

America’s partners moved up in the Builder 100 rankings. 

Qualifying for programs such as DOE’s Builders Challenge and 

ENERGY STAR provides an easy way to show consumers that 

your company’s homes are a cut above the competition.

Chapter 2.

The Business Case 

for Building HighPerformance Homes

“Strong, sustainable building 

practices can help builders 

differentiate themselves in a 

competitive marketplace, while 

still keeping focused on the 

bottom line.” 

Jeff Jacobs, then of Centex Homes, 

currently President of Building Advisory, LLC

CHAPTER TOPICS

2.1 Builders and Building America

2.2 The Business Case for 

Energy Efficiency

R

2.1

2.1

CHAPTER 2. THE BUSINESS CASE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Builders Challenge

The Builders Challenge label prominently features the E-Scale, which shows a 

Home Energy Rating System (HERS) score. A house built to the 2006 IECC would 

score 100; a home that uses no more energy than it can produce with onsite 

generation such as solar panels would have a HERS score of 0. Builders Challenge 

homes must score 70 or lower.

The Business Case for Energy Efficiency

The world of new home construction is not the same place it was 

five years ago. The pace of new construction is down in most 

markets, and the public’s awareness of energy efficiency and green 

building is up. Although the downturn has affected all builders, in 

markets around the country, builders who emphasize energy-efficient 

construction are outselling their competition. 

The business case for high-performance, energy-efficient 

construction is straightforward and is based on the following points:

1. Consumers prefer energy-efficient homes.

2. Builders can use energy efficiency and other high-performance 

features to gain competitive advantage. Consumer preference and 

competitive advantage lead to more and faster sales.

3. Building America homes can meet energy-efficiency goals at no 

net increased costs to homeowners when added costs are balanced 

with utility savings.

4. New state and federal building codes are now a driving force in 

energy-efficient construction.

Meets The Builders Challenge

Recognizing the best energy performance, quality, comfort, health, and safety in the market.

Conditioned floor area (sq. ft.): 3,312

SM

Estimated average 

monthly energy bill:

$104

Estimated annual energy usage:

Electric (kWh) 7728

Natural gas (Therms) 237

123 Main Street, Gainesville, FL 32601

Rated by Home Performance, Inc.

Rating conducted June 8, 2008

www.buildingamerica.gov/challenge

64

Your Home!

ADBuilder ADBuilder

#00000000000

Maximized

Energy-Efficient

Home

R

Building America builders ranked highest 

in 20 of the 25 new home markets 

surveyed in J.D. Power’s 2009 survey of 

homebuyer satisfaction. These builders 

include some of the best known names 

in the business: Pulte and its Del Webb 

brand, Centex, David Weekley Homes, 

Shea Homes, Standard Pacific Homes, 

Pardee Homes, and K. Hovnanian. These 

builders bundle energy efficiency with 

other attributes valued by their customers, 

such as affordability, comfort, and quality 

construction. Pulte ranked highest in new 

home quality in 12 of the 25 U.S. home 

markets surveyed by J.D. Powers in 2009.

Learn more about Building America at 

www.buildingamerica.gov.

“We were doing a lot of things 

wrong—not on purpose, we 

simply didn’t know any better. 

Building America taught us how 

to build the right way. Artistic now 

offers an energy use and comfort 

guarantee on every home it sells.” 

Jerry Wade, President of Artistic Homes, 

Albuquerque, New Mexico

2.2

CHAPTER 2. THE BUSINESS CASE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Consumer Preferences

McGraw Hill Construction (2009) reports that “green building has 

grown in spite of the market downturn. Green seems to be one area of 

construction insulated by the downturn, and we expect green building 

will continue to grow over the next five years despite negative market 

conditions to be a $96–$140 billion market.” In 2005, the size of the 

green homebuilding market was $3 billion and the green remodeling 

market was about $120 billion. Most of the features listed by McGraw 

Hill in defining a green building involved energy efficiency. The report 

points out that market demand for green construction is up and green 

construction can help differentiate builders and stabilize their business 

in a struggling market. McGraw Hill found word-of-mouth referrals 

are the most likely way that consumers learn about green home 

builders (McGraw Hill Construction 2009).

Surveys show that consumers want energy efficiency and they are 

willing to pay for it:

•	 87% said a greener, more-energy-efficient home is a priority in a 

Better Homes and Gardens Magazine survey (Patterson 2010).

•	 94% of builders report that their buyers want more energy-efficient 

new homes; 55% said buyers specifically want EnergyStar®-rated 

homes (NAHB 2009). 

•	 Most builders (69%) indicated that some of their buyers are willing 

to pay extra for green amenities; 9% indicated that most were. 25% 

of builders said buyers want homes with more recycled materials and 

less materials overall (NAHB 2009). 

•	 91% preferred an energy-efficient home with lower utility bills to 

a cheaper home (sales price 2% to 3% lower) without the energyefficient features (Rice 2009). 

•	 Homebuyers are willing to pay on average $6,000 more for their new 

home to save $1,000 annually on energy costs (Rice 2009).

•	 86% of Americans would choose one home over another based on 

its energy efficiency. Yet 78% of the homeowners polled said no one 

talked to them about energy efficiency during the buying process 

(National Builder News, April 9, 2007).

•	 Energy improvements topped the list of how homeowners would 

spend an extra $5,000 on their new homes. (NAHBRC 2007).

•	 90% of new homebuyers are willing to spend more for energy 

efficiency—up to $17,000 more (McGraw Hill 2007).

•	 84% listed energy efficiency as the most important factor in 

their appliance purchases (Maynard 2009).

Building America Partners

on Builder Magazine 

Top 100 List 2009 

Ranking Building America Partner

1 DR Horton

2 Pulte

3 Lennar

5 KB Home

6 Centex

7 K. Hovnanian

8 Habitat for Humanity Int’l

9 The Ryland Group

10 Beazer Homes USA

11 Meritage Homes Corp

12 Standard Pacific Corp

13 Taylor Morrison Homes 

17 David Weekley Homes

18 Weyerhaeuser Real Estate Co

20 Shea Homes

29 William Lyon Homes

32 WCI Communities

44 Mattamy U.S. Group 

63 John Wieland Homes 

and Neighborhoods

64 ICI Homes

67 Heartland Homes

71 Castle & Cooke

90 Ideal Homes

Nine of the nation’s ten largest builders are 

Building America partners. Twenty-two of 

Building America’s 350+ builder partners 

made Builder Magazine’s Builder 100 list 

of the top 100 builders of 2009 (based on 

home sale closings) in a very difficult year 

for U.S. home builders. According to Builder 

Magazine, single-family home starts fell to 

444,000, dropping below one million units 

for only the second time since 1945. New 

single-family home sales represented fewer 

than 8% of all homes sold, about half of their 

historical portion. New homes competed 

with almost 3.3 million existing homes on 

the market at the end of 2009, many of them 

foreclosures (as reported by John Caulfield in 

the May 4, 2010, issue). Despite the difficulties 

Building America partners made a strong 

showing with 9 in the top 10, up from 8 in 

2008, and 23 in the top 100, up from 19 last 

year. Twelve Building America partners moved 

up in the ranks, including four builders who 

didn’t make the cut last year. 

2.3

2.3

CHAPTER 2. THE BUSINESS CASE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Competitive Advantage

Competitive advantage is critical, especially in a down market when 

buyers are few and their choices abound for new and existing homes. 

Building America builder Grupe Homes of Stockton, California, 

found that it could sell homes twice as fast as its competitors in a 

depressed Sacramento, California, housing market, when it focused 

on energy-efficient construction and integrated photovoltaic systems. 

Grupe was the first California builder to certify a home to Builders 

Challenge; it received a HERS rating of 47.

In addition, Grupe’s managers concluded that they could anticipate 

substantial financing savings by selling out their project sooner than they 

had projected. In a project of 144 houses, these savings would amount 

to a windfall of $14 million. That profit is net after taking out $2.6 

million of added expenses for equipment and advertising for the energy 

efficiency, solar, and green features of the homes (Daikin et al. 2008).

One builder in Seattle found a commitment to energy efficiency helped 

secure funding in a down market. When established builder Martha Rose 

Construction finally secured funding for its newest project, Fish Singer 

Place, an energy-efficient four-house project in north Seattle, in September 

2009, the loan officer told her that being a green builder had “everything 

to do with” why the bank gave her the money. Rose said educating 

bankers on the homes’ sustainable features made the difference. “The 

strongest part of the market is hard-core green housing, so bankers were 

interested in Fish Singer Place’s green credibility,” said Rose (as quoted in 

the Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce January 4, 2010).

Cost Neutral Energy Savings

Building America case studies prove that energy-efficient 

construction does not have to cost more for homebuyers. Tradeoffs 

in building material choices, streamlining of processes and tax 

incentives and rebates can minimize cost increases for builders.

Case Studies Prove Homebuyers Profit

In 2007 and 2008, Building America researchers worked with four 

builders in the marine climate to build more than 360 homes that 

met or exceeded 40% energy savings. In each of those projects, 

homeowners’ utility bill savings were high enough to yield a net 

profit each year, after subtracting increased mortgage costs. All 

of the builders kept first costs at less than $4,000 per home while 

implementing energy-efficiency features. Table 2.1 shows the energy 

savings calculated for each builder’s home, the incremental increase 

in the annual mortgage to cover the costs of including the energy-

“Energy-efficiency is now a primary 

concern of housing consumers....

Survey and focus group research 

makes it ‘loud and clear’ that 

buyers are willing to spend a 

little bit more to improve energy 

efficiency because this is an issue 

that ‘hits the pocketbook’.”

Gopal Ahluwalia, National Association of 

Home Builders (NAHB) vice president of 

research, National Builder News April 16, 2007

How homeowners would 

spend an extra $5,000 

on their new homes 

(Figure source: NAHBRC) 

 26% would pay for energy improvements

 22% for new countertops 

 23% for other

 17% for upgraded flooring

 6% for upgraded appliances

 5% for upgraded bathroom features

 1% for new siding

“I love the construction; I love that 

they’re very well put-together. 

When you compare the energy 

savings across time, there was no 

question where to buy.” 

Owner of a home built by Building America 

builder Premier Homes, Roseville, California. 

as quoted in a Rand Corporation report, 2006.

2.4

CHAPTER 2. THE BUSINESS CASE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
efficiency features versus the cost of a mortgage for a typical house, and the net cash flow to the homebuyer. In 

every case the homebuyer came out ahead, with net gains ranging from $700 to $830 per year. Table 2.2 details one 

builder’s choices in energy-efficient features. With some measures, the energy-efficient choice was less expensive 

than standard practice. These examples show some homebuyers can realize a better return on investment from 

energy efficiency improvements than investing in stocks and bonds.

Table 2.1. Marine Climate Case Study Costs and Savings.

Every Building America Project yielded net annual gains for homeowners after deducting increased mortgage costs from 

annual utility bill savings.

Builder Cost Increase for 

Energy Improvements

Added Annual Mortgage 

Cost for Energy Efficiency

Annual Utility Bill 

Savings vs. Benchmark

Net Annual 

Cash Flow

New Tradition Homes $3,635 ($290.24) $990.61 $700.37

Quadrant Homes $2,000 ($159.67) $951.02 $791.35

Schneider Family Homes $3,921 ($313.08) $1,143.68 $830.60

Tom Walsh & Co. $2,398 ($191.45) $943.60 $752.15

Utility bill savings relative to the Building America benchmark were calculated by BIRA using BEopt 0.8.6 (a software developed 

by NREL for identifying optimal building design). Savings are based on current utility rates in each community, including electric 

and natural gas rates. Incremental annual mortgage costs are derived from first cost estimates from the builders. A 10% markup 

is assumed and the cost is converted into an annuity assuming a 7% loan over 30 years. Inflation is not considered. The Building 

America benchmark is a home built to the 1993 Model Energy Code.

Table 2.2. How Much Does it Cost to Reach 40% Energy Savings? 

One Example in the Marine Climate

The example shown here is for a typical 2-story, 1880-ft2 home built by Tom Walsh & Co. in the New Columbia development in Portland, 

Oregon. The costs in the table below were provided by the builder. In this case, moving the ducts into conditioned space saved the builder 

money. Although a small amount of additional materials was needed for the dropped soffit for the ducts, the framer did not charge 

additional labor and Tom Walsh & Co. saved money because they were able to use 35% less ductwork. Some builders have also seen 

significant savings by reducing the HVAC equipment size. When the building envelope is tighter, builders can rely on the Air Condtioning 

Contractors of America’s (ACCA) Manual J for correct sizing of the equipment instead of oversizing width “rule-of-thumb” measurements. 

Note that this example does not reflect any benefit to the builder from tax rebates or energy-efficiency program incentives.

Energy-Efficiency Feature Added Cost, per Home, Over 

Builder’s Conventional Practice

Upgrade to 94% AFUE furnace $880

Improved duct sealing, envelope sealing and duct and whole-house leakage testing $880

Increase to R-49 blown cellulose attic insulation $352

Upgrade to ENERGY STAR appliances $264

Upgrade to 62% EF water heater $165

Upgrade to 100% CFL lighting $132

Move ducts into conditioned space 

(saved money over standard practices because used 35% less ducting)

-$275

Total $2,398

Annual cost (when incorporated into a 30-yr loan at 7% interest) $191.45

Annual Utility Bill Savings $943.60

Net Annual Cash Flow to Homeowner $752.15

Conclusion: These energy-efficiency improvements are actually money makers for the owner of this home.

Costs were provided by the builder, Tom Walsh & Co.

AFUE = annual fuel utilization efficiency, CFL = compact fluorescent lamp, EF=energy factor

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Federal, State, and Local Incentives and Tax Credits

Incentives can help offset costs as builders transition to more energyefficient construction materials. A wide range of incentives and tax 

credit opportunities are available at the federal, state, and local level. 

In addition to financial incentives for energy-efficient homes, some 

local governments offer streamlined permitting processes for green 

and energy-efficient projects. 

For information on what is available to you, visit the Database 

of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE), at 

www.dsireusa.org. DSIRE is a comprehensive source of information 

on state, local, utility, and federal incentives, tax credits, and policies 

that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. Established 

in 1995 and funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, DSIRE is 

an ongoing project of the North Carolina Solar Center and the 

Interstate Renewable Energy Council.

Here is a list of some of the larger federal, state, and regional 

incentive programs available to marine climate builders at the time 

of publication.

NORTHWEST ENERGY STAR INCENTIVES - To set a higher bar 

than their already stringent state building codes, Washington and 

Oregon established the Northwest ENERGY STAR requirements, 

which are stricter than the national ENERGY STAR requirements. 

www.northwestenergystar.com/partner-resources/incentives/.

OREGON ENERGY TRUST INCENTIVES - Builders who build 

within participating utility territories in Oregon and southwest 

Washington can sign up as “trade allies” to receive incentives for 

building energy-efficient homes. www.energytrust.org

BUILT GREEN OF WASHINGTON STATE - Built Green is a 

non-profit, residential building program of the Master Builders 

Association of King and Snohomish Counties, that provides 

funding for remodeling, single-family, town home, and community 

development projects to help offset the cost of certifying and 

designing innovative green projects. Incentives of $2,500 to $15,000 

are competitively awarded. www.builtgreen.net/incentive.html

EARTH ADVANTAGE - Earth Advantage, Inc. is a utility-based 

energy conservation program of Portland General Electric. It does 

not offer independent incentives to builders; however, it does certify 

homes for ENERGY STAR and LEED for Homes programs, as well 

as for its own residential, commercial, communities, and remodeling 

programs. www.earthadvantage.org

Seattle builder Martha Rose has made a 

name for herself as a green builder with 

projects like Homestead, shown here, a 

Building America project completed in 2007.

“We are in a city and a region 

that pays a lot of attention to 

environmental issues and health 

issues; so, for us it was huge to 

be able to walk buyers through 

the processes we used to ensure 

that we built the healthiest, most 

energy-efficient homes at the 

dollar point we achieved.”

Chris Bonner, real estate broker of homes 

at the New Columbia development in 

Portland, Oregon, built by Tom Walsh & 

Company, a Building America builder.

“We are selling at a pace that is 

double that of our competition. 

If just 20% of this increased sales 

rate is due to the solar and green 

features, then the Grupe Green 

program has paid for itself.” 

Mark Fischer, senior vice president at 

Grupe, a Stockton, California-based 

production builder

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION - The California 

Energy Commission provides market support to existing, new, and 

emerging renewable technologies; incentives for small wind and fuel 

cell electricity systems; and incentives for solar electricity systems in 

new home construction (CEC 2009). www.energy.ca.gov/commission

PACIFIC GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY (PG&E) IN 

CALIFORNIA - Builders of single-family homes within PG&E’s 

service area can apply for financial incentives for maximizing the 

energy efficiency of their new homes. http://pge.com/mybusiness/

energysavingsrebates/incentivesbyindustry/newconstruction/

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON (SCE) - Builders of singlefamily homes within the SCE service area can apply for financial 

incentives for maximizing the energy efficiency of their new homes. 

www.sce.com/b-rs/rebates-savings

For More Information on the Business Side of Building 

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, International Code Council (ICC), 

Washington, DC. . www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

Builders Magazine. 2009. “Builder 100.” www.builderonline.com

Caufield, John. 2010. “Hard Landing, The housing market may have finally hit bottom in 

2009,” Builder Online, posted May 4, 2010, www.builderonline.com/sales/hard-landing.aspx

Dakin, Willard, David Springer, and Bill Kelly. 2008. “Case Study: The Effectiveness of Zero 

Energy Home Strategies in the Marketplace.” In Proceedings of the 2008 ACEEE Summer 

Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 

Washington D.C.

J.D. Power and Associates. 2009. “2009 New-Home Builder Customer Satisfaction Study.” 

www.jdpower.com/homes/articles/2009-Homebuilder-Customer-Satisfaction-Study

Maynard, Nigel F. 2009. “New Survey Finds Energy, not Water, Drives Appliance Purchases.” 

Builder Magazine, March 27, 2009. www.builderonline.com/appliances/survey-finds-energydrives-appliance-purchases.aspx

McGraw Hill Construction. 2009. 2009 Green Outlook: Trends Driving Change. 

http://construction.com/market_research/reports/GreenOutlook.asp.

Nation’s Building News. 4/9/07. “Builders Need to Make Energy Efficiency a Selling Point.” 

Energy Pulse Survey by Shelton Group, reported in Nation’s Building News Online. 

National Association of Home Builders. www.nbnnews.com/NBN/issues/2007-04-09/

Front+Page/index.html

Nation’s Building News. 4/16/07. “In a Down Housing Market, Green Demand Exceeds 

Supply.” Nation’s Building News Online. National Association of Home Builders. 

www.nbnnews.com/NBN/issues/2007-04-16/Front+Page/index.html

National Association of Home Builders (NAHB). 2009. “Baby Boomers Want Convenience 

and Energy Efficiency in New Homes According to New Survey,” news release 9/15/2009 

www.nahb.org/news_details.aspx?sectionID=1196&newsID=9696/

NAHBRC. 2007. Building America Challenge Survey of Builders and Consumers. Proprietary 

survey commissioned by DOE and conducted by the NAHBRC as part of the Annual 

Consumer Practices Survey. National Association of Home Builders Research Center, 

Upper Marlboro, MD.

“Energy efficiency has been a 

selling point with my customers, 

something that sets me apart. 

People appreciate that I’m thinking 

out of the box in a way that makes 

sense to them and saves them 

money in the long run.”

Barrett Burr, builder, 

Olympia, Washington

“With the economy the way it 

is and the number of existing 

houses on the market, the only 

builders in Clark County doing 

new construction and selling are 

builders like New Tradition who 

are building really energyefficient homes.” 

Chris Taylor, installation manager for Area 

Heating and Cooling, the HVAC contractor 

for New Tradition Homes, a Building 

America builder in Vancouver, Washington.

Buyers flocked to Centex’s energy-efficient 

homes at Windemere in San Ramon, California.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Patterson, Jean. 2010. “Buyers seek smarter and smaller homes, survey says,” The Seattle 

Times, Feb. 8, 2010, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/homegarden/2011019068_

cozyhomes09.html

Register Real Estate Advisors. January 25, 2010. “What do homebuyers want in 2010?” 

http://rrea.com/news/what-do-homebuyers-want-in-2010-builders-hope-they-know/

Rice, Alison. 2009. “Consumers Rethink Home-Buying Priorities,” Builder 2009. 

January 22, 2009. www.builderonline.com/housing-trends/consumers-rethink-homebuying-priorities.aspx

Codes as Drivers

New building codes are now a driving force in energy-efficient 

construction. All three marine climate states are, or recently have, 

undertaken building energy code revisions. (See www.energycodes.

gov for more information on code changes.) Below is a brief status 

of the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and each 

state’s energy code (as of May 2010). 

The 2009 International Energy Conservation 

The 2009 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is 

the most recently published national energy code (published 

in December 2008) and is getting a boost in adoption from the 

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009. 

States seeking funding for building programs through the Act must 

show that they have adopted a building energy code (or codes) for 

residential buildings that meets or exceeds the 2009 IECC. (Note 

that provisions of the 2012 IECC are scheduled to be finalized in 

November 2010.)

State Codes

WASHINGTON STATE

The Washington State Energy Code (WSEC) is a state-developed 

code that is equivalent to or more stringent than the 2009 IECC 

for most homes. Washington is on a three-year code review/change 

cycle. The State Building Code Council revised the Washington 

State Energy Code in November 2009 and it became effective on 

July 1, 2010. 

OREGON STATE

The Oregon Residential Specialty Code (ORSC) is a state-developed 

code for 1- and 2-family residential dwellings that is more stringent 

than the 2006 IECC. 

“The interest in sustainable building 

has been overwhelming, and an 

interesting indicator for the new 

construction economy.” 

Adrian Willanger, as quoted in the Seattle 

Daily Journal of Commerce January 4, 2010

“As the home market continues 

to tighten and Americans focus 

on energy efficiency, health, and 

greening their lifestyle, builders 

who are improving their homes 

today will be in a position to enjoy 

greater market success tomorrow.”

Ryan Kerr, of Building America research 

partner ConSol, as reported in Home 

Energy Magazine May/June 2008

New Tradition Homes of Vancouver, 

Washington, partners with Building 

America and local programs like Earth 

Advantage to build and sell energyefficient homes.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
In 2006, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski mandated a 15% increase in 

energy performance for new residential construction by 2015. In response 

to this, the Oregon Building Codes Division (BCD) and the Oregon 

Department of Energy cooperatively submitted an energy code change 

proposal. This proposal was enacted in March 2008 and became effective 

July 1, 2008. To achieve this 15% efficiency improvement, the building 

envelope requirements were upgraded, additional measures were 

added to prescriptive standards, and a structural requirement—that 

builders must include one of nine energy-efficiency options—was added. 

Two of the eligible options builders may choose to include are solar 

photovoltaic and solar water heating systems. Many of the measures 

were drawn from the 2004 Northwest ENERGY STAR specifications. 

CALIFORNIA STATE

California Title 24, Part 6, is a state-developed code that is more 

stringent than the 2009 IECC. California is on a three-year code change 

cycle. The Commission adopted the new 2008 Standards on April 23, 

2008. These standards, known as the California Building Standards 

Code, which is Title 24 of the California Code of Regulations (often 

referred to as Title 24), became effective January 1, 2010.

STATE CODES SUMMARY

The 2009 IECC has one prescriptive package for the marine climate. 

California has three prescriptive compliance approaches (Component 

Packages C, D and E). Component Package D is the basis for the 

performance calculation methods and is the component referenced 

compared to Washington, Oregon, and the 2009 IECC. California 

identifies 16 climate zones; climate zones 1–5 are similar to the 2009 

IECC marine designation. Washington’s prescriptive packages are 

based on two climate zones and Oregon’s “state-specific” prescriptive 

compliance package is based on one climate zone.

“Energy efficiency is something 

that we jumped on right away; 

the company believes it is a huge 

benefit for our customers to 

provide increased comfort and 

economic savings through 

lower energy costs.” 

Johanna Coleman, Schneider Homes 

assistant vice president. Schneider Homes 

built 28 homes near Seattle to the federal 

tax credit level in 2008. All of its homes 

meet the more rigorous requirements of 

the Northwest ENERGY STAR program.

For More Information 

on Codes

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy 

Conservation Code, International Code 

Council (ICC), Washington, DC. 

www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code 

- One and Two-Family Dwellings, International 

Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. 

ww.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

Building Energy Codes Program. U.S. 

Department of Energy Office of Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 

www.energycodes.gov

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Building science, integrated design, and quality management help 

deliver more energy-efficient, durable, and green buildings. Choosing 

the right materials and properly sizing equipment can help manage 

builder risk and increase the value of new homes. For builders who 

want to build high-performance homes and achieve a healthy bottom 

line, sound business systems are a critical part of the picture. 

This chapter introduces the following four practices to aid in 

construction planning and management: 

•	 quality management 

•	 integrated design 

•	 value engineering 

•	 prototype development. 

Each of these four practices has value on its own, but they work best 

when applied as part of an overall management system suited to an 

individual business. For businesses to prosper, return on investment 

must also be an important criterion.

Quality Management 

Three terms are often used when describing quality programs: 

quality management, quality assurance, and quality control. These 

terms are described below, based on the definitions provided by the 

American Society for Quality (www.asq.org).

•	 QUALITY MANAGEMENT: a process for achieving maximum 

customer satisfaction at the lowest overall cost to the organization 

while continuing to improve the building process. A quality 

management system documents the structure, responsibilities, and 

Chapter 3.

Business 

Management Tools

Builders learn quality management 

concepts at a Building America workshop, 

conducted by Building America research 

team lead IBACOS.

“We have seen a direct impact 

on our quality through the 

Building America Program. We 

are able to build a better product 

because of our consistent 

approach [in implementing 

Building America practices].” 

Josh Robinson, Vice President of 

Operations for Pulte, North Inland 

Empire Division of California

CHAPTER TOPICS

3.1 Quality Management

3.5 Integrated Design

3.10 Value Engineering

3.11 Managing Innovation 

with Prototypes

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
procedures required to achieve your company’s goals. A related 

term—total quality management—refers to all members of an 

organization participating in improving processes, products, 

services, and the culture in which they work.

•	 QUALITY ASSURANCE: the planned and systematic activities 

that provide confidence that a product fulfills requirements for 

quality. These activities may include tests, such as blower door 

tests, inspections, checklists, and systematic training. 

•	 QUALITY CONTROL: the operational activities used to fulfill 

requirements for quality. These activities include evaluations, such 

as statistical studies to evaluate product variation, expected failure 

rates, and corrective actions. 

Many companies formalize their quality management processes 

and practices. Other companies simply incorporate tools into their 

business practices that help to improve quality. Some companies 

choose to become certified under third-party quality assurance 

programs. The important point is to plan for quality.

Building America’s IBACOS research team has developed 

comprehensive quality management guidelines for builders. The 

recommendations encompass all facets of the builder’s organization 

including leadership, strategic planning, customer satisfaction, 

performance management, jobsite responsibilities, safety, workforce 

development, quality construction processes, and trade contractor 

and supplier partnerships. The recommendations can be found in 

Appendix D of the report, Achieving 30% Whole-House Energy 

Savings Level in Marine Climates, prepared by Building America’s 

research teams (Dec. 2006) and available at http://apps1.eere.energy.

gov/ buildings/publications/pdfs/ building_america/39743.pdf.

The quality management “wheel” on the next page shows how 

quality management processes could work for a builder. The key 

concept is that information flows both to and from each part of the 

company including subcontractors. The figure also shows where 

quality assurance tools can be used during the construction process.

Plans and Specifications

Plans and specifications are essential quality management tools 

for conveying consistent information. Plans will show elevations, 

floor plans, and details needed to confirm that projects meet code 

minimums. Plans and specifications should clearly identify all details 

related to energy efficiency, such as duct layout, advanced framing 

techniques, moisture management techniques, and air sealing details.

Factors in New Tradition Home’s quality 

management program include an inhouse building science team, a corporate 

commitment to energy efficiency, ongoing 

training of staff, participation in federal 

and regional energy-efficiency programs, a 

dedicated air sealing contractor, third-party 

performance testing, in-house marketing 

research, and an ongoing, interactive 

relationship with an HVAC contractor 

interested in high quality. 

“The beauty of Quadrant Homes 

is their consistency. When I go 

into a house, and I see it from 

the heating side, I know that it 

is going to be built the way my 

plans show it to be built. The 

trusses and studs are where I 

expect them to be so when I go 

out there to do my installation, 

I don’t have surprises.”

Wade Craig, Bob’s Heating and 

Air Conditioning, manager, 

Quadrant’s HVAC contractor

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Scopes of Work

A scope of work is a description of the specific work that builders 

expect trade contractors to perform. It conveys to the contractors 

a clear understanding of the task and expectations of how it will 

be completed. Scopes of work should be reviewed and updated, 

especially before big trade contracts are initiated and just after 

projects are completed. Scopes of work should take into account 

sequences of work that are unfamiliar to trade contractors. 

The Building America research teams have put together an extensive 

set of scopes of work that builders can include with the contract 

documents they give their installation contractors. The scopes of 

work cover the foundation, framing, walls/drainage plane, windows, 

HVAC, and air sealing. They include job descriptions and pre-job 

BUSINESS MANAGERS

Excavation

Concrete

Framing

Sheathing

Housewrap

HVAC

Plumbing

Cladding

Sheet Rock

Trim

Finish

Insulation

Air Sealing

Electrical

BUSINESS MANAGERS Share house 

designs with company divisions. Develop 

and support implementation of a quality 

management system.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGERS / 

MATERIALS PURCHASERS Interact directly 

with trade contractors to develop mutually 

agreeable scopes of work, checklists, and 

test and inspection protocols. Interact with 

customers to manage expectations and 

assure satisfaction. 

TRADE CONTRACTORS Ensure that the

project is ready for your work to start. 

Perform work according to plans, 

specifications, manufacturer’s installation 

instructions, and local codes. Perform final 

inspection to ensure work is performed 

according to your own standards and those 

of the builder. Confirm that the project is 

ready for next trade to begin work.

TRADE HAND-OFFS 

where job-ready and job-complete checklists are done.

HOMEBUYER 

MARKET

DESIGNERS Ensure construction 

documents include clear diagrams of 

critical details and specifications for 

required materials and equipment.

FIELD SUPERVISORS Work with trade 

contractors to ensure coordination, installation 

according to the plans and specifications, 

compliance with local code, and completion 

of company quality assurance processes.

➊

➋

➌

➍

➎

FIELD SUPERVISORS

CONSTRUCTION MANAGERS / MATERIALS

PURC

H

A

SER

S

TRADE CONTRACTORS

DESIGNERS

Close Out Testing

Quality Management Process Wheel

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
and post-job checklists that can be signed off by the subcontractor 

and the jobsite supervisor. These scopes of work can be found in 

Appendix E of the report, Achieving 30% Whole-House Energy 

Savings Level in Marine Climates, prepared by Building America’s 

research teams and available at http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/

buildings/publications/pdfs/building_america/39743.pdf.

Job-Ready and Job-Complete Checklists

The job-ready checklist, to be completed jointly by the site supervisor 

and trade contractor, includes all items that must be installed or 

prepared on the jobsite—by other trade contractors—before the work 

can begin. The job-ready checklist highlights the ways in which one 

trade contractor’s work is connected to another’s and encourages trade 

contractors to think of their individual work as part of a larger whole.

The job-complete checklist, on the other hand, is the mechanism 

by which the trade contractor certifies that the work has been 

completed to the high standard expected and by which the site 

supervisor agrees that the work was completed satisfactorily. 

To verify that the high-performance features of the home were 

constructed correctly according to the scope of work, performance 

testing is often part of a job-complete checklist. The job-complete 

checklist holds both the builder and the trade contractor 

accountable—the trade contractor for proper implementation and 

the builder for appropriate inspection of the work. Properly defined 

and implemented, the job-complete checklist functions both as a 

part of the job-ready checklist for subsequent trade contractors and 

as a field authorization of payment for the completed work.

The final judge of quality is the consumer. If a builder consistently 

meets consumer expectations, the rewards are tremendous. 

Consumer research organization J.D. Power found that truly 

delighted homebuyers (those rating their builders a 10 on a 10-point 

scale) recommend their builder to nearly twice as many people as the 

average new homebuyer (J.D. Power 2008).

For More Information on Quality Management

ASQ. 2008. ISO 9001:2000 Interpretive Guide for the Design and Construction Project Team. 

American Society for Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI. www.asq.org/qualitypress..

2009 International Energy Conservation Code. Section 103.2, “Information on Construction 

Documents.” International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

DOE. 2006. Building America Residential System Research Results: Achieving 30% WholeHouse Energy Savings Level in Marine Climates, January 2006 – December 2006, NREL/

SR-550-39743,Prepared by the Building America Research Teams BIRA, BSC, CARB, Davis 

Energy Group, FSEC, IBACOS, NAHBRC and NREL for the U.S. Department of Energy, 

www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/38201.pdf

“By using a Building America 

consultant, not only do we 

get third-party credibility, we 

ourselves become incredibly 

educated about the things we 

can do to save energy while 

building sustainable and 

beautiful communities.” 

Mark Fischer, senior vice president at 

Grupe, a Stockton, California-based 

production builder (as quoted in the 

San Francisco Chronicle July 2, 2006)

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
ISO 9000. Quality Management Systems. International Organization for Standardization, 

www.iso.org.

NAHBRC. 2000. Quality Assurance System for Wood Framing Contractors: National Quality 

Housing. National Association of Home Builders Research Center. www.pathnet.org/

si.asp?id=478

NAHBRC. 2008. Scopes of Work for High-Performance Homes. Prepared for the National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory by the National Association of Home Builders Research 

Center, Upper Marlboro, MD.

Integrated Design

The integrated design process, including energy-efficiency modeling 

and appropriate HVAC system sizing, is at the heart of Building 

America recommendations. Integrated design is a process by which 

all the various building subsystems are evaluated for the local 

climate and their interrelationships are analyzed, planned, and 

optimized. The goal is to gain value at every step of the design 

process (value engineering) rather than relying solely on negotiation 

and procurement to manage costs. 

Before World War II, a house was often designed and built under 

the watchful eye of a single person. As construction projects have 

become more complex and expertise has become more specialized, 

the decision-making, design, and construction processes have been 

divided among managers, designers, site superintendents, vendors, 

subcontractors, and the trades. Along with increasingly diverse 

teams, building materials and construction techniques have also 

multiplied and become more technical. 

The integrated design process invites today’s larger design and 

construction teams to share information and insights to achieve the 

kind of whole-house perspective and understanding that previously 

came with a single master builder.

Builders who use the integrated design approach focus on wholehouse performance. They start by looking at how all the systems in 

the house (HVAC, insulation, walls, ceilings, and windows) work 

together to achieve a house that performs well in terms of energy 

efficiency, air quality, and moisture management. This investment 

in up-front planning is especially worthwhile for production builders 

because they reap the benefits with multiple applications of a 

house design.

In contrast, builders using typical design practices often start by 

emphasizing cost and size. With these external factors decided, they 

move through a linear process ending with house construction; 

building performance is considered as an afterthought or not at all.

Quadrant Homes, Washington State’s 

largest home builder, has its wall panels 

built in a factory and assembled on site 

for more precise quality control, less 

exposure to the elements, and faster 

installation on site.

“A lot of builders have processes. 

What sets Quadrant apart is that 

they are very disciplined. They 

build on a defined schedule. 

Every task has a specific day that 

it gets completed.” 

Craig MacKay, president of 

Woodinville Lumber, Inc., 

wall supplier to Quadrant Homes

Related Standards & Procedures

•	 ISO 9000, Quality Management Systems 

www.iso.org

•	 2009 International Energy Conservation 

Code, Section 103.2 “Information on 

construction documents,” International 

Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. 

Available for purchase at 

www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages 

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Traditional Design Processes

Typically a design process includes the following steps.

1. PROGRAMMING: 

In this conceptual development and planning stage, the price range, 

square footage, number of stories, lot sizes, general features, and 

styles are determined.

2. SCHEMATIC DESIGN: 

Preliminary designs are developed including floor plan sketches, 

number of bedrooms, major options, basic circulation and function 

locations, as well as some elevation concepts.

3. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT: 

Preliminary structural, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing plans 

are drawn.

4. CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS: 

Final working drawings and specifications are ready for bidding and 

code approval.

The traditional design process tends to be linear, with input coming 

sequentially. Sometimes design decisions are made before the 

input is available. Sometimes the input is not part of the formal 

design process, but comes in the field where access to information 

is limited and decisions must be based on the materials, expertise, 

and conditions at hand. For example, HVAC equipment may not be 

sized until the installer shows up on the project site, and important 

decisions such as routes and sizes for ducts may not occur until 

installation work begins in the field.

Integrated Design Process

A key idea behind integrated planning is that decisions about 

all building systems, including equipment selection, sizing, and 

placements, are made within the design process, not as afterthoughts 

in the field. The decisions are made with the help of analytical 

tools and the input of all relevant disciplines. Rather than a linear 

traditional process, the integrated process involves looping in 

ongoing input from relevant sources.

The HVAC contractor worked with builder 

Quadrant Homes of Bellevue, Washington, 

to change its HVAC installation process to 

bring ducts and furnace into conditioned 

space, a Building America recommendation 

for meeting the federal rebate target 

energy savings of 50%.

“Quadrant Homes refers to us as 

vendor partners. We have a tough 

economy—some of the builders 

come to us and say ‘well, we need 

10% off.’ Quadrant comes to us 

and says, ‘recognizing that you 

need to stay in business, we need 

to figure out a way to reduce 

costs so that we can deliver 

a lower priced home to our 

purchasers.’ In partnership, we 

design systems, like moving the 

furnaces into a closet, that reduce 

costs for us because we are able 

to install the equipment quicker. 

So, we are able to deliver lower 

costs to Quadrant.” 

Wade Craig, a manager at Bob’s Heating 

and Air Conditioning, HVAC contractor 

for Quadrant Homes

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Traditional Versus Integrated Design Process

The Integrated Design Process loops in design input at every stage of development. 

(Adapted from IEA 2003)

The following are steps within the integrated design process.

PRE-DESIGN – Bring together a diverse and knowledgeable team. 

The makeup of the team and members’ roles will vary depending 

on the project or objective under consideration. Community 

design may benefit from ecologists, landscape architects, or solar 

planners. House designs may need input from architects or designers, 

structural engineers, framers, and HVAC contractors. Solving a 

Tom Walsh & Co. of Portland, Oregon, 

worked with its subcontractors to change 

its duct installation process, bringing ducts 

inside conditioned space in dropped ceilings 

that were designed to add architectural 

interest to the homes’ interiors.

“They [Tom Walsh & Co.] were 

able to really improve energy 

efficiency, quite frankly, without 

spending much more money. 

It came down to creating 

opportunities for their subs to 

learn a new system. I remember 

one thing clearly that Ben Walsh 

told me, ‘In the end, getting 

all that extra energy efficiency 

didn’t really cost as much as 

we thought. It was really about 

communicating with people a 

new way of doing things.’” 

Chris Bonner, a real estate broker 

with Hasson Company, who listed 

Tom Walsh & Co.’s 46 homes in the 

New Columbia development in 

Portland, Oregon.

TRADITIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

➊ PROGRAMMING

➋ SCHEMATIC DESIGN

➌ DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

➎ CONSTRUCTION

 DOCUMENTATION

➐ CONSTRUCTION/COMMISSIONING

➑ ANALYZE PERFORMANCE

 TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE

➍ CONSTRUCTION

 DOCUMENTATION

➎ BIDDING & NEGOTIATION

➏ CONSTRUCTION

VALUE ENGINEERING

VALUE ENGINEERING

INTEGRATED DESIGN PROCESS

➏ BIDDING & NEGOTIATION

➊ PRE-DESIGN

➋ SET PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

➌ CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

➍ FINAL DESIGN

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Market Needs Incentives

Landscape

Branding

Efficiency

Energy Measures

HVAC

Moisture

Management

Sequencing

Community

Requirements

Cost

Comfort

Costs

Construction

Consideration

Advanced

Framing

HVAC Ducts

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particular installation challenge could involve the site supervisor 

and the relevant trades. For larger-scale efforts, select a facilitator to 

carry the process forward and set up a schedule of needed meetings.

SET PERFORMANCE STANDARDS – Early in the design process, 

establish standards that the house model will be expected to achieve. 

Measure progress against these standards at each step. Use market 

data to determine the level of quality, performance, size, and cost 

the new house will achieve. Performance areas may include moisture 

management, indoor air quality, energy efficiency, HVAC comfort, 

and any certification requirements (for example, achieving a HERS 

index score to qualify for a tax credit).

CONCEPTUAL AND PRELIMINARY DESIGNS – Gain team 

feedback during all phases of design and construction. Use 

an energy specialist to test design assumptions and simulate 

possible solutions. It is important to work with framing and other 

contractors, especially HVAC contractors, to identify conflicts and 

develop solutions before houses go into production. You may want 

to consult with code officials for any nonstandard techniques or 

materials. By integrating design decision making, all parties benefit. 

For example, the mechanical contractor can aggressively size 

the HVAC equipment knowing that the thermal envelope is 

well insulated, properly air sealed, and third-party inspected.

FINAL DESIGN – Create specific drawings and system designs. 

Generate architectural, framing, HVAC, electrical, and plumbing 

drawings that specify locations for equipment chases and runs. Develop 

framing plans showing the location of every stud, floor truss, and 

roof truss. HVAC drawings should specify duct sizes and locations, 

including chases designed to carry ducts inside conditioned space. 

Some builders create a single system design that can be approved, 

installed, and warranted by any installing contractor on most of their 

home models. This can apply for many systems in the house, including 

but not limited to framing, electrical, plumbing, and HVAC. 

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTATION – Base construction 

documents on the final design. Include statements of work for all 

subcontractors, specifying installation requirements and checklists 

for self- and third-party verification.

CONSTRUCTION/COMMISSIONING – Build the houses to the 

designs. After ducts are in and sealed but before insulation and 

sheetrock are added, conduct duct leakage tests. After insulation 

is added, conduct visual inspections for compaction and voids. 

After sheetrock and wall surfaces are added, check whole-house 

air leakage, temperature evenness, room pressures, ventilation, and 

Quadrant is the largest builder in 

Washington State. Quadrant sold 540 

homes in the first half of 2009.

“The thing that is really impressive 

to me about Quadrant is that they 

are all about process. Once they 

decide what they are going to 

do, the consistency and quality 

control are impeccable. From the 

day they break ground, they have 

54 working days until the house is 

delivered to the customer.”

David Hales, Building Systems Specialist 

with the Washington State University 

Extension Energy Program

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carbon monoxide levels. Confirm that specified appliances and 

lighting are installed.

ANALYZE PERFORMANCE TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE – 

Work with consultants or in-house experts to ensure home designs 

will meet performance standards. Use computer models to simulate 

energy consumption and size HVAC equipment. Evaluate checklists 

for green programs.

In July 2007, the Whole Systems Integrated Process Guide (WSIP) 

2007 for Sustainable Buildings & Communities, ANSI/MTS Standard 

WSIP 2007, was approved by the American National Standards 

Institute/Institute for Market Transformation to Sustainability (ANSI/

MTS). The document codifies a specific integrated design process.

For More Information on Integrated Design

AIA. 2007. The Integrated Project Delivery Guide, the American Institute of Architects, 

www.aia.org/contractdocs/AIAS077630

ANSI. 2007. ANSI/MTS 1.0. Whole Systems Integrated Process Guide (WSIP) 2007 for 

Sustainable Buildings & Communities. Institute for Market Transformation to Sustainability. 

American National Standards Institute http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANS

I%2FMTS+1.0+WSIP+Guide-2007

BC Green Building Roundtable. 2007. Roadmap for the Integrated Design Process, 

Part One: Summary Guide. Prepared by Busby Perkins+Will and Stantec Consulting for 

Metro Canada. Vancouver, B.C. www.metrovancouver.org/buildsmart/design/Pages/

Integrateddesignprocess.aspx

International Energy Agency. 2003. Integrated Design Process Guideline. Prepared by 

sol*id*ar planungswerkstatt atchitects and engineers and Architeckten B+S for the IEA. 

www.iea-shc.org/task23/design.htm

Value Engineering

Value engineering has its roots in World War II. While coming 

up with creative substitutions for building supplies in the face of 

wartime shortages, staff at General Electric developed a process 

that had the unintended consequences of reducing costs and 

improving products. Value engineering has evolved into a systematic 

method for improving the value of goods and services by examining 

approaches to meeting function. Value can be increased by either 

meeting function more efficiently or reducing cost. Value engineering 

within the construction design process was developed in the 1960s.

Optimum value engineering for framing, also referred to as advanced 

framing, is one example of how value engineering can reduce 

construction costs while maintaining or improving functionality. 

More information on advanced framing can be found in Chapter 7. 

Advanced framing can be an important design feature, but value 

engineering can be applied to all aspects of home design. 

Quadrant has established good 

relationships with its vendors, like 

Woodinville Lumber, by treating the 

vendors like partners and seeking their 

input in the building process.

“From our perspective, what 

sets Quadrant apart is their 

desire to partner with top-quality 

vendors to build efficiencies 

and cost savings and safe work 

environments, as opposed to 

working against the vendor 

or forcing the vendor into a 

scenario that does not work 

for the vendor.”

Craig MacKay, president of 

Woodinville Lumber, Inc.

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Much of Building America’s research is aimed at helping builders 

choose more efficient construction materials and methods to make 

their buildings more efficient. Building America’s research takes 

into account energy efficiency, as well as other important aspects 

of functionality, such as structural needs, durability, comfort, and 

health. Improved quality control also means fewer callbacks which 

leads to more customer referrals.

Value engineering is an important part of quality management 

and integrated design. Production builders are in a good position 

to take advantage of value engineering. The investment made up 

front in the design process pays off in the many homes where those 

improved designs are applied. Value engineering is not just about 

reducing cost, it is about selecting the systems with the best value 

and recognizing synergies within the integrated design process.

For More Information on Value Engineering

Moser, Cliff. 2007. “Using Active Value Engineering for Quality Management,” 

Practice Management Digest, American Institute of Architects. 

SAVE International. 2007. Value Standard and Body of Knowledge. Accessed July 30, 2008 

www.value-eng.org/pdf_docs/monographs/vmstd.pdf

Managing Innovation with Prototypes

Many builders choose to try out Building America technical 

ideas in a prototype house. The prototype experience enables 

the builder to experiment with new materials, products, and 

construction practices with minimal costs and risks. After building 

one or a few prototypes, the builder decides which features to carry 

forward into standard construction. This chart shows a process for 

working with building scientists, such as a Building America team, 

a HERS rater, an engineer, or an architect, to build the prototype 

house. The building scientist could be a company designer who has 

become familiar with this document and has taken other Building 

America training.

What does it take to get from 

30% savings to 40% savings?

BIRA evaluated a 2,000-ft2 home built by 

Clarum Homes in Menlo Park, California, 

that was 30% more efficient than a typical 

code-built home. It took just three changes 

to get a calculated jump in whole-house 

energy savings to 41% over code. The home 

already had a 90% AFUE furnace, R-38 

ceiling insulation, R-13 batt plus 1-inch rigid 

foam wall insulation, 50% CFL lighting, and 

ENERGY STAR appliances. By upgrading 

the furnace to 92% AFUE, increasing the 

batt wall insulation to R-15, and moving 

the ducts into conditioned space, Clarum 

achieved 41% energy savings, enough to 

qualify for DOE’s Builders Challenge.

“Quadrant’s code homes and 

ENERGY STAR homes perform 

better than other ENERGY 

STAR homes regardless of the 

package because their ducts are 

in conditioned space and they use 

panelized walls that have fewer 

seams. And, they do a good job 

of sealing, so they have a tighter 

envelope. The things they do in their 

production process to make a more 

efficient building process also result 

in a more energy-efficient home.”

Ryan Kerr, formerly a researcher for 

BIRA, the Building America team that 

worked with Quadrant Homes of Bellevue, 

Washington; currently with the Gas 

Technology Institute in Chicago

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Process for Building a Prototype High-Performance Home

Quadrant Homes, located in the Puget 

Sound area of Washington State, used 

a prototype home to figure out how to 

meet the federal tax credit incentive for 

homes achieving 50% energy savings. 

Quinn Wyatt, Assistant Design Manager 

at Quadrant Homes, explains “when 

we learned about the federal tax credit 

program, we decided that it was something 

we really wanted to shoot for.” Quadrant 

worked with (Building America research 

partner) the Washington State University 

Extension Energy Program. Quadrant 

developed a federal tax credit-level home 

it marketed as an “Energy Sound” home. 

Quadrant built its first Energy Sound home 

in a 300-unit development called Kentlake 

Highlands near Seattle. “At that time, it 

was a test case. We launched our program 

across all of our communities from this 

house,” said Wyatt.

“One of the 46 homes I built is 

now owned by a friend I have 

known since I was 6 years old. 

The value that the 46 houses 

represent to their buyers...is 

that people’s equity has been 

preserved [in the collapsing 

housing market].”

Ben Walsh, Construction Manager for 

Tom Walsh & Co. New Columbia Homes

BUILDER/DEVELOPER

PHASE #1

Decision

BUILDING SCIENCE 

PERSPECTIVE

ENGINEER / ARCHITECT / 

HERS RATER / HVAC CONTRACTOR

PHASE #2

Integrated Design

& Analysis

PHASE #4

Construction

PHASE #5

Post-Construction

Evaluation

PHASE #3

Marketing

PHASE #6

Lessons Learned

Commits to go forward with best 

practices, sets goals, and expands 

design team to include building scientists

Management evaluates costs and 

benefits and decides on next steps

Management tracks financial benefits

Management ensures proper materials 

are purchased and available

Marketers create marketing 

program to emphasize improvements

Planners integrate lessons learned in 

selection and siting of future communities

Designer evaluates changes in style 

and materials, consults code officials 

for preliminary review.

Designer adds new features 

to production plans

Site supervisors evaluate skills, 

subcontractors, and code issues

Construction documents include detailed 

plans, specifications, and scopes of work

Site supervisors train crews, set clear 

expectations, and check quality

Trades professionals implement best practices 

in their installation and construction processes

Together, trades and supervisors use 

pre-job and post-job checklists

Offers design solutions based 

on whole building analysis, including 

materials compatibility and durability, 

and system tradeoff modeling 

Communicates design approach 

to supervisors and crew – helps 

work out installation sequences

Educates builder about building 

science and systems approach

Determines impact of design 

solutions, including energy savings

Provides test results and 

data for marketing

Observes construction practices, 

recommends improvements, 

and offers training

Offers help with upgrading 

production plans with solar 

and energy-efficient design

Conducts field tests and inspections 

including blower door, duct pressure, 

and HVAC system tests

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The number one reason builders give for building energy-efficient homes 

is to differentiate their product from their competitors’ (NAHBRC 

2007)—and it works. Building America has worked with hundreds of 

builders who have successfully used energy efficiency to sell houses. 

Consumers want the value and comfort high-performance homes offer. 

Builders want happy customers and the positive referrals they will give. 

However, the sales do not happen by themselves. To recoup the 

investment builders make in energy efficiency and quality management, 

they should do the following:

•	 Brand and label their products for fast and easy differentiation. 

•	 Train their sales staff to educate consumers.

•	 Market the sometimes hidden energy-efficient features of the home.

•	 Get the business name and products in front of the public.

Branding and Labeling

Branding and labeling offer two methods for gaining consumer 

attention and confidence. When consumers recognize a brand and 

associate that brand with positive attributes, they are more willing to 

consider purchasing that product. 

Creating recognizable brands that resonate with consumers is 

difficult. Large corporations that rely on consumer sales spend 

millions of dollars on campaigns to keep their brands fresh but 

familiar. This investment pays off best when products involve 

multiple, frequent purchases from many consumers. Most builders 

do not fit this equation very well—builders typically sell their 

products in limited markets, and consumers tend to hang onto 

the purchase for a long time.

Chapter 4.

Selling Performance

“Having increased energy 

efficiency really let us stand 

out from the competition.” 

Chris Bonner, a real estate broker 

who listed homes for Tom Walsh & Co. 

at the New Columbia development in 

Portland, Oregon

CHAPTER TOPICS

4.1 Branding and Labeling

4.3 Training Sales Staff

4.5 Marketing Energy Efficiency

4.6 Reaching Out to the Media

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Brands like Builders Challenge, ENERGY STAR, and other national 

and regional programs offer builders a recognizable label tied to 

known sets of standards. Qualifying for these nationally known 

programs will give your energy-efficiency efforts instant credibility; 

they are excellent vehicles for leveraging your marketing dollars. 

Homes that achieve a 70 or lower on the HERS Index and that meet 

specified quality criteria can qualify for DOE’s Builders Challenge. 

Chapter 2 describes this program and the label that is attached to 

qualifying homes. In addition to providing the Builders Challenge 

brand, the label also provides useful information for consumers. The 

label incorporates the E-Scale, a ranking of energy efficiency based 

on the HERS Index. Like a miles-per-gallon rating, this index gives 

consumers an easy way to compare and distinguish competing houses. 

Consumers recognize the ENERGY STAR logo as a label for 

products that are energy efficient and good for the environment. 

This label can be found on many consumer products ranging from 

computers and dishwashers to lights and homes. Homes that qualify 

for the ENERGY STAR for Homes label are generally about 15% 

more energy efficient than the 2006 IECC building code requirements. 

Whether or not builders choose to brand their homes as ENERGY 

STAR homes, many of the products that go into the home (or are on 

display in model homes) carry the ENERGY STAR logo. 

Both the ENERGY STAR (www.energystar.gov) and the Builders 

Challenge (www.buildingamerica.gov/challenge) websites provide 

brochures and other marketing materials that help to sell the brands. 

“Many builders out there have 

their own energy-efficiency 

programs, and each one is called 

something different. The U.S. 

Department of Energy is known 

and respected. It lends credibility 

if you can say you are meeting 

the DOE’s Builders Challenge 

standard, as opposed to meeting 

a program criteria you came up 

with yourself.”

Chris Kelly, Vice President of Operations 

for Pulte Phoenix Division. 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Builders Challenge 

DOE has posed a challenge to the 

homebuilding industry—to make costeffective, highly energy-efficient homes 

available to all Americans by 2030. 

Meets The Builders Challenge

Recognizing the best energy performance, quality, comfort, health, and safety in the market.

Conditioned floor area (sq. ft.): 3,312

SM

Estimated average 

monthly energy bill:

$104

Estimated annual energy usage:

Electric (kWh) 7728

Natural gas (Therms) 237

123 Main Street, Gainesville, FL 32601

Rated by Home Performance, Inc.

Rating conducted June 8, 2008

www.buildingamerica.gov/challenge

64

Your Home!

ADBuilder ADBuilder

#00000000000

Maximized

Energy-Efficient

Home

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DOE’s Builders Challenge program has formed national partnerships 

with other green building programs that provide marketing and 

labeling support, including the National Association of Home 

Builders’ National Green Building ProgramTM (NAHB 2009) the U.S. 

Green Building Council’s LEED for Homes program, and Masco’s 

Environments for Living®. 

Many Building America builders choose to offer their homeowners 

an energy-use guarantee. Some builders do this on their own; others 

work through Masco Home Service’s Environments for Living 

program. Masco developed the program in 2001 with help from 

Advanced Energy Corporation and Building Science Corporation, 

a Building America team lead. Under Environments for Living, the 

home’s heating and cooling energy use are estimated, and Masco 

guarantees the homeowner that Masco will pay them the difference 

if their energy bills are higher than the calculated estimate.

For homes at the Environments for Living gold and platinum level, 

Masco also offers a comfort guarantee promising the temperature at the 

thermostat will not vary more than three degrees from the temperature 

at the center of any conditioned room within that thermostat zone. The 

gold level requires that homes perform 15% above code (2006 IECC) 

and qualify for the U.S. EPA’s ENERGY STAR® label. The platinum 

level requires that homes perform 30% above IECC, and qualify for the 

U.S. DOE’s Builders Challenge program.

Training Sales Staff 

Having properly trained sales staff is key to helping buyers 

understand and appreciate the value of energy-efficiency features. 

As the first builder to qualify homes for the Builders Challenge in 

California, the Grupe Company realized the importance of training. 

Grupe’s approach to training involved the entire staff. Tools were 

developed for the sales team that included a technical sales resource 

binder, four hours of formal training, and ongoing training. Training 

covered financial benefits for homeowners, solar power for homes, 

energy-efficiency features, and utility information. 

Another Building America builder, Vern McKown, co-owner of 

Ideal Homes in Norman, Oklahoma, shared some of his tips for 

training at the Energy and Environmental Building Alliance (EEBA) 

National Conference in Denver, Colorado, in September 2009: 

 ENSURE CULTURAL AND CORPORATE ALIGNMENT.

- Identify your company’s core values and hire people who share those values. 

- Ask your employees where the weak spots are and fix them. 

- Ask your employees how you can help them do their jobs better.

Builders who meet the DOE Builders 

Challenge criteria also qualify for the 

Environments for Living platinum level.

ENERGY STAR Update

In April 2010, the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) announced 

new, more rigorous guidelines for new 

homes that earn the ENERGY STAR 

label. Compared to the current ENERGY 

STAR guidelines, the new requirements 

will make qualified new homes at least 

20% more efficient. These guidelines will 

go into effect in January 2011, although 

builders may choose to adopt the new 

requirements earlier.

For more information about ENERGY STAR 

qualified homes see: www.energystar.gov

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 GIVE SALES STAFF SIMPLE MESSAGES TO CONVEY, 

 FOR EXAMPLE:

- Here’s how we are different—show infrared camera photos.

- Blown-in insulation fills in nooks and crannies better than batt.

- Our duct leakage is 5%, the average is 27%.

- Our windows are high performance—less heat in, less energy loss out.

- Utilities are guaranteed.

 GET SALES STAFF TO WALK BUYERS THROUGH THE HOME.

- Identify four key exterior features and nine key interior features.

- Use mystery shoppers to find out what your sales folks are actually 

telling shoppers. 

- Keep it simple—“We tell sales folks, if you aren’t sure of the specifics 

just say ‘we’re better’ and stop there.”

 SET UP A CUSTOMER INFORMATION CENTER IN THE 

MODEL HOME’S GARAGE.

- Use side-by-side displays on walls, demo walls showing wall and 

window features, touch screen videos, and poster board displays.

 TRAIN SALES STAFF.

- Field training of every sales person every six months, no matter how 

long they’ve been with the company.

- New hire sales training boot camp.

 KEEP YOUR WEBSITE ACTIVE.

We respond to web inquiries within five minutes.

- When the typical customer looks at the website, they look at the 

location, street scene, elevation, and floor plan.

- Ideal trains its sales staff to interrupt that typical thought process, to 

emphasize that “we are different and we are better,” by pointing out 

energy savings and quality.

 FIND A NICHE.

- “We have a competitor 1.5 miles away who is a national builder. They 

sell at 78 cents/ft2, we sell at $1.12/ft2, we have a different market niche,” 

said McKown.

- All of Ideal’s homes are Builders Challenge homes.

 DO YOUR OWN RESEARCH.

- Do exit interviews with customers, buyers, and lookers.

- Drill down for specifics in problem areas.

- Have every trade fill out job-ready and job-complete forms.

- Do NAHB quality certification audits of the whole company on 

a regular basis.

“You have to educate homebuyers so that they understand 

that buying a zero-energy home 

is simply a different way to buy 

energy. It’s hard to understand this 

when you amortize the costs, but 

it makes a lot more sense to the 

average person if you can show 

them that this is an investment, 

and in fact, it adds value to 

the home.”

Bob Walter, Morrison Homes, 

Elk Grove, California

Field train sales staff every six months 

to keep them up to date on energyefficiency techniques.

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Marketing Energy Efficiency

A challenge for builders of energy-efficient homes is showing 

consumers the energy efficiency they are purchasing. Most energyefficiency improvements are hidden away in walls and attics invisible 

to buying eyes. Making energy improvements “real” to the consumer 

is a multi-faceted, ongoing process that can include any of the 

following (NAHBRC 2010):

•	 Emphasize cost, comfort, health, and environmental benefits. 

•	 Educate customers and sales professionals. Use duct blaster, 

blower door, and HERS scores to show differences.

•	 Use walk-throughs and model homes with display cutaways of energy 

features such as insulated attics and wall sections to help buyers and 

sales staff understand the energy-efficient construction process.

•	 Turn the model home’s garage into an energy information center. 

•	 Organize tours for homebuyers, school groups, media, and 

realtors. Use slides, sample products, and energy bills as aids.

•	 Emphasize an energy-efficiency upgrade when signing the final 

papers. One builder has a wall of testimonials, photos, and examples 

of utility bills in his waiting room. Another builder has the buyer 

meet with the building site supervisor after the sale is made for one 

more chance to sign up for energy-efficiency upgrades. 

•	 Provide take-home brochures that explain energy-saving features. 

Develop your own brochures or give away Building America and 

ENERGY STAR brochures, reprints of magazine articles, vendor 

and trade association brochures. Also, give potential buyers a 

checklist so they can compare the energy-saving measures in your 

homes with those of other builders (see Appendix I). 

•	 Use paid advertising with a simple slogan. One builder created an ad 

campaign based on “$60,” a figure they guaranteed monthly electric 

bills would not exceed for the first year. They ran ads on billboards, 

the sides of buses, signs on their property, and in the newspaper. 

•	 Use the Internet—websites, YouTube videos, Facebook, Twitter, etc. 

•	 Seek out free publicity, send out press releases, hold media events. 

•	 Offer energy-efficiency guarantees. 

•	 Make buyers aware of energy-efficient mortgages.

•	 Package energy-efficiency features through a national or regional 

program or your company’s own energy-efficiency “brand.”

(top) Show potential buyers your 

energy-efficient features with cut-aways 

and side-by-side displays.

(bottom) Use signage to spell out 

your message.

Building America builders have won 93 

Energy Value Housing Awards (EVHA) 

from the National Association of Home 

Builders Research Center. Beginning 

with the 2010 awards 

cycle, builders can earn 

points for participation in 

DOE’s Builders Challenge 

program and can apply 

for Builders Challenge 

certification through the 

EVHA application process.

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Reach Out to the Media

Nothing is more cost effective than sending out a news release 

to local media to announce business news and other company 

activities. News related to energy efficiency can include partnering 

with the Builders Challenge, reaching new best scores for your 

area in the HERS Index, hitting milestones in numbers of energyefficient houses built, winning awards for energy-efficient and green 

construction, trying out new technologies, offering tours of houses 

under construction, or cooperating with research organizations 

such as colleges or DOE. News releases can cover your company’s 

involvement in educational activities, for example, teaching school 

children about energy efficiency or other charitable actions. 

Companies that try out new technologies or apply technologies on 

a big scale have earned much in the way of media exposure. For 

example, builders who have installed photovoltaic systems have been 

reported in The New York Times, on the major televisions networks, 

and in the local press.

Martha Rose, a Seattle area custom builder, 

used “sneak preview” fliers reminiscent of 

film screening fliers to promote a “Behind 

the Walls” tour of her newest, energyefficient project, Fish Singer Place, north 

of Seattle. In the first half of 2010 she 

hosted nearly 1,000 visitors in tours for 

community colleges, building programs, 

realtors, media, and the public. Rose, a 

Building America partner, also hosted 

green building workshops and lectures 

to educate the public and draw visitors 

to her projects.

Building America team lead Con Sol partnered with Clarum Homes of Palo 

Alto, California, to develop its energy-efficient and solar-powered Enviro-Home 

package, which reduces homeowner energy bills by up to 90%. 

(Figure source: Clarum Homes)

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Marketing

Builders Challenge www.buildingamerica.gov/challenge

ENERGY STAR www.energystar.gov

Environments for Living www.environmentsforliving.com

Farnsworth, Christina. 2003. “The Weakest Link.” Builder Magazine, December 2003. 

www.builderonline.com/article-builder.asp?channelid=55&articleid=375&qu=consumer+survey

NAHB. 2009. ICC 700-2008 National Green Building Standard, the National Association of 

Home Builders and the International Codes Council, http://store.builderbooks.com/cgi-bin/

builderbooks/874?id=kh25n99N&mv_pc=43

NAHBRC. 2007. Building America Challenge Survey of Builders and Consumers. Proprietary 

survey commissioned by DOE and conducted by the NAHBRC as part of the Annual 

Consumer Practices Survey. National Association of Home Builders Research Center, Upper 

Marlboro, MD.

NAHBRC. 2009. Green Building Program. National Association of Home Builders Research 

Center www.nahbgreen.org

NAHBRC. 2010. Energy Value Housing Award Program. National Association of Home 

Builders Research Center www.nahbrc.org/EVHA

Sikora, Jeannie. 2002. Energy Value Housing Award Guide: How To Build and Profit with 

Energy Efficiency in New Home Construction. National Association of Home Builders 

Research Center, Upper Marlboro, MD. www.nahbrc.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Indoor airPLUS labeling program for new 

homes. www.epa.gov/indoorairplus/about.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA WaterSense water-saving labeling program: 

New Homes. www.epa.gov/watersense/pp/new_homes.htm

U.S. Green Building Council www.usgbc.org

New Tradition Homes of Vancouver, 

Washington, uses signs at the curb and “dare 

to compare” displays in its model homes to 

tout the energy efficiency of its homes. 

Quadrant, a Weyerhaeuser real estate 

company based in Bellevue, is Washington 

State’s biggest homebuilder, with 873 

home starts in 2008 and an average of 

three sales per day in the first six months 

of 2009. Quadrant Homes has a 96% 

customer referral rate.

Quadrant offers buyers “custom” production 

homes with over 300 house plans and 

10,000 features options to choose from. 

Quadrant successfully 

markets its energyefficient options as the 

only features that pay 

you back. Quadrant 

Homes has been 

recognized by the 

U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency 

(EPA) with a 2009 

ENERGY STAR® 

Leadership-inHousing Award.

4.7

4.7

CHAPTER 4. SELLING PERFORMANCE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
New Tradition Homes has its own channel 

on YouTube with over a dozen video clips 

advertising its energy-efficiency features. 

www.youtube.com/user/NewTraditionHomes

4.8

CHAPTER 4. SELLING PERFORMANCE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The marine climate covers a narrow band paralleling the West Coast 

from the Canadian border south to the county boundary separating 

Ventura and Los Angeles counties in California. In some stretches, 

this band is only one county deep inland from the Pacific Ocean. 

The marine climate was designated in recognition of the mild 

temperatures and moist conditions found along the coast. However, 

the marine climate borders on the cold climate in the north and the 

hot-dry climate in the south and the more extreme conditions of 

these neighbors are found in some inland areas. Homes in the marine 

climate are faced with high levels of moisture, often in the form of 

rain, fog, or snow. 

In addition to describing the marine climate, this chapter also 

provides information on constructing for the extreme weather 

conditions that sometimes occur in the marine climate including 

heavy precipitation, high winds, flooding, earthquakes, and forest 

fires. Siting and design considerations with respect to solar gain are 

also included. See Chapters 6 and 8 for information on moisture 

management techniques for roofs, walls, and foundations.

Climate Description

The marine climate is defined as a region that meets all of the 

following criteria:

•	 a mean temperature of the coldest month between 27 ̊F (-3 ̊C) 

and 65 ̊F (18 ̊C) 

•	 a warmest month of mean less than 72 ̊F (22 ̊C) 

•	 at least 4 months with mean temperatures more than 50 ̊F (10 ̊C) 

•	 a dry season in summer. The month with the heaviest precipitation 

in the cold season has at least three times as much precipitation as 

the month with the least precipitation in the rest of the year.

Chapter 5.

The Marine Climate

“Building America achieves 

superior performance by applying 

measures that work with the 

local climate. The principles that 

go into the design of Building 

America houses are sophisticated 

but not complicated. I would 

encourage any builder who is 

interested in near zero-energy 

construction to talk to us and 

give it a try.” 

George James, DOE Manager of Building 

America’s new construction program

CHAPTER TOPICS

5.1 Climate Description

5.2 Weather 

5.8 Considering Solar Gain

in Siting and Design

5.1

5.1

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Building America U.S. Climate Regions

Weather

The marine climate is at low risk for hurricanes, tornadoes, and 

severe thunderstorms. However, the region is vulnerable to frequent 

precipitation, high winds, seismic events, and forest fires. 

Precipitation

Rain falls frequently in the Pacific Northwest. Sometimes it 

comes as wind-driven sheets, often a fine drizzle, and sometimes 

a drenching downpour, but rain-imbued weather patterns in 

the Northwest can settle into the landscape and last weeks, and 

sometimes months, at a time. 

Precipitation in the marine climate varies from an average of 

10 to 35 inches annually along the California coast south of 

San Francisco, to 30 to 50 inches annually north of San Francisco 

and along the Oregon and Washington coast with localized areas 

experiencing up to 200 inches annually. While the marine climate’s 

population centers receive an average amount of annual rainfall 

compared to other U.S. cities, they are among the rainiest in terms 

of days of rainfall per year, with Portland, Seattle, Tacoma, and 

Olympia averaging 150 to 160 rainy days annually. 

HOT-HUMID

MIXED-HUMID

COLD / VERY COLD

HOT-DRY / MIXED-DRY

MARINE

FEMA Fact Sheets

The Federal Emergency Management 

Agency (FEMA) has produced a series of 31 

fact sheets providing recommendations for 

building homes in coastal areas. The guides 

cover siting recommendations; moisture 

barrier systems; housewrap, masonry, roof 

sheathing and other building materials; 

door and window installation; roof and 

deck to wall flashing; tile and asphalt 

roofing techniques for high wind areas; 

foundations; and construction techniques 

in flood-prone areas. See www.fema.gov/

library/viewRecord.do?id=1570. 

For More Information 

on Climate Description 

Briggs, RS; RG Lucas; and ZT 

Taylor. 2003. “Climate Classification 

for Building Energy Codes and 

Standards: Part 2 - Zone Definitions, 

Maps and Comparisons,” Technical and 

Symposium Papers, ASHRAE Winter 

Meeting, Chicago, IL, January 2003

PNNL. 2008. Vol. 7: Guide to Determining 

Climate Regions by County. PNNL-17211, 

Building America Best Practices Series, 

Prepared for the U.S. Department of 

Energy by Pacific Northwest National 

Laboratory, www.buildingamerica.gov

Fog

Average number of days per year with heavy 

fog (Source: City University of New York 

www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~tbw/

wc.notes/5.cond.precip/clouds/fog_map.htm)

<5.5

5.5 - 10.4

10.5 - 15.4

10.5 - 15.4

15.5 - 20.4

20.5 - 25.4

25.5 - 30.4

35.5 - 40.4

>40.4

Average Number 

of Days per Year 

with Heavy Fog

5.2

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Missouri

Rio

Colorado

River

Columbia

River

Snake

R

Great

Salt

Lake

Salton Sea

R Gila

River

Sacramento R

Green

Humboldt R

Willamette R

P

A

C

I

F

I

C

O

C

E

A

N

NEW 

WY

MONT

IDAHO

UTAH

ARIZONA

NEVADA

CALIFORNIA

OREGON

WASHINGTON

Where We Are

nationalatlas.gov TM

M E 

180.1-200

140.1-180

120.1-140

100.1-120

80.1-100

70.1-80

60.1-70

50.1-60

35.1-40

30.1-35

25.1-30

20.1-25

15.1-20

10.1-15

5.1-10

5 and less

Average Annual Precipitation (in inches)

1961-1990

Precipitation varies widely across the 

United States, from a low of 2.3 inches 

per year in California's Death Valley to a 

high of 460 inches on Hawaii's Mount 

Waialeale. Nevada ranks as the driest 

state, with an average annual 

precipitation of 9.5 inches, and Hawaii 

is the wettest, at 70.3 inches.

In the northwest, much of this precipitation falls in the form of 

mist, drizzle, and light showers, which occur fairly constantly 

from October through June, while July through September are 

characterized by hot, sunny, and dry days. In coastal California and 

coastal Oregon, a considerable amount of moisture occurs as fog. 

Spring rain and thawing can cause flooding and mudslides both in 

the mountains and in lower elevations. Builders should take stability 

of the site into account when building on sloped areas.

Examples of substantial moisture-related building failures can 

be found in Seattle, Portland, Vancouver, B.C., and other marine 

climate cities. Researchers from Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

(ORNL) found that 20% of Seattle multifamily structures built 

between 1984 and 1998 are suffering premature building enclosure 

failures due to moisture intrusion (Karagiozis 2002a). Moisture 

management techniques applicable to this climate are described in 

Chapter 8 of this guide.

For More Information on Precipitation

Karagiozis, A. 2002. Seattle Building Enclosure Hygrothermal Performance Study: Phase I, 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory publication No. ORNL/TM-2002/ 89, September 

www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2001/rpt/113799.pdf.

Severe Storm Reports 2008

U.S. Severe Weather Reports 

2008. (Source: National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration 

[NOAA] Storm Prediction Center) 

Annual Precipitation

The marine climate includes some of 

the wettest micro-climates in the United 

States with localized areas experiencing 

up to 200 inches of precipitation annually. 

(Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, 

U.S. Geological Survey, Nationalatlas.gov)

180.1 - 200

140.1 - 180

120.1 - 140

100.1 - 120

80.1 - 100

70.1 - 80

60.1 - 70

50.1 - 60

40.1 - 50

35.1 - 40

30.1 - 35

25.1 - 30

20.5 - 25

15.1 - 20

10.1 - 15

5.1 - 10

5 and less

Average Annual 

Precipitation 

(1961-1990) (inches)

• = tornadoes

• = wind damage

• = large hail 

5.3

5.3

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Flooding

Flooding is a concern along the coast and inland waterways of the 

marine climate region. Builders should check state building codes 

and contact the local community floodplain administrator for 

information on local floodplain management regulations. Locationspecific Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) can be obtained at 

www.fema.gov/hazard\map\firm.shtm

Stormwater Management 

Stormwater management is a significant issue in many marine 

climate cities. The city of Portland, Oregon, recommends controlling 

stormwater onsite by planting new trees; retaining existing trees; 

constructing swales, drywells, soakage trenches, planter boxes, 

vegetated infiltration basins, and flow-through planters; and using 

pervious pavement and turf block. 

Walsh Construction Company won awards for its environmentally 

friendly stormwater management system at New Columbia, an 

82-acre urban renovation site that is home to 854 single-family and 

multifamily housing units in Portland, Oregon. Walsh combined 

topography, vegetation, and soil features to naturally infiltrate rain 

water into the groundwater aquifer below the site. The stormwater 

management system uses 80% less underground piping than a 

comparable traditional development and retains 98% of the storm 

water on the site. Stormwater is naturally filtered through 101 pocket 

swales and 31 flow-through planter boxes. Overflow from large storm 

events runs into forty 30-foot-deep drywells located beneath the streets. 

For More Information on Storm Water Management

City of Portland. 2010. Stormwater Solutions Handbook, Bureau of Environmental Services, 

www.portlandonline.com/bes/index.cfm?c=43110

Moss

In moist climates such as the marine climate, unwanted moss and other 

plant life can grow on roofs—especially on surfaces facing north. Moss 

and algae growth can stain and damage most roofing types. To inhibit 

moss and mold growth, roofs must have sunlight and airflow allowing 

them to dry properly. Options for inhibiting moss growth in heavily 

treed areas include using metal roofs, installing metallic zinc or copper 

strips along the roof just beneath the peak, or using copper-treated 

asphalt shingles. The better option from an environmental (and cost) 

standpoint is to allow adequate air and light to reach the roof by 

trimming trees so that branches do not overhang the roof. 

For More Information on Moss 

City of Portland. “Safe Roof Moss Control,” Portland Bureau of Environmental Services, 

City of Portland, www.portlandonline.com/BES/index.cfm?c=50367

(top) Mudslides and flooding are common 

local events in the Northwest in spring 

time due to ground saturation from rain 

and snow melt. (Photo source: Washington 

State Dept. of Transportation)

(middle) Walsh Construction installed 

pervious pavers in alleys. Overflow during 

high rain events runs into 30-ft-deep 

drywells located under the streets.

(bottom) In the marine climate, new roofs 

are not immune to moss, which can spread 

quickly under favorable conditions like 

constant shade and low roof pitch.

5.4

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
High Winds

Although all of the marine climate is in wind zone 1 (the lowest risk 

zone) on FEMA’s scale of four U.S. wind zones, areas of the coastal 

northwest are designated special wind regions and have been known 

to experience high wind events. FEMA, the NAHBRC, and the U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) have put 

together guidelines for constructing asphalt and tile roofs in highwind coastal areas www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1570. 

The Institute for Business and Home Safety provides structural 

details and guidance and a list of building materials acceptable for 

high-wind areas at www.disastersafety.org. 

New requirements in the 2009 International Residential Code (IRC) 

address some of these high wind concerns with increased wall 

bracing requirements for homes built in high wind and high seismic 

areas. The new code increases the amount of wall bracing needed 

to resist wind loads for three-story homes, homes with large open 

plans and homes in high-wind regions. In addition, the new code 

requires blocking between the roof framing members at braced wall 

panels for homes with deep truss members or roof joists, or homes 

in high-wind and high-seismic areas. The new requirements include 

prescriptive blocking details for these conditions. These changes may 

require revisions to stock plans and standard detailing practices.

For More Information on Construction in High Wind Areas

FEMA. Home Builder’s Guide to Coastal Construction. Federal Energy Management 

Association. www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1570

Institute for Business and Home Safety. 2008. Fortified for Safer Living Builders Guide, 

2008 Edition. www.ibhs.org.

NAHB. 2008. “Fire Official Surge Sweeps Sprinkler Mandate to Victory,” Nation’s Building 

News September 22, 2008. www.nbnnews.com/NBN/issues/2008-09-22/

Seismic Events 

Washington, Oregon, and northern California are home to seven 

volcanoes that have erupted in the last 200 years and near the coastline 

are some of the world’s most active faults. 

All of the marine climate region is in seismic design categories D0

, 

D1

, or D2 (see map). Construction in these areas must follow the 

requirements of the 2009 IRC, which addresses seismic provisions 

in Section R301.2.2. Information on design and construction in 

earthquake-prone areas—including above-code recommendations; 

detailed figures for foundations and foundation walls, floor construction, 

walls, roof-ceiling systems, chimneys, fireplaces, balconies and decks; and 

checklists for builders, designers, and plan checkers—can be found in the 

Homebuilder’s Guide to Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction

(FEMA 232-2006) at www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2103.

Seismicity

Seismic Design Categories for the Western 

United States from the 2006 International 

Residential Code, Appendix D.

For More Information on 

Seismic Events

FEMA. 2006. Homebuilder’s Guide to 

Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2103

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - 

One and Two-Family Dwellings, Section R301.2.2. 

International Code Council, Washington, DC. 

www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

USGS. Earthquake Hazards Program. 

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazmaps/

E

D2

D1

D0

C

B

A

%g

117

83

67

50

33

17

0

Seismic Design 

Categories

5.5

5.5

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Forest Fires

Each year the United States experiences approximately 10,600 forest 

fires, burning an average of 960,000 acres. Most of these fires occur 

in the heavily forested western states. Parts of the marine climate are 

heavily forested and are susceptible to forest fires, particularly during 

the hot, dry summers and early fall. 

The Institute for Business and Home Safety provides several 

recommendations for building in areas of high forest fire danger:

•	 Locate the building away from ridge tops, canyons, and areas 

between high points on a ridge. 

•	 Use roofing material with Underwriters Laboratories Class A or 

least-combustible fire ratings (e.g., asphalt-fiberglass shingles, steel, 

clay or concrete tiles). With tile and shingle roofs, any gaps at ends 

must be blocked to prevent embers from entering underlayment. 

Complex roof designs are more hazardous in a fire than simple 

roof designs. 

•	 Cover eave vents with a minimum 18-inch metal mesh screen. 

•	 Use non-combustible siding, including fiber cement, traditional 

“three-coat” stucco, and brick, rather than vinyl or untreated wood 

siding. 

•	 Install 1⁄2-inch mesh spark arrestors in fireplace chimneys. 

•	 Use non-combustible materials like metal and stone for fences that 

attach to the house. Use metal rather than vinyl gutters. 

•	 Keep plantings away from walls; plant trees far enough away so 

that trees will not overhang the roof; thin plants and trees within 

30 feet of the structure. 

•	 Use fire-retardant-treated wood or wood-plastic composite decking 

or consider stone or concrete patios rather than wood decks.

For More Information on Construction in Wildfire-Prone Areas

FEMA. Prepare for a Wildfire. www.fema.gov/hazard/wildfire/wf_prepare.shtm

Institute for Business and Home Safety. 2008. Protect Your Property from Wildfire, Pacific 

Northwest Edition, www.disastersafety.org/text.asp?id=wildfire_main

Institute for Business and Home Safety. “Quick tips for creating a wildfire-resistant exterior” 

http://disastersafety.org/projects/?id=1425&category=1136

International Code Council. 2006. 2006 ICC International Wildland Urban Interface Code 

www.iccsafe.org/Store

NFPA. Safer from the Start - A Guide to Firewise-Friendly Developments, National 

Fire Protection Association. http://catalog.cmsassociates.com/firewise/index.

php?page=item&id=469&icn=18156

University of California. “Builders Wildfire Mitigation Guide,” http://firecenter.berkeley.edu/bwmg/

Forest fire danger is high in late summer, 

even in the marine climate, due to low 

precipitation levels July through September.

Forest Fires

Forest fire danger in the West for a typical 

late summer day (observed August 31, 

2009.) (Source: WFAS-MAPS Graphics, 

Fire Behavior Research Center, Missoula, 

Montana, U.S. Forest Service)

LEGEND

Reporting 

Weather Stations

Low

Moderate

High

Very High

Extreme

Water

5.6

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Considering Solar Gain in Siting & Design

Despite the often cloudy conditions, passive and active solar design 

elements are still worth incorporating into homes in the marine 

climate. Design considerations include lot orientation, roof tilt, 

overhangs, windows, and shading.

Lot Orientation and Home Siting 

One virtually no-cost option for improving energy performance is 

to subdivide for solar orientation (see subdivision layout figure). 

In the heating-dominated northern marine climate regions of Oregon 

and Washington, builders can use passive solar orientation to take full 

advantage of the sun’s natural heat. By facing the long side of a home 

to the south and the short sides to the east and west, the building will 

capture solar heat in the winter and block solar gain in the summer. 

While the ideal orientation would be to face the home’s long side 

directly into the sun, it can be oriented up to 30 degrees away from 

due south and lose only 5% of the potential heating savings. Locating 

windows on the home’s south side will enhance its passive solar 

performance. If the south-facing window area reaches 8% to 10% 

of floor area, the home can be called “sun tempered.” A home with 

south-facing glass area of 15% to 20% of floor area would be called a 

true passive solar home; this much south-facing glass requires thermal 

storage mass and summer shading to mitigate summer heat gains.

A study done in the Pacific Northwest by the Bonneville Power 

Administration placed passive solar home space heating savings 

between 10% and 20%, and a study by the City of San Jose, California, 

estimated savings for cooling costs between 10% and 40% (Iris 

Communications, Inc. 1995). The homes in both of these studies were 

oriented to the sun but did not include any special solar design features. 

East- and west-facing walls receive a large amount of solar heat from 

the low-angle sun as it rises and sets. To minimize overheating during 

spring and fall, builders should limit the amount of west-facing glass. 

Home siting for active solar benefits from an orientation that 

provides significant south-facing roof area but due south is not 

necessary. However, In the marine climate, where the optimal tilt 

angle is 30°, at an azimuth of 0° (due south) the tilt can run from flat 

(0°) all the way to a roof pitch of 55° and still receive 90% to 100% 

of available energy. If the tilt is at the optimum of 30°, the azimuth 

could vary to about 65° either east or west and still receive 90% to 

100% of the available energy (Christensen and Barker 2001).

Plan subdivision lot lines and 

roads for predominantly north 

and south orientation

N

N

Subdivision with

predominantly

north- and southfacing sites

Typical Subdivision

S

p

n

f

N

5.7

5.7

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Solar Orientation

Christensen, C.B., and G.M. Barker. 2001. “Effects of Tilt and Azimuth on Annual Incident 

Solar Radiation for United States Locations, ” NREL Report No. CP-550-32966, In Solar 

Engineering 2001: Proceedings of the International Solar Energy Conference, S.J. Kleis and 

C.E. Bingham (eds.), Presented at FORUM 2001, April 21–25, 2001, Washington, DC, The 

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York.

DOE. 2007. Building America Best Practices Series for High-Performance Technologies: 

Volume 6, Solar Thermal & Photovoltaic Systems. U.S. Department of Energy Building 

America Program, www.buildingamerica.gov

Iris Communications, Inc. 1995. “Turn to Solar for Lower Heating Costs” Energy Source 

Builder #42, December 1995. www.oikos.com/esb/42/solar.html

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Solar Maps, www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html

University of Oregon. Sun charts available free at 

http://solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html

Viera, R.K., K.G. Sheinkopf, and J.K. Stone. 1992. Energy-Efficient Florida Home Building. 

3rd printing. Florida Solar Energy Center. FSEC-GP-33-88. Cocoa Beach, Florida.

This map shows an annual average of the kilowatt hours per day of solar energy available per square meter across the United States. 

As shown on the map, much of the marine climate has 4 or more kWh/m2/day of solar resource available.

(Annual average solar resource data are shown for a tilt-latitude collector. The data for Hawaii and the 48 contiguous states are a 

10-km satellite modeled dataset [SUNY/NREL 2007] representing data from 1998-2005. The data for Alaska are a 40-km dataset 

produced by the Climatological Solar Radiation Model [NREL 2003].)

(Map source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html)

5.8

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Overhangs

When positioning buildings to get the maximum passive solar 

benefit, overhangs can help manage heat gain and glare. Roofs 

should be designed with overhangs and porches to shade windows 

and doors. Overhangs also provide protection from rain, hail, and 

the effects of overheating and ultraviolet radiation on siding and 

windows. Overhangs may take the form of eaves, porches, awnings, 

pergolas, or trellises. Overhangs should be sized to account for 

differences in sun angles, elevation, window height and width, wall 

height above the window, and amount of shading desired based on 

time of day and time of year. 

Free and low-cost computer programs are available for sizing 

overhangs based on location. A free program telling you the 

angle of the sun for any point in the country is available at www.

susdesign.com/sunangle/. Latitude, longitude, and elevation data 

can be obtained at www.wunderground.com/calculators/solar.html. 

Optimal overhang dimensions can be calculated at www.susdesign.

com/overhang/index.php. For example in Portland, Oregon, a 3-ft 

wide by 4-ft high window positioned 12 inches below the overhang 

would need an overhang extending 24 inches to provide full shade 

at mid-summer at 2 pm. For a listing of free and available-forpurchase energy models, including solar design tools, see DOE’s 

Building Technologies Program website at http://apps1.eere.energy.

gov/buildings/tools_directory/subjects.cfm/pagename=subjects/

pagename_menu=other_applications/pagename_submenu=solar_

climate_analysis. A low-cost sun angle calculator is available 

from the Society of Building Science Educators at www.sbse.org/

resources/sac/index.htm.

Windows

Windows should be selected to manage the quantity of heat loss 

and solar gain. In the cloudy, heating-dominated marine climate, 

it is preferable to use windows with a lower U-factor and a higher 

solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). The U-factor is a measure of 

heat transfer. The lower the U-factor the better the window performs 

at stopping heat flow. The SHGC measures how well the window 

blocks heat caused by sunlight. The lower the rating the less solar 

heat the window transmits. The IECC requires a window U-value 

of 0.35 or lower in the marine climate; no SHGC is specified. For 

more information about windows, see Chapter 8 of this guide and 

also see the Efficient Windows Collaborative website at 

www.efficientwindows.org.

Winter

Sun

Summer

Sun

21o

4 ft. 

67o

Sun angles vary by latitude

Winter

Sun

Summer

Sun

32o

4 ft. 

79o

Winter

Sun

Summer

Sun

18o

4 ft. 

65o

Portland, 

Oregon

Ventura, 

California

Bellingham, 

Washington

Sun angles vary by latitude, season, 

and time of day. Sun angles shown here 

are calculated for noon on June 21 and 

December 21. (Source: University of 

Oregon, http://solardat.uoregon.edu)

5.9

5.9

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Shading 

Shade can be provided by intentional planting or preservation of 

existing trees on the site. Tree preservation increases salability. Native 

trees are the most beneficial to the environment. The NAHB reports 

in its survey of buyers, What 21st Century Home Buyers Want, that 

over 80% of respondents in the West rated trees as essential or 

desirable (NAHB 2002). American Forests and the NAHB (1995) 

found that mature trees may add from $3,000 to $15,000 to the value 

of a residential lot.

Truly cool neighborhoods have trees. A study in Florida has 

shown that a subdivision with mature trees had cooler outside air 

with less wind velocity than a nearby development without trees 

(Sonne and Viera 2000). The development with a tree canopy had 

peak afternoon temperatures during July that were 1.1°F to 3.1°F 

(± 0.7°F) cooler than the site without trees. The total effect of 

shading—lower summer air temperature and reduced wind speed—

can reduce cooling costs by 5% to 10% (McPherson et al. 1994). 

While evergreen trees may provide better wind protection, deciduous 

trees are ideal for summer shading in the northern marine climate 

because their lack of leaves in the winter will not block desirable 

solar gain during the heating season.

Trees reduce cooling requirements, particularly when located on the 

south and west side of the home to block low-angle, late afternoon, 

peak solar gain sun. Depending on the species, trees more than 35 

feet from the structure are probably too far away for shade.

Care should be taken not to shade roof-mounted solar equipment 

(e.g., photovoltaic panels and solar thermal water heating panels) 

or areas of the roof that could be reserved for future solar 

installations. A simple rule of thumb is that any potential shading 

structure should be twice as far away from the solar equipment as 

the structure is tall. Sun charts and digital tools are available to 

assess how obstructions such as trees, buildings, or chimneys will fall 

between the solar panel and the sun at various times of the year.

Established trees can also provide a ground-stabilizing force in areas 

with sloped lots that may be at higher risk of erosion and mud slides. 

Pierce County, Washington, has produced a list of trees suited to the 

northwest climate (Pierce County 2005).

Deciduous shade trees can cut cooling 

loads during summer months, while 

allowing sunlight to warm and dry 

buildings during the winter.

N 

Deciduous 

Trees 

Shrub Shading of

Lower Wall

Windbreak Shrubs 

North Side Shading from Evening and Morning Sun

Careful landscaping can preserve roof-top 

solar exposure and provide shading to help 

control solar gain through windows.

For houses with solar photovoltaic roof 

panels, any potential shading structure 

should be twice as far away from the PV 

array as it is tall (D = 2 * H)

D D

H

H

5.10

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Shade

American Forests and the National Association of Homebuilders. 1995. Building Greener 

Neighborhoods: Trees as Part of the Plan. NAHB, Washington, D.C. 

www.nahb.org/product_details.aspx?forsaleID=26

McPherson, G.E., D.J. Nowak, and R.A. Rowntree (eds). 1994. Chicago’s Urban Forest 

Ecosystem: Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, 

www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/4285

National Association of Home Builders. 2002. What 21st Century Homebuyers Want: 

A Survey of Customer Preferences, National Association of Home Builders, 

www.BuilderBooks.com.

Pierce County. 2005. Pierce County’s Recommended Tree Species, Pierce County 

Planning and Land Services, Tacoma, Washington, 

www.co.pierce.wa.us/xml/services/home/property/pals/pdf/rectreespechndout.pdf

Sonne, J.K. and R.K. Viera. 2000. “Cool Neighborhoods: The Measurement of Small Scale 

Heat Islands.” Proceedings of the 2000 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 

American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington, D.C. 

www.aceee.org/conf/bldindex.htm

5.11

5.11

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
5.12

CHAPTER 5. THE MARINE CLIMATE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
This chapter introduces fundamental principles of building science, 

including the systems approach to house design. The dynamic 

forces that drive the movement of moisture, air flow, and heat 

in homes are described. This background information helps to 

explain the underpinnings of the best practices described in later 

chapters. In applying building science, the goal is to design and 

build houses that work within the bounds of natural forces, and in 

some cases to put these forces to work for occupant comfort and 

building efficiency.

The Systems Approach 

Building America takes a systems approach to home design 

recognizing that as buildings become increasingly efficient, one must 

take into account the interactions of all of the home’s components 

and subassemblies, both to maximize performance and to avoid 

catastrophe. This “whole-house” approach recognizes that changes 

in one or a few components can dramatically change how other 

components perform, affecting overall building energy use, comfort, 

and durability.

Building Science Basics

The successful builder needs to understand all of the forces that 

impact a house and how these forces interact with each other and 

the home’s components. These forces include water, vapor, air flow, 

heat transfer, and occupants.

Chapter 6.

Building Science and 

the Systems Approach

When builders design houses to work 

well as a system, not only do the houses 

save energy, they also are better able to 

withstand the elements. (Photo source: Leif 

Juell, Alternative Power Enterprises, Inc.)

“Most builders view each aspect 

of the house—the electrical work, 

the plumbing, the framework—as 

separate jobs, but the Building 

America approach views each 

area as part of the whole...If you 

view the whole house as the 

system...it’s not only easier, you 

end up with a better product.” 

Lee Rayburn, developer of 

Centennial Terrace in Tucson, Arizona

CHAPTER TOPICS

6.1 The Systems Approach

6.1 Building Scoience Basics

6.3 Water

6.4 Vapor

6.6 Air Flow

6.7 Heat Transfer

6.9 Occupants

6.1

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The Systems Approach 

to House Design

In a system-designed house all the 

parts are designed to work together for 

a healthy, durable home that minimizes 

builder callbacks while cutting energy, 

maintenance, and repair costs down 

the road.

A. Air Sealing: Helps maintain proper 

pressure balance in home and stops 

stack effect limiting drafts and 

keeping humidity, soil gases, and 

garage contaminants out of the 

house; creates a barrier to rodents 

and insects.

B. Well-Designed Moisture Barriers 

and Drainage: Avoids expensive 

structural damage and helps stop 

humidity, mold, and mildew.

C. Insulation: Holds comfortable 

temperatures in conditioned 

spaces and helps control noise. For 

insulation level recommendations 

visit www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/

insulation/ins_16.html

D. Right-Sized and High-Efficiency 

HVAC Equipment: Costs less to 

install than bigger equipment, 

saves energy, and is designed to 

comfortably handle heating and 

cooling loads.

E. Ventilation: Exhaust fans 

remove moisture and pollutants. 

A controlled, filtered air intake 

ensures plenty of fresh air.

F. Sealed-Combustion Appliances: 

Reduce moisture buildup and 

ensure the safe removal of 

combustion gases with sealedcombustion appliances. 

G. Compact and Tightly Sealed 

Duct Runs: Short, straight duct 

runs in conditioned space yield 

better airflow with less chance 

for leaks and fewer contaminants 

like humidity and dust from 

attics or crawlspaces. Leaky 

ducts are a major contributor to 

mold problems. Multiple return 

air paths ensure balanced air 

pressure for less drafts and 

more balanced temperatures 

throughout the house. Ducts 

are in conditioned space.

H. Efficient Windows: Help to 

reduce heating and cooling 

loads. Window flashing protects 

against water leaks.

I. Overhangs: Provide shade, 

reduce cooling load, and direct 

water away from the house.

E

G

F

I

D

H

B

C

A

A

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Water

Homes in the marine climate are subjected to 30 to 200 inches of 

rain per year, most of it falling between October and June. Because 

of this abundance of precipitation, water management is a critical 

concern in the marine climate. Rain water wants to flow down 

and will take the path of least resistance. To minimize mold and 

moisture damage in homes in the marine climate, builders must 

become experts in moisture management techniques, learning 

how to guide rain water off or out of the structure and how to 

incorporate redundant levels of moisture protection into the 

home’s building shell. 

Liquid moisture can also originate in the ground and flow upwards. 

This uptake is due to capillary action that is related to the adhesive 

properties of water. Water is attracted to other water. This is called 

cohesion. Water is also attracted to other materials. This is called 

adhesion. Capillary action allows water to climb up into seemingly 

solid materials through pores in the material. A capillary break is a 

non-permeable material that blocks the capillary flow of water from 

the ground. See Chapter 8 for more details.

New Tradition Homes’ in-house building science team takes a whole-house 

approach, implementing complementary strategies throughout the home to 

improve energy efficiency, durability, air quality, and comfort for homeowners. 

(Figure source: New Tradition Homes)

One Marine Climate Builder’s 

Whole-House Approach: 

New Tradition Homes, 

Vancouver, Washington

True Energy Efficiency

•	 ENERGY STAR windows with low-E glass

•	 93% high-efficiency Goodman® gas furnace

•	 Rinnai® tankless water heater

•	 Sealed-combustion gas fireplace with 

electronic ignition

•	 ENERGY STAR fluorescent lighting packages

•	 Whole-house energy usage monitor

•	 Mastic-sealed air ducts

•	 ENERGY STAR rated dishwasher

Air Tight Construction

•	 Sealed walls dividing house and garage

•	 Trained and certified house weatherization team

•	 All wall penetrations sealed

•	 Tyvek® DrainwrapTM weather barrier

Healthier Indoor Air

•	 Fresh Air System with 4-inch

high-efficiency air filter

•	 Air transfer vent in bedrooms

•	 GREENGUARD® certified EcoBattTM insulation

•	 ENERGY STAR low-sone bath and laundry fans

•	 All low-VOC paints

Performance Tested

•	 ENERGY STAR third-party certification

•	 Duct testing

•	 Third-party ENERGY STAR label

•	 Complete system analysis

•	 Blower door test

•	 Moisture testing before drywall is hung

Environmental Responsibility

•	 Construction lumber waste is recycled

•	 Water-Conserving bath faucets

•	 Flyash in Concrete

•	 Rain Bird Rain Sensor on sprinkler system

•	 Native northwest landscaping

•	 GREENGUARD® certified laminate countertops 

•	 Minimum 40% recycled content roofing

6.3

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Vapor

Water in its liquid state is not the only problem; water vapor can also 

be a source of damage. In the western United States humidity levels 

tend to be higher in the winter than in the summer. Field testing in 

the Pacific Northwest shows average interior relative humidity levels 

above 55% are common in the winter; whereas, in the rest of the 

country interior relative humidity levels are typically about 30% to 

40% in the winter.

Unlike moisture in its liquid form, water vapor travels wherever 

air flows. Water vapor causes problems when it is trapped within a 

building assembly, such as a wall cavity. If it touches a cold surface 

it can condense, turning into its liquid form, where it can cause 

damage to structural components. Condensation can also form 

in and on ductwork, especially when air conditioning cools duct 

surfaces that come in contact with humid air, such as in a vented 

attic or crawlspace.

Air is vapor’s heavy lifter. Where there are air leaks, there are vapor 

leaks. Water vapor also can be carried by diffusion, which can force 

vapor through materials and into places it shouldn’t be, such as wall 

cavities. Differences in vapor pressure and temperature are the forces 

that drive diffusion. Vapor diffusion moves moisture from areas of 

higher vapor pressure to areas of lower vapor pressure, and from 

areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature.

Vapor retarders (sometimes called vapor barriers) are materials that 

block diffusion because they are impermeable. A perm is a unit of 

measurement based on the amount of water that passes through a 

material over a fixed period of time.

Vapor retarder requirements were removed in the 2009 IECC. 

However, vapor retarders are addressed in the 2009 IRC R601.3, 

which states Class I or II vapor retarders are required on the interior

side of framed walls in IECC Climate Zones 5, 6, 7, 8 and IECC 

Marine Climate Zone 4, except on the following: basement walls, 

in the below-grade portion of any wall, or in construction where 

moisture or frozen moisture will not damage the materials used in 

the assembly.

One significant change in the 2009 IRC is that Class III vapor 

retarders (such as latex paint) can be used instead of Class 1 or Class II 

vapor retarders under certain conditions, as defined in the table below.

(top) When moisture is trapped inside 

walls, mold can grow unchecked causing 

damage to the walls and health impacts for 

the occupants. (Photo source: EPA; photo 

by Terry Brennan)

(middle and bottom) This sprinkler was 

placed too close to the house’s foundation 

wall. Moisture seeped through the concrete 

block causing water stains and mold inside. 

(Photo source: EPA; photo by Terry Brennan)

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
According to the 2009 IRC R601.3, vapor retarder classes should be 

defined as follows (using the desiccant method with Procedure A of 

the American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM] E-96):

• CLASS I: 0.1 perm or less

• CLASS II: 0.1 < perm < 1.0 perm

• CLASS III: 1.0 < perm < 10 perm.

According to 2009 IRC, the following vapor retarder materials 

would meet these class specifications:

• CLASS I: Sheet polyethylene, non-perforated aluminum foil

• CLASS II: Kraft faced fiberglass batts or low perm paint 

(paint with 0.1 < perm < 1.0)

• CLASS III: Latex or enamel paint.

Class III Vapor Retarders

Zone Class III vapor retarders permitted for:

Marine 4 • Vented cladding over OSB

• Vented cladding over plywood

• Vented cladding over fiberboard

• Vented cladding over gypsum

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-2.5 over 2x4 wall 

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-3.75 over 2x6 wall

5 • Vented cladding over OSB

• Vented cladding over plywood

• Vented cladding over fiberboard

• Vented cladding over gypsum

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-5 over 2x4 wall 

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-7.5 over 2x6 wall

6 • Vented cladding over fiberboard

• Vented cladding over gypsum

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-7.5 over 2x4 wall 

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-11.25 over 2x6 wall

7 & 8 • Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-10 over 2x4 wall 

• Insulated sheathing with R-value ≥ R-15 over 2x6 wall

According to the 2009 IRC: “For the purposes of this section vented cladding shall 

include the following minimum clear air spaces. Other openings with the equivalent vent 

area shall be permitted.”

1. Vinyl lap or horizontal aluminum siding applied over a weather-resistive barrier as 

specified in Table R703.4 of the 2009 International Residential Code.

2. Brick veneer with a clear airspace as specified in Section R703.7.4.2 of 

the International Residential Code.

3. Other approved vented claddings.

Treasure Homes of Sacramento installs rigid 

foam under stucco siding to serve as an 

insulation layer and exterior vapor barrier.

Water Carrying Capacity of 

Diffusion vs. Air Flow

Air is vapor’s heavy lifter—where there are 

air leaks, there are vapor leaks. Warmer air 

can carry much more vapor than cooler air.

*Smart vapor retarders are engineered 

materials that are designed to change their 

permeance at specific relative humidity 

levels (Lstiburek 2006).

Vapor Carrying Capacity of

DIFFUSION

Vapor Carrying Capacity of

AIR FLOW

30 times

more water is 

transferred by airflow

than by diffusion

6.5

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Vapor retarders can block the entry of vapor. However, vapor 

retarders can also block vapor’s exit. It is important that moisture 

not get trapped inside of walls. Walls need to dry to the interior, the 

exterior, or both. 

Air Flow

Air enters a home through openings in walls, cracks around doors 

and windows, and at intersections of building assemblies. Key 

points of air entry include rim joists where foundations meet floors 

and walls, where walls and floors for upper stories join together, 

and where walls intersect the roof. The pressure difference between 

indoor and outdoor air (or between indoor air and soil gas), 

temperature differences, and wind are the driving forces of air 

infiltration. Plugging air leaks is one way to slow down infiltration.

Air movement can affect how well insulation works. When outside 

air is pushed through insulation in places such as attics, walls, or 

crawlspaces, it robs the insulation’s ability to slow down heat loss. 

This process is called wind wash or air intrusion. Using baffles, 

dams, and wind blocks in attics keeps ventilation ports open and 

directs air away from the insulation.

Controlled air movement in the right place is beneficial. Providing a 

ventilation space behind exterior wall cladding allows the material to 

dry out and prevents the moisture from contaminating housewraps, 

sheathing, or other wall components. Wall venting behind brick 

veneers is especially important. Under the right conditions, energy 

from the sun can push vapor through wet brick with the force of a 

steam boiler. Ventilation cavities behind brick help to dissipate this 

vapor before it is injected into the framed cavity. 

Crawlspaces and attics are other areas in homes that have traditionally 

used passive ventilation to dissipate moisture.

Researchers and builders have developed methods of building unvented, 

conditioned attics and crawlspaces, and sealing these areas may be 

recommended if they are to provide conditioned space to house HVAC 

equipment and ducts. (See Chapter 8 for more on crawlspaces.)

Planned ventilation is needed to provide a healthy and comfortable 

indoor environment. Relying on air leakage to provide ventilation 

and combustion air is unreliable. By its nature, infiltration is not a 

reliable form of ventilation. It depends on pressure and temperature 

differentials that change constantly. Air leaks may also carry 

with them moisture that can cause structural or mold problems. 

Combustion in furnaces, fireplaces, dryers, and cooking appliances 

Unintentional air leaks can allow leakage of 

significant amounts of air into and out of a 

home in an uncontrolled manner through 

unsealed seams and unplugged holes in 

the walls, ceiling, and floors. 

(Figure source: EPA)

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
requires air. If multiple combustion or exhaust systems are drawing 

air at the same time and if these appliances are not all direct vented 

to the outdoors, there is a chance that combustion appliances can 

backdraft, drawing flue gases into a home rather than expelling them 

outdoors. Mechanical ventilation and sealed-combustion systems are 

described in Chapter 9.

Heat Transfer

Heat travels via three mechanisms: conduction, convection, 

and radiation. 

Conduction

Conduction is the movement of heat through a material. It is the 

cause of a hot handle on a sauce pan simmering away on a range 

top. Heat flows from warm areas to cold areas. The larger the 

temperature difference between the areas the faster heat will flow. 

The ability of materials to resist heat flow influences conduction. 

Insulation is very good at resisting conducted heat flow. 

Dimensional lumber is not very good at resisting heat flow. The 

best way to slow down conduction is to add insulation to building 

envelope assemblies. It is important that insulation be installed 

to fill all voids in the building envelope. It is easiest to fill voids 

using blown-in insulation of various types. Blown cellulose or 

fiberglass insulation for example flows almost like a liquid, filling 

in areas behind wiring and framing where batt insulation might be 

compressed or blocked. Spray foam is applied as a liquid and also 

fills voids that may be difficult to reach with batts. Batts work well 

in large, uninterrupted areas if installed properly. 

The rate at which heat flows through a material is described using 

two terms: R-value and U-value. Resistance to heat flow is called 

R-value, the higher the R-value the more resistant a material is to 

heat conduction. R-values can be added together to calculate how 

well an entire assembly will resist heat flow. 

Conductivity is described using U-value. Conductivity refers to 

how well a material or assembly conducts heat. It is inversely 

proportional to R-value. If the U-value is high, then the R-value 

is low. From an energy-efficiency perspective, high R-values and 

low U-values are good. U-values may be calculated for an entire 

assembly or for an individual component. However, U-values for a 

number of components cannot be added together to calculate the 

overall U-value for an assembly such as a wall.

Conduction

Heat transferred by contact, like the hot 

pan that fries an egg or the hot asphalt 

that burns bare feet.

Convection

Heat transferred via air 

or liquid movement in 

a pattern of cooling/

falling and warming/

rising like hot water 

that rises and falls 

in a percolating 

coffee pot.

Radiation

Heat transferred though 

space by rays, like rays 

of sun that warm your 

skin if the rays 

are not blocked by 

a building or tree.

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Convection

Convection is the movement of heat via a gas or liquid. Warm air 

becomes buoyant, while cold air tends to sink. Convection is the 

force that draws hot air up a chimney. This force is sometimes called 

the stack effect. 

Designers and builders can use convection as a natural way to cool 

and ventilate a home, but it can cause problems in the wrong places 

and circumstances.

In cooler climates, heated air tends to rise to the top of tall structures. 

Warmer air becomes buoyant and can carry more moisture than 

cool air. Near cold surfaces, such as inefficient windows, cooler air 

drops. As the air cools below the dew point, it must give up some of 

its moisture, which then condenses on the cold surface. This is why 

windows sometimes have condensation in wintertime.

In air-conditioned structures, colder air sinks, drawing in warmer 

air through leaks in the building envelope. The warmer air can 

carry moisture; so as it cools this moisture may condense inside 

structural assemblies. It can also increase indoor humidity levels, 

causing occupants to turn up the air conditioner, which exacerbates 

the problem. 

Convective air currents can set up wherever differences in air 

pressure drive air movement. This applies to the house as a whole, 

and to smaller spaces. Convective loops can occur in cavities 

inside walls where there are voids in insulation, in attics, and even 

between tight-fitting blinds and inefficient windows. Differences 

in temperature between the conditioned space and outdoors can 

create enough of a pressure difference inside a wall cavity to form a 

convective loop.

The most effective strategies for stemming convective heat losses are 

to avoid air temperature differentials inside structures, to fully fill 

insulated cavities with insulation (no voids), and to seal air leaks. 

Properly installing adequate insulation eliminates cold spots in 

walls and structural cavities. Sealing air leaks blocks air movement 

and minimizes the temperature differentials that occur from mixing 

conditioned and unconditioned air.

Radiation

Radiation is the movement of heat by solar or infrared rays. Much 

of the heat from a woodstove is in the form of radiation. The key 

to radiation is that, unlike conduction or convection, this process 

Stack Effect

The stack effect is the flow of air that 

results from warm air rising, creating a 

positive pressure area at the top of a 

building and a negative pressure area at 

the bottom of a building. The stack effect 

can overpower the mechanical system 

and disrupt ventilation and circulation in a 

building. It can pool unfiltered air and soil 

gasses into a home through cracks in the 

foundation and around doors and windows 

and it can draw conditioned air up and out 

through air leaks around ceilings, chimneys, 

flue, and pipe chases.

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
does not involve a molecular connection between the source and the 

recipient of the heat. That is one reason a person sitting across the 

room feels toasty from a radiant heater, such as a woodstove. Heat 

can be transferred through a vacuum via radiation; this is how heat 

from the sun is transferred to earth through the vacuum of space. 

Radiant heat can influence comfort. In a house with a reasonable 

indoor temperature, radiant heat from a hot window or wall can 

influence the comfort level of building occupants. In cold climates, 

heat radiating from occupants to a cold window or wall can make 

them feel colder. On the other hand, when indoor warming is 

needed, an occupant exposed to radiant floor heating may feel 

warmer than the air temperature suggests. 

Techniques for controlling solar radiation heat gain in the marine 

climate include tree shading and window awnings or overhangs. 

Radiant barriers installed in the attic and light-colored roofing 

material are used to minimize solar heat gain in the hot dry and hot 

humid climates but are not recommended in the heating-dominated 

areas of the marine climate. 

At night, a house can radiate heat to a clear night sky. The resulting 

cooling can lead to condensation in attics and roof wetting. 

Researchers are exploring ways to use radiation to the night sky 

as a passive way to cool homes.

Occupants

Occupants are a force unto themselves, not tied directly to climate or 

building dynamics but able to strongly influence building performance. 

Occupant comfort and costs are at the center of design considerations. 

However, as the building operators and maintainers, occupants can do 

much to correct or unbalance a system. Providing correct information 

in the form of owners manuals, homeowner education, and accurate 

marketing materials can help occupants make decisions that will 

contribute to their home’s longevity, comfort, and efficiency.

Occupants have an enormous impact on the energy performance 

of homes in the selections they make in appliances, entertainment 

systems, computers, tools, and other electric equipment. These plug 

loads make up about 40% of energy loads in homes. As builders and 

researchers figure out how to make thermal, lighting, and ventilation 

equipment more efficient, these miscellaneous plug loads will become 

more and more important in how energy is managed in homes.

Living Room

Loft

Crawlspace

Screened 

Porch

Window

Building America’s Building Science 

Consortium used convection to help 

cool this structural insulated panel 

(SIPs) cottage in Georgia. Cool air from 

the screened porches is drawn into the 

building’s interior where it heats up and 

is pulled up and out the second-story 

windows, drawing more air in through 

the shaded first-story windows.

6.9

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
More Information on Moisture Management, 

Air Flow, and Heat Flow

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, International Code Council (ICC), 

Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, Section 

408.3, “Unvented Crawl Spaces,” International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. . 

www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E-2112-07. “Standard Practice for Installation 

of Exterior Windows, Doors and Skylights.” ASTM. www.astm.org/Standards/E2112.htm

ASTM E 2266. “Standard Guide for Design and Construction of Low-Rise Frame Building 

Wall Systems to Resist Water Intrusion.” ASTM available for purchase at www.astm.org/

Standards/E2266.htm 

Buildernews Magazine, May 2004, “Housewrap Felt or Paper: Comparing specs on weather 

barriers,” www.buildernewsmag.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1168

%3AHousewrap+Felt+or+Paper%3A&Itemid=107

Building Science Corporation. Homeowner Information Resources. 

www.buildingscienceconsulting.com/resources/homeowner.htm

Fenestration Manufacturers Association (FMA) / American Architectural Manufacturers 

Association (AAMA) 100-07. “Standard Practice for the Installation of Windows with 

Flanges or Mounting Fins in Wood Frame Construction.” Available from AAMA’s online store 

at www.aamanetstore.org/pubstore/ProductResults.asp?cat=0&src=100

HGTVpro.com. “Improved Stucco Systems.” Article available at www.hgtvpro.com/hpro/

bp_exterior_finishes/article/0,2617,HPRO_20149_4243887,00.html

IBACOS. 2002. “Moisture Issues in Homes with Brick Veneer.” IBACOS article available at 

www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/db/36397.pdf

Lstiburek, Joseph W. 2001. “Brick, Stucco, Housewrap and Building Papers,” RR-0105, 

Building Science.com, www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/rr-0105-brick-stuccohousewrap-and-building-paper/

Lstiburek, Joseph W. 2003. EEBA Water Management Guide. Energy and Environmental 

Building Association. Minneapolis, MN. www.eeba.org/bookstore/prod-Water_Management_

Guide-9.aspx 

Lstiburek, Joseph W. 2004. “Understanding Vapor Barriers,” ASHRAE Journal, August 2004 

Lstiburek, Joseph W. 2006. Building Science Digest 106: Understanding Vapor Barriers. 

Building Science Press. Waterford, MA. www.buildingscience.com/documents/digests/bsd106-understanding-vapor-barriers

Lstiburek, Joseph W. 2008. “Concrete Floor Problems,” BSI-003, Building Science.com, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/insights/bsi-003-concrete-floor-problems. 

Parker, D., J. Sherwin, J. Sonne, N. Moyer. 2002. Comparative Evaluation of the Impact of 

Roofing Systems on Residential Cooling Energy Demand in Florida. Florida Solar Energy 

Center , Rpt: FSEC-CR-1220-00, available at http://securedb.fsec.ucf.edu/pub/pub_show_

detail?v_pub_id=4120

Straube, John. 2001. “Wrapping it Up,” Canadian Architect. May 2001. 

www.cdnarchitect.com/issues/ISarticle.asp?aid=1000115982

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 2000. “Technology Fact Sheet on WeatherResistive Barriers.” Available on the Web at www.toolbase.org/PDF/DesignGuides/

weatherresistantbarriers.pdf

U.S. Department of Energy. 2009. “Residential Requirements of the 2009 International 

Energy Conservation Code” DOE Building Energy Codes Program, PNNL-SA-65859, 

www.energycodes.gov/training/pdfs/2009_iecc_residential.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mold Course - Introduction to Mold and Mold 

Remediation for Environmental and Public Health Professionals. Referenced 6/18/2009, 

www.epa.gov/mold/index.html

Occupant choices in appliances and home 

electronics have a big impact on plug load.

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING SCIENCE AND THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The building envelope is the boundary that separates interior 

comfort from exterior conditions. The basic shell is the first line of 

defense against the elements and forms the architectural style of 

the house. However, the building envelope is much more complex 

than just the visible shell. The envelope actually encompasses three 

boundaries: the thermal boundary, the pressure boundary, and the 

weather barrier.

•	 The thermal boundary consists of the building assemblies 

surrounding the space that is purposefully cooled or heated. The 

insulation plus the air barrier form the thermal boundary. 

•	 The pressure boundary is the point at which inside air and outside 

air are separated. The line where the pressure difference across 

the building shell is greatest between the inside and outside of the 

house is the pressure boundary. This boundary is where air sealing 

should occur. Thermal and pressure boundaries should be aligned. 

•	 The weather barrier includes screens to shed rain.

This chapter describes three strategies that apply to the overall 

building envelope: advanced framing, insulation, and air sealing. 

These strategies involve the entire house envelope and directly 

address the thermal and pressure boundaries. Specific practices that 

apply to particular assemblies, such as foundations, walls, and roofs, 

are described in the next chapter.

Advanced Framing

Optimal value engineering or advanced framing refers to framing 

techniques that require less lumber than standard framing practices 

but provide all the needed structural strength. Using less lumber 

Chapter 7.

The Overall 

Building Envelope

“Advanced framing is such a 

simple thing but very few builders 

are doing it. It is a selling point 

with customers. The performance 

characteristics are easy to point 

out to the customer and it’s 

easy to carry the energy saving 

concepts through to other items 

like high-performance windows, 

more insulation, and air sealing.” 

Builder Barrett Burr, Olympia, Washington

CHAPTER TOPICS

7.1 Advanced Framing

7.4 Insulation Materials

7.8 Air Sealing

7.9 The Thermal Bypass Checklist

7.1

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
leaves more room for insulation while saving resources and reducing 

waste. These recommendations apply to standard framing using 

dimensional lumber. Other energy-efficient framing materials not 

described here include structural insulated panels, insulated concrete 

forms, and steel framing. 

In a Building America study (described in the Partnership for 

Advancing Technology in Housing [PATH] Toolbase) advanced 

framing resulted in 50% reductions in installation and materials costs 

along with a 7% increase in the amount of wall cavity area that could be 

insulated. The net result was about a 30% reduction in annual heating 

and cooling costs. The simple measures taken in this project included 

single top plates, 24-inch on-center 2x6 wall studs, and standardization 

of window and door openings to match the 24-inch layout. 

A sample of advanced framing techniques includes the following:

•	 TWO-FOOT MODULE DESIGN. Starting with the foundation, 

the house exterior dimension footprint should be based on 

2-foot increments. Because sheet goods come in 4-foot by 8-foot 

dimensions, this reduces waste and cuts material costs. 

•	 FRAME 24-INCH ON-CENTER. Typical practice is to frame walls, 

floors, and often roofs at 16-inch on-center. However, 24-inch 

on-center walls are structurally adequate for most residential 

applications. Even though the stud size is increased from 2x4 to 

2x6 on load-bearing walls, changing stud-spacing from 16 to 24 

inches can reduce framing lumber needs significantly. Confirm 

with local building officials because some jurisdictions in highwind areas may not allow 24-inch on-center (PATH nd).

(left) Advanced framing details are 

specified in plans for the framing 

contractors.

(right) Framing details include ladder 

blocking and two-stud corners. 

(Photo source: Tommy Williams Homes)

ladder blocking 2-stud corners

Closed, insulated double headers are 

one advanced framing technique. 

(Figure source: CARB)

Single top plate

Double header 

with rigid insulation 

sandwiched inside

Plywood plate

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 ALIGN FRAMING MEMBERS AND USE A SINGLE TOP PLATE.

Double top plates are used to distribute loads from framing 

members that are not aligned above studs and joists. By aligning 

framing members vertically throughout the structure, the second 

plate can be eliminated. Plate sections are cleated together using 

flat-plate connectors [2009 IRC R602.3.2]. For multi-story homes 

that are framed with 2x4s, this may increase the stud size on lower 

floors to 2x6; however, there is still typically a net decrease in 

lumber used.

•	 SIZE HEADERS FOR ACTUAL LOADING CONDITIONS.

Headers are often oversized for the structural work that they 

do. Doubled-up 2x6 headers end up in non-load-bearing walls. 

Doubled-up 2x12 headers end up in load-bearing walls, regardless 

of specific loading conditions. Nonbearing walls do not need 

structural headers [2009 IRC R602.7.2]. Proper sizing may allow 

for the use of insulated headers in which foam insulation is 

sandwiched between lumber.

•	 LADDER-BLOCK EXTERIOR WALL INTERSECTIONS.

Where interior partitions intersect exterior walls, three-stud “partition 

post” or stud-block-stud configurations are typically inserted. Except 

where expressly engineered, these are unnecessary. Partitions can be 

nailed either directly to a single exterior wall stud or to flat blocks 

inserted between studs. This technique is called “ladder blocking” or 

“ladder framing.” This also creates room for more insulation. 

•	 USE TWO-STUD CORNERS. Exterior wall corners are typically 

framed with three studs. The third stud generally only provides 

a nailing edge for interior gypsum board and can be eliminated. 

Drywall clips, a 1x nailing strip, or a recycled plastic nailing 

strip can be used instead. Using drywall clips also reduces 

opportunities for drywall cracking and nail popping, frequent 

causes of builder callbacks.

•	 ELIMINATE REDUNDANT FLOOR JOISTS. Double floor 

joists are often installed unnecessarily below non-load-bearing 

partitions. Nailing directly to the sub-floor provides adequate 

attachment and support. Partitions parallel to overhead floor or 

roof framing can be attached to 2x3 or 2x4 flat blocking. 

•	 USE 2X3s FOR PARTITIONS. Interior, non-load-bearing 

partition walls can be framed with 2x3s at 24-inch on-center or 

2x4 “flat studs” at 16-inch on-center [2009 IRC R602.5]. 

For More Information on Advanced Framing

IBACOS. 2003. Best Practices: Optimum Value Engineering. Available on the Building 

America website at www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/db/35380.pdf

Advanced framing techniques include 

aligning wall studs with trusses and 

using single top plates.

Using single 2x4 headers instead of double 

2x6 headers in non-load-bearing walls 

allows space for insulation.

Ladder blocking where exterior walls 

intersect interior walls provides space for 

insulation and cuts back on thermal bridging.

2x4” 

header Maximum 8’ span

Insulate above 

headers

Max 2’ above 

header

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Lstiburek, Joseph. 2005. “The Future of Framing Is Here,” Fine Homebuilding, 

November 2005, No. 174, p. 50-55.

NAHB Research Center. “Advanced Framing Techniques: Optimum Value Engineering 

(OVE),” Available at www.toolbase.org/Construction-Methods/Wood-Framing/advanceframing-techniques accessed 6-4-08

NRDC. 1998. Efficient Use of Wood in Residential Construction. Natural Resources Defense 

Council, Washington, D.C. www.nrdc.org/cities/building/rwoodus.asp

PATH. ToolBase Techspecs: Advanced Framing Techniques. 

www.toolbase.org/pdf/techinv/oveadvancedframingtechniques_techspec.pdf

DOE. 2002. Advanced Wall Framing. 6-page fact sheet by the U.S. Department of Energy 

www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/26449.pdf

DOE. 2009. Advanced Framing, Article 1399, U.S. Department of Energy Building Energy Codes 

Resource Center, http://resourcecenter.pnl.gov/cocoon/morf/ResourceCenter/article//1399

Insulation

Insulation is usually hidden away behind finished surfaces, but insulation 

is the material that does the most to block heat loss through conduction. 

Insulation comes in a variety of forms; some of the common options are 

described here. Average R-values are listed in the table below.

Common Insulating Materials (R-values per inch of insulation)

INSULATING MATERIAL Avg. R-Value 

per Inch

Fiberglass • Unfaced batt, standard density R-2.9 to R-3.8

• Unfaced batt, high density R-3.7 to R-4.3

• Blown fiberglass R-2.2 to R-2.7

Expanded 

Polystyrene (EPS)

• Rigid foam board R-3 to R-4

• Beads R-2.3

Extruded 

Polystyrene (XPS) • Rigid foam board R-5

Polyisocyanurate • Rigid board R-5.6 to R-8

• With foil facing R-7.1 to R-8.7

Polyurethane • Spray foam or foam board R-7 to R-9

• Foam board with foil facing R-7.1 to R-8.7

• Soy-based polyurethane spray foam R-3.7

Other • Cellulose, blown R-3.6 to 3.8

• Mineral wool, rock or slag, 

batt or loose

R-3.7

• Cotton batt R-3.4

• Sheep’s wool batt R-3.5

• Strawbale R-2.4

• Plastic PET R-3.8 to R-4.3

Source: DOE Energy Savers website www.energysavers.gov/your_home/

insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11510

Two-stud corners with drywall clips 

use the least wood and give the best 

thermal performance.

“Simple inclusions like additional 

attic insulation and tankless water 

heaters are immediately cost 

effective for our homeowners.”

Jeff Jacobs, then of Centex Homes, 

Northern California Division, 

now president of Building Advisory

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
BLANKETS OR BATTS: Blankets in the form of batts or rolls are 

flexible products made from mineral fibers, fiberglass, or textile 

fibers. Batts are available in widths suited to standard wall, floor, 

and attic framing spaces. Continuous rolls can be hand-cut and 

trimmed to fit. They are available with or without vapor retarder 

facings. Standard fiberglass batt insulation features R-values between 

R-11 (3.5-inch thick) and R-38 (12-inch thick). High-performance 

(medium- and high-density) fiberglass batts with greater R-values 

per inch of thickness are also available. If you choose to use other 

types of insulation, such as blown-in, batts can be installed in areas 

that may become inaccessible as construction unfolds; for example 

behind shower inserts, beneath stairs, or in rim joists. Batts also 

make good dams in attics around access points or other areas where 

blown-in insulation should be held back. Batts are not air barriers. 

Batt facing can form an undesirable vapor retarder. Unfaced batts 

are recommended for the marine climate. 

BLOWN-IN: Blown-in, loose-fill insulation includes loose fibers or 

beads that are blown into building cavities or attics using special 

pneumatic equipment. Netting may be stapled to studs to hold 

blown-in insulation in place before gypsum board is installed. 

Another form of blown-in insulation is fibers, such as cellulose 

made from recycled newspaper, that is mixed with a wet adhesive 

and sprayed into the wall cavity, then allowed to set in the walls 

making it resistant to settling. An advantage of blown-in insulation 

is that it easily takes the form of the cavity into which it is blown. 

Blown-in insulation will also fill spaces behind and around potential 

obstacles, such as electrical boxes, wiring, and plumbing. The 

blown-in material can provide some resistance to air infiltration if 

the insulation is sufficiently dense, but blown-in insulation should 

not be considered an air barrier.

SPRAY POLYURETHANE FOAM (SPF): Foamed-in-place 

polyurethane foam insulation can be applied by a professional 

applicator using special equipment to meter, mix, and spray the 

insulation into cavities where the foam hardens in place. Some 

polyurethane foams are made with up to 20% soy-based oil stock 

rather than 100% hydrocarbon-based oil. Sprayed foam makes an 

excellent air seal and can be used to reach hard-to-get-at places. 

Critical points where this type of foam is especially useful include 

complicated intersections of building elements with odd shapes and 

many joints. Other common areas include the band joists at the 

intersection of the foundation and floor and between floors.

Spray foam comes with either an open-cell (OC SPF) or closed-cell 

(CC SPF) structure. An open-cell structure allows air to move between 

the cells within the insulation; water may be used as the blowing agent. 

(1) Batt insulation in ceiling. (2) Blown-in 

insulation. (3) Spray foam. (Photo source: 

Sam Garst) (4) Spray foam applied along 

the underside of the roof deck to provide a 

conditioned and non-vented attic space for 

ducts and air handlers.

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Closed-cell foam is more rigid and dense with each cell forming a 

bubble that captures the gas inside of it. Closed-cell foam contains 

special gases that make it expand and give it greater R-values. Opencell foam is less dense, has a lower R-value rating, and is generally less 

expensive. Both types of foam are excellent air sealers. High-density, 

closed-cell foams have greater resistance to bulk liquid and vapor and 

may serve as both air and vapor barriers. Spray foam companies have 

converted to using a non-ozone depleting blowing agent, but these 

agents may still have global warming potential.

RIGID FOAM INSULATION: Rigid insulation is made from fibrous 

materials or plastic foams that are pressed or extruded into sheets 

and molded pipe coverings. Rigid insulation provides thermal and 

acoustical insulation, strength with low weight, and coverage with 

few heat loss paths. Insulation sheets may be faced with a reflective 

foil that reduces radiant heat transfer when facing an air space. Foil 

facing also makes the board nearly impervious to water and vapor, so 

it should be used with caution. Rigid foam insulation may be used in 

combination with other insulation types, such as on the exterior of 

walls that are filled with cellulose or fiberglass. Foam sheets that may 

be in contact with the ground should be borate-treated for termite 

resistance. Rigid fiberglass insulation is used on the exterior 

of basement or foundation walls and can form a moisture screen. 

Rigid insulation sheets may be applied to the exterior of wall 

assemblies as insulating sheathing. This approach helps to seal air 

leaks, block thermal bridges where framing lumber spans the wall, 

provide a drainage plane or rain screen, and create additional R-value 

near the exterior surface of the wall. Insulation on the outside of 

the wall helps to temper the wall’s interior temperature and avoid 

condensation. Here is a summary of rigid insulation materials:

•	 Polyisocyanurate – 5.6 to 8.7 R-value per inch

Typically foil-faced rigid sheet; it should not be used in contact 

with soil because it absorbs moisture; foil facing is a vapor barrier 

and should be used with caution; a non-ozone-depleting blowing 

agent is used (pentane).

•	 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) – 5 R-value per inch

More consistent density and greater compressive strength than EPS; 

preferred material for soil contact or as rain barrier because it is 

resistant to liquid moisture penetration. 2010 is the EPA deadline to 

switch to a non-ozone-depleting, VOC-free blowing agent. 

•	 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) – 2.3 to 4 R-value per inch

Beadboard uses a non-ozone-depleting blowing agent (pentane). 

Spaces between beads can absorb water. It is not a vapor retarder. 

“You really can’t overdo 

insulation. It is relatively cheap 

compared to other components 

of the house and you will pay for 

under-insulating for the life of 

the house.” 

Homeowner Sam Garst

(top) Masonry walls are insulated with

interior rigid insulation.

(bottom) Sealing gaps between floor joists 

with spray foam provides a good air seal 

that prevents the flow of heat, cold, and 

pollutants from unconditioned space to 

conditioned space.

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
It is often used in structural insulated panels and insulating 

concrete forms; comes with borate treatment making it resistant to 

insects; requires a capillary break between soil and insulation; and 

comes in many densities and grades. 

•	 Fiberglass – 2.2 to 4.3 R-value per inch

Drainable and resistant to insect degradation; excellent for soil contact.

REFLECTIVE INSULATION SYSTEMS: Reflective insulation 

systems are fabricated from aluminum foils with a variety of backings 

such as roof sheathing, craft paper, plastic film, polyethylene bubbles, 

or cardboard. The resistance to heat flow depends on the heat flow 

direction; this type of insulation is most effective in reducing downward 

heat flow and requires an air space adjacent to the reflective surface. 

There are no R-values for reflective insulation because R-values apply to 

conduction and reflective barriers reflect radiant heat. Reflective systems 

are typically located between roof rafters, floor joists, or wall studs. 

Reflective insulation placed in walls must be perforated. 

If a single reflective surface is used alone and faces an open space, 

such as an attic, it is called a radiant barrier. As a general rule, the 

reflective surface of a radiant barrier should face downward so that 

dust cannot collect on the surface. As the level of ceiling insulation 

increases, the value of a radiant barrier is diminished. These systems 

are applicable for sunny portions of the marine climate dominated 

by cooling rather than heating. The California Energy Commission 

allows use of radiant barriers to comply with Title 24. CEC’s 

specific requirements are described in CEC 2005. In the Oregon and 

Washington portions of the marine climate where solar heat gain is 

less of an issue, reflective insulation is not necessary and installation 

of higher levels of blown fiberglass or cellulose would be a more 

cost-effective way to get higher R-values.

For More Information on Insulation

ASHRAE. 2009. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, 

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. www.ashrae.org/publications/page/158

CEC. 2005. Residential Alternative Calculation Method (ACM) Approval Manual For 

Compliance with California’s 2005 Energy Efficiency Standards, California Energy 

Commission. www.energy.ca.gov/title24/2005standards/res_manual_errata/4Q-05/ch8/RPage_8-31.pdf

Consortium for Advanced Residential Buildings. Steven Winter Associates (CARB-SWA). 

2009. Open-Cell vs Closed-Cell Foam Guide. www.carb-swa.com

ENERGY STAR. Builder Option Packages (BOPS) with recommended insulation levels 

by county. www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bop.pt_bop_index

Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC). 1988. Consumer Facts about Radiant Barriers. FSECFS-37-88. FSEC, Cocoa, FL. www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/pdf/FSEC-FS-37-88.pdf

Krigger, John and Chris Dorsi. 2009. Resident Energy: Cost Savings and Comfort in Existing 

Buildings, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall (previous editions published by Saturn Resource Management).

(top) Bob Ward Companies used an 

exterior wall sheathing consisting of a 1/8-

inch layer of laminated fiber board covered 

with 1/8-inch of extruded polystyrene 

foam board. This layer goes on the 

exterior side of the studs under the stone 

or wood siding. Joints are taped so the 

foam board serves as an air barrier as well, 

eliminating the need for housewrap. This 

exterior insulation layer moves the dew 

point surface to the outside of the framing 

member, reducing the potential 

for condensation and moisture damage 

within the wall cavity. (Photo source: 

Bob Ward Company)

(bottom) Radiant barriers can significantly 

reduce solar heat gain through the roof. 

They are recommended in coolingdominated climates, including southern 

portions of the marine climate zone.

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Mathis, R.C. 2007. Insulating Guide. Building Science Press. Westford, MA. Available for 

purchase at www.eeba.org/bookstore/prod-Insulating-Guide-8.aspx

Parker, Danny and John Sherwin. 1998. “Comparative Summer Attic Thermal Performance 

of Six Roof Constructions.” TO-98-17-3. 1998 ASHRAE Annual Meeting, Toronto, Canada. 

www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/pdf/FSEC-PF-337-98.pdf

Parker, Danny. 2001. FPC Residential Monitoring Project: New Technology Development 

Radiant Barrier Pilot Project. FSEC-CR-1231-01. Florida Solar Energy Center, Cocoa, FL. 

www.radiantbarrierdoneright.com/FSEC.pdf

Roos, Carolyn. 2008. Principles of Heat Transfer. WSUEEP07-004. Washington State 

University, Extension Energy Program, Olympia, WA. www.energy.wsu.edu/pubs/

U.S Department of Energy (DOE). 2009. “Cool Down with ‘Reflective Insulation’ Materials.” 

Setting the Standard. January 2009. www.energycodes.gov/publications/STS/2009/

standard_january09.pdf

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 2008. Insulation Fact Sheet. DOE/CE-0180. DOE’s 

insulation calculator for recommended insulation levels. www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/

insulation/ins_16.html 

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 1991. Radiant Barrier Attic Fact Sheet. DOE/CE-0335P. 

www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/radiant/rb_01.html

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Recommended insulation levels by zip code. 

www1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/tips/insulation.html

Air Sealing

Unintentional air flow (through wall penetrations, leaks around 

doors and windows, and cracks in the roof) robs a home of warm 

or cool air, serves as a pathway for moisture flow, and decreases 

comfort levels. Controlling air infiltration is one of the most 

cost-effective and simplest energy-efficiency measures in modern 

construction practices. Extensive air sealing is one of the primary 

40% improvement strategies. It is also mandated by the 2009 IECC 

402.4 which identifies several areas for air sealing and requires 

verification with a blower door test or visual inspection.

Good caulking and sealing will reduce the infiltration of dust and 

dirt (and even bugs) that can enter homes through cracks and holes. 

The materials and approaches recommended here are common and 

time tested. However, these measures must be carefully installed 

to be effective and must be installed in the proper construction 

sequence before cavity areas are covered up by fixtures or walls. 

Health and safety are essential factors to consider when air sealing, 

especially if the home contains combustion appliances. 

See Building America’s Air Sealing guide for more information 

(www.buildingamerica.gov). 

Sealing against air leakage is primarily done for thermal reasons, 

but when coupled with appropriate mechanical ventilation, this 

procedure also assists in maintaining good indoor air quality for the 

occupant. This combination helps to provide controlled air rather 

(top) Holes for wiring are sealed with foam.

(middle) Unsealed holes for pipes can

leave large gaps for air and bugs to

pass through.

(bottom) Thorough air sealing and locating 

ducts in conditioned space are two ways 

the Loudon County Habitat for Humanity 

affiliate improves the efficiency of its homes. 

(Source: Linda Morrison of Loudon County 

Habitat for Humanity)

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
than relying on pressure and temperature differences to supply air. 

Air leaks also carry water vapor; if this water vapor condenses, it 

can cause mold and other moisture problems. An important job for 

air barrier systems is separating garages from conditioned spaces to 

keep pollutants out of the house. 

The key to the control of airflow is the use of a continuous air barrier. 

This barrier may be made up of several types of materials as long as 

it provides an unbroken barrier between conditioned space (indoors) 

and unconditioned space (outdoors, attic, crawlspace, and garage). 

Typically mudded and taped gypsum board serves as an air barrier 

on the home’s interior. Alternatively, stucco or taped and caulked 

rigid foam may serve as an air barrier on the home’s exterior.

Building America researchers have worked with three building 

approaches that push the air and thermal barriers toward the exterior 

of the building shell: 1) conditioning crawlspaces and basements 

or using slabs, 2) installing insulated exterior sheathing, with sealed 

seams, and 3) conditioning attics. These approaches make it easier to 

provide an uninterrupted air barrier (see Chapter 12). 

The installation of high-efficiency furnaces and water heaters can 

also help control air leakage. Natural gas-fired condensing furnaces 

achieve combustion efficiency levels greater than 90%. These directvent furnaces and water heaters are sealed-combustion systems that 

intake and exhaust air through plastic pipes that do not require a 

vertical chimney. Chimneys and flue chases are notorious for air 

and thermal leaks. A direct-vent fireplace can also eliminate the 

need for a chimney entirely. Ducts located in conditioned space 

eliminate penetrations through the building shell and avoid the 

intake of unconditioned air that can occur through duct leaks. 

More information on these systems is included in Chapter 8.

The Thermal Bypass Checklist

The ENERGY STAR for Homes program has compiled the 

Thermal Bypass Checklist, a comprehensive list of potentially 

vulnerable spots in the building envelope. The checklist identifies 

25 points to inspect throughout the home, covering all major 

components of the building envelope including exterior walls, floors, 

ceilings, attics, and shafts. Builders can use the checklist to verify the 

integrity of the air barriers in the building envelope. The ENERGY 

STAR website contains the thermal bypass checklist and additional 

guidelines for installing insulation and air sealing. 

See the ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist

on the following page.

(top) Seams are caulked to provide a 

good air seal before installing insulation 

and dry wall.

(middle) Air sealing the wall between the 

garage and the home is vital for occupant 

health and safety.

(bottom) Framing is sequenced to install 

an air barrier of OSB, plywood, or rigid 

foam between the porch and the attic.

“There are plenty of ways to 

create a more energy-efficient 

home; solar power is one way, but 

insulation and a tight seal can go a 

long way to achieve this as well.”

Bob Walter, Morrison Homes, 

Elk Grove, California

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CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Posted 06/02/08

ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes

Thermal Bypass Inspection Checklist 

Home Address: City: State: .

Thermal Bypass Inspection Guidelines Corrections 

Needed 

Builder

Verified

Rater

Verified N/A 

Requirements: 

Insulation shall be installed in full contact with sealed interior and exterior air barrier except for alternate to interior air barrier 

under item no. 2 (W lls Adjoining Exterior Walls or Unconditioned Spaces) a

All Climate Zones:

1.1 Overall Alignment Throughout Home    

 1.2 Garage Band Joist Air Barrier (at bays adjoining conditioned space)    

 1.3 Attic Eave Baffles Where Vents/Leakage Exist    

Only at Climate Zones 4 and Higher: 

 1.4 Slab-edge Insulation (A maximum of 25% of the slab edge may be 

uninsulated in Climate Zones 4 and 5.)    

Best Practices Encouraged, Not Req’d.:

 1.5 Air Barrier At All Band Joists (Climate Zones 4 and higher)    

1. Overall Air Barrier 

and Thermal 

Barrier Alignment 

 1.6 Minimize Thermal Bridging (e.g., OVE framing, SIPs, ICFs)    

Requirements: 

• Fully insulated wall aligned with air barrier at both interior and exterior, OR

• Alternate for Climate Zones 1 thru 3, sealed exterior air barrier aligned with RESNET Grade 1 insulation fully supported 

• Continuous top and bottom plates or sealed blocking

 2.1 Wall Behind Shower/Tub    

 2.2 Wall Behind Fireplace    

 2.3 Insulated Attic Slopes/Walls    

 2.4 Attic Knee Walls    

 2.5 Skylight Shaft Walls    

 2.6 Wall Adjoining Porch Roof    

 2.7 Staircase Walls    

2. Walls Adjoining 

Exterior Walls or 

Unconditioned

Spaces

 2.8 Double Walls    

Requirements: 

• Air barrier is installed at any exposed fibrous insulation edges 

• Insulation is installed to maintain permanent contact with sub-floor above including necessary supports (e.g., staves for 

blankets, netting for blown-in) 

• Blanket insulation is verified to have no gaps, voids or compression. 

• Blown-in insulation is verified to have proper density with firm packing 

3.1 Insulated Floor Above Garage    

3. Floors between 

Conditioned and 

Exterior Spaces 

3.2 Cantilevered Floor    

Requirements: 

Openings to unconditioned space are fully sealed with solid blocking or flashing and any remaining gaps are sealed with 

caulk or foam (provide fire-rated collars and caulking where required)

4.1 Duct Shaft 

4. Shafts 

  

4.2 Piping Shaft/Penetrations    

4.3 Flue Shaft    

Requirements:

• All attic penetrations and dropped ceilings include a full interior air barrier aligned with insulation with any gaps fully sealed

with caulk, foam or tape 

• Movable insulation fits snugly in opening and air barrier is fully gasketed

5.1 Attic Access Panel (fully gasketed and insulated)    

5.2 Attic Drop-down Stair (fully gasketed and insulated)    

5.3 Dropped Ceiling/Soffit (full air barrier aligned with insulation)    

5.4 Recessed Lighting Fixtures (ICAT labeled and sealed to drywall)    

5. Attic/ Ceiling 

Interface

5.5 Whole-house Fan (insulated cover gasketed to the opening)    

Requirements: 

Gap between drywall shaft wall (i.e., common wall) and the structural framing between units is fully sealed at all exterior 

boundary conditions

6. Common Walls 

Between Dwelling 

Units

6.1 Common Wall Between Dwelling Units    

Home Energy Rating Provider: _______________________ Rater Inspection Date: _______________ Builder Inspection Date: _______________ 

Home Energy Rater Company Name: ___________________________ Builder Company Name: _______________________________________ 

Home Energy Rater Signature: ________________________________ Builder Employee Signature:_____________________________________

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Air Sealing

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, Section 402.4 “Air Leakage,” 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

DOE. 2010. Retrofit Techniques and Technologies: Air Sealing, PNNL-19284, U.S. Department 

of Energy, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/

ENERGY STAR. 2008. “Thermal Bypass Checklist” www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/bldrs_

lenders_raters/downloads/Thermal_Bypass_Inspection_Checklist.pdf

ENERGY STAR. 2008. “ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes: Thermal Bypass Checklist Guide,” 

ENERGY STAR. www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/bldrs_lenders_raters/downloads/TBC_

Guide_062507.pdf

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2006. Building Science Digest 104: Understanding Air Barriers. Building 

Science Press, Waterford, MA. Available at www.buildingscience.com/documents/digests/

bsd-104-understanding-air-barriers

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2010. Guide to Attic Air Sealing, prepared by Building Science 

Corporation for the U.S. Department of Energy Building America Program. 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/primers/Attic%20Airsealing%20Guide%20-%20

BSC%20Draft%20-%202010-02-12.pdf/view

(left) Factory-built modular walls and extra 

attention to caulking and sealing helped 

Equity Residential achieve energy savings 

of 20% to 30% over Washington State’s 

already tough building energy 

code at Ft. Lewis Army Base.

(right) Quadrant achieves airtightness rates 

of less than 3 air changes per hour at a 

pressure of 50 Pa (3 ACH@50Pa) on all of 

its homes, while ENERGY STAR builders 

in Washington State typically achieve 

infiltration rates of about 4.5 ACH@50 Pa, 

according to Dave Hales of Washington 

State University Energy Office, a Building 

America research partner. Air tightness is 

achieved by sealing the wall panels in the 

factory and additional caulking and sealing 

of holes and seams on site. 

7.11

7.11

CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
7.12

CHAPTER 7. THE OVERALL BUILDING ENVELOPE

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
In its simplest form, building envelopes are cubes that incorporate 

three parts: the floor, four walls, and a roof. In actuality, these 

assemblies are complicated combinations of rectangles, triangles, 

and even domes. Building homes that deliver comfort, durability, 

and energy performance requires paying attention to the details of 

each assembly. This chapter provides guidance on controlling liquid 

and water vapor, air flow, and heat flow in the foundation, wall, and 

roof assemblies.

Foundation Assemblies 

Slab, crawlspace, and basement foundation types are all common 

in the marine climate. The foundation forms the solid underpinning 

for a house’s structural integrity. It also provides the boundary 

between the house and the ground, preventing the unwanted transfer 

of moisture, air, heat, and soil gases from the ground to occupied 

living spaces. It plays an important role in building durability 

and occupant health as well as in building energy efficiency. See 

Chapter 12 for detailed foundation drawings that show measures for 

controlling moisture, air, and heat flow. 

Controlling Liquid Water in Foundations

Proper site grading directs surface water away from building 

foundations and walls. The steeper the slope away from the building, 

the better the water will drain. All building foundations should be 

designed and constructed to prevent the entry of moisture. 

Most foundation water leakage or intrusion is due to either bulk 

moisture leaks or capillary action. Bulk moisture is the flow of liquid 

water. Capillary action occurs when water wicks or is absorbed into 

Chapter 8.

Building Envelope 

Sub-Assemblies

CHAPTER TOPICS

8.1 Foundation Assemblies

8.12 Wall Assemblies

8.21 Roof Assemblies

8.24 Window and Door Assemblies

Drain all water away

from the structure

(Figure adapted from 

Building Science Corporation)

Drain Wall

Drain Roof

Drain Building

Drain Site

Drain Ground Drain Ground

Drain Site

Drain Materials

Drain Components

Drain Openings

8.1

8.1

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
small cracks and pores in building materials, such as masonry block, 

concrete, or wood. Moisture can also be carried by soil gas into the 

home. Moisture may cause structural decay and can contribute to 

human health problems. 

The following practices apply to all foundation systems.

•	 Design the house structure with overhangs, gutters, drainage 

planes, and flashing to shed rainwater and conduct it away from 

the house [as required in 2009 IRC R703.1 and R703.8].

•	 Slope top soil to drain away from the house. [2009 IRC R401.3 

requires that the lot be graded to fall at least 6 inches in the first 10 

feet from the foundation.] Building America recommends a surface 

grade of at least 5% for at least 10 feet around and away from the 

entire structure.

•	 Drain driveways, garage slabs, patios, stoops, and walkways away 

from the structure. [IRC 2009 R401.3 requires that impervious 

surfaces within 10 feet of the building foundation be sloped at least 

2% away from the building.]

•	 Keep all untreated wood away from contact with earth and 

concrete. Keep wood and fiber cement siding at least 8 inches from 

the soil surface to minimize damage from rain splashing up from 

ground surface.

•	 Install a protective shield such as a plastic L bracket, gasket, or 

water-proof membrane to keep capillary water from wicking into 

the wall from the foundation. Metal flashing can also serve this 

function and serve as a termite shield [per 2009 IRC R318.3].

•	 Damp-proof all below-grade portions of the exterior concrete 

foundation walls [2009 IRC R406]. 

•	 Cover exposed earth in crawlspace floors with 6-mil polyethylene 

sheeting. All joints of the vapor retarder shall overlap by 6 inches 

and be sealed or taped. The edges of the vapor retarder shall extend 

at least 6 inches up the stem wall and shall be attached to the stem 

wall. [2009 IECC 402.2.9 and 2009 IRC 408.3 require vapor retarder 

over exposed earth in unvented crawlspaces only.]

In addition to these code requirements, Building America makes the 

following recommendations for foundation moisture management:

•	 Damp-proof the exposed portion of the foundation with latex 

paint or other sealants. 

(top) Don’t leave downspouts 

disconnected! Extend downspouts to at 

least 3 feet from the house. Install flashing 

at the roof valleys and edges and install 

rain gutters to guide water off the roof and 

away from the house. (Photo source: EPA, 

photo by Terry Brennan)

(middle) This foundation moisture 

management approach uses a dimpledplastic drainage plane and damp proofing 

on the exterior side of the foundation wall. 

Landscape filter fabric keeps soil from 

clogging the gravel around a perforated 

drainage pipe that runs along the outside 

of the footing. A gasket keeps moisture 

from migrating up through the footing into 

the treated sill plate.

(bottom) Here, a damp proof coating 

and exterior rigid fiberglass insulation are 

applied to the foundation wall below grade.

8.2

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 Apply a protective coating over rigid foam exterior foundation 

wall insulation at above-grade applications. Examples of protective 

coverings include flashing, fiber-cement board, parging, treated 

plywood, or EPDM membrane. 

•	 Place a continuous drainage plane or free draining materials over 

the damp proofing or exterior insulation on foundation walls to 

channel water to the foundation drain and relieve hydrostatic 

pressure. Drainage plane materials include impervious plastic 

mats, high-density fiberglass foam insulation boards, and 

uniformly graded gravel.

•	 Place slabs and crawlspace floors above the surrounding grade. 

•	 Treat footings poured independent of slabs or foundation walls 

with a bituminous damp-proof coating, masonry capillary-break 

paint, or a layer of 6-mil polyethylene plastic to isolate the footing 

from the remainder of the assembly.

•	 Place 6-mil polyethylene sheeting or rigid foam insulation directly 

beneath the slab or basement floor. Wrap sheeting continuously 

over the slab and footings up to grade [per 2009 IRC R406.3.2].

•	 Do not place a sand layer between the vapor retarder and the 

concrete slab or basement floor. Differential drying and reduction 

of cracking is is better handled with a low water-to-concrete ratio 

and wetted burlap covering during initial curing.

•	 Place a 4-inch-deep, 3⁄4-inch gravel bed directly beneath the 

polyethylene sheeting to act as a capillary break and drainage pad.

•	 Install a perimeter drain below the drainage plane along the side 

(not on top of) footings for all basements and crawlspaces where 

the floor is below grade. 

•	 Ensure that the lowest excavated site foundation level is above 

the local groundwater table at its maximum elevation 

[per 2009 IRC R408.6].

•	 Place drainage systems below basement floors.

Controlling Water Vapor in Foundations

In the Pacific Northwest, crawlspaces are a common foundation 

type, and the dominant source of crawlspace moisture is bulk 

water, not water vapor from indoor or outdoor air condensing in 

the crawlspace. Water enters the crawlspace because of improper 

irrigation practices, ground slope, rain runoff, high groundwater 

Davis Energy Group of the CARB Building 

America team developed a method for 

insulating slab perimeters. The method, 

which is commercially available, uses 

termiticide-treated rigid foam insulation 

encased in PVC as the form for the 

concrete foundation.

Detail of insulating form for slab perimeters. 

(Source: Davis Energy Group)

8.3

8.3

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
tables, rain and snow during the construction process, and leaks 

in plumbing (Baker and Murray 2006). These sources can be 

controlled by careful site grading, installation of drainage systems, 

proper foundation design and water-proofing measures, appropriate 

landscaping, and other measures listed above. 

Some moisture in crawlspaces occurs from soil vapor. To control 

water vapor from soil in all crawlspaces, do the following:

•	 Install 6-mil polyethylene across the entire ground surface. 

•	 Overlap all seams by 12 inches and tape them. 

•	 Seal the polyethylene to the walls with pressure-treated wood 

strapping nailed at least 6 inches up the walls or to a height equal 

to ground level. 

Some Building America teams recommend installing one polyethylene 

groundcover at the beginning of construction; then, when 

construction is completed, installing a second sheet to cover any rips 

in the first one and sealing it to the walls. To improve durability, a 

minimum 2-inch concrete slab can be poured over the polyethylene.

In some parts of the country, the condensation of water vapor 

due to temperature differences in vented crawlspaces can be a 

significant source of crawlspace moisture. In areas with humid 

summers, moisture is carried into vented crawlspaces by air drawn 

through the wall vents. When this warm moist air reaches cooler 

structural framing, the moisture can condense out and cause mold 

and structural problems. In humid areas with freezing winter 

temperatures, cold air may be drawn into vented crawlspaces where 

it can lower temperatures, cause condensation, and freeze exposed 

water pipes. In these climate conditions, which are common east of 

the Mississippi, unvented, conditioned crawlspaces are recommended 

by Building America research teams (Building Science Corporation). 

In the West, summers are dry and winters north of the hot-dry 

climate zone are heating-dominated so relative humidity in vented 

crawlspaces is likely to stay low enough throughout the year to avoid 

moisture. In the marine climate, research regarding the value of 

vented versus unvented crawlspaces seems to indicate either method 

could be preferable depending on the specific location of the house 

being built (in a high radon area or not) and specific circumstances 

of the home (ducts in the crawlspace or not) (Nordeen 2008; Dave 

Hales, WSU Energy Extension Program, personal communication 

October 2009). See the accompanying sidebar for a discussion of 

the study.

8.4

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Marine Climate Crawlspaces: To Vent or Not to Vent? Results from One Study 

Researchers from the Washington State University (WSU) Energy Extension Program conducted an 18-month study 

funded by Building America to compare vented and unvented crawlspaces in the marine and cold climates. The 

researchers looked at four homes built in Vancouver, Washington (marine climate) and four homes built in Moses 

Lake, Washington (cold climate), with two vented crawlspaces and two unvented sealed crawlspaces in each location. 

They found that daily conditions rarely reached dewpoint in the vented crawlspaces. The conditioned crawlspaces in 

Vancouver were power vented with a motorized fan ducted to the outside and had passive radon stacks. The WSU 

study found there was an increased cost to do an unvented conditioned crawl and no energy advantage; in fact there 

was a slight energy penalty, which increased when supply air was provided to the space. 

However, the greater concern in the WSU study was indoor air quality. The Pacific Northwest has areas with high radon 

levels. Radon levels were measured at Moses Lake and at Vancouver. At both sites WSU reported that radon levels 

were less than 2 picocuries per liter in the vented crawls but 12-16 pCi/L in the sealed crawls. The 12-16 pCi/L levels 

were reached while the sealed crawls were being power vented using a fan-powered radon mitigation system. Radon 

measurements taken inside the homes at the same time, showed that inside radon levels never exceeded 4 pCi/L. 

Based on these findings WSU recommended that builders using sealed crawls in the marine climate integrate the power 

vented crawl system with an active (fan powered) radon mitigation system, with the fan installed in the attic. (The EPA 

requires mitigation at 4 pCi/L or higher.) 

Based on tracer gas studies, WSU found that in the typical vented crawl, approximately 40% of the house air came from 

the crawlspace in the winter. If the sealed crawl was power vented (50 cfm 24/7 in 1000 ft2

) less than 6% of the house 

air came from the crawl. By power venting the crawl it is possible to substantially reverse the winter time stack effect 

and decouple the house from any contaminants that may be in the crawl. A drawback is that it requires the continuous 

operation of an exhaust fan. If the fan fails and is not replaced, the indoor air quality (IAQ) may actually become worse 

because the air now entering the house does not benefit from the passive dilution that takes place in a vented crawl. 

Based on these findings, vented crawlspaces are acceptable in the marine climate if rainwater management techniques 

can be effectively deployed; the floor above the crawlspace should be air sealed and insulated. Unvented crawlspaces 

are also acceptable, and there may be non-energy-related reasons for wishing to install them, including homebuyer 

aversion to critters in the crawlspace. While unvented crawlspaces can provide a better environment for HVAC 

equipment than a vented crawlspace, the best practice is to locate furnaces and ducts in conditioned space. Ducts that 

are located in the crawlspace must be mastic sealed. In areas with high radon levels, mitigation measures should be 

taken, including gravel under the slab and installation of a radon/soil gas vent stack. The crawlspace question can be 

avoided by designing houses with slab-on-grade foundations on a properly graded site.

8.5

8.5

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Unvented crawlspaces are allowed by Washington State code in 

counties that are not listed as high risk for radon by the EPA. 

Unvented crawlspaces are allowed by code in Oregon and California. 

[They are also permitted in the 2009 IRC R408.3 as long as the exposed 

earth is covered with a class 1 vapor retarder that is overlapped at edges, 

taped, and sealed to walls; the walls are insulated, and the crawlspace is 

mechanically vented with an exhaust fan or supplied with conditioned 

air and a return duct.]

For More Information on Foundation Moisture Control

Baker, Ken, and Chuck Murray. 2006. Crawlspace Issues in the Northwest. Washington State 

University Extension Energy Program. www.kenergy.us/pdf/Regional%20Crawlspace_final.pdf

Building Science Corporation, BSC Information Sheet 512 Crawlspace Insulation, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/information-sheets/5-thermal-control/crawlspaceinsulation/?searchterm=512

EPA. Consumer’s Guide to Radon Reduction. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/consguid.html

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2004. Builders Guides. Guides to mixed humid, hot-dry, mixed-dry, 

and cold climates, available for purchase at www.eeba.org/bookstore. 

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2006. EEBA Water Management Guide, available for purchase at 

www.eeba.org/bookstore/prod-Water_Management_Guide-9.aspx 

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2008. Concrete Floor Problems, BSI-003, Building Science.com. 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/insights/bsi-003-concrete-floor-problems 

Lubliner, Michael, Larry Palmiter, David Hales, and Andrew Gordon. 2007. “Crawlspace 

Design in Marine and Cold Climates,” in Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of 

Buildings X, proceedings of ASHRAE THERM X, Clearwater, FL, Dec. 2007. 

www.ornl.gov/sci/buildings/2010/Session%20PDFs/96_New.pdf 

Nordeen, Gary. 2008. Unvented Crawl Spaces, WSU Extension Energy Program, 

www.energy.wsu.edu/pubs/

Controlling Air Infiltration in Foundations

The greatest challenges for air sealing are at the intersections of 

different building assemblies. [The 2009 IECC Sec 402.4 requires 

air sealing of the building thermal envelope at rim joists, utility 

penetrations, and other areas.] Building America recommends the 

following foundation air sealing techniques:

•	 Install a sill gasket between the concrete foundation wall and the 

bottom plate to control air infiltration and to serve as a capillary break.

•	 Seal all panel joints to stop air leakage through subfloor sheathing 

installed over unconditioned spaces such as vented crawlspaces, 

unconditioned garages, or cantilevered floors over exterior walls.

•	 Use spray foam to ensure a continuous seal and to serve as an 

insulator where exterior walls meet the subfloor at rim joists and 

at band joists between stories.

New Tradition Homes of Vancouver, 

Washington does extensive site 

preparation to ensure good drainage. For 

homes with crawlspaces, they will raise and 

grade building sites so that all crawlspaces 

can drain to daylight. Excavators dig out 

the crawlspace, grade it flat, then dig out 

a sloped trench diagonally across the 

crawlspace that exits to a low-point drain 

sleeve with a one-way valve to let water 

out but not in. This drain sleeve directs the 

water to an infiltration system (a drywell) 

or out to the street via a curb cut. 

Once the sloped trench is dug, 4 to 6 

inches of crushed rock are laid over the 

entire crawlspace and foundation area. 

Then the concrete footing, stem, and 

foundation are poured on top of the 

rock. When the house is complete, 6-mil 

visquene is laid over the crawlspace 

ground. This can be covered with a 

concrete slab that is sloped to drain to 

the low point drain where water can 

exit to daylight. 

“When water finds its way into the 

crawlspace because of our persistent rains, 

it has a natural channel to flow out via the 

low-point drain,” said Steve Tapio, head of 

New Tradition’s in-house building science 

team. On foundation walls, the builder 

adds damp-proofing, dimpled plastic 

drainage sheets, and a perimeter drainage 

pipe if there is living space below grade.

8.6

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Heat Flow in Foundations

Insulation techniques for slab, crawlspace, and basement foundations 

are described below.

Slab Foundation Insulation 

Slabs in the marine climate should be insulated at the perimeter with 

borate-treated foam board or rigid fiberglass insulation approved 

for below-grade use. [The 2009 IECC Sec 402 requires a slab R-value 

of R-10 on the interior or exterior side of the foundation wall, plus an 

additional R-5 if the slab is heated in the marine climate.] Some code 

officials may require a gap between exterior insulation and wood 

foundation elements to provide a termite inspection area. Exterior 

insulation should be applied from the top of the foundation wall 

to the bottom of the frost line. The exterior face of the insulation 

exposed to outside air should be covered with flashing, fiber cement 

board, parging (stucco type material), treated plywood, or EPDM 

membrane material.

A shallow, frost-protected slab foundation can be used in areas 

subject to seasonal ground freezing [if the building is maintained 

at a minimum of 64°F per 2009 IRC R403.3]. With this approach, 

foundation footings need not be placed below frost depth. However, 

rigid insulation, approved for below-grade use, should be placed 

vertically on the exterior of the grade beam and must be placed to 

extend away from the foundation horizontally at the base of the 

grade beam for a distance equivalent to frost depth. Rigid insulation 

is also needed vertically on the inside of the grade beam and must 

extend horizontally under the slab, on top of the gravel capillary 

break, for two feet. [2009 IRC 403.3 requires R-5.6 of expanded or 

extruded polystyrene vertical insulation on the exterior side of the beam 

and does not require horizontal insulation in most counties in the marine 

climate but check with local code officials.] Code officials may require 

that a structural engineer review and approve specific plans.

For more information on Slab Foundations 

Houses that Work (BSC 2004), www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/34585.pdf

The American Society of Civil Engineers standard (number 32-01), 

Design and Construction of Frost-Protected Shallow Foundations. 

University of Minnesota, Building Foundations Research Program, 

Frost Protected Shallow Foundations Design Specifications. 

www.buildingfoundation.umn.edu/MHFAfrostFoundation.htm 

Building Science Corporation. 2009. Slab Edge Insulation, Information Sheet 513, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/information-sheets/5-thermal-control/slab-edge-insulation/

Code/Above Code 

Insulation for Slab on Grade 

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR

Unheated R-10, 2 ft

Heated* R-10 +5, 2 ft

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

Unheated R-10, 2 ft

Heated* R-10, 

 underneath 

 entire slab

OR

Unlimited WWR

Unheated R-15

Heated* R-15 edge

 plus R-10, 

 underneath 

 entire slab

CA

>20% WWR

Unheated NR

Heated* R-5**

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

Unheated

R-15 Rigid foam at 

perimeter, exterior 

or interior

Heated*

R-15 perimeter plus R-10 

underneath entire slab

* Heated slab refers to a slab floor with radiant 

floor heat. Location of insulation—between 

heated slab and foundation wall. Vertical 

insulation extends down from top of slab to 

top of horizontal insulation.

** California location of insulation—edge of 

slab either inside or outside foundation wall. 

If outside, extends from top of slab down 16 

inches, or to frost line, or to top of footing.

WWR = window-wall ratio

8.7

8.7

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Crawlspace Insulation 

Two methods are in use for insulating crawlspaces. The first, in 

common use over the last several decades, is to insulate the underside 

of the building floor and locate screened vents above grade in the 

foundation walls to provide the unconditioned crawlspace with 

ventilation. With ventilated crawlspaces, it is essential to air seal and 

properly insulate the underside of the first floor and tightly seal and 

insulate any ducts located in the crawlspace. [2009 IECC 402 requires 

R-30 floor insulation, or at least enough to fill the framing cavity to a 

minimum of R-19.] Research has shown that vented crawlspaces can 

have moisture problems, especially in areas with frigid air or warm 

humid air. These conditions are not common in the marine climate 

(Building Science Corporation 2009). 

Another approach [permitted by 2009 IECC Sec 402.2.9] is referred 

to as conditioned crawlspaces, or mechanically vented crawlspaces. 

With this type of system, foundation side walls are insulated on 

either the interior or exterior (or both) and no passive outside air 

vents tunnel through the foundation wall. [2009 IECC 402 requires 

R-10 rigid foam on interior or exterior or R-13 cavity insulation on 

interior in the marine climate.] Unvented, conditioned crawlspaces 

can provide a conditioned space for ducts and air handlers, although 

best practice is not to place HVAC equipment in the crawlspace. 

When insulating a conditioned crawlspace, some Building America 

researchers recommend installing insulation on the exterior side 

of the foundation wall. Exterior insulation will help to protect 

the foundation from the freeze-thaw cycle and a warmer wall is 

less likely to condense moisture. Products such as borate-treated 

foam board or rigid fiberglass insulation work well. Extruded 

polystyrene (R-5 per inch) is durable and moisture resistant. 

Expanded polystyrene (R-4 per inch) is less expensive, but it has a 

lower insulating value. Rigid fiberglass insulation does not insulate 

as well as foam but provides a drainage plane. Some code officials 

may require a gap between exterior insulation and wood foundation 

elements to provide a termite inspection area. Insulation that is 

exposed above grade must be covered with a protective coating 

such as flashing, fiber cement board, parging (stucco type material), 

treated plywood, or EPDM membrane material. [The 2009 IRC 406 

requires damproofing of the foundation wall below grade.]

If placed on the interior of a conditioned crawlspace, wall insulation 

must extend down the wall to a depth at least 2 feet below grade 

level [2009 IECC 402.2.9] and be rated for crawlspace and basement 

exposure. Polyisocyanurate rigid foam insulation with an aluminum 

facing is a good interior insulation choice and has an R value of 

Code/Above Code 

Floor Insulation for 

Vented Crawlspaces and 

Unconditioned Basements 

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR R-30

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

R-30

OR

Unlimited WWR R-30

CA

>20% WWR R-19

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

Vented Crawlspace

R-30 under floor deck, 

recommend spray foam 

to air seal and insulate

WWR = window-wall ratio

8.8

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
R-7.1 to R-8.7 per inch. If the crawlspace wall extends less than 

2 feet below grade level, then the remaining insulation must be 

placed horizontally along the ground at the base of the wall.

For more information on Crawlspace Insulation: 

Broniek, John. Builder System Performance Packages Technical Report. Prepared by 

IBACOS for the Building America Program. www.buildingamerica.com

Building Energy Codes Resource Center, Details for Mechanically Vented Crawlspaces 

- Code Notes, http://resourcecenter.pnl.gov/cocoon/morf/ResourceCenter/article//131

(includes information on sizing the mechanical ventilation). 

Building Science Corporation. 2009. Crawlspace Insulation, Information Sheets 512. Building 

Science Corporation, 05/14/2009, www.buildingscience.com/documents/informationsheets/5-thermal-control/crawlspace-insulation

U.S. EPA. 1995. Passive Radon Control System for New Construction, EPA 402-95-012, 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/radon/rrnc/moreinfo.html

Yost, Nathan. May 2003. “The Case for Conditioned, Unvented Crawlspaces.” 

Building Safety Journal. www.buildingamerica.com

www.crawlspaces.org

Basement Insulation 

Basements are a common foundation system in the marine climate. 

Wall insulation in basements is similar to that described for 

crawlspaces. Basement floors are insulated in ways similar to slabs. 

[2009 IECC 402 requires R-10 rigid foam on the interior or exterior 

surface of the walls or R-13 cavity insulation on interior basement walls in 

the marine climate. R-10 slab floor edge insulation is required extending 

2 feet horizontally under the slab or out from the building.]

Placing rigid insulation on the exterior sides of basement walls 

is one method for insulating the basement (Broniek 2003; Yost 

and Lstiburek 2002). Exterior insulation will help to protect the 

basement wall from freeze-thaw cycles and will help make the wall 

warmer, giving condensation less chance of forming and improving 

thermal comfort. Exterior wall insulation must be approved for 

below-grade use. Exterior insulation is an especially good choice in 

areas with high water tables or poorly draining soils. 

If interior insulation is used, the insulation should be permeable 

enough to allow drying to the inside. Building Science Corporation 

(2009) recommends using up to two inches of unfaced extruded 

polystyrene (R-10), four inches of unfaced expanded polystyrene 

(R-15), three inches of closed cell medium density spray 

polyurethane foam (R-18), or up to ten inches of open cell low 

density spray foam (R-35) on the interior walls. The foam should be 

installed in a manner that forms an air barrier to prevent interior 

conditioned air from meeting the cold concrete basement wall, where 

An interior basement wall insulation plan 

using EPS or XPS rigid insulation and 

additional wall cavity insulation

(Source: Building Science Corporation).

Building Science Corporation recommended 

this exterior basement wall insulation design. 

(Source: Building Science Corporation).

8.9

8.9

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
condensation could form. The foam should be covered with a fire/

ignition barrier such as gypsum board per local building code. If a 

stud frame wall is used, additional insulation can be added to fill the 

stud cavities. Building Science Corporation notes that regardless of 

the insulation type used, a capillary break should be installed on the 

top of the footing between the footing and the perimeter foundation 

wall to control “rising damp,” and a second capillary break should 

be installed between the foundation wall and framing.

For More Information on Basement Insulation 

Broniek, John. 2003. Builder System Performance Packages Technical Report. Prepared by 

IBACOS for the Building America Program. Available at www.buildingamerica.gov in the 

publications section. 

Building Science Corporation. 2006. Read this Before You Design, Build or Renovate, 

Building Science Primer 040, www.buildingscience.com/documents/primers/

plonearticlemultipage.2006-12-05.5229931729/

Building Science Corporation. 2009. Basement Insulation, Info-511, May 14, 2009, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/information-sheets/5-thermal-control/basement-insulation

DOE. 2009. Basement Insulation. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Savers, 

www.energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11470

Yost, Nathan, and Joseph Lstiburek. 2002. Basement Insulation Systems.

Prepared by the Building Science Consortia for the Building America Program. 

www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/db/35017.pdf 

Controlling Other Foundation Issues

Radon Control 

The EPA divides counties into one of three zones based on radonlevel potential. The EPA radon maps below show radon potential 

in the marine climate states by county. The EPA recommends that 

all homes built in Zone 1 areas (high radon potential) have radon 

reduction systems. The EPA cautions that local levels may vary 

and recommends that all homes be tested regardless of geographic 

location. Other than identifying areas that have had radon 

problems, it is not possible to predict radon levels in houses prior 

to construction, so it is important to include inexpensive radon 

control measures.

Measures taken to control foundation moisture are also important 

first steps in controlling radon. A layer of gravel (4-inch minimum) 

under the slab provides a path for radon and other soil gas to escape 

to the atmosphere rather than being drawn into the house. A sealed 

vapor retarder helps to block soil gas entry into the house. 

Code/Above Code 

Wall Insulation for Conditioned 

Crawlspaces and Conditioned 

Basements 

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR

Continuous R-10

Cavity R-13

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

Interior R-21

Exterior R-10

OR

Unlimited WWR R-15

CA

>20% WWR R-0

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

Exterior

R21 Exterior of 

foundation wall insulated 

with rigid fiberglass or 

borate treated XPS

Interior 

R21 Interior of foundation 

wall insulated with rigid 

fiberglass, rigid EPS or 

XPS foam, or poly-iso 

spray foam

* For a conditioned crawlspace, mechanical 

ventilation to the outside is recommended where 

there are high radon or soil gas concentrations. 

WWR = window-wall ratio

An interior basement wall insulation plan 

using spray foam insulation (Figure source: 

Building Science Corporation).

8.10

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
EPA’s “Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in 

New Residential Buildings” discusses techniques for controlling 

radon with various foundation types. One measure recommended by 

the EPA to control potentially high radon levels and other soil gases 

is a passive soil gas stack that vents to the roof and is connected to 

a horizontal perforated drain pipe embedded in the gravel under the 

slab, basement floor, or crawlspace ground cover. The stack may also 

be attached to a strip of geotextile drainage matting. This system is 

often installed as a precaution even when no evidence of radon has 

been shown, as it is far easier to install during construction than to 

come back later and retrofit an under-slab venting system. The pipe 

can act as a passive vent. If it turns out the house has unacceptable 

radon levels, a fan can be added to the stack to actively draw soil gas 

away from the house. An electrical outlet should be installed in the 

attic for possible future fan installation. 

To determine potential radon levels in the county in which you are 

building, see the maps on this page, which were produced by the EPA. Visit 

the EPA’s radon potential map at www.epa.gov/radon/zonemap.html.

[Many of these radon control recommendations can be found in the 

2009 IRC Appendix F, which has recommended methods that are not 

required unless specifically referenced in the adopting ordinances.]

For More Information on Radon Control 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Model Standards and Techniques for Control 

of Radon in New Residential Buildings. Cited 6/18/09. 

www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/newconst.html#Principles.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. EPA Map of Radon Zones, 

www.epa.gov/radon/zonemap.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. Passive Radon Control System for New 

Construction, EPA 402-95-012, May 1995 

www.epa.gov/radon/rrnc/moreinfo.html

Landscaping

Landscaping is a critical element in the marketability of a house. 

Plants also can be used to shade foundations and reduce cooling loads. 

Choosing native plants results in the need for less irrigation and less 

chance for irrigation water to create a moisture problem in the house. 

Building America recommends plants be kept at least 18 inches from 

the finished structure, with any supporting irrigation directed away 

from the finished structure. Decorative ground cover, such as mulch 

or pea stone, should be no more than 2 inches deep for the first 18 

inches from the finished structure to assist drainage. 

EPA Radon Zone Maps for Marine Climate States 

(Source: www.epa.gov/radon/zonemap.html)

8.11

8.11

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Pest Control

The following pest control notes should be included on construction 

documents and details:

•	 Use local code and Termite Infestation Probability (TIP) maps to 

determine environmentally appropriate termite treatments, bait 

systems, and treated building materials for assemblies that are near 

soil or have ground contact. [The Termite Infestation Probability 

Map, Figure R301.2(6) in the 2009 IRC, shows Oregon and Washington 

to have slight to moderate probability of termite infestation while 

California has moderate to very heavy probability of infestation.]

The 2009 IRC R318.1 dictates one or more of the following termite 

treatments:

•	 Chemical termiticides; termite baiting; pressure/preservative treated wood; 

naturally termite resistant wood; physical barriers, and steel framing.

In addition Building America recommends the following:

•	 Keep all wood (including siding, decking, and fencing that attaches 

to the house) from soil contact to minimize the presence of wet 

wood, which attracts carpenter ants.

•	 Use termite flashing and insulation products with termiticides or 

use fiberglass rigid insulation when insulating slab edge or exterior 

foundation walls.

Wall Assemblies

Controlling the intrusion of water and the movement of water 

vapor, air, and heat through the building envelope by proper design 

and construction of wall assemblies are major goals in the marine 

climate zone.

Controlling Liquid Water in Walls

Experience with buildings in most regions of North America has 

shown that drained and screened cladding systems are the preferred 

approach to reliably provide rain control. Drainage within the wall 

complements the shedding on the exterior surface.

Builders must assume some rainwater will penetrate the outer surface 

of the wall. This water is removed or drained via a drainage screen 

within the wall. Some examples of drainage screened walls include stud 

cavity walls with lap siding, brick veneer, stone veneer, or vinyl siding. 

(top) Place plants at least 18 inches from 

the finished structure and direct irrigation 

away from the foundation.

(bottom) Carpenter ants are attracted to 

wet wood and can be very destructive. 

(Photo source: Michigan State University 

Extension)

8.12

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Walls in all climates should be constructed with flashing and drainage 

planes to direct water away from the structure and to the exterior. All 

drained enclosure systems must have a screen or cladding, a drainage 

gap (a clear air space), a drainage plane (a water-repellent plane), 

flashing at the base to direct water outwards, and drain holes (weep 

holes) to allow water out of the drainage gap. Although drainedscreened walls provide excellent rain penetration control, problems 

can still develop at interruptions in the plane of the wall. 

Care should be taken to overlap all wall layers to provide an exit 

pathway for all precipitation down and out of the building assembly 

as follows:

•	 Lap all materials in shingle fashion to direct water down and out, 

away from the wall assembly. 

•	 Flash all wall penetrations and interruptions (windows, decks, and 

the termination of walls at grade).

•	 Incorporate extended overhangs in the design to keep water away 

from walls and windows and to provide shade. Sizing of overhangs 

for shade is described in Chapter 5.

•	 Install gutters.

•	 Back prime and back vent siding.

•	 Use housewrap.

•	 Elevate the bottom of the wall enough to prevent rain from 

splashing up on the siding.

For More Information on Controlling Liquid Water in Walls

Straube, John. Rain Control in Buildings, Building Science Digest 013: last updated 2009/08/10 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/digests/bsd-013-rain-control-in-buildings?full_view=1 

Drainage Planes

Elevation drawings should specify building paper, housewrap, or 

taped insulating sheathing (rigid foam insulation) behind the exterior 

cladding to serve as a drainage plane or water-resistive barrier

[per 2009 IRC R703.2]. This drainage plane can sometimes also serve 

as the exterior air barrier. 

None of these materials are waterproof, but they will shed rainwater 

that penetrates exterior cladding. They can prevent liquid water 

from wicking through, while remaining sufficiently vapor permeable 

(“breathable”) for outward drying (Straube 2001). 

An ideal residential wall 

includes control layers 

providing rain, air, vapor 

and thermal barriers

(based on Lstiburek 2009).

➊ Brick veneer/stone veneer

➋ Drainage cavity

➌ Exterior rigid insulation – extruded 

polystyrene, expanded polystyrene, 

rigid fiberglass

➍ Housewrap

➎ Non-paper-faced exterior gypsum 

sheathing, plywood, or oriented strand 

board (OSB)

➏ Insulated wood stud cavity

➐ Gypsum board

➑ Latex paint or vapor semi-permeable 

textured wall finish. No vapor barrier 

on inside (no polyethelene sheeting, 

no vinyl wall paper on exterior walls)

VAPOR PROFILE

➊ ➋➌➍ ➎ ➏ ➐ ➑

8.13

8.13

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Most building paper is UV-resistant, whereas housewrap UV-exposure 

limits vary. If building paper is used as a drainage plane in areas prone 

to severe storms, use two layers to increase resistance to leakage at 

fasteners and allow for more flexible installation. 

Installation is key for all types of housewraps. See the Installers 

Guide on installing housewraps in Chapter 12. During construction 

and operation, it is important that housewraps remain clean. 

Surface contaminants interfere with the wrap’s ability to hold out 

water. Some cladding can contaminate wraps if the two are in direct 

contact. For example, water-soluble extractives in wood such as 

tannins and wood sugars in redwood and cedar can contaminate the 

surface of housewraps and building papers. Back priming or back 

coating wood clapboards and trim helps to isolate the surfactants 

in the wood from the housewrap or building paper surface. Back 

priming is also recommended on all wood and cementation, but 

cementitious cladding systems to avoid water saturation, migration, 

and potential warping and rot. Stucco should never be installed in 

direct contact with any of the plastic-based housewraps. However, 

two layers of building paper behind stucco are needed for minimal 

drainage (Lstiburek 2008). 

Drainage Gaps

It is essential to provide an air gap or air space between cladding and 

housewraps to reduce the quantity and time liquid-phase water is 

trapped in the exterior of the wall assembly. A drainage gap between 

wood or fiber cement cladding and housewraps can be provided by 

1x4 furring strips (“cedar-breather”), contoured housewrap, or some 

other space. Building America recommends a gap of at least 1/6-inch 

behind lap siding and a drainage space of 3⁄4 inch between stucco 

and plastic housewraps to control liquid-phase water penetration. 

A 1-inch air gap is needed behind brick veneer [as required by 2009 

IRC R703.7.4.2].

Flashing 

Details should be provided for flashing for all windows and doors; 

wall-roof junctions; attachments (such as porches and decks); 

projections and offsets (such as bay windows); and pipes, vents, 

wiring, exterior light fixtures, and other penetrations through the 

wall. See Chapter 12 for instructions on installing window flashing. 

[Flashing should be specified in accordance with the 2009 IRC R703.8.] 

Additional guidance can be found in the EEBA Water Management 

Guide and DOE’s Technology Fact Sheet on Weather-Resistive 

Barriers (DOE 2000), available on the Web at www.eere.energy.gov/

buildings/info/documents/pdfs/28600.pdf.

Taped rigid foam insulation can serve as 

a drainage plane and air barrier as well 

as a thermal boundary behind a stucco 

cladding. If using housewrap instead, never 

apply stucco directly to plastic housewrap. 

Provide a drainage space to prevent 

wetting of the housewap or use two layers 

of textured building paper.

(top) This pipe is flashed with flexible 

flashing. Housewrap is layered shingle style 

over the top edge of the flashing. 

(bottom) New Tradition Homes of 

Vancouver, Washington, flashes the bottom 

edge of its wall sheathing, then layers 

housewrap over the top edge of the flashing.

8.14

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Drain all water away from the structure

Controlling Water Vapor in Walls

Vapor pressure moves water vapor from indoors to outdoors during 

cold, dry weather and from outdoors to indoors during hot, humid 

weather. Movement of this vapor through walls by diffusion is 

undesirable when temperature differences cause this moisture to 

condense inside building cavities, resulting in moisture-related 

problems like mold. Vapor barriers and retarders will stop this vapor 

diffusion; however, “vapor barriers aren’t necessary or even desirable 

in all buildings or in all climates because they can trap moisture” 

(Krigger and Dorsi 2009). Building assemblies should be allowed to 

dry to either the exterior or the interior or both (Lstiburek 2006a).

Vapor Retarders

[According to the 2009 IRC R601.3], in the marine climate Class 1 

or 2 vapor retarders are required on the interior side of unvented, 

framed walls, except for basement walls, the below-grade portion 

of any wall, or construction where moisture or its freezing will not 

damage the materials. Examples of Class 1 vapor retarders include 

sheet polyethylene and unperforated aluminum foil. An example of a 

Class 2 vapor retarder is kraft-faced fiberglass batt insulation. 

[According to the 2009 IRC R601.3], in the marine climate (in IRC 

language “climate zone marine 4”), Class 3 vapor retarders (e.g., 

latex paint) can be used instead of Class 1 or Class 2 vapor retarders 

when walls are designed with the following conditions:

Drainage Plane Choices 

(House Membrane or Rain Barrier)

None of these are waterproof but 

they serve to shed rain water that 

penetrates exterior cladding while 

remaining vapor permeable.

Building Paper is a kraft paper sheet 

impregnated with asphalt to increase 

its strength and resistance to water 

penetration. It is primarily employed as a 

drainage layer. It is graded according to a 

test of the amount of time required for a 

water-sensitive chemical to change color 

when a boat-shaped sample is floated on 

water. Common grades include 10, 20, 30, 

and 60 minutes. The larger the number, 

the more resistant the paper is to water.

Building Felts have been in use for 

over a hundred years. Originally made 

from rags, today’s felts are made of 

recycled paper products and sawdust. 

The base felt is impregnated with asphalt. 

Ratings for felt harken back to the 

traditional weight of the material before 

the oil crisis of the 1970s. At that time 

100 square feet of the material (1 square) 

weighed about 15 pounds. Modern #15 

felt can weigh from 7.5 to 12.5 pounds per 

square depending on the manufacturer.

Housewrap typically refers to specially 

designed plastic sheet materials. 

Housewrap comes in a variety of 

materials and can be perforated or 

non-perforated. If joints and connections 

are sealed, housewraps can serve as 

air retarders to reduce air leakage. 

Housewraps are highly resistant to 

tearing, unlike building paper. Nonperforated wraps tend to have higher 

liquid water resistance because the holes 

between plastic fibers are very small.

(Adapted from Straube 2001) 

Drain Wall

Drain Roof

Drain Building

Drain Site

Drain Ground Drain Ground

Drain Site

Drain Materials

Drain Components

Drain Openings

8.15

8.15

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 vented cladding over OSB

•	 vented cladding over plywood

•	 vented cladding over fiberboard

•	 vented cladding over gypsum

•	 insulated sheathing with R-value > or equal to 2.5 over 2x4 wall

•	 insulated sheathing with R-value > or equal to 3.75 over 2x6 wall.

Class 3 vapor retarders include latex or enamel paint. Vapor 

retarders are further described in Chapter 6.

To avoid trapping moisture in walls, Building America recommends 

that Class 1 or 2 vapor retarders not be placed on the interior side of 

the building envelope between gypsum board and insulation; rather, 

Class 3 vapor retarders, such as latex paint, should be used instead. 

Vinyl-coated wall paper is not recommended on the walls or ceilings 

that form the building envelope of homes in the marine climate. 

One alternative to interior vapor retarders allowed by the 2009 

IRC is to install rigid foam on the exterior side of the walls. This 

insulated sheathing reduces the probability of condensation inside 

the wall. In hot, humid weather, insulating sheathing acts as a 

vapor retarder and helps prevent moist outdoor air from entering 

the wall, reducing the potential for condensation inside the walls 

of air-conditioned homes. In cold weather, the exterior foam layer 

minimizes thermal bridging from the studs to the outside and keeps 

the wall cavity temperature above dew point, reducing the likelihood 

of condensation. If the foam is taped at the seams and caulked at the 

edges, it serves as an air barrier and rain screen.

Drainage Spaces

Cladding should have a drainage space behind it of 1 inch for brick 

and stone veneer, 3/4 inch for stucco, and 1/16 inch for siding. Bricks 

and other masonry absorb water in the form of precipitation and 

irrigation. Solar energy will then drive this moisture in the form of 

vapor into the wall assembly. The 1-inch gap [as required by 2009 IRC 

R703.7.4.2] allows the vapor to dissipate before entering wall cavities. 

An air space stops capillary movement of moisture, discourages 

vapor diffusion, stops the contamination of the drainage plane 

via contact with the cladding, and allows air circulation for better 

drying. In some wall assemblies, ventilation openings to the exterior 

at both the top and bottom further encourage drying (Murray 

2005). See Straube (2009) for information about the performance of 

drainage spaces with different wall types.

Windows

One critical point of concern is water 

leakage around windows. The EEBA Water 

Management Guide (Lstiburek 2006) 

offers examples of many window flashing 

applications. See Chapter 12 for detailed 

examples of window flashing for homes 

with housewrap and plywood or OSB 

sheathing. Window and door flashing 

details should be designed to match 

specific wall assemblies and claddings. 

Flashing systems should be designed in 

accordance with ASTM standard E2112-

07, Standard Practice for Installation of 

Exterior Windows, Doors, and Skylights 

(ASTM 2007).

Water is directed to flow into the wall, 

which could soon lead to water intrusion 

and damage.

8.16

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Air Sealing

In addition to water diffusion, water vapor can be carried by air. 

Therefore, air sealing is an important method for preventing water 

vapor movement into walls. To be effective the air barrier must be 

continuous, meaning that it extends over the entire envelope of 

the structure, but the barrier may be made up of many materials. 

Indicate on plans the methods, materials, and locations where 

sealing is needed to form the house air pressure barrier. Specify the 

approach to be taken to meet vapor barrier code requirements.

(top) When rigid foam insulation is applied 

to the exterior side of the wall cavity under 

the cladding, with seams taped and glued 

down, it acts as a vapor barrier, preventing 

moisture in brick and stucco finishes from 

being driven inward during drying. It also 

serves as an air barrier and rain screen, and 

during the heating season, it maintains the 

temperature of the wall cavity above dew 

point, to prevent condensation.

(bottom) Flashing, gaskets, and caulk are 

used to air seal around penetrations in the 

building envelope under brick, stucco, and 

lap siding exteriors.

(see house figures at left) Air sealing is 

needed throughout the house to ensure 

an airtight shell. The house on top uses 

conventional approaches. The house on the 

bottom uses external rigid foam sheathing, 

which provides a continuous air barrier so 

less air sealing steps are required. Foam 

sheathing can also serve as a drainage 

plane, vapor barrier, and thermal barrier. 

(Detailed drawings are in Chapter 12.)

Interior Air Barrier – 

Points to Seal

Exterior Air Barrier with 

Rigid Foam Sheathing – 

Points to Seal

8.17

8.17

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Air Infiltration in Wall Assemblies

[The 2009 IECC Sec 402.4 requires that the building thermal envelope 

be durably sealed to limit infiltration and specifies that the following 

areas should be caulked, gasketed, weather-stripped or otherwise air 

sealed: all joints, seams, and penetrations; site-built windows, doors, 

and skylights; window and door openings; utility penetrations; dropped 

ceilings or chases on exterior walls; knee walls; walls and ceilings 

separating a garage from the conditioned space; behind tubs and 

showers on exterior walls; common walls between dwelling units; attic 

access openings; rim joist junction; and other sources of infiltration. 

Air leakage is to be tested with a blower door or visual inspection.]

A comprehensive air sealing strategy begins with indicating on the 

house plans the location of the conditioned space by outlining the 

building envelope. The plans should show the location of complex 

details like chases, stairwells, dropped ceilings, fireplace penetrations, 

balconies, and knee walls, so that they can easily be identified as 

being inside or outside the conditioned space. The plans also should 

show were insulation and draft-stopping should be installed. 

If the air barrier will be on the interior side of the envelope, it is 

important to specify that all drywall joints be caulked, mudded, and 

taped. To ensure an airtight envelope when the air barrier is on the 

inside of the building envelope, builders should address the following 

common sources of air leakage through walls:

•	 Insulate and air seal behind tubs and shower stalls on the exterior 

walls by filling the wall cavity with insulation, and then installing 

and sealing rigid sheathing material on the interior surfaces of the 

wall before the tub or shower is installed. 

•	 Line fireplace enclosure framing with rigid sheathing material, 

like gypsum board, plywood, wafer board, or foil-covered pressed 

paper, and seal edges to box in sides, top, and bottom of fireplace 

enclosure. Wood burning fireplaces should have gasketed doors 

and outdoor combustion air [per 2009 IECC 402.4.3].

•	 Air seal chimney chases and around the chimney flue where it 

penetrates the ceiling using sheetmetal and heat-resistant caulk.

•	 Box in tops and ends of soffits and dropped ceilings with sheathing 

that is caulked to framing on all edges.

•	 Fill in the rough opening around windows and doors with foam, 

caulk, or backer rod.

•	 Apply housewrap and flashing as shown in Chapter 12.

•	 Caulk, foam, or seal with gaskets all penetrations for electrical 

boxes, outlets, switches, and plumbing.

Cladding should have a drainage 

space behind it of 

• 1 inch for bric

• 3/4 inch for stucco, a

• 1/16 inch for sidin

(top) Windows should be flashed in 

accordance with ASTM E2112-07.

(bottom) Window flashing on outside 

is overlapped to provide a continuous 

drainage plane.

8.18

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Alternatively, the air barrier can be placed on the outside of the 

building envelope. One method for doing this is to install rigid 

foam on the exterior side of the wall under the cladding. This foam 

sheathing can provide a continuous air barrier when all seams are 

taped and caulked. This exterior air-barrier system can also help 

control wind washing. 

For occupant health and safety, builders should pay close attention 

to sealing shared walls and ceilings between attached garages and 

living spaces. When the garage is attached to the house, the gaps 

created by joists spanning both conditioned space and the garage 

must be blocked off and sealed. Creating air barriers to close gaps 

between the garage and the conditioned space is more difficult with 

irregularly shaped joists, such as I-joists and web-trusses. A simple 

solution is to plan ahead and align the ends of the joists with the 

wall adjoining the conditioned space to allow for end blocking.

Envelope Air Sealing

(Figure source: Building Science Corporation)

Gaps between garage and conditioned 

space are properly sealed by carefully 

cutting and then caulking wood sections 

to fit between trusses. (Photo source: EPA 

2008 “Thermal Bypass Checklist”)

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Ta

com

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard

Seal

H

HOU

Before i

the windo

the outsid

of the h

si

Do n

acros

CAU

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use 

Air seal g

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insualtion

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Wood or rigid foam filler blocking is 

needed to close off the gaps between 

floor joists to form an air break between 

conditioned and unconditioned spaces.

Attic access panel air sealing

Garage common wall air sealing

Filler blocking is a 

harder shape to cut 

with engineered lumber

Filler blocking is a 

simpler shape with 

dimensional lumber

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAU

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Bloc

s

Insu

co

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REG

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plat

or gasketed t

 on interio

or both 

Drywa

glued or 

to top plate o

exterior, or bot

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

s

8.19

8.19

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Heat Flow in Wall Assemblies

The control of heat flow in the building is primarily managed by 

the type, thickness, and location of insulation. Window selection 

and design are also important. [The 2009 IECC 402 requires a wall R 

value of R-20 for wood-frame walls (or R-13 cavity plus R-5 insulated 

sheathing). For mass walls (concrete block, concrete, ICF, brick, etc.), 

the requirement is R-13 for exterior insulation or R-17 if more than 

half the insulation is on the interior in the marine climate.] Consider 

implementing the following above-code recommendations: 

• Use advanced framing techniques to cut lumber costs and provide 

more space for insulation. Provide advanced framing details on plans.

• Specify that cavity walls separating conditioned and unconditioned 

spaces be insulated with high-density batt insulation, dense-packed 

fibrous insulation, or spray-applied foam.

• Specify that spray foam be used to insulate and seal rim joists at 

areas between floors or where the wall connects to the floor.

• Specify taped rigid foam insulating sheathing be used in addition 

to cavity insulation. This sheathing eliminates thermal bridging at 

the studs.

• Use third-party inspectors or HERS raters to inspect insulation 

installation before dry walling.

• Specify energy-efficient windows that control solar energy gains and 

help reduce heating and cooling loads. Maximum U-values of 0.3 

or lower are recommended [2009 IECC Table 402.1.3 requires ≤ 0.35 

U-value]. 

• Specify ENERGY STAR labeled doors.

• Design roofs and overhangs to shade and protect windows, doors, 

and walls.

Code/Above Code 

Wall Insulation Above Grade

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR R-20 or R-13+5*

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

R-21 intermediate 

framing**

OR

Unlimited WWR R-21

CA

>20% WWR 

Climate Zones 1-5

CA CZ 1 = R-21

CA CZ 1-5 = R-13

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations R-21 fiberglass batt + 

1”-2”rigid foam**

R-19 blown fiberglass or 

blown cellulose + 1” to 

2” rigid foam

* R-13 cavity insulation + R-5 rigid foam sheathing

** Insulate the headers with R-10 (2 inches) of 

rigid foam board

WWR = window-wall ratio

CZ = climate zone

8.20

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Roof Assemblies

Controlling Liquid Water in Roof Assemblies

Roof and wall assemblies must contain surfaces that will drain 

water in a continuous manner down and off the building. Water 

must have a path that will take it from its point of impact, around 

any elements, such as chimneys, windows, doors, and seams, all 

the way to the exterior ground, and away from the house. Consider 

implementing the following recommendations: 

•	 Properly flash valleys and roof edges.

•	 Size gutters and downspouts to accommodate anticipated 

storms. Show gutter sizes on elevations and specify sizes in 

construction documents.

•	 Provide downspout drainage to carry water at least 3 feet 

beyond the building.

•	 In areas with potentially high winds and heavy rains, install 

4-inch to 6-inch “peel and seal” self-adhering water-proofing 

strips over joints in roof decking before installing the roof 

underlayment and cover.

•	 Keep roof geometry simple. The more complex the roof—the more 

dormers, ridges, and valleys—the more likely the roof will leak. 

Controlling Water Vapor in Roof Assemblies

Vapor diffusion should be considered as a secondary moisture 

transport mechanism when designing and building roofs. Specific 

vapor retarders are often unnecessary if appropriate air movement 

control is provided or if control of condensing surface temperatures 

is provided (Lstiburek 2004b). 

Controlling Air Flow in Roof/Attic Assemblies

Air sealing of the ceiling uses techniques similar to those used for 

the walls, although roof air sealing may be made more challenging 

by irregularities in the roof shape. [The 2009 IECC 402.4 requires 

that the building thermal envelope be air sealed, including all joints, 

seams, and penetrations; dropped ceilings; knee walls; walls and ceilings 

separating a garage from conditioned space; attic access openings; rim 

joist junctions; and other sources of infiltration.]

(top & middle) New Tradition Homes of 

Vancouver, Washington, uses a basic roof 

shape in the back of its houses and adds 

design interest with architectural details 

in the front to keep roofs simpler and 

therefore easier to flash and waterproof.

(bottom) Kick-out flashing should be 

installed to divert water runoff into gutters 

rather than flowing down the wall.

8.21

8.21

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Air sealing details to consider include:

•	 Provide details on plans for air sealing, especially of complex 

structures like kneewalls, gable windows, porch-attic interfaces, 

and cathedral ceilings. 

•	 Seal all penetrations and seams in ceiling gypsum board so that it 

functions as a continuous air barrier. 

•	 Draft-stop soffits with rigid air barrier caulked at seams. 

•	 Gasket or weather strip attic access hatches or doors and insulate 

to ceiling insulation depth [as required by 2009 IECC 402.2.3]. 

•	 Install recessed lighting fixtures that are airtight and caulk or 

gasket the housing to the ceiling drywall [per 2009 IECC 402.4.5].

•	 Provide a weather-stripped cover for whole house fans.

•	 Ensure that skylights have a labeled infiltration rate of no more 

than 0.3 cfm/ft2

 [per 2009 IECC 402.4.4].

Controlling Heat Flow in Roof Assemblies

Maintaining the insulation level throughout the entire plane of the 

ceiling and over the top of the perimeter walls is key to controlling 

heat flow through the attic. Raised heel energy trusses allow the 

thickness of the ceiling insulation to be maintained above the top 

plates of the exterior wall framing. Baffles should be installed at 

each rafter bay to prevent wind washing of thermal insulation 

and to prevent insulation from blocking ventilation in vented roof 

assemblies. [The 2009 IECC Sec 402.1 requires a ceiling R value of R-38 

in the marine climate, and a minimum of R-30 in cathedral ceilings. If 

raised heel trusses are used allowing full height of insulation over the 

wall top plate, then R-30 is permitted instead of R-38 (Sec 402.2.2).]

For More Information on Moisture, Air, 

and Heat Flow Control in Walls and Roofs

ASTM. 2007. Standard Practice for Installation of Exterior Windows, Doors, and Skylights. 

www.astm.org/Standards/E2112.htm

Buildernews Magazine, May 2004, “Housewrap Felt or Paper: Comparing specs on weather 

barriers,” www.buildernewsmag.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1168

%3AHousewrap+Felt+or+Paper%3A&Itemid=107

Building Science Corporation. Homeowner Information Resources.

www.buildingscienceconsulting.com/resources/homeowner.htm

DOE. “Vapor Barriers and Vapor Diffusion Retarders.” Energy Savers Fact Sheet, 

www.energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.efm/mytopic=11810

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

CAULK

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

perimeter and seams

CAULK

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

(top) Raised heel or energy trusses allow 

even the corners of the attic to be well 

insulated; this helps to prevent ice dams in 

winter and keeps rooms cooler in summer.

(bottom) Martha Rose Construction, a 

Building America partner in Seattle, used 

rigid foam insulation in this attic.

Air seal the intersections of the 

kneewalls and roof with sheet goods 

and caulk or spray foam.

Insulation at full thickness 

over exterior walls

8.22

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
DOE. 2009. Moisture Control in Walls, Energy Savers, 

www.energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11800?print

ENERGY STAR. 2008. Thermal Bypass Checklist Guide www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/

bldrs_lenders_raters/downloads/TBC_Guide_062507.pdf, pg. 13

Gatland, S. D., Karagiozis, A. N., Murray, C., and Ueno, K., “The Hygrothermal Performance 

of Wood-Framed Wall Systems Using a Relative Humidity-Dependent Vapor Retarder in 

the Pacific Northwest.” in Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings X, 

proceedings of ASHRAE THERM X, Clearwater, FL, Dec. 2007. 

www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/staff/papers/148.pdf

IBACOS. 2002. “Moisture Issues in Homes with Brick Veneer” 

www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/db/36397.pdf

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, Section 402.4 “Air Leakage,” 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2004a. Builders Guides. Guides to mixed humid, hot-dry, mixed-dry, and 

cold climates for purchase at www.eeba.org/bookstore. 

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2004b. Roof Design, Research Report 0404, Building Science 

Corporation, www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/rr-0404-roof-design.

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2006a. EEBA Water Management Guide, available for purchase at 

www.eeba.org/bookstore/prod-Water_Management_Guide-9.aspx 

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2006b. Understanding Drainage Planes, Building Science Digest 105, 

2006-10-24, Building Science Corporation, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/digests/bsd-105-understanding-drainage-planes/

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2008. Problems with Housewraps, Research Report 0106, Building 

Science Corporation, Building Science Press copyright 2008, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/digests/bsd-013-rain-control-in-buildings

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2009. “Insight: The Perfect Wall,” Building Science Insight 001: 

last updated 2009/05/21, Building Science Corporation, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/insights/bsi-001-the-perfect-wall

NAHBRC. Moisture Protection of Wood Sheathing, National Association of Home Builders 

Research Center www.toolbase.org.PDF/DesignGuides/MoistureProtectionWoodSheathing.pdf

NWPCC. 2010. Energy Efficiency: Appendix F: Model Conservation Standards, Northwest 

Power and Conservation Council., Council Document 2010-03, www.nwcouncil.org.

Straube, John. 2001. “Wrapping it Up,” Canadian Architect. May, 2001. 

www.cdnarchitect.com/issues/ISarticle.asp?aid=1000115982

Straube, John. 2009. RR-0907: Ventilated Wall Claddings: Review, Field Performance, and 

Hygrothermal Modeling, www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/rr-0907-ventilatedwall-claddings-review-performance-modeling/view

University of Illinois Extension Office. “Five Steps to a Healthier Garage.” 

http://web.extension.uiuc.edu/will/factsheets/family116.html

Baffles allow ventilation under roof decking 

while keeping wind from blowing insulation 

back from the edges of an attic.

(right) Raised heel trusses allow space for 

the full depth of insulation. Dark line is 

a baffle, which allows ventilation of roof 

while keeping wind from blowing 

back insulation.

(left) Traditional roof trusses pinch 

insulation where the roof meets the walls

Code/Above Code Ceiling Insulation

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR R-38

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

R-49 or R-38 

advanced framing

OR

Unlimited WWR R-38

CA

>20% WWR 

Climate Zones 1-5

CZ1 – R-38

CZ2-5 – R-30

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations R-49 blown fiberglass 

or blown cellulose**

R-49 Spray foam on 

ceiling deck

R-49 Spray foam along 

underside of roof deck*

R-49 Rigid foam 

exterior insulation on 

top of roof sheathing*

* Forms cathedralized conditioned attic for 

 HVAC & ducts, and conditioned storage space.

** Level recommended by NWPCC 2010.

WWR = window-wall ratio

CZ = climate zone

8.23

8.23

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Window and Door Assemblies

Windows are a prominent feature of any wall. Choosing highly 

efficient windows will add expense to your project but will increase 

comfort, durability, and energy savings. The National Fenestration 

Rating Council (www.nfrc.org) provides window labeling that 

includes the following performance information:

•	 U-factor measures heat transfer—the lower the U-factor, the 

better the window performs at stopping heat flow. U-factors are 

the inverse of R-values, which measure a material’s insulation 

effectiveness. U-factor values for windows generally fall between 

0.20 and 1.2.

• Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) measures how well the window 

blocks heat caused by sunlight—the lower the SHGC rating, the 

less solar heat the window transmits. This rating is expressed as a 

fraction between 0 and 1.

• Visible transmittance (VT) measures how much light comes 

through a window. VT is expressed as a number between 0 and 1

—the bigger the number, the more clear the glass.

• Air leakage through a window assembly (AL rating) is expressed 

as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a square foot 

of window area (cfm/ft2

)—the lower the AL, the less the window 

leaks. A typical rating is 0.2. [Per the 2009 IECC 402.4.4, windows, 

skylights, and sliding glass doors should have an air infiltration rate of ≤

0.3 cfm/ft2 and swinging doors of ≤ 0.5 cfm/ft2.]

[2009 IECC 402 requires a maximum U-factor of 0.35 with no SHGC 

requirement specified for the marine climate.] ENERGY STAR 

qualifies windows based on climate zones and divides the United 

States into four climate zones. See the charts and map for U-factor 

and SHGC guidelines for marine climate states.

The DOE-sponsored Efficient Windows Collaborative operates a 

website that can help designers and consumers choose windows 

(www.efficientwindows.org/index.cfm). The website includes a 

tool that allows users to analyze energy costs and savings for 

windows with different ratings. The website also has fact sheets 

with comparisons for each state.

Vancouver, Washington, builder New 

Tradition homes installed ENERGY STAR 

doors and windows on its homes to 

increase energy savings.

Example of a window label from the 

National Fenestration Rating Council 

and ENERGY STAR.

8.24

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
ENERGY STAR Qualified Windows, Doors and Skylights Eligibility Criteria 

(Version 5.0, 04/07/2009, effective 01/04/2010)

For More Information on Windows and Doors

American Architectural Manufacturers Association. “Product Certification – Search now 

for AAMA-Certified Products (windows and doors).” Available at 

www.aamanet.org/general.asp?sect=2&id=127 

ASTM. ASTM E2112 - 07. Standard Practice for Installation of Exterior Windows, Doors and 

Skylights, www.astm.org/Standards/E2112.htm 

Carmody, John, Stephen Selkowitz, Dariush Arasteh, and Lisa Heschong. 2000. 

Residential Windows: A Guide to New Technologies and Energy Performance. 

W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York. 

ENERGY STAR Efficient Windows Collaborative

www.efficientwindows.org/energystar.cfm 

ENERGY STAR. Residential Windows, Doors, and Skylights. 

www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=windows_doors.pr_windows 

FMA/AAMA 100-07. “Standard Practice for the Installation of Windows with Flanges or 

Mounting Fins in Wood Frame Construction.” Available from AAMA’s online store at 

www.aamanetstore.org/pubstore/ProductResults.asp?cat=0&src=100

Insulating Glass Manufacturers Alliance.

www.igmaonline.org/content.php?doc=142

National Fenestration Rating Council.

www.nfrc.org

Code/Above Code 

Window U Factor and 

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code U Factor SHGC

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR 0.35 NR

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

>13% 0.34

>25% 0.32

Unlimited 0.30

NR

OR

Unlimited WWR 0.35 NR

CA

>20% WWR 0.40 < 0.40

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

< 0.30

Double glazing > 0.35

WWR = window-wall ratio

NR - No Requirement

SHGC - solar heat gain coefficient

8.25

8.25

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
8.26

CHAPTER 8. BUILDING ENVELOPE SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
A home’s mechanical systems can have a significant impact on 

its energy performance and comfort. As envelope performance 

improves, these systems are becoming more important targets for 

improved efficiency. The charts below show typical energy usage for 

the equipment described in this chapter, including HVAC (heating, 

ventilation, and air conditioning), plumbing and water heating, 

lighting, and appliances. Although placed at the end of this chapter, 

commissioning and safety are essential aspects of building performance.

Heating, Ventilation and 

Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Using Building America 

best practices for insulation, 

windows, and air sealing can 

improve building envelope 

performance to such an 

extent that HVAC system 

size can sometimes be cut in 

half and still meet occupant 

comfort needs. Builders may 

be surprised to find that 

properly sizing the HVAC 

system increases comfort 

while providing a remarkable 

opportunity for dollar savings 

in high-performance homes.

Chapter 9.

Mechanical, Plumbing, 

and Electrical Systems

A centrally located manifold water 

distribution system saves energy by 

reducing hot water usage.

CHAPTER TOPICS

9.1 Heating, Ventilation and 

Air Conditioning (HVAC)

9.14 Plumbing and Water Heating

9.19 High-Performance Lighting

9.21 Appliances

9.22 Commissioning

9.25 Occupant Health and Safety

2005 Typical Residential Onsite 

Energy Consumption End Uses 

in the Western United States

(Figure source: DOE. 2008. 2008 Buildings 

Energy Data Book, based on delivered 

energy end-uses for an average household 

in the west.)

0

50

100

150

200

250

Benchmark 40%

(Mbtu/yr)

Appliance & Misc.

Lighting

Cooling

Heating

Hot Water

A Comparison of Energy Usage by End Use for a Home Built to 

Perform with 40% Energy Savings Compared to the Building America 

Benchmark (a home built to MEC 1993) in the Marine Climate. Example 

based on a 2-story, 1,884 ft2 house in Portland, OR. Analysis by BIRA.

44.3%

15.9%

7.9%

15.5%

7%

4.4%

Cooling

Water Heating

Lighting

Refrigeration

Other 

Appliances

& Electronics

Heating

Energy End-Use

9.1

9.1

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For the best results in comfort, efficiency, and durability, HVAC and 

duct design must be integrated in the overall architectural design. 

Builders should work closely with their HVAC engineer to properly 

size and select the HVAC equipment, design and install ducts, and 

provide appropriate ventilation. [The 2009 IECC 403.1 requires that the 

forced air furnaces come with a programmable thermostat and the heat 

pumps with electric resistance backup heat should be equipped with 

controls that prevent the supplemental heater from coming on when the 

heat pump compressor can meet the load.] These steps will go a long 

way toward improved energy efficiency, comfort, and cost savings.

Heating and Cooling Equipment

A well-designed house should have an HVAC system properly sized 

to its demands. The Air Conditioning Contractors of America 

(ACCA) has published simple but effective methods for determining 

loads and sizing of ductwork and heating and cooling equipment 

(available for purchase at www.acca.org). 

•	 MANUAL S guides you through the 

selection of appropriate heating and 

cooling equipment to meet identified loads.

•	 MANUAL J tells you how to calculate 

heating and cooling loads. 

•	 MANUAL D tells you how to size ducts.

•	 MANUAL T gives you the basics of air 

distribution for small buildings. 

•	 MANUAL RS focuses on comfort, air 

quality, and efficiency.

[The 2009 IECC 403.6 mandates that heating and cooling equipment be 

sized in accordance with the 2009 IRC M1401.3, which cites ACCA Manuals 

S and J for equipment sizing and load calculations. Equipment serving 

multiple dwelling units should comply with 2009 IECC Sec 503 and 504 

for commercial buildings, rather than 403 for residential buildings.]

For central gas-fired heating systems, sealed-combustion gas furnaces 

should be installed. Sealed-combustion furnaces draw combustion 

air directly from outdoors rather than from the surrounding space, 

eliminating the potential for backdrafting. Declining costs make highefficiency furnaces an increasingly good value. Look for ENERGY 

STAR-qualified furnaces, heat pumps, and air conditioners.

Right sizing of HVAC equipment 

using Manual J calculations can 

minimize energy use and save 

upfront costs.

Efficiency Measures for Air 

Conditioners, Heat Pumps, 

and Furnaces

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER)

is a measure of equipment energy 

efficiency over the cooling season. It 

represents the total cooling of a central 

airconditioner or heat pump (in Btu) 

during the normal cooling season as 

compared to the total electric energy 

input (in watt-hours) consumed during 

the same period. 

Heating Season Performance Factor 

(HSPF) is a measure of a heat pump’s 

energy efficiency over one heating 

season. It represents the total heating 

output of a heat pump (including 

supplementary electric heat) during 

the normal heating season (in Btu) 

as compared to the total electricity 

consumed (in watt-hours) during the 

same period.

Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency 

(AFUE) measures the amount of fuel 

converted to heat at the furnace outlet in 

proportion to the amount of fuel entering 

the furnace. This is commonly expressed 

as a percentage. A furnace with an AFUE 

of 90 could be said to be 90% efficient.

Energy Efficiency Rating (EER)

a rating of a central air conditioner’s 

steady-state efficiency at 80°F indoors 

and 95°F outdoors, measured once the 

air conditioner is up and running.

Use MERV 8 air filters in the 

air handler for cleaner indoor air.

9.2

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Heat pumps are preferable to electric resistance heating in the 

marine climate. A unit with an HSPF of 7.7 or more will reduce the 

electric consumption during heating by more than 50% relative to 

electric resistance heating. In colder areas where temperatures often 

fall below 30 ̊F, typical air source heat pumps require an electric 

resistance backup system to properly heat a home. This can be a 

costly method of supplemental heating; a backup gas or propane 

furnace may be a cost-effective alternative. 

One technology showing promise is a mini-split ductless heat pump, 

which uses a single compressor/condenser outside connected to one 

or more indoor air handler units that provide energy-efficient zone 

heating and cooling with no ducts to install. Another promising 

technology is the all-climate heat pump, which according to the 

manufacturer, can maintain comfortable indoor temperatures 

without supplemental heat even when the temperature outdoors 

falls below zero. 

Geothermal or ground-source heat pumps can be very efficient 

for heating and cooling because they use the constant temperature 

of the earth as the exchange medium instead of the outside air 

temperature. This allows the system to reach fairly high efficiencies 

(300%-600%) on the coldest of winter nights, compared to 175%-

250% for air-source heat pumps on cool days. The disadvantages are 

their initial cost and the need for yard space to install the piping. 

For more information on various HVAC technologies, see 

www.energysavers.gov.

Radiant flooring is another option that can be energy saving 

depending on the source of energy used, for example, hydronic 

radiant floor heating using solar-heated fluid; this would require a 

thick concrete thermal storage floor to hold heat from the day to 

release at night when the sun is not heating the water. 

For home cooling in the marine climate, heat pumps are preferable 

to standard air conditioning. For either system, it is important to 

verify that the refrigerant level is correct at installation. The EPA 

reports that 75% of installed air conditioners had the wrong amount 

of refrigerant when tested. Incorrect refrigerant levels can lower 

efficiency by 5% to 20% and can cause premature component failure, 

resulting in costly repairs (see EPA Heating and Cooling Refrigerant 

Charging guidelines www.epa.gov). Building America recommends 

a MERV 8 or higher filter on the HVAC return. MERV (Minimum 

Efficiency Reporting Value) is a measure of an air filter’s efficiency 

at removing particles. [This exceeds the ASHRAE 62.2-2010 6.7 

recommended MERV 6 or better.] 

Duct Run Configurations

Here are three example designs for putting 

ducts in conditioned space.

(Source: Building Science Corporation)

9.3

9.3

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Heating and Cooling Equipment 

Air Conditioning Contractors of America. 2007. ACCA Standard 5 HVAC Quality Installation 

Specification, ANSI/ACCA 5 QI-2007, Air Conditioning Contractors of America, 2800 

Shirlington Road, Suite 300, Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual J: Residential Load Calculation, Eighth 

Edition. ACCA, Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual S: Residential Equipment Selection. ACCA, 

Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2007, “Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices 

for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size,” available for purchase from ASHRAE’s bookstore 

www.ashrae.org 

Consortium for Advanced Residential Buildings. Steven Winter Associates, Inc (CARBSWA). Designing Forced-Air HVAC Systems. www.carb-swa.com/Resources

Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE) and the Air-Conditioning, Heating, and 

Refrigeration Institute (AHRI). Database of qualifying ENERGY STAR heat pumps and air 

conditioners at www.ceehvacdirectory.org

Consortium for Energy Efficiency. Residential HVAC: CEE-AHRI HVAC Directory.

www.cee1.org/resid/rs-ac/rs-ac-main.php3

Cowan, Laura. “How Heat Pumps Work.” 13 May 2009. HowStuffWorks.com. 

http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/heating-and-cooling/heat-pump.htm 

08 November 2009.

Furnace Filter Care. “Understanding MERV Ratings,” 

www.furnacefiltercare.com/merv-ratings.php

The Building Industry Institute. Procedures for HVAC System Installation.

www.thebii.org/hvac.pdf

Building Energy Codes Resource Center. “How to Size HVAC Systems Correctly,” 

U.S. Department of Energy, http://resourcecenter.pnl.gov/cocoon/morf/ResourceCenter/

article/137

DOE. “Right-Size Heating and Cooling Equipment,” U.S. Department of Energy Technology 

Fact Sheet, www.toolbase.org/Design-Construction-Guides/HVAC/right-size-hvac-equipment 

DOE. 2008. 2008 Buildings Energy Databook. U.S. Department of Energy, 

http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/ 

EPA. Heating and Cooling: Sizing and Installation – Proper Refrigerant Charging, U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency. www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=heat_cool.pr_

properly_sized

U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Savers – Heating Systems, DOE, www.energysavers.gov

Space-conditioning systems should meet 

the ACCA Quality Installation Specification

9.4

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Ducts and Air Handlers

Duct System Design and Layout

In the Pacific Northwest, standard practice is to locate the furnace 

in the garage, supply ducts in the crawlspace, and return ducts in the 

attic. As typically installed, this “default” design is assumed in codes 

to reduce system efficiency by about 20%; whereas placing ducts 

in conditioned space is assumed to cut air loss to about 4% (ICC 

2006 as reported in Lubliner et al. 2008). Moving ducts inside has 

been estimated to save a homeowner 795 to 1902 kWh per year in 

Portland and Seattle (Regional Technical Forum 2006).

As the data confirm, the best practice is to locate the ducts in 

conditioned space so that any leakage that does occur will send air 

to or draw air from conditioned space. Ducts may be run through 

open-web floor trusses in a two-story home; through a dropped 

hallway ceiling in a one-story home; or through a conditioned attic, 

conditioned crawlspace, or conditioned basement. Ducts should not be 

located in exterior walls. Air handlers should be located in conditioned 

space, such as a closet inside the home, in a conditioned attic or 

basement, or in an air sealed and conditioned closet in the garage. 

In all cases, duct systems should be designed using ACCA Manual D

[2009 IRC M1601.1]; duct runs should be as short as possible, and duct 

sizes and layouts should be shown on plans. Building cavities should 

not be used as supply ducts [2009 IECC 403.2.3] or return ducts.

Keeping ducts and air handlers inside conditioned space typically 

impacts architectural design and should be considered early in the 

design process. Duct chases or dropped soffits may require thinking 

through the sequence of how trade contractors will do the installation. 

Calculated Savings for Moving Ducts Inside

Climate ENERGY STAR with HP

(kWh/year)

WA state code with HP 

(kWh/year)

Portland 795 1,874

Seattle 811 1,902

Both cases assume an 8.5 HSPF heat pump; the ENERGY STAR case assumes 

commissioning for charge, flow and controls.

HP = heat pump

Source: Regional Technical Forum (2006)

Marine climate builders Schneider and 

Quadrant run ducts through open-web floor 

trusses to keep the ducts in conditioned 

space (shown here). Open-web trusses allow 

subcontractors the flexibility to run plumbing, 

electrical, and ductwork easily between 

floors, with little to no “trade damage” or 

“trade fighting.” Air handlers are located in 

conditioned space in the home or in an airsealed closet in the garage.

“We have over 300 plans in our 

portfolio and we were able to 

move ducts inside on nearly 

all of them.”

Quinn Wyatt, Assistant Design 

Manager, Quadrant Homes

9.5

9.5

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The Seattle-area production builder Quadrant Homes worked with 

Bob’s Heating in Kirkland, Washington, to design systems that 

brought the furnace and ducts into conditioned space. “It is easier for 

installers to do a quality job in the home when they are not lying in 

mud, deep in a corner of the crawlspace,” said Wade Craig of Bob’s 

Heating. When ducts are installed between floors, they are clearly 

visible to the general contractor and inspector, encouraging better 

installations. Another major concern is “trade damage” when electrical 

or plumbing subcontractors compromise ducts to squeeze their wires 

and pipes into the same space. With open-web trusses there is enough 

room for all trades, making each subcontractor’s work easier. 

Craig said his firm can lower its bid when the HVAC system is 

moved inside. Additionally, Craig points out that moving the 

furnace from the attic to a mechanical closet on the second floor 

facilitates easier equipment servicing and increases worker safety 

for installation and retrofit. Quadrant is aware of the potential for 

air leakage pathways between floors and the need to reduce those 

pathways via proper insulation and sealing of the rim joists. All 

ducts in Quadrant homes are well sealed with mastic and tested with 

a Duct BlasterTM (Lubliner et al. 2008).

If ducts are not in conditioned space, one alternative is to locate the 

ducts on the ceiling deck of an unconditioned attic and “bury” the 

ducts with blown-in insulation. Burying ducts is accepted as part 

of California’s Title 24 building code. In more humid climates this 

strategy is not recommended because condensation could occur at 

the duct exterior surface.

Locating air handlers and return ducts in the garage is not 

recommended because of the potential for drawing carbon 

monoxide and hazardous fumes into the home. If the air handler 

must be located in the garage, it should be enclosed in an insulated, 

air-sealed closet. Ducts located in the garage may not have any 

openings in the garage [2009 IRC R302.5.2] and furnaces and air 

handlers that supply air to living spaces shall not supply air to or 

return air from a garage [2009 IRC M1601.6]. The air handler and 

any return-air ductwork should be thoroughly sealed with UL 

181-BM-compliant mastic, with a target leakage between the duct 

system and the garage of 0 CFM @25Pa. 

Duct Sealing and Insulating

Leaky duct systems cause energy losses, but they can also 

depressurize the house, which can pull outdoor, unfiltered air into 

the house from attics, crawlspaces, attached garages, and through 

building walls. 

(top) One technique for placing ducts in 

conditioned space is to run a duct chase in 

a dropped ceiling down the main hallway 

of the house with registers off the sides 

for each room. This technique allows for 

compact duct design.

(middle) This finished house shows 

registers going directly from a main duct 

chase in the dropped hallway ceiling.

(bottom) This air handler closet is carved 

out of the garage space but is isolated with 

thermal and air barriers.

9.6

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
All ducts, air handlers, and filter boxes should be air sealed and joints 

and seams should comply with the 2009 IRC M1601.4.1. The 2009 

IRC describes several UL 181 approved sealing methods. Building 

America recommends water-based mastic that complies with UL 

181-BM, as appropriate. Duct-drywall connections should be 

sealed with caulk or foam sealant. Mastic provides the most reliable 

duct-sealing method for new construction. Leaky ductwork in an 

unconditioned attic or crawlspace not only leaks energy but it can 

also draw unhealthy air into the air distribution system. Sealing ducts 

with mastic is desirable even for ducts located in conditioned spaces. 

Properly sealed ducts make sure air gets to the rooms intended, rather 

than leaking into a plenum space. It also minimizes the chances of 

creating pressure differentials from room to room that can cause 

unwanted airflow. The process of sealing each joint reduces the 

chances of unconnected ductwork, a surprisingly common mistake. 

Although mastic is the most reliable duct-sealing method, the 2009 

IRC M1601.4.1 allows and DOE research has found that some tapes 

perform adequately for sealing ducts, particularly fiberglass duct 

board (see sidebar). However, high-performance tapes may be 

difficult to identify and traditional duct tape (cloth-backed rubber 

adhesive tape) should never be used to seal ducts, even if it meets UL 

ratings. Tapes have low tensile strength and should not be used to 

mechanically support ducts. 

If the ducts are placed in unconditioned spaces, 10% to 30% of 

the energy used to cool the air can be lost to conduction through 

the duct surfaces due to the extreme summer temperatures in these 

spaces. Supply ducts in attics should be insulated to R-8 minimum 

and all other ducts should be insulated to R-6 minimum, except 

insulation is not required for ducts located inside the building’s 

thermal envelope [per 2009 IECC 403.2]. 

Duct air tightness should be verified with duct blaster pressure testing. 

[The 2009 IECC 403.2 requires that ducts be tested for air tightness 

and allows for the testing to occur either before or after drywall is 

put up. If tested at pre-drywall or rough-in, they must be ≤ 6 cfm per 

100 ft2

 of conditioned floor area at 25 Pa; if ducts are tested after 

construction, then ≤ 8 cfm at 25 Pa. (If the air handler and all ducts are 

in conditioned space, duct leakage testing is not required.)] Building 

America recommends testing at rough-in when leaks can be easily 

accessed and sealed.

For More Information on Duct Layout and Sealing

Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA). Manual D: Residential Duct Systems. 

ACCA, Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

Ducts Buried In Insulation

Based on Building America research, 

California’s Title 24 includes provisions for 

buried and deeply buried ducts in attics.

Quadrant Put Ducts in Conditioned 

Space to Reach Tax Credit Level

While working with the WSU Energy Office, 

a Building America research partner, to 

redesign its homes to achieve the 50% 

savings federal tax credit level, it became 

evident to Quadrant that moving ducts 

inside conditioned space was the best 

option for meeting the energy savings 

target. Quadrant met with its HVAC 

subcontractor, Bob’s Heating, to design a 

new system that moved the supply ducts 

into conditioned space and put the furnace 

in a mechanical closet on the second floor. 

This practice decreased costs by allowing 

shorter duct runs and smaller furnaces. It 

increased quality by getting subcontractors 

out of the crawlspace and into a work 

environment that is easier, faster, and safer 

to work in and much more easily inspected.

9.7

9.7

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual T: Air Distribution Basics for Residential 

and Small Commercial Buildings. ACCA, Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

Better Duct Systems for Home Heating and Cooling, NREL/BR-550-30506; DOE/GO102004-1606. Available from Building America at www.buildingamerica.gov

California Energy Commission. 2003. Home Builders Guide to Ducts in Conditioned Space.

P500-03-82-A16. www.sabreargentina.com/downloads/FinalAttachments/A-16_Bldrs_

Guide_Ducts_6.3.4.pdf

California Energy Commission. 2005. 2005 Building Energy Efficiency Standards: 

Residential Compliance Manual. CEC-400-2005-005-CMF. Sacramento, CA. 

www.energy.ca.gov/title24/2005standards/residential_manual.html#4Q

D. Griffiths, M. Zuluaga, D. Springer, and R. Aldrich. 2004. “Insulation Buried Attic Ducts – 

Analysis and Field Evaluation Findings.” American Council for Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE). 

2004 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Pacific Grove, CA. August 23, 2004.

Designing and Building Interior Duct Systems, FSEC-PF-365-01. Available from the Florida 

Solar Energy Center at http://securedb.fsec.ucf.edu/pub/pub_show_detail?v_pub_id=4013

HGTVPro.com. “How to Seal Ductwork,” available at 

www.hgtvpro.com/hpro/bp_mechanical/article/0,,HPRO_20151_4583390,00.html

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, Section 403.2.2 “Sealing,” 

and “Table 4.4.5.2(.2) – Default distribution system efficiencies for the proposed design.” 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, 

International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

Lubliner, Michael, Ryan Kerr, Andy Gordon, and Chuck Murray. 2008. Moving Ducts Inside: 

Big Builders, Scientists Find Common Ground, 2008 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy 

Efficiency in Buildings, www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/code/ACEEE_Ducts_Inside.pdf

Regional Technical Forum (RTF). 2006. Deemed Savings for New Construction Homes.

Portland, OR.

Sherman, M, and I. Walker. 1998. Can Duct Tape Take the Heat? Home Energy, Berkeley, 

California. http://homeenergy.org/archive/hem.dis.anl.gov/eehem/98/980710.html

Pressure Balancing

Pressure imbalances from indoors to outdoors or room to room 

can draw moisture-laden air into wall cavities. Imbalanced airflows 

can also cause drafts and temperature differences between rooms or 

floors, leading to comfort complaints. 

One key factor in eliminating pressure imbalances is providing 

an adequate return air path to the air handler. Four methods for 

providing a return air path are as follows: 1) ducted returns from 

each room to the air handler; 2) room-to-room ceiling jump ducts; 

3) transfer grilles or transoms; and 4) door undercuts. Door undercuts 

are not recommended by Building America because they are often too 

small and/or are blocked by the installation of carpeting. 

Sound transmission in jump ducts or transfer grilles can be minimized 

by the use of flex duct, duct lining with sound-absorbent material, a 

slightly circuitous path, or some combination of these strategies.

Mastic provides the most reliable duct 

sealing method. Ducts should be located in 

conditioned space. (Photo source: BAIHP)

Standards for Duct Sealants

Underwriter Laboratories, Inc. (UL) 

publishes several standards that relate 

to duct sealants, the most important 

of which is UL 181. It deals with ducts 

in general, with UL 181A covering fieldassembled duct-board and UL 181B 

covering flex duct systems. Each standard 

includes test procedures for sealants. Duct 

tapes and packing tapes that pass UL 181B 

are labeled “UL 181B-FX.” Mastics can pass 

181A or B and are labeled “UL 181A-M” or 

“UL 181B-M.” Foil tapes are designated with 

a P. Most tapes that are labeled 181B-FX 

are duct tapes. UL 181A and 181B appear to 

do a good job of testing for safety, tensile 

strength, and initial adhesion. However, 

they may not do a good job of rating how 

well sealants seal typical duct leaks or 

how well they stay sealed under normal 

conditions.

California Title 24 residential building 

standards require that duct sealants meet 

UL 181, UL 181A, UL 181B, or UL 723 (for 

aerosol sealants). The California Energy 

Commission has approved a cloth-backed 

duct tape with a special butyl adhesive 

(CEC 2005). Metal ducts are to be sealed 

with UL 181 mastic. For duct board, UL 

181 tapes are accepted. For flex duct, a 

combination of UL 181 mastic and strap 

ties should be used.

Adapted from Sherman and Walker 1998.

9.8

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Example of Jump Ducts and Grilles

For More Information on Pressure Balancing in Homes

Associated Air Balance Council. AABC National Standards for Total System Balance. 2002. 

www.aabchq.com/resources/national.aspx

National Environmental Balancing Bureau, (NEBB). Section 15990 - Testing, Adjusting, 

and Balancing. www.nebb.org/tabspec.htm

(Figure source: Building 

Science Corporation)

(left) Installing jump ducts from room to 

room is one way to balance pressures. 

(Photo source: IBACOS)

(right) Transfer grilles help balance air 

pressure between rooms, which helps to 

minimize drafts and comfort complaints. 

9.9

9.9

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Air Distribution Fans

Fan motors on HVAC equipment can have a large impact on 

year-round energy use because they are often shared by heating, 

cooling, and ventilation systems. Nearly all furnace manufacturers 

offer “variable-speed” brushless permanent magnet (BPM) direct 

current motors. These motors have higher efficiency and, unlike 

permanent split-capacitor motors, BPM motors retain their high 

efficiency at reduced fan speeds. Although BPM motors may have a 

price premium of $200 or more, they are a recommended means of 

lowering HVAC energy use, and are required for two-stage heating 

and cooling systems. Some types also maintain a constant air flow as 

filters become dirty or registers are closed.

Ventilation

Building America recommends that all new homes be equipped with 

whole-house mechanical ventilation that complies with ASHRAE 

62.2. Mechanical ventilation systems for indoor air quality include 

exhaust-only fans, supply-only systems, and balanced systems. 

Mechanically balanced systems use heat and energy recovery 

ventilators; semi-balanced systems use a combination of exhaust 

and supply techniques.

Supply-Only Ventilation Systems 

A supply-only ventilation system brings outside air to the intake side of 

a home’s central air handler. A central fan-integrated supply ventilation 

system uses an exterior air intake that is ducted to the return air side 

of the HVAC system. Code requires that outdoor air intakes and 

exhausts be equipped with automatic or gravity dampers that close 

when the ventilation system is not in operation [per 2009 IECC 403.5]. 

Building America recommends that the damper on this fresh air intake 

be motorized to allow control of the air intake, and electronic controls 

operate the HVAC fan to draw in outside air and time the operation 

of the damper. Advantages to this system are that the fresh air volume 

can be adjusted to meet ASHRAE 62.2 requirements, outside air is 

filtered, and fresh air is delivered to every space (Russell, Sherman, and 

Rudd 2006). A disadvantage of supply-only ventilation is that it can 

positively pressurize the home. 

Supply-only ventilation can be integrated with the HVAC systems 

central fan if it has an energy-efficient variable-speed ECM motor. 

A standard one-speed motor will blow too much air (up to 1400 

cfm when 50 to 100 cfm is desired for ventilation) and use too much 

energy. Central fan-integrated ventilation works well when installed 

by a knowledgeable contractor who understands how to program the 

blower operation.

ASHRAE 62.2

In 2003, the American Society of 

Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 

established a new standard for 

indoor ventilation in residences. The 

standard is ASHRAE 62.2, Ventilation 

for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality 

in Low-Rise Residential Buildings 

(ASHRAE 2003). The Standard is on 

a three-year publishing cycle and has 

been republished in 2004, 2007, and 

2010 with minor updates. The following 

information is adapted from the forward 

that is published with the Standard:

The three primary requirements involve 

whole-house ventilation, local exhaust, and 

source control. Whole-house ventilation 

is intended to dilute the unavoidable 

contaminant emissions from people, 

materials, and background processes. Local 

exhaust is intended to remove contaminants 

from specific rooms, such as kitchens and 

bathrooms, where pollutant sources are 

produced. And source control measures 

are included to deal with other anticipated 

sources. The standard’s secondary 

requirements focus on properties of specific 

items, such as sound and flow ratings 

for fans and labeling requirements. The 

standard is principally about mechanical 

ventilation, but its purpose is to provide 

acceptable indoor air quality.

ASHRAE Standard 62.2 requires a 

continuous ventilation rate of 1 cfm 

per 100 ft2

 of building area plus 

7.5 cfm x (# bedrooms +1). An intermittent 

fan can meet this requirement if the airflow 

rate is adjusted upward based on specific 

ventilation effectiveness requirements 

published in the standard.

The states of California, Washington, 

Minnesota, and Vermont now require 

mechanical ventilation in dwellings. 

New guidelines from the American 

Lung Association and ENERGY STAR 

include mechanical ventilation 

requirements.

9.10

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Exhaust-Only Ventilation

Continuously operating an exhaust fan located in a bathroom or 

central area of the house provides low-cost ventilation. High-quality, 

quiet, efficient fans that have separate speeds for ventilation and 

exhaust are typically used for this application. Because exhaust fans 

draw air from leaks in the building envelope, air is not filtered, will 

not be evenly distributed, and comes from unknown sources. A 

better solution than an isolated exhaust fan is to tie all bathroom 

exhaust ducts together and route them through a single, continuously 

operating, high-efficacy axial fan that is vented to the home’s exterior. 

Exhaust fans help to improve indoor air quality by removing air 

contaminants near their source, such as moisture from a shower. 

However, be cautious about using exhaust-only ventilation systems. 

Exhaust systems, including bath fans, kitchen range fans, and clothes 

dryers, draw the air out of a home, creating a negative pressure in 

the home. In an inefficient, leaky home, this negative pressure pulls 

outside air in through cracks around doors and windows and leaks 

in walls. In a high-performance home, those air leaks have been 

sealed up so a fresh air intake must be added to the home to supply 

fresh air. Failing to provide an outside air intake can cause the 

home to become negatively pressurized. This can increase the risk 

of backdrafting any atmospheric-vented combustion (fuel-burning) 

appliances that may be in the home. Backdrafting occurs when the 

flue’s natural ability to draw combustion fumes out of the house 

has been overpowered and instead, these fumes (including carbon 

monoxide) are pulled into the house. Negative pressure in a house can 

also draw in hot outside air, soil gasses, garage fumes, and pollens.

Balanced Systems

Heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) and energy recovery (or 

enthalpy-recovery) ventilators (ERVs) both provide a controlled 

way of ventilating a home while minimizing energy loss by using 

conditioned exhaust air to warm or cool fresh incoming air. These 

ventilators are typically whole-house systems that share the furnace 

duct system or have their own duct system. 

The main difference between an HRV and an ERV is the way the 

heat exchanger works. With an ERV, the heat exchanger transfers 

water vapor along with heat energy, while an HRV only transfers 

heat. The ERV helps keep indoor humidity more constant. 

Most energy recovery ventilation systems can recover about 70%–

80% of the energy in the exiting air. They are most cost-effective in 

climates with extreme winters or summers and where fuel costs are 

Balanced ventilation system using a supply 

ventilation system integrated with heating 

and A/C with a stand-alone exhaust fan. 

Balanced ventilation system with heat 

recovery via an air-to-air heat exchanger. 

(Source: Lstiburek 2004)

Provide bathroom and kitchen exhaust 

fans. Duct them to the outside and caulk 

ducts at the dry wall for an airtight seal. 

Use low-sone fans for quiet operation.

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

9.11

9.11

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
high. Consider these recommendations for selecting an HRV or ERV 

(Holladay 2010b): 

•	 For a small, tight house in a cold climate—especially a house with 

a large family—choose an HRV. 

•	 For a large house in a cold climate—especially a house with few 

occupants—choose an ERV. 

•	 In a hot, humid climate, know that an ERV will cost a little less to 

operate during the summer than an HRV. 

•	 In mixed climates, choose either appliance. 

•	 Understand the most important quality is energy efficiency. 

•	 Find an installer who understands how ERVs and HRVs work and 

knows how to install them properly.

A lower-cost alternative is a “semi-balanced” system consisting of a 

combination of the supply and exhaust systems described above. 

Ventilation for Nighttime Cooling

Airconditioning energy use can be significantly reduced by 

ventilating homes with cool night air. Ventilation cooling is 

practical in locations where temperature swings of 30° or more 

between day and night and summer daytime highs above 80°F 

are common. The simplest form is opening windows at night, but 

security concerns may prohibit obtaining sufficient window area 

to provide effective ventilation. Whole-house fans can be effective, 

but still require opening of windows and some diligence on the part 

of the homeowner. Two automated systems have been developed 

by Building America research partner Davis Energy Group that 

ventilate and cool the house with outside air. The systems, called 

SmartVent and NightBreeze use the HVAC system fan coupled with 

an outside air intake damper and controlled by temperature sensors 

to provide filtered outside air without the homeowner having to 

open windows (Hoeschele 2008). 

This builder points to a mechanized 

damper on a fresh air intake to the HVAC 

air handler. The damper can be set by a 

timer (shown above) to open allowing 

fresh air to be pulled into the air handler 

by the fan, also operated by the timer. 

This draws fresh air into the house at 

regular intervals. When combined with 

timed exhaust fans, this provides low-cost 

balanced ventilation.

9.12

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
For More Information on Ventilation Systems

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, Section 403.5, “Mechanical 

Ventilation,” Section 403.6, “Equipment Sizing,” International Code Council (ICC), 

Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, Section 

M1502.1 “Clothes Dryer Exhaust – General,” International Code Council (ICC), Washington, 

DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

Air Conditioning Contractors of America. Manual T. Air Distribution Basics for Residential 

and Small Commercial Buildings. ACCA, Arlington, VA. www.acca.org

ASHRAE Standard 62.2-2010 Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in 

Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ANSI/ASHRAE Approved) can be previewed at 

www.ashrae.org/technology/page/548

Building Energy Codes Resource Center “Whole-House Mechanical Ventilation – 

Code Notes,” U.S. Department of Energy, http://resourcecenter.pnl.gov/cocoon/morf/

ResourceCenter/article/1467

ENERGY STAR Thermal Bypass Checklist Guide, 2008, available at www.energystar.gov/ia/

partners/bldrs_lenders_raters/downloads/TBC_Guide_062507.pdf, pg. 13

Hoeschele, Marc. 2008. Development of an Integrated Residential Heating, Ventilation, 

Cooling, and Dehumidification System for Residences, Prepared by Davis Energy Group 

for the U.S. Department of Energy, www.davisenergy.com/docs/FinalReport_SBIR2_IHVCD_061808.pdf

Holladay, Martin. 2010a. “Designing a Good Ventilation System Ventilating Is Easy — It’s 

Ventilating Right That’s Hard” Green Building Advisor.com posted June 15, 2010. 

www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/musings/designing-good-ventilation-system

Holladay, Martin. 2010b. HRV or ERV? Choosing the right equipment for a balanced 

ventilation system,” Green Building Advisor.com posted January 22, 2010. 

www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/musings/hrv-or-erv

HVI. 2006. “Fresh Ideas in Residential Ventilation.” Home Ventilating Institute. Wauconda, IL. 

www.hvi.org/resourcelibrary/HomeVentGuideArticles.html

Minnesota Department of Commerce Energy Information Center. June 23, 2008. 

“Maintain home ventilation systems to provide healthy air supply.” Available at www.state.

mn.us/portal/mn/jsp/common/content/include/contentitem.jsp?contentid=536886092

NAHB Research Center. “Whole-House Mechanical Ventilation Strategies,” 

www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/HVAC/whole-house-mechanical-ventilation

Piazza, T., R.H. Lee, M. Sherman, and P. Price. 2007. Study of Ventilation Practices and 

Household Characteristics in New California Homes. CEC-500-2007-033. California Energy 

Commission, Sacramento, CA., www.energy.cq.gov/2007publications/CEC-500-2007-033/

CEC-500-2007-033.PDF

Rudd, Armin. 2006. Ventilation Guide. Building Science Press Inc., Energy & Environmental 

Building Association, Minneapolis, MN, available for purchase at 

www.eeba.org/bookstore/prod-Ventilation_Guide-10.aspx

Russell, Marion, Max Sherman and Armin Rudd. 2007. “Review of Residential Ventilation 

Technologies.” HVAC&R Research, Vol. 13, No. 2, p. 325-348, March. ASHRAE. 

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m5PRD/is_2_13/ai_n25007553

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Thermal Energy Distribution Website at 

http://ducts.lbl.gov

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Indoor airPLUS Construction Specifications, 

available at www.epa.gov/indoorairplus/index.html

9.13

9.13

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Plumbing and Water Heating

Residential hot water energy use accounts for approximately 19% of 

the residential energy consumed in the United States, according to 

the Energy Information Administration. In new, high-performance 

homes, hot water energy accounts for a higher percentage, typically 

21% to 32%. Hot water systems don’t use more energy than they 

used to but they take a relatively larger share of the energy use in 

homes because in tighter houses less energy is required to heat and 

cool the homes than in older homes built to less stringent standards. 

There are several measures builders can take to reduce the amount 

of energy needed for water heating: 

•	 Insulate hot water supply lines to R-4 and ensure tanks have at 

least R-12. [2009 IECC 403.3 requires R-3 minimum.]

•	 Consolidate bathrooms and other hot water-consuming activities 

into the same area(s) of the house.

•	 Use a higher-efficiency sealed-combustion water heater to 

minimize risk of backdrafting.

•	 Place the sealed-combustion water heater in a central location 

inside the home to minimize piping trunk lengths. Use a central 

manifold distribution system.

•	 Locate plumbing pipes in the attic and cover with insulation 

in single-story, slab-on-grade homes and locate the pipes in 

interstitial space between floors for multi-story homes.

•	 Do not oversize piping. Use code-permitted minimums. 

Bigger isn’t better.

•	 Install high-efficiency electric or gas water heaters. Specify sealedcombustion, power vented, or direct vented gas water heaters.

•	 Consider alternative technologies like on-demand gas or electric 

water heaters, solar thermal water heaters, and ground-source heat 

pumps and desuperheaters.

•	 Do not use continuous recirculation pumps. If recirculating 

pumps are specified, the pumps should be controlled by timers or 

on-demand to stop continuous operation.

•	 Do not install plumbing in exterior walls. 

•	 Seal around plumbing penetrations in all exterior surfaces, 

surfaces that border on unconditioned spaces, and between floors. 

Use fire-resistant sealant in plates between floors.

•	 Specify insulation requirements for pipes, especially pipes that will 

be covered by the slab, or will otherwise be inaccessible.

In an NAHB Research Center study, the 

central manifold hot water distribution 

system provided hot water to the fixtures 

more quickly than traditional trunk 

and branch and remote manifold 

distribution methods.

Code/Above Code 

Water Pipe Insulation

A comparison of the 2006 uniform 

plumbing code, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2006 Uniform 

Plumbing Code

R-3 insulation for hot 

or cold piping outside 

cond. space

WA

R-3 insulation for hot 

or cold piping outside 

cond. space

OR

Unlimited WWR

Insulate any piping 

that will operate at 

temperatures that will 

form condensation on 

exterior of pipe

CA

2009 Uniform 

Plumbing Code 

R-3 insulation for hot 

or cold piping outside 

cond space

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

Insulate all piping 

inside and outside 

of conditioned 

space to R-4

WWR = window-wall ratio

9.14

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Hot Water Distribution

Essentially there are three types of hot water distribution systems: 

1) the traditional “trunk and branch” with a large main line feeding 

smaller pipes that then flow directly to fixtures or split to serve 

multiple fixtures; 2) the central manifold (homerun) where the 

water heater feeds a manifold with dedicated lines running to each 

household fixture; and 3) the remote manifold system that includes 

trunk lines that run to remote manifolds that serve clusters of 

fixtures, such as in one or more bathrooms or a kitchen.

The NAHB Research Center tested the three water distribution 

systems—trunk and branch, central manifold, and remote manifold—

and found that, while all three supplied sufficient flow, the central 

manifold system provided the quickest hot water to the fixtures and 

the most stable pressure when multiple fixtures were used. 

PEX piping systems are becoming standard practice in home 

building. PEX installation can save labor and materials and can be 

cost competitive with rigid pipe systems. The NAHBRC points out 

that because PEX piping will not corrode and resists scale buildup, 

maintenance costs may be lower than for rigid piping. Fewer leaks 

are possible because fewer connections are required.

PEX piping should not connect directly to a hot water tank or solar 

water heater where the temperature of the water could exceed 200°F. 

PEX piping should not be used in installations subject to continual 

ultraviolet light exposure.

Hot Water Circulation Pumps and Controls

Do not use continuous recirculation systems for hot water. These 

systems keep hot water continuously flowing through pipes and result 

in substantial heat loss. If solar thermal water heating systems are 

used, the flow-through solar collectors should always be kept separate 

from any hot water recirculation systems. 

If recirculation systems are used, install a push-button control, which 

will minimize the energy penalty associated with recirculation systems 

and insulate the pipe to R-2 [per 2009 IECC 403.4]. An on-demand 

system circulates the water only when hot water is needed. The 

on-demand circulating pump briefly moves water out of the hot water 

pipe and back to the domestic hot water heater down the cold water 

pipe until hot water is sensed at the faucet. This system helps minimize 

wasted water and is and is best suited for fixtures located far from the 

water heater. On-demand recirculators do not save energy except in 

comparison to continuous recirculation systems. 

Hot Water Distribution Systems

HEATER MANIFOLD

BATH II

KITCHEN

UTILITY

ROOM

BATH I

UTILITY

ROOM

KITCHEN BATH II

Traditional Trunk System

More Efficient Manifold System

BATH I

HEATER

9.15

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CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Water Heaters

Performance rating information for conventional storage water 

heaters, electric heat pumps, and instantaneous water heaters is 

available from the Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration 

Institute (AHRI) (www.ahrinet.org). AHRI’s members include 

appliance manufacturers that use all fuel types. Performance rating 

information for solar thermal collectors and systems is available 

from the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation 

(www.solar-rating.org). 

Five types of ENERGY STAR-qualified water heaters are now 

available: high-efficiency gas storage, gas condensing, gas tankless, 

solar, and heat pump water heaters. (For a list, see www.energystar.

gov/index.cfm?c=water_heat.pr_water_heaters.)

Conventional Storage Water Heaters

Conventional storage water heaters offer a ready reservoir (storage 

tank) of hot water. The lowest-priced storage water heater may be 

the most expensive to operate and maintain over its lifetime. While 

an oversized unit may be alluring, it carries a higher purchase price 

and increased energy costs due to higher standby energy losses. 

Information on properly sizing a water heater is available on the 

GAMA website. Storage heaters work best with steady, continuous 

use patterns.

The minimum efficiency target for gas combustion storage water 

heaters is 0.60 or higher. These heaters should be either power 

vented, which forcibly discharges the products of combustion and 

draws combustion air from the house; direct vented with dedicated 

outside air for combustion; or sealed-combustion units that draw 

combustion air from outdoors and fan discharge combustion 

exhaust outdoors.

Electric storage heaters are generally the most expensive to operate 

unless rates are very low. Builders should specify the most efficient unit 

possible and consider the use of solar thermal systems, a propanefired instantaneous water heater, or a heat pump water heater.

Tankless Water Heaters

Tankless water heaters provide hot water only as it is needed. They 

have no tank and so do not have the standby energy losses associated 

with storage water heaters. Typically, tankless water heaters provide 

hot water at a rate of 2 to 5 gallons (7.6–15.2 liters) per minute. 

If the demand for hot water does not exceed the heater’s ability 

to produce it, tankless water heaters do not run out of hot water. 

Solar Thermal Water Heating: 

Integrated Collector Storage 

vs. Indirect Antifreeze Systems

Integrated Collector Storage solar water 

heating systems are well suited to areas 

with little threat of freezing such as most of 

the California coast and southern Arizona. 

Other types of solar thermal water heaters 

are available including flat-plate collectors 

in indirect systems that use antifreeze; 

these systems work well in areas where 

freezing temperatures are possible. 

Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) 

systems are the least expensive solar 

thermal water heaters.

WATER

HEATER TANK

Freeze 

Prevention

Valve

Drain Valve

Drain

Valve

Shut-Off

Valve

Pressure

Relief Valve

3-Way Ball Valve

COLD WATER IN

HOT WATER OUT

Check Valve

Isolation Valve

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CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Gas-fired tankless water heaters produce higher flow rates than 

electric on-demand heaters. Because of their instantaneous nature, 

electric versions can create high peak loads for electric utilities. In 

areas where utilities charge more for electricity at peak times, these 

systems could be especially expensive for consumers. 

Gas-fired tankless water heaters have been tried in many Building 

America homes. They are readily available and are a mature 

technology. In addition to energy savings, other benefits include 

small size and longer life expectancy. One disadvantage of 

these units is the time needed for a cold unit to reach operating 

temperature. This brief warm-up time results in a slight delay in 

hot water delivery (10 to 20 seconds) and associated water waste. 

Builders considering installing tankless gas water heaters in a 

development need to plan for adequate gas line size. Tankless water 

heaters draw approximately 150,000 BTUs compared to a standard 

water heater that draws 35,000 BTUs. Therefore, much higher 

capacity is demanded of the gas lines during peak usage times, 

such as in the morning.

Heat Pump Water Heaters

Air source heat pump water heaters use electric compressors 

and pumps to move heat from one place to another rather than 

generating heat directly. Therefore, they can be two to three times 

more energy efficient than conventional electric resistance water 

heaters. A heat pump water heater works like a refrigerator, but 

moves heat from its environment to the water. 

If a ground-source heat pump is chosen for space heating and cooling, 

it is possible to use it to generate hot water. These systems use the 

same type of technology as air source heat pump water heaters, but 

can move heat in either direction between a conditioned space and 

the ground. These systems can be effective, but the pricing varies 

dramatically by region. They are complex and require a skilled installer. 

In an area where no natural gas is available, this system may be a good 

option. Ground-source heat pumps can be effective in all climate zones.

Ground-source heat pumps add a desuperheater to the heat pump. 

This is an energy-saving device that, during the cooling cycle, recycles 

some of the waste heat from the house to heat domestic water.

Solar Water Heaters

Solar thermal water heaters use the sun’s heat to provide hot water. 

These systems usually include one or two collectors that typically sit 

on a house’s roof and resemble skylights. Four types of collectors 

work well for heating water:

Heat pump water heaters are now 

commercially available like this one seen 

at the 2010 International Builders Show.

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CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 Glazed flat-plate collectors are the most common and can be used 

in any climate with proper design.

•	 Evacuated tube collectors use thermos-like evacuated glass tubes. 

Some also use heat pipes with a special fluid that vaporizes at high 

temperatures. These collectors tend to be more expensive than 

other collectors but operate efficiently at high temperatures and 

can be used in very cold climates with proper design.

•	 Integrated collector storage systems combine a collector with a 

storage tank. These systems are one of the lowest cost but should 

only be used where there is no chance of freezing.

•	 Unglazed flat-plate collectors are simple systems that consist of 

plastic surfaces incorporating channels for water to flow through. 

Some manufacturers are offering unglazed collectors for domestic 

hot water. Their traditional use has been for pool and spa heating. 

Every swimming pool with a solar exposure should be equipped 

with a solar pool heater.

Tankless Coil and Indirect Water Heaters

Two technologies that use the home’s space-heating furnace to also 

heat water are the tankless coil heater and the indirect water heater. 

Tankless coil water heaters provide hot water on demand without a 

tank, but because they rely on the homes’ space-heating furnace to 

heat the water they are most efficient from an energy perspective in 

homes where the furnace is on often; they are inefficient in mild and 

warm climates including the marine climate. Indirect water heaters also 

use the space-heating furnace but instead of heating water directly the 

furnace heats a fluid that in turn heats water in a water storage tank via 

a heat exchanger. Because the tank allows for heating with less turning 

the furnace on and off, indirect water heaters are more efficient.

For More Information on Plumbing and Water Heating

DOE. 2007. Volume 6 - Building America Best Practices Series – High Performance 

Home Technologies: Solar Thermal & Photovoltaic Systems. Washington, D.C. 

www.buildingamerica.gov

DOE. 2007. A Consumer’s Guide to Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. DOE’s Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy website in the water heating section 

www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12770

ENERGY STAR. High Efficiency Water Heaters Provide Hot Water for Less. U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. www.energystar.gov/ia/new_homes/features/

WaterHtrs_062906.pdf

Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association (GAMA). 2007. Consumers’ Directory of Certified 

Efficiency Ratings for Heating and Water Heating Equipment. GAMA, Arlington, VA. 

www.gamanet.org

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, Section 

403.4, “Circulating Hot Water Systems,” International Code Council (ICC), Washington, DC. . 

www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

9.18

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
National Association of Home Builders Research Center (NAHBRC). Undated. Toolbase 

Technotes. Cross-Linked Polyethylene PEX in Residential Plumbing Systems. 

www.toolbase.org/PDF/DesignGuides/TechNote_Pex.pdf

Solar Rating and Certification Corporation website at www.solar-rating.org.

Wiehagen J. and J.L. Sikora. 2003. Performance Comparison of Residential Hot Water 

Systems. NREL/SR-550-32922. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Golden, CO. 

www.buildingamerica.gov

High-Performance Lighting

Lighting accounts for an estimated 15% of electricity use in the 

typical American home (DOE 2009). The typical incandescent lamp 

wastes 90% of the energy it uses, producing heat rather than light. 

High-performance lighting, including CFL and LED products, 

provides excellent visual quality that is also very energy efficient. 

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) use 70%-75% less energy than 

their incandescent equivalents with comparable brightness and 

color rendition. They cost more, but last 10 to 13 times longer than 

incandescent lamps, making them cost effective if used at least 2-3 

hours per day. Compact fluorescent lamps come in both pin-based 

models and screw-based models that fit most standard fixtures found 

in homes today. ENERGY STAR first established criteria for CFL 

lamps in 2007. Today thousands of models of ENERGY STARlabeled CFL bulbs and fixtures are available in a wide variety of 

sizes, shapes, and color renditions. 

Light emitting diode (LED) lights are becoming more commonplace 

as new models are developed with better lighting performance, 

higher efficiency, and lower cost. DOE tracks and tests LED 

products as they enter the market via its CALiPER program and 

other lighting programs (see www.ssl.energy.gov). ENERGY STAR 

criteria for solid-state lighting (LED) went into effect in September 

2008. To earn the ENERGY STAR label, LED products have 

to offer a three-year warranty and meet stringent performance 

requirements for color rendering, luminaire efficiency, and light 

output over the life of the lamp, which is at least 25,000 hours for 

indoor, residential products.

[The 2009 IECC 404 requires that at least 50% of the lamps in 

permanently installed lighting fixtures be high-efficacy lamps.] It is 

likely this requirement will be raised to 75% in the 2012 IECC. 

Building America recommends 100% high-efficacy lamps. Almost all 

fluorescent lamps equipped with electronic ballasts qualify as highefficacy light sources. LEDs and metal halide lamps can also be high 

efficacy. Incandescent, quartz halogen, low-voltage halogen MR, and 

mercury vapor lamps do not qualify as high efficacy. 

Energy-efficient ENERGY STAR rated 

fixtures come in many attractive styles, 

like these CFL-based fixtures by Progress 

Lighting. (Photo source: Progress Lighting)

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CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
California’s Title 24 building energy standard mandated highefficacy lighting in 2005 and updated the requirements in 2008 

(CEC 2008) to require pin-based (not screw-based) high-efficacy 

lamps in the following locations: 

•	 Kitchens. At least half the installed wattage of lamps in kitchens 

shall be high efficacy—fixtures with low-efficacy lamps must be 

switched separately. Internal cabinet lighting cannot exceed 20 

watts per linear foot of cabinets.

•	 Lighting in Bathrooms, Garages, Laundry Rooms and Utility 

Rooms. All lamps shall either be high efficacy or shall be controlled 

by a manual-on occupant sensor.

•	 Other Rooms. All lamps shall either be high efficacy or shall be 

controlled by an occupant sensor or dimmer. Closets that are less 

than 70 square feet are exempt from this requirement.

•	 Outdoor Lighting. All lamps mounted to the building or to 

other buildings on the same lot shall be high efficacy or shall be 

controlled by a photo control/motion sensor combination. 

Recessed “can” ceiling fixtures, or downlights, that are recessed into 

insulated ceilings are required [by the 2009 IECC 402.4.5] to be rated 

for insulation contact (so that insulation can be placed over them). 

The housing of the fixture should be airtight to prevent conditioned 

air from escaping into the ceiling cavity or attic, and unconditioned air 

from infiltrating from the ceiling or attic into the conditioned space. 

[Per the 2009 IECC 402.4.5] the fixture should bear a label showing it 

meets the ASTM E 283 guideline of ≤ 2.0 cfm of air movement from 

the conditioned space to the ceiling cavity when tested at 75 Pa and 

the housing should be caulked or gasketed where it meets the ceiling. 

IC-rated downlight fixtures are available for CFL lamps.

DOE partners with lighting organizations 

to host three CFL and LED lighting design 

competitions. Visit the competition websites 

to see competition winners, including some of 

the most energy-efficient, eye-catching designs on the market: Lighting 

for Tomorrow (www.lightingfortomorrow.com), Next Generation 

Luminaires (www.ngldc.org), and the L-Prize (www.lightingprize.org). 

Residential lighting controls represent a significant opportunity for 

energy savings. Lighting controls generally refers to technologies that 

turn off (or turn down) lighting systems when they are not needed. 

Examples include occupancy sensors, vacancy sensors, photo sensors, 

dimmers, and timers.

These CFL-based lights designed by Maxlite 

won grand prize in the 2008 Lighting 

for Tomorrow design competition cosponsored by DOE. (Photo source: Maxlite)

LED fixtures are becoming more efficient 

and affordable and are now available in 

several applications for homes like the 

under-cabinet, in-cabinet, and spot 

lighting shown here.

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CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Example of Recessed Downlight Performance Using 

Different Lighting Sources

INCANDESCENT* FLUORESCENT* LED**

65W R-30 Halogen

13W triple 

tube Spiral 

CFL

15W R-30 

CFL

LR6 LED 

downlight 

by Cree

Delivered light output 

(lumens), initial

678 466 653 697

Luminaire wattage 

(nominal W)

65 10 13 6.4

Luminaire efficacy

(lm/W) 11 46 49 109

Price (average prices 

as of Aug 2009) $3 $8 $5 $80

Life Span 2,500 hrs 12,000 hrs 6,000 hrs 50,000 hrs

*Based on photometric and lamp lumen rating data for commonly available 

products. Actual downlight performance depends on reflectors, trims, lamp 

positioning, and other factors. Assumptions available from PNNL.

**LED tested through DOE CALiPER program. For more about CALiPER, 

see www.ssl.energy.gov

For More Information on Lighting

California Energy Commission. 2009. California’s Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential 

and Nonresidential Buildings: Title 24. Sacramento, CA. www.energy.ca.gov/title24/

California Lighting Technology Center. www.cltc.ucdavis.edu

ENERGY STAR. 2007. Light Bulbs and Fixtures website. www.energystar.gov

IBACOS. High-Performance Lighting Guide website www.ibacos.com

U.S. Department of Energy. Solid-State Lighting (SSL) website www.ssl.energy.gov

Appliances

When it comes to selecting appliances and electronic equipment, 

look for the EnergyGuide and ENERGY STAR labels. Building 

America recommends using best-in-class products for appliances 

that are not currently rated by ENERGY STAR. 

EnergyGuide Label

The Federal Trade Commission requires EnergyGuide labels on 

most home appliances (except for stove ranges and ovens), but not 

home electronics, such as computers, televisions, and home audio 

equipment. EnergyGuide labels provide an estimate of the product’s 

LED Recessed Can Gives off 

650 Lumens from 6.5 Watts.

This LED fixture, the LR6 LED downlight 

by Cree LED Lighting Solutions, Inc, fits 

into a standard recessed can fixture and 

provides comparable light output to CFL 

and incandescent bulbs, at lower wattage 

and much longer life. In 2010, CREE came 

out with a model that produces 697 lumens 

of light with only 6.5 Watts of power.

Installation

• Designed to easily install in standard 6” 

downlight housings from Cree and other 

manufacturers.

• Quick install system utilizes a unique 

retention feature. Simply attach socket 

to LR6. Move light to ready position and 

slide into housing. Rotate module 1/4 turn 

to the right to lock in place.

• Reference www.CreeLEDLighting.com 

for a list of compatible housings

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
energy consumption or energy efficiency. They also show the highest 

and lowest energy consumption or efficiency estimates of similar 

appliance models.

ENERGY STAR Label

ENERGY STAR labels appear on appliances and 

home electronics that meet strict energy efficiency 

criteria established by the U.S. Department 

of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency. The ENERGY STAR labeling program 

includes most home electronics and appliances 

except for stove ranges and ovens.

[The 2009 IECC 403.8 requires that electronic snow and ice melting 

equipment have automatic shutoff controls when the pavement 

temperature reaches 50°F and automatic or manual controls when the 

outdoor temperature reaches 40°F.]

For More Information on ENERGY STAR and 

EnergyGuide Labeling

California Energy Commission Consumer Energy Center “EnergyGuide,” 

www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/appliances/energyguide.html

ENERGY STAR. www.energystar.gov

ENERGY STAR Windows. www.efficientwindows.org/energystar.cfm

SRP. “Energy Guide Labels help you compare,” www.srpnet.com/energy/energyguide.aspx

The U.S. Department of Energy “Best Practices” Builders Guides

 www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/

Comissioning

Basic commissioning of the house and its mechanical systems is a 

requirement for high-performance housing and should be completed 

before the home is considered ready for the homeowner to take 

possession. Commissioning activities include whole-house air 

leakage testing with a blower door test, duct air tightness testing, 

pressure testing of each room, and combustion safety testing. 

Additional testing is needed for advanced systems like combination 

water/space heating systems, ground-source heat pumps, solar 

thermal systems, and photovoltaic arrays.

[The 2009 IECC 402.4.2 requires verification of air-sealing measures 

by blower door testing or extensive visual inspection. Blower door air 

leakage results should be less than 7 air changes per hour at a pressure 

of 50 Pa (7 ACH@50Pa).] 

A refrigerator labeled with both the ENERGY 

STAR label and the EnergyGuide label.

The EnergyGuide label helps 

consumers compare the 

energy efficiency of appliances

Estimated energy consumption 

on a scale showing a range for 

similar models

Estimated yearly operating cost 

based on the national average cost 

of electricity.

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CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
[The 2009 IECC 403.2 requires duct leakage testing, either after 

rough-in or after drywall is installed. If at rough-in, duct leakage to the 

outdoors should be ≤ 6 cfm/100 ft2 of conditioned floor area at 25 Pa; if 

post-construction, duct leakage should be ≤ 8 cfm/100 ft2 of conditioned 

floor area at 25 Pa. Systems with the air handler and all ducts in 

conditioned space are exempt from testing.]

Building Science Corporation developed a commissioning checklist 

called the SNAPSHOT form. This form is shown on the next 

page and is available at www.buildingscience.com/documents/

reports/rr-0413-the-snapshot2014a-quick-description. Also, the 

Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA) has developed 

guidance on commissioning of residential mechanical systems, 

HVAC Quality Installation Specification, ANSI/ACCA 5 QI-2007, 

which is available at www.acca.org/quality/. 

Homeowners should also be given information on maintenance 

and operation of the HVAC equipment in their new home. Building 

America’s Building Science Consortium team put together a 

homeowner’s manual for the EcoVillage project in Cleveland, 

Ohio, that can serve as a sample for builders wishing to create 

a homeowner’s manual for their developments. The manual can 

be downloaded at www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/

rr-0310-ecovillage-homeowner-handbook

These commissioning steps can reduce callbacks and litigation risks 

for builders:

•	 Develop a commissioning plan appropriate to the home and the 

equipment installed.

•	 Review commissioning results with installers.

•	 Provide the homeowner with information on the proper operation 

and maintenance of mechanical systems and other equipment. 

For More Information on HVAC Commissioning

Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA) HVAC Quality Installation Specification – 

ANSI/ACCA 5 QI-2007, www.acca.org/quality/

Building Science Corporation. 2004. The “SNAPSHOT”- A Quick Description, Research 

Report 0413a, www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/rr-0413-the-snapshot2014aquick-description

Building Science Corporation. 2004. EcoVillage Homeowner Handbook, Research Report 0310, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/reports/rr-0310-ecovillage-homeowner-handbook

Building Science Corporation. 2008. Quality Assurance Roadmap for High Performance 

Residential Buildings, http://74.125.155.132/search?q=cache:http://www.toolbase.org/PDF/

BestPractices/QualityAssuranceRoadmap.pdf

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CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Occupant Health and Safety

As houses become tighter, indoor air quality becomes a more 

important issue. To address occupant health and safety, the EPA 

has developed an Indoor airPlus checklist, shown on the following 

page, that recommends these actions (www.epa.gov/indoorairplus): 

1) moisture control including improved control of condensation 

and better roof, wall, and foundation drainage; 2) radon control 

including testing and radon abatement techniques; 3) pest 

management including caulking, sealing, and screening at entry 

points; 4) HVAC quality including a properly engineered system, 

sealed ducts, and whole-house and spot ventilation; 5) combustion 

venting including sealed-combustion heating equipment, 

installation of carbon monoxide detectors, and sealing and 

ventilation of attached garages; and 6) selection of low-chemicalcontent materials, keeping materials dry during construction, and 

airing out the home prior to move in. 

The following safety and health features should be included in 

house designs:

•	 Use only sealed-combustion or power-vented appliances in the 

conditioned space. Specifically, any furnace inside conditioned 

space should be a sealed-combustion 90%+ (AFUE of 90 or 

greater) unit. Any water heater inside conditioned space should be 

sealed-combustion, direct vented, or power vented.

•	 Avoid designs that incorporate passive combustion air supply 

openings or do not have outdoor supply air ducts directly 

connected to the appliance.

•	 Direct vent to the outside gas cooking ranges and all exhaust 

hoods. Range hoods capable of exhausting more than 400 cfm 

must provide makeup air at a rate equal to the exhaust air rate 

[2009 IRC M1503.4].

•	 Use sealed-combustion gas fireplaces that vent harmful 

combustion gases to the outside.

•	 Vent bathrooms, kitchens, toilets, and laundry rooms directly 

outdoors. Outdoor air intakes and exhausts should be equipped 

with automatic or gravity dampers that close when the ventilation 

system is not in operation [per 2009 IECC 403.5]. Kitchen fans 

should ventilate at a rate of 100 cfm intermittent or 25 cfm 

continuous; bathroom fans should ventilate at a rate of 20 cfm 

continuous or 50 cfm intermittent [2009 IRC Table M1507.3]. Use 

energy-efficient and quiet fans (see the section on ventilation).

(top) Some cabinetmakers are now 

specializing in low-VOC cabinetry to meet 

growing consumer demand.

(bottom) Several low-VOC adhesives

are now available. 

Dryer vent exhausts must have a gravity or 

other backdraft damper. A single hinged 

door with a 21⁄2-inch effective opening is 

not as effective as a louvered damper.

louvered damper

with hood

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 Vent clothes dryers and central vacuum cleaners directly outdoors. 

Smooth rigid metal ducts with louvered vents and straight runs 

provide the most efficient ducting systems. Check code [2009 IRC 

M1502.4.4] and manufacturer’s specifications for limits on duct 

length. Insulate ducts to avoid condensation; flash and caulk 

penetrations; avoid sags in ducts. Vinyl, nylon, and foil ducts do 

not meet code.

•	 Avoid installing atmospheric (standard efficiency) gas heaters 

and water heaters in conditioned space including laundry rooms. 

These devices are recognizable by the high and low combustion air 

inlets in the combustion area and the “hat” or “skirt” around the 

bottom of the flue (where it meets the furnace or water heater).

These devices depend on stack effect to establish exhaust draft, 

but the stack effect can be easily overcome by dryers, exhaust fans, 

or supply duct leakage (which depressurizes the house), causing 

back drafting of exhaust gases. [ASHRAE 62.2-2010, citing NFPA 

54, permits atmospherically vented combustion appliances inside 

provided the total net flow of the two largest exhaust fans does 

not exceed 15 cfm/100 ft2 of occupiable space when in operation 

at full capacity. If the designed total net flow exceeds this limit, the 

net exhaust flow must be reduced by reducing the exhaust flow or 

providing compensating outdoor airflow.] 

•	 Provide filtration for forced air systems that provide a minimum 

atmospheric dust spot efficiency of 30% or MERV of 8 or higher. 

MERV (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value) is a measure of an 

air filter’s efficiency at removing particles. [This exceeds the ASHRAE 

62.2-2010 6.7 recommended MERV 6 or better.]

•	 Maintain indoor humidity in the range of 30% to 50% by controlled 

mechanical ventilation, mechanical cooling, or dehumidification. 

•	 Install carbon monoxide detectors (hard-wired units) (at one per 

every approximately 1,000 square feet) in any house containing 

combustion appliances and/or an attached garage, and even in 

those houses with no combustion appliances in case one should 

be installed at a future date. [NFPA 720 says CO detectors shall be 

installed near bedrooms, and on every occupiable level of a dwelling 

unit, including basements, excluding attics and crawlspaces. NFPA 101 

Section 24.3.4.1 requires smoke alarms in all sleeping rooms, outside of 

each separate sleeping area, in the immediate vicinity of the sleeping 

rooms, and on each level of the dwelling unit, including basements.]

•	 Maximize hard surface areas (tile, vinyl, hardwood) to better 

manage dust for health purposes. 

(top) A mechanical damper on the fresh air 

intake lets fresh air into the air handler box 

when needed to provide fresh supply air 

for the HVAC system.

(bottom) This exhaust fan and electronic 

controls are designed to ventilate—and 

could be used to create a slightly negative 

pressure in—the garage. Ventilation carries 

pollutants to the outside; negative pressure 

helps to stop garage air from migrating 

into attached houses.

Code/Above Code Duct Insulation

A comparison of the 2009 IECC climate 

zone marine 4, state codes, and Building 

America recommendations

Code

2009 IECC

Unlimited WWR R-8/R-6*

WA

13%, 25%, and 

unlimited WWR

R-8**

OR

Unlimited WWR R-8

CA

>20% WWR R-6

Above Code

Building America 

Recommendations

R-8, ducts buried in 

attic or, better, located 

in conditioned space; 

mastic seal all joints

* R-8 for supply ducts in attic, return ducts R-6

 WWR = window-wall ratio

** WA R-8 for ducts in crawlspace, attic or 

garage; R-5 for ducts in ground or under slab.

9.26

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 Provide occupants with information on safety and health related 

to the operations and maintenance of the systems that provide 

control over space conditioning, hot water, and lighting. 

•	 Isolate attached garages from conditioned spaces [per 2009 

IECC 402.4.1 and ASHRAE 62.2-2010, 6.5.1]. Common walls and 

ceilings between attached garages and living spaces should be visually 

inspected to ensure they are air-sealed before insulation is installed. All 

connecting doors between living spaces and attached garages should 

include an automatic closer, and they should be installed with gasket 

material or be made substantially airtight with weather stripping.

•	 Include an exhaust fan in attached garages, with a minimum 

installed capacity of 70 cfm, rated for continuous operation, and 

installed to vent directly outdoors. If automatic fan controls are 

installed, they should activate the fan whenever the garage is 

occupied and for at least 1 hour after the garage has been vacated. 

•	 Use low-VOC (volatile organic compound) paints, finishes, 

varnishes, and adhesives whenever possible. Keep windows open 

while paints and adhesives are applied and until they are dry to 

dissipate initial concentrations.

For More Information on Healthy Homes 

and Combustion Safety

American Lung Association. 2008. “Health House: Builder Guidelines.” ALA, Saint Paul, MN. 

www.healthhouse.org/build/2008HHbuilderguidelines.pdf

American Lung Association. Health House Tipsheet on Backdrafting, ALA, Saint Paul, MN. 

www.healthhouse.org/tipsheets/TS_backdrafting.pdf

ASTM D6670 – 01. 2007. “Standard for Full-Scale Chamber Determination of Volatile 

Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials/Products,” www.astm.org/Standards/D6670.htm

Building Performance Institute, Inc., “Combustion Safety Test Procedure for Vented 

Appliances,” 4/07. www.bpi.org/documents/Gold_Sheet.pdf

California Air Resource Board (CARB). “Airborne Toxic Control Measure (ATCM) to 

Reduce Formaldehyde Emissions from Composite Wood Products” Fact Sheet, 

www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/compwood/factsheet.pdf

California Air Resource Board (CARB). “Regulation for Reducing Volatile Organic 

Compound Emissions from Consumer Products,” available online at 

www.arb.ca.gov/consprod/regs/cp.pdf

Canadian Standards Association CSA 6.19-01. Residential Carbon Monoxide Alarming 

Devices. www.shopcsa.ca/onlinestore/GetCatalogDrillDown.asp?Parent=571

Canadian Standards Association. “Carbon Monoxide Alarms,” www.csa-international.org/

consumers/consumer_tips?default.asp?load=carbon_monoxide&language=english

Center for ReSource Conservation. Before you buy...Cabinets. Article available at 

www.greenerbuilding.org/buying_advice.php?cid=4

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). What You Should Know About 

Combustion Appliances and Indoor Air Pollution (CPSC Document #452), 

www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/452.html

This Building America home used low-VOC 

paints and finishes (shown in lower photo) 

to meet local green building guidelines.

9.27

9.27

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
ENERGY STAR. 2007. ENERGY STAR Indoor Air Package Specifications, Version 2. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/bldrs_lenders_

raters/downloads/IAP_Specification_041907.pdf

Florida Solar Energy Center. 2007. “Indoor Air Quality,” available at 

www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/buildings/homes/airqual.htm

Greenguard Environmental Institute. www.greenguard.org

International Code Council, Inc., “UL 2034 History – CO Alarms,” May 4, 2005. 

www.iccsafe.org/cs/cc/ctc/CO/CO_UL2034History.pdf

2009 IECC. 2009. International Energy Conservation Code, International Code Council (ICC), 

Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

2009 IRC. 2009. International Residential Code - One and Two-Family Dwellings, Section 

M1502.4.1, “Material and Size,” and M1502.4.4 “Duct Length,” International Code Council 

(ICC), Washington, DC. www.iccsafe.org/Store/Pages

KCMA Environmental Stewardship Program 01-06. 

www.greencabinetsource.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Defining.Welcome

National Association of Home Builders Research Center. “Low- or No-VOC Paints, Finishes 

and Adhesives,” www.toolbase.org/Home-Building-Topics/Indoor-Air-Quality/low-voc-paints

LEED for Homes. USGBC, January 2008. 

www.greenhomeguide.org/documents/leed_for_homes_rating_system.pdf

National Green Building Standard 901.10, August 10, 2007, pg. 70. 

www.nahbgreen.org/Guidelines/ansistandard.aspx

NFPA 720: Standard for the Installation of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Warning 

Equipment in Dwelling Units. www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.

asp?DocNum=720&Cookie%5Ftest=1

Raub, J. A., M. Mathieunolf, N. B. Hampson, and S. R. Thom. 2000. 

“Carbon Monoxide Poisoning—a Public Health Perspective.” Toxicology (145):1-14. 

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10771127

South Coast Air Quality Management District. Rule 1168 – Adhesive and Sealant Application. 

www.arb.ca.gov/DRDB/SC/CURHTML/R1168.pdf

Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC). 2003. Green Building Guidelines: Meeting the 

Demand for Low-Energy, Resource-Efficient Homes. U.S. DOE. Washington, D.C. document 

available at www.sbicouncil.org/storeindex.cfm 

The American Lung Association. Health House tipsheet on carbon monoxide 

www.healthhouse.org/tipsheets/TS_CarbonMonoxide.pdf

The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers 

(ASHRAE). Top Ten Things that homeowners can do to provide good indoor air quality. 

www.contractorconnect.net/GoodAir.html

UL 2034 Standard for Single and Multiple Station Carbon Monoxide Alarms, 

Edition 2, October 29, 1996. www.alliedsalescompany.com/ul/2034.pdf

University of Illinois Extension Service. “Five Steps to a Healthier Garage”. 

http://web.extension.uiuc.edu/will/factsheets/family116.html

U.S. Department of Energy. “The House as a System: Combustion Safety,” 

www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/db/31046.pdf

U.S. Department of Energy. 2000. “Combustion Equipment Safety,” DOE Fact Sheet, 

May 2000. DOE/GO 10099-784. www.earthcrafthouse.com/documents/factsheets/CESCombustion-Safety%2000-784.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Indoor airPLUS Construction Specifications 

www.epa.gov/indoorairplus

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Indoor Air Quality Carbon Monoxide Fact Sheet” 

www.epa.gov/iaq/co.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Wood Coating Case Studies by Company.” 

www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/wood/low/casebyco.html

9.28

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Indoor airPLUS Verification Checklist

 Address or Div/Lot#: 

 City/State/Zip: Date: Verified by

Section Requirements (see Indoor airPLUS Construction Specifications for details) N/A Builder Rater

 Water-Managed Site and Foundation 

 1.1 Site & foundation drainage: sloped grade, protected drain tile, & foundation floor drains o	 o

 1.2 Capillary break below concrete slabs & in crawlspaces (Exception - see specification) o	 o	 o

 1.3 Foundation wall damp-proofed or water-proofed (Except for homes without below-grade walls) o	 o	 o

 1.4 Basements/crawlspaces insulated & conditioned (Exceptions - see specification) o	 o	 o

 Water-Managed Wall Assemblies 

 1.5 Continuous drainage plane behind exterior cladding, properly flashed to foundation o	 o

 1.6 Window & door openings fully flashed o	 o

 Water-Managed Roof Assemblies 

 1.7 Gutters/downspouts direct water a minimum of 5' from foundation (Except in dry climates) o	 o	 o

 1.8 Fully flashed roof/wall intersections (step & kick-out flashing) & roof penetrations o	 o

 1.9 Bituminous membrane installed at valleys & penetrations (Except in dry climates) o	 o	 o

 1.10 Ice flashing installed at eaves (Except in Climate Zones 1 - 4) o	 o	 o

 Interior Water Management 

 1.11 Moisture-resistant materials/protective systems installed (i.e., flooring, tub/shower backing, & piping) 	 	 	 o

 1.12 No vapor barriers installed on interior side of exterior walls with high condensation potential o		 o

 1.13 No wet or water-damaged materials enclosed in building assemblies o		 o

 2.1 Approved radon-resistant features installed (Exception - see specification) o		 o		 o

 2.2 Two radon test kits & instructions/guidance for follow-up actions provided for buyer (Advisory-see specification) o		 o		 o

 3.1 Foundation joints & penetrations sealed, including air-tight sump covers o

 3.2 Corrosion-proof rodent/bird screens installed at all openings that cannot be fully sealed (e.g., attic vents) o		 o

 4.1 HVAC room loads calculated, documented; system design documented; coils matched o

 4.2 Duct system design documented & properly installed OR duct system tested (check box if tested) o o		 		 o

 4.3 No air handling equipment or ductwork installed in garage; continuous air barrier required in adjacent assemblies o

 4.4 Rooms pressure balanced (using transfer grills or jump ducts) as required OR tested (check box if tested) o o		 	 o

 4.5 Whole house ventilation system installed to meet ASHRAE 62.2 requirements o

 4.6 Local exhaust ventilation to outdoors installed for baths, kitchen, clothes dryers, central vacuum system, etc. o

 4.7 Central forced-air HVAC system(s) have minimum MERV 8 filter, no filter bypass, & no ozone generators o

 4.8 Additional dehumidification system(s) or central HVAC dehumidification controls installed (In warm-humid climates only) o		 	 o

 Combustion Source Controls 

 5.1 Gas heat direct vented; oil heat & water heaters power vented or direct vented (Exceptions - see specifications) o		 	 o

 5.2 Fireplaces/heating stoves vented outdoors & meet emissions/efficiency standards/restrictions o		 	 o

 5.3 Certified CO alarms installed in each sleeping zone (e.g., common hallway) according to NFPA 720 o

 5.4 Smoking prohibited in common areas; outside smoking at least 25' from building openings (Multi-family homes only) o		 o		 o

 Attached Garage Isolation 

 5.5 Common walls/ceilings (house & garage) air-sealed before insulation installed; house doors gasketed & closer installed o		 	 o

 5.6 Exhaust fan (minimum 70 cfm, rated for continuous use) installed in garage & vented to outdoors (controls optional) o		 	 o

 6.1 Certified low-formaldehyde pressed wood materials used (i.e., plywood, OSB, MDF, cabinetry) o		 o

 6.2 Certified low-VOC or no-VOC interior paints & finishes used o		 o

 6.3 Carpet, adhesives, & cushion qualify for CRI Green Label Plus or Green Label testing program o		 o		 o

 7.1 HVAC system & ductwork verified dry, clean, & properly installed o

 7.2 Home ventilated before occupancy OR initial ventilation instructions provided for buyer o		 o

 7.3 Completed checklist & other required documentation provided for buyer o		 o

Rater/Provider: Builder: 

 Company: Company: 

 Signature: Signature: Moisture Control Combustion Pollutants Pests HVAC Final Radon Materials

9.29

9.29

CHAPTER 9. MECHANICAL, PLUMBING, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Guidance for Completing the Indoor airPLUS Verification Checklist:

1. Only ENERGY STAR qualified homes verified to comply with these specifications can earn the Indoor airPLUS label. See Indoor 

airPLUS Construction Specifications for full descriptions of the requirements, terms, exceptions, abbreviations, references, and 

climate map used in this checklist. Verification is not complete until this checklist is completed in full and signed.

2. Check one box per line. Check “N/A” for specifications that do not apply for specific conditions (e.g., climate) according to the 

Exceptions described in the Indoor airPLUS Construction Specifications. Check either “Builder” or “Rater” for all other items 

to indicate who verified each item. Items may be verified visually on site during construction, by reviewing photographs taken 

during construction, by checking documentation, or through equivalent methods as appropriate. If using a performance testing 

alternative to meet requirement 4.2 or 4.4, the box marked “Tested” must be checked and testing documentation must be provided in the Home Energy Rating System/Builder Option Package (HERS/BOP) file.

3. The rater who conducted the verification, or a responsible party from the rater’s company, must sign the completed verification 

checklist. The builder must sign the checklist if any items in the “Builder” column are checked, and by so doing accepts full 

responsibility for verifying that those items meet Indoor airPLUS requirements.

4. The builder provides one copy of the completed and signed checklist for the buyer. The HERS/BOP provider or rater files a copy 

with HERS/BOP and ENERGY STAR documentation (e.g., Thermal Bypass Checklist) for the home. 

5. The checklist may be completed for a batch of homes using a RESNET-approved sampling protocol when qualifying homes as 

ENERGY STAR. For example, if the approved sampling protocol requires rating one in seven homes, then the checklist will be 

completed for the one home that was rated. 

Note: The Indoor airPLUS Construction Specifications are designed to help improve indoor air quality (IAQ) in new homes compared with homes built 

to minimum code. These measures alone cannot prevent all IAQ problems; occupant behavior is also important. For example, smoking indoors would 

negatively impact a home’s IAQ and the performance of the specified Indoor airPLUS measures.

 

Notes: 

For further information on the Indoor airPLUS program, visit epa.gov/indoorairplus.

All Indoor airPLUS qualified homes meet strict 

guidelines for energy efficiency set by ENERGY STAR, 

the nationally-recognized symbol for energy efficiency. 

Qualified homes earn the 

Indoor airPLUS label. 

Place it next to the 

ENERGY STAR label.

9.30

CHAPTER 9 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
This checklist summarizes the measures presented in Chapters 6, 7, 

8, and 9. 

Designers, use this checklist as a reminder to investigate these 

features throughout the design process. It is important to develop 

specifications and drawings to ensure that selected features are 

included in construction documents. 

This list can aid site supervisors by providing a master list of 

recommended home features. Use this list to develop customized onsite 

pre-job and post-job inspection checklists for each trade contractor.

Chapter 10.

Durability and Energy 

Efficiency Checklist

CHAPTER TOPICS

10.1 Foundation Assemblies

10.4 Wall Assemblies

10.6 Roof Assemblies

10.7 Whole-House Air Leakage

10.7 Mechanical Systems

10.11 Commissioning

Foundation Assemblies

Slab, crawlspace, and basement foundation types are all common 

in the marine climate. The checklists below address control of 

moisture, airflow, and heat flow in each foundation type.

Controlling Moisture in All Foundation Types

 Maintain a surface grade of at least a 6-inch drop for at 

least 10 feet around and away from the entire structure 

[2009 IRC R401.3].

 Drain impervious surfaces such as driveways, garage slabs, 

patios, stoops, and walkways away from the structure at ≥ 2% 

drop within 10 feet of the building [2009 IRC R401.3]. 

 Specify and show in details that 6-mil polyethylene sheeting 

or rigid foam insulation is to be placed directly beneath the 

slab or basement floor. The sheeting should continuously 

wrap the slab as well as footings up to grade. 

10.1

10.1

CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
 Damp proof all below-grade portions of the exterior foundation [2009 IRC R406]. Damp proof the 

exposed portion of the foundation with latex paint or other sealant. 

 Specify that footings poured independent of slabs or foundation walls are to be treated with a 

bituminous damp-proof coating masonry capillary-break paint, or a layer of 6-mil polyethylene plastic 

to isolate the footing from the remainder of the assembly.

 Ensure that the lowest excavated site foundation level is above the local groundwater table at its 

maximum elevation. 

 Place a 4-inch-deep, 3⁄4-inch gravel bed directly beneath the polyethylene sheeting to act as a capillary 

break and drainage pad. 

 Do not place a sand layer between the vapor retarder and the concrete slab or basement floor. 

Differential drying and cracking is better handled with a low water-to-concrete ratio and wetted burlap 

covering during initial curing.

Controlling Moisture in Crawlspace and Basement Foundations

 Install a perimeter drain below the drainage plane along (not on top of) footings for all basements 

and crawlspaces where the floor is below grade (use perforated PVC pipe covered with gravel, 

landscape fabric, and backfill). 

 In all crawlspaces, install 6-mil polyethylene across the entire ground surface. Overlap all seams by 

12 inches and tape them. Seal the polyethylene at least 6 inches up the walls or to a height equal to 

ground level.

Controlling Air Infiltration in All Foundation Types

 The foundation details should indicate that a sill gasket be installed between the foundation and the 

bottom plate of the exterior framed wall. This gasket also serves as a capillary break.

Controlling Heat Flow in Slab Foundations

 Slabs may be insulated at the perimeter with borate-treated foam board or rigid fiberglass insulation. 

Use only insulation approved for below-grade use. 

 Exterior insulation should be applied from the top of the foundation wall to the bottom of the frost 

line. Cover the exterior face of the insulation exposed to outside air using flashing, fiber cement board, 

parging, treated plywood, or membrane material. 

 When a shallow frost-protected slab is used, foundation footings do not need to be placed below the 

frost depth. Rigid insulation, approved for below-grade use, must be placed vertically on the exterior 

of the grade beam, and must be placed to extend away from the foundation horizontally at the base of 

the grade beam for a distance equivalent to frost depth. Rigid insulation is also needed vertically on the 

inside of the grade beam, and must extend horizontally under the slab, on top of the gravel capillary 

break, for two feet. 

10.2

CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Heat Flow in Crawlspace Foundations

 The preferred approach is to install insulation on the exterior side of the foundation wall. Products 

such as borate-treated foam board or rigid fiberglass insulation work well. Insulate exterior side of 

beam to R-5.6 [2009 IRC 403.3].

 Insulation that is exposed above grade must be covered with a protective coating such as flashing, 

fiber cement board, parging, treated plywood, or membrane material. 

 If insulation is placed on the interior, it must extend down the wall to a depth at least 2 feet below 

grade level and be rated for crawlspace and basement exposure.

 If the floor is insulated instead, insulate to R-30 in the Marine climate [2009 IECC 402].

Controlling Heat Flow in Basement Foundations

 Wall insulation in basements is similar to the approaches described for crawlspaces. Basement floors are 

insulated similar to slabs. [2009 IECC 402 requires R-10 rigid foam on the interior or exterior surface of the walls or 

R-13 cavity insulation on interior basement walls in the marine climate; insulation must extend the full length of the 

wall. R-10 slab floor edge insulation is required extending 2 feet horizontally under the slab or out from the building.]

 Exterior wall insulation is preferable in basement foundation applications.

 Material in contact with the foundation wall and the concrete slab must be moisture tolerant. A capillary 

break must be placed between materials that transport moisture and moisture-sensitive materials.

 Interior insulation, if used, should employ one of the following methods:

 Use foil-faced polyisocyanurate rigid insulation attached directly to the above-grade portion of the wall. 

Extruded or expanded polystyrene can be attached to the below-grade portion of the wall. The polystyrene 

would require a gypsum board or equivalent covering. Foam sill seal or foam board can be used between the 

bottom plate of the wall and the concrete floor to provide a capillary break.

 Use either expanded or extruded polystyrene foam board attached to the entire foundation wall. Additional 

insulation can be added to a frame wall built on the interior of the foam insulation. If no additional insulation 

is desired, wood furring strips can be attached over the foam and gypsum board attached to the furring strips.

 Use pre-cast concrete foundation walls that come with a minimum of 1 inch of rigid foam insulation attached 

to the interior.

Other Foundation Issues

RADON CONTROL

 Use a layer of gravel under the slab to provide a path for radon and other soil gas to escape to the 

atmosphere rather than being drawn into the house. 

 Use a vapor retarder to block soil gas entry into the house. 

 See EPA website: www.epa.gov/iaq/whereyoulive.html for information about local variations in 

radon levels. [Also see radon map and radon control recommendations in the 2009 IRC Appendix F.]

 Use a radon reduction system if your homes are built in Zone 1 (high radon potential). 

 Include in your plans and details a sub-slab-to-roof vent system to handle high radon levels.

10.3

10.3

CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
PEST CONTROL 

 Use local code and Termite Infestation Probability (TIP) maps to determine environmentally 

appropriate termite treatments, bait systems, and treated building materials for assemblies that 

are near soil or have ground contact. [See also 2009 IRC R318.1.]

 Provide roof drainage to carry water at least 3 feet beyond the building.

 Apply decorative ground cover no more than 2 inches deep within 18 inches of the foundation.

 Keep plantings at least 18 inches from the foundation with supporting irrigation directed away from 

the finished structure.

 Specify and install an environmentally appropriate soil treatment and a material treatment 

(treated wood, termite blocks) for wood materials near grade. 

 Install a metal termite shield at the sill plate [per 2009 IRC R318.3].

Wall Assemblies

Controlling Liquid Water in Wall Assemblies

 Install flashing at all intersections of the wall with roofs and other building elements.

 Properly flash and seal windows and doors and other penetrations through the wall.

 Specify and show in elevations building paper, housewrap [per 2009 IRC R703.2], or taped insulating 

sheathing (rigid foam insulation) behind the exterior cladding to serve as a drainage plane. 

 In walls with brick facades, provide an airspace between the brick and the drainage plane.

 For the drainage plane behind stucco cladding, include insulating sheathing, two layers of building 

paper or housewrap, and a layer of building paper to avoid chemically contaminating the housewrap.

 If building paper is used as a drainage plane in areas prone to severe storms, use two layers to increase 

resistance to leakage at fasteners and to allow for more flexible installation.

 Overlap building paper seams shingle style to shed water and properly lap at window flashing (over the 

flashing above the windows and to the side, and under the flashing beneath the window).

 Overlap housewrap seams shingle style and tape seams. Properly lap at window flashing (over the 

flashing above the windows and to the side, and under the flashing beneath the window).

 Run housewrap top and bottom edges past top and bottom plates by at least one inch and seal at the edges.

 Use overhangs to keep water away from walls and penetrations and to provide shade.

10.4

CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Water Vapor in Wall Assemblies (Marine Climate)

 Back prime wood and fiber cement cladding to avoid water saturation and migration.

 Do not install vapor barrier (e.g., polyethylene sheeting, foil-faced batt insulation, reflective radiantbarrier foil insulation) on the interior side of walls in air conditioned structures. Wall assemblies should 

be able to dry to at least one side and in many cases both sides of the assembly.

 Do not use impermeable coverings, such as vinyl wallpaper, on exterior walls.

 Indicate on plans the methods, materials, and locations where sealing is needed to form the house air 

pressure barrier. Specify the approach to be taken to meet vapor barrier code requirements.

 Leave a drainage space of at least 1/16-inch behind lap siding and 3/4 inch between stucco and plastic 

housewraps to control liquid-phase water penetration. A 1-inch air gap is needed behind brick veneer

[as required by 2009 IRC R703.7.4.2].

 Use a Class 3 vapor retarder (latex paint) on interior side of walls with vented cladding over wall 

sheathing in the marine climate [per 2009 IRC 601.3].

Controlling Air Infiltration in Wall Assemblies

 Use interior gypsum board as the interior air infiltration barrier. Tape and seal gypsum board at all joints 

and caulk or glue at the intersections of the wall with the floor and the ceiling [2009 IECC 402.4].

 Create an exterior air infiltration barrier using taped and sealed exterior rigid foam insulating sheathing 

to control wind washing and to keep air from entering the wall from the exterior. Note: Exterior rigid 

insulation is not required to meet the 40% energy-efficiency reduction goal.

 Use the ENERGY STAR Thermal Bypass Checklist.

 Install insulation and draftstopping between bathtubs, dropped ceilings, dropped soffits, and stairwells 

on exterior walls.

 Seal all penetrations (exterior lights, phone lines, speakers, cables, etc...) with caulk, gaskets, or 

other sealants.

 For occupant health and safety, verify sealing at all shared walls and ceilings between attached 

garages and living spaces. 

 For homes with attached garages, block and seal any gaps created by joists spanning both conditioned 

space and the garage.

10.5

10.5

CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Controlling Heat Flow in Wall Assemblies

 Use 2x6 advanced framing techniques and specify framing details in plans.

 Insulate wall cavities that separate conditioned and unconditioned spaces with high-density, unfaced 

fiberglass batts, spray-applied cellulose, or spray-applied foam. [Per 2009 IECC 402 insulate the wood wall 

cavity to R-20 or insulate the cavity to R-13 plus R-5 insulated sheathing; insulate mass walls to R-13 exterior or 

R-17 interior in the marine climate.] 

 Properly install wall insulation to ensure the cavity is completely free of voids.

 Use spray foam to insulate and seal rim joists at areas between floors or where the wall connects to the 

floor (and where the wall connects to the roof in non-vented attics).

 Install taped rigid foam insulating sheathing (in addition to cavity insulation) on the exterior side of the 

wall to control moisture and air infiltration, eliminating double vapor barriers. 

 Install efficient windows with minimum U-values of 0.3 [2009 IECC Table 402.1.3 requires ≤ 0.35].

 Use ENERGY STAR labeled doors.

 Use roof overhangs to provide shade and protect windows, doors, and walls.

Roof Assemblies 

Controlling Liquid Water in Roof Assemblies

 In areas with potentially high winds and heavy rains, apply 4-inch to 6-inch “peel and seal” self-adhering 

waterproofing strips over joints in roof decking before installing the roof underlayment and cover.

 Install roofing materials shingle-fashion to provide a continuous drainage plane over the entire surface 

of the roof.

 Properly flash roof valleys and edges including kick-out flashing at the edges. 

 Size gutters and downspouts to accommodate anticipated storms. Roof drainage should carry water at 

least 3 feet from the building.

Controlling Water Vapor in Roof Assemblies

 Install roof/attic ventilation in vented attics.

 Do not use any kind of interior vapor barrier material in the ceiling (e.g., polyethylene sheeting).

Controlling Air Flow in Roof Assemblies

 Insulate and seal at the intersection between the walls and roof, including attics, cathedral ceilings, and 

knee walls. Use blown-in foam for tight sealing of the wall-roof intersection in non-vented attics. 

 Tape and seal all ceiling gypsum board seams so that the gypsum board functions as an air barrier. 

Caulk, glue, or tape all intersections with walls and other components (soffits, fans, registers, light 

fixtures) [per 2009 IECC 402.4]. 

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CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
 Use draft-stopping in dropped ceiling areas.

 Use ceiling light fixtures that are rated for insulation contact (IT) and airtight (AT); install with 

proper trim and caulk cracks around light fixtures.

 Air seal all penetrations through plates.

 Weatherstrip and insulate attic access hatches or doors.

 Seal all penetrations through the ceiling and the roof including holes for ventilation fans, lights, 

wires, and plumbing.

Controlling Heat Flow in Roof Assemblies

 Consider a non-vented attic.

 Install blown-in insulation at the appropriate depth on the top surface of ceiling gypsum board. 

[The 2009 IECC 402.1 requires a ceiling R value of R-38 in the marine climate, and a minimum of R-30 

in cathedral ceilings.] Maintain the ceiling insulation level throughout the entire plane of the ceiling 

and over the top of the perimeter walls. A depth gauge should be visible from the attic hatch. 

 Use raised energy trusses to maintain the thickness of ceiling insulation directly above the top plates 

of the exterior wall framing. [If raised heel trusses are used allowing full height of the insulation over the 

wall top plate, than R-30 is permitted instead of R-38 (2009 IECC 402.2.2).]

 In vented attics, install baffles to prevent blocking of soffit vents and wind washing (when thermal 

insulation is blown back from the edges of the attic by wind blowing through the soffit vents).

Whole-House Air Leakage 

 Have building envelope tested for air leakage by a HERS rater. Air leakage should measure less than:

 2.5-in.2 per 100 ft2 of envelope area (Canadian General Standards Board [CGSB]), calculated at a 10 Pa 

pressure differential), or 

 1.25-in.2 per 100 ft2 of envelope area (American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM], calculated 

at a 4 Pa pressure differential), or 

 0.25 CFM/ft2 of envelope area when tested at a 50 Pa pressure differential.

 3.0 SLA (specific leakage area, per California Title 24).

Mechanical Systems 

Heating and Cooling Equipment 

 Size heating and cooling equipment using ACCA Manual J [2009 IECC 403.6].

 Specify central air conditioners at a minimum 13 SEER (10 EER) for cooling, and specify heat 

pumps at a minimum of 7.7 HSPF for heating.

10.7

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CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
 Install ENERGY STAR-qualified equipment.

 Install sealed-combustion gas furnaces. 

 Install furnaces in conditioned space.

 Install HVAC equipment equipped with brushless, permanent magnet, direct-current motors.

 Isolate HVAC system and ducts from areas with potential pollutants including garage spaces.

 Have the refrigerant charge on the air conditioner or heat pump verified in writing by the installer to be 

within design specifications, using the superheat method for non-Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV) 

systems or the subcooling method for TXV systems. 

 Filter HVAC return air through a 4-inch standard filter or a new Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values 

(MERV) 8 normal-thickness filter. Make the filter easy to access for cleaning or replacement and 

design the filter slot so there is no air bypass around the filter when the HVAC system is operating. The 

maximum air velocity through the filter should not exceed 400 fpm. [ASHRAE 62.2-2010 6.7 recommends 

MERV 6 or better.]

 Keep pressurization balanced from room to room by providing individual ducted returns for each 

room or by providing jump ducts or transfer grilles located in the walls of each room. Use flex duct 

and staggered grille locations or ducts lined with sound-absorbent material to minimize sound transfer 

through jump ducts.

Ducts

 Specify location, size, and type of ducts and registers on construction plans. Include heating and cooling 

ducts, passive return air ducts or transfers, location of the mechanical ventilation air inlet, and the 

locations of all exhaust outlets. Indicate the location of dedicated chases for ductwork.

 Place ducts and air handlers in conditioned space when possible. It is also acceptable for attic ducts to 

be buried in insulation as described in the California Title 24 code.

 Size ducts using ACCA Manual D. 

 Use ducts made of galvanized sheet metal, duct board, or flex duct.

 Keep duct runs as short as possible. Consider using a central duct chase in a dropped hallway ceiling 

with registers located along it providing air directly to rooms along the hallway.

 Air seal insulated ducts running outside conditioned spaces, by use of proper duct sealing techniques 

(e.g., mastic).

 Use these duct sealing materials:

 For metal ducts: UL 181 mastic.

 For duct board: UL 181 tapes. 

 For flex duct: a combination of UL 181 mastic and strap ties. 

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CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
 Verify duct air leakage with a duct pressure test. The leakage should be no more than 5% of

 the total air handling unit air flow (at high speed) when tested at 25 Pa pressure.

 Seal drywall connections to ducts with caulk or foam sealant.

 Insulate ducts in unconditioned spaces. Insulate supply ducts to R-8 minimum and return 

ducts to R-4 minimum.

 Insulate ducts in conditioned space to R-8 for supply and R-4 for return ducts to avoid 

condensation formation.

 Equip each bedroom with a separate return duct, transfer grille, or jump duct.

 Don’t use “pan” ducts in spaces between joists and in stud cavities as supply or return air ducts.

 Don’t locate ducts in exterior walls.

 Seal any return-air ductwork or air handler located in the garage with UL 181-approved mastic.

 Don’t put the air handler in the garage unless it is in a sealed closet.

Ventilation

 Install whole-house mechanical ventilation compliant with ASHRAE Standard 62.2. 

 Provide a fresh-air intake ducted to the return air side of the air handler to provide fresh air and air 

pressure balancing for homes ventilated primarily with exhaust-only kitchen and bath fans.

 Filter ventilation air through a 4-inch standard filter or a new Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values 

(MERV) 8 normal-thickness filter. Make the filter easy to access for cleaning or replacement and design 

the filter slot so there is no air bypass around the filter when the HVAC system is operating.

 Install ENERGY STAR-qualified low-sone exhaust fans in bathrooms and kitchens. Sone ratings 

should not exceed 1.5. 

 Seal bathroom and kitchen fans to drywall with caulk or gaskets.

 Equip outdoor air intakes and exhausts with automatic or gravity dampers that close when the 

ventilation system is not in operation.

 Consider installing a night ventilation cooling system in appropriate subclimates.

Plumbing

 Locate bathrooms and other hot water-consuming activities near each other in the house layout. 

 Centrally locate the water heater to minimize piping trunk lengths. 

 Bury plumbing in attic insulation for single-story, slab-on-grade homes and in interstitial space 

between floors for multi-story homes.

 Install code-permitted or manufacturer-approved minimum size lines.

10.9

10.9

CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
 Insulate hot water supply lines to R-4. [2009 IECC 403.3 requires R-3 minimum.]

 Insulate tanks to at least R-12.

 Use a central manifold (home-run) water distribution system.

 Use PEX (high-density polyethylene) piping. Do not specify PEX pipes connected directly to water 

heaters or solar collectors.

 Do not install continuous recirculation pumping systems on hot water lines. Use an on-demand switch 

if recirculation controls are desired to minimize the energy penalty of a circulation system.

 Use gas-fired instantaneous power vented or direct vented water heaters inside conditioned space.

 Consider alternative technologies like on-demand gas or electric water heaters, solar thermal water 

heaters, and ground-source heat pumps for water heating. If using solar-thermal water heating, 

integrated collector storage systems are the least expensive and work well in areas with a low threat 

of freezing temperatures. Other systems are available for areas that experience freezing.

 Use unglazed solar pool water heaters on all spas and swimming pools in the hot-dry and mixed-dry 

climates, and use two-speed pumps and controls to reduce energy.

Electrical

 Use ENERGY STAR-qualified compact fluorescent lights (CFLs) in all fixtures expected to be on more 

than 2 hours per day. [The 2009 IECC 404 requires that at least 50% of the lamps in permanently installed 

lighting fixtures be high-efficacy lamps.]

 In California, follow these lighting requirements, which were updated in 2008 and became effective 

August 1, 2009. All CFLs are pin-based CFLs. 

 Kitchens: At least half the installed wattage of luminaires in kitchens shall be high efficacy and the 

ones that are not must be switched separately.

 Bathrooms, garages, laundry rooms, and utility rooms: All luminaires shall either be high efficacy or 

shall be controlled by a manual-on occupant sensor.

 Other rooms: All luminaires shall either be high efficacy or shall be controlled by an occupant sensor 

or dimmer. Closets that are less than 70 ft2

 are exempt from this requirement.

 Outdoor lighting: All luminaires mounted to the building or to another building on the same lot 

shall be high-efficacy luminaires or shall be controlled by a photocontrol/motion sensor combination.

 Use recessed ceiling lights that are ICAT rated (approved for insulation contact and air tight) 

[per the 2009 IECC 402.4.5].

 Use occupant sensors, photocells, and motion sensors to automate lighting operation.

 Use air-sealed electrical boxes in all exterior walls and ceilings adjacent to unconditioned attics.

 Use ENERGY STAR-qualified appliances.

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CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Occupant Health and Safety

 Use only sealed-combustion or power-vented combustion appliances in conditioned space.

 Direct vent gas cooking ranges to the outside [2009 IRC M1503.4].

 Do not use combustion appliances that rely on passive combustion air supply openings or 

outdoor supply air ducts that are not directly connected to the appliance.

 Use sealed-combustion gas fireplaces to eliminate the threat of harmful combustion gases 

entering the house. 

 Install CO detectors and smoke alarms [per NFPA 720 and NFPA 101 24.3.4.1].

 Use filtration systems for forced air systems that provide a minimum atmospheric dust spot 

efficiency of 30% or MERV (Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value) of 8 or higher.

 Maintain indoor humidity in the range of 30% to 60% by controlled mechanical ventilation, 

mechanical cooling, or dehumidification. 

 Install carbon monoxide detectors (hard-wired units, one approximately every 1,000 square feet) 

in any house containing combustion appliances and/or an attached garage.

 Maximize hard surface areas (tile, vinyl, hardwood) to enable homeowners to better manage dust 

for health purposes. For slab-on-grade houses, this also reduces cooling loads.

 Provide occupants with information on the safe, healthy, operation and maintenance of the 

building systems that provide control over space conditioning, hot water, and lighting.

 Ventilate attached garages with a 100 cfm (ducted) or 80 cfm (un-ducted) exhaust fan, venting to 

outdoors and designed for continuous operation. Or, install automatic fan controls that activate 

the fan whenever the garage is occupied and for at least 1 hour after the garage is vacated.

 Completely seal the garage from the conditioned areas of the house to keep car exhaust and 

chemical fumes from entering the home [per 2009 IECC 402.4.1 and ASHRAE 62.2-2010, 6.5.1].

 Vent clothes dryers and central vacuum cleaners directly outdoors [2009 IRC M1502.4.1].

 Use low-VOC paints, finishes, varnishes, and adhesives whenever possible.

Commissioning

 Test ducts for air leakage at rough-in. [Per 2009 IECC 403.2, at rough-in, duct leakage to the outdoors 

should be ≤ 6 cfm/100ft2 of conditioned floor area at 25 Pa.]

 Test whole-house air leakage with a blower door. [Per 2009 IECC 402.4.1 blower door air leakage 

results should be ≤ 7 ACH@50Pa).]

 Do combustion safety testing.

 Provide homeowners with operation and maintenance guidance to HVAC and mechanical systems.

10.11

10.11

CHAPTER 10. CHECKLIST

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
10.12

CHAPTER 10 / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
The construction process brings together piles of materials and 

equipment, armies of trade subcontractors, and site supervisors—all 

the ingredients to turn ideas into homes. Getting a high-performance 

home requires having good plans, and the proper contracts, permits, 

and materials, in combination with properly trained and competent 

installers, scheduled at the right time, and verified with testing. 

Key topics that can help smooth the construction process include 

•	 using construction and contract documents 

•	 training 

•	 scheduling work 

•	 inspections and testing. 

Construction and Contract Documents 

Builders should use construction and contract documents to describe 

and define exactly what you want from your subcontractors. 

Construction documents may include plans and specifications, 

scopes of work, and job-ready and job-complete checklists as 

described in Chapter 3. Plans and specifications should include 

sufficient building and equipment details for the code inspector 

[as required by the 2009 IECC 103]. Site supervisors should review 

construction documents before they are folded into contracts and 

continue to provide recommendations as these documents are put 

into practice to make them as effective as possible. The popular 

management term for ongoing feedback and dialogue is “continuous 

improvement,” a term coined by W. Edwards Deming. The point 

here is that when workers in the field find ways to improve designs or 

construction processes, that information needs to be communicated 

Chapter 11.

Construction Site 

Scheduling, Training, 

and Inspecting

CHAPTER TOPICS

11.1 Construction and 

Contract Documents

11.3 Train Installers

11.5 Scheduling

11.6 Inspections and Tests

11.1

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CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
back to designers and managers so that documentation can capture 

those improvements. Although individual improvements may seem 

small, capturing them into construction documents helps to apply 

them to superior building in the field. 

Clear contract documents make for clear expectations with trade 

contractors. Ensure that trade contracts include the following 

provisions adapted from the NAHB Research Center Toolbase:

•	 Trade contractors are contractually obligated to ensure that 

workers fully understand field specifications and builder quality 

assurance processes using pre-job and post-job checklists.

•	 A competent crew leader will be in charge of all crews and able to 

communicate with the builder’s site supervisor.

•	 Trades must self inspect each phase of work, using the pre-job and 

post-job checklists, before reporting the work complete to the site 

supervisor.

•	 All work must be completed in accordance with field specifications, 

applicable building codes, and industry standards.

•	 Trades must identify recurring errors in their work and train crews 

as needed to reduce similar errors. 

•	 Trades will confirm in writing that all materials and equipment 

were installed according to field specifications and manufacturers’ 

instructions, using pre-job and post-job checklists. Copies of both 

field specifications and the manufacturers’ instructions should be 

available on the jobsite.

(left) Use plans to spell out details that 

will ensure energy efficiency and durability 

like framing techniques, duct layouts, 

housewrap, flashing, and air sealing.

(right) Hold a preconstruction meeting with 

all subcontractors present to talk about the 

schedule and trade interactions, especially 

any changes from the typical routine to 

accommodate new methods or technologies.

“We have every trade fill out jobready and job-complete forms. We 

want to know what was ready and 

what wasn’t when they showed up 

at their job. Those delays frustrate 

them and cost us money. ”

Vern McKown, co-owner of Ideal Homes, 

in Norman, Oklahoma, shared these tips at 

the EEBA National Conference in Denver, 

Colorado, September 2009

11.2

CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Train Installers 

High-performance home construction does not just happen. Training 

is essential. Training need not involve days off the worksite sitting in 

big lecture halls. Hands-on training is the most common approach 

and can happen constantly. Here are some ideas for training:

•	 Schedule a pre-construction meeting with all of your subcontractors 

present to review required interactions between trades.

•	 Meet with your subcontractors at the jobsite to explain how to use 

new techniques and materials. 

•	 Provide your contractors with manufacturers’ installation 

instructions and material data sheets and go through those 

instructions together. Other installation guides you may want to 

share with subcontractors include the field guides for installers 

shown in Chapter 12 of this guide and the DOE Building Energy 

Program’s Code Notes. (See examples in Appendix 3.)

•	 Encourage in-house staff and regular subcontractors to take 

advantage of web-based videos, online training, and classroom 

training at community colleges during the off season.

For More How-To Information on Constructing 

Energy-Efficient Homes

Air Conditioning Contractors Association, www.acca.org

American Architectural Manufacturers Association, www.installationmastersusa.com

Building America, www.buildingamerica.gov

Building Energy Codes Resource Center, http://resourcecenter.pnl.gov/

Building Science Corporation, www.buildingscience.com.seminars.com

CARB Steven Winters Associates, www.carb-swa.com

Energy and Environmental Building Alliance, www.eeba.org

Florida Solar Energy Center, www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/

IBACOS, www.ibacos.com

National Association of Home Builders Research Center, www.nahbrc.org

Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing, www.pathnet.org

Southface Energy Institute, www.southface.org

The California Energy Commission, www.energyvideos.com

Training on the jobsite can include 

reviewing manufacturers’ installation 

instructions, going through job-ready 

and job-complete checklists, and using 

HotSpot forms.

“We hold meetings with our trade 

contractor steering committee. 

We ask our employees and our 

subs, what can we do better? The 

construction supervisor walks 

the sites to identify any recurring 

issues. And we do NAHB quality 

certification audits of the whole 

company on a regular basis.”

Vern McKown, co-owner of Ideal Homes, 

in Norman, Oklahoma, shared these tips at 

the EEBA National Conference in Denver, 

Colorado, September 2009

11.3

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CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
HotSpot Inspections and Training 

Systematically checking work is an important aspect of quality 

construction. The NAHB Research Center developed the concept 

of HotSpot Inspections and HotSpot Training. A “HotSpot” is 

a recurring issue that requires some form of remediation in order 

to get a site ready for the next trade or a home ready for move-in 

by a buyer. Builders can create their own HotSpot forms using the 

sample below.

Cooling the HotSpots

•	 Identify quality issues through job 

inspections, builder feedback, and 

comprehensive quality reviews. 

Include the problems that show up 

on your punch lists time and again.

•	 Add HotSpot checkpoints to the 

inspection form where improvement 

is needed. 

•	 In weekly production meetings 

HotSpot inspection forms are 

distributed and discussed. 

Site supervisors are trained on 

procedures to prevent those 

problems. The training uses onepage diagrams that address 

specific problem areas. 

•	 In toolbox talks, site supervisors 

and contractor supervisors use the 

diagrams to train crews.

•	 Site supervisors monitor the use of 

the new processes and the quality 

of installations. HotSpot inspection 

forms are used by supervisors 

on every job. Results provide 

feedback on the effectiveness 

of the improvements. 

•	 Celebrate success. When HotSpots 

are no longer an issue, remove 

them from the HotSpot list and put 

them in a reminder section. In time, 

items may leave the inspection 

form altogether. 

Adapted from the ToolBase News, 

Summer 2005: Volume 10, Issue 3 

(September 2005), available at www.

toolbase.org/Newsletters/NewsDetail.

aspx?ContentDetailID=1308#5, and the 

ToolBase Resources Website at 

www.toolbase.org/Best-Practices/

Business-Management/Hot-SpotInspections. This website includes 

examples of HotSpot inspection forms.

11.4

CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Scheduling

Building an energy-efficient home requires careful attention to 

scheduling. Several new construction techniques require changing 

the order of subcontractors or a shifting of responsibilities, and 

some new activities will need to be added into the schedule. Here are 

some important schedule considerations:

•	 Schedule HVAC rough-in before plumbing and electrical. It is far 

more important for the ductwork to have un-constricted access 

and pathways than it is for wires or pipes. However, be sure needs 

for other systems, such as drain pitch, are coordinated.

•	 If using a conditioned attic, schedule insulating under the roof 

deck before HVAC rough-in. The insulators must be able to do 

their job without tromping on the carefully placed ductwork.

•	 Be sure to schedule caulking of electrical and plumbing 

penetrations before the drywall is completed and after the lines 

have been installed.

•	 Don’t forget to schedule for pipe insulation under the slab.

•	 Be sure to schedule pre-drywall insulation inspections, flashing 

inspections, and envelope and duct pressure tests. Inspect at key 

points to ensure that insulation and envelope sealing take place 

before areas become inaccessible. Inspections are much more likely 

to happen if scheduled, and subcontractors may be a bit more 

conscientious if they know their work will be evaluated. 

•	 If ducts are installed in conditioned space, drywall must be 

installed behind duct chases and soffits before they are framed.

Some situations that may require a shifting of responsibilities 

include the following:

•	 If using advanced framing techniques that include two-stud 

corners and floating drywall corners, someone must attach drywall 

clips. The framer is a more likely candidate than the drywall 

installer for framing modifications.

•	 Some caulking work needs to be done by the HVAC subcontractor. 

In particular, the main supply and return trunks that lead through 

the walls need to be caulked by the person connecting them to the 

equipment. Don’t let the drywall finisher do this with mud—it is 

neither a good sealant nor durable enough. Also, all duct terminations, 

including jump ducts, must be sealed when registers are installed.

“Quadrant gives us a schedule and 

we know we can count on it. With 

most of our other builders, if they 

have a job they want us to start 

tomorrow, we need to stop by and 

make sure the work will be ready. 

With Quadrant, we don’t have to 

do that. They are predictable and 

reliable, and that is very nice from 

a trade standpoint.”

Wade Craig, manager of Bob’s Heating and 

Air Conditioning, the HVAC contractor for 

Quadrant Homes of Bellevue, Washington

Quadrant Homes, a Building America 

builder in Belleveue, Washington, builds 

its wall panels in a factory to ensure 

consistency and shorten site 

construction time.

11.5

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CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	 Some post-finish caulking can be avoided by having the electrician 

use pre-fabricated airtight electrical boxes. 

•	 If installations of windows and drainage planes are done by 

different subs, the window installer must be careful to leave 

flashing unattached at the bottom so that the first row of building 

paper may be tucked under it (see Chapter 12 for an installer’s 

guide to window flashing, housewrap, and sealants).

•	 If you are using insulated headers, the framer will need to install 

insulation inside any double headers (using sandwiched foam 

insulation). Open headers may be left for the insulation contractor. 

Pre-fabricated, insulated headers are another alternative.

•	 Draftstops must be installed behind bathtubs and stairwells on 

exterior framed walls as well as attic knee walls. The framer or 

insulator should do this, but be sure that insulation is installed 

before the draftstopping material. The plumber can be asked to 

install the draftstopping and insulation.

Efficient scheduling of subcontractors can bring huge rewards in 

reduced costs and improved quality. 

Inspections and Tests

In addition to required inspections by the code inspector, Building 

America recommends that site supervisors conduct systematic 

inspections during the course of construction. A checklist for 

designers in Chapter 10 contains many of the provisions that site 

supervisors should look for and work to include. 

Walkthroughs

General walk-throughs and inspections are especially good at critical 

times during construction before the next step makes it impossible to 

detect a problem or make a repair. Especially when energy-efficient 

systems-designed housing is new to your subcontractors, you should 

conduct multiple inspections to ensure that the subcontractors have 

understood what is required of them and how to implement it. 

After the process has become more routine, you might get by with 

spot inspections. HotSpot inspections done by the site supervisor 

and training and pre-job/post-job checklists filled out by the 

subcontractor can help solve recurring problems and tie together 

many aspects of quality assurance and site management.

“You can expect what 

you inspect.”

Dr. W. Edwards Deming, the originator 

of total quality management

Make your expectations clear with onsite 

meetings and visible inspection checklists.

11.6

CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Pre-Dry Wall Inspection and Duct Pressure Testing

[The 2009 IECC 403.2 requires that ducts be tested for air tightness 

and allows for the testing to occur either before or after drywall is put 

up. If the ducts are tested at pre-drywall or rough-in, they must be 

≤ 6 cfm per 100 ft2 of conditioned floor area at 25 Pa; if tested after 

construction, than ≤ 8 cfm at 25 Pa. (If the air handler and all ducts are 

in conditioned space, duct leakage testing is not required.)] Building 

America recommends testing duct pressure before drywalling, 

with the HVAC contractor present. If the ductwork fails to meet 

the pressure criteria, a smoke test will reveal the worst leaks 

and they can be sealed while they are still accessible. The HVAC 

contractor should also test the HVAC system to ensure that 

thermostats and zone dampers are operating correctly and that 

bypass dampers are properly adjusted. The pre-drywall inspection 

is also a good time to ensure that insulation and draft-stopping 

have been properly installed. 

Pre-Occupancy Inspection 

and Whole-House Pressure Testing

After completion of the home, including all interior and exterior 

finishes but before occupancy, the whole-house air tightness is tested.

[The 2009 IECC 402.4.2 gives two options for demonstrating building air 

tightness. The home can be blower door tested and must show leakage 

of less than 7 air changes per hour at 50 Pa. Or, the 2009 IECC allows a 

visual inspection of all of the areas listed in the 2009 IECC 402.4.2.2.]

Building America recommends a blower door test. Also at this time, 

you should verify that all specified energy-efficient lighting and 

appliances were installed and check the air-conditioner or heat pump 

refrigerant charge if your HVAC contractor has not already done so.

Duct testing and whole-house pressure tests can be conducted by a 

certified HERS rater, and the HERS rating itself can be a valuable 

marketing tool for an energy-efficient house. The HERS rater should 

conduct a combustion safety test of all fuel-fired equipment as part 

of the rating certification.

To identify a certified rater in your area, check the registry at the 

Residential Energy Services Network (RESNET) website: 

www.natresnet.org.

For More Information on Site Supervision and Construction

NAHBRC. 2006. “Quality Matters: Six Ways to Improve Trade Contracts.” 

ToolBase News, Summer 2006: Volume 11, Issue 3. www.toolbase.org/Newsletters/News/

tbn-summer2006#5

“Monitoring progress is the 

only way you are going to 

change behavior.” 

Nat Hodgson, Vice President of Construction, 

Pulte Homes Las Vegas Division

(top) Duct blaster testing confirms that 

ducts are well sealed (Photo source: NREL) 

(bottom) Before the drywalling starts, you 

should conduct a pre-drywall inspection 

to test ducts and make sure insulation is 

properly installed.

11.7

11.7

CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
11.8

CHAPTER 11. CONSTRUCTION SITE SCHEDULING, TRAINING, AND INSPECTING

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
On the following pages you will find step-by-step, easy-to-follow 

illustrated instructions for implementing key energy-efficiency 

technologies.

These guides are designed to be easily duplicated and distributed. 

Hand them to your subcontractors when you meet with them at the 

jobsite, to help them understand what you expect.

•	 Advanced Framing

•	 Foundation System, Insulation, Moisture and Air Leakage Control

•	 Masonry Construction

•	 Housewrap

•	 Window Flashing

•	 Wall-to-Roof Flashing

•	 Interior Air Sealing

•	 Exterior Air Sealing with Insulating Sheathing Panels

•	 Plumbing Air Sealing

•	 Electrical Air Sealing

•	 Installing Fiberglass Batt Insulation

•	 Installing Windows in Walls with External Rigid Foam Insulation

•	 Duct Location

•	 Air Handler and Duct Sealing 

•	 Radiant Barriers

Chapter 12.

Field Guides 

for Installers

12.1

12.1

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
(THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK)

12.2

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Advanced Framing

The following tips show examples of framing techniques that can create more open 

space to hold insulation while reducing framing cost and waste. The following page 

shows a typical framing plan which should be included in construction documents.

Size headers for actual 

loading conditions: 

Non-load-bearing walls 

do not need structural 

headers. Proper 

sizing may allow for the 

use of insulated headers 

in which foam 

insulation is 

sandwiched 

between 

lumber.

Use two-stud corners:

Rather than using a third 

stud as a nailing edge for 

interior gypsum board, use 

drywall clips, a 1x nailer 

strip, or a recycled plastic 

nailing strip. Using drywall 

clips also reduces drywall 

cracking and nail popping.

Eliminate redundant floor 

joists: Double floor joists 

aren’t needed below nonload-bearing partitions. 

Partitions parallel to 

overhead floor or roof 

framing can be attached to 

2x3 or 2x4 blocking. Nailing 

directly to the sub-floor 

provides adequate support.

Use 2x3s for 

partitions:

Interior, non-loadbearing partition 

walls can be framed 

with 2x3s at 24-in. 

on center or 2x4 

“flat studs” at 16-in. 

on center. 

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24” 24” 24” 24” 24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

24”

FROM 

ABOVE

Two-Foot Module Design:

Starting with the foundation, the house 

footprint should be based on 2-foot 

increments. Layouts should be based on 

this 2-foot grid to minimize material waste.

Frame 24-in. on center:

24-in. on center studs are structurally 

adequate for most residential applications. 

Even when the stud size must be increased 

from 2x4 to 2x6, 24-in. spacing can 

significantly reduce framing lumber needed. 

Ladder-block exterior wall 

intersections: Partitions can be 

nailed either directly to a single 

exterior wall stud or to flat blocks 

inserted between studs.

Align framing members and use a single top 

plate: Plate sections are cleated together using 

metal flat-plate connectors. Metal connectors can 

be used at partition wall intersection. Underside 

blocking is another option for single top plate butt 

joints. For multistory homes, this may increase 

the stud size on lower floors to 2x6.

Exterior wall top plate

Interior wall 

top plate

Metal connector plate

12.3

12.3

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
An example of a detailed wall framing layout. Use detailed layouts like 

this to make sure studs align from first floor to second floor to roof.

Figures courtesy of the 

NAHBRC and prepared 

by Steve Baczek.

12.4

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Wall design for seismic regions

This advanced framing wall panel for seismic regions was designed and tested by Building Science Corporation and the U.S. Army 

Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) with funding by DOE’s Building America program. The panel was designed 

to provide lateral capacity that is as good as or better than traditional plywood-sheathed shear panels, while not interfering with the 

installation of insulation sheathing directly to the framing members. It has an allowable design capacity of 650 lb/ft or 2,600 lb per panel.

For More Information on Seismic Events

Building Science Corporation. 2009. Enclosures That Work - Building Profile: Hot-Dry/Mixed-Dry: Sacramento, 2009, 

www.buildingscience.com/documents/profiles/etw-sacramento-profile/#F11

12.5

12.5

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
12.6

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Foundation System, Insulation, Moisture and Air Leakage Control

= Sealant or Gasket

Concrete

slab

Seal all slab

penetrations

Concrete footing below frost depth

INTERIOR INSULATION 

FOR FLOATING SLAB

EXTERIOR INSULATION

PACKAGE

Gravel base

(4-6" deep coarse, no fines)

Perforated

drain pipe

Hold drywall 

1/2” above floor

Polyethylene or damp proofing capillary break

Polyethylene vapor diffusion retarder

Perforated drainage 

pipe embedded 

in gravel

Use extruded (R-5 per inch)

or expanded (R-4 per inch)

polystyrene or rigid

fiberglass insulation

Cover insulation 

exposed above grade

(see list on reverse)

Rigid foam insulation

(extends under entire slab

and replaces polyethylene 

vapor retarder)

Radon reduction

3" plastic pipe vent stack

Optional blower

Sill gasket 

membrane

(also serves as 

capillary break)

Metal termite 

flashing

Damp proofing Damp proofing

Roof flashing

SHALLOW FROST-PROTECTED 

FOUNDATION

(get code approval before proceeding)

6 Mil. Polyethylene

vapor diffusion retarder

(extends under grade beam 

acting as a capillary break)

Rigid insulation 

extends horizontally

(horizontal distance 

equivalent to frost depth)

Rigid insulation 

extends horizontally 2’

Damp proofing

Cover insulation 

exposed above grade

(see list on reverse)

See more information on the following page.

* Slab insulation may not be needed to reach energy 

 efficiency targets of these best practices

12.7

12.7

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Sources & Additional Information

U.S. DOE, Technology Fact Sheet on Slab Insulation.

www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/documents/pdfs/29237.pdf

U.S. EPA, Building Radon Out: A Step-By-Step Guide oni How to Build Radon Resistent Homes.

www.epa.gov/199/iaq/radon

Southface Energy Institute. Fact Sheets #29: Insulating Foundation and Doors.

www.southface.org/home/sfpubs/techshts/29_insulatefloors4PDF.pdf

Southface Energy Institute. Fact Sheets #30: Radon-Resistant Construction for Builders.

www.southface.org/home/sfpubs/techshts/30_radonresistantconst.pdf

Building Science Consortium. Introduction to Building Systems Performance: Houses that Work II. 

www.buildingscience.gov

•	 Keep all untreated wood materials away 

from contact with earth and concrete. 

•	 Design the house structure with 

overhangs, gutters, drainage planes, 

and flashing to shed rainwater and 

conduct it away from the house.

•	 Slope the earth away from the house 

and ensure that no irrigation strikes 

near the foundation.

•	 Use a sill gasket for air sealing

•	 Install a protective shield such as 

metal flashing, plastic L bracket, or 

a membrane (such as EPDM flexible 

roofing material*) to block capillary 

water wicking into the wall from the 

foundation. The protective shield may 

also serve as a termite shield.

•	 Slabs require a foundation drain where 

the slab (or floor) is located below 

grade. Install a foundation drain 

alongside the footing (not above it). 

The drain should rest in a bed of coarse 

gravel (no fines) that slopes away from 

the foundation and is covered with 

filter fabric.

•	 Exterior rigid fiberglass insulation 

may provide a drainage plane that will 

channel water to the foundation drain 

and relieve hydrostatic pressure. 

•	 Exterior foundation wall insulation 

requires a protective coating at 

above-grade applications. Examples 

of protective coverings for exterior, 

above-grade insulation include flashing, 

fiber-cement board, parging (stucco 

type material), treated plywood, or 

membrane material (EPDM* 

flexible roofing). 

•	 Note that some code jurisdictions 

may require a gap between exterior 

insulation and wood foundation 

elements to provide a termite 

inspection area.

•	 Install damp proofing or a polyethylene 

sheet over the footing to block 

capillary water wicking into the 

foundation side wall.

•	 Install a capillary break and vapor 

retarder under the entire slab consisting 

of at least a 6-mil polyethylene sheet 

or continuous rigid foam insulation 

approved for below-grade applications, 

on top of 4 to 6 inches of coarse gravel. 

•	 Install radon control measures 

(check local requirements and EPA 

recommendations).

*EPDM stands for Ethylene Propylene 

Diene Monomer. 

Slab Foundation System, Insulation, Moisture and Air Leakage Control

12.8

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Basement & Conditioned Crawlspace Insulation, Moisture and Air Leakage Control

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor barrier

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Treated wood nailer

(bring vapor barrier

up to grade level)

Cavity insulation

= Sealant or Gasket

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid Insulation

Continuous

polyethylene

Damp proofing

Rigid insulation

Treated

wood nailer

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Rigid insulation

Rigid insulation

Damp proofing

Continuous

polyethylene

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary Break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor

diffusion retarder

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Radon reduction

3” plastic vent pipe

Cavity insulation

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid insulation

with foil facing

Damp proofing

Cavity

insulation

Polyethylene or

damp proofing

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor barrier

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Treated wood nailer

(bring vapor barrier

up to grade level)

Cavity insulation

= Sealant or Gasket

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid Insulation

Continuous

polyethylene

Damp proofing

Rigid insulation

Treated

wood nailer

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Rigid insulation

Rigid insulation

Damp proofing

Continuous

polyethylene

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary Break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor

diffusion retarder

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Radon reduction

3” plastic vent pipe

Cavity insulation

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid insulation

with foil facing

Damp proofing

Cavity

insulation

Polyethylene or

damp proofing

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor barrier

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Treated wood nailer

(bring vapor barrier

up to grade level)

Cavity insulation

= Sealant or Gasket

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid Insulation

Continuous

polyethylene

Damp proofing

Rigid insulation

Treated

wood nailer

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Rigid insulation

Rigid insulation

Damp proofing

Continuous

polyethylene

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary Break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor

diffusion retarder

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Radon reduction

3” plastic vent pipe

Cavity insulation

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid insulation

with foil facing

Damp proofing

Cavity

insulation

Polyethylene or

damp proofing

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor barrier

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Treated wood nailer

(bring vapor barrier

up to grade level)

Cavity insulation

= Sealant or Gasket

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid Insulation

Continuous

polyethylene

Damp proofing

Rigid insulation

Treated

wood nailer

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Rigid insulation

Rigid insulation

Damp proofing

Continuous

polyethylene

Polyethylene or 

damp proofing 

capillary break

Sill gasket membrane

(also serves as capillary break)

Metal termite flashing

Concrete footing

below frost depth

Polyethylene or damp

proofing capillary Break

Rigid fiberglass insulation

Polyethylene vapor

diffusion retarder

Damp proofing

Perforated drainage

pipe embedded in

coarse gravel

Radon reduction

3” plastic vent pipe

Cavity insulation

Cover insulation

exposed above grade

Rigid insulation

with foil facing

Damp proofing

Cavity

insulation

Polyethylene or

damp proofing

capillary break

EXTERIOR CRAWLSPACE INSULATION INTERIOR CRAWLSPACE INSULATION

If depth does not extend two feet below grade, place 

remaining insulation horizontally along the ground.

EXTERIOR BASEMENT INSULATION

INTERIOR BASEMENT INSULATION

See more information on the following page.

12.9

12.9

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Sources & Additional Information

IBACOS. 2002. Consider the Crawlspace (www.buildingamerica.gov)

IBACOS. 2002. Don’t Forget About the Basement (www.buildingamerica.gov)

Lstiburek, Joseph. 2004. Builders Guide to Cold Climates (www.eeba.org/bookstore)

U.S. DOE, Technology Fact Sheet: Basement Insulation (www.buildingamerica.gov)

U.S. DOE, Technology Fact Sheet: Crawlspace Insulation (www.buildingamerica.gov)

U.S. EPA, Building Radon Out: A Step-By-Step Guide on How to Build Radon Resistent Homes (www.epa.gov/1999/iaq/radon)

Yost and Lstiburek. 2002. Basement Insulation Systems (www.buildingamerica.gov)

•	 Keep all untreated wood materials

away from contact with earth 

and concrete. 

•	 Design the house structure with

overhangs, gutters, drainage planes, 

and flashing to shed rainwater and 

conduct it away from the house.

•	 Slope the earth away from the house

and ensure that no irrigation strikes 

near the foundation. 

•	 Damp-proof all below grade portions of

the exterior foundation wall to prevent 

the absorption of ground water.

•	 Use a sill gasket for air sealing

•	 Install a protective shield such as

metal flashing, plastic L bracket, or 

a membrane (such as EPDM flexible 

roofing material*) to block capillary 

water wicking into the wall from the 

foundation. The protective shield may 

also serve as a termite shield.

•	 Crawlspaces require a foundation

drain when the crawlspace floor is 

located below grade. Always install a 

foundation drain in basements. Install 

a foundation drain alongside the 

footing (not above it). The drain should 

rest in a bed of coarse gravel (no fines) 

that slopes away from the foundation 

and is covered with 

filter fabric.

•	 Exterior rigid fiberglass insulation

may provide a drainage plane that will 

channel water to the foundation drain 

and relieve hydrostatic pressure. 

•	 Exterior foundation wall insulation

requires a protective coating at 

above-grade applications. Examples 

of protective coverings for exterior, 

above-grade insulation include 

flashing, fiber-cement board, parging 

(stucco type material), treated plywood, 

or membrane material (EPDM* 

flexible roofing). 

•	 Note that some code jurisdictions

may require a gap between exterior 

insulation and wood foundation 

elements to provide a termite 

inspection area.

•	 Install damp proofing or a polyethylene

sheet over the footing to block 

capillary water wicking into the 

foundation side wall.

•	 Install a capillary break and vapor

retarder under slabs and basement 

floors consisting of at least a 6-mil 

polyethylene sheet or continuous rigid 

foam insulation approved for below 

grade applications, on top of 4 to 6 

inches of coarse gravel. 

•	 Install radon control measures

(check local requirements and EPA 

recommendations). 

*EPDM stands for Ethylene Propylene Diene 

Monomer.

Crawlspace and Basement Foundation System Moisture and Air Leakage Control

•	 Exterior and interior insulation approaches may be combined to provide needed insulation levels.

•	 Properly installed exterior rigid fiberglass insulation provides the best moisture management properties of the available insulation types.

•	 Interior nailing strips for finished walls should be installed over rigid foam (extruded polystyrene is more moisture tolerant than

expanded polystyrene) insulation so that the foam is sandwiched between the nailing strip and the basement wall. 

•	 Seal joints with adhesive or mastic on interior foam insulation applied directly to foundation walls.

•	 If interior blanket or batt insulation is used, it should be combined with exterior or interior rigid insulation attached directly to the

foundation wall. The blanket or batt insulation should be unfaced or have a facing that allows moisture to pass through, and should be used 

in a conditioned basement. The drywall should be tightly air sealed to keep interior moist air from condensing on the foundation wall.

•	 Foil-faced rigid insulation is a good interior insulation choice for unfinished basements.

Installation Tips

12.10

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Sources & Additional Information

Lstiburek, J. W. 2000. Builders Guides. Minneapolis, MN. Energy and Environmental Building Association. www.eeba.org. 

Rigid Insulation

(Minimum 1/2" Thick)

Wood Furring

(Minimum 3/4" Thick)

Gypsum Board

Masonry Wall

Shallow Electrical Box

(surface-mounted On 

Masonry Interior)

Continuous 2x4 or 2x2 Horizontal Furring

(acting as draft or fire stop; seal all 

service/wiring penetrations)

Interior Gypsum Board with 

permeable or semi-permeable finish

Semi-Permeable Rigid Insulation

(Expanded Polystyrene, Extruded Polystyrene, 

Fiber-faced Isocyanurate)

Wood Furring

Gypsum Board

Concrete

Slab

Latex Paint or other permeable or 

semi-permeable interior finish

Masonry

Wall

Sloping Precast Masonry 

Sill with Precast Rib

Treated Wood Spacer/Mounting 

Block to support window

Sealant forming 

end dam

Wood Sub-Jamb

(Positioned Toward Wall Exterior So That 

Face Of Interior Window Frame Is Flush With 

Center Point Of Rib In Precast Masonry Sill)

Treated Wood 

Sub-Jamb 

Mounting Member

("back-caulked")

Sealant between 

masonry opening and 

treated wood sub-jamb

Semi-vapor permeable rigid insulations used on the interior 

of wall assemblies should be unfaced or faced with permeable 

skins. Foil facings and polypropylene skins should be avoided.

Wood furring should be installed over rigid insulation; the 

rigid insulation should be continuous over the surface of the wall, 

except for the 2x4 furring near the ceiling. This blocking attaches 

directly to the masonry block and is above the insulation, not behind it.

Electrical boxes can be surface-mounted 

eliminating chiseling/chipping masonry ELECTRICAL BOX

WINDOW SILL DRAINAGE

Source: EEBA 9.5

Source: EEBA 9.7

Source: EEBA 9.1

Masonry Construction

12.11

12.11

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
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12.12

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Housewrap

Example of housewrap strategies

Minimize cuts in housewrap and seal all penetrations with tape or caulk.

Unroll sideways around house.

Fasten flaps of window "T-cut" 

to the inside of the framing.

Seal spigot 

at opening.

Tape housewrap according to manufacturers specifications at top plate,

 band joist, and horizontal seams, and secure with plastic-capped nails.

Housewrap should 

be overlapped shingle-style.

Seal overlap with tape.

Overlap and seal housewrap 

to foundation side wall 

or flashing.

Caulk under housewrap 

and seal gap between 

electrical box and 

sheathing.

Seal floodlight 

at opening.

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

CAULK 

CAULK 

CAULK 

WINDOW 

Housewrap

Plastic-capped Nails

Housewrap Tape

Sheathing

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sill Gasket

12.13

12.13

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
•	Do follow manufacturers’ instructions.

•	Do lap all layers properly—the upper layer should always be lapped over the lower layer.

•	Do weatherboard-lap horizontal joints at least 6 inches.

•	Do lap vertical joints 6 to 12 inches (depending on the potential for wind-driven rain).

•	Do use 1-inch minimum staples or housewrap nails spaced 12 to 18 inches throughout.

•	Do tape joints with housewrap tape.

•	Do allow drainage at the bottom of the siding.

•	Do extend housewrap over the sill plate and foundation joint.

• Do install housewrap such that water will never be allowed to flow to the inside of the wrap.

•	Do avoid complicated details in the design stage to prevent water intrusion problems.

•	Don’t forget to cover the gable ends.

•	Don’t forget to cover the band joists. If you wrap the wall before standing it, go back and insert 

a strip of house wrap to cover the band joist. The strip should extend 6-12 inches underneath 

the bottom edge of the wall wrap. 

•	Don’t forget to cover outside corners. Do overlap wrap 6 to 12 inches at corners.

•	Do integrate wrap correctly with window flashing so that wrap goes over top edge of flashing.

•	Don’t rely on caulk or self-sticking tape to “fix” improver lapping of housewrap. Caulk will fail over time.

•	When sealant is required:

•	do use backing rods as needed,

•	do use sealant that is compatible with the climate, and materials it is being applied to,

•	do make sure surfaces are clean (free of dirt and loose material).

DO’s and DON’Ts of Housewrap

12.14

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Window Flashing

Window flashing details for home with housewrap and plywood or OSB wall sheathing

>12" >10"

Housewrap

Cap Nails 45 ̊ 6"

6"

CAULK

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRA

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

Self-adhesive 

Window Flashing

Tape

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRA

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

EWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUS

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

OUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWR

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP

>12" >10"

Housewrap

Cap Nails 45 ̊ 6"

6"

CAULK

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRA

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

Self-adhesive 

Window Flashing

Tape

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRA

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

EWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUS

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

OUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWR

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP

STEP 1 - 

IF HOUSEWRAP HAS NOT YET BEEN INSTALLED

STEP 2 - SILL FLASHING STEP 3 - JAMB CAULKING

• Apply at least a 12-inch flap, or apron, of building paper or 

housewrap just below the window sill.

• If the window sill is close to the sill plate, the apron can extend all 

the way to the sill plate.

• The apron should extend at least 10 inches past the sides of the 

window opening, or to the first stud in open wall construction.

• Attach only the apron’s top edge with cap nails.

• Install self-adhesive flashing to the sill, ensuring that flashing 

extends up jambs at least 6 inches.

• One commercial product comes with two removable strips over 

the adhesive. Remove the first strip to expose half the adhesive 

and apply this area to the sill. Begin pressing in the middle of 

the sill and work towards the sides. Remove the second strip 

to expose the adhesive that will be used to apply the flashing 

below the window to the outside wall.

• Tape down the bottom corners of the flashing.

• Caulk the outside edges of the head and side jambs.

• Do not caulk across the sill.

• Install the window using corrosion-resistant nails and 

following manufacturer’s specifications.

• Cut the housewrap covering the rough opening in 

the shape of a modified “Y.”

• Fold the side and bottom flaps into the window 

opening and secure.

• Above the window opening, cut a head flap and 

flip up to expose sheathing, and loosely tape in 

place out of the way.

STEP 1 - 

IF HOUSEWRAP HAS BEEN INSTALLED

12.15

12.15

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
CAULK

4" 1" HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUS

HOUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWRAP 

OUSEWRAP 

HOUSEWR

Self-adhesive 

Head Flashing

Fold Down

Head Flap

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRA

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Housewrap

secured to 

window flange 

with tape HOUSEW

HOUSE

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Self-adhesive 

Jamb Flashing

Existing

Apron

Head flap 

secured with tape

STEP 4 - JAMB AND HEAD FLASHING STEP 5 - SEAL ROUGH OPENING GAP

• Install self-adhesive jamb flashing extending 4 inches above 

the top of the head flange and even with the bottom of the 

sill flashing.

• Install self-adhesive head flashing extending 1 inch beyond 

the jamb flashing.

• If housewrap has been installed, be sure that the head flap, 

when it is folded down, will cover the top of the flashing.

• On the interior side of the window, seal gap 

between the window and the rough opening with 

backer rod or non-expanding foam and caulk. 

STEP 6 - IF APRON WAS INSTALLED STEP 6 - IF HEAD FLAP WAS CREATED

• If an apron was installed under the window, slip the 

housewrap or building paper under the apron.

• Tape the edges where the housewrap meets the 

window flange if housewrap is installed after flashing.

• If building paper is used, embed the edges in a bead 

of sealant where the paper meets the window flange.

• If headflap was created, fold it over the head flashing 

and tape across the top window flange and the 45° 

angle seams.

12.16

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Wall-to-Roof Flashing

Kick-Out Diverter Flashing Details

Water runoff from roof-wall intersections can flow down the exterior wall and eventually find its way into the wall where it can 

cause serious damage. Anywhere roof sections adjoin wall sections, kickout flashing should be used to divert water away from 

the walls and preferably into rain gutters where it can be carried down and away from the structure.

STEP 1 Apply drip edge and roof 

underlayment over roof deck continue 

lapping up the sidewall and over the 

weather-resistive barrier (in this case 

housewrap) a minimum of 6 inches.

STEP 4 Install remaining sidewall 

flashing, appropriate counter flashing 

and shingles in accordance with 

manufacturer’s instructions.

STEP 2 Install shingle starter strip at 

roof eave in accordance with roofing 

manufacturer’s instructions.

•	 Place seamless one piece non-corrosive 

kick-out diverter flashing as the first piece 

of step flashing. 

•	 Slide kick-out diverter up roof plane until the 

starter trough stops at the shingle starter strip.

•	 Diverter must be flat on the roof and flush 

to the sidewall.

•	 Fasten and seal diverter to the roof deck and 

starter strip. (Do not fasten to the sidewall.)

STEP 5 Apply self adhesive flashing 

over top of wall flashing and diverter 

and WRB.

STEP 3 Place first shingle and 

next section of sidewall flashing over 

up-slope edge of diverter, lapping a 

minimum of 4 inches over diverter. 

(Sidewall flashing height requirement 

should be determined by design 

professional and local building codes.)

STEP 6 Install house wrap, cut the 

house wrap to fit over the self adhesive 

flashing and sidewall flashing.

STEP 7 Apply siding over house wrap.

12.17

12.17

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
12.18

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Interior Air Sealing

Conventional construction (and typical retrofits) requires tracking down and sealing multiple 

penetrations that ultimately lead to or through the exterior shell

 1. Sill Plate & Rim Joist

 2. Stairs

 3. Wall & Ceiling Drywall

 4. Kneewalls

 5. Windows

 6. ICAT Can Light

 7. Electric Circuit Box

 8. Outlets & Switches

 9. Fireplace

10. Plumbing Penetrations

11. Attic Access

12. Doors

13. Cantilever

14. Skylight

15. Crawlspace Access

16. Registers

17. Exhaust Fan 

18. Garage Common Wall

19. Wall Adjoining Cavity

20. Tub

21. Interior Soffit

22. Plywood Floor Panels

12

7

18

4

20

5

13

14

15

21 17

9

11

10

2

3

22

1

6

8 19

16

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

12.19

12.19

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

perimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimeter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

perimeter and seams

CAULK

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

perimeter and seams

CAULK

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard, 

rigid foam, 

or sheet goods

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUS

OUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

perimeter and seams

CAULK

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Insulation in permanent

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insulation

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

7

10

4 5

9

1 2 3

6

8

Sill Plate & Rim Joist

Kneewalls

Electric Circuit Box

Plumbing Penetrations

Stairs

Windows

Outlets & Switches

Wall & Ceiling Drywall

ICAT Can Light

Fireplace

Direct vent fireplace eliminates the chimney; 

but seal fireplace alcove

12.20

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or adhesive to

seal panels to joists at seams

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or adhesive to

seal panels to joists at seams

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or adhesive to

seal panels to joists at seams

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or adhesive to

seal panels to joists at seams

12

15

18

21

13

16

19

22

11

14

17

20

Attic Access

Skylight

Exhaust Fan

Tub

Doors

Crawlspace Access

Garage Common Wall

Interior Soffit

Cantilever

Registers

Wall Adjoining Cavity

Plywood Floor Panels

12.21

12.21

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
(THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK)

12.22

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Exterior Air Sealing with Insulating Sheathing Panels

This figure shows an approach to construction used in some Building America homes. Exterior insulating sheathing 

provides an air barrier for walls. The non-vented attic is sealed and insulated under the roof. Particular attention is paid 

to the intersection of foundations, walls, and the roof. Sealed-combustion furnaces and water heaters do not require a 

vertical chimney. Insulating sheathing requires structural elements.

5

3

4

6

7

2

 1. Sillplate & Rim Joist

 2. Windows

 3. Plumbing Penetrations

 4. Doors

 5. Exhaust Fan 

 6. Garage Common Wall

 7. Tub

Furring strip

Cladding

Tape seams

Caulk edges

CAULK

Insulated

sheathing panels

Insulating Sheathing Detail

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

12.23

12.23

CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Tape

Housewrap Caulk

Sil gasket

Gypsum

board

Structural

sheathing

Tape and joint

compound seal

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to top plate

Ceiling drywall taped

to wall drywall

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insualtion

Housewrap

Sill gasket

CAULK

Tape

Sil gasket

board

Structural

sheathing

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed to bottom plate

gp p

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard

Seal

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

Before installing 

the window, caulk 

the outside edges 

of the head and 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Recessed light fixtures 

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Air seal gasket

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

Tape

Rim joist Rigid or blown-in

foam insualtion

Sill gasket

Use rigid foam 

or sheet goods to 

seal joist cavities

Seal

Hardboard

Seal

HOU

HOUSEWRAP

HOUSEWRAP

oe ead ad 

side jambs

Do not caulk

across the sill

CAULK

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight

can

Caulk

or Gasket

Suppor

Elect

pan

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Basepla

to subfl

Blocking betwee

sealed at per

Insulation in per

contact with su

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

1 Sill Plate & Rim Joist 2 Windows

HOUSEWRAP

P

en 

ugh

rior

g

should be rated for 

Insulated Ceiling Air 

Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight wire 

connection from 

junction jox

Airtight

can

Decorative

cover Caulk

or Gasket

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Seal

s

CAULK

omatic

 gasket

rstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

ued 

3 Plumbing Penetrations 4 Doors

Seal

Hardboard

Seal

CAULK

On the interior,

seal gap between 

window and rough

opening on interior

Sealant

Support sheathing

Electrical

panel

Seal wire

connection

Nailing

flange Built-in

sealant

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Select boxes with 

built-in gasket 

and sealant

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Blocking

6

5

7

Exhaust Fan

Garage Common Wall Tub Plumbing Floor Penetrations

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY 

labeled do

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Cra

Rigid 

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bo

or 

D

o

ta

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid 

mate

at 

n

t

es with 

ket 

t

Seal

Solid air barrier

material sealed at 

parimeter and seams

CAULK

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate sealed 

to subfloor

Blocking between joists,

sealed at perimenter

Insulation in permanent

contact with subfloor

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Seal all joints in 

boot and elbow

with mastic

Seal boots to 

sheet goods with 

caulk, mastic, or 

spray foam

s or 

ugh 

 hood

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

CAVITY

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or adhesive to

seal panels to joists at seams

Air seal gasket

between trim

and panel

Rigid insulation

Attic

Use ENERGY STAR

labeled door

Install automatic

closer and gasket

or weatherstripping

Baseplate 

to subfloo

Blocking between j

sealed at perim

Insulation in perm

contact with subfl

Rigid insulation

Air seal gasket

Crawlspace

Rigid insulation

REGISTER

Se

bo

wi

Se

sh

ca

sp

CAULK

EXHAUST FAN If fan exhausts or 

draws air through 

sidewall, install hood

with louvered 

damper

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

Drywall caulked, glued 

or gasketed, inside seam 

taped, and mudded

GARAGE

Bottom plate caulked

or gasketed to subfloor

 on interior, exterior,

or both surfaces

Drywall caulked, 

glued or gasketed 

to top plate on interior, 

exterior, or both surfaces 

Continuous bead of

sealant or adhesive

Thin sheet goods 

as draft stop behind

tub or enclosure

Blocking

Solid air barrier

material sealed

at perimeter

CAULK

Use caulk or 

seal panels to jo

Keep pipes out of exterior walls and

seal penetrations through floor.

Keep pipe runs parallel and close to 

studs. Don’t compress insulation.

Insulate pipes exposed

to unconditioned areas

Seal penetrations

through rim joists.

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Sources & Additional Information

Lstiburek, J. W. 2000. Builders Guides. Minneapolis, MN. Energy and Environmental Building Association. www.eeba.org. 

U.S. DOE Technology Fact Sheet on Air Sealing (www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/documents/pdfs/26448.pdf).

www.toolbase.org: click on New Building Technology > Plumbing > Distribution Systems > Air Admittance Vents

Plumbing 

Vent 

Wall 

Top Plate 

Sealant between 

gasket and plate 

Staples 

Caulk/sealant 

Caulk/ 

Sealant 

Floor Insulation Pipe 

Exterior Wall 

 Rim 

Joist 

Another trade may have 

completed this step. 

Confirm with the site 

supervisor. If not, and 

you need to complete 

the step yourself, ensure 

that the necessary 

materials are available 

on site. 

Seal tub penetration 

Vent pipe may be eliminated with an air-admittance valve in some jurisdictions. 

Seal all plumbing and electrical penetrations. 

Insulate and airseal behind tub. 

Draft stop behind enclosure. 

Keep pipes out of exterior walls and seal 

penetrations through floor. 

Seal penetrations through rim joists. 

Insulate pipes 

 exposed to 

 unconditioned 

 areas 

Be careful not to compress or disrupt floor 

insulation, if it is present, keeping pipe runs 

parallel and close to studs leaving more room 

for insulation. 

Prefabricated roof-vent pipe flashing can be adapted as air sealing gaskets. 

Continuous bead 

of sealant or 

adhesive 

Thin sheet 

goods as draft 

stop behind tub 

or enclosure 

Blocking 

CAULK 

Exterior Wall 

Draft Stop 

Plumbing Air Sealing

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Sources & Additional Information

Lstiburek, J.W. 2000. Builder Guide Hot-Humid Climates. Minneapolis, MN: Energy and Environmental Building Association (ww.eeba.org).

U.S. DOE. Technology Fact Sheet on Air Sealing (www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/documents/pdfs/26448.pdf).

See also Air Sealing Building Tips in the chapter.

Ceiling fans should be wired to a wall switch.

Seal all exterior penetrations, such as 

porch light fixtures, phone, security, 

cable and electric service holes, with 

caulk, spray foam, or gaskets - note 

that foam degrades in sunlight.

Use air-tight outlet boxes 

or seal standard boxes.

Seal standard plastic 

 electrical box at face 

 to drywall with joint 

 compound or cover 

 the plate gasket 

 with caulked foam. 

Seal light fixture boxes to drywall with caulk or foam.

Seal bath fan box to drywall 

with caulk or foam.

Caulk/seal/foam all electrical wires penetrating 

top and bottom plates of exterior walls.

Run wiring along bottom plate at exterior wall. 

NOTE: Some codes require wires to be held up from 

bottom plates 6"-8" to protect from future drilling through plates.

Run wiring 

along side 

of stud at 

exterior wall

and along 

plates

Recessed light fixtures should be rated for Insulated Ceiling Air Tight (ICAT).

AIR TIGHTNESS 

LABEL

Airtight Wire 

Connection From 

Junction Box

Airtight Can

EXTERIOR WALL

Caulk

Seal Wire

Connection

Sealant

Support Sheathing

Electrical

Panel

Flange for sealing to 

drywall air barrier

Nailing

Flange

Built-in

Gasket

Built-in

Sealant

Caulk

Caulk at wire

penetrations

Decorative 

Cover

CAULK

CAULK

Standard Plastic

Electrical Box

Air Sealed

Electrical Box

AIRTIGHTNESS LABEL

Electrical Air Sealing

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Installing Fiberglass Batt Insulation

Always:

 Avoid gaps, tight turns, and compression

 Cut insulation to fit snugly in non-standard spaces.

 Slit batts to fit around wiring and plumbing.

 Notch out around electrical boxes and use scraps to fill 

in behind.

•	 Install long runs first – then use scraps to fill in smaller 

spaces and gaps.

•	 Use unfaced batts in hot and humid climates.

•	 Even if blown-in insulation is to be generally applied, 

use fiberglass batts to insulate areas that will be 

inaccessible to the blown-in insulation, such as 

behind bath enclosures.

Walls:

 Friction-fit the batts in place until covered by drywall 

or sheathing.

 Insulate before installing stairs and tubs and other 

features that will block access.

Knee Walls:

 Seal knee wall to create a continuous air barrier. Insulate 

and air seal the rafter space along the sloping ceiling of 

the knee wall attic space or insulate and air seal the 

roofline, wall, and floor.

 Rafters should receive R-19 or R-30 insulation.

 Cover rafters with a sealed air barrier (such as drywall 

or foam board).

 Caulk the barrier to the top plate of the wall below the 

attic space and to the top plate of the knee wall itself.

 Seal all other cracks and holes.

Ceilings:

 Insulate and seal the attic access door

 Install insulation over ICAT-rated recessed cans.

 Verify ventilation pathways.

 Install insulation baffles.

Band Joists:

 Place insulation in the cavities between joists and subfloor.

 Caulk bottom plate to subfloor.

 Caulk band joist to subfloor and plates and insulate.

 Caulk bottom plate to subfloor.

Under Floor Insulation:

 Metal stays, lathe, or stainless steal wire support insulation 

in joist cavities.

 In new construction it is preferred that crawlspace walls 

are insulated. If underfloor insulation is to be used, it can 

be held in place with metal staves, lathe, stainless steel 

wire, or twine.

 If truss systems are used under floors, an approach better 

than batt insulation is to install netting or rigid insulation 

to the underside of the floor trusses and fill the joist cavity 

with blown-in insulation.

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Installing Windows in Walls with External Rigid Foam Insulation

Installing rigid foam insulation on exterior walls reduces thermal bridging and may reduce the chance 

of condensation in wall cavities. Many cold-climate builders now install 4 or 6 inches of EPS, XPS, or 

polyisocyanuarate rigid insulation on exterior walls.

Innies or Outies?

Builders installing thick exterior wall foam can install windows two ways: with the window flanges in the same plane as 

the back of the siding or with the window flanges in the same plane as the OSB or plywood wall sheathing.

The following apply to any window installation:

1. Foam panels should be installed with windows in mind—windows should not be installed where there is a 

seam in the foam sheathing, even if the foam is taped.

2. Water management details should specify that flashing around the perimeter of the window must tie 

into a water resistive barrier regardless of the approach taken.

3. Ensure that foam sheathing does not bear the weight of the window. The weight of the window should 

be supported by the wall frame.

Interior Ledge Window Installations:

STEP 1 Rough in window openings, 

oversizing by 1 1⁄2 inches in both 

dimensions.

STEP 2 Line rough opening with a 

frame made of plywood strips 3⁄4” thick 

by wall dimension + 3⁄4” (the plywood 

should be flush on the interior surface 

and extend 3⁄4” beyond the outside face 

of the foam).

STEP 3 Once the exterior foam is 

installed, a frame of 3⁄4” strapping, 

fastened flat to the foam, is installed 

around each plywood window 

projection. The outer face of the 

strapping should be flush with the outer 

edge of the plywood frame.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Interior Ledge Window Installations - Continued

STEP 4 Flash the bottom of the 

plywood box with peel and stick flashing.

STEP 7 Install housewrap over the 

foam. The housewrap laps over the 

peel-and-stick flashing shingle style. 

At the bottom of the window frame, 

peel-and-stick flashing laps over

 the housewrap.

STEP 5 Install windows in the plywood 

frames. Attach through the plywood 

frame to the wall studs with metal 

masonry clips.

STEP 8 Install vertical wood strapping 

on top of the foam and housewrap to use 

when attaching siding.

STEP 6 Install peel and stick flashing 

on the top and sides of the window, 

covering the window flanges and 

extending back to the foam.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Sources & Additional Information

www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/musings/innie-windows-or-outie-windows

STEP 1 Install housewrap over OSB 

sheathing.

STEP 4 Install vertical strapping on 

top of the foam.

STEP 2 Install windows with flanges 

on top of OSB sheathing, integrating the 

housewrap with the window flashing. 

STEP 5 Cut exposed foam under the 

window sloping outward and protect with 

copper flashing.

STEP 3 Install exterior foam on top of 

the housewrap.

STEP 7 Trim out exterior of the 

window with water-resistant jamb 

extensions made of cedar or cellular 

PVC.

Exterior Ledge Windows Installations:

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Duct Location – Dropped Ceiling Soffit

Ducts can be placed in a dropped ceiling soffit to keep them in conditioned space.

STEP 1 Use Manual J to determine appropriate HVAC size.

STEP 2 Design duct layout plan emphasizing compact layout with inside wall throws and air handler located 

in conditioned space. For cost savings consider using transoms over doors and one central return instead of 

ducted returns.

STEP 3 Hold meeting at home site after dry-in with designer, HVAC, framer, sheetrock and other pertinent trades to 

discuss approach, if this is a new method.

STEP 4 Install sheet rock above chase. One method is to keep top plate of non-load bearing interior walls 3⁄4” from 

bottom cord of roof trusses. Slip drywall in this space.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
STEP 5 Fabricate and seal drywall on the ground. Use hard ducts wherever possible. Fabricate a duct board 

box affixed to trunk line to serve as supply boot.

Supply boot comes directly from main trunk, as shown in “improved method” rather than connecting boot to 

trunk with a length of flex duct, as shown in original method. Thus duct chase can be narrower. 

Hard Duct

Hard ductwork is used wherever possible.

Flex Duct

Original method Improved method After framing

STEP 7 Install sheetrock around 

ducts to form chase, when sheetrocking 

the rest of the house (this is the second 

visit for sheetrockers).

Ducts are enclosed in soffits that add 

architectural interest to finished rooms.

STEP 6 Hang duct from the drywall 

using 2” nylon strapping material.

STEP 8 Install air handler in 

conditioned space in interior closet 

with large return air grill located 

over air handler. Use transoms over 

bedroom doors for return air path.

Air handler is located in the home in a 

closet with return grill above. Transoms 

over interior doors provide a return

 air path.

Fonorow, Ken, Dave Jenkins, Stephanie Thomas-Rees, and Subrato Chandra. 2010. 

“Low Cost Interior Duct Systems for High Performance Homes in Hot Climates,” 

Proceedings of the 2010 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 

Pacific Grove, CA, http://www.aceee.org/conf/10ss/index.htm

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CHAPTER 12. FIELD GUIDES FOR INSTALLERS

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Duct Location – In Open Web Floor Trusses Betweeen Floors

Ducts can be placed in open web trusses between floors to keep them in conditioned space.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Air Handler and Duct Sealing

Mastic or caulk 

Mastic 

Collar with strap; 

mastic on take-off 

Mastic or caulk Filter Rack 

Mastic to seal 

refrigerant and 

condensate line 

Mastic 

Mastic 

Mastic 

Mastic all corners 

of metal plenums 

Mastic plenum 

to air handler 

Mastic exterior of collars 

Mastic or tape 

exterior of duct board 

RETURN 

SUPPLY 

Mastic collars to 

metal plenum on 

inside or outside 

Never puncture inner liner. If repair is 

needed; install a coupling and seal properly

Strap inner liner and

outer insulation

Use wide straps to support flex duct

spaced at 5-foot intervals

Run lines straight

using metal elbows at

bends and corners

Mastic 

boot seams

Mastic before 

attaching flex 

duct

REGISTER

Seal

joints

in boots

Seal boots to sheet goods (drywall/subfloor) 

with caulk, mastic or spray foam 

Aluminum-backed butyl tape seal to 

drywall for ceiling and sidewall registers.

Seal metal or flex to boot or elbow 

and joints in elbow with mastic

AIR HANDLER

FLEX DUCT

SUPPLY AND RETURN PLENUMS

BOOTS

Mastic is a gooey adhesive that is applied wet. It fills gaps and dries to a soft solid. Mastics may or may not contain reinforcing 

fibers, and they may be used with reinforcing mesh tape.

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Radiant Barriers

Radiant barriers are appropriate for hot climates

(They are prescriptively required in California.)

If installed after roof sheathing, 

 install from inside the attic by 

 stapling the radiant barrier to 

 the bottom of the rafters. 

If installed before roof sheathing, drape the radiant barrier 

foil-face down between the roof rafters.

NOTE: Some roof sheathing products have a radiant barrier 

preinstalled; in this case, ensure the shiny side faces the attic.

This is the most cost-effective radiant barrier installation strategy.

Allow the material to droop between 

attachment points to make at least a 

1-inch air space between the radiant 

barrier and the bottom of the roof. Ridge 

venting would allow hot air to escape.

AFTER ROOF SHEATHING

BEFORE ROOF SHEATHING

*foil-face down*

Roof Rafters

Radiant Barrier

*foil-face down*

Radiant Barrier

Roof Sheathing

1"

Air

Space

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Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Several builders are building energy-efficient homes in the marine climates. The following case studies 

showcase four of these builders. The energy-efficient measures they incorporate in their homes are 

summarized in the table below.

Table 1. Summary of Energy-Efficiency Measures Incorporated in Case Study Homes 

in the Marine Climate

Measure

New Tradition Homes 

Vancouver, WA

Quadrant Homes 

Bellevue, WA

Schneider Homes 

Tukwila (Seattle), WA

Tom Walsh & Co. 

Portland, OR

HERS 65 68 66-68 65-66

Walls 2x6 16-inch on-center 2x6 16-inch 

on-center 

2x6 16-inch on-center 2x6 24-inch on-center

Wall Insulation R-21 GreenGuardcertified EcoBatt 

wall insulation

R-21 batts R-23 formaldehyde-free, 

blown-in fiberglass 

insulation (BIBs)

R-21 batts within 

5/8-inch drywall

Attic Insulation R-49 blown-in 

cellulose

R-49 blown-in 

cellulose 

R-38 to R-42 blown-in 

cellulose 

R-49 blown-in 

cellulose

Radiant Barrier No No No No

Foundation 

Insulation

Slab-on-grade Vented crawlspace 

with R-30 batts in 

the floor joists

R-10 foam perimeter 

insulation

Vented crawlspace 

with R-38 fiberglass 

batts in the floor joists

Ducts In conditioned space In conditioned space 

within open-web 

trusses between the 

1

st and 2nd stories

In conditioned space 

within open-web trusses 

between the 1st and 2nd

stories

In conditioned space 

within open-web 

trusses between the 1st

and 2nd stories

Air Handler In sealed utility closet 

in house or garage

In a 2nd floor sealed 

utility closet

In a sealed utility closet 

in the garage

In sealed utility closet

40% Whole-House Energy Savings 

in the Marine Climate

Case Studies

CS.1

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / CASE STUDIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Measure

New Tradition Homes 

Vancouver, WA

Quadrant Homes 

Bellevue, WA

Schneider Homes 

Tukwila (Seattle), WA

Tom Walsh & Co. 

Portland, OR

Air Sealing Per ENERGY STAR 

Thermal Bypass 

Checklist

All envelope 

penetrations

Gaskets, foam sealing, 

caulking 

Gasketing the crawl 

and attic access 

hatches, foaming 

bottom and top plates 

of walls, and caulking 

penetrations

HVAC 93% AFUE sealedcombustion gas 

furnace, SEER 14 AC

94% AFUE gas 

furnace; SEER-13 

air conditioner

92.5% AFUE 

gas furnace

94% AFUE gas 

furnace. No AC

Windows Double-pane, low-e, 

argon-filled windows, 

U-0.32+

Double-pane, low-e, 

vinyl-framed, U-0.29; 

whole-house glazing 

area 13.5% 

Double-pane, low-e, 

vinyl framed, U-0.34; 

0.35 SHGC; whole-house 

glazing area 15% 

Double-pane, low-e, 

vinyl-framed, U-0.29; 

whole-house glazing 

area 14.1%.

Water Heating 61% energy-efficient 

gas, tank

62% energy-efficient 

gas, tank

80% energy-efficient 

tankless gas, with some 

replaced to 40-gallon 

63% gas

62% energy-efficient 

gas, tank

Ventilation Fresh air intake ducted 

to air handler return

100% ASHRAE 62.2; 

upgraded bathroom 

exhaust

Mechanical upgraded 

bathroom exhaust

Upgraded bathroom 

exhaust only, trickle 

vents over windows

Green Low VOC paints, 

GreenGuard certified 

laminate countertops, 

recycled content 

roofing and fly-ash 

concrete 

3-Star Built GreenTM 

Certified (Kentlake 

Highlands)

Many homes certified 

3-Star Built GreenTM

Pre-finished, tongue 

and groove bamboo 

flooring; low- and 

no-VOC adhesives and 

finishes; no ureaformaldehyde

Lighting and 

Appliances

ENERGY STAR 

refrigerators, 

dishwashers, and 

clothes washers; 100% 

hardwired CFL lighting

Hardwired 50% CFLs, 

optional ENERGY 

STAR refrigerator, 

dishwasher, and 

clothes dryer

80% CFLs; ENERGY 

STAR refrigerator, 

dishwasher, and clothes 

washer

100% CFLs and 

ENERGY STAR 

refrigerator, 

dishwashers, and 

clothes washer

Solar No No No No

Verify 3rd party HERS rater 

duct and blower door 

test on one of every 

three houses

Testing for Northwest 

ENERGY STAR 

certification

Testing for Northwest 

ENERGY STAR 

certification

Testing for Northwest 

ENERGY STAR 

certification

CS.2

CASE STUDIES / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
A Culture of Energy Efficiency

The Landover Commons community in Vancouver, Washington, is a 

great example of production builder New Tradition Home’s commitment 

to keep improving. All 94 homes achieve Northwest ENERGY STAR 

and the gold level of Earth Advantage (a regional efficiency program). 

With input from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Building America 

Program, New Tradition has committed to building the newest 13 homes 

at Landover Commons to even higher levels of efficiency to qualify for the 

federal tax rebate, which requires heating and cooling energy savings of 

50% over the 2004 International Energy Conservation Code. 

The Federal Tax Credit homes include ducts and air handlers in 

conditioned space. One includes a tankless water heater. starting in 

January 2009, New Tradition 

committed to including tankless 

water heaters, 93% efficiency gas 

furnaces, and 100% CFL lighting 

in all of its homes in southwest 

Washington and eastern Washington. 

“New Tradition Homes is committed 

to building energy efficiently, even 

implementing its own building 

science team, a step most builders 

across the nation have yet to 

take,” said Steve Vang of Building 

America’s Building Industry 

Research Alliance (BIRA) team.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM

Despite the slow economy, New Tradition 

Homes is one of only a handful of builders 

who continued to build and sell new homes in 

southwest Washington during the recession 

thanks to energy-efficient design changes 

made with help from Building America’s 

Building Industry Research Alliance.

Building America Best Practices Series

Builders Challenge Guide to 40% Whole-House 

Energy Savings in the Marine Climate

Case Study:

New Tradition Homes 

Landover Commons | Vancouver, WA

BUILDER PROFILE

Builder’s Name: New Tradition Homes

Where: Vancouver, Washington

Founded: 1988

Employees: approx. 25 (without subs)

Size: 6,000 homes since 1988

Square Footage: two-story, 

three-bedroom, 1,625 to 2,304 sq. ft. 

Development: Landover Commons, 

Vancouver, WA, 94 units

Price Range: $180,000 - $399,000 

(fall 2009 prices) 

Energy Efficient Commitment: 

All Northwest ENERGY STAR, 

all Earth Advantage

R

Commitment to Energy 

Efficiency Nets Builder 

Regional and National Awards 

In both 2007 and 2008, New 

Tradition Homes won the 

Regional ENERGY STAR Builder 

of the Year award, which is given 

each year to only one builder in 

the four-state region including 

Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and 

Montana. In 2009 New Tradition 

Homes was recognized with an 

ENERGY STAR Leadership in 

Housing Award.
Energy Efficiency, Comfort, 

Health, and Sustainability 

New Tradition began working with DOE’s Building America program 

in 2004. In January 2005 New Tradition Homes joined the Earth 

Advantage program and began building all of its homes in southwest 

Washington to their green and high performance standards. In 2006 

New Tradition became the first southwest Washington builder to 

commit to making all of its homes to Northwest ENERGY STAR. 

Since 2005 it has certified more than 950 Earth Advantage homes and 

500 ENERGY STAR homes. 

Building America research shows one of the most significant things 

a builder can do to improve a home’s energy performance is to move 

ducts into conditioned space. Working with Building America and its 

HVAC contractor, New Tradition has experimented with several ways 

to incorporate ducts in conditioned space in all its existing home plans 

including putting ducts in a dropped hallway ceiling chase, running 

ducts between floors through open-web floor trusses, and framing in 

ducts in the attic. 

“Our goal is to bring all ducts into conditioned space. In this economy 

that would be a difficult move to make all at once, but we are 

incrementally working toward that, plan by plan,” said Steve Tapio, 

head of New Traditions’ building science team. 

Attic insulation was increased over ENERGY STAR homes from R-38 

to R-49 blown-in cellulose. The federal tax credit homes have slabon-grade foundations. New Tradition has also used vented crawlspace 

foundation, which are common in the northwest. The key is good site 

drainage and New Tradition excels at site moisture management.

Excavators raise the building site, dig out the crawl, grade it flat, then 

dig out a sloped trench diagonally across the crawlspace that exits to a 

low-point drain sleeve with a one-way valve to let water out but not in. 

This drain sleeve directs the water to an infiltration system (a drywell) 

or out to the street via a curb cut. Once the sloped trench is dug, 4 

to 6 inches of crushed rock are laid over the entire crawlspace and 

foundation area. Then the concrete footing, stem, and foundation are 

poured on top of the rock. When the house is complete, 6-mil plastic 

is laid over the crawlspace ground. A water-proof gasket separates the 

foundation stem wall from the sill plate. Damp proofing and dimpled 

plastic drainage sheets are applied to exterior of foundation walls, and 

a perimeter drainage pipe is laid at the footing. Homes are wrapped 

with Tyvek Drainwrap that is overlapped shingle fashion and taped at 

seams to serve as a continuous drainage plane. All wall penetrations are 

gasketed to prevent water leakage.

(top) Water conservation features include 

water-conserving bath faucets, a rain 

sensor on lawn sprinklers, and native 

Northwest landscaping. Roofing material 

contains a minimum 40% recycled content, 

concrete driveways contain recycled flyash, 

a recycled byproduct of coal burning, and 

construction lumber waste is recycled.

(bottom) Locating the ducts and airhandler 

in conditioned space was a significant 

step toward increasing the homes’ energy 

performance and indoor air quality. New 

Tradition installed the ducts in a duct chase 

in a dropped ceiling, shown here before 

and after drywalling. (Photo source Mike 

Lubliner, WSU Energy Office)

2 CASE STUDY: NEW TRADITION HOMES BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Every house comes equipped with a whole house energy usage monitor 

so homeowners can track their electricity usage and dollars spent in 

real time. The homes are equipped with ENERGY STAR dishwashers; 

ENERGY STAR refrigerators and clothes washers are offered. 

Hard-wired lighting is 100% CFL. The low-emissivity, argon-filled 

double-pane windows have a U value of 0.32 or better. The walls are 

constructed with 2x6, 16-inch on-center wood-framing and insulated to 

R-21 with GreenGuard-certified EcoBatt non-offgassing insulation that 

is properly installed to avoid gaps and voids. 

A fresh air intake is ducted to the air handler return air plenum; a 

timer operates both the air handler and a mechanical damper on the 

air intake duct to open the damper, drawing fresh air into and through 

the house on a continuous on-off cycle throughout the day. Additional 

ventilation is provided by low-sone ENERGY STAR bath and laundry 

fans. Transfer grilles between rooms balance pressures and encourage 

air circulation. Other indoor air quality features include a 4-inch highefficiency air filter on the furnace, the use of only low-VOC paints, and 

GreenGuard-certified laminate kitchen countertops. 

New Tradition’s quality management program includes an in-house 

building science team, a corporate commitment to energy efficiency, 

ongoing training of staff, participation in federal and regional energyefficiency programs, hiring a dedicated air sealing contractor, third-party 

performance testing, consumer research, and an ongoing interactive 

relationship with an HVAC contractor interested in high quality. New 

Tradition uses a trained and certified home weatherization contractor 

whose only responsibility is caulking and sealing everything not sealed 

by the other trades. All wall penetrations are sealed per the ENERGY 

STAR Thermal Bypass Checklist.

Dollars and Sense

As calculated by BIRA, Table 1 shows the energy savings New Tradition 

achieved in its 2,264-square-foot house compared to a house built to 

the Building America benchmark (MEC 1993) and a house built to the 

Washington state code for 2006. The New Tradition home achieved 

calculated energy savings of 44.1% over the Building America benchmark. 

As shown in Table 1, even with $3,635 in increased builder costs, annual 

energy cost savings are sizable enough to offset increased mortgage costs, 

resulting in an annual net positive cash flow to the home buyer of $700 

per year, not including any federal or local tax rebates or incentives.

New Tradition’s own survey of local realtors found 9 out of 10 reporting 

that homebuyers are inquiring about the energy-efficient features of a 

home before they buy. The incentive to choose an energy-efficient home is 

made even stronger when home buyers can be shown that the investment 

would actually put them dollars ahead of a standard home purchase. 

Key Features 

•	 Air handler in sealed utility closet

•	 Ducts in conditioned space

•	 SEER 14 AC

•	 93% efficient sealed-combustion

gas furnaces

•	 Dedicated weatherization

contractor for caulking and sealing

•	 Third party duct blaster and

blower door testing on one of 

every three homes

•	 Meets Northwest ENERGY STAR

and Earth Advantage criteria

•	 Air sealing per ENERGY STAR

Thermal Bypass Checklist

•	 ENERGY STAR low-emissivity, argonfilled double-pane windows U-0.32

•	 Tankless gas water heaters

•	 Whole House Energy Usage Monitor

that tracks electricity usage and 

dollars spent in real-time

•	 R-21 GreenGuard-certified

EcoBatt wall insulation

•	 R-49 blown-in cellulose

attic insulation

•	 ENERGY STAR refrigerators,

dishwashers, and clothes washers

•	 100% hardwired CFL lighting

•	 Fresh air intake ducted to

airhandler return

•	 Low-sone ENERGY STAR bath

and laundry fans on timer for 

continuous ventilation

•	 Transfer grilles to balance room

air pressures

•	 Low VOC paints, GreenGuard certified

laminate countertops, recycled 

content roofing and flyash concrete 

•	 Water-conserving bath faucets, a

rain sensor on lawn sprinklers, and 

native Northwest landscaping.

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES CASE STUDY: NEW TRADITION HOMES 3
When asked how much it costs to build to these levels, Tapio said, for a 

builder who is currently building just to code, trying to jump up to the 

federal tax credit level in one leap would probably seem cost prohibitive, 

costing $3,000 to $5,000 per home. However, Tapio saidNew Tradition 

was able to implement changes gradually, by working with Building 

America and vendors to identify cost-effective products. 

Bottom Line

“With the economy the way it is and the number of existing houses on 

the market, the only builders in Clark County doing new construction 

and still selling are builders like New Tradition, who are building really 

energy-efficient homes,” said Chris Taylor, the installation manager at 

Area Heating and Cooling, New Tradition’s HVAC contractor. “If I 

was going to buy a new home myself in Clark County, I wouldn’t buy 

anything but a New Tradition home,” said Taylor.

For More Information

Contact the EERE Information Center 

1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463) or

visit eere.energy.gov/informationcenter.

PNNL-SA-73921 September 2010

Table 1. Estimated Costs and Energy Savings for a New Traditions home (2,264 square feet) 

compared to Building America benchmark and Washington State Energy Code homes

Energy Efficient Features of 

the Building America Home % Energy Savings Per Year Annual Utility Bill Savingsa

Estimated 

Consumer Costb

Annual Increase to 

Mortgage Costc

End Use Vs. Benchmarkd Vs. WA Code Vs. Benchmark

Space Heating, includes 25.9% 10.4% $651.96

• Moving ducts in conditioned space $742.50 $

• Duct and envelope sealing, and testing $1,485.00 $1

• 92.5% AFUE furnace $495.00 $

• R-49 attic insulation $352.00 $

61% Energy-efficient Water 

Heater 2.1% 1.7% $57.45 $165.00 $13.17

70% CFL Lighting 6.6% 8.7% $110.25 $132.00 $10.54

ENERGY STAR Appliances 3.4% 5.4% $67.26 $264.00 $21.08

Space Cooling 6.2% 0.1% $103.69 - -

Total Usage/Savings 44.1% 26.2% $990.61 $3,635.50 $290.25

Annual Utility Bill Savings vs. Benchmark $990.61

Net Annual Cash Flow to Consumer $700.37

(a) Based on Clark Public Utilities electricity rates for Vancouver, Washington, of $0.0736/kWh and Northwest Natural gas rates of $1.128/therm. Energy 

usage and savings values are in source energy and not site energy. The annual utility bill savings were calculated by BIRA using the computer model 

BEopt. It should be noted that this savings includes no fluctuations in utility rates or inflation.

(b) Consumer costs include an assumed 10% markup to the builder’s cost. Builder costs based on talks with TWC. 

(c) Assumes a 7% loan over 30 years with inflation not considered. Net cash flow does not include the $2,000 federal tax credit or the $1,000 per home 

tax credit from Energy Trust of Oregon for reaching the federal tax credit level.

(d) The benchmark represents a house built in the 1990s. DOE uses the benchmark to consistently calculate energy and financial performance for 

consumers for energy-efficient features.

4 CASE STUDY: NEW TRADITION HOMES BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Building America Helps Quadrant 

Develop its New Energy SoundTM Option

Bellevue, Washington, based home builder Quadrant Homes offers 

buyers of its “custom” production homes over 300 house plans and 

10,000 feature options to choose from. With technical assistance from 

DOE’s Building America program, Quadrant now offers homebuyers 

another option, one that pays buyers back. In 2007 Quadrant teamed 

with the Washington State University Extension Energy Office, a 

member of Building America’s BIRA (Building Industry Research 

Alliance) research team, to develop Quadrant’s Energy SoundTM package.

This energy-efficiency package helps 

homeowners achieve total energy 

savings of 40% over the Building 

America benchmark. The homes 

also qualify for the federal energy 

tax credit, achieving 50% in heating 

and cooling savings over the 2004 

International Energy Conservation 

Code (IECC). The WSU Energy 

Office calculated utility bill savings 

of $951 per year on a 2000-square 

foot Quadrant Energy Sound house. 

After subtracting $159 in increased 

mortgage costs to cover the energy 

package, homeowners would still 

gain $791 in net savings each year.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM

Quadrant worked with DOE’s Building 

America BIRA (Building Industry Research 

Alliance) research team, to develop 

Quadrant’s Energy SoundTM package.

Building America Best Practices Series

Builders Challenge Guide to 40% Whole-House 

Energy Savings in the Marine Climate

Case Study:

Quadrant Homes 

Kentlake Highlands | Kent, WA

BUILDER PROFILE

Builder’s Name: Quadrant Homes, one of 

six Weyerhaeuser real estate companies

Where: Headquarters in Bellevue, WA, 

with showrooms in cities of Bellevue 

and Lacey

Founded: 1960s; acquired by 

Weyerhaeuser in 1969

Employees: approximately 130

Size: 300 units

Square Footage: Olympic 2011 

plan—2,082 square feet

Development: Kentlake Highlands

Price Range: starting at $248,900 

for the Olympic 2011 plan

Energy-Efficient Commitment: 

Energy SoundTM package 

Quadrant Homes, one of six 

Weyerhaeuser real estate 

companies, is the number one 

residential homebuilder in the 

Pacific Northwest. Quadrant 

started 873 homes in 20 

developments in Washington 

State in 2008. In the first six 

months of 2009 Quadrant sold 

approximately three homes a 

day, 85% of them to first-time 

buyers. Quadrant started 

building in the 1960s, and was 

purchased by the Fortune 

500 forest products company 

Weyerhaeuser in 1969.

R
A Process for Energy Efficiency

Before they began working with Building America, Quadrant already 

was offering ENERGY STAR as an upgrade which is at least 15% 

more energy efficient than a house built to code. “They were already 

exceptional with the overall air tightness of their buildings,” noted David 

Hales, a building systems specialist with WSU. According to Hales, the 

typical infiltration for an ENERGY STAR builder in Washington State 

is about 4.5 air changes per hour at a pressure of 50 Pascals. “Quadrant 

often comes in under 3 ACH@50 PA,” said Hales, who attributed the 

impressive rate to Quadrant’s use of a panelized wall system and their 

recognition of the importance of a tight building envelope.

The Panelized Walls

The wall panels for all Quadrant homes are built in a factory by 

Woodinville Lumber and delivered to the job site pre-built. Craig 

MacKay, president of Woodinville Lumber, sees many advantages to 

this process. First, he cites efficient use of material. “Waste on the job 

site that might go into a dumpster or a landfill is immediately claimed in 

the factory for everyone’s benefit.”

Another advantage is the time saved. “While we are building the floor 

in the field in a more traditional manner, simultaneously we are building 

walls for the same house in a controlled environment factory. In a justin-time way, when the flooring is done, the walls are done. So, instead 

of having to build the walls on site, which is a several-day process, those 

walls go to the site built,” said MacKay. 

The wood for the walls is cut and assembled using precise measurements 

that are computer calculated for each wall design. “It is uniform, very 

clean, very dry, and quick,” said MacKay.” The structure is exposed to 

the weather for less time, and the quality of the walls is precise.”

MacKay is quick to point out that “we custom build the walls for every 

home. There is no pre-build.” Customer-selected options are entered 

into computer files developed for each home. From this electronic 

record, custom wall designs are generated for each house.”

After the house is framed, other vendor partners air seal and insulate the 

walls. In the case of the Energy Sound (50% better than code) option, 

the walls are insulated using R-21 fiberglass batts within wall frames that 

are 2x6 16-inch on center.

Increased Insulation, Upgraded Furnace, 

and Ducts in Conditioned Space

Because the envelope was already tight, the WSU researchers analyzed 

Quadrant homes with computer models to determine what other 

big-gain options might be available for reaching 50% energy savings 

(top) All of the walls in Quadrant’s homes 

start with panels assembled inside a factory 

so wood is dry, measurements and angles 

are precise, quality and worker safety are 

enhanced, and waste is minimized.

(bottom) Open-web trusses between the 

panelized walls of the first and second floor 

show why it is essential to properly seal 

ducts within this space.

“Our relationship with WSU 

[a Building America Partner] is 

beneficial both ways. I think we 

have been able to help them 

gather some research and data 

about the feasibility of putting 

ducts in conditioned spaces. They 

have helped us better understand 

the energy efficiency of our 

homes and what areas we need 

to improve on. We really enjoy 

working with them.” 

Quinn Wyatt, assistant design 

manager at Quadrant homes

2 CASE STUDY: QUADRANT HOMES BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
over code. The modeling showed two areas for big gains. One involved 

upgrading the 80% AFUE (annual fuel utilization efficiency) furnace to 

a 94% AFUE furnace. Quadrant now provides this option on all Energy 

SoundTM packages. 

The second potential for big gain—involved moving the ducts into 

conditioned space. 

When considering this change, Quadrant and WSU relied on the 

expertise of the vendor partner Bob’s Heating and Cooling, the company 

that installs the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) 

systems for all Quadrant homes. Wade Craig, a manager with Bob’s 

Heating, explains that his team made changes to Quadrant’s HVAC 

system about five years earlier, and these changes provided a clear path 

for moving the ducts inside.

Originally the furnaces were in the unconditioned garage and the ducts 

were in the crawlspace. For smoother production and cost savings, 

the furnaces were moved up into the attic. Also, at about this time, 

as explained by Ryan Kerr, Quadrant switched to open-web trusses 

between the first and second floors of their homes. This was originally 

done to enable the floors of the homes to be panelized, like the walls. 

The company no longer uses panels for floors, but it kept the open-web 

trusses between the floors. Now, for almost all house plans (with the 

exception of some one-story homes) the ducts are located in conditioned 

space within the open-web trusses between the first and second floor. 

The supply ducts provide HVAC to the first story through registers in the 

ceiling and to the second story through registers in the floor. The return 

ductwork is in the attic and is insulated to R-8, per Washington Building 

Code, and surrounded by additional insulation. 

“So, in the first step, we put the furnaces up into the attics,” said Craig. 

“It was a step in the right direction, but we still had concerns.” These 

concerns included access, placement because of the pitch of some roofs, 

lighting, and adequate platforms. “So, the next step was to put the 

furnace in a closet inside the house,” said Craig.

For almost all Quadrant homes, the furnace is now in a mechanical 

closet on the second floor, where installation and servicing is easier. As 

Kerr explains, “The mechanical closet is actually built to outside-space 

code requirements (with insulated walls and door) to accommodate an 

80-AFUE furnace with nondirect venting. A 90+ AFUE furnace, as 

required by ENERGY STAR, would not require this feature, although it 

would require other features, such as a gas condensation drain.”

Finally, to reach the 50% energy savings goal, Quadrant also increased 

the blown-in cellulose attic insulation from R-39 to R-49, hardwired 

50% of the light fixtures to only accept compact fluorescent light bulbs, 

and provided ENERGY STAR appliances as options (a refrigerator, 

dishwasher, and clothes washer).

Energy-Efficient Features 

(based on the Olympic 2011 model, 

which is 2,082 square feet, with an 

Energy Sound upgrade)

•	 HERS: 

68 HERS rating

•	 Walls:

2x6 16-inch on center with R-21 batts

•	 Attic Insulation:

R-49 blown-in cellulose

•	 Wall insulation:

R-21 batts, 2x6 16-inch on center

•	 Roofing Material:

Asphalt shingles medium

•	 Foundation: Vented crawlspace with 

R-30 batts in the crawlspace ceiling

•	 Ducts: Inside conditioned space 

within open-web trusses between 

the 1st and 2nd floors

•	 Air Handler: Within a 2nd floor 

closet in conditioned space

•	 Air Sealing:

Tested envelope as 3.4 ACH 50

•	 HVAC: 94% AFUE furnace; 

SEER 13 air conditioner

•	 Windows: 13.5% whole-house 

window area, U-29 (0.29), 

double-pane, low-e, vinyl-framed

•	 Water Heating:

62% efficient gas tank

•	 Ventilation: 100% ASHRAE 62.2; 

upgraded bathroom exhaust

•	 Green features:

Built Green Certified

•	 Lighting and Appliances:

Hardwired 50% CFLs, ENERGY STAR 

refrigerator, dishwasher, and 

clothes washer

•	 Commissioning/Certification: 

Northwest Energy Star, $2,000 

Federal Tax Credit, and Built 

Green certified

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES CASE STUDY: QUADRANT HOMES 3
Quality Management Solutions 

In 1996, Quadrant changed its building process. Before then, the 

company used the traditional model of “if you build it, they will come” 

in which the company constructed an inventory of speculative homes 

and waited for buyers to buy. Today Quadrant pre-sells its homes driven 

by the choices of the homebuyer. It follows a strict 54-day just-in-time 

and lean manufacturing process that starts with a customer qualifying 

for a loan. Following qualification, the homebuyer selects a specific 

development, lot, and floor plan. The process ends on day 54 with the 

customer receiving the keys to their completed home.

Within this process, Quadrant focuses on first-time homebuyers. During 

the first 6 months of 2009, 85% of their homebuyers were buying their first 

home, and they paid an average of $280,000. “People value the process of 

buying a home at Quadrant,” said Quinn Wyatt, assistant design manager 

at Quadrant Homes. “They get to create the house that they have always 

dreamed of. They get to make the choices. It is all very personalized.” 

Surveys of homebuyers show that 96% are willing to refer friends.

In addition to meeting the needs of its customers, the process ensured 

the company did not carry a housing backlog during the economic 

downturn. Before the downturn, the company built seven homes a day. In 

2008, two a day were built. In fall 2009 that number was up to three a day.

“Most of the big builders got caught with huge amounts of unsold inventory, 

but Quadrant’s business model helps avoid having unsold inventory,” said Hales.

Dollars and Sense

In 2009, with Quadrant selling its homes at an average price of 

$280,000 to first-time homebuyers, the company was as committed as 

ever to keeping its operating and construction costs low. A 2008 BIRA 

report shows an approximate $2,000 cost to the company for building 

to the Energy Sound level. In 2009 according to staff at a Quadrant 

showroom, the Energy Sound upgrade for a 2000-foot house wass 

$2,250, which includes all installation costs. 

Bottom Line

“We don’t pretend to know what each homebuyer wants,” said Wyatt. 

“We like to provide choice and let people build the house of their 

dreams.” However, Wyatt sees the need for education about energy 

efficiency. “One of the things we find surprising is how little knowledge 

there is still out there about energy efficiency and green building in 

general. So, we do a lot of educating in our showrooms. A lot of people 

know what the ENERGY STAR logo is [but] they don’t know much 

more than that [about what an ENERGY STAR home is].”

For More Information

Contact the EERE Information Center 

1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463) or 

visit eere.energy.gov/informationcenter.

PNNL-SA-73922 September 2010

Building America recommended that 

Quadrant put the furnace and ducts 

in conditioned space to increase 

energy savings. 

4 CASE STUDY: QUADRANT HOMES BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Schneider Homes Earns Federal Tax 

Credit on 28 Homes Near Seattle

In 2008, Schneider Homes earned federal tax credits for 28 of its 37 

homes at the Village at Miller Creek, a detached townhouse development 

in Burien, Washington. To be eligible, these homes achieved greater than 

50% energy savings in heating and cooling over the 2004 International 

Energy Conservation Code (IECC). These homes also meet the Building 

America 40% whole-house energy-savings goal for the marine climate.

“We could qualify every plan but one, which was stubborn and would 

have required lots of changes to qualify,” said Tom Balderston, a 

consultant who works with builders to qualify and verify for ENERGY 

STAR and other state and federal programs.

“We were the first production builder in the area to be 100% ENERGY 

STAR,” said Pat Shea, a 30-year employee with Schneider Homes and 

the project manager for single-family construction. “All of our homes 

are ENERGY STAR rated.” These homes are certified 15% more 

energy efficient than the 2004 International Residential Code (IRC).

So when Schneider Homes decided to reach for 50% energy savings, 

they approached Balderston, and he contacted researchers at 

Washington State University’s Extension Energy Office, a member of 

Building America’s BIRA (Building Industry Research Alliance) team 

to determine how to achieve such savings.

“Schneider Homes is innovative. They are willing to try things, and 

they have always been interested in energy,” said Balderston.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM

Schneider Homes worked with 

researchers at Washington State 

University’s Extension Energy Office, 

a member of Building America’s BIRA 

(Building Industry Research Alliance) 

team to design 28 federal tax credit 

homes near Seattle.

Building America Best Practices Series

Builders Challenge Guide to 40% Whole-House 

Energy Savings in the Marine Climate

Case Study:

Schneider Homes, Inc. 

Village at Miller Creek | Burien, WA

BUILDER PROFILE

Builder’s Name: Schneider Homes, Inc. 

Where: Tukwila, WA (near Seattle)

Founded: 1976

Employees: 40

Development: Village at Miller Creek

Size: 37 detached townhouses 

Square Footage: 2,019 square feet

Price Range: $350,000

Energy Efficient Commitment: 

All homes Northwest ENERGY STAR 

Certified; 28 meet 50% federal tax 

credit standard

R
Energy Efficiency 

“For this particular job, it was not hard for us to get to the federal tax 

level [50% energy savings in heating and cooling],” said Shea. “There was 

a whole perfect storm of events that came together to make this project 

work well.” 

For example, because all of its homes are built to Northwest ENERGY 

STAR standards, the production team was trained in proper air sealing. 

They caulked all mechanical penetrations, foamed the bottom and top 

plates of walls, and used gaskets for attic access hatches. “When we 

tested at Village at Miller Creek, we found a consistent pattern of 

3.9 to 4.4 air changes per hour [at 50 Pascals]. Standard construction 

is 6 to 7 air changes per hour,” said Balderston.

In addition, because the 37 homes were being built near Seattle’s major 

airport, Sea Tac, additional sound-reduction measures were required. 

One of these involved using a sound-reducing insulation in the walls. 

Schneider chose Johns Manville Spider® Custom Insulation, a blown-in 

blanket insulation (BIBS). This formaldehyde-free, spray-in fiberglass 

with a non-hazardous adhesive filled the 2x6 wall cavities with R-23 

insulation and very few gaps or voids. It is treated with a U.S. EPAregistered mold inhibitor to protect the insulation against mold.

Also, analysis from the BIRA research team showed that moving the 

furnace and ducts into conditioned space would result in significant 

energy savings. The Village at Miller Creek house designs contained 

open-web trusses between the first and second floor. “We put the ducts 

on the warm side of the insulation blanket in the floor trusses over the 

unheated garage,” said Shea. The supply registers are in the ceiling for 

the first story and the floor for the upstairs. A portion of the return 

duct is outside conditioned space within the attic.

For some homes, the gas furnaces, rated at 92.5 AFUE (annual fuel 

utilization efficiency), were placed in conditioned basements. The 

majority of the homes were built on 2-foot concrete slabs, and insulated 

closets were constructed within the garage for the furnaces.

“Building on slab is not unusual for townhouses,” said Balderston. 

“The houses have a garage and a small living area downstairs, and they 

just extend the slab out from the garage [to cover the living area].” 

The slab has R-10 foam perimeter insulation. 

“The attic insulation is blown-in cellulose R-38 to R-42 depending on 

the unit,” said Shea. “We also used sound-reduction windows, but I 

don’t think these impacted the U value.” The two-pane, low-emissivity 

windows with vinyl frames have a 0.34-U factor.

“We have made a commitment to 

energy efficiency. We build 100% 

to ENERGY STAR, and in this 

market, that is a big deal.” 

Pat Shea, Schneider Homes 

project manager 

(top) An insulated, conditioned closet 

within the garage contains the forced-air 

92.5% AFUE gas furnace.

(bottom) Blown-in cellulose insulation 

rated at R-38 to R-42 helps the 

townhouses meet the Building America 

40% goal.

2 CASE STUDY: SCHNEIDER HOMES, INC., BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Other above-code energy reduction features that allowed Schneider Homes 

to reach the federal tax credit level include making 80% of the light fixtures 

hardwired for compact fluorescent lightbulbs; providing an ENERGY 

STAR refrigerator, dishwasher, and clothes washer; and installing an 80% 

energy-efficient gas tankless water heater. However, as discussed in the next 

section, Quality Management Solutions, some of the tankless water heaters 

had to be replaced with traditional tank water heaters.

Final Home Energy Rating System (HERS) scores ranged from 66 to 

68. “What I see in an ENERGY STAR home, which is officially 85, is 

anywhere from 75 to 85,” said Balderston.

“We have always tried to give our customers the most livable home we 

can for the price,” said Joanna Colman, assistant vice president. “Energy 

efficiency is something that we jumped on right away; the company 

believes it is a huge benefit for our customers to provide increased 

comfort and economic savings through lower energy costs,” said Colman.

Roger Fowler, who is the president of the development’s homeowner’s 

association, speaks to this livability: “We feel comfortable in the home, and 

we never feel drafty, nothing like that. They [the homes] are very tight.”

Quality Management Solutions

“We offer a structural extended warranty on all of our homes [6-year 

Washington State RWC warranty], and we back this with a one-year 

comprehensive warranty from the builder,” said Colman. “Schneider 

Homes really stands behind their homes.”

As part of this commitment to quality and comprehensive warranty, 

employees at Schneider Homes replaced about six gas tankless water 

heaters with 40-gallon water heaters after homeowners complained 

about the pressure and temperature of their water. 

“Here’s the problem,” said Shea, “everyone in the development gets up 

at 6:30 in the morning and takes a shower. All of the sudden, you have 

40 of these many thousand BTU hot water tanks coming on at the 

same time, and there is tremendous draw on the system.”

“Builders have to plan for larger gas piping from the beginning,” said 

Balderston. “A standard water heater might be 35,000 BTUs, but a 

tankless is 160,000 BTUs. A lot of builders have had this happen. They 

laid out their utilities in the ground, and then decided to put in tankless 

water heaters because these are efficient. It is a key problem,” said 

Balderston. A larger infrastructure of gas piping would fix the problem. 

The advantage of tankless water heaters is that they burn gas only when 

hot water is being used, which is why the tankless heaters can burn at 

higher BTUs and still be more efficient than tank heaters, which burn gas 

on and off throughout the day to keep the tank water continuously hot.

Energy-Efficient Features 

(based on a 2,019-square-foot home)

•	 HERS: 

66, 67, 68

•	 Walls:

2x6 16-inch on-center

•	 Attic Insulation:

R-38 to R-42 blown-in 

cellulose insulation

•	 Wall insulation:

R-23 formaldehyde-free, 

blown-in fiberglass insulation (BIBs)

•	 Roofing Material:

Asphalt shingles

•	 Foundation:

2-foot concrete slabs with 

R-10 foam perimeter

•	 Ducts: In conditioned space, 

mostly 3 to 4 ACH @ 50

•	 Air Sealing:

Gasketing attic access hatches, 

foaming the bottom and top 

plates of the walls, and caulking 

all penetrations

•	 HVAC:

Forced-air 92.5% AFUE gas furnace

•	 Windows:

Two-pane, low-e, vinyl-framed, 

0.34-U, 0.35 SHGC, 15% glazing area

•	 Water Heating:

80% gas tankless, with some 

replaced to 40-gallon 63% gas tanks

•	 Ventilation: 

Mechanical upgraded 

bathroom exhaust

•	 Lighting and Appliances:

80% CFLs; ENERGY STAR 

refrigerator, dishwasher, and 

clothes washer

•	 Commissioning/Certification: 

$2,000 federal tax credit certified 

and Northwest ENERGY STAR rated

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES CASE STUDY: SCHNEIDER HOMES, INC., 3
Schneider Homes has its own real estate company (Schneider Family 

Homes) and one way that realtor Debra Alfieri sees this commitment 

to quality is that energy efficiency and other “extras” are not 

“upgrades” but included as standard features in their homes. “[For 

some builders] everything is an upgrade; you buy a stripped down 

house,...On all of ours, this [energy efficiency] is standard,” said 

Alfieri, “and buyers still have the option to select additional upgrades 

to customize their new homes to their tastes.”

All Schneider Homes are built to Northwest ENERGY STAR 

standards. Also, at Village at Miller Creek some of the standard 

features included CEM-PlankTM fiber cement siding, 30-year warranted 

shadow-blend roofing, insulated fiberglass entry door, small landscaped 

and fenced yards with sprinkler systems, 9-foot ceilings on the main 

floor, custom cherry cabinetry and slab granite countertops in kitchens 

and baths, cherry laminate flooring, quality plumbing fixtures, master 

bedroom ceiling fan, garbage disposal, stainless steel ENERGY STAR 

rated appliances, gas fireplaces with slab granite facing, and pre-wired 

for surround sound and other electronics.

Dollars and Sense

For the Village at Miller Creek townhouses, Schneider Homes benefitted 

from two incentive programs. As mentioned previously, 28 of the homes 

qualified for the $2,000 federal tax credit (for 50% greater heating and 

cooling energy savings than the 2004 IECC). In addition, Puget Sound 

Energy provided approximately $1,000 in rebates per house for energyefficient building, such as air sealing and lighting. “The [Puget Sound 

Energy] rebate that we received through ENERGY STAR and the federal 

tax credit more than offset the additional construction cost [for the 

energy upgrades],” said Shea.

It is the homeowners who really appreciate the energy cost savings, as 

expressed by Colman: “We bought a new Schneider home three years 

ago that was ENERGY STAR rated. We moved from a smaller house, 

built in the 1970s, and our energy costs are significantly less for this 

bigger house than they were for our old home. Before we had about 

2,300 square feet, and this house is 3000 square feet.”

Bottom Line

Balderston says “the great thing about the project with Building 

America” is hearing from the construction manager how much energy 

savings they achieved with just a small financial investment. The homes 

meet the Building America 40% whole-house energy-savings goal for 

the marine climate, and “for a small investment, [after rebates] of about 

$1,000 a home, they received the tax credit on 28 homes, which amounts 

to $56,000,” said Balderston.

For More Information

Contact the EERE Information Center 

1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463) or visit 

eere.energy.gov/informationcenter.

PNNL-SA-73920 September 2010

(top) 28 homes at Schneider Home’s 

Village at Miller Creek met the Building 

America 40% goal and qualified for the 

$2000 federal tax credit.

(bottom) Standard kitchen features in 

a Village at Miller Creek home include 

custom cherry cabinetry, slab granite 

countertops, a stainless steel double sink, 

a kitchen island, ENERGY STAR lighting, 

and stainless steel appliances, including an 

ENERGY STAR dishwasher.

4 CASE STUDY: SCHNEIDER HOMES, INC., BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Tom Walsh & Co. Reaches 50% 

Energy Savings in 20 Homes in 

New Columbia, Portland, OR

In 2007, Tom Walsh & Co. (TWC) became one of the first production 

builders in Oregon to earn the $2,000 federal tax credit for new energyefficient homes. Under the direction of Ben Walsh, TWC earned the 

tax credit on 20 new homes built in the New Columbia neighborhood 

in Portland, Oregon. These homes earned Home Energy Rating Scores 

(HERS) that represent greater than 50% energy savings in heating and 

cooling over the 2004 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). 

TWC achieved HERS scores of 59 to 66 on each of the 20 federal 

tax credit homes with technical assistance from Earth Advantage, the 

Energy Trust of Oregon, and the Oregon Department of Energy. These 

homes meet the Building America 40% goal for the marine climate. 

Before becoming aware of the federal tax credit, TWC had completed 

24 homes in 2006 that qualified for Northwest Energy Star and Earth 

Advantage certification.

In total, TWC built 46 speculative, detached, single-family houses in 

New Columbia for first-time and middle-income families. The homes 

were priced at sale between $199,000 and 278,000. All of the homes 

had sold by March 2008.

“We were half way into sheet rocking of phase I in New Columbia with 

24 ENERGY STAR and Earth Advantage certified homes when I heard 

about the federal tax credit,” said Ben Walsh, project manager, owner, 

BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES PROGRAM

TWC achieved HERS scores of 59 to 66 on 

22 homes in Portland, Oregon, with technical 

assistance from the Building Industry 

Research Alliance (BIRA), a research team 

leader in the U.S. Department of Energy’s 

Building America program.

Building America Best Practices Series

Builders Challenge Guide to 40% Whole-House 

Energy Savings in the Marine Climate

Case Study:

Tom Walsh & Co. 

New Columbia | Portland, OR

R

BUILDER PROFILE

Builder’s Name: Tom Walsh & Co. (TWC) 

Where: Portland, OR

Founded: 1962, incorporated 1999

Employees: 5 in 2007

Size: 40 single-family houses a year 

in 2007 

Development: 20 homes in New 

Columbia (beginning in October 2006)

Square Footage: average 1,884 

square-foot two-story, three-bedroom, 

2.5 bath homes

Price Range: $229,000 – $278,000

Energy Efficient Commitment: 

Federal tax credit level
and son of the company founder. “I asked our ENERGY STAR/Earth 

Advantage verifier what it would take to for us to hit this standard. 

He said, ‘You guys are pretty close.’ It is remarkable what you can 

accomplish when you simply ask the question: Is there anything that 

we can do better?”

However, for Ben Walsh, reaching 50% energy savings compared to 

code was only important if it could be achieved cost effectively for 

subcontractors. “If people are working on slim margins and if you ask 

them to up-end their processes, they see this as one thing, and they are 

absolutely right—loss. They can’t do it,” says Walsh. “Every one of my 

subcontractors has to know that their profitability is of paramount 

importance to me.”

“They were able to really improve energy efficiency, quite frankly, without 

spending much more money,” said Chris Bonner, a broker with Hasson 

Company, who listed all 46 homes in phase I and II. “It really came down 

to creating opportunities for their subs to learn a new system. I remember 

one thing clearly that Ben told me, ‘In the end, getting all that extra 

energy efficiency didn’t really cost as much as we thought. It was really 

about communicating with people a new way of doing things.’”

Energy Efficiency 

Walsh credits two improvements with providing most of the energyefficiency gains that moved his homes from 15% savings in phase I to 

50% energy savings over code in phase II: improving air sealing and 

moving ducts out of the crawlspace and into conditioned space.

In phase I, some of the blower door tests showed infiltration rates of 

7.0 ACH50. To meet ENERGY STAR requirements in Oregon the 

infiltration rates need to be at 7.0 ACH50 or lower. For phase II, Walsh’s 

team reached infiltration rates between 4.2 and 4.6 ACH50. 

“We put a lot more attention into gasketing the crawl and attic access 

hatches,” said Walsh. “We took care to instruct our insulators to foam 

the bottom plates of the walls and foam the top plates of the top floor 

walls. Then, we caulked around all the penetrations—the wires, pipes, 

ducts.” According to the Building Industry Research Alliance (BIRA), 

the Building America research team that provided analysis of the 

houses, the estimated incremental time to implement this extra sealing 

was only 1.5 hours per house.

The construction team identified two challenges for moving the 

ductwork into conditioned space: allocating space for the ducts and 

addressing a potential added cost from the mechanical contractors. 

Through discussions with his subcontractors and research information 

from BIRA, Walsh implemented a cost-effective method for placing the 

ducts in conditioned space, which saved $275 per house. 

“Ben has been on the phone 

countless times with ‘what ifs,’ 

so we have gone back to our 

Building America partners to 

answer these questions.” 

Brady Peeks, energy analyst for 

the Oregon Department of Energy

(top) TWC became the first builder 

in Oregon to earn the $2,000 federal 

energy-efficient new homes tax credit on 

a production-scale project. The 20 homes 

in Portland, Oregon, achieved greater than 

50% energy savings in heating and cooling 

over the 2004 International Conservation 

Code (IECC) standard.

(bottom) To encourage community, 

garages are located behind houses, and 

off-street parking is located on alleys 

behind houses.

2 CASE STUDY: TOM WALSH & CO. BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
TWC located the ductwork between the first and second stories of the home. 

The 9-foot first-floor ceilings allow a trunk duct to be run perpendicular to 

the floor joist in a soffit beside the support beam for the joists. In some cases, 

the soffit was enlarged well beyond the size required by the ducts so it would 

function as part of an architectural entry vault for the houses.

The branch ducts run within the joist space eliminating the need for 

additional soffits or dropped ceilings. Air is supplied to the first story 

through ceiling registers and to the second story through floor registers. 

The furnace is located in an interior closet, making the ducts and 

furnace considerably more accessible than a crawlspace for installation, 

sealing, and inspection. 

Final duct blaster testing showed duct leakage of 31 to 40 CFM50. “For 

a new average home at 2000 square feet, you can expect 240 to 300 

CFM50 for a normal house. The leakage of this house is minimal” said 

Eli Caudill, technical director for Conservation Services Group, which 

supports the Energy Trust of Oregon.

Caudill states another important benefit of moving ducts into 

conditioned space: “If the ducts leak to inside the house, it is not 

that big of a deal; it is still heating the house. If the ducts are in the 

crawlspace or the attic and are leaking, we would be looking at a 

situation where we are paying to heat places we don’t want to heat.”

Ventilation for such a tightly constructed envelope is provided with a 

whole house fan and trickle vents in the windows, which provide small, 

operable, louvered vents within the window frame.

Other energy-efficient features included the following, some of which 

were in the phase 1 ENERGY STAR and Earth Advantage certified 

houses and carried through to the phase II houses: R-21 fiberglass batt 

insulation within 2x6 intermediate framing; R-49 blown-in cellulose attic 

insulation; U-0.29 windows; 62% energy-efficient gas water heater; 

94% AFUE furnace; 100% compact fluorescent lighting; ENERGY 

STAR refrigerator, dishwasher, and clothes washer; a vented crawlspace 

with a 10-mil poly vapor barrier on the ground; and R-38 insulation in 

the floor joists.

One feature of the houses that Ben Walsh stated he will not build again 

is ventilated crawlspaces. “It is dark and damp in crawl spaces. We 

condition crawl spaces now,” said Walsh.

Brady Peeks, an energy analyst with Oregon Department of Energy, 

is not surprised by Walsh’s openness to change in building practice. 

“He is a builder who is really interested in doing more,” says Peeks. 

“Ben has been on the phone countless times with ‘what ifs,’ and we 

have gone back to our Building America partners to get answers to 

his questions.”

Energy-Efficient Features 

(Tom Walsh & Co. New Columbia 

Phase II Homes)

•	 HERS: 

56 and 59 for two homes with solar 

hot water heaters and 65 to 66 for 

the other 20 homes

•	 Walls:

2x6 24-inch on center

•	 Attic Insulation:

R-49 blown-in cellulose

•	 Wall insulation:

R-21 batts

•	 Roofing Material:

Asphalt shingle, no radiant barrier

•	 Foundation: Vented crawlspace 

with R-38 fiberglass batt insulation 

in the floor joists

•	 Ducts: In conditioned space using 

40% less ductwork than when in the 

crawlspace; ducts insulated to R-8

•	 Air Handler: Whole-house fan and 

trickle vents in the windows

•	 Air Sealing: Gasketing the crawl and 

attic access hatches, foaming the 

bottom and top plates of the walls, 

and caulking all penetrations

•	 HVAC: High-efficiency 94% AFUE 

furnace. No air conditioner

•	 Windows: Window area 14.1%. U-0.29

•	 Water Heating: 62% efficient gas

•	 Ventilation: Upgraded bathroom 

exhaust only, trickle vents over windows

•	 Green features: Pre-finished, tongue 

and groove bamboo flooring; lowand no-VOC adhesives and finishes; 

no urea-formaldehyde

•	 Lighting and Appliances:

100% CFLs and ENERGY STAR 

refrigerator, dishwashers, and 

clothes washer

•	 Commissioning/Certification: 

Independent, third-party certification

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES CASE STUDY: TOM WALSH & CO. 3
Dollars and Sense

According to Rob Del Mar, an energy analyst with the Oregon 

Department of Energy, “The ducts-inside installation resulted in cost 

savings of $275 per house or $5,500 on the total bid.” The central 

location of the furnace inside a closet made it possible to use 40% less 

ductwork than would have been needed if the system had been installed 

conventionally. There were no additional framing costs as the soffit 

containing the ductwork was already required to conceal a structural 

beam. The soffit was enlarged beyond the needs of the ductwork as an 

architectural feature of the entryway. “The arched entry vault was seen as 

an attribute by the homebuyers,” said Del Mar.

Chris Bonner, the realtor, experienced the difference that 50% energy 

savings made in selling homes. “I listed all 46 homes,” said Bonner. “In 

phase I, when we were Earth Advantage and ENERGY STAR rated, 

we were competitive with the other builders at New Columbia. So, we 

were all out there singing the same song. Then, on the second phase, 

having increased energy efficiency, it let us really stand out from 

the competition.”

“One of those 46 homes is now owned by a friend I have known since 

I was 6 years old,” says Walsh. “The value that the 46 houses represent 

to their buyers...is that people’s equity has been preserved [in the 

collapsing housing market]. The homes were not overpriced. They were 

value minded. They were not intended to generate enormous profit. I 

think the people who bought those homes have, still to this day, solid 

investments and solid homes in a solid neighborhood within a solid 

community, and that is important.”

Bottom Line

“In the end, it really wasn’t about spending a whole lot more money; it was 

about asking the questions to do it a little differently,” said Bonner. “I have 

been extremely proud to represent those homes.”

In 2007, Tom Walsh, who is Ben’s father, retired as the owner of TWC, 

and Ben formed Green One Construction Services. “We are constructing a 

new 18-unit development [of net zero-energy homes],” said Ben Walsh. He 

is working with the Oregon Department of Energy and Energy Trust of 

Oregon to test and analyze his house design for this development of hybrid 

(gas and electric) net-zero-energy homes.

“It is remarkable what you can accomplish when you simply ask the 

question, ‘Is there anything we can do better?’” Ben Walsh.

For More Information

Contact the EERE Information Center 

1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463) or 

visit eere.energy.gov/informationcenter.

PNNL-SA-73919 September 2010

The arched entry adds aesthetic appeal 

and hides the ductwork, which is 

kept in conditioned space to increase 

energy savings.

“Typically ducts are installed in 

crawlspaces and attics and the 

garage. The decision to move the 

ducts and heating system inside 

into the conditioned space made 

a big gain for the HERS number 

for these houses and a reduction 

in the energy heating use.” 

Eli Caudill, technical director 

for Conservation Services Group, 

which technically supports Energy 

Trust of Oregon

4 CASE STUDY: TOM WALSH & CO. BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES
Appendix I.

Homebuyer’s Checklist

Homebuyers, take this with you when you go house 

shopping to make sure you get an energy-efficient home.

MEASURE Building America

Recommendations

Builder

#1

Builder

#2

Builder

#3

HEATING AND COOLING EQUIPMENT

ENERGY STAR qualified air conditioning of SEER* 13 or greater Yes

ENERGY STAR qualified heat pump Yes

ENERGY STAR qualified boiler Yes

ENERGY STAR qualified sealed-combustion gas furnace 

of 90 AFUE* or higher Yes

ENERGY STAR qualified programmable thermostat Yes

Ductwork sealed with mastic (no duct tape) Yes

5% or less duct leakage found with pressure test 

10% allowed if all ducts are located in the conditioned space. Yes

Duct Insulation: R-4 in conditioned space, R-8 in attic, R-6 in crawlspace Yes

House plans show duct layouts Yes

Ducts located in conditioned space Yes

Ducts sized according to industry standards in Manual D Yes

Heating and cooling equipment sized according to industry standards 

in Manual J Yes

House pressure balanced with jump ducts or transfer grills Yes

HVAC* equipment and duct work inspected and tested after installation Yes

Filter with MERV rating of 8 or higher installed on the central air handler Yes

Air handler isolated from garage by a thermal barrier (insulation) 

and air barrier (e.g., drywall sealed at seams) Yes

A1.1

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX I

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
MEASURE Building America

Recommendations

Builder

#1

Builder

#2

Builder

#3

INSULATION (take a look at a house under construction before sheetrock is installed)

Insulation installed behind tubs, landings, and other hard to reach places Yes

Insulation fills entire cavities—no voids or compressed batts—

Attic insulation level without gaps and covers entire attic floor Yes

Where fiberglass batt insulation is used it is high-density Yes

Rim joists are insulated Yes

Rigid foam insulation applied under exterior siding or stucco Yes

WINDOWS (take a look at a house under construction before exterior siding is installed)

ENERGY STAR qualified windows, doors, and skylights Yes

Windows flashed to help repel water Yes

Windows rated to U-factor of 0.40 or less and SHGC of 0.40 or less Yes

MOISTURE MANAGEMENT (take a look at a house under construction before exterior siding is installed)

Ground slopes away from house Yes

Housewrap, building paper, or rigid foam exterior insulation, taped at 

seams and caulked at edges, covers OSB walls in wood-framed houses Yes

Roof flashing in valleys, where walls and roofs intersect, and at other 

places where water may enter the house—the more complex the roof, 

the more flashing you should see

Yes

Air gap between stucco, brick, or masonry cladding and housewrap Yes

Overhangs for shade and to direct water away from walls Yes

Trees planted ten feet from house, no overhanging branches Yes

Plantings 18 to 36 inches away from the foundation Yes

No wood or siding in direct contact with ground Yes

AIR BARRIERS

Follow ENERGY STAR Thermal Bypass Checklist Yes

All penetrations through exterior walls sealed Yes

Careful sealing of sheetrock or exterior sheathing Yes

Canned lights rated as airtight and for insulated ceiling (ICAT) Yes

Electrical boxes on exterior walls caulked or gasketed Yes

Holes into attic sealed Yes

Attic hatch weather-stripped and insulated Yes

Air leakage determined with house depressurization test Yes

Wall-roof intersection carefully sealed to avoid ice dams Yes

Draft-stops installed behind tubs, showers, stairs, and fireplaces Yes

Garage completely sealed from conditioned areas of house Yes

Careful sealing around bathtubs, landings, fireplaces, kneewalls, 

cantilevered floors, etc. Yes

Sill plates gasketed or sealed Yes

A1.2

APPENDIX I / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
MEASURE Building America

Recommendations

Builder

#1

Builder

#2

Builder

#3

FOUNDATION MEASURES

Radon control measures installed Yes

4 to 6 inch gravel base under slab and basement floors Yes

Polyethylene (plastic) vapor barrier between gravel and slab Yes

Conditioned crawlspace Yes

Exterior slab insulation Yes

Termite flashing added at sill plate Yes

PLUMBING

No pipes in exterior walls Yes

Pipe insulation Yes

VENTILATION

Whole-house mechanical ventilation installed Yes

Spot ventilation installed in kitchen and bathrooms Yes

Clothes dryers are vented to the outside Yes

Gas-fired furnaces or water heaters sealed-combustion, 

direct vented, or power vented Yes

Carbon monoxide detector installed in homes with a combustion 

appliance or attached garage Yes

Attached garages are ventilated Yes

FRAMING

Use Optimum Value Engineering (also called Advanced Framing):

- 2x6 24 in. oc instead of 2x4 18 in. oc studs

- Align framing members from floor joists to wall studs to rafters

- Use single top plates and single headers where possible

- Use two-stud corners and drywall clips instead of 3-stud corners

Yes

OTHER

Low VOC interior coatings Yes

Low VOC adhesives Yes

Low emission cabinets Yes

CFL lighting Yes

OTHER FEATURES FOR COMPARISON

*SEER: Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio | *AFUE: Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency | *HVAC: heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

A1.3

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX I

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
A1.4

APPENDIX I / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Appendix II.

Counties in the Marine Climate

This section contains a list of all the counties, by state, that are 

within the marine climate. You can find a master list for the entire 

country at www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/pdfs/

climate_regions_us_county_rev02.pdf.

CALIFORNIA

Alameda 

Del Norte

Humboldt

Marin

Mendocino

Monterey

Napa

San Benito

San Francisco

San Luis Obispo

San Mateo

Santa Barbara

Santa Clara

Santa Cruz

Sonoma

Ventura

OREGON 

Benton 

Clackamas

Clatsop

Columbia

Coos

Curry

Douglas

Jackson

Josephine

Lane

Lincoln

Linn

Marion

Multnomah

Polk

Tillamook

Washington

Yamhill

WASHINGTON 

Clallam 

Clark

Cowlitz

Grays Harbor

Jefferson

King

Kitsap

Lewis

Mason

Pacific

Pierce

Skagit

Snohomish

Thurston

Wahkiakum

Whatcom

= MARINE CLIMATE

A2.1

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX II

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
A2.2

APPENDIX II / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Appendix III.

DOE Building Energy Code 

Resource Center Code Notes

A meeting with the building department before construction is well 

advised. Should your code official need information in support of 

the new techniques you may use in an energy-efficient home, this 

appendix contains websites and a sample document that may be 

helpful. A set of draft code notes are available on DOE’s Building 

Energy Codes Resource Center website. These draft documents 

are written for code officials and provide a description of energyefficiency techniques, citations to relevant codes, and guidance for 

plan reviews and field inspections. 

Here is a list of available code notes that can help re-assure your 

local code official that the proposed techniques are both safe and 

in compliance with the model codes. The code notes are available at 

www.energycodes.gov/support/code_notes.stm.

•	 Single Top Plate

•	 No Headers in Nonbearing Walls

•	 Header Hangers in Bearing Walls

•	 Open Spaces as Return-Air Options

•	 Details for Mechanically Vented Crawlspaces

•	 Ventilation Requirements for Condensing Clothes Dryers

•	 Drywall Clips

•	 Rigid Board Insulation Installed as Draft-Stop in Attic Kneewall

•	 Whole-House Mechanical Ventilation

•	 Residential Heating and Cooling Load Calculation Requirements

•	 Conditioned Attics.

We have included one of these Code Notes as a sample in this 

document, the Code Note for Rigid Board Insulation Installed as 

Draft-Stop in Attic Kneewall. You will find it on the pages that follow.

A3.1

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX III

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Rigid Board Insulation Installed as Draft Stop in Attic Kneewall -

Code Notes (DRAFT)

Framing kneewall

Rigid board insulation (foam plastic) is an effective draft stop and also increases the R-value of the attic

kneewall if installed on the attic side of the kneewall, replacing the need for separate draft stop and insulation

products. The IRC requires foam plastic insulation to be protected against ignition by using fiberglass batt

insulation, gypsum board or other products that meet the flame and smoke density requirements. Foam

plastic products rated for flame and smoke density can be installed without such a protective covering.

Insulating attic kneewalls between a conditioned space with vaulted ceilings and the attic is important to

reduce energy loss through the wall, especially in the summer months. To be effective, the insulation installed

in the kneewalls must be supported so that it stays in contact with the gypsum board, and protected against

air moving through the insulation.

http://energycode.pnl.gov/cocoon/energy/ Page 1 of 3

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APPENDIX III / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Kneewall sheathing insulation to increase R-value to equal the outside wall.

Foam plastic insulation can be installed on the attic side of the attic kneewall (see Figure) to both act as a

draft stop between the conditioned house and the unconditioned attic and to increase the insulation R-value of

the attic kneewall. Installing such an insulating backing in the kneewall supports the fiberglass batt insulation

between framing members, replaces an air barrier, and adds insulating value to the attic kneewall.

Plan Review

1. Verify that plastic insulation called out on the construction detail meets the ASTM E 84 requirements for

flame spread and smoke development. Require manufacturer literature or an ICC Evaluation Service

report.

2. Verify that the insulation R-value of the foam plastic insulation called out on the building plans meets or

exceeds the R-value requirements called for on the energy code compliance documentation (only if credit

has been taken for the foam plastic insulation).

Field Inspection

1. Verify that the foam plastic insulation installed in the field is consistent with that called out on the building

plans.

2. Verify that the insulation R-value specified on the insulation meets or exceeds the R value called out on the

plans or documentation.

3. Verify that that sealant has been installed around the edges of the insulation and that any holes or

penetrations in the foam plastic insulation are sealed.

Code Citations

http://energycode.pnl.gov/cocoon/energy/ Page 2 of 3

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX III

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
A3.4

APPENDIX III / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Appendix IV.

Energy & Housing Glossary

Accreditation

The process of certifying a Home Energy 

Rating System (HERS) as being compliant 

with the national industry standard operating 

procedures for Home Energy Rating System.

AFUE Annual Fuel Utilization 

Efficiency (AFUE)

Measures the amount of fuel converted to 

space heat in proportion to the amount of 

fuel entering the furnace. This is commonly 

expressed as a percentage. A furnace with an 

AFUE of 90 could be said to be 90% efficient. 

AFUE includes any input energy required 

by the pilot light but does not include any 

electrical energy for fans or pumps. 

Air Barrier

Any material that restricts air flow. In wall 

assemblies, the exterior air barrier is often a 

combination of sheathing and either building 

paper, housewrap or board insulation. The 

interior air barrier is typically gypsum board. 

Air Flow Retarder

Sealants used to keep outside air and inside 

air out of the building envelope. Four common 

approaches to retarding air flow include 

careful sealing using the following building 

components: drywall and framing, plastic 

sheets (should not to be used in hot and 

humid climates) between drywall and framing, 

exterior sheathing, and building paper. Air flow 

retarders define the pressure boundary in a 

house that separates indoor and outdoor air.

Building Envelope

The outer shell, or the elements of a building, 

such as walls, floors, and ceilings, that enclose 

conditioned space. See also Pressure Boundary 

and Thermal Boundary.

Btu (British Thermal Unit)

A standard unit for measuring energy. One Btu 

is the amount of energy required to raise the 

temperature of one pound of water by one 

degree Fahrenheit from 59 to 60. An InchesPounds unit.

CABO (Council of American 

Building Officials)

The previous umbrella organization for the 

three nationally recognized model code 

organizations in the United States: the Building 

Officials & Code Administrators International, 

Inc. (BOCA), the International Conference of 

Building Officials (ICBO), and the Southern 

Building Code Congress International (SBCCI). 

All were incorporated into the International 

Code Council in ICC in November of 1997 

with the goal of developing a single national 

building code in the United States. 

Capacity

The rate at which a piece of equipment works. 

Cooling capacity is the amount of heat a 

cooling system can remove from the air. For air 

conditioners total capacity is the sum of latent 

capacity, the ability to remove moisture from 

the air, and the sensible capacity, the ability to 

reduce dry-bulb temperature. Heating system 

capacity indicates how much heat a system 

can provide. Heating and cooling capacities are 

rated in Btu per hour.

Chase

An enclosure designed to hold ducts, 

plumbing, electric, telephone, cable, or other 

linear components. A chase designed for ducts 

should be in conditioned space and include air 

flow retarders and thermal barriers between it 

and unconditioned spaces such as attics.

Construction Documents

The drawings (plans) and written specifications 

that describe construction requirements for 

a building.

COP (Coefficient of 

Performance)

A measure of efficiency typically applied 

to heat pumps. The COP for heat pumps 

is the ratio, at a given point in time, of net 

heat output to total energy input expressed 

in consistent units and under designated 

conditions. Heat pumps result in a COP 

greater than 1 because the system delivers or 

removes more heat energy than it consumes. 

Other specific definitions of COP exist for 

refrigeration equipment. See HSPF for a 

description of a unit for seasonal efficiency.

Debt-to-Income Ratio

The ratio, expressed as a percentage, which 

results when a borrower’s total monthly 

payment obligations on long-term debt are 

divided by their gross monthly income. This is 

one of two ratios (housing expense-to-income 

ratio being the other) used by the mortgage 

industry to determine if a prospective borrower 

qualifies (meets the underwriting guidelines) for 

a specific home mortgage. Fannie Mae, Freddie 

Mac and FHA underwriting guidelines set an 

upper limit of 36% on this value for conventional 

loans but increase (“stretch”) the ratio by 2% for 

qualifying energy-efficient houses.

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX IV

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Dry-Bulb Temperature

The temperature of air indicated on an ordinary 

thermometer, it does not account for the 

affects of humidity.

ECM 

(Energy Conservation Measure)

An individual building component or product 

that directly impacts energy use in a building.

EEM 

(Energy-Efficient Mortgage)

Specifically, a home mortgage for which the 

borrower’s qualifying debt-to-income and 

housing expense-to income ratios have been 

increased (“stretched”) by 2% because the 

home meets or exceeds CABO’s 1992 version of 

the Model Energy Code (MEC). This so-called 

“stretch” mortgage is nationally underwritten 

by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and the Federal 

Housing Administration (FHA). This term 

is often used generically to refer to any 

home mortgage for which the underwriting 

guidelines have been relaxed specifically for 

energy efficiency features, or for which any 

form of financing incentive is given for 

energy efficiency.

EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)

A measurement of the instantaneous energy 

efficiency of cooling equipment, normally used 

only for electric air conditioning. EER is the 

ratio of net cooling capacity in Btu per hour to 

the total rate of electric input in watts, under 

designated conditions. The resulting EER value 

has units of Btu per watt-hour.

EF (Energy Factor)

A standardized measurement of the annual 

energy efficiency of water heating systems. 

It is the annual hot water energy delivered 

to a standard hot water load divided by the 

total annual purchased hot water energy 

input in consistent units. The resultant EF 

value is a percentage. EF is determined by a 

standardized U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 

procedure.

Energy (Use)

The quantity of onsite electricity, gas or 

other fuel required by the building equipment 

to satisfy the building heating, cooling, hot 

water, or other loads or any other service 

requirements (lighting, refrigeration, 

cooking, etc.)

Energy Audit

A site inventory and descriptive record 

of features impacting the energy use in a 

building. This includes, but is not limited to all 

building component descriptions (locations, 

areas, orientations, construction attributes 

and energy transfer characteristics); all energy 

using equipment and appliance descriptions 

(use, make, model, capacity, efficiency and fuel 

type) and all energy features.

ENERGY STAR® Home

A home, certified by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA), that is at least 30% 

more energy efficient than the minimum 

national standard for home energy efficiency 

as specified by the 1992 MEC, or as defined for 

specific states or regions. ENERGY STAR is a 

registered trademark of the EPA.

Envelope

See Building Envelope

Fannie Mae (FNMA - Federal 

National Mortgage Association)

A private, tax-paying corporation chartered by 

the U.S. Congress to provide financial products 

and services that increase the availability of 

housing for low-, moderate-, and middleincome Americans.

FHA (Federal Housing 

Administration)

A division of the U.S. Department of Housing 

and Urban Development (HUD). FHA’s main 

activity is the insurance of residential mortgage 

loans made by private lenders.

Freddie Mac 

(FHLMC - Federal Home Loan 

Mortgage Corporation)

A stockholder-owned organization, chartered 

by the U.S. Congress to increase the supply 

of mortgage funds. Freddie Mac purchases 

conventional mortgages from insured 

depository institutions and HUD-approved 

mortgage bankers.

Grade Beam

A foundation wall that is poured at or just 

below the grade of the earth, most often 

associated with the deepened perimeter 

concrete section in slab-on-grade foundations.

HERS 

(Home Energy Rating System)

A standardized system for rating the energyefficiency of residential buildings.

HERS Energy-Efficient 

Reference Home (EERH)

The EERH is a geometric “twin” to a home 

being evaluated for a HERS rating and 

according to a newly revised system, is 

configured to be minimally compliant with the 

2004 International Energy Conservation Code.

HERS Provider

An individual or organization responsible for 

the operation and management of a Home 

Energy Rating System (HERS).

HERS Rater

An individual certified to perform residential 

building energy efficiency ratings in the class 

for which the rater is certified.

HERS Score

A value between 0 and 100 indicating the 

relative energy efficiency of a given home 

as compared with the HERS Energy-Efficient 

Reference Home as specified by the HERS 

Council Guidelines. The greater the score, the 

more efficient the home. A home with zero 

energy use for the rated energy uses (heating, 

cooling and hot water only) scores 100 and the 

HERS Reference Home scores 80. Every one 

point increase in the HERS score amounts to a 

5% increase in energy efficiency.

Housing Expense-to-Income Ratio

The ratio, expressed as a percentage, which 

results when a borrower’s total monthly 

housing expenses (P.I.T.I.) are divided by their 

gross monthly income. This is one of two 

ratios (debt-to-income ratio being the other) 

used by the mortgage industry to determine 

if a prospective borrower qualifies (meets the 

underwriting guidelines) for a specific home 

mortgage. Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and FHA 

underwriting guidelines set an upper limit 

of 28% on this value for conventional loans 

but increase (“stretch”) the ratio by 2% for 

qualifying Energy-Efficient Mortgages (EEM).

Housewrap

Any of several spun-fiber polyolefin rolled 

sheet goods for wrapping the exterior of the 

building envelope.

A4.2

APPENDIX IV / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
HSPF (Heating Season 

Performance Factor)

A measurement of the seasonal efficiency 

of an electric heat pump using a standard 

heating load and outdoor climate profile over 

a standard heating season. It represents the 

total seasonal heating output in Btu divided by 

the total seasonal electric power input in watthours (Wh). Thus, the resultant value for HSPF 

has units of Btu/Wh.

Infrared Imaging

Heat sensing camera which helps reveal 

thermal bypass conditions by exposing hot 

and cold surface temperatures revealing 

unintended thermal flow, air flow, and moisture 

flow. Darker colors indicate cool temperatures, 

while lighter colors indicate warmer 

temperatures.

Insulated Concrete Forms (ICFs)

Factory-built wall system blocks that are made 

from extruded polystyrene insulation. Steel 

reinforcing rods are added and concrete is 

poured into the voids, creating a very airtight, 

well insulated and sturdy wall as the insulation 

is inherently aligned with the exterior and 

interior air barriers.

Insulation Contact, Airtight 

(ICAT) Lighting Fixture

Rating for recessed lights that can have direct 

contact with insulation and constructed with 

airtight assemblies to reduce thermal losses.

Jump Duct

A flexible, short, U-shaped duct (typically 

10-inch diameter) that connects a room to 

a common space as a pressure balancing 

mechanism. Jump ducts serve the same 

function as transfer grilles.

Load

The quantity of heat that must be added to 

or removed from the building (or the hot 

water tank) to satisfy specific levels of service, 

such as maintaining space temperature or hot 

water temperature at a specified thermostat 

setting (see also the definitions of energy 

and thermostat).

Low-E

Refers to a coating for high-performance 

windows, the “E” stands for emissivity or 

re-radiated heat flow. The thin metallic oxide 

coating increases the U-value of the window 

by reducing heat flow from a warm(er) air 

space to a cold(er) glazing surface. Low-E 

coatings allow short-wavelength solar radiation 

through windows, but reflect back longer 

wavelengths of heat.

MEC (Model Energy Code)

A “model” national standard for residential 

energy efficiency. The MEC was developed 

through a national consensus process by 

the Council of American Building Officials 

(CABO) and is the accepted national minimum 

efficiency standard for residential construction. 

Since MEC is a model code, it does not have 

the “force of law” until it is adopted by a local 

code authority. The MEC is used as the national 

standard for determining Energy-Efficient 

Mortgage (EEM) qualification, and it serves 

as the national “reference point” used by 

Home Energy Rating Systems (HERS) in the 

determination of energy ratings for homes.

Mechanical Ventilation

The active process of supplying or 

removing air to or from an indoor 

space by powered equipment such as 

motor-driven fans and blowers, but not 

by devices such as wind-driven turbine 

ventilators and mechanically operated 

windows.

Optimal Value Engineering 

(OVE)

A strategy for reducing thermal bridging by 

minimizing wall framing needed for structural 

support. Common techniques include 2x6 

framing with 24" on-center spacing, single top 

plates where trusses align with wall framing 

below, properly sized headers, two-stud 

corners, lattice strips at exterior/interior wall 

intersections, and the elimination of excessive 

fire blocking and window framing. This results 

in much more open framing for insulation to 

improve energy efficiency and comfort.

Performance Test

An onsite measurement of the energy 

performance of a building energy feature or an 

energy using device conducted in accordance 

with pre-defined testing and measurement 

protocols and analysis and computation 

methods. Such protocols and methods may 

be defined by national consensus standards 

like those of the American Society of Heating, 

Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers 

(ASHRAE) and the American Society for Test 

and Measurement (ASTM).

P.I.T.I.

An abbreviation which stands for principal, 

interest, taxes, and insurance. These generally 

represent a borrower’s total monthly payment 

obligations on a home loan. The taxes and 

insurance portion are often paid monthly to 

an impound or escrow account and may be 

adjusted annually to reflect changes in the 

cost of each.

Pressure Boundary

The point in a building at which inside air and 

outside air are separated. If a building were 

a balloon, the rubber skin would form the 

pressure boundary. Where inside and outside 

air freely mingle there is no pressure boundary.

Pressurization Test

A procedure in which a fan is used to place a 

house, duct system, or other container, under 

positive or negative air pressure in order to 

calculate air leakage.

RESNET (Residential Energy 

Services Network)

The national association of energy rating 

providers.

Rated Home

A specific residence that is evaluated by an 

energy rating.

R-Value

Measures a material’s ability to slow down or 

resist the transfer of heat energy, also called 

thermal resistance. The greater the R-value, the 

better the resistance, the better the insulation. 

The effective R-value of an insulation material 

will be reduced by gaps, voids, compression or 

misalignment. R-values are the reciprocal of 

U-values. See U-values for more information.

A4.3

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BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX IV

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
Sealed Combustion

Sealed combustion means that a combustion 

appliance, such as a furnace, water heater, or 

fireplace, acquires all air for combustion though 

a dedicated sealed passage from the outside; 

combustion occurs in a sealed-combustion 

chamber, and all combustion products are 

vented to the outside through a separate 

dedicated sealed vent.

SEER (Seasonal Energy 

Efficiency Ratio)

A measurement similar to HSPF except that 

it measures the seasonal cooling efficiency of 

an electric air conditioner or heat pump using 

a standard cooling load and outdoor climate 

profile over a standard cooling season. It 

represents the total seasonal cooling output in 

Btu divided by the total seasonal electric input 

in watt hours (Wh). The SEER value are units 

of Btu/Wh.

Semi-Permeable

The term vapor semi-permeable describes 

a material with a water vapor permeance 

between 1 and 10 Perms. Water vapor can pass 

through a semi-permeable material but at a 

slow rate.

Shading Coefficient (SC)

The ratio of the total solar heat admittance 

through a given glazing product relative to 

the solar heat admittance of double-strength, 

clear glass at normal solar incidence (i.e., 

perpendicular to the glazing surface).

Site Energy

The energy consumed at a building location or 

other end–use site.

Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 

(SHGC)

SHGC measures how well a window blocks heat 

caused by sunlight. The lower the SHGC rating 

the less solar heat the window transmits. This 

rating is expressed as a fraction between 0 and 

1. The number is the ratio of a window’s solar 

heat admittance compared to the total solar 

heat available on the exterior window surface 

at normal solar incidence (i.e., perpendicular to 

the glazing surface).

Sone

A sound rating. Fans rated 1.5 sones and below 

are considered very quiet.

Source Energy

All the energy used to deliver energy to a site, 

including power generation and transmission 

and distribution losses (also called primary 

energy). Approximately three watts (or 10.239 

British thermal units) of energy is consumed to 

deliver one watt of usable electricity. Building 

America energy saving targets are measured in 

terms of source energy rather than site energy.

Structural Insulated Panels 

(SIPs)

Factory-built insulated wall assemblies that 

ensure full alignment of insulation with 

integrated air barriers. Composed of insulated 

foam board glued to both an internal and 

external layer of sheathing (typically OSB or 

plywood). Many SIP panels are manufactured 

with precut window and door openings.

Supply ducts

The ducts in a forced air heating or cooling 

system that supply heated or cooled air from 

the or air conditioner to conditioned spaces.

Thermal Boundary

The border between conditioned and 

unconditioned space where insulation should 

be placed.

Thermal Bridging

Accelerated thermal flow that occurs 

when materials that are poor insulators 

displace insulation.

Thermostat

A control device that measures the 

temperature of the air in a home or the water 

in a hot water tank and activates heating or 

cooling equipment to cause the air or water 

temperature to remain at a pre-specified value, 

normally called the set point temperature.

Ton(s) of Refrigeration

Units used to characterize the cooling capacity 

of air conditioning equipment. One ton equals 

12,000 Btu/h.

U-Value

Measures the rate at which heat flows or 

conducts through a building assembly (wall, 

floor, ceiling, etc.). The smaller the u-value the 

more energy efficient an assembly and the 

slower the heat transfer. Window performance 

labels include U-values (calling them U factors) 

to help in comparing across window products.

Ventilation

The controlled movement of air into and out 

of a house.

W (watt)

One of two (Btu/h is the other) standard units 

of measure for the rate at which energy is 

consumed by equipment or the rate at which 

energy moves from one location to another. 

It is also the standard unit of measure for 

electrical power.

Wet-Bulb Temperature

A measure of combined heat and humidity. 

At the same temperature, air with less relative 

humidity has a lower wet-bulb temperature. 

See Dry-Bulb Temperature.

Wind Baffle

An object that serves as an air barrier for 

the purpose of blocking wind washing at 

attic eaves.

Wind-Washing

Air movement due to increased pressure 

differences that occur at the outside corners 

and roof eaves of buildings. Wind-washing 

can have significant impact on thermal and 

moisture movement and hence thermal 

and moisture performance of exterior wall 

assemblies.

Xeriscaping

Landscaping that minimizes outdoor water use 

while maintaining soil integrity and building 

aesthetics. Typically includes emphasis on 

native plantings, mulching, and no or limited 

drip/subsurface irrigation.

Zero Energy House

Any house that over time, averages out to netzero energy consumption. A zero energy home 

may supply more energy than it needs during 

peak demand, typically using one or more solar 

energy strategies, energy storage and/or 

net metering.

A4.4

APPENDIX IV / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
ACCA Air Conditioning Contractors of America

ACH air changes per hour 

ACI Affordable Comfort Incorporated

ACT2 Advanced Customer Technology Test 

for Maximum Energy Efficiency 

AFUE Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency 

AHU air-handler unit 

AL air leakage

ALA American Lung Association 

APA The Engineered Wood Association

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, 

and Air Conditioning Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BECT Building Energy Code Training 

BEopt Software developed by NREL for identifying 

optimal building design 

BESTEST A benchmark for building energy simulation: 

Building Energy Simulation Test and 

Diagnostic Method 

BII Building Industry Institute 

BIRA Building Industry Research Alliance

BPI Building Performance Institute 

BSC Building Science Corporation

BSC Building Science Consortium

BTU British Thermal Unit

CAD computer-aided design 

CARB Consortium for Advanced Residential Buildings

CDCU Community Development Corporation of Utah 

CDD cooling degree days

CEC California Energy Commission 

CFL compact fluorescent light 

CFM cubic feet per minute 

CGSB Canadian General Standards Board

COP coefficient of performance

CR condensation resistance

CRI color-rendering index 

CT color temperature 

DHW domestic hot water 

DOE U.S. Department of Energy 

DOE2 Building energy analysis program that can predict 

the energy use and cost for all types of buildings 

ECM electronically commutated motor 

(or energy conservation measure)

EDHA Eastern Dakota Housing Alliance 

EEBA Energy and Environmental Building Alliance 

EEM Energy-efficient mortgages 

EER Energy Efficiency Rating 

EERH Energy-Efficient Reference Home

Appendix V.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

A5.1

A5.1

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX V

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
EF energy factor 

EFL Environments for Living® 

EGUSA Energy-Gauge USA software (FSEC’s residential 

front-end user interface for DOE2.1E simulation tool) 

EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

EPS expanded polystyrene 

ERV Energy recovery ventilator

EVHA Energy Value Housing Award

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FF framing factor 

FFA finished floor area 

FG fiberglass 

FHA Federal Housing Administration

FSEC Florida Solar Energy Center

GAMA Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association

GenOpt generic optimization program 

HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning 

HDD heating degree days

HERS Home Energy Rating System developed 

by RESNET 

HPL high-performance lighting 

HRV heat recovery ventilator 

HSPF Heating Seasonal Performance Factor 

HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban 

Development 

IAQ Indoor air quality 

IBACOS Integrated Building and Construction Solutions

IBHS Institute for Business and Home Safety

IC insulated ceiling

ICAT Insulation-Contact-Airtight 

(also found Insulated Ceiling Air Tight)

ICC International Code Council

IDEC Indirect-Direct Evaporative Cooler 

IDP Integrated Design Process 

IECC International Energy Conservation Code 

IEQ Indoor Environmental Quality 

IHP Industrialized Housing Partnership

IOSEU incremental overall source energy use 

IRC International Residential Code

Mcf million cubic feet 

MEC Model Energy Code (supplanted by IECC in 1998)

MEF modified energy factor 

MERV Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value 

NAECA National Appliance Energy Conservation Act 

NAHB National Association of Home Builders 

NAHB RC National Association of Home Builders 

Research Center

NASEO National Association of State Energy Officials 

NATE North American Technician Excellence 

NFRC National Fenestration Rating Council

NHQ National Housing Quality 

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NZEH net-zero energy home 

OA outdoor air

OASys an indirect/direct evaporative cooler 

oc on center 

ODOE Oregon Department of Energy

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

OSB oriented strand board 

Pa Pascal, unit of pressure measurement 

PATH Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing 

PEX cross-linked Polyethylene tubing 

PITI principal, interest, tax, and insurance 

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

PSC permanent split-capacitor motors 

PV photovoltaics 

R-Value A measure of thermal resistance used to describe 

thermal insulation materials in buildings 

A5.2

APPENDIX V / BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
R.A.P. return-air pathway 

RESNET Residential Energy Service Network 

RH relative humidity 

SA supply air 

SBIC Sustainable Buildings Industry Council

SC shading coefficient

SEER seasonal energy efficiency ratio 

SHGC solar heat gain coefficient 

SHW solar hot water 

SLA specific leakage area 

SIP structural insulated panels

TAB testing, adjusting, and balancing

TIP Termite Infestation Probability 

TMY2 Typical Meteorological Year weather data 

TOU time of use 

TXV thermostatic expansion valve

UL Underwriter’s Laboratory 

USDA US Department of Agriculture

USGBC US Green Building Council

U-Value The thermal transmittance of a material, 

incorporating the thermal conductance of 

the structure along with heat transfer resulting 

from convection and radiation. 

UA heat loss coefficient 

UL Underwriter’s Laboratories

UV ultraviolet

VA Veterans Administration

VOC volatile organic compounds 

VT visible transmittance

WAC Washington Administrative Code

WSBCC Washington State Building Code Council

WSU Washington State University

WUFI Modeling program for simulating heat 

and moisture transfer 

XPS extruded polystyrene 

ZEH zero energy home 

ZNE zero net energy

A5.3

A5.3

BUILDING AMERICA BEST PRACTICES SERIES / APPENDIX V

Volume 11. 40% Whole-House Energy Savings in the Marine Climate - September 2010
EERE Information Center 

1-877-EERE-INFO (1-877-337-3463) 

www.eere.energy.gov/informationcenter

PNNL-19517, Rev. 1 September 2010

For information on Building America 

visit www.buildingamerica.gov. 

The website contains expanded 

case studies, technical reports, and 

best practices guides.

Building America Program

George S. James • New Construction • 202-586-9472 • fax: 202-586-8134 • e-mail: George.James@ee.doe.gov

Lew Pratsch • Existing Homes • 202-586-1512 • fax: 202-586-8185 • e-mail: Lew.Pratsch@ee.doe.gov

Building America Program • Office of Building Technologies, EE-2J • U.S. Department of Energy •

1000 Independence Avenue, S.W. • Washington, D.C. 20585-0121 • www.buildingamerica.gov

Building Industry Research Alliance (BIRA)

Robert Hammon • ConSol • 7407 Tam O’Shanter Drive #200 • Stockton, CA 95210-3370 • 209-473-5000 •

fax: 209-474-0817 • e-mail: Rob@consol.ws • www.bira.ws

Building Science Consortium (BSC)

Betsy Pettit • Building Science Consortium (BSC) • 70 Main Street • Westford, MA 01886 • 978-589-5100 •

fax: 978-589-5103 • e-mail: Betsy@buildingscience.com • www.buildingscience.com

Consortium for Advanced Residential Buildings (CARB)

Steven Winter • Steven Winter Associates, Inc. • 50 Washington Street • Norwalk, CT 06854 •

203-857-0200 • fax: 203-852-0741 • e-mail: swinter@swinter.com • www.carb-swa.com

Davis Energy Group

David Springer • Davis Energy Group • 123 C Street • Davis, CA 95616 • 530-753-1100 • fax: 530-753-4125 •

e-mail: springer@davisenergy.com • deg@davisenergy.com • www.davisenergy.com/index.html

IBACOS Consortium

Brad Oberg • IBACOS Consortium • 2214 Liberty Avenue • Pittsburgh, PA 15222 • 412-765-3664 •

fax: 412-765-3738 • e-mail: boberg@ibacos.com • www.ibacos.com

Industrialized Housing Partnership (IHP)

Philip Fairey • Florida Solar Energy Center • 1679 Clearlake Road • Cocoa, FL 32922 • 321-638-1005 •

fax: 321-638-1439 • e-mail: pfairey@fsec.ucf.edu • www.baihp.org

National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center

Tom Kenney • National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center •

400 Prince George’s Boulevard • Upper Marlboro, MD 20774 • 301-430-6246 •

fax: 301-430-6180 • toll-free: 800-638-8556 • www.nahbrc.org

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Ren Anderson • 1617 Cole Boulevard, MS-2722 • Golden, CO 80401 • 303-384-7433 • fax: 303-384-7540 •

e-mail: ren_anderson@nrel.gov • www.nrel.gov

Tim Merrigan • 1617 Cole Boulevard, MS-2722 • Golden, CO 80401 • 303-384-7349 • fax: 303-384-7540 •

e-mail: tim_merrigan@nrel.gov • www.nrel.gov

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Pat M. Love • P.O. Box 2008 • One Bethel Valley Road • Oak Ridge, TN 37831 • 865-574-4346 •

fax: 865-574-9331 • e-mail: lovepm@ornl.gov • www.ornl.gov

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Michael Baechler • 620 SW 5th, Suite 810 • Portland, OR 97204 • 503-417-7553 • fax: 503-417-2175 •

e-mail: michael.baechler@pnl.gov • www.pnl.gov

Produced for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 

Contract DE-AC05-76RLO 1830.

Printed with a renewable-source ink on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 20% postconsumer waste.

Research and 

Development of Buildings

Our nation’s buildings consume 

more energy than any other sector 

of the U.S. economy, including 

transportation and industry. 

Fortunately, the opportunities to 

reduce building energy use—and 

the associated environmental 

impacts—are significant.

DOE’s Building Technologies 

Program works to improve the 

energy efficiency of our nation’s 

buildings through innovative new 

technologies and better building 

practices. The program focuses 

on two key areas:

•	 Emerging Technologies

Research and development of 

the next generation of energyefficient components, materials, 

and equipment

•	 Technology Integration of new

technologies with innovative 

building methods to optimize 

building performance and savings

Visit our Web sites at:

www.buildingamerica.gov

www.pathnet.org

www.energystar.gov

R