1960

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RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS

OF THE

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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ANNUAL REPORT At'.*: J'
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Frederick H. Mueller, Secretary

Carl F. Oechsle, Assistant Secretary for Domestic Affairs

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director

Research Highlights

of the

National Bureau

of Standards

Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1960

December 1960

Miscellaneous Publication 237

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 65 cents
The National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., laboratories (top) and

Boulder, Colorado, laboratories (bottom).
Contents

Page

1. General review 1 Progress on measurement's frontiers 2 Fundamental constants measured 8

Plasma physics and astrophysics 10

New developments in materials 12 Radio propagation research 13 Data processing and applied mathematics 14

Calibration, testing, and standard samples 15

Cooperative activities 19

Administrative activities 21 Publications 24

2. Highlights of the research program 25

2.1. Metrology 25

Calibrating fluorescent lamps 26

The variability of human normal color vision 26

Color automatically computed 26

Color distortions found with electronic computer . . . 26

Brightness standards for TV tubes 27

Helicopter wing-tip lights , 27

Airport runway markings tested 27

Two-color projections 28

Image analysis 28

Glass lens free from residual chromatic aberration 28

Lens distortion measurements compared 28

Photographic research 29

High-resolution camera 29

Improved accuracy in length measurements 29

Reflection phase shift dispersion in interferometry 30

Evaporated multilayer coatings 30

Polarization of light at beam-dividing surfaces 30

Standard screw thread publications 30

Improved techniques for mass measurements 31

Standards and calibrations 31

2.2. Electricity 32

Absolute measurement of current 32

Absolute measurement of resistance 32

Redetermination of the faraday 33

Electrolytic purification of silver 33

Audiofrequency current transformer 34

Phase angle standard 34

Transformer-type voltage dividers 34

Guard-ring micrometer holder 34

Dielectric properties of polychlorotrifluoroethylene 34

Dielectric properties of nylons 35

Ultra -low-frequency bridge 35

Spherulitic growth in polychlorotrifluoroethylene 36

Theory of chain-folded crystallization in bulk polymers 36

2.3. Radio standards 36

Numerical analysis 37

Millimeter wave research 37

Atomic frequency and time interval standards 37

Radio broadcast service 38

Radio and microwave materials 40

High frequency electrical standards 41

Microwave circuit standards 41

Electronic calibration center 42

Accuracy of a hierarchy of standards 43

2.4. Mechanics 43

Infrasonic waves in the atmosphere 44

Cavitation with ultrasonics 45

• • • ill
2.4. Mechanics—Continued Page Pressure measurement 45

Multiple-anvil apparatus used 45

High-vacuum pressure measurements 45

Acceleration due to gravity 45

Advances in force measurements 46

High-temperature thermocouples 47

Thermocouple reference table 48

Heating tests of a new thermocouple 48

Catalytic reactions on a rare-metal thermocouple 48

Fuel flowrate studies 48

Calibration of aircraft fuel metering accessories 49

Hypervelocity missile in a combustible gas 49

Fatigue strength of aircraft structures 50

Culvert hydraulics 51

2.5. Heat 51

Plasma thermometry 51

High-temperature arc developed 52

Hydrogen and helium studied 52

Nonequilibrium systems investigated 52

Thermodynamic properties of light -element compounds 53

Omniform 54

Theoretical rheology 55

A new simplified approach to the many-body problem 55

Paramagnetic resonance in the free hydroxy! radical 56

Transfer of rotational energy in collision between molecules 57

Precise molecular structures from microwave spectra 57

Free radicals research program 58

Production of trapped radicals 58

Behavior of trapped radicals 58

Reactions involving trapped radicals 59

Primary diesel reference fuel studies 59

2.6. Atomic physics 59

Laboratory astrophysics 60

Transition probabilities 60

Atomic energy levels 61

Collision cross sections 61

Wavelengths as length standards 62

Radiometry 62

Infrared spectroscopy 62

Atomic weight of silver 63

Solid-state physics 63

Studies of rutile 63

Electron scattering 63

Vacuum ultraviolet spectrometer 64

Atomic standards of frequency 65

2.7. Radiation physics 65

Standards 65

Radiation theory 66

Cross sections 66

Multiple scattering 66

Radiation protection 67

X-ray studies 67

Ion-pair production 67

Intercomparison of standards 67

Linear polarization 67

Radioactivity 68

Beta decay 68

Linear electron accelerator 68

High-energy radiation 69

Measurement and standardization 69

Nuclear studies 69

Gamma- and X-ray calibration 70

Dosimetry 71 Neutron physics 71

i
Page

2.8. Chemistry 72 Deposition of high-purity tungsten 72

Tube plating devices 73

Therinochemical properties of boron oxides 73

Radiation-induced chemical reactions 74

Nuclear magnetic resonance studies 74

Isotope effects in tracer studies 74

Barium titanate semiconductors 76

Separation of titanium, zirconium, iron, and aluminum 76

Water-vapor detector 76

Determination of minor elements by X-ray fluorescence 77

Coulometric titrations 77 Primary standards of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium 77 Metal-organic standard samples 78

2.9. Mineral products 79

Crystal growth 79

Elastic properties of oxide single crystals 80

Low-temperature X-ray diffraction 80

Phosphate crystal structures 81

Ferroelectric materials 81 Ion exchange properties of clays 81

Standard glass for measurement of physical properties 82

Interatomic bonding in glasses 82

Thermal radiation of space crafts 83

Infrared studies on inorganic solids 83

Vaporization of refractory substances 84

Mechanisms of elementary reactions 85

Oxidation of niobium 85

2.10. Organic and fibrous materials 86

Measuring the aging of rubber vulcanizates 86

Precision viscoelastometer 86

Analyzing copolymers by combustion 87

Strain-wave propagation in fibers 87

Cellulose analysis 87

Physical properties of paper 88

Pendulum and inertialess paper testers 88

Statistical data interpreted 89

Indoor tester for treadwear of tires 89

Thickness measurements on floor coverings 89

Heat-resistant polymers 89

Low-temperature irradiation of polymers 90

Polymer decomposition 90

Low angle X-ray diffraction of fibrous polyethylene 91

Pyrolysis of polyamides and poly olefins 91

Properties of monolayers of polymers 91

Fluorescence of polymeric materials 91

Noble metal content of dental gold alloys 92

Isomers of zinc oxide and eugenol 92

Tensile properties of dental amalgam alloys 93

2.11. Metallurgy 93

Metal creep investigated 93

Die steels for aircraft components 94

Stress -corrosion research 94

Equipment developed for high -temperature research 94

Diffusion in crystals studied 95

Work with single crystals progresses 96

Stability in gage blocks 96

Important data from fractured titanium specimens 96

Preparation of pure metals 97

Metal crystals grown from their vapor 98

Nuclear magnetic resonance of a tantalum nucleus observed 98

Reversed plastic deformation 98

Mechanical properties determined for metal foils 98

Apparatus for controlled slack quenching 99

Service failures investigated 99

v
Page

2.12. Instrumentation 100

The resistor noise test set 100

Electron devices data service 100

Electrical properties of semiconducting materials 101

Properties of mica essential to electron tube use 101

Electronic scanning microscope 101

Electronics for rubidium vapor frequency standard 102

FOSDIC 102

Hygrometry 103

Telemetering pickups 103

Instrument reference service enlarged 104

2.13. Applied mathematics 104

Combinatorial analysis 104

Eigenvalue theory 105

Matrix theory 105

Approximation theory 105

Numerical experimentation 105

Machine translation 105

Improvement in facilities 106

Digital computation 106

Experiment designs 107

Life testing and reliability 107

Probability and mathematical statistics 108

Mathematical physics 108

2.14. Building research 109

Program of fire research 109

Potential heat of materials in building fires 109

Behavior of model crib fires 110

Flammability standard 110

Underground fallout shelters Ill

Heat pumps Ill

Thermal conductivity of semiconducting materials Ill

Bond between concrete and deformed reinforcing bars Ill

Physical properties of masonry \ . . . 112

Asphalt degradation 112

Aging effects in hydrated cement 112

Magnesium oxysulfates 113

Calcium aluminate complex salts 113

Cement and concrete reference laboratory 113

Cement reference samples 113

Floor friction standards 113

Abrasion resistance of protective coatings 114

Design loads for plumbing systems 114

2.15. Data-Processing systems 115

SEAC and analog computing facilities 115

PILOT data processor 116

Technical assistance for data processing 116

Components and techniques 116

Digital circuitry 117

Digital systems research 118

Special purpose digital computer 118

Data transmission link 118

Fallout predictor 118

Biomedical data processing 119

Computer systems evaluation 119

Analog-digital differential analyzer 119

Automatic mail-sorting developments 119

Mechanization of patent searching 119

Pictorial data processing 120

Research information center 120

Simulation of traffic flow 121

Statistical data-processing installation 121 Communications data processing 121 Additional data -processing applications 121

2.16. Cryogenic engineering 122

Cryogenic engineering data 123

Low-temperature transformations in steels 123

vi
2.16. Cryogenic engineering—Continued Page

Thermal insulation 124

Reactor materials 124

Thermocouples for low-temperature use 124

Cryogenic fluid flow 125

Heat transfer 126

Cryogenic equipment 126

Low-temperature seals 126

Refrigeration processes 127

Physical equilibria 127

Gas liquefaction 128

2.17. Radio propagation 128

Ionosphere research and propagation 128

VLF propagation deduced from lightning discharges 129

F-region scatter in the Far East 129

World maps for the prediction of F2 propagation 129

Polar blackout film 129

New fading-spectrum representation 130

Morphology of the daytime equatorial F2 layer 130

True height of the ionosphere 130

Radio propagation engineering 131

Ground communication systems 131

Long distance propagation studies at 9100 Mc/s 131 Path length for tropospheric scatter circuits 131

Airborne television studies 132

Energy spectrum recorder 133

Radio ray refraction 133

Phase stability 133

Tracing radio rays through model atmospheres 133

Long-term transmission loss data 134

Engineering standards for tropospheric transmission 134

Mobile radio noise recorder 134

Radio systems 135

Arctic communications 135

Disturbed ionospheric propagation 135

Propagation characteristics of ELF and ULF waves 135

Transient propagation at LF and VLF 136

VHF ionospheric scatter 136

Loran-C clock 136

Antenna development 137

Exosphere propagation 137

Consulting and advisory assistance 137

Upper atmosphere and space physics 137

Whistler-mode propagation in thermonuclear plasma 137

Ionization in shock waves 138

Electron density measured directly 138

Electron densities measured to 750 kilometers 138

Ionospheric mapping 139

Equatorial scatter 139

Subvisual red auroral arcs studied 139

Digital recording of meteor bursts 140

Large scale ionospheric irregularities 140

D-region temperature measurements 141

Magneto-ionic ray tracing 141

Solar proton events and polar cap radio blackouts 141

IGY World Data Center A 141

2.18. Weights and measures 142

3. Appendixes 145

3.1. Organization 145

3.2. Statement of NBS mission 150

3.3. Fiscal data on NBS program 153

3.4. Advisory committees 154

3.5. Awards and honors 158

3.6. Education and training program 159

3.7. Cooperative research with industry 161

3.8. List of publications and patents 162

vii

1. GENERAL REVIEW

During the past year the National Bureau of Standards continued efforts

to strengthen its basic research activities in accordance with urgent national

needs. With increased funds provided by the Congress, the Bureau was

able to initiate new or expanded research programs in a number of areas, such as ultra high pressures and plasma physics, that are coming to be recognized as critical to national defense and technological progress. In these frontier areas the Bureau is concerned primarily with advancing

the science of measurement. As new fields of science and technology become active, new standards must be developed, new instrumentation devised,

and appropriate calibration services provided. To keep pace with these

rapidly advancing needs, an imaginative and vigorous research program must

be conducted in most branches of the physical sciences.

The Bureau recognizes that its principal research mission is to provide

the central basis within this country for a complete system of physical meas- urement matched to the dynamic requirements of American sicence and

industry. Within the limits of its budget and facilities, the Bureau has

been making a concentrated effort to meet this challenge.

The Bureau's measurement mission is implicit in the functions assigned it by legislation. Most basic of these functions is the custody, development,

and maintenance of the national standards of physical measurement.

Through a complex chain of calibration extending into the shops of industry,

these very precise standards provide a firm basis for accurate measurement in

the mass production of interchangeable parts, in the development of new

products and devices, in the commercial exchange of goods, and in the determination of scientific quantities.

A second major function, closely related to the standards activity, is the

precise measurement of the properties of matter and materials. The Bureau

determines fundamental physical constants, like the acceleration of gravity,

to provide the accurate values needed by scientists and engineers. It also

develops data on the properties of materials, such as metals and plastics, to afford a sound basis for their use in science and industry.

The background in measurement science provided by the basic work in

standards and properties of materials enables the Bureau to serve the Government and the Nation in a variety of other ways : In devising methods of test- ing materials, in developing specifications for Government purchase, in developing building and safety codes, and in rendering advice on technical

problems to other Federal agencies. These activities are, however, subordinate to the principal research effort, which continually seeks to advance the

science of measurement.

(For statement of NBS mission, see page 150.)

1
Progress on Measurement's Frontiers

When the Bureau was established in 1901, it had custody of two primary

standards of physical measurement—the meter for length and the kilogram for mass. Since that time it has been necessary to provide hundreds of other

standards, together with appropriate measurement methods, in newly opened

areas. Recent developments in some of today's more critical fields of

measurement are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Length. The control of dimensions in mass production industries goes

back to the national standard meter, the distance between two fine lines on

a platinum-iridium bar kept in a vault at the Bureau. For example, the mass production of uniform pistons in the automotive industry depends

initially on calipers and micrometers used in the shop. These instruments

are checked by the company against its master gage blocks, which in turn

are periodically calibrated against standards linked through a measurement

process to the standard meter.

As the mass production industries have advanced, the dimensions of interchangeable parts have become increasingly critical. During World War I tolerances of machined parts accurate to 1 part in 10,000 were extremely

rare. But today there is a pressing need to control the tolerances of many

important and critical elements such as fuel injectors, bearings, gyroscopes,

and transistors to tolerances expressed in hundred-thousandths or even millionths of an inch. The master standards must be even more precise as some

accuracy is lost at each stage of calibration.

This need has caused machine tool manufacturers to request that the

National Bureau of Standards develop procedures for calibrating their

master gage blocks on a regular basis to 1 part in 10 million. The Bureau

had been calibrating master gage blocks to an accuracy of 1 part in 1 million,

that is, to the nearest millionth of an inch for inch-long blocks. Because of

the extreme importance of the work, a number of industrial firms have made

funds available to supplement available appropriations so that the necessary

research can be carried out as soon as possible.

During 1960 significant progress was made in the development both of

highly stable gage blocks and of ultraprecise measuring techniques. Three

types of gage blocks, produced in the Bureau's metallurgy laboratories,

showed dimensional stability considerably greater than that of the best commercial blocks. One type of gage block, nitrided for surface hardness, ex- panded only 0.0000002 inch per inch of its length in a year. Sixteen gage

block materials are now under investigation and have been given a total of

42 different metallurgical treatments.

For the first time in its history, the Bureau certified the accuracy of

length measurements on two commercial gage blocks to better than 1 part

in 5 million. The measurements were made on a 16-inch and an 18-inch

gage block by two independent methods, one of which gave the lengths in terms of wavelengths of light and the other directly in terms of the standard

meter bar. The results agreed to the nearest millionth of an inch or better

2
for both gage blocks. The NBS measurements also agreed within 2 millionths of an inch with independent measurements made by the National

Physical Laboratory in England. Another gage block, 4 inches in length, was certified to one part in 4 million, and this result agreed with the measure- ments of two other national laboratories to 1 millionth of an inch. In another aspect of dimensional measurement, progress was made in

relating the length of the national standard meter to the wavelength of

On October 14, 1960, the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures,

meeting in Paris, adopted the wavelength of Krypton-86 orange light as the new international standard on which all length measurements will be based.

The definition of the meter as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red line

of Kr88 replaces the platinum-iridium meter bar which has been kept in Paris

as an international standard of length since 1889 under the Treaty of the Meter

(pages 4 and 31).

3
orange-red light emitted by the isotope krypton-86. This wavelength has

been proposed for adoption* as the new international standard of length in

place of the international standard meter, which is kept at the International

Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, France. Measurement science

is now moving away from the use of arbitrary prototypes as standards and

toward a dependence on natural atomic constants. These unchanging properties of the atom have the advantages of being reproducible in the laboratory

at any time. Their use as standards can thus release science from dependence upon the characteristics of a particular object that might be

destroyed or slowly change in value.

Attempts to define the meter in terms of an unchanging property have

been under way for many years. Krypton-86 lamps can furnish standards

which should be reproducible to 1 part in 100 million—a significant improvement over the precision that can be obtained with the meter bar.

However, to keep the standardizing laboratories of the various countries well

ahead of the requirements of science and technology, the development of

more precise standards must continue. At the same time, the problems

involved in utilizing this greater precision in the calibration of material

standards must be solved. The Bureau is therefore continuing to conduct

research on the development of better wavelength standards for use in length

measurement. This work has produced three devices using mercury atoms

which provide extremely narrow spectral lines—about one-tenth as wide as is given by the proposed krypton-86 standard. At some future time these narrow lines could make possible very precise standards of length based on

wavelengths of mercury radiation.

Force. Force measurements are widely used in industrial fields such as weighing, materials testing, and automatic control of equipment. Today

there is a need for precisely measuring larger forces than ever before.

Especially urgent is the need for determining the thrust of the more powerful

rocket engines now being developed. It has been estimated that by increasing the accuracy of large force measurements, millions of dollars now being

spent for experimental firings of rocket engines could be saved.

As a step toward this goal, the basic designs were completed during the

year for dead-weight force measuring machines of 300,000- and 1,000,000-lb

capacity to be installed at the Bureau's new site at Gaithersburg, Md.

These machines will be used to calibrate force-measuring devices that are

used, in turn, to calibrate other devices and machines for measuring and

applying large forces. Their large capacities should greatly accelerate the

extension of modern force-measuring methods. Designed to provide accuracies better than 0.01 percent, they will not only make possible the direct

calibration of most existing force measuring devices, but they will also make

it possible to develop new and improved portable secondary standards which

are greatly needed as working standards in other laboratories.

Pressure. The use of very high pressures offers great promise as a means

of developing materials to meet severe requirements in military and in- Kr80 wavelength was adopted on October 14, 1960, see photograph on page 3. 4
dustrial applications. For example, high pressures cause chemical changes

that form new compounds such as polyethylene and boron nitride, and

crystalline changes such as occur when graphite is changed to diamond, or

quartz to Coesite. Tungsten carbide more than doubles in strength when

subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 400,000 pounds per square inch.

However, these high pressures cannot be utilized effectively without a welldefined scale of pressure, standard measurement methods, and precise data on properties of materials at various regions on the pressure scale. In 1960

a special program was therefore begun to develop standards, measurement

techniques, and data on properties in the very-high-pressure field. Improvements have already been made in both accuracy and range of

pressures covered. New equipment is now in operation for developing ultra- high pressures. With this equipment it has been possible to reach pressures

as high as 2 million lb/in. 2 It is now being used in exploratory studies of

reactions which take place at high pressures and which may serve as calibration points on the pressure scale. The first of such reactions has been the

conversion of graphite to diamond. This reaction demonstrated that it is possible to heat a sample to 1,500 °C while a pressure of over 1 million

lb/in. 2 is being applied.

As part of the general program in pressure measurements, a Vacuum

Standards Laboratory has been set up to concentrate on developing standards

for extremely low pressures. The program will include a study aimed at the generation of more reproducible pressures in this range to serve as fixed

points. Efforts will also be made to effect necessary improvement in ac- curacy of vacuum measurements by different organizations and scientific

workers.

High-vacuum pressures correspond to the pressures encountered many

miles above the earth's surface, and there is a growing need for precise

measurement in this pressure range. Improved measurement of extremely

low pressures also is needed in investigating adsorption phenomena and

other surface properties of materials, as well as in operating equipment such

as particle accelerators used in studies of nuclear reactions.

Temperature. Another vital measurement frontier is that of temperature,

especially the extremes of temperature. Recent requirements for hightemperature materials, high speeds and frictions, and increased propulsion

efficiencies have placed a premium on the upward extension of the temperature scale and temperature measuring techniques.

Present-day research requires instrumentation for making careful laboratory and field experiments to test high-heat systems under operating conditions. Under controlled laboratory conditions high-temperature measure- ments can be made up to about 4,000 °C, with an uncertainty of about 40

degrees at the top of the range; at 15,000 °C, this measurement uncertainty

has increased to about 1,000 degrees. Yet today scientists are discussing

million degree temperatures and the possibility of controlled fusion furnaces.

At the other end of the temperature scale there is a similar measurement

challenge. Within 4 degrees of absolute zero, there lie the vast field of

5
cryogenic (extremely low-temperature) research and new prospects of lowtemperature production processes; yet there are no fully adequate reference

points in this segment of the temperature scale. The Bureau is making vigorous efforts to extend its temperature measure- ment capabilities in both directions on the temperature scale, particularly

into the extreme high-temperature region. Recent advances include the

development of a photoelectric optical pyrometer which greatly reduces the

human element in calibrations up to 4,000 °C, and the design of a special

type of high-temperature resistance thermometer having a precision 10 times

greater than previous instruments for calibration in the 630 to 1063 °C range.

A great deal of research has been done to produce a high-temperature source

that will be both stable and reproducible. This work has resulted in a high-current density arc with a number of new features, which operates in

the region from 10,000 to 20,000 °C ; this arc has been tested up to 15,000 °C,

and appears promising as a standard, optically thin, high-temperature source. Temperatures in the arc are being determined by measuring the intensity

and shape of the spectral lines it produces.

The low-temperature research program has been expanded in an effort to provide high-precision thermometry in the range from 90 down to 20 0 Kelvin

( — 183 to — 253 °C) and to develop a calibration service for secondary thermometers from 20 down to 2 °K. At present the International Temperature

Scale does not go below 90 °K. However, development of precise, repro

ducible measuring techniques should make it possible to extend the International Temperature Scale down to these lower temperatures.

Radio and Electronics. Electronics is now the fifth largest industry in

this country. It has been predicted that it will step into first place within

10 years. With this rapid growth has come the problem of accurately

measuring the basic radio and electronic quantities so as to insure the unfailing performance of an ever-increasing variety of components and equipment.

Such fields as space exploration, automation, and miniaturization are subjecting electronic equipment to new and complex uses as well as extreme

environments. In these applications the need for accuracy on the production

line becomes increasingly important. In the missile field, for example, it

is estimated that reliability above 90 percent can be achieved only if each

component has not more than a l-to-1,000 probability of failure. To produce

components having the necessary uniformity and accuracy requires a chain

of calibration leading from the assembly line back ultimately to the precise

electrical standards maintained by the National Bureau of Standards.

In an effort to meet these measurement needs, the NBS Radio Standards

Laboratory at Boulder, Colo., has been expanding its calibration services

and its research program on radio standards. In so far as possible, it is seeking to provide the improved standards and measurement methods that are needed for all radiofrequency and microwave quantities.

At the present time, standards are being established and improved measure-
ment techniques developed for frequency, power, attenuation, voltage, impedance, noise, field strength, interference, conductivity, and magnetics.

During the year, for example, a microvolt console was completed for cali- brating voltage generators in the high-frequency region, a portable lowfrequency antenna calibration system for field use was designed and constructed, calibration systems for four additional waveguide sizes were made

ready, instrumentation for impedance measurement in the X-band was completed, sensitive techniques were devised to measure reflections and losses of

waveguide joints and connectors, and a microwave noise standard having an

accuracy of 0.01 decibel was developed.

For several years the Bureau has been carrying on an intensive research

program to establish atomic standards for frequency and time measurement.

Based on an unchanging property of the atom, such standards would have

significant advantages over the present standard, a specific period of the

earth's revolution about the sun. During the past year, two cesium beam

atomic standards for frequency and time interval measurement were put

into operation, making it possible to refer the national standard of frequency

to an atomic resonance with an accuracy better than 2 parts in 100 billion.

The standard radiofrequencies broadcast by the Bureau are monitored with

reference to this standard.

Work also progressed on a special atomic frequency standard for use in a

satellite flight to check the gravity-dependent frequency shift predicted by

Einstein's general theory of relativity. A prototype standard using the

atoms in rubidium vapor was constructed and found to be stable to 1 part

in 100 billion over a period of a month. Ultimately it will be miniaturized

to a volume of about 1 cubic foot for use in the satellite. Exposure to radiation corresponding to that in the Van Allen radiation belts produced no

observable change in measurement accuracy.

Many defense agencies engaged in weaponry development have reached

a point where their timing and frequency calibration requirements far ex- ceed the accuracies that can be provided by the Bureau's short-wave radio

stations, WWV at Beltsville, Md., and WWVH on Maui, Hawaii. Signals

from these stations are propagated by alternate reflections between the earth

and inosphere (the electrically charged layers of the upper atmosphere) to reach the receiver. As transmitted, they are accurate to better than 1 part

in 100 million; but the height and density of the ionosphere change constantly, and this creates small, erratic changes in the frequencies as they are

received. Errors introduced by these changes were insignificant 10 years

ago ; today they are very important in such areas as the tracking of missiles

and satellites. To provide greater accuracy in the received signal, the Bureau began

experimental broadcasts of a standard radiofrequency at the very low fre- quency of 20 kilocycles from a new station near Boulder, Colo. This station

has the call letters WWVL. At this frequency radio waves follow the curvature of the earth, with the ionosphere and the ground acting as upper and

7
lower limits of a gigantic duct to guide the signals over the globe. The

new station supplements earlier experimental broadcasts at 60 kilocycles;

both broadcasts are intended to provide much more stable transmissions

than are possible from WV or WWVH.

Radiation. In recent years the invention and development of high-energy

electron accelerators have extended the frontier of available X-rays to the

region of thousands of millions of electron volts. The unique properties

of these high-energy X-rays have made them extremely useful not only in nuclear physics but in radiation therapy and industrial radiography. At

present many new fields of technology are being opened up by the availability

of intense electron beams which are also produced by the accelerators. In- dustry has already begun to use such beams to sterilize pharmaceuticals and

food, polymerize plastics, and vulcanize rubber.

Safe and effective application of the new high-energy radiations requires

the development of basic data on the radiations and the provision of precise

standards, measurement techniques, and calibration procedures. Research

conducted during the year made significant progress in this general field. For example, the technology of absorbed dose measurements was improved

by the development of a dose calorimeter having increased stability and sensitivity. A portable instrument standard for measuring the absolute intensities

of X-rays up to 180 million electron volts was calibrated by the standard

intensity calorimeter and this calibration was in turn transferred to portable

instruments in four European laboratories. An electron spin resonance detector was developed for the measurement of magnetic fields that vary with

space and time as in an accelerator. This detector can measure a 3,000-

gauss magnetic field to an accuracy of 1 part in 1,000.

To keep pace with the new fields opened up by the availability of intense

electron beams, a new high-intensity accelerator was designed for the

Bureau's Gaithersburg site. This accelerator will produce one of the world's

most intense electron beams, with energies continuously variable from 10 to 100 million electron volts. Its power output—about 40,000 watts—will be

about 100,000 times that now obtained in this energy range at the Bureau.

The resultant increase in intensity will make it possible for the Bureau to enter new areas in nuclear and atomic physics, and through such studies to develop standards, measuring techniques, and shielding requirements for

the high dose rates now being applied in industry and the armed services.

Fundamental Constants Measured

For some time a program has been under way to obtain more accurate

values for basic constants* such as the velocity of light, the acceleration of

gravity, and the various atomic constants. These constants of nature, when

determined to extremely high accuracy, provide invariant bases for the re- production of standards of many physical quantities such as length, time,

and electric current. They thus serve to lock present standards and units of

physical measurement into the phenomena of science.

8
The Bureau is engaged in a series of measurements aimed at providing an

improved value for the acceleration of gravity. This value is fundamental to almost every relationship in the field of mechanics. It is one of the constants

which determine the standards for the volt and the ampere, and it directly

affects the standards of temperature (pages 8 and 45).

An achievement of the program during the past year was the determination

of an improved value for the faraday by a new experimental process. The

increased accuracy afforded by this determination is of major importance

in both physics and chemistry, where the faraday enters into the determination of other fundamental constants. To obtain the faraday, the electrochemical equivalent of silver was first determined by measuring the mass dissolved by one coulomb of electricity.

This quantity, together with the atomic weight of the silver used in the ex- periments, gave the new value of the faraday: 96516.5±2.1 coulombs on

the physical scale. In connection with the work on the faraday, a new value of the atomic

weight of silver was determined with the cooperation of the Atomic Energy

Commission. The new value (107.8731 ±0.0020 on the chemical scale and

569432 O—60 2 9
107.9028±0.0013 on the physical scale) results directly from a highly

accurate evaluation of the absolute abundance ratio of silver using the

techniques of mass spectrometry. The atomic weight of silver plays a key

role in determining atomic weights of other elements. It also plays an important part in the assignment of values to other fundamental constants

such as Avogadro's number and the gas constant.

Plasma Physics and Astrophysics

One of the most rapidly developing fields of physics deals with an ionized

gas, often at high temperature and departing from local thermodynamic

equilibrium. The nature and behavior of such a gas is still very poorly

understood. Yet, many branches of technology in which there is growing

interest—such as thermonuclear power, space physics, hypersonic aerodynamics, and ionospheric physics—have in common a dependence upon the

solution of problems in this general field. At present, many of the laboratories attempting to apply plasma physics

to practical objectives are forced to rely on costly and inefficient empirical

methods for lack of precise measurement techniques and basic data on the

fundamental properties of this gaseous medium. To help solve this problem, the Bureau began a special research program to unify and strengthen

its work in plasma physics and astrophysics. In this program it will attempt

to develop the necessary measurement standards, basic data, theoretical

guidance, and interpretive techniques for determining the relevant properties

of hot gases and for the solution of pressing problems in modern astro- physics. Many long-standing Bureau programs are contributing, such as atomic spectroscopy, ionospheric and solar physics, and high-temperature

physics. The program will draw upon such fields as gaseous electronics,

astrophysics, atomic physics, microwave physics, spectroscopy, statistical

mechanics, chemical physics, and hydrodynamics.

The most pressing demand for these Bureau services arises in the space

sciences, where the coming of satellite-borne observatories promises to place

enormously increased demands upon basic data for interpreting astronomical

observations. New problems will result from the opening of the vacuum

ultraviolet region of the spectrum to the earth-bound observer, since this

spectrum arises from stellar regions that are likely not to be in local equilibrium. To cope with these problems, a greatly expanded effort in atomic

and high-temperature physics and in modern fluid mechanics is required.

Emphasizing the importance of this program to the national space effort,

the Space Science Board of the1 National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council transmitted the following resolution to the Secretary of

Commerce:

"The Board foresees that a strong limitation to progress in physical interpretation

of experiments and observations of the terrestrial, planetary, solar and stellar atmos- pheres is the lack of sufficient understanding of basic physics of atoms and molecules

in the environment which they encounter in these atmospheres. The Board feels that

10
basic work on atomic cross sections, reaction rates and interaction with radiation

fields both individually and cooperatively should be encouraged wherever interest

exists or may be stimulated. "The Board is aware of the excellent work in various such aspects of laboratory and

theoretical astrophysics done by groups at the National Bureau of Standards, and, as a supplement to the above, believes that the Government should recognize in a formal

way this potential in a federal laboratory for a coordinated and relatively comprehensive approach to these problems which are so important to space science." To meet these needs, a number of new programs were initiated during the

year. Theoretical and experimental research programs to measure transition probabilities were started at the Washington laboratories. The first phase of this work will utilize high-current wall-stabilized arcs. In the near

future the research will be extended into the higher temperature range

through use of electromagnetic shock tubes, and attempts will be made to measure atomic lifetimes directly. This program is closely coordinated

with an expanded research effort in plasma thermometry. Objectives of

this effort are to develop stable plasma sources, to investigate the accuracy

of methods of determining plasma temperatures, and to study the characteristics of plasmas that are not in local thermodynamic equilibrium.

New research programs were also started in the field of low-energy atomic

collision cross sections. Crossed-beam methods are being developed for the

determination of collision cross sections between electrons and atoms and

between electrons and ions. Studies of the photoionization of negative ions

are being extended into the ultraviolet, and work on the photoionization of

atoms and molecules is being planned.

In an attempt to make fundamental data on the properties of the atomic

constituents of hot gases more readily available, the Bureau is collaborating

with the Office of Naval Research in the establishment of a center to collate

and publish critical compilations of data on transition probabilities and lowenergy atomic collision cross sections. The initial effort will be devoted

primarily to transition probabilities. In the analysis of atomic spectra, considerable progress has been made

on the very complex spectrum of thorium, of which 15,000 spectral lines have

been observed and their wavelengths measured with a precision of about

two parts per million. Other rare earth elements on which work has been

started include ytterbium, cerium, praseodymium, and thulium. Plans have

been made to expand research in vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy, greatly

needed for interpretation of new rocket spectra of the sun. An important contribution has been made to the diagnostics of highdensity plasmas. Physicists studying thermonuclear plasmas have been

handicapped by their inability to use conventional microwave probe methods

to determine extremely high electron densities in plasmas. Using the British

thermonuclear machine Zeta, a group of scientists from the Boulder Laboratories successfully demonstrated a method that permits accurate determination of the internal magnetic field and gives promise of accurate determinations of both electron density and electron temperature in extremely dense

plasmas. This line of research is being extended at the Boulder Labora11
tories, where additional studies have been stimulated by problems in the

physics of the exosphere of the earth and solar corona, and by fundamental

studies of the interaction of radio waves with matter in the plasma state.

Finally, a small group of theoretical astrophysicists in Boulder are working in collaboration with astrophysicists of other institutions in the interpretation of astronomical observations obtained with rockets and satellites. In

this work they are using new methods developed for the treatment of energy

transfer problems in nonequilibrium plasmas.

New Developments in Materials

The discovery of a series of materials that show simultaneously both ferroelectric and ferrimagnetic properties aroused considerable industrial interest. Ferroelectric materials have electrical properties analogous to the

magnetic poperties of ferromagnetic materials such as iron and nickel. Ferrimagnetic materials are magnetic materials that cannot be magnetized as strongly as the more common ferromagnetic materials.

Ceramics with magnetic properties have been known for a long time, but

until now none has been found to show both ferroelectric and magnetic

properties at the same time. As the two properties seem to be mutually

dependent in the composition studied, these materials should find application in new electronic components where a coupling between dielectric and

magnetic effects is desirable or where a magnetic material having a high

dielectric constant would be useful.

Research is currently under way to provide quantitative data on the physical properties of these unusual materials. This work will be extended to modify the compositions further by crystallographic substitutions.

A great deal of interest was also shown in a vapor deposition process for

plating high-purity tungsten on metal surfaces, which was developed for the

Navy. The method involves reducing gaseous tungsten hexafluoride with

hydrogen by passing it over the heated object to be plated.

Tungsten is one of the few metals that possess structural strength at temperatures above 2,000 °C. However, until recently the high-temperature properties of tungsten could not be effectively utilized. Its brittleness

and hardness prevented it from being machined by conventional methods

while its weight restricted its use in aeronautical equipment.

With the vapor deposition method, it is now possible to coat numerous

simple and complex surfaces for high-temperature use as in rocket and missile nozzles and jet engine parts. The technique also lends itself to the

fabrication of tungsten articles; simple tungsten shapes for use in vacuum

tubes have already been fabricated in this way.

Under the sponsorship of the Department of Defense, a program has been

undertaken to obtain high-temperature thermodynamic data on the light

elements—lithium, magnesium, aluminum, and beryllium—and their compounds. These data are essential for the prediction of chemical reactions at high temperatures and for a systematic evaluation of prospective high-energy

12
solid propellants for rockets. The light elements are of particular value for

rocket fuels because they generate large amounts of power per unit weight

and lose relatively little power through exhaust products. For several as- pects of the program special equipment has been devised for measurements

under unusual conditions. The basic data obtained in this work, combined

when necessary with data from other laboratories, are most useful in the

form of tables of the fundamental thermodynamic properties up to high

temperatures. New tables of this kind have now been machine-computed for over 100 substances.

Within the past 10 years radio and microwave technology has been

greatly stimulated by the introduction of new semiconducting, magnetic, and

dielectric materials. However, the application of these materials is still

limited by a lack of knowledge concerning the relation between properties on

the one hand and structure and composition on the other. During the past

year notable advances were made in this area through development of techniques and instruments for highly accurate characterization, analysis, and

evaluation of such materials. These developments included, for example,

apparatus for determining complex tensor permeability as a function of

frequency, a magnetometer for measuring spontaneous or saturation magnetization, a method for measuring extremely high dielectric constants, a technique that permits low-loss magnetic measurements, and a technique for

making complex conductivity measurements without applying electrodes to the material.

At present the most critical problems in the field of materials are those of

developing materials of ultra high purity in sufficient quantity and with sufficient control to further research and development and, in a number of

cases, to satisfy production requirements. Such pure substances can be

basic tools both for understanding materials and for engineering materials

of such precisely known properties that their performance under specified

conditions can be reliably predicted.

Recognizing the need for a national program on high-purity materials, the

Bureau initiated an expanded program in this field during fiscal 1960. Thus

far emphasis has been placed on the preparation of high-purity materials.

Much work must be done to characterize such materials precisely and to determine their fundamental properties.

Radio Propagation Research

Within the Federal Government the Bureau's Central Radio Propagation

Laboratory has been given the primary responsibility for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information on the propagation of radio waves at all frequencies along the surface of the earth, through the atmosphere, and in

outer space. To carry out this responsibility, it conducts research on the nature of the waves, the media through which they are transmitted, and the

interaction of the waves with the media.

13
In studying the effects of the upper atmosphere on radio propagation,

CRPL has been concerned with such phenomena as the aurora borealis or "northern lights" observed in upper and middle latitudes. The aurora takes on a variety of aspects: Sometimes it is a faintly luminous streak or arch;

at other times it consists of bright streamers. Recent studies have dealt with

subvisible red auroral arcs which are oriented along magnetic parallels of

latitude and seem to constitute an equatorial fringe to auroras in general.

The satellite Explorer VII crossed over one of these arcs several times during the night of November 27-28, 1959 at heights between 500 and 600 miles.

As it passed over the arc there was a marked increase in the rate at which

high-energy particles entered the satellite from the outer Van Allen radiation

zone. Correlations of this type have produced the most direct evidence so far

obtained that auroras are caused by the "dumping" of energetic particles

from the outer Van Allen zone into the upper atmosphere.

In work on radio communication systems, a means for synchronizing and

setting widely separated clocks to a relative accuracy of a millionth of a second was developed during the year. Long sought as an aid to science,

this system offers promise for improving the accuracy of guided missiles

and space rockets and the quality of data returned to tracking stations from

satellites. The timing system should also be of value in the positioning of

high-altitude aircraft from the ground; the location of thunderstorms by

precisely locating the lightning discharge; the position-fixing of nuclear

detonations; and evaluating the periodicity of the earth's rotation.

Data Processing and Applied Mathematics

Data processing is another field in which the Bureau has been assigned

primary responsibility within the Federal Government. Here the Bureau

serves both as a central research and development agency and as a readily

available source of technical information for other government agencies.

The advisory services strengthen the basic program, which ranges from

research in components and systems to advanced work in new computer

applications.

During the year work continued on the Pilot Data Processor, a multipurpose computer network designed for use as a highly flexible research tool. Engineering design of the system was completed and considerable progress was made in actual construction. PILOT's principal use will be in investigating new and unusual data processing problems that occur in government

operations.

Several special-purpose devices were developed to meet the needs of government agencies. For example, a transportable analog computer that predicts

radioactive fallout for a selected locality in about 5 seconds was designed

and constructed for the Army Signal Corps. This computer can also fore- cast winds and the distribution of radioactivity within the cloud.

Another development of this kind was AMOS IV, a digital computer designed for the Weather Bureau. AMOS IV is to be used as the central

14
element of an automatic weather station that will collect and reduce weather

data prior to transmission. In applied mathematics research, special attention was given to the selection and development of numerical methods for solving problems on computing machinery. A wide range of applications in business management

and operation, as well as in engineering and the physical sciences, was considered. Significant progress was made in exploring the utility of modern

digital computers in the mechanical translation of scientific literature.

Calibration, Testing, and Standard Samples

The demand for improved calibration services based on new or more

accurate measurement standards continued to grow during the year. Calibration needs were most evident in electronics, but requests for greater ac- curacy and wider range of measurement were received in virtually all fields

of measurement.

The Bureau has been attempting to meet the present critical situation

in three ways: (1) By enlarging and strengthening its own calibration services program, (2) by encouraging industry to undertake improved calibration services within particular areas, and (3) by developing greater co- operation between government and industry in defining and attacking the

most important of these problems.

In the military agencies systems of laboratories were organized to help

meet their rapidly expanding needs for calibration services. These systems

are set up in such a way that the Bureau provides calibration services for a

small number of reference standards laboratories which in turn perform cali- brations for a great many lower-echelon laboratories. Similarly, some of

the large industrial firms have established corporate standards laboratories

which serve as intermediaries between the Bureau and the laboratories of

various plants within the firm.

Close working relationships were maintained with the military agencies

by means of a Joint Army-Navy-Air Force Conference on Standards and

several regional conferences dealing with specific problems of the agencies

and their contractors. As an additional means of improving communications with those who use

the Bureau's services, the Department of Commerce authorized two new

advisory committees—one on Engineering and Related Standards, the other on Calibration and Measurement Services. Unlike the Bureau's other advisory committees, which deal with specific technical areas, these committees

will be concerned with the Bureau's entire operations within their respective

scopes.

The nature and scope of the activity in calibration, testing, and standard

samples are shown for fiscal year 1960 in tables 1, 2, and 3, respectively. A

total of 141,930 calibrations and tests were performed for government and

industry. In addition, 81,614 individual samples of certified standard

materials were issued, representing an increase of 18,179 over the previous

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1930 1940 1950 I960

FISCAL YEAR

The rapid growth in the Bureau's electrical calibration load is reflected in this graph showing the rise in the number of standard cells calibrated yearly.

These cells, which serve as standards of electromotive force in other laboratories are tested by comparison with a group of primary reference standards

maintained by the Bureau.

Cooperative Activities

The Bureau cooperates extensively with Federal, State, and local governments; with national professional societies and standardizing bodies; and

with many international groups. In this way the results of Bureau research

are brought to bear on many current problems of science and industry,

particularly those relating to measurement standards, building and safety

codes, engineering and purchase specifications, and test methods.

Cooperation with other Federal agencies ranges from the supplying of

technical information upon request to long-range projects undertaken

through various scientific and technical committees. An important example

of interagency cooperation is the development of government specifications

and test methods. During the year at the request of the General Services

Administration, the Bureau accepted responsibility for developing and maintaining 8 additional Federal Specifications, making a total of 158 for which

it now has this responsibility. The Bureau also reviewed approximately 385

proposed specifications both for GSA and for other agencies to determine

their suitability for use by the Federal Government.

Cooperation with State and municipal governments is principally in the

field of weights and measures. Although the Bureau itself does not have

19
regulatory powers, it offers technical advice and consultation to local regulatory bodies and it calibrates and adjusts State standards of weights and

measures. A major medium of cooperation is the National Conference on

Weights and Measures. Thirty-six States and the District of Columbia were

officially represented at the 45th annual meeting of this Conference, held in

Washington, D.C., June 6-10, under NBS sponsorship.

On June 8, in a ceremony at the Department of Commerce auditorium,

Secretary of Commerce Federick H. Mueller presented the new State of

Hawaii with standards of the fundamental units involved in commercial

exchange. Basic studies of materials and design were completed during the

year in work directed toward more accurate, constant, and durable standards

for the States. Through the participation of Bureau staff members in the work of professional societies and national standardizing bodies, the Bureau plays an active

role in the development of test methods and criteria, in the application of

scientific discoveries, and in fundamental research programs of a national

nature. During the past year Bureau staff members held 1,133 committee

memberships in 137 national groups such as the American Society for Test- ing Materials, the American Standards Association, American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Institute of Radio Engineers, and Instrument Society of America. In many of these groups NBS

staff members work with universities, research foundations, other government

agencies, and industry to improve engineering standards, purchase specifications, and building and safety codes.

Other means of Bureau-industry cooperation include the Research Asso

ciate Plan and the donor program. Under the Research Associate Plan,

technical, industrial, and commercial organizations can support work at the

Bureau that is of special interest to them, yet of sufficient general interest to

justify use of government facilities. The work is done by research associates

who are paid by the sponsor but otherwise function as members of the

Bureau staff. At the present time 11 groups are supporting research associates at the Bureau (appendix 3.7)

The donor program was authorized in 1950 by Public Law 619 under

which the Bureau may accept funds for the purpose of furthering its work.

This arrangement permits individuals as well as technical, industrial, and

commercial organizations to support work at the Bureau when the results are expected to be of value to the general public. During the past year, 11

projects were supported by gifts from 10 organizations (p. 162).

On an international basis, the Bureau represents the interests of the Government and American science in matters dealing with the establishment and

maintenance of standards of measurement and establishment of values for

scientific constants. Most of this work is done through participation in a

large number of international groups such as the International Union of

Pure and Applied Chemistry, the International Union of Pure and Applied

Physics, the International Scientific Radio Union, and the International

Commission on Illumination. The Bureau participates through the Ameri20
can Standards Association in the work of the International Organization for

Standardization on specifications and methods of test of industrial products.

Approximately 80 staff members attended meetings of international societies

during the fiscal year.

Another aspect of international cooperation involves a program whereby

scientists or diplomatic representatives from other countries are accepted at

the Bureau as guest workers or visitors. Approximately 1,000 foreign scientists and technicians, representing 51 countries, visited the Bureau during

the year. Forty-one of these visitors were specialists who came as guest

workers to spend from 1 to 12 months in cooperative research in such fields

as radio propagation, free radicals, mathematics, and dental materials.

Nineteen were trainees who were being prepared for leadership in the national laboratories of their own countries.

Administrative Activities

Redefinition of mission and adjustments in program emphasis were given

more than ordinary attention during the past year. This was part of the

Bureau's concentrated effort to meet the burgeoning needs of modern technology, particularly in the vast and diversified field of physical measurement. A statement of the Bureau's mission is given in appendix 3.2. Program adjustments were reflected in organizational changes which af- fected all but four of the technical divisions. In the Washington laboratories, most of the organizational changes occurred in connection with the

splitting of two divisions into four new divisions. The Atomic and Radiation Physics Division was divided along the lines of its two major program

areas into the Radiation Physics Division and the Atomic Physics Division.

Similarly, the Electricity and Electronics Division was changed to the

Electricity Division, while its electronics sections became the nucleus of a new division, Instrumentation. The Mechanical Instruments Section from

the Mechanics Division and the Office of Basic Instrumentation were also

transferred to the new Instrumentation Division. At the same time, the

Optics and Metrology Division was retitled the Metrology Division and ac- quired the Mass and Scale Section and the Volume and Densimetry Section

from the Mechanics Division.

At the Boulder Laboratories, the major reorganization consisted of a re- arrangement of the three divisions of the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory. The four resulting divisions are Ionosphere Research and Propagation, Radio Propagation Engineering, Radio Systems, and Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics. In addition, several programs previously in the

Boulder Director's Office were reassigned to the Radio Standards Division.

At the close of the year reorganization action had been completed in all areas of major change except the chemistry programs, which were still under consideration. In connection with the changes and to fill vacancies

created by retirements, eight new division chiefs were appointed during the

year. The organization as of September 1, 1960, is given in appendix 3.1.

21
With the diversity of its program increasing, the Bureau's staff increased

by about 200. The total complement was about 3,636 at the end of the year.

Almost one-third of these were employees of Boulder Laboratories and nearly

all of the remainder were in Washington.

Funds obligated during the year totaled $37,087,000, including $748,000

for facilities. Of this total $17,138,000 came from direct appropriations for

Research and Technical Services and $19,201,000 from other Federal

agencies and private sources. The National Bureau of Standards, along with other scientific activities of

the Department, was given a comprehensive evaluation by the Special Advisory Committee of the National Academy of Sciences appointed in 1958

at the request of the Secretary of Commerce. The Committee's report,

released in April 1960, said in part:

"The Bureau of Standards is well administered. The Director and his staff have done

an outstanding job of managing the limited resources in manpower and facilities to achieve a high level of effectiveness. The staff is of excellent scientific and engineering

quality. Within the framework of Government employment and compensation policies

and practices, a remarkable job of recruitment and building of staff through educational programs and other means has been done.

"The development of accurate methods of physical measurement and of standards

is of large importance to the commerce and industry of our country. Their needs

for standards should be fully met * * *. Within its resources, the Bureau's per- formance of its measurement standards function is excellent."

Near the end of the year Dr. Paul D. Foote was appointed by the National

Academy of Sciences as coordinator of the NAS-NRC Technical Advisory

Panels for the Bureau. Formerly Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering, Dr. Foote will strengthen and extend the role of

the Advisory Panels, which are appointed by NAS in cooperation with the

scientific and technical societies to advise the Bureau in specific technical

areas. A complete list of these panels is given in appendix 3.4. Progress continued during the year on the complex job of designing new

laboratories to be located at Gaithersburg, Md. Plans for the new NBS

"campus" provide for 20 buildings to house the Bureau's present programs.

The total cost of the new laboratories, new equipment, and moving of present

equipment is expected to be about $95 million. For the Fiscal Year 1961

Congress has appropriated $23.5 million to begin construction and site development. The buildings first to receive attention will be the Engineering

Mechanics and Radiation Physics Laboratories together with the Power

Plant. These involve installation of large equipments in specially designed

structures and they are given priority because of urgent needs for expansion

of research programs for which they are designed.

Progress continued also on the planning of a research reactor to be located

at the Gaithersburg site. Detailed engineering and architectural design will

be undertaken under a special appropriation provided for fiscal year 1961.

At the Boulder Laboratories, a major increase in facilities was under way

in the design of a sixth wing for the main laboratory building.

22

Publications

Publications are the main channel through which the results of Bureau

research are distributed to the scientific and technological community. Even

when the work is developmental in nature—for example, the design of a

specific instrument—the activity will culminate in a report, and it is the

report which will often prove of most value to Government, science, and industry.

Among the major NBS publications of the past year were two volumes

of Tables of Wavenumber (Monograph 3) —Volume I, 2000 A to 7000 A and

Volume II, 7000 A to 1000 fi. Wavenumbers are useful in analysis of the

light emitted from excited atoms. Such analysis is used to study atomic

energy levels and electron configurations for individual atoms and ions.

Monograph 13, Mechanical Properties of Materials at Low Temperatures—a Compilation from the Literature also appeared. This compilation should

help meet the present urgent demands for engineering data in the field of low

temperature construction.

Another publication of interest was Stabilization of Free Radicals at Low

Temperatures—Summary of the NBS Program. This document (Monograph 12) reviews the accomplishments of the Bureau's three-year program

in free radicals research which terminated during the year.

In addition to the printed review of the free radicals program, the Bureau produced a 16-mm sound, color motion picture titled, "Trapping of

Free Radicals at Low Temperatures." The picture shows in detail the performance of an experiment in the trapping and storing of free radicals at temperatures within a few degrees of absolute zero by a special process developed at the Bureau. Among the interesting features of the film are the

brilliant color views of the glows and flashes emanating from free radicals

trapped in a solid matrix of frozen gas. Also, there is a sequence showing

the handling of liquid helium—the coldest substance known to man. "Trapping of Free Radicals at Low Temperatures" is available for loan or sale

from the Bureau's Office of Technical Information.

During the year, the Bureau's reports and publications totaled 1,228, ex- clusive of calibration and test reports and of general administrative documents. Some 402 classified and unclassified reports were issued to other

government agencies, while 926 papers and documents were published

formally.

Of the formal publications, 174 were published in the Journal of Research,

and 554 in the journals of professional, engineering, and trade organizations,

There were 121 summary articles published in the Bureau's monthly Technical News Bulletin. Seventy-seven papers were published in the nonperiodical series of publications: 16 in the Monograph series, 2 in the Applied

Mathematics series, 3 in the Handbook series, 3 in the Circular series, 3 in the

Miscellaneous Publications series, and 50 in the Technical Note series.

The other monthly Bureau publication, Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, which is published for a 1-month period 3 months in advance, pre24
sented radio propagation data needed in determining the best frequencies to use in long-range radio communications.

A list of publications for the fiscal year is given in the appendix, section

3.8 (p. 162).

During the year the Bureau participated in 24 scientific and technological

exhibitions with exhibits depicting the Bureau's research programs. Typical

of these shows were the Instrument-Automation Exhibit of the Instrument

Society of America, the Exhibit of Testing and Scientific Apparatus and

Laboratory Supplies of the American Society for Testing Materials, and

the Southwestern Metals Exposition. The Bureau's motion picture program

continued to be active. There were 790 showings of NBS films to a total audience of 256,747, including educational TV.

2. HIGHLIGHTS OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAM

The Bureau's technical program is carried out through organizational

units called divisions. These are shown in appendix 3.1. A review of selected research and development programs is presented in this section under

headings corresponding generally to these organizational units.

2.1. METROLOGY

To establish, maintain, and disseminate standards of length, mass, volume,

light, and color, the Bureau's metrology laboratories carry on a diversified

program of research. Studies are made to improve uniformity in the color

of fluorescent lamps, and in the brightness of television tubes; instruments

are designed to obtain thermodynamic and astronomical data; and new

standards are developed for volumetric, density, and fluid capacity measurements. To assure compliance with specifications for optical equipment and

optical services purchased by the Federal Government, various tests are con- ducted; and in other government work, lenses, cameras, and grip plates are

calibrated for use in missiles, satellites, and satellite tracking cameras. During the year, the theory of a new method was developed for measuring

the transmittance and optical density of photographic materials; the variability in normal color vision was investigated; a system was designed for

lighting the blade tips of helicopters; statistical data on color were programed

for high speed electronic computers; new screw thread standards were published; a resolution camera was constructed to measure film resolutions as high as 50,000 lines per inch. In the field of length measurement, greater

accuracy was achieved than was ever before possible.

At the request of industry, a new program was initiated on the metrology

of gears where national standards are lacking. Equipment was obtained for

extending optical measurements in the far ultraviolet part of the spectrum

where observations are carried out in a vacuum because of the absorption of

air in this region. Such optical data are used in outer space probes. Also,

during the year, notable progress was made in the age-old art of weighing.

569432 O—60 3 25
Calibrating Fluorescent Lamps. Incandescent lamp standards of

color temperature have been used for many years as standard light sources

for colorimetry. However, to evaluate fluorescent lamp color with these

light sources is not easy since fluorescent lamps emit a mercury line spectrum

superimposed on a continuous phosphor spectrum. A proposal was therefore recently made by the International Commission on Illumination that

fluorescent lamp standards of color be calibrated on an international basis

by spectroradiometry. In accordance with this proposal, an instrument was

developed, and spectroradiometric measurements were accomplished for comparison with measurements obtained at other industrial laboratories and at

the National Physical Laboratory in England. The results were not in close

enough accord for standardization purposes, but they did show how interlaboratory precision could be improved. Experimental work is continuing

so that the spectroradiometric method can be adopted internationally to assure uniformity in the color of fluorescent lamps.

The Variability of Human Normal Color Vision. Further studies

in the theory of color vision dealt with the variations in the responses of

human observers when matching pure spectral colors with controllable

amounts of 3 primary colors. Generally, the between-observer variabilities,

based on the color matching data of 50 British and 18 Russian observers, were found to be about 10 percent of the average values. This result indi- cates that any one observer picked at random gives a poor approximation

to the "standard observer" for color measurements. This result also supports the view that it is desirable and more economical to make color meas- urements by objective means than it is by using a sufficient number of observers to yield the desired accuracy. The data used for this study were

obtained for the International Commission on Illumination in its endeavor

to improve the present "standard observer" which was statistically arrived

at in 1931.

Color Automatically Computed. In calibrating material standards

of color it is common practice to measure the spectral transmittance or reflectance of the standard for each 10 band throughout the visible spectrum

and to define the color of the standard by three numbers. These numbers,

called tristimulus values, are obtained by adding together the red-producing,

the green-producing, and the blue-producing effects of 10 m/x spectral bands.

To determine which if any specimens may require a finer division of the

spectrum for their accurate calibration, a program was prepared for the

Bureau's electronic computer. The computer automatically converts spectral

data for each 1 nut band to data which would be obtained for 5 nux, 10 m/*, or 15 nnx bands, and then makes a summation to yield tristimulus values.

Thus far this technique has been applied to the master sets of a group of 5

glass standards, developed for checking tristimulus integrators.

Color Distortions Found with Electronic Computer. Since the

invention of the incandescent lamp nearly everyone has experienced the dis- tortion of object colors caused by the substitution of artificial for natural

light sources, and with the increasing use of fluorescent lamps greater dis26
tortions have been noted. To obtain a quantitative evaluation of these color

distortions for the Illuminating Engineering Research Institute of the Illuminating Engineering Society, the Bureau programed the problem for electronic

computation. With the resulting data, rapid evaluations may be made of the

color of an object of known spectral transmittance or spectral reflectance

when it is illuminated by any light source including fluorescent lamps.

Brightness Standards for TV Tubes. During the past year, six

brightness standards approximating in spectral energy output the P4 phosphor

of black-and-white television tubes were designed, constructed, and cali- brated for the Joint Electron Tube Engineering Council. These standards were made available to the industry, in order to promote uniformity of

measurements of television tube brightness.

Helicopter Wing-Tip Lights. To aid the military to fly in close formation at night, a system was developed for lighting the wing tips of helicopters.

Powered by a wind-driven generator, each unit of the system consists of four

small "grain-of-wheat" type incandescent lamps embedded in a panel of clear

plastic, which is installed in each wing. Installation is accomplished merely

by substituting blade tips fitted with the lighting units for the original tips.

The lights are switched on and off remotely by an infrared source mounted

on the tail of the helicopter, and a photoelectric switching circuit built into

the blade tip.

Airport Runway Markings Tested. In 1957 a test pattern containing

8 different samples of runway marking materials was installed on a runway

at Washington National Airport. Since then periodic measurements have

been made of the reflectance of the samples, using both floodlights and simulated landing lights. From the results of this first comprehensive study of

Equipment used to scan electronically the aerial image formed by a photographic lens. This permits the study of contrast in the image independent of

photographic emulsions (page 28).

27
runway marking materials in this country, materials are now being selected for a number of service tests of runway marking materials.

Two-Color Projections. Since 1914, it has been known that colors of

all hues might be perceived from the simultaneous projection of two blackand-white lantern slides of the same scene in register, one illuminated by red

light and the other by incandescent-lamp light. This two-color phenomenon

was first recognized in 1895, and its recent report as a new discovery resulted

in many inquires regarding the feasibility of two- instead of three-color

pictures. As a consequence of these inquiries, the significance of the

original finding was re-evaluated. The study confirmed the earlier reports

as well as Bureau results of 1939 in which it was found that the color effects

obtained from any pair of projection-light colors can be predicted as a two-dimensional case of the complete three-dimensional theory. By use of

red light and incandescent lamp light, good reds and fairly good greens, but

only pale yellows and blackish blues, are produced. Such reproduction is not commensurate with present commercial requirements.

Image Analysis. To give a better understanding of the formation of

optical images for photography, a method was developed which permits

direct electronic scanning of the aerial image of a line object formed by a

lens. The resulting measurements, as the width of the lines decreases, show

the variations in contrast between light and dark lines. From these measure- ments information is obtained on the limiting resolution of the lens in various

focal planes as well as the effect of lens aberration upon the response at

different frequencies.

Glass Lens Free From Residual Chromatic Aberration. Procedures

developed for the selection of glasses to construct a lens having a common

focal point for three wavelengths were adapted to the selection of glasses

for lenses achromatic at four wavelengths. A set of three glasses was selected

that combined to make a four-color achromat. The powers of the three

elements for a four-color achromat of these glasses were then computed, and

an analysis of the resulting system was made. At twelve wavelengths

between 0.365 and 1.014 micron, the analysis showed the system to be

completely free from residual chromatic aberration.

Lens Distortion Measurements Compared. An investigation of the

four principal methods of evaluating lens distortion led to a better understanding of the factors limiting the accuracy of each method. Values of

the radial distortion in the image of a single lens were determined by a photographic method using a lens testing camera; by a visual optical bench

method using a nodal slide; by a visual inverse nodal slide method using an

optical T-bench; and by a visual modified goniometric method. It was

found that high precision in photogrammetric lenses is obtained with all

four techniques when proper precautions are exercised in taking the measurements. Special caution must be observed to avoid plate curvature,

asymmetric use of apertures, prism effect, misalinement of optical equipment,

and errors in angle and length measurements.

28
Instrument used in the calibration of photogrammetric cameras. Measurements made with this device are used to determine focal length and distortion

of aerial camera lenses. Lengths on the photographic test patterns are measured to the nearest micron over a range of 14 inches (page 28).

Photographic Research. A new method of photometry was theoretically developed, and plans were made to compare the usefulness of the

method with existing methods for measuring the transmittance and optical

density of photographic materials. Additional studies of the chemistry of

photographic fixation were made during the year, and a study of the effect

of storage conditions on the permanence of the bond between a film base

and emulsion was initiated.

High-Resolution Camera. A camera to test the resolving power of

photographic materials was developed that is capable of projecting line

patterns as fine as 50,000 lines per inch on photographic materials. The

ability of a photographic material to record the lines distinctly is a measure

of its ability to render fine detail in a picture. The tremendous information

storage capacity of high-resolution materials was demonstrated by using

this camera to copy the first page of Genesis. It was reproduced on an

area so small that if the entire Bible were reduced to the same scale it would

cover an area less than that of Lincoln's head on a penny. The copy is clearly

legible when viewed through a high-powered microscope.

Improved Accuracy in Length Measurements. For the first time in

its history, the Bureau certified length measurements, made on two commercial gage blocks, with an accuracy of better than 1 part in 5 million. The

blocks, one 16 in. and one 18 in. in length, were measured by two independent

methods, one of which gave the lengths directly in terms of wavelengths of

light and the other in terms of the present national standard of length, a platinum-iridium meter bar. The results obtained by the two methods agreed

to the nearest millionth of an inch or better for both gage blocks, and with

29
measurements made on the same blocks by the National Physical Laboratory

to within 2 millionths of an inch. Another gage block, 4 in. in length, was

certified to one part in 4 million and the agreement for this block with the

measurements of two foreign national laboratories was to 1 millionth of an

inch. Present routine accuracy of gage block measurements is 2 parts in a million.

Reflection Phase Shift Dispersion in Interferometry. An investigation was made of the possibility of using phase shift dispersion by fringes

of equal chromatic order (feco) with Fabry-Perot interferometry in determining etalon spacing and in measuring unknown wavelengths. It was

found that such measurements are useful at three stages in wavelength comparisons. In the first stage, by obtaining the feco at several points across

the aperture, the degree of uniformity of the phase shift over the aperture is determined for multilayer reflectors; in the second, the phase shift data are combined with the method of exact fractions to yield the integral order numbers. This stage is especially valuable in the case of multilayers where the

dispersion of the phase shift is high, and where calculated phase shifts

may be in error due to poorly known layer thicknesses. In the third stage,

the accuracy of measurements of unknown wavelengths is improved. For

example, using high reflection mirrors, wavelengths of feco can be measured

to about 0.002 fringe, whereas the error in determining fractions in FabryPerot patterns is about 0.01 fringe.

Evaporated Multilayer Coatings. A technique for producing cerium

dioxide coatings was improved by evaporating this material in a residual

atmosphere of oxygen to avoid a decomposition of the oxide. Methods were

also developed for evaporating magnesium fluoride, antimony dioxide, zinc

sulfide, and cryolite. In other work, a study was made to find the accuracies

to which film thicknesses must be controlled to obtain desired tolerances on

performance of multilayer coatings.

Polarization of Light at Beam-Dividing Surfaces. A double-image

prism interferometer was developed for astronomical applications in which

the beam divider is designed as a combiner of wave fronts, so that the light

beam is affected only once. In using this instrument, an effect of polarization of light upon reflection-transmission at beam-dividing surfaces was

discovered. No fringes were observed, so measurements were made of the

phase shift occurring when light is transmitted and reflected by a thin aluminum film. The results showed that a shift of ±90° is present for the

ordinary beam and 1+ 90° for the extraordinary beam. By suitable application of a polarizer, the fringes are seen in good contrast. Standard Screw Thread Publications. Progress in both national and

international standardization of screw threads was marked by publication

of several important standards. Part II of NBS Handbook H28 (1957),

Screw Thread Standards for Federal Services, covering pipe, dryseal pipe,

hose coupling, and gas cylinder threads is now available. Part III covering

Acme, Stub Acme, buttress, and miscellaneous threads is in press. ASA

Bl. 1-1960, American Standard Unified Screw Threads, was published, and

30
the British and Canadian national standardizing bodies are ready to issue

standards in substantial agreement. These standards represent a considerable advance in international unification of thread standards over the previous

editions published about ten years ago. During the year two publications

ASA B2.L Pipe Threads (revised), and ASA B2.2, Dryseal Pipe Threadswere approved as American Standards and are ready to go to press. Improved Techniques for Mass Measurements. Before starting detailed design on the highest attainable precision kilogram balances, an

experimental program was inaugurated to resolve certain weighing uncertainties. Preliminary experiments with a one-pan balance indicated that

weighing can be performed more rapidly and accurately with that type of

balance than could perhaps be accomplished with the older equal-arm type.

The latter employs three knife-edges which must be adjusted to be coplanar

and parallel. The one-pan balance uses only two knife-edges, greatly simplifying and permitting more precise adjustment. A 50-lb balance of this

design commercially constructed in collaboration with the Bureau appears

to give better performance than has ever been achieved for that capacity.

Modern damped balances giving the last 2 or 3 significant figures by a

direct read-out in mass units were also found acceptable, both at State level and for high-precision laboratory weighing.

Standards and Calibrations. In addition to the more than 1,000

standards that were issued for the calibration of light meters and colorimeters, over 100 red filters used to maintain the proper color and brightness

of instrument panels were supplied to the aviation industry. Also, over 100

new candlepower standards (inside-frosted, gas-filled, incandescent lamps)

that practically eliminate errors introduced by lamp orientation were issued

to the illuminating engineering industry. During the year, good progress was made in relating the length of the prototype standard meter bar of the

United States to the wavelength of the orange-red line of krypton which has

recently been adopted as the new international standard of length.

Operating a new research camera developed for testing the resolving power

of photographic materials. Inset: Photomicrographs comparing the size of

letters on a microcopy made using the camera with the size of some common

bacteria (page 29).

31
2.2. ELECTRICITY

The Bureau's work in electricity is primarily the development, improvement, and dissemination of the standards of measurement for electrical

quantities; and the study of the electrical and magnetic properties of materials. Electrical standards must be established that are constant over long periods of time, uniform throughout the Nation, and compatible with

other standards used throughout the world. Measurements of electrical

quantities directly in terms of length, mass, and time ("absolute measure- ments") are extremely difficult and are made only in the realization and

confirmation of electrical standards of resistance, capacitance, inductance,

and voltage; calibration work is done by comparison with these electrical

standards.

An objective related to establishment of standards is development of

improved measurement methods and extension of the ranges of voltage, fre- quency, current, etc., in which precision measurements can be made and

referred to the standards. During the past year, several measurement techniques were developed or improved. A new value for the faraday was

announced, and the redetermined value of the proton gyromagnetic ratio was

substantiated.

Absolute Measurement of Current. Work on two methods for the

absolute determination of current was completed. Much of the equipment

used for this work was also involved in the 1958 redetermination of the

gyromagnetic ratio of the proton at the Fredericksburg Magnetic Observatory of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. However, additional observations were made at the NBS Washington laboratories during the past year

for better determining values of the electrical standards used in monitoring

the current through the coils producing the field. Another reason for the

Washington observations is that a determination of absolute current had been

made at the same magnetic location. At this laboratory, there was practically no uncertainty in assigning a value to a standard cell in terms of the

primary group because a direct connection could be made shortly before

and after each set of observations. A difference of 3 parts per million persists in the values of the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton as determined at

the two locations. In view of the uncertain effect of magnetic materials in

the NBS neighborhood and a slight uncertainty in the values applicable to standards cells at Fredericksburg, this difference is. to be expected. The

results are considered equally reliable.

Absolute Measurement of Resistance. A method of measuring absolute resistance in terms of capacitance and frequency, rather than inductance

and frequency, has been developed. The results involve the speed of light,

and, when compared with the results obtained with the inductor, may be

regarded as a check of the speed of light or, alternately, as a test of electromagnetic theory at low frequency. The preliminary result gave a value for

the NBS unit of resistance, as maintained by standard resistors, which differs

by only a few parts per million from its assigned value.

32
Equipment used in obtaining an improved value for the faraday by a new

experimental process. The faraday is one of the fundamental constants of

physics and chemistry; precise knowledge of its value will show interesting

correlation among atomic weights, electrochemical equivalents, energy, and

mass (pages 33 and 63).

Redetermination of the Faraday. The Bureau is constantly attempting to determine the constants of nature with increasingly higher accuracy.

One such constant which received particular attention during the past three

years is the faraday—the quantity of electricity required to dissolve or deposit an equivalent weight of an element (or the quantity of electricity as- sociated with the change of one equivalent weight of a reacting substance)

in any electrolytic process. The determination was concluded, giving a

value for the faraday constant of 96516.5±2.1 coulombs (ampere-seconds)

per gram-equivalent weight on the physical scale. This value differs from

previously accepted values by 0.008 percent. The method employed in the

new determination involved the electrolytic dissolution of metallic silver of

high purity in aqueous solutions of perchloric acid and thereby eliminated

occlusion uncertainties encountered in previous methods involving electrolytic deposition of silver. Since the faraday may also be defined as the

product of Avogadro's number and the charge on an electron, the new

faraday value has a significant bearing on the values of these physical constants. Electrolytic Purification of Silver. To aid in the redetermination of

the faraday, the Bureau perfected an electrolytic process for preparing silver

of high purity. Metallic impurities to the extent of 120 parts per million were reduced to less than 0.3 part per million.

33
The Bureau obtained a new value of the atomic weight of silver from a highly accurate determination of the absolute isotopic abundance ratio.

Silver isotopes Ag 107 and Ag 109 supplied by the Atomic Energy Commission

were each purified by an electrolytic process and blended to give synthetic

calibration samples for mass spectrometry measurements (see 2.6, p. 63).

Audiofrequency Current Transformer. Because the use of current

transformers for current and power measurements in the audiofrequency

range has been expanding, the Bureau has undertaken a study to improve

measurement methods in this field. The basic unit of a family of current

transformers for operation to 10 kc/s has been constructed and tested. The

method used for measuring ratio and phase angle of this 5/5 ampere trans- former is very sensitive and can easily detect changes in ratio of less than

1 part in a million and in phase angle of less than 1 microradian throughout the audiofrequency range. The transformer, which shows extremely

good performance, will be used in the stepwise calibration of higher range

audiofrequency transformers.

Phase Angle Standard. Vehicle guidance systems now in development

require very accurate measurement of directional angle by electrical means. Work begun two years ago to provide a standard for calibrating phase-angle

measuring devices resulted in a ladder network, with sections which can be

connected by decade switches, to set up desired phase shifts. This system

has been arranged for internal stepwise calibration, with a 180° reference

point provided by a specially wound transformer. Phase-shift values assigned

by this experimental procedure agree with those computed from measured

component values to within 0.01° for all sections. The first of these ladder

networks was designed for 400 c/s operation, and modifications are now

being studied which will permit operation at other selected frequencies

up to 4,000 c/s.

Transformer-Type Voltage Dividers. Step transformers are now

available for subdividing audiofrequency voltages into 10 G or even 10 7

increments. Such voltage dividers are used in a variety of measurement

procedures, and methods have been developed for measuring their accuracy

and the phase angles between the input and output voltages. These dividers are now being studied using a method involving comparison with the direct

capacitance ratio of shielded three-terminal capacitors.

Guard-Ring Micrometer Holder. A three-terminal holder with guard

ring was constructed for use in determining the electrical properties of

standard dielectric reference materials having very low losses. A technique was devised for determining the absolute value of the inherent loss of the

film on the electrode surface 'of the holder to 1 or 2 microradians, and of the

absolute values of the dissipation factor of the standard capacitor.

Dielectric Properties of Polychlorotrifluoroethylene. The dielectric properties of quenched thin films of polychlorotrifluoroethylene have

been measured as a function of temperature and frequency in an effort to obtain more knowledge of the properties of the supercooled liquid phase of

34
the polvmer. The high-temperature holder has been modified by an addition of a guard ring so that dielectric properties of polymers in the pure liquid

state may be more accurately determined. The crystallization temperature

anod thermal history of the crystalline specimens of polychlorotrifluoroethylene were investigated. It was found that even though two specimens may

have the same degree of crystallinity as determined by the density method,

their dielectric properties are not identical, indicating a depenence upon the

thermal history prior to crystallization.

Dielectric Properties of Nylons. Continuing investigations of dielectric properties of polyamides have shown a clear relation between crystallineamorphous ratio and a prominent relaxation process at elevated temperatures.

This process must occur in the amorphous regions of the polymers. A lowtemperature relaxation process has been shown to exist in 610 nylons as

well as in the 66 nylons, the latter corresponding to that seen in mechanical

relaxation experiments.

Ultra-Low-Frequency Bridge. A bridge of the modified Weingarten

type has been designed, built, and tested in the region 0.01 to 200 c/s.

Highly acurate measurements of dielectric constant and loss factor can be

made with this bridge. Some of the measurements concerning both polychlorotrifluoroethylene and the frequency response of resistors in the range

109 through 1014 ohms were made with this bridge. This frequency re- sponse is largely connected with the distributed capacitance of the resistors.

Dielectric reference materials are placed in constant humidity chambers for

measurement of their electrical properties. The three-terminal guard-ring

electrode holder recently developed at the Bureau for such work can be seen in

the chamber (page 34).

35
Spherulitic Growth in Polychlorotrifluoroethylene. The rate of

radial growth of spherulites in polychlorotrifluoroethylene was accurately

measured as a function of temperature in order to determine the growth

rate law. The form of the rate law is very important in determining the

nature of the crystal growth; and the form found indicates that coherent

nucleation is the rate-determining step in the radial growth process. The

numerical value of one of the constants is consistent with the concept that

the growth nuclei are of the chain-folded rather than the bundlelike type.

(Electron micrographs obtained elsewhere suggest folded structures in this

polymer.) Crystallization in this polymer strongly affects its dielectric

properties.

Theory of Chain-Folded Crystallization in Bulk Polymers. The

dielectric and mechanical properties of polymers are often strongly dependent on the degree and the form of crystallization. A comprehensive theory

of formation of chain-folded crystals, extending earlier work for dilute solution to the bulk phase, was completed. This theory clarifies many of the

theretofore unexplained and unpredicted dielectric and mechanical phenomena connected with polymer crystallization, and the conditions under

which chain-folded (lamellar) crystalline structures can appear in bulk

polymers. These conditions are such that chain-folded polymer nuclei, the

preferred type—compared with bundlelike nuclei—in sufficiently dilute solution, are to be expected in bulk.

2.3. RADIO STANDARDS

The Bureau's program in radio standards centered at the Boulder Laboratories consists of basic research and development of national standards of

fundamental electrical quantities, measurement techniques, and properties

of materials. A large calibration service is provided from direct current

through microwave frequencies, and radio broadcasts are made of the national primary standards of frequency and time intervals.

During the last few years, demands have increased for radio standards of

electrical quantities and for the properties of many radio materials. Extensive calibration programs are being established in military agencies, industries, and private standards organizations. These programs depend upon

the Bureau's best reference standards. To meet these needs, the Bureau is continually increasing the kind, range, and accuracy of electrical standards

and calibration services.

Improved reflectors for a high-resolution millimeter wave Fabry-Perot in- terferometer were developed, and the theoretical understanding of diffraction

in microwave interferometers was clarified. A number of new and different

frequency standards were put into operation. The time signals broadcast

by NBS radio stations WWV and WWVH were made more uniform by locking them to the broadcast frequencies. A 20-kc/s standard frequency station was put into operation. Several new instruments were developed to measure

certain characteristics of materials of interest to radio physicists and engi36
Above: One of two cesium beam fre- quency standards tbat were placed into

operation making it possible to refer the

national standard of frequency to an

atomic resonance. It is accurate to within

1.5 parts in 1011

. Right: Intercomparison

of Japanese and American microwave

power standards by an impedance technique (pages 38 and 41).

neers, and techniques to measure electrical quantities at microwave fre- quencies were developed.

Numerical Analysis. Much of the computation of the Division involves

numerical integration using Gaussian quadrature. The theory of this

highly efficient method has been extended and practical Gaussian formulas

have been developed for evaluating multiple integrals, multiple sums, the

Cauchy principal parts of divergent integrals, transforms which are neither sums nor integrals (e.g., derivatives), transforms which are functions, and

transforms which are nonlinear. One explicit general Gaussian formula

that was derived facilitates the determination of bounds for indeterminate

transforms and, if the input data are experimental, includes a least square

treatment of the data.

Millimeter Wave Research. Between wavelengths of 3 mm and the

long infrared lies a wide and virtually unused region of the electromagnetic

spectrum. Important applications for these wavelengths arise in many fields

of endeavor such as nuclear fusion research, high discrimination radar, radio

communications, length and time standards, and in precision measurements

of physical constants such as the velocity of light. In addition much physical

insight on the structure and behavior of matter can be obtained from in- vestigations at these short wavelengths.

The theoretical treatment and understanding of diffraction in mm wave

interferometers were further clarified. This work on diffraction deals with

the corrections that must be applied to measurements made with mm wave

interferometers operating in the near field or Fresnel diffraction region of

a radiating antenna. Such corrections are important in all precision work,

and in particular for precise metrology applications.

The usefulness of the millimeter wave Fabry-Perot interferometer was

increased by adding reflectors with arrays of holes coupling into the reso- nance region between two parallel metal plates. This assembly gives very

sharp fringes with high discrimination and low loss.

37
Atomic Frequency and Time Interval Standards. The research

activities in this field are concerned with four areas: (1) Frequency standards

utilizing magnetic transitions between hyperfine levels of cesium and thal- lium; (2) molecular frequency standards using cavity type masers; (3)

fluctuation phenomena in the electronic oscillators and multipliers used to investigate atomic resonances; and (4) gaseous maser techniques at millimeter wavelengths. In this area an investigation was made of the suitability

of the hydrogen cyanide molecule as a source of millimeter-wave energy in a maser utilizing a Fabry-Perot type structure rather than the conventional

cavity resonator. This device appears to have great potential as a possible

frequency standard, length standard, and instrument for measuring the

velocity of light.

Two cesium beam atomic standards of frequency and time interval were

put into operation. A careful evaluation of them has enabled the United

States frequency standard to be referred to in terms of atomic resonance with an accuracy of 1.5 parts in 1011

. This evaluation has also added to the

weight of arguments in favor of a redefinition of the second in terms of an

atomic resonance. Standard frequencies are transmitted by NBS stations

WWV, WWVH, WWVL, and WWVB in terms of this standard.

Relatively simple crystal oscillator circuits, stabilized with the ammonia

inversion frequency, were used to make spectral analyses of complex heliumcooled crystal oscillators. In addition, the maser-stabilized spectrum

analyser was used to investigate the purity of the radiations exciting the

cesium resonance. A nonsymmetrical spectrum of the exciting radiation can cause the apparent resonant frequency to differ from the true resonant

frequency.

Radio Broadcast Service. On January 1, 1960, the tentative value of

9,192,631,770 cycles per second was adopted by the NBS as the specified

cesium line frequency. Also, at this time the broadcast frequencies of WWV

and WWVH were offset from the U.S. frequency standard by — 150 parts

in 1010 to establish a scale of time in substantial agreement with the current

value of UT-2 but with a uniformity two or more orders better. Thus, the

time signals, locked to the broadcast frequency, require less frequent adjustment than heretofore. To preserve these extremely uniform time signals

for as long a period as possible, time adjustments are to be made only when

UT-2 departs more than 50 milliseconds from the WWV broadcasts. None

was made since January 1, 1960.

Many agencies of defense engaged in missile, rocket and satellite research

and development work, and related activities, have reached a point where

their timing and frequency calibration requirements far exceed the capabilities of the HF signals as received from WWV and WWVH. To meet these

critical needs, the NBS has established a standard broadcast at very low

frequency. A new method of time signal modulation of VLF carriers has

also been developed which, when implemented, will permit frequency and

time interval calibrations to be made to a precision and accuracy 1,000

times greater than at HF.

38
Studies indicated that the propagation effects at VLF may be sufficiently

small to make feasible a multiple-frequency technique to identify individual

transmitted cycles of the carrier, thereby realizing microsecond timing.

Studies were also planned to determine the frequency spacing and number

of adjacent carriers required to provide such a service.

Regular operation of a 20 kc/s standard frequency station, WWVL,

located near Boulder, Colo., was begun on a six-hour-a-day schedule on

April 5. 1960. Reception reports were soon received from coast to coast

in the United States. The signals were also received regularly in New

Zealand. In June the schedule was made continuous except for periods during the "dark"' phase of the moon when another project used the antenna

from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.

Three ultrastable crystal oscillators with the crystal at liquid helium temperature (4 °K) were maintained continuously throughout this year. The

best of these oscillators has an aging rate of about 1 part in 1011 per day.

An investigation of the relative intensities of X-rays reflected from a number of the atomic planes in quartz was made several years ago, but not published at that time because of certain apparent violations of Friedel's law.

Mathematical calculations were recently made verifying the experimental data.

Further verification was obtained through the preparation of etched specimens

oriented with respect to selected planes.

Work continued on the solid-state properties of quartz with emphasis on

the electrical conductivity-temperature relationships with various impurities

and impurity bonding to the lattice structure. In connection with this study,

precise oven controls were developed as well as a circuit that accurately measures differential conductivity of two quartz samples as a function of

temperature.

A new 20 kc/s standard frequency station was put into operation this year near

Boulder, Colo. The antenna, a copper coated steel cable, weighs more than a ton, stretches 3,400 ft from anchor to anchor, and is 900 ft above the canyon

floor (page 39).

39
Radio and Microwave Materials. The introduction of new semiconductor, metallic, magnetic, and dielectric materials during the past decade has

stimulated many developments and investigations in electromagnetic technology. In addition to its regular program in this area, the Bureau is establishing a laboratory under the sponsorship of the Department of Defense for

the accurate characterization, analysis, and evaluation of magnetic materials

at radio and microwave frequencies.

The evaluation of electromagnetic parameters at radio and microwave

frequencies of ferro- or ferrimagnetic materials was extended by developing

specialized highly reliable measuring methods and equipment, which include

apparatus for determining complex tensor permeability as a function of

frequency, a magnetometer for measuring spontaneous or saturation magnetization and curie temperatures, measuring services for extremely high

dielectric constants based on an improved RF permittimeter, and a new

Maxwell bridge technique which permits low loss magnetic measurements.

A technique was developed for making complex permittivity or complex

conductivity measurements at radiofrequencies without applying electrodes

to the material. This technique uses a coaxial RF impedence transformer

in which the secondary is a single turn (toroid) of the material to be

measured. The device, called a radiofrequency permittimeter, is connected

to an impedance bridge. Many conductors, semiconductors, electrolytes, and

high permittivity materials can be evaluated to about 1 percent. Complex

conductivities differing considerably from those observed by other methods

have been measured.

Using the newlv developed permittimeter, measurements were started on

the complex conductivity of a series of strong electrolytes. Such measure- ments at radiofrequencies have not previously been reported and the first measurements show two interesting trends: (1) The out-of-phase portion of

the conductivity at certain frequencies and concentrations appears as a negative dielectric constant for the material, and (2) when this apparent negative

dielectric constant appears, the solution is near saturation indicating that

there may be a connection between the thermal frequencies of the ions, the

relaxation time of the ions in concentrated solutions, and the solubility of

the solute. The negative dielectric constant apparently comes from the inertial properties of the carriers in contrast to the restoring force usually as- sociated with dielectric polarization phenomena. The new permittimeter

makes possible measurements of the reactive component in the presence of a

large loss term, thus opening a new region of heretofore unavailable data.

Partially successful atterrmts were made to measure the complex tensor

conductivity (or tensor dielectric constant) of some semiconductors as a function of radiofrequency, static magnetic field, and temperature. Future

measurements using more sensitive measuring instruments and lower temperatures (<10°K) are planned.

Various extensions and improvements in microwave dielectric measure- ments were made. By using a centered dielectric post in a TE011 mode

cavity resonator, and a theoretically calculated "port-^>," a dielectric test set 40
was developed to obtain accurate loss measurements from the change in

transmission of a cavity. Also, surface impedance and surface Q cavity

methods were standardized.

High Frequency Electrical Standards. The development and construction of a 30 Mc/s facility to measure attenuation was completed for use in the Electronic Calibration Center. It has the widest range (0 to 150

db) and highest accuracy known to be available for this frequency; it also

has exceptionally high operational efficiency (about a minute per measure- ment) for such performance and incorporates a number of unusual electronic

and structural features. The overall accuracy of this facility will be checked

in terms of an entirely new national primary standard system at present

under development.

Among other activities in the high-frequency area were continued research on techniques and equipment to appraise the quality of basic standards of

thermal noise and to intercompare noise sources with high accuracy. A new

thermistor mount for power measurements was developed for 0.1 percent

accuracy instead of the previous 1 percent. A useful method was developed

to measure undesirable transmitter outputs of levels 80 to 100 db below and

at certain frequency-separations from the carrier.

Visiting French sci- entists are shown

microwave apparatus in a new laboratory established for

the evaluation of

magnetic materials

(page 40).

Microwave Circuit Standards. The Bureau's program includes re- search and development at microwave frequencies (about 300 Mc/s) on

power, impedance, attenuation, phase shift, noise, and field strength. Standards and measurement techniques were improved in a number of these

quantities.

A number of barretter mounts serving as national power standards in the

Electronic Calibration Center were calibrated with a microcalorimeter. A

new method for transferring the calibration from one power standard to

569432 O—60 4 41
another, which is substantially independent of the impedance discontinuities

of waveguide joints or connectors, was developed. This technique should

prove to be especially valuable when used in coaxial systems.

The error analysis for a recently developed method of using the impedance

technique of measuring barretter mount efficiency was completed. In con- nection with an International Scientific Radio Union resolution, international

intercomparisons of microwave power standards were carried out. The most

recent ones with Japan yielded agreement within one quarter of 1 percent.

Impedance standards having a known reflection coefficient accurate to 0.005 percent were produced and evaluated by several independent techniques. These provide a sound basis for the new microwave impedance

calibration service offered by the Electronic Calibration Center.

A technique was developed to measure accurately both phase and magnitude of microwave impedances by a two-channel reflectometer circuit.

New and sensitive techniques were devised to measure reflections and

losses of waveguide joints and connectors. Reflection coefficients as low as 0.00015 and efficiencies in the range 99.90 to 100 percent were measured

for rectangular waveguide joints.

Two entirely different attenuation measurement techniques, each capable

of accuracies from 0.0001 to 0.06 decibel over a range from 0.01 to 60

decibels, were developed. One method employs differential power measure- ments by refined bolometric techniques, and the other is a modulated subcarrier system which lends itself to audiofrequency techniques. Calibration

accuracies of these techniques exceed the precision to which presently available attenuators can be set and read. The feasibility of coaxial attenuator

calibrations at frequencies up to 12 Gc/s was demonstrated so that the Electronic Calibration Center could extend the range of the attenuator calibration

service.

Analysis of errors in a standard phase shifter was completed, providing

the basis for a future calibration service. The analysis of mismatch errors

in microwave phase shift measurements was completed. A new technique

permitting 0.1 degree accuracy in microwave phase shift measurements was

developed.

A microwave noise standard and radiometer having an accuracy of 0.01

decibel were developed for a new calibration service offered by the Electronic Calibration Center.

Electronic Calibration Center. The work of the Electronic Calibration Center was divided among meeting the increasing demands for calibration services, using measurement instrumentation already available, and

improving and extending the measurement instrumentation to provide additional services. Calibration services provided for about 30 standards

laboratories of Department of Defense agencies and for about 100 standards

laboratories in industry, increased about 45 percent over the preceding fiscal year.

An oil bath for standard cells was completed and put into service, and

additional data on the stability of the Center's saturated standard cells were

42
obtained. The stability of the Center's Thomas-type standard resistors al- ready has been found to be excellent. It is expected that in the near future

the Center's resistors and saturated cells can be incorporated into the national

"primary group" used to maintain the units of emf and resistance in the

intervals between the basic determination of these units.

A "microvolt"' console was completed for the high frequency calibrations

of meters or voltage generators in the microvolt and millivolt regions.

Progress was made in calibrating the Center's working standards of highfrequency impedance.

The range of the X-band power calibration system was extended slightly,

and a duplicate system was built to handle the increasing workload with

greater efficiency. Calibration systems in four additional waveguide sizes were made ready for calibration services when power standards for these

frequency ranges become available. Instrumentation for impedance measure- ment (reflection coefficient magnitude) in the X-band was completed, and a calibration service was announced. This system, and the standards on which

it is based, can be extended readily to other waveguide sizes. Further improvements in the microwave radiometer were made during the year, so that

it can measure the noise temperature of a gas discharge noise source to better

than 0.1 db. These measurements will be referred to a "blackbody" noise

standard.

Accuracy of a Hierarchy of Standards. The optimization, i.e., minimization of cost, of an entire hierarchy of standards fanning out from the

National Bureau of Standards was considered by setting up and analyzing a reasonable theoretical model. This study was motivated in part by the fre- quent statement that the accuracy of each echelon of the hierarchy should be

10 times better than the accuracy of the immediately following echelon. It was found instead that the optimum accuracy ratio between two successive

echelons is equal to a certain root of the number of laboratories in the lower

echelon reporting to each laboratory of the upper echelon, the root depending on the rate of rise of cost with accuracy. This optimum ratio frequently

turns out to be between 2 and 4.

2.4. MECHANICS

The Bureau's work in mechanics is primarily in the development, improvement, and dissemination of the standards of measurement for mechanical

quantities. These include sound pressure and intensity, shock, vibration,

force, strain, pressure, and rate of gas and liquid flow. The work requires

the development of measurement techniques and transfer standards for all of these quantities. It also involves important studies of the properties of

materials and structures. Current applications of the results of the Bureau's work in mechanics are found in the design, construction, and operation of high-performance aircraft, space vehicles, and modern weapon systems requiring mechanical

measurements of greatly improved accuracy over greatly extended ranges.

43
The urgent need for this work is illustrated by the estimate of a leading

manufacturer of rocket engines that savings of 150 to 200 million dollars

would result from improvement in accuracy of pressure and thrust measure- ments by a factor of three. Similar improvement and extension of the standards for other mechanical quantities and the development of improved transfer standards are required so that the Bureau's laboratories and the chains

of primary and secondary laboratories operated by other governmental agencies and their contractors can meet the requirements of today and the near

future.

Infrasonic Waves in the Atmosphere. Detection and recording of

very-low-frequency infrasonic waves have disclosed a completely new means

of detecting tornadoes, earthquakes, and other natural phenomena at great

distances. Four microphones were set up near Washington, and recordings

from them revealed that the atmosphere is full of sound at these very-low

frequencies. The periods of the sound waves range from about 1 second

to well over 200 seconds. The sounds have about the same physical intensity as speech, but are far too low in frequency to be heard and are therefore

called infrasonic waves. The corresponding wavelengths are very great, between about 340 meters and 80 kilometers.

The great earthquake in Montana on 18 August 1959 produced infrasonic waves in the atmosphere when the earthquake wave passed through Washington, and the sounds were readily measured with the microphone system.

Severe tornadoes produce infrasonic waves at Washington even though the

Compact wedge-type apparatus

(right) for producing extremely

high pressures is placed in a hydraulic press. Such devices are used to extend and improve the

range and accuracy of the Bureau's pressure measurements

(page 45).

44
tornadoes are more than a thousand miles away on the western plains. A

source of unknown origin produces the ubiquitous and mysterious "microbaroms," whose periods lie in the range between 5 and 7 seconds. Interest- ing infrasonic waves are generated during the abrupt disturbances of the

earth's magnetic field known as geomagnetic storms. They arrive usually

from northerly directions, and are of very long wavelength—well over 15

kilometers in many instances. In all it is conjectured that there may be more

than a dozen sources of infrasonic waves, of which only a few are identified

so far. Cavitation with Ultrasonics. In a project partly supported by the

Office of Naval Research, an ultrasonic source was developed to create cavitation bubbles, that is, holes in the form of bubbles, in the interior of a mass of water. The source was a cylinder of barium titanate containing the

water. Matching of the resonant frequencies of the cylinder and of the water

created tensile stresses great enough to open up cavitation bubbles away

from the walls. This makes it possible to measure conveniently the tensile

strength of water and other liquids.

Pressure Measurement. This year was marked by an improvement in

accuracy and an extension of the range of pressures covered by the pressure

calibration services. With new equipment for developing ultra-high pressures, it is now possible to reach well over 1,000,000 psi. These pressures

will be used in exploratory studies of reactions, and may also provide cali- bration points. One possible calibration point was provided by the conversion of graphite to diamond, demonstrating that it was possible to heat

a sample to 1,500 °C while maintaining a pressure of about 1,000,000 psi.

Multiple-Anvil Apparatus Used. A multiple-anvil apparatus is used

now to generate high pressures through application of force by an anvil

against each face of a solid polyhedron. It employs an assembly in which

external force is applied to only one of the four anvils, and wedge reaction

forces act on the remaining three anvils. This results in compact equipment

that can be used in a press of conventional design and may permit use of

existing presses of very large capacity to obtain high pressures in relatively

large volumes. A number of other laboratories in the United States and in

Europe developed apparatus based on the NBS design.

High-Vacuum Pressure Measurements. A program on the development of standards in vacuum measurements was started. A laboratory was

set up for this purpose. Equipment of new design is being built with the

hope of measuring directly the pressures in the high-vacuum range. Highvacuum pressures correspond to the pressures encountered by missiles and

space vehicles in flights to altitudes many miles above the earth's surface,

and a growing need exists for precise measurement of such pressures.

Acceleration Due to Gravity. Many measurements made at the Bureau

require application of accurately known forces. These measurements include

standardization of the unit of electrical current and precise determination of

fluid pressure. They include also calibration of instruments for measuring

the thrust of rockets and missile propellants. The most reliable standard

45
for such forces is the gravitational attraction of the earth on known masses. However, the value of a gravitational force can be determined accurately

only if the intensity of gravity is known at the point where the force is generated. This intensity is measured by determining the acceleration due to

gravity—that is, the acceleration which gravity would impart to a mass

falling freely in a vacuum. Once such an absolute measurement is made

at one point, values of the intensity of gravity at any other point on the earth

may be determined by a survey with precise comparison instruments.

Cooperating with other nations, the Bureau is making an absolute determination of the acceleration of gravity in its laboratories in Washington.

A quartz rod, falling in a vacuum, is timed to one ten-millionth of a second

as it falls for a distance of 1 meter. An unusual feature of the experiment

is that the vacuum chamber is allowed to fall with the rod, facilitating the

task of picking the rod up for successive drops and greatly simplifying the

process of measuring the length of the rod. During the fall the rod does

not touch any part of the vacuum chamber which is artificially accelerated to overcome air resistance and thus keep pace with the rod inside. The rod

is timed by a photoelectric cell which "sees" it through windows in the

vacuum chamber wall. Preliminary results of this experiment are expected

within a year.

Advances in Force Measurements. The demand for the Bureau's

calibration service by manufacturers and users of elastic force measuring

devices such as proving rings, dynamometers and load cells has grown more

than four-fold in the past 10 years. Requirements for improved accuracy

and for measurements of larger loads have accompanied the increase in the

number of calibrations. These new requirements result primarily from the

needs of the military rocket and missile research and the space exploration

programs.

Because of the need for the best possible accuracy in the calibration of

large load cells of 1,500,000- and 2,000,000-lb capacity, the cells were cali- brated using proving rings up to 1,500,000 lb. Previously, cells of this

capacity were calibrated only to 1,000,000 lb by proving rings and above this

load, with NBS elastic load measuring devices. With the proving rings,

the loads applied are believed to be accurate to one-tenth of one percent and

with the NBS elastic load measuring devices, three-tenths of one percent.

For higher loads, the Bureau has its four one-million-pound capacity and

its four three-million-pound capacity elastic load measuring devices whose

accuracies meet the requirements of ASTM Specification E74-57. This

specification provides tolerances of 0.3 percent for 1,000,000-lb capacity

devices and 0.4 percent for 3,000,000-lb capacity devices, to be used in the

calibration of elastic load measuring devices up to 10,000,000 lb. Study of

the behavior of these devices continued this year. To calibrate force-measuring devices whose capacities are 111,000 lb or

less, the Bureau utilizes its dead weight machines which are accurate to 0.02

percent. To extend the range over which accurate test loads may be applied

46
Calibration of a 1,500,000 lb capacity load cell for use in tests of a 1,500,000

lb thrust rocket engine that is being developed for space exploration. Each of

the five 300,000 lb capacity proving rings (below large block) has been

calibrated by dead weights to 110,000 lb and by other calibrated proving rings

for loads greater than 110,0001b (page 46).

by dead weights, machines of 30,000- and 1,000,000-lb capacity have been

planned for installation at the Bureau's new facility at Gaithersburg, Md.

These machines are designed to provide accuracies of better than 0.01 percent in both tension and compression. These new facilities will make possible

the direct calibration by dead weights of most of the existing devices. They

also will make possible the development of improved portable secondary

standards, which are needed as working standards in other laboratories.

High-Temperature Thermocouples. The iridium versus iridiumrhodium thermocouples designed for use at temperatures to 3,500 °F and

above continued to gain favor during the year. A temperature-emf refer- ence table for the combination containing the 40 percent iridium—60 per- cent rhodium alloy neared completion. In the meantime, summaries of

calibrations comprising the most recent information were supplied to those

with an immediate need for such a table. Some data were also obtained on

an iridium versus iridium 60 percent—rhodium 40 percent thermocouple.

47
The search continued, with limited success, for electrically insulating

materials satisfactory at the high temperatures. Meanwhile, techniques were devised, which, although laborious, reduced to a tolerable magnitude

the inaccuracies resulting from deficiencies of insulation and other causes. Thermocouple Reference Table. Complete data were obtained for a temperature reference table for a new type thermocouple designed for longtime use in gas turbines where the gas temperature may be as high as 2,300 °F, and for short periods up to 2,600 °F. This thermocouple,

developed by an industrial contractor for the sponsor of this project, the

Wright Air Development Division of the Air Force, has palladium for one

element and platinum with 15-percent iridium for the other. The reference

table is expected to become available in a short time.

Heating Tests of a New Thermocouple. Another new thermocouple,

currently being developed by a manufacturer, was examined to determine the

effects of prolonged heating in a project sponsored by Wright Air Development Division of the Air Force. Two samples, each subjected to up to 1,500 hours of heating, one at 1,600 °F and the other at 2,000 °F, showed

changes comparable with the tolerances normally prescribed for the com- monly used jet-engine thermocouples. The purpose of this thermocouple

is to extend the temperature range for long-time use beyond that of the

currently used base-metal thermocouples.

Catalytic Reactions on a Rare-Metal Thermocouple. It is often

necessary to determine the temperature of gases containing appreciable

amounts of combustible material and oxygen. This is particularly so in the cases of jet and gas-turbine engines when evaluations of performance of the

combustor and turbine are required. Values of combustion efficiency are obtained from measurements of the temperature of the air entering the

burner and of the exhaust products leaving it. Similarly, evaluation of

turbine performance requires a knowledge of the temperatures of the gas

entering and leaving the turbine. In connection with the above temperature measurement problem, it was

noted that platinum is a catalyst under some conditions in products of in- complete combustion; and the question arose about the magnitude of errors

in measured temperature that might arise from the use of the palladium

vs platinum—15 percent iridium thermocouple. Preliminary measurements

were made of the catalytic effect in terms of rise of temperature of this

thermocouple in mixtures of air and small quantities of methane, propane,

hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, in a project sponsored by Wright Air

Development Division of the Air Force. The temperature range over which

effects appear was found to be 400 to 1,300 °F, and the magnitude was from

0 for methane to about 240 °F for hydrogen. Both sets of values depend

upon the gas mixture used and the velocity of the mixture over the thermocouple. Further work on this and other rare-metal thermocouples is planned.

Fuel Flowrate Studies. Under sponsorship of the Bureau of Naval

Weapons, progress continued on the fuel flowrate standardization program

48
for the aircraft industry. The program includes flowrate calibrator correlations with many different facilities in both industry and the services. The

agreement obtained upon completion of a successful correlation program is

usually within plus or minus 0.15 percent of rate throughout the range of

interest. Part of this program is devoted to construction of a reference

calibrator at the Bureau for use with hydraulic and lubricating oils (range

1 to 30 gpm. accuracy about plus or minus 0.1 percent).

Other work included: Continued investigation of characteristics of both

new and conventional flowmeters used in the aircraft industry; the writing

of purchase specifications for the sponsor for transfer reference flowmeter

assemblies; and the evaluation and calibration of specific reference units

for use in Naval Primary Standards Laboratories.

Through such work more accurate flowrate calibration facilities are being

maintained in the aircraft industry, and more suitable flowrate transfer

references are being developed and manufactured.

Calibration of Aircraft Fuel Metering Accessories. Reference test and calibration equipment for aircraft fuel metering accessories is maintained and operated at NBS for the Bureau of Naval Weapons. The primary

purpose is to develop uniform test and calibration procedures for gas turbine

fuel controls and aircraft carburetors for use by Naval overhaul facilities. Another purpose is to maintain reference standards whereby the performance

of similar test units installed in the field may be evaluated, and to develop

and evaluate new instrumentation and procedures for use in tests of these fuel

metering components.

Hypervelocity Missile in a Combustible Gas. A hypervelocity missile in a combustible gas provided a new technique which may be employed

to secure information over a wide range of conditions on combustion at supersonic speeds. Such parameters as pressure, temperature, fuel, and speed may

be changed at relatively little cost to learn of their effects on combustion.

The stagnation temperatures realized by this method are realistic, and the

method of mixing of air and fuel and the degree of turbulence cannot affect the results.

Effects of interaction of a shock wave and the combustible gas, and of in- teraction of the combustion and the solid body were analyzed in a project

sponsored by the Office of Scientific Research of the Air Force. In this

way, problems associated with stabilization of a detonation wave on a sta- tionary object in a moving combustible mixture can be examined in advance

of the application of this kind of combustion.

Several kinds of combustion were observed. Delayed ignition was

observed in some cases; and the conditions of temperature and pressure

and delay time observed may be used in attempts to make theoretical descriptions of combustion processes. Laminar combustion in a supersonic stream

also was observed. If the flow field can be described, the laminar flame speed

can be derived and compared to that measured under ordinary conditions.

Strong detonation waves were observed. The minimum Mach number for

49
the detonation wave can be derived and compared to that observed in tube

experiments. Effects due to boundary layers, which influence results in tube

experiments, were absent in these experiments, except at the front of the

sphere. It was noted that interaction of the combustion and the front of the

solid body produced oscillations of large amplitude in the megacycle fre- quency range.

Fatigue Strength of Aircraft Structures. It is now increasingly apparent that fatigue properties determined with fixed amplitude tests do not accurately describe the resistance of a member to randomly varying

loads. Airplane wings, for example, are exposed to a variety of random loads

resulting from maneuvers, gusts, landing impacts, and other factors.

In order to provide essential design information on the strength of builtup structures under random loads, specimens must be subjected to spectrums

of loads which are derived from force history measurements made in service on similar structures. A pneumatic fatigue testing machine was designed and

constructed for this purpose with an electronic programer which is capable

of automatically applying predetermined load sequences to structures. At the request of the Bureau of Naval Weapons, random load fatigue tests are being carried out on a series of riveted and bolted box-type wing beams

in bending. Through these tests, a better understanding of fatigue behavior

under random loads is being sought. Another objective is the establishment

of methods by which the fatigue properties of structures under random loading can be estimated from fatigue properties under fixed amplitude loading.

Aircraft wing beam

specimen being pre- pared for pneumatic

fatigue tests. This

study will provide

essential design in- formation on the

strength of built-up

structures under

random loads re- sulting from maneuvers, gusts,

landing impacts,

and other factors

(page 50).

50
Culvert Hydraulics. Seeking to lower costs of modern culvert construction through increasing the carrying capacity, the Bureau of Public

Roads sponsors an experimental investigation of pipe culvert hydraulics at NBS. The principal problem is that conventional culverts do not flow full even when the entrance is completely submerged. Hence a large portion of

the culvert barrel is not utilized in transporting water through the highway

fill.The study resulted in a definition of the complex interrelationship between

the hvdraulic and pneumatic processes involved in the onset of full conduit

flow in a culvert. In addition, the substantial adverse effects of air-carrying

vortices over the inlet were indicated.

The investigation is directed largely toward increasing the efficiency of

the culvert by geometric modifications of the inlet structure. Design standards for improved inlets were developed.

2.5. HEAT

The advances of sciences and technology demand constant improvement

and extension of standards and methods of measurement in the field of heat.

In response to these demands, the Bureau maintains the temperature scale

from the lowest to the highest accessible temperatures and continually ex- tends this scale. In addition, standards are developed for viscosity and for

such measurements as thermal diffusivity, heat capacity, and heat of combustion. In an intensive research program to improve and extend these standards,

special emphasis is given to statistical thermodynamics, molecular structure,

high-pressure thermodynamics, low-temperature physics, rheology, hightemperature processes, and various aspects of plasma physics.

During the past year, these activities were characterized by efforts to obtain

new extremes of temperature and pressure, to increase the degree of auto- mation of precision measurements, to extend knowledge of the statistical

thermodynamics of dense systems and of highly ionized gases (plasmas), to investigate the rheological behavior of a variety of systems, and to study

the mechanisms of high-temperature processes with greatly improved in- strumentation. The three-year program to investigate the behavior of solids

containing trapped free radicals was brought to completion. A long-range

experimental and theoretical program devoted to characterizing and predicting the properties of hot gases is under way.

Plasma Thermometry. To meet the rapidly growing needs of the

space sciences and the military for basic data on the behavior of hot gases

and plasmas (hot-ionized gases), a special research program was initiated to unify and strengthen the Bureau's activities in these areas. As part of this

program, a plasma thermometry laboratory was established to develop stable

plasma sources, to investigate the precision and accuracy of measuring

plasma temperatures, and to study the characteristics of plasmas which are not far from local thermodynamic equilibrium.

51
High-Temperature Arc Developed. During the first year of its existence, the plasma thermometry laboratory developed an improved version of

the wall-stabilized, high current-density arc. A special feature of this arc, which operates in the 10,000 to 20,000 °K region, is that the electrodes are surrounded by an inert gas such as argon. The gas to be studied is introduced in the central region, the argon serving to isolate it from the electrodes.

As a result, a large number of gases—including oxygen and nitrogen—can be maintained at temperatures of the order of 15,000 °K without electrode

contamination. Moreover, the gases are introduced and exhausted in such

a manner that it is possible to keep the center of the arc free from the buffer gas, argon. When operating in nitrogen at 14,000 °K, the intensity of a

spectral line can be kept constant to within 1 percent for the order of an

hour. Because of its purity and stability, this arc serves as the basic source

of high-temperature radiation in many of the Bureau investigations.

Hydrogen and Helium Studied. For systems in local thermodynamic

equilibrium the absolute and relative intensities of spectral lines, the

shapes of spectral lines, and the intensity of the continuum radiation are functions of the temperature. However, only in the case of atomic hydrogen and

helium are the details of the relationship accurately known. For this reason,

initial investigations are being conducted on hydrogen, helium, and mixtures of these gases with other gases. Because arcs in pure hydrogen and

helium are not as easily stabilized as in argon or nitrogen, more stable and

pure H and He arcs are required before theoretical and experimental results can be considered conclusive.

Another serious problem arises when hydrogen or helium, acting as thermometric indicators, are mixed with other gases. It is usually difficult

to find the relative concentrations of the gases in mixtures, because the concentration of some gases at high temperatures is not uniform throughout the

volume. For example, if 98-percent oxygen and 2-percent hydrogen were

initially fed to an arc, the actual concentrations might vary as a function of

the radius from 4-percent hydrogen on axis to 1 -percent hydrogen at the

edge. This phenomenon of nonuniformity is now being investigated with

mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen and is to be extended to mixtures of helium,

nitrogen, and argon.

Nonequilibrium Systems Investigated. High-temperature systems not

in local thermodynamic equilibrium are becoming increasingly important. One such system is a hyperthermal wind tunnel where a plasma is injected at sonic velocity into a high-vacuum environment. To study the

magnitude of the departures from equilibrium, low- and high-pressure arcs were developed to operate at pressures from about 0.01 to 100 atmospheres.

Preliminary tests are now being performed on these arcs. Detailed investigations on the existence of equilibrium and on the determination of plasma temperatures may lead to accurate measurements of

the transition probabilities of atomic and ionic spectral lines. These data

are of great importance to aeronomists, plasma physicists, and astrophysicists (see p. 60)

52
Scientist images a 15,000 °K plasma arc on a spectrograph. This is one of

several high-temperature arcs developed as a tool in the Bureau's high temperature measurement program. Right : Image of the arc as it appears through

the window (arrow) (page 52).

Thermodynamic Properties of Light-Element Compounds. One

of the most effective means of developing more efficient chemically propelled

rockets is to select particular fuel materials which generate more power per

unit mass and lose less power in the exhaust products. Although it is clear

that such fuel materials should be composed of light elements or their compounds, selection for top performance cannot be reliably predicted until

more thermodynamic data are acquired for these compounds.

To meet this need, the Bureau—under the sponsorship of the Defense

53
Department—is continuing its comprehensive interdivisional program of

research on aluminum, beryllium, lithium, and magnesium compounds.

Although this program has one goal—determination and dissemination of

thermodynamic data of light element compounds—the means of reaching

this goal are widely diversified. For example, the entropy of lithium

aluminum hydride is being determined by low-temperature thermal measurements, and should help in predicting under what conditions this new com- pound can be formed or will decompose. Gas-density measurements on

boron trifluoride indicate its deviations from gas ideality up to 250 atm and

500 °K. The important aluminum-oxygen gaseous system, on the other

hand, can exist only at much higher temperatures, but an exploding-wire

apparatus designed to measure its energy, density, and composition up to 100 atm and 6,000 °K is showing some promise. A new, more accurate value was obtained for the heat of formation of beryllium chloride, using a calorimeter operating at elevated temperatures. New results, whose further

refinement is planned, were obtained for both the heat of formation and the

molecular structure of N2 F4 , the newly available fluorine analog of hydrazine.

Such basic data, combined when necessary with results from other laboratories, are most useful when tabulated as the fundamental thermodynamic

properties for a wide temperature range. In the current program the properties of over 100 substances were tabulated by high-speed machine

computers. Where the needed data are still lacking, they are estimated by

theoretical and semiempirical methods which, in practice, are usually adequate for minor constituents of rocket fuels. Because major constituents are

also tabulated, it is possible to calculate the chemical composition and energy

content of fuel systems under equilibrium conditions.

Omniform. Considerable progress was made in techniques for highspeed computation of thermodynamic data—both in large-scale table generation and in the application of high-speed machines to a variety of timeconsuming ad hoc calculations, which are part of the daily research routine.

To eliminate some of the delay caused by a wide variety of tedious computations which, because of their ad hoc character, are not usually programed, a general-purpose machine program called "Omniform I" was

developed. This program enables a scientist to have direct access to a highspeed machine without learning the specialized programing ordinarily

required. Thus he is able to use the high-speed computer in a manner highly

analogous to his use of a desk calculator. "Omniform I" can perform any

algebraic calculation which is given explicitly in terms of one variable and

a series of constants or parameters. Among its built-in provisions are two

dozen elementary and special mathematical functions, a means for taking

functions of functions, numerical differentiation, and a wide variety of

numerical integration methods. Although this program was created primarily to meet the needs of workers in thermodynamics and molecular

physics, the mathematical operations involved are applicable to calculations

in many other research areas.

54
Theoretical Rheology. Advances in both linear and nonlinear rheological theories led to improved definition and measurement of material properties and increased understanding of relations between properties and

structure. From the point of view of continuum mechanics, the flow of an

incompressible fluid is governed by a set of equations made up of (1) a state- ment of Newton's laws, (2) the condition of incompressibility, and (3) a

constitutive relation connecting deformation and stress. This constitutive

relationship—which characterizes the material—is the concern of the rheologist. Although it is well known that most materials respond to stress in

a nonlinear manner, the great majority of presently accepted results in rheologv apply only to situations where a linear approximation of the constitutive relation is justified. On the other hand, even Newtonian fluids

which conform to a linear constitutive relation are governed by a nonlinear

expression of Newton's law. Therefore to study nonlinear rheology of fluid

flow it is important to be able to distinguish the nonlinear effects which

are independent of the rheology of the fluid. A theoretical attack on this

problem has resulted in criteria for estimating the maximum effect of these

extraneous nonlinearities for typical viscometer flows. These bounds promise to be a valuable tool in designing experiments for the growing study of

nonlinear rheology. They are also being used in the evaluation of the

effect of secondary flow on the performance of an absolute viscometer in

which the liquid is contained in an oscillating hollow sphere.

In the linear region, the most complete expression of the current molecular

theories for the viscoelastic behavior of rubberlike materials was formulated

in terms of the response to a steady stress or strain. Previously this particular formulation had been expressed only in terms of steady-state response

to sinusoidal stress or strain. This solution, carried out in collaboration

with the Bureau's computation laboratory and with the support of the Office of

Naval Research, will permit the comparison of the theory with various ex- perimental measurements of stress relaxation and creep, and should help in

assessing the effect of molecular weight distribution on the linear viscoelastic properties of such materials.

A New Simplified Approach to the Many-Body Problem. In recent

years much attention has been given to the use of perturbation theory in

many-body systems. In typical applications, some property of a system is expanded in powers of a perturbation; the expansion is observed to be divergent; certain parts of the expansion are collected and resummed;

and a convergent result is obtained. Graphical methods are generally used to represent terms in the expansion. Difficult analytic, combinatorial, and

topological problems arise in using such graphical methods.

A program of study was initiated to simplify the use of perturbation

theory in such problems so that useful results can be obtained with a minimum of time and effort. General equations for the average time dependence

of molecular quantities were derived without the use of graphical techniques.

Applied to a few well-known situations, they give the same results as earlier,

55
more complicated methods. As a result, they were used in a new calculation

of the coefficient of self-diffusion in a moderately dense gas (where triple

collisions are important)

Paramagnetic Resonance in the Free Hydroxyl Radical. The

neutral hydroxyl radical, OH, has a transitory existence in certain gaseous

electrical discharges and flames, and is thought to act as an intermediate

product in many chemical reactions. In a program for the Defense Department the optical spectrum of this radical, which was intensively studied

for many years, was recently extended to the microwave range of wavelengths. These microwave spectra were investigated because they yield

information on the physical properties of the OH radical itself, and aid in

detecting the presence of the radical and studying reactions in which it is involved.

Because of the strong magnetic moment associated with its unpaired electron, the OH radical can also be studied by the well-developed technique of

paramagnetic resonance absorption. This process involves measuring the

microwave absorption of a vapor containing OH radicals, while subjecting

the vapor to a moderately strong magnetic field. The radiation incident on

the vapor has a single fixed wavelength, and the magnetic resonance spectrum

is displayed by varying the strength of the magnetic field. In the Bureau

experiment, OH radicals were generated by an electric discharge in lowpressure water vapor. The radical vapor was pumped continuously out of

the discharge region and through a quartz absorption cell located within the

Measuring the refractive index of a thin film of gas condensed on a liquid

helium-cooled surface. The measurements, believed to be the first of their

kind, were made in connection with the Bureau's free radicals research program

(page 58).

56
microwave cavity of the paramagnetic resonance spectrometer. Several discrete line spectra were observed. On theoretical grounds, these spectra were

assigned to OH radicals by matching the spectra against those predicted

from the theory of Zeeman effects and hyperfine structure of diatomic molecules. This identification was verified by substituting deuterium oxide

(DL.0) vapor for water (fLO) vapor in the electric discharge.

From precise measurements on the paramagnetic resonance spectra, several molecular constants of OH and OD were deduced. These include

values of the molecular magnetic moments, lambda-type doubling energies,

and hyperfine structure interaction constants. The latter are of special interest as a test of theoretical molecular wave functions; the hydroxyl radical

is one of the most complex physical systems for which accurate wave functions have been calculated.

Transfer of Rotational Energy in Collision Between Molecules.

The development of jet engines and gas turbines has led to the need for

fundamental research on the physical and chemical processes occurring in

the gases and on methods of temperature measurements where usual procedures fail. Continuing detailed spectroscopic studies on well-controlled sys- tems is providing basic information required in this field, as well as in

chemical kinetics and in upper-atmosphere chemistry and physics.

Any chemical reaction is a complex combination—or the average of the

effects produced by many different kinds of collisions between molecules

occurring both simultaneously and in sequence. The exact course of the

reaction can, in principle, be predicted if the result of each type of molecular

collision involved in the reaction is known. These results can be expressed

as a set of transition probabilities. However, such probabilities, because

they are derived from each specific state of a molecule to every other state, are difficult to calculate.

Transition probabilities are now being studied in a program sponsored

by Wright Air Development Center. Electronically excited hydroxyl radicals I OH I are produced in a single rotational energy level, and transitions

from this level to neighboring levels are directly observed. For the experiment, a flame is illuminated with a narrow spectral line which coincides with

a single OH absorption line, producing excited molecules in the single energy

level. Relative intensities of fluorescence from this and other levels populated hy collisions give the data from which transition probabilities can be

calculated. The data obtained so far show that rotational energy is trans- ferred at every kinetic theory collision, and that the jumps are not re- stricted to the immediately adjacent levels. Precise Molecular Structures from Microwave Spectra. The interpretation of certain molecular properties requires a very precise knowledge

of the molecular structure constants. Microwave spectroscopy—in cases

wdiere it can be applied—provided a means of establishing molecular struc- tures with a precision probably surpassing that available by other procedures. To minimize the effects of zero-point vibration on the structure, the

method of "substitution" parameters is used. In this method, isotopes are

569432 O—60 5 57
substituted for every atom in the molecule so that isotope shifts rather than

the absolute values of the moments of inertia can be determined. The basic

procedure, which was applied to propylene, propane, and isobutane, resulted

in very precise measurements for bond distances and angles. The heights

of the barriers to internal rotation of the methyl groups in these molecules were also accurately determined from their microwave spectra. For example,

where tunneling effects can be directly observed—as in propylene—the

barrier height can be determined with an accuracy better than one percent.

Because these techniques are fairly general, they are being applied to other

prototypical molecules.

Free Radicals Research Program. The three-year program of experimental and theoretical research on the properties of reactive atomic and

molecular species trapped in solids was recently completed. Although the

Bureau served as the central laboratory facility for the study, the program

was established as a cooperative venture among government, industrial, and

university laboratories with financial support from the Department of Defense. The research of the past year developed along three main lines: production and determination of concentrations of trapped species, nature of

the solid containing the trapped species, and reactions of the trapped species

in the solid.

Production of Trapped Radicals. Radical formation was explored

by electrical discharge, thermal dissociation, ultraviolet photolysis, chemical

reactions, electron and proton bombardment, gamma and X-irradiation,

and thermochemical explosions. Free radicals were either formed in the

gas phase and subsequently condensed on a cold surface, or formed directly

in the condensed solid phase. From both the experimental and theoretical

research, it was observed that mixtures of atoms and molecules may condense

until certain critical conditions in the condensate are reached. Then a small

explosion or ignition takes place. This ignition appears to correspond to an abrupt atom recombination in the solid, such that the atom or radical

concentration in the solid always remains below a few tenths of a percent.

Although this concentration is far below the value required for practical

power applications, it is significant enough to make the properties of the

solids unusual and interesting.

Behavior of Trapped Radicals. To study the nature of condensed

gases, X-ray and electron diffraction methods were applied for the first time.

X-ray studies showed that the degree of crystallinity of the condensates is very sensitive to the method and rate of deposition. In general, less crystalline order was observed if the deposit was accumulated slowly, while more

order was revealed if deposition was obtained by fast condensation, or con- densation after passage through an electrical discharge. These diffraction

studies contributed considerable data on the mechanism of the deposition

process, and on the possibilities for trapping radicals within the deposit.

The index of refraction and the dielectric constant of the condensed gases were measured for the first time. These properties were obtained by

ellipsometric and capacitance techniques, respectively. Considerable em58
phasis was also placed on the spectroscopic studies of the low-temperature

condensates. In general, the spectroscopic studies aided in identifying the

trapped species and also in studying the nature of the interactions between

the trapped radicals and the lattice. Reactions Involving Trapped Radicals. Some of the most promising work involving the potential utilization of trapped radicals was done in

low-temperature chemistry. One such investigation concerns the interactions

of hydrogen atoms—formed on an incandescent tungsten ribbon—with thin

films of solid olefins. Hydrogen atoms were observed to diffuse readily

through the solid lavers and to react with the solids. By using this approach, an excellent tool is provided for studying the details of reactions and determining activation energies of reactions that could not be obtained any other

way. The stability of trapped radicals was examined by observing the elec- tron spin resonance spectrum as a function of time. At sufficiently low temperatures, the radicals appeared to be stable in the solids for very long

periods.

Primary Diesel Reference Fuel Studies. The ignition quality scale

(cetane number) of diesel fuels was defined for many years in terms of

hydrocarbons n-hexadecane and 1-methylnaphthalene. Because it was not

possible, until recently, to obtain these materials in a highly pure form, impurities in the standards caused slight errors in the scale. In addition, there

are serious doubts regarding the storage stability of 1-methylnaphthalene.

As part of a program to find a low-cetane primary standard to replace

1-methylnaphthalene, the compound 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane

( tetraisobutane ) was prepared and tested. This material has the same molecular weight as the high-cetane standard, n-hexadecane, and very nearly

the same density. While the cetane number of tetraisobutane is higher than

1-methylnaphthalene, the two cetane-number scales may be linearly related

in the useful range. Tetraisobutane, easily prepared and purified from the

readily available diisobutylene, is stable in storage. Its performance in the

diesel test engine at low-cetane levels is much superior to 1-methylnaphthalene.

For these reasons, tetraisobutane was proposed to the American Society for

Testing Materials as a possible replacement for the present, low primaryreference fuel, 1-methylnaphthalene.

2.6. ATOMIC PHYSICS

As a result of the rapid increase of effort in the fields of space exploration,

missile technology, and astrophysics by government agencies and industrial

laboratories, there is a greatly expanded demand on the Bureau for precise

data on atomic constants, energy levels, and transition probabilities. The

Bureau has established a broad research program to unify and strengthen

its activities in these areas through the use of spectroscopic and ultra-hightemperature studies, crossed-beam experiments, and observations in plasma,

atomic, and solid-state physics. In the solid-state work, emphasis is placed on basic research in the field of semiconductors. Increased knowledge and

understanding of the microscopic and macroscopic behavior of such sub59
Strong lines in the thorium spectrum from this thorium halide lamp are used

as secondary standards with which to compare wavelengths of unknown spectra.

About 15,000 distinct lines have been observed and their wavelengths measured

(page 61).

stances must be gained if their potentialities for technological applications

are to be evaluated.

Laboratory Astrophysics. Properties of electromagnetic radiation and

of particles and their interactions are studied in relation to thermodynamic

equilibrium, energy levels, and collision processes.

Transition Probabilities. Knowledge of the abundance of the vari- ous elements in the sun and other stars is entirely dependent upon knowledge of the transition probabilities associated with the various lines observed

in solar and stellar spectra. Data on these transition probabilities are neces- sary also for determinations of temperature and for evaluating departures

from thermodynamic equilibrium in both stellar atmospheres and high- temperature plasmas generated in thermonuclear fusion devices.

60
In order to obtain the necessary data, the Bureau has established a center

to gather and index all published information in the field of atomic transition probabilities. The accumulation of the necessary material has been

started. Since the experimental data can be presented in several equivalent

forms ( transition probabilities, oscillator strengths, Einstein coefficients,

lifetimes), one of the first tasks will be the reduction of all published data

to a common form. It is hoped that this work will lead to publication of

critically assembled tables of transition probability data.

A research program to measure transition probabilities has been started

in the laboratory. The first phase of this work will utilize high-current wallstabilized arcs. Data obtained in this way will be checked by parallel ex- periments utilizing direct measurements of atomic lifetimes and hightemperature plasmas generated by shock tubes.

Atomic Energy Levels. A program on atomic energy levels has

already resulted in the publication of three volumes covering data on energy

levels of all atoms except those in the rare earth series. Research is being

concentrated presently on the collection of data on these rare earth spectra.

Such analysis is extremely difficult, but considerable progress has been made

through the applications of new techniques of exciting spectra and more

extensive use of automatic equipment for handling the large quantity of

data.

Considerable progress has already been made on the very complex spectrum

of thorium; 15,000 lines have been observed and their wavelengths measured

with a precision of about one part in 500,000. Other rare earth elments on

which work has been started at NBS are ytterbium, cerium, praseodymium,

and thulium.

Collision Cross Sections. The Bureau has undertaken a program of

measurement of low-energy collision cross sections, with the objective of

obtaining accurate absolute total and differential cross sections for selected

processes of critical importance to astrophysics and plasma physics. Such

accurate data also would be valuable in facilitating the development of

theoretical methods for calculating cross sections for a wide range of collision

processes.

Effort was concentrated on instrumentation for studies of electron collisions with neutral atoms and with negative ions. The cross section for

inelastic collision of electrons with negative hydrogen ions is believed to be

very large and to play a leading role in determining properties of the solar

atmosphere. Recent high-vacuum techniques and novel detection methods

were employed in these investigations. Also in progress is the development

of an apparatus for measurement of elastic and inelastic collisions of electrons with atoms. Hydrogen atoms will be considered initially because of

the importance of hydrogen in astrophysics and fusion physics problems and

because of its critical role in the development of theory.

An elaborate calculation of the cross section for elastic scattering of elec- trons from hydrogen atoms has been completed. Terms describing the dis61
tortion of the atom by the field of the incident electron and correctly incorporating electron exchange effects have been included in the mathematics.

This calculated result will be compared in detail with experimental results. Wavelengths as Length Standards. Work is continuing on the development of better optical length standards for metrology. Three devices have

been developed at the Bureau, each capable of producing relative line widths

0.06 to 0.12 as wide as that of the proposed international standard of length,

Kr8P>. Very sharp lines are absorbed or emitted in collimated beams of mer- cury atoms. Another device utilizes a very narrow band pass filter for radiation obtained by application of magnetic fields to mercury vapor at the resonance wavelength (2537 A) for the isotope Hg198 (see also 2.1, p. 29).

The wavelength of the emission line at 2537 A from a beam of Hg198

atoms has been measured relative to the radiation provided by a Kr86 lamp

operated at the triple point of nitrogen. Very precise measurements have

been made of the hyperfine structure of the 2537 A radiation produced by

the naturally occurring mixture of mercury isotopes.

Radiometry. The emissivity of platinum from 1.5 to 15 microns has

been very accurately measured. The experimental data agree closely with

the calculated emissivities determined from Planck's theory on the relation

between resistivity and emissivity. The emissivity of platinum is of considerable importance since the emissivities in the infrared region of other materials can be determined by intercomparison with the values for platinum.

This investigation was sponsored by the Army Office of Ordnance Research.

Infrared Spectroscopy. The infrared spectra of several polyatomic

molecules have been observed. In the analysis of the spectra of ethane and

completely deuterated ethane, it was possible to obtain accurate molecular

Surface emission mass spectrometer used in the redetermination of the atomic

weight of silver, an important physical and chemical constant which plays a key role in determining other atomic weights and fundamental constants. The

chemical atomic weight derived is 107.8731 ± 0.0020, significantly different

from the accepted value of 107.880 (pages 9 and 63).

62
constants. The C-C distance in the ethane molecule was found to be 1.534

A, which is larger than previous values. Further work has been completed

on the ammonia spectrum in the region from 3 to 4 microns. With the high

resolution available, it was possible to identify several new energy levels. A number of interactions have been found between the bands in the 3- to 4-micron region.

Atomic Weight of Silver. Natural silver consists of two isotopes of mass numbers 107 and 109 in nearly equal abundance. Although the atomic

weights of the two isotopes have been accurately measured by Nier, existing

data on the isotopic ratio are discordant. In conjunction with a redetermination of the faraday, a new value was obtained for the atomic weight of silver. The isotopic abundance ratio was determined by the Bureau with the co- operation of the Atomic Energy Commission using a 60° surface emission mass spectrometer with a triple rhenium filament source and a 12-in. radius

of curvature. A value of Ag107/Ag109 = 1.07547±0.0013 was found. When

this ratio is combined with Nier's values of the mass of the isotopes, the

chemical atomic weight of silver is 107.8731 ±0.0020, significantly different

from the accepted chemical value of 107.880 (see also 2.2, p. 33).

Solid-State Physics. An important contribution was made to the theory

of electronic transport in high-magnetic fields. During studies of these

phenomena, it was shown that divergencies can be avoided and bona fide

expressions for the magneto resistance obtained by using the exact scattering

solution rather than perturbation theory.

Studies of Rutile. Considerable progress has been made in the

investigation of the physical properties of rutile (Ti02 ). A working model

of electronic behavior in this material was formulated. It can be used to explain most results on conductivity, Hall coefficient, and thermoelectric

power. Conduction in this material involves the occurrence of polarons

with very small binding energy. (A polaron is an electron surrounded by

a cloud of induced lattice polarization.) During the last 12 years, a considerable amount of theoretical work about the polaron has appeared, but

experimental verification of these theories is meager.

A start was made toward the study of magnetic susceptibility of pure

and reduced rutile. A very sensitive apparatus was built which has a limit

of measurement of about 10"9 cgs units.

Other work on rutile was concerned with investigations of the dielectric

constant and losses. Investigations of these parameters as a function of

frequency, temperature, and d-c bias voltage indicate that barrier layers play

a dominant role in low frequency a-c measurement. The "static" dielectric

constant of "pure" rutile was measured over a wide range of temperature

down to 1.6 °K.

The facilities for crystal growth were extended by the construction of a flame fusion furnace to prepare simple crystals of oxides, spinels, etc. Electron Scattering. A technique has been devised to study plural

inelastic scattering. This method utilizes the discrete nature of characteris63
Expanded view of light source and gas cell package from a prototype rubidium

vapor frequency standard. It will ultimately be miniaturized for a satellite flight check of the gravity-dependent frequency shift predicted by Einstein's

theories. Tests indicate a stability of 1 part in 10" per month, or better

(pages 65 and 102).

tic energy loss events. Since at each event a known amount of energy is

lost, the number of individual inelastic events experienced by a particle is uniquely determined by the total energy loss. The relative probability of one, two, or more events may therefore be determined experimentally; and

the mean free path may be obtained by a multipoint fit to the Poisson distri- bution function. A well-known stumbling block in this procedure has

always been the presence of a continuous background which distorts the

relative probabilities of the multiple events. A new method of correction

for this background permits consistent fits to the calculated curve and thus

determination of the mean free path within a few percent.

Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectrometer. The design has been completed

and the construction almost completed of a unique vacuum ultraviolet

spectrometer. An instrument having a focal length of one meter and compact enough that a bakable ultra-high vacuum housing became practical, was designed using a Rowland circle mounting based on a pantograph. This

arrangement maintains perfect focusing properties for all wavelengths,

while permitting the entrance and exit beams to remain fixed in position.

Such an instrument will be suitable to measure the optical constants of metals

prepared, mounted, and studied under such conditions that no changes

would occur in the surface of the specimen.

64
Atomic Standards of Frequency. The examination of the hyperfine

and Zeeman resonances in rubidium vapor continued in order that the limits

of applicability of these transitions to frequency standards development could

be defined. Optical pumping techniques were applied to the study of line

shapes and to the clarification of relaxation mechanisms.

The first of three prototype rubidium vapor frequency standards was operated. Ultimately to be miniaturized for a satellite flight check of the

gravity-dependent frequency shift predicted by Einstein's general theory of

relativity, the standard will have a volume of about one cubic foot and will

weigh about fifteen pounds exclusive of power supply. Tests indicate a

stability of one part in 10 11 per month or better. Exposure to radiation at 100 roentgens per hour from a cobalt-60 source, simulating three months of

exposure in the Van Allen radiation belts, produced no observable change

within the measurement accuracy of 1 : 10 n. Sensitive apparatus was constructed for measuring stimulated emission of

microwave energy from rubidium vapor. A low level of stimulated emission was detected.

2.7. RADIATION PHYSICS

The continuing increase in applications of atomic and nuclear technology

to medical, industrial, and defense problems requires that research in these

fields move forward at an accelerating pace. Fundamental to this advance is an increase in the knowledge of the properties of radiation. The Bureau is contributing to this knowledge through investigations of the basic character

of radiation and examination of the interaction of radiation with matter. The scope of the program and accomplishments in these areas during the

past year is illustrated by the diversity of activities, which ranged from participation in the work of organizations directly concerned with human radiation protection to the development of techniques for controlling intense, highenergy electron beams. These two examples indicate the significance of the

work in that radiation protection is vital to safe expansion of atomic and

nuclear technology, while control of electron beams is of considerable importance for industrial and research purposes.

Standards. In the radioactivity standards program, solution standards

of strontium 85 and niobium 95 have been developed; zinc 65 has been

reissued as a solution standard with higher accuracy (2% as compared with

5% for the 1957 issue) ; cobalt 60 has been recalibrated, so that new

working standards are now in use; and a method for the preparation of

americium 241 alpha standards has been developed. Half-life measure- ments have been continued on carbon 14, sodium 22, cobalt 60, zinc 65, krypton 85, cesium-barium 137, and promethium 147. Half-life measurements

were concluded on iron 59, bromine 82, strontium 85, niobium 95, and

mercury 203. Work was begun on a laboratory capable of preparing lowactivity standards of such nuclides as cobalt 60, thorium 92 in equilibrium,

cesium-barium 137, radium 226 in equilibrium, uranium 235 and uranium

238 in equilibrium, and plutonium 239. This laboratory will be concerned

65
with the development of methods of radiochemical separation, assay methods,

and counting equipment for the measurement of low levels of radioactivity.

Radiation Theory. The complex of research, development, and production activities in the field of atomic energy depends to a major extent on knowledge regarding the production, propagation, and effects of radiations.

The Bureau is contributing to the increase of this knowledge with a program

in radiation theory which provides new methods of calculation, results of

specific calculations, and dissemination of data.

Cross Sections. The theoretical analysis of bremsstrahlung and pair

production continued. The differential cross sections for these processes were calculated to a better approximation, and the integration of these cross sections over all angles of the final particles is now in progress. A

revised table of X-ray attenuation coefficients from 10 kev to 100 Mev was

published as a supplement to NBS Circular 583.

Multiple Scattering. A program was established to calculate auto- matically by a combination of analytical and Monte Carlo methods the

multiple scattering of electrons in bounded media. Preliminary results were

obtained for the back scattering from semi-infinite media.

With the support of the Defense Atomic Support Agency and the Office

of Civil and Defense Mobilization, work continued on the problems of shielding from the radiation effects of nuclear weapons. Further work on the

analysis of shielding by foxholes resulted in estimates of the "lip" contribution in reasonably good agreement with experimental results. Further work

on blockhouses yielded estimates in good agreement with experiments.

Equipment used in redetermining the half-life of carbon 14. The improved

value is important for the calibration of radiation-measuring devices in chemistry, biochemistry, and industry (page 65).

66
Digital computer programs prepared in previous years were used to extend

basic moment data to include protective shields of iron and to extend basic

shielding graphs to include penetration in concrete and air barriers by Co60

, CsK,T

, and average fission spectrum sources. There has been further progress

toward devising engineering rules for estimating structure shielding, particularly in regard to maze-type geometries and heavy, multistory buildings.

Radiation Protection. Research on the fundamental properties of

radiation and on radiation standards has placed the Bureau in a unique position to translate the latest information in this field into practical working

codes for radiation protection. The Bureau has assisted in the dissemination

of this information by publishing as NBS handbooks the recommendations of

the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Staff

members have been very active in the work of the National Committee on

Radiation Protection and Measurements, the International Commission on

Radiological Units and Measurements, and the International Commission on

Radiological Protection. These groups have formulated recommendations

which represent the best scientific thinking in the broad area of radiation

protection and units. A number of new or revised handbooks are nearing

completion.

X-Ray Studies. As the country's primary radiation standardization

laboratory, the Bureau provides basic information for the calibration of Xand gamma-ray measuring instruments.

Ion-Pair Production. Four experiments were completed on measure- ment of the energy required to produce an ion pair. This energy measure- ment is a conversion factor for the determination from ionization measure- ments of energy absorbed. Techniques used in one of these experiments led

to a new method for determining electron attachment time. An experimental arrangement is being constructed which will make possible a comparison of the slow and fast methods of ionization collection so that differ- ences in results obtained by the two methods can be resolved. This arrangement will also make possible a determination of the dependence of ion-pair

production on alpha particle energy.

Intercomparison of Standards. International intercomparisons of

X-ray standards have been made with a number of countries. Direct intercomparisons with the standards of Canada have been completed, and indirect

intercomparisons by means of transfer instruments have either been completed or are underway with the standards of France, the United Kingdom,

Germany, New Zealand, and Australia.

Linear Polarization. A comprehensive study was completed of X-ray

linear polarization using the Bureau's low-energy electron accelerators operating in the 0.05 to 1.0 Mev region. The quantitive behavior of the linear

polarization is given as a function of the incident electron energy from 0.05

to 1,000 Mev for various photon energies and emission angles and for thin

targets of both low- and high-atomic numbers. A comprehensive survey of

bremsstrahlung cross sections over this same energy region was also published.

67
High intensity accelerator now being designed for the Bureau's new laboratories in Gaithersburg, Maryland. The accelerator will produce one of the

world's most intense electron beams, with energies continuously variable from

10 to 100 million electron volts (page 68). (Drawing supplied by High

Voltage Engineering Corp.)

Radioactivity. The increasing demands for precision radioactivitystandards and for techniques of radioactive metrology require that the details

of the dynamics of the disintegration process be known. Such quantities as energies, intensities, angular momenta, and polarization properties of the

radiations are being studied and correlated with the properties of the nuclear

energy levels involved

Beta Decay. The Bureau is presently using the results of investigations

which led to the experimental discovery of the nonconservation of parity to

investigate polarization effects in nuclear beta decay. These investigations

led, in turn, to the determination of nuclear matrix elements for beta decay.

Extensive measurements of certain rare earth radioactivities were begun,

with those on cesium 141 and neodymium 147 being essentially completed.

Linear Electron Accelerator. Economical and efficient use of nuclear

radiations in many industrial and medical applications requires understanding of the fundamental interactions of these radiations with matter and development of the most precise standardized measurement techniques. To

extend the Bureau's research programs in nuclear and radiation physics,

Congress has provided funds for a high-intensity linear electron accelerator,

for the design of a high-power neutron reactor, and for the housing of a high-current, variable-energy cyclotron for protons and deuterons.

The laboratory for the linear accelerator was designed to provide shielding

against the radiation from an electron beam that will be among the most

intense in the world and about 100,000 times more intense than those available in present Bureau accelerators. The design provides for directing this

68
intense electron beam into any one of three experiment rooms located, as the accelerator itself will be, 40 ft below ground level and separated by

concrete walls 12 ft thick. This beam switching arrangement will provide

considerable flexibility for conducting a wide variety of experiments.

In connection with this design effort, two staff members participated in

experiments at other laboratories having linear accelerators. In these investigations, studies were made of the resonance fluorescence of nuclear

levels, the annihilation of 10-Mev positrons in flight, and the inelastic scattering of 80-140-Mev electrons by the carbon nucleus.

High-Energy Radiation. Some of the significant results obtained in

the study of the basic interactions of radiation with matter (particularly the

measurement techniques developed) will be directly applicable to the medical

and industrial uses of high-energy X-rays. Other results have increased

considerably the understanding of some of the basic interactions of highenergy X-rays with matter. In research employing the Bureau's 50-Mev betatron and 180-Mev

synchrotron and supported by the Atomic Energy Commission, measurement

techniques were developed which provide more accurate information on the

standardization of high-energy X-ray intensities, the measurement of absorbed doses, and the measurement of accelerator magnetic fields. Measurement and Standardization. A portable instrument for measuring the absolute intensities of X-rays up to 180-Mev was calibrated by

the NBS standard intensity calorimeter. This portable instrument was then

used to calibrate portable instruments in four European laboratories in a program supported by the World Health Organization.

An improvement in the technology of absorbed dose measurements was

brought about by the development of a dose calorimeter with increased

stability and sensitivity. This instrument has been used to measure to an

accuracy of 5 percent a dose as low as 500 rads supplied at a rate of 1 rad

per second.

An electron spin resonance detector was developed for the measurement

of magnetic fields which vary with space and time. This detector can measure a 3,000-gauss magnetic field to an accuracy of 3 gauss.

Nuclear Studies. In work supported by the Atomic Energy Commission, an accurate method for measuring nuclear radii and the shape of

nuclear matter distributions was developed from the detailed computer

analyses of experimental data on the angular distributions of neutral photo- mesons. The cross sections for neutron production and for nuclear elastic

scattering of X-rays at 90° were determined for holmium and erbium. The

neutron cross sections are essentially identical and show clearly the splitting

of the giant resonance resulting from the large intrinsic deformations of

these nuclei. Considerable progress was made toward understanding the

theoretical relation of these two cross sections. Information gained from

analyses of these data is valuable in determining the shape and structure of

these nuclei.

69
Gamma- and X-ray Calibration. Radiation sources for industrial,

medical, and military purposes and for instruments for measuring the radiation from these sources must be properly calibrated. Investigations of

radiation effects on materials greatly increased the range of dose rates required and thus the need for extended or new dosimetry procedures.

Increasing interest in higher gamma-ray dose rates led to the procurement of a 1,000-curie Co,io gamma-ray beam device and a similar facility

with 2,000 curies of Cs137

. The Co''° source has been installed and cali- brated during the past year.

Medical applications of radioactive nuclide gamma-ray sources continue

to employ the activity of the nuclide as an indication of the effectiveness of

the source. However, the fact that such sources must be encapsulated means

that this measurement will be erroneous unless the effects of the capsule

walls on the source output are known. This requirement led to an investigation of the parameters needed to determine wall corrections for radium standards. Experimental and theoretical studies of the corrections for different

wall thickness, capsule diameter, and material were made and the effects of

these parameters were evaluated.

Surveying the radiation field around a calibrated cobalt-60 source (encapsulated in the lucite cylinder at the center) which is used to expose dental-size

film packets. The film packets are ordinarily used to measure total radiation

exposure of workers in hazardous areas (page 71).

70
Dosimetry. Photographic dosimeters for total exposure measurements,

although simple and rugged, lack certain desirable characteristics. An investigation with the support of the Atomic Energy Commission was therefore made of the basic phenomena governing the response of photographic

emulsions to high-energy electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation. In an effort to learn more about photographic reversal effects with X-radiation, reversal effects of visible light were studied with particular attention

given to the Herschel effect ( red-light exposure following white-light exposure

and erasing some of the effect of the white light). These studies led to a

greater understanding of reversal effects in general.

Studies of neutron sensitivity of photographic emulsions were continued.

Order-of-magnitude agreement was obtained between theoretical and ex- perimental determinations of thermal neutron sensitivity of one film type.

Studies of fast neutron sensitivity were completed and indicate that the

relative fast-neutron-to-gamma-ray sensitivities were in the ratio of the re- ciprocal of the grain diameters of the particular film types.

A study was conducted of the influence of relative humidity and temperature on the optical density of a film type exposed to gamma rays over periods

of 1 to 3 months. Film samples were exposed to cobalt-60 gamma radiation

while subject to the Washington, D.C., climatic changes from August through

November. Much of the data were too erratic for interpretation, probably

because of the influence on the film of both extreme heat and very high relative humidity. A laboratory experiment with more precise control of humidity and temperature is now under way.

Work on solid-state dosimetry continued with the completion of the in- vestigation of the photovoltaic effect produced by X- and gamma rays in

silicon solar cells as a function of exposure dose rate, cell temperature, angle

of incidence of radiation, and photon energy. Work is now under way on

an examination of the response of silicon solar cells to high-energy gamma

rays at high exposure dose rates, with special consideration of the influence

of radiation damage on the response characteristics of such cells. Neutron Physics. In research supported by the Atomic Energy Commission and the Defense Atomic Support Agency, the Bureau is conducting

fundamental experiments on neutron penetration and neutron cross sections.

This research provides information important for the protection of personnel,

for investigation of the interaction of radiation with materials, and for un- derstanding nuclear structure. The NBS standard thermal neutron flux geometry was recalibrated in

terms of the thermal neutron absorption cross section of gold by activating

thin gold foils in the thermal flux and then measuring their absolute activity.

The activity was determined by counting the coincident beta particles and

gamma rays from the gold decay in a 4x geometry. This method of measuring absolute activity obviates knowledge of such things as the actual probability for detection of either the beta particles or the gamma rays. This new

calibration reduced the uncertainty in the value of the thermal flux from

about 2 to 1 percent.

71
Apparatus necessary for performing three other neutron experiments was

completed. These experiments include a study of the polarization of neutrons of about 3 to 4 Mev energy, measurement of fast neutron dose from

a D(c?, n) source in water with a calibrated dosimeter, and measurement of

neutron elastic and inelastic scattering in calcium in the energy range from

12 to 18 Mev.

2.8. CHEMISTRY

The Bureau develops and improves methods for the measurement of the

chemical properties, composition, and behavior of substances; prepares

standard substances of known composition or properties; makes accurate

measurements and collects data on chemical systems; studies the properties

of molecules and atoms in their relation to chemical reactions; maintains

competence in specialized areas of modern chemistry ; and provides technical

and advisory services pertinent to its responsibilities.

The special investigations pursued during the past year in inorganic,

analytical, organic, and physical chemistry included studies of new methods

for chemical analysis by emission and absorption spectroscopy as well as by conventional chemical means. Substances of high purity were prepared

and criteria developed for measuring purity. Chemical constants and thermochemical data were determined, while the mechanisms of organic reactions

and photochemical processes and the electrochemical phenomena at elec- trodes and membranes and in ionic solutions were studied. Radioactively

labeled sugars as well as composition standard samples, standard thickness

samples for electroplated coatings, and standard gas mixtures were produced

and certified.

Deposition of High-Purity Tungsten. Technological developments

in the space age require materials which can withstand high temperatures

and maintain a measure of structural strength at the same time. Among the

small number of applicable materials, tungsten is unique, as it has the highest

melting point of all the metals (3,400 °C, 6,120 °F) . However, until lately,

the high-temperature properties of tungsten could not be effectively utilized.

Its brittleness and hardness prevented it from being machined by conventional methods while its weight restricted its uses in aeronautical equipment.

For these reasons, efforts were made to develop a practical method for depositing tungsten coatings.

As a result of this work, high-purity tungsten can now be easily plated on metal surfaces by using a vapor deposition process developed independently by the Bureau, under Navy sponsorship, and by the Bureau of Mines.

The method involves reducing gaseous tungsten hexafluoride with hydrogen

by passing it over the heated object to be plated. At temperatures above

300 °C, tungsten is deposited on the hot surface, and the only other reaction

product, hydrogen fluoride, passes out with the excess of hydrogen.

With this method pure tungsten coatings with thicknesses up to % i n - can be deposited in a fairly smooth condition. It is possible to coat a variety

72
A recently developed method for plating objects with tungsten has overcome many of the difficulties involved in using tungsten in high temperature engineering. Tungsten is an ideal material for high temperature applications

because of its extremely high melting point, but its brittleness has prevented its machining into desired shapes (page 72).

of metals and ceramic surfaces such as rocket and missile nozzles and jet

engine parts. Since a thick coating can be formed, this technique also lends

itself to the fabrication of tungsten articles, and this may be the only way

that complicated shapes of tungsten can be formed.

Tube Plating Devices. The development of an electronic thickness gage

for measuring the thickness of chromium inside gun-tube bores has made

possible a rigid inspection of internally plated tubes. Since tube-plating

fixtures of standard design yield large circumferential variations in plate

thickness, the Bureau, under sponsorship of the Army, designed fixtures

which would be easier to assemble, give longer life, and result in improved

plate concentricity.

Thermochemical Properties of Boron Oxides. In the combustion

of certain high-energy fuels now used in advanced aircraft and rockets, boric

oxides and metaboric acids are formed. Because data on the heats and free

energies of formation of the combustion products of boron-containing fuels are essential to the proper evaluation of these fuels, recent studies were con- ducted for the Wright Air Development Center.

Three crystalline forms of metaboric acid with slightly different energies

exist. Methods for the preparation of all three forms in quantities of 50 to 100 g were developed, and flotation procedures for the rapid identification

569432 O—60 6 73
of orthoboric acid and the metaboric acids were devised. The heats of

formation of the metaboric acids were then derived from calorimetric meas- urements of the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when the crystalline acids were dissolved in water or were neutralized with a solution of sodium hydroxide. The data obtained are of considerable theoretical as well as practical interest.

Radiation-Induced Chemical Reactions. Information on elementary

reactions is necessary in order to understand more complex phenomena such

as oxidations and thermal decompositions. Thus a demand has arisen for

the systematic identification of elementary processes occurring when radiation and matter interact and of secondary chemical processes induced by

radiation with ultraviolet and gamma rays. In a program jointly sponsored

by the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Institutes of Health,

research is being conducted on systems consisting of both vapor and liquidsolid phases. In addition to providing important data on kinetic parameters,

these experiments have yielded valuable information on the importance of

ion-molecule reactions, the behavior of radicals in the gamma-ray track, and

the state of the excited molecules involved in intramolecular rearrangements.

The use of deuterium-labeled compounds has greatly simplified the interpretation of the data. The results of experiments on esters, ketones, and hydrocarbons indicate that the dissociative processes in photolysis and radiolysis

both involve electronically excited molecules. The stabilities of several

carbonyl radicals have been redetermined and the new values should aid in

evaluating alternative tables of bond strengths.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies. Nuclear magnetic resonance

is now being used to probe the subtleties of molecular structure. The ex- treme sensitivity of the technique to the nature of the molecular environment

permits study of details of molecular structure and interactions entirely inaccessible by other methods.

During the past year, high-resolution studies of diethyl- and di-H-butyl

sulfites and of O,0-diethylmethylphosphonothioate have revealed new fea- tures of the bonding of the alkoxy groups to sulfur and phosphorus. The

patterns of the spectra and the differences in nuclear resonance parameters

demonstrated the nonequivalence of the alkoxy groups in each class of esters. A fundamental dissymmetry of the structures of molecules which contain the same type of bonding orbitals appears to cause this anomalous behavior.

When the syn-anti isomerism of several aliphatic ketoximes and ketoxime

ethers was studied, simultaneous existence of two forms was found for several unsymmetrical ketoximes as well as for their ions formed in solutions

containing an acid or base. This discovery suggests that the technique of

nuclear magnetic resonance may find an important application in monitoring

the degree of separation of isomeric mixtures.

Isotope Effects in Tracer Studies. With radioactive isotopes substituted for an atom or in a molecule, the course of a substance can be traced

through an entire series of complex chemical processes. However, because

74
an isotope often acts differently from the normal atom, the validity of conclusions drawn from such experiments depends on a knowledge of the behavior of the isotopic atom compared with that of the normal atom. Any

difference between the behavior of the isotopic atom and that of the normal

atom is called an isotope effect. As part of a continuing program—sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission—to synthesize and use labeled

sugars and sugar derivatives, the Bureau is studying numerous isotopic reactions. For example, isotope effects were reported to occur in the crystallization of D-glucose-/-f. Such an effect, if present in the crystallization

process, would invalidate certain methods of analysis used in tracer studies.

When the reaction was carefully examined, no isotope effect was found

to exist. A technique was devised for studying isotope effects by labeling one of

the carbon atoms of the reacting substance with carbon 14 and one of the

hydrogen atoms with tritium. Any isotope effect during the reaction is determined by a change in the C

14 /H3 ratio. This technique was applied

to the oxidation of D-glucose with bromine and with chlorous acid. In both

reactions, oxidation is accompanied by a large isotope effect. It appears

that the carbon-tritium bond is broken during the rate-determining step. In the clorous acid reaction, the rate-determining step in the chlorous acid

Apparatus used to detect unstable species produced by photochemical reactions

at low temperatures. Information on the processes occurring when radiation

and matter interact often aid in understanding more complex phenomena such

as oxidations and thermal decompositions (page 74).

75
oxidation had formerly been considered to involve formation of the openchain sugar. No rupture of the carbon-tritium bond would have occurred

if such a formation existed. Thus, the test proves that the earlier concept

of the reaction mechanism is not valid. Other mechanisms are now being

tested.

Barium Titanate Semiconductors. Addition and detection of precisely predictable quantities of known activators are necessary for the study

of high-purity materials. Two important results have been achieved in this area during the past year. First, rare-earth elements can now be added

during the precipitation of barium titanyl oxalate. By controlling the

precipitation procedure very closely, a predictable amount of rare earth can be incorporated in the product. Second, the rare earths in barium

titanate can be separated and analyzed. By this procedure rare earths in

the range of 0.01 and 0.1 mole percent can be determined with an accuracy

of 2 to 4 percent of the actual amount present. In general, the method in- volves liquid-liquid extraction with various organic reagents at different

pH values and the subsequent colorimetric determination of the rare-earth

element.

Separation of Titanium, Zirconium, Iron, and Aluminum. The

continuing expansion of high-temperature and nuclear technology constantly

requires new materials to serve as standards of composition. This, in turn,

necessitates the continuing development of new or improved analytical

methods. A new system of analytical chemistry was devised for separating

and determining titanium, zirconium, iron, and aluminum in solutions containing the four metals. Through the use of the reagents l-nitroso-2-

naphthol, 8-hydroxyquinoline, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and cupfer- ron under conditions of controlled acidity or alkalinity, extremely sharp

separations could be obtained of these otherwise difficultly separable elements.

Designed originally for analyzing barium titanate ceramic dielectrics, the

method is applicable to a wide range of analytical problems.

Water-Vapor Detector. Minute quantities of water vapor in compressed gases have presented a serious problem for many years. With the

increasing complexity of pneumatic control systems and other components

requiring dry gaseous atmospheres, it has become extremely important to measure the exact water content of these gases. Although several methods

for determining the dryness of gases are available, the agreement among

the various methods is not sufficient to allow complete confidence in the

results obtained.

At the request of the Navy Department, a simple, accurate water-vapor

detector—similar to one previously developed at the Bureau—was designed

and built for operation at pressures up to 6,000 psi. This detector, which is now being used as a calibration instrument for comparing other types of

water-vapor detection, can determine exceedingly small amounts of water

in a concentration and pressure range where other instruments are

inadequate.

76
The instrument contains a pressurized saturator which serves as a source

of gas of known water content. This saturator can be operated over a range of pressures to produce a wide range of water concentration. Thus,

in principle, the water content of gases is determined by comparing the

electrical conductivity of a hygroscopic film—which is in equilibrium with

the water in the gas to be analyzed—with the conductivity of the same film

exposed to a gas of known water content. As part of this program, a frost-point chart was compiled giving the

theoretical frost points of compressed gases at pressures from 1 to 400 atm

(6.000 psi) and at temperatures from 70 to -200 °F.

Determination of Minor Elements by X-Ray Fluorescence. Because

X-ray fluorescence provides somewhat greater precision in determining major

constituents of materials than does optical emission analysis, an investgation was made to extend X-ray analysis to low concentrations. The X-ray spectrometer used in these experiments contains 15 fixed spectrometers and an

adjustable spectrometer unit which can measure 10 elements simultaneously.

In this study, detection limits and interferences were examined for 20 ele- ments: Arsenic, cobalt, chromium, copper, germanium, manganese, molybdenum, niobium, nickel, lead, sulfur, selenium, silicon, silver, tin, tantalum,

titanium, vanadium, tungsten, and zirconium. For most of the elements, the

detection limit is below 0.01 percent, which is sufficient for control analysis.

Interferences or interelement effects in low-alloy steel, although encountered, were not found to be serious. It was shown that the Bureau spectrographic

standards of low-alloy steels in disk form are well suited for calibrating the

X-ray spectrometer used in determining most of the elements investigated.

Coulometric Titrations. A coulometric analytical method and a coulometric-titration coulometer—each providing a precision of a few parts in

100,000 for analyzing acids and bases—were developed. These tools for

electroanalysis were designed for use in establishing the purity of chemical

standards and reference materials. The method is based upon the exact re- lationship between the amount of electricity used in an electrolysis and the

amount of chemical reaction produced. In the case of an acid, for example,

hydrogen ion is reduced at the cathode of an electrolysis cell, liberating hydrogen gas, until all of the acid has been neutralized. The number of equivalents of acid originally present is found by dividing the amount of current

required by the faraday constant. Analytical results, based entirely on electrical measurements, equal or exceed those of the more laborious classical

analytical procedures.

Primary Standards of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium. Because

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential elements in agricultural

fertilizers, reliable methods and standards are essential for their determination. The use of highly purified ammonium and potassium hydrogen phosphate as primary standards depends on the ability to analyze these highly

purified substances for the elements concerned. Because of the circuitous

route involved in the usual analysis for nitrogen, it is difficult to determine

the ammonia with an accuracy greater than 1 part in 1,000.

77
Coulometric titration apparatus capable of analyzing and evaluating chemical

standards and reference materials with a precision of 1 part in 100,000

(page 77).

However, a new method was devised in which the ammonia is distilled

into hydrobromic acid, after which the solution is evaporated at 60 °C to eli- minate water and excess hydrobromic acid. The resulting residue is weighed as ammonium bromide. Determinations of nitrogen in single-crystal

ammonium dihydrogen phosphate gave results indicating an accuracy of

1 part in about 15,000. The percentage of phosphate was established with an accuracy of about 1 part in 8,000. Work on potassium dihydrogen phosphate, expected to yield a standard for potassium, is still in progress.

Metal-Organic Standard Samples. For many years chemists in the

petroleum industry have needed accurate standard samples for determining

metals in petroleum products. From the spectrographs determination of

the metals that accumulate in crankcase oils, engineers can judge engine wear and anticipate trouble prior to engine failure. The method requires

standard samples containing known quantities of the elements in question.

Determination of metallic constituents in petroleum products is also highly

important in refining processes and in the use and control of materials added

to oils to improve lubricating properties.

A set of 24 standard samples of metal-organic compounds suitable for

spectrographic and chemical analysis of petroleum products, is now available.

These stable, oil-soluble substances are the result of 3 years of research and

78
development conducted for the American Petroleum Institute. Standards

containing the following elements are now available: Aluminum, barium,

boron, cadmium, calcium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, lithium,

magnesium, manganese, mercury, nickel, phosphorous, potassium, silicon,

silver, sodium, strontium, tin, vanadium, and zinc. All except six of these

elements are incorporated in the form of the metal salt of cyclohexanebutyric

acid. The other elements are dispensed as menthyl borate, £m(0-hydroxyacetophenone) chromium III, triphenyl phosphate, octaphenylcyclotetrasiloxane. dibutyltin 6ts(2-ethylhexoate) , and bis (benzoylacetonate) -oxo- vanadium IV.

2.9. MINERAL PRODUCTS

To provide basic information on a wide variety of inorganic, nonmetallic

substances, the Bureau conducts a two-fold program. One aim of this program is to obtain precise values of specific constants and fundamental data

that are important to the scientific community. Related standard samples

and information on engineering research are developed as required. A

second aim is to devise techniques for preparing materials and measuring

their properties under carefully controlled conditions. This work includes

the extension of physical property measurements to the extremes of high

and low temperature, to high pressures, and into the realm of very pure

substances. Methods are now being developed for producing very pure

materials and for growing single crystals of controlled purity and crystalline

perfection.

Crystal Growth. Many important advances in the chemistry and physics

of the solid state have arisen from studies of pure single crystals. Consequently, in every branch of research concerned with the solid state, there is

a persistent and increasing demand for single crystals of controlled purity

and perfection. However, except for a few substances, large single crystals

of high-melting substances are not generally available. Therefore, the

Bureau is developing techniques for growing well-characterized single

crystals of nonmetallic, inorganic substances. Resulting studies include re- search on growth of such refractory oxide crystals as aluminum oxide

(AL>03 )

, titanium dioxide (Ti02 ) , and other titanates.

The Verneuil technique is being used to produce Ti02 crystals with the

unique crystallographic direction both parallel and perpendicular to the

direction of growth of the crystal. Studies were initiated to replace the flame

as a heat source in this technique and to determine the effect of the atmosphere surrounding the growing crystal on the perfection of the crystal.

To investigate imperfections in crystals, A12 03 single-crystals containing

a few percent TiCK (star sapphire) were annealed at about 1,500 °C in

air. It was found that the Ti02 precipitate moved from the interior into

protrusions on the surface. These protrusions appeared to decorate scratches on the surface, as if they marked the ends of dislocation lines intersecting

the surface. At the same time, complicated interactions developed between

79
these protrusions and steps on the surface apparently generated by thermal

etching. Work on this behavior is leading toward a better understanding of

the properties of the crystals.

Elastic Properties of Oxide Single Crystals. The mechanical properties of refractory oxides at elevated temperature have recently received

increased attention. In particular, knowledge of the way in which materials

respond to stress and temperatures is necessary to develop suitable substances

and components for high-temperature, high-pressure applications. Recently,

advances were made in relating the anelastic and creep behavior of refractory

oxides with specific structural defects. The elastic constants of pure and

highly perfect single crystals vary with temperature as a result of anharmonic

terms in the potential energy. Although no satisfactory quantitative theory

exists as yet, the Bureau has developed an apparently general empirical

equation that accurately describes much of the data. Equipment was constructed for measuring changes in Young's modulus of elasticity with a precision of 1 part in 10,000 over the temperature range 77 to 850 °K.

Measurements have been made on single-crystal aluminum oxide and on

polycrystalline aluminum oxide and thorium oxide. In each case the results

fit the generalized equation. Measurements on other materials are in progress to investigate the range of validity of this equation.

Surface of a heat

treated aluminum

oxide single crystal

containing a few

percent of star sapphire (TiOs).

The sapphire can

be seen as needlelike particles within the protrusions,

which form on the

surface during annealing. Such imperfections are important factors in

the physical behavior of the crystal

(page 79).

Low-Temperature X-ray Diffraction. Present knowledge of the

crystal structure of some of the most common low-temperature solids is seri- ously inadequate. Although it is comparatively easy to obtain data at 4.2,

20, and 77 °K—temperatures corresponding to the boiling points of helium,

hydrogen, and nitrogen respectively—it is more difficult to maintain intermediate temperatures for as short a time as the minimum 3-hour period

required to obtain complete X-ray data. Moreover, the study of elements or compounds which are gaseous at room temperature is complicated because

the samples tend to evaporate during an experiment even at comparatively

low temperatures.

To enable more detailed X-ray diffraction studies of low-temperature solids,

80
a previously developed X-ray specimen cryostat was extensively modified as

part of a program for the Department of the Army. Now the temperature

of the specimen in the range of 4 to 300 °K can be controlled within 0.1 °K

and. in addition, the specimens can be prepared and annealed under controlled

pressure to prevent evaporation. Thus, complete X-ray patterns can be

obtained on certain phases which exist only at low temperatures and over

a narrow range. Measurements of the lattice constants and thermal expansions of the "noble gas" elements were completed using the new apparatus.

Future plans include the study of polymorphism in solid oxygen and the

investigation of any structural changes associated with the specific heat

anomaly preceding the a-fl transformation in solid nitrogen.

Phosphate Crystal Structures. Progress was made toward further

understanding of the phosphate chemistry in solids by determining the

structure of a-Na3 P3 On -4H2 0. This is the first meta phosphate on which a

detailed structure analysis has been made. High-speed automatic computation aided in precise placement of the ions.

Ferroelectric Materials. Recent studies on complex titanate systems

have revealed the presence of ferroelectricity in compounds of the approximate composition Ba,;

( Nbs Zr2 ) O30 , which exhibit X-ray powder patterns very

similar to those shown by the alkali tungsten bronzes such as K0W10 O30 . These ferroelectric compounds were found to be very tolerant of replacement of the ions present, while at the same time maintaining their ferroelectric nature. In particular, it is possible to replace some of the barium ions

present with rare earth ions and the zirconium with a combination of niobium

and iron. In this way, compounds can be formed whose composition is expressed by ( Ba6 _ 2 .,/? 2J ) (Nb9 _,,Fe., ) 030 , where x ranges from 0.7 to 1.0

and R denotes the rare earths: Neodymium, samarium, europium, or gadolinium. These replacements introduce magnetic ions into the structure, and

some compositions were found which show both ferroelectric and ferrimagnetic properties in the same ceramic body. Because of the possible formation

of BaFe12 01 <„ a known ferrimagnetic compound, it is not yet certain whether

both the ferroelectricity and the ferrimagnetism are to be associated with

the same crystallographic phase.

Ion Exchange Properties of Clays. The physical and chemical nature

of the surfaces of clays are of fundamental importance in understanding the

properties of systems containing these materials. In an effort to determine

the role of surface area in controlling the chemical properties of clays, area and ion-exchange studies were made of several natural clays of variable

crystallinity. These clays were of relatively simple chemical composition,

and were practically monomineralic. On the basis of X-ray studies, it was

felt that the poorly crystalline samples might contain structural defects which

could account for their relatively high ion-exchange capacity. Results obtained indicate that the chemical reactivity of simple kaolinitic clays may be

attributed to surface effects and is not dependent upon internal structural

defects (isomorphism).

81
Inductively heated vacuum microbalance used for measurements of rates of

vaporization of refractory materials. Quartz beam microbalance is contained

in the rectangular box above the growing furnace chamber. Specimens have

been studied up to 2,500 °C with this apparatus (page 84).

Standard Glass for Measurement of Physical Properties. When a laboratory designs and constructs equipment for measuring a given property, a few determinations are usually made on a standard material to establish the limits of accuracy. At present, there is a need for many types of

standard glasses of known chemical composition and with measured properties. These glasses would be used for calibrating instruments which measure viscosity, surface tension, or other properties of glasses at various temperatures—especially at elevated temperatures. In addition, a series of

simple two- and three-component glasses could be used by a number of

participating laboratories in studies of properties that can yield information on the structure and constitution of glass. Therefore, the Bureau is continuing to develop standard samples of glass.

The properties of a soda-lime-silica glass are now being measured. Viscosity measurement were made at intermediate and elevated temperatures.

Apparatus to measure surface tension at elevated temperatures is now being

constructed.

A second standard glass, a lead-type glass of optical quality, is being obtained and will undergo the same precise measurements of its physical properties as the soda-lime-silica glass. A third multicomponent glass will probably be selected as a standard before work is started on the high-purity simple

glasses.

Interatomic Bonding in Glasses. A familiar concept of the molecular

structure of silicate and other inorganic oxide glasses is that of an extensive

three-dimensional network of atoms interconnected by bonds of mixed ionic

and covalent nature. Extensive continuity of some kind of interatomic bond82
ing is consistent with existing knowledge of certain other types of glassforming substances. An outstanding example is the network, or polymeric,

structure that is known to exist in organic polymers, which are often vitreous

in their plastic form. Because it is not known whether glass formation is necessarily associated with some type of extensive continuity of interatomic

bonding, the Bureau is attempting to determine this relationship by using

kinetics of vaporization processes from glasses.

Measurements on arsenic oxide and arsenic sulfide glasses show that these

glasses have extremely low rates of vaporization as compared with the rates which might be expected on the basis of the vapor pressures. Low values

usually indicate an extensive continuity of interatomic bonding although ex- ceptions to this occasionally occur when the products of vaporization are not

simple monomers. Thus measurements of vaporization rates from glasses,

coupled with determination of the vaporization products, may serve as a general method of examining the possible continuity of interatomic bonding

in glasses. Such investigations are being undertaken on a number of different glass-forming substances.

Thermal Radiation of Space Crafts. The Bureau is continuing its program for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to evaluate the total hemispherical emittance of potential materials for space vehicles.

Data on heat radiation—or thermal emission—is needed because radiation,

the only mode of heat transfer to or from a traveling satellite or space

vehicle, influences the equilibrium temperature attained during flight. Thus,

a number of materials have been evaluated by the hot-filament method.

Those investigated so far include numerous metals and alloys, with polished,

sandblasted, and oxidized surfaces, and with a number of different ceramic

coatings applied by conventional and flame-spray techniques.

Infrared Studies on Inorganic Solids. Reactions produced at high

temperatures and high pressures often result in dense phases or polymorphic forms which usually have uniquely different properties than those

of the parent materials. Because temperature and pressure change the

atomic environment and consequently produce shifts in the infrared spectrum, the infrared absorption spectrum is used to determine the interatomic

motions in molecules, force constants, and bond energies. The direction and

magnitude of these shifts may be used to evaluate the influence of neighboring molecules on bond energies.

The recent development of a diamond cell provides a rapid, easy way of

studying inorganic solids by infrared spectra. This cell can be operated

at temperatures from —30 to 200 °C and at pressures up to 50,000 atm.

It can be used throughout the visible and ultraviolet regions on solids and

extremely corrosive liquids in a strictly routine manner. Data were obtained on the various forms of ice, on polymorphic changes with pressure in

the nitrates and carbonates, and on the high-temperature forms of alkali

nitrates. The results, which give direct evidence on type and energies of

bonding, are being correlated with the structure as determined by X-ray dif- fraction.

83
Vaporization of Refractory Substances. Thermodynamic data,

essential for the prediction of chemical reactions at high temperatures, is incomplete on light-element compounds and other refractory substances.

To study the vaporization of such substances, the Bureau established the reliability of a vacuum-microbalance technique based on the Langmuir method.

The equilibrium vapor pressure and the heat of vaporization of platinum was

determined with this apparatus, with results in good agreement with previously reported data. The vapor pressure of rhodium and iridium were

also determined and the emissivity of iridium is being measured to yield a more certain value for its heat of sublimation.

The ability to measure the vaporization properties at high temperature was extended by the design and construction of a Knudsen cell. This apparatus is currently being applied to the measurement of the vapor pressure

of alumina. Solid gas reactions involving oxygen and water vapor are now

being studied with a modified commercial arc-image furnace. Specifications were prepared for a mass spectrometer for determining simultaneously

the vapor pressures and vapor species in equilibrium with condensed reVacuum microbalance used to determine the oxidation rate of niobium under

various temperature and pressure conditions. Niobium has great potentialities as a high-temperature structural material. However its usefulness is at present restricted bv its tendency to oxidize rapidly at temperatures as low

at 450 °C (page 85).

84
fractory substances at high temperature. Prospects for adapting imagefurnace techniques to the mass spectrometric investigations seem promising.

Mechanisms of Elementary Reactions. As part of a basic investigation on mechanisms of reaction between simple molecules, rearrangements

of atoms in a single hydrocarbon molecule were studied during reactions.

Ethane molecules labeled with deuterium were found to expel molecular hydrogen when subjected to far ultraviolet radiation. Most of the molecular

hydrogen consisted of two atoms initially bonded to the same carbon atom.

Free propyl radicals which were specifically labeled with deuterium were observed to decompose thermally with no detectable transfer of hydrogen from

one carbon atom to another. This discovery is contrary to generally ac- cepted theories.

Oxidation of Niobium. Niobium is potentially an excellent metal for

structural applications in aircraft, nuclear reactions, and other high-temperature equipment because of its high melting point, relative ease of fabrication

and low neutron-capture cross section. However, because it oxidized rather

rapidly in air even at temperatures of 300 to 400 °C, its usefulness is at present severely restricted.

Therefore the oxidative behavior of niobium was investigated for the Air

Force Office of Scientific Research to obtain fundamental information con- cerning the various steps of the oxide-niobium-oxygen interaction. The rate of sorption of oxygen under various conditions of temperature and pressure was determined by a specially constructed vacuum microbalance which

measures a specimen's weight gain of oxygen as a function of time.

It was found that in the initial stage of the process this oxygen gained

in the specimen is a logarithmic function of time. In this stage the rate- controlling process is apparently the diffusion of dissolved oxygen into the

metal. Also in this stage, a film of oxide—which is soluble in the metal

forms on the metal surface.

This initial reaction stage is followed by a transition to a stage in which

the oxidation rate is constant, and considerably faster than in the first stage.

As shown by electron diffraction patterns, the rate transition is associated

with the appearance of niobium pentoxide. During the transition, the in- creased rate of oxidation seems to be proportional to the continued nucleation

and growth of porous niobium pentoxide, which causes a continuously re- freshed surface of niobium metal to be exposed to oxygen. It is thought

that the formation of the pentoxide occurs because of a structural or compositional change in the surface of the metal phase, rather than from a new

surface reaction with oxygen which begins after an induction period.

The effect of high temperature on the bonding process and the disposition

of the oxide formed is being studied in other refractory metals such as molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, and tungsten.

85
2.10. ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS

The properties of organic structures such as rubber, fibers, paper, leather,

and plastics depend on the size, shape, distribution, and flexibility of the

macromolecules of which the structures are made, and on the interactions

of the molecules with each other. To advance fundamental knowledge of

these industrially important materials, the Bureau investigates detailed

molecular behavior of substances under a variety of environmental conditions, and develops methods for measuring the properties of these substances.

The data thus provided are useful in the synthesis of new polymeric materials

and in the utilization of materials presently available.

Typical research during the year included studies of the orientation and

size of crystallites in axially oriented polyethylene, and studies of the

kinetics of polymer decomposition. Stable free radicals were produced in

high-energy irradiation experiments at low temperatures. New precision

methods were developed to measure the viscoelastic properties of liquid

polymers and the velocity of strain waves in fibers under impact loading.

Determinations were made of the noble metal content of dental alloys and

of the functional groups in cellulose. A machine, developed to measure the

rate of wear of tire treads, was found to give better reproducibility and

faster and more economical results than can be obtained in actual road

tests. Among the properties of materials investigated were the tensile

strength and smoothness of paper and the thermal stability of heat-resistant

polymers.

Measuring the Aging of Rubber Vulcanizates. The aging of rubber

vulcanizates is usually determined from the changes in tensile properties

found after the rubber has been subjected to elevated temperatures. A re- cent study of these changes, partially supported by the Navy Bureau of

Weapons, showed that elongation at failure is the only reliable tensile

property for assessing deterioration caused by thermal aging. Furthermore, the change in elongation at failure was found to change with time

in a consistent manner for vulcanizates of various rubbers. Although this

change over prolonged periods could not be expressed by a simple mathematical equation, elongation at failure decreased approximately linearly with

the square root of time during most of the useful life of vulcanizates.

Precision Viscoelastometer. A concentric-cylinder rotational viscoelastometer was developed to measure the flow and time-dependent elastic

recovery of liquids with a viscosity in the range of 10" to 1012 poises. In

the instrument, the liquid is contained between an inner cylinder (rotor)

and an outer cylinder (stator) ; the latter is a precision-bore glass tube

permitting visual observation of the sample. An arrangement of 90 mirrors on the rotor shaft and a photoelectric recorder permit continuous recording

of the rotor position. A sample can be maintained at temperatures from — 70 to +160 °C. Frictional torques, instrument compliances, and end

effects can be measured or estimated. This new device makes measure- ments of viscoelastic properties with an accuracy and precision not previously

attained.

86
Analysing Copolymers by Combustion. Combustion analysis of

compounds for carbon and hydrogen content permits the determination of

the composition of copolymers made from monomers that differ appreciably

in carbon-hydrogen ratio, for example, butadiene and styrene in SBR synthetic rubber. In these analyses, the standard deviation of a measurement

of carbon-hydrogen ratio is about 0.0010, independent of styrene content. This deviation corresponds to a standard deviation of 0.018 to 0.036 percent

bound styrene. In one series, the observed carbon-hydrogen ratios for

four out of five samples of polybutadiene differed from the calculated value

by less than a standard deviation. The method used is well adapted to measuring the copolymer composition of reference samples that are intended

for standards and in developing new procedures such as those based on the

relationship of refractive index to composition.

Strain-Wave Propagation in Fibers. When a textile fiber is subjected

to high-speed transverse impact, strain waves and transverse waves are

initiated, which travel along the yarn away from the point of impact. While

each strain-wave front travels at constant velocity, a transverse-wave front

changes its velocity when it meets a reflected strain-wave front. This effect

is used as the basis of a new method developed at the Bureau for measuring

strain-wave propagation velocity.

In this procedure, textile yarns 2 meters in length are clamped at each

end and impacted transversely at the midpoint at a speed of 50 m/sec. The

subsequent configurations of the yarn are recorded with a high-speed camera

at a rate of 15,000 pictures per second. Strain-wave velocities thus obtained

range in value from 1,400 m/sec for undrawn nylon to 5,000 m/sec for

high-tenacity rayon and glass fiber. Measurements of this kind not only have practical applications in the

design of parachute shroud lines and webbings and flexible body armor, but

they also provide basic information on the structure of fibers. This information serves as a valuable guide in the development of fibers and yarns of

superior impact properties.

Cellulose Analysis. Cellulose samples from different sources may differ

widely in their composition. The significance of minor functional groups

such as aldehyde, ketonic carbonyl, and carboxyl, and their roles in many

applications of commercial importance, are only beginning to be appreciated.

The reliability of methods of analysis is one factor in assessing the effect of these functional groups on the properties of cellulose, so the Bureau, with

the International Committee for Cellulose Analysis (ICCA) and other technical organizations, is making a method survey.

Using reference samples furnished by ICCA, laboratories in several countries evaluated eight methods for the determination of carboxyl groups.

The results made it possible to select the best methods for use in specific

situations, and to recommend certain methods as official standards. A

similar study led to a satisfactory method for the determination of pentosans

in cellulose.

87
Apparatus used to observe the behavior of textile fibers when subjected to a sudden transverse impact. The fibers are struck by a flying projectile and

the fiber's behavior is recorded in high-speed motion pictures. Inset: Fiber

0.13 milliseconds after being struck at its center by the projectile. Arrows

indicate fronts of strain waves traveling from the point of impact (page 87).

Physical Properties of Paper. During the past several years, the

increasingly stringent requirements imposed by modern high-speed manufacturing and converting processes, the extension of uses of paper under

extreme climatic and other conditions, and the development of radically new

types of paper have intensified the need for standardizing the methods used

in measuring the physical properties of paper. To facilitate this work and

at the request of the American Paper and Pulp Association and the Technical

Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) , the Bureau has undertaken development of a standard paper sample for calibrating a method for

measuring internal tear resistance. Interlaboratory experiments, with over 40 industrial laboratories cooperating, showed that the use of a tentatively

selected standard sample greatly reduces variation in experimental results

among laboratories.

Work was also completed on the effect of speed on the precision of the

tensile test of paper, and on the measurement of the smoothness of papers

the latter, an important property to printers. The results of this research are being used to revise the standard methods of the American Society for Test- ing Materials and TAPPI.

Pendulum and Inertialess Paper Testers. Because inertialess testers are being increasingly used for paper quality control, a comparison was made of the test data thus obtained with the results from conventional pendu88
lum testers. Breaking strength and elongation were determined on the two

types of machines for five representative papers varying considerably in

strength and elongation. It was found that the results for breaking strength on the inertialess tester were in close agreement with those obtained on

the pendulum machine over a wide range of testing speeds. A systematic

bias in the extensometer design of the pendulum tester caused the results for

ultimate elongation to be slightly lower on the inertialess tester than on the

pendulum machine.

Statistical Data Interpreted. In a common type of investigation, a property is studied as a function of two or three factors. For example, the

power loss of tires depends on speed, load, and inflation pressure. The statistical designs used in such studies are generally of the factorial type with

occasional use of Latin or Greco-Latin squares.

The Bureau recently examined the statistical analysis of data conforming

to these designs. In the case of properties studied in terms of two factors, a method was developed to break down the so-called interaction term into

two meaningful components, one due to nonadditivity of the effects of the

two factors, the other to random error. The study proved useful in providing

a framework for evaluating measuring processes.

Indoor Tester for Treadwear of Tires. Under the sponsorship of

Army Ordnance, the Bureau designed and developed indoor tire-testing

equipment for determining treadwear under controlled and reproducible conditions. Previously, the estimation of the rate of treadwear of tires had been

determined only by means of road service tests, despite the poor reproducibility of test conditions and the large uncertainty in the results. In the present study it was found that when tires have markedly different

coefficients of friction, the manner of testing affects road service results. To

obtain correlation under various road service conditions, the indoor equipment was modified to give information both on the cornering forces developed

by tires and on the effect of these forces on treadwear.

Thickness Measurements on Floor Coverings. The dial micrometer

and microscopical methods for measuring the thickness of felt-backed floor

coverings were evaluated in an interlaboratory study. Although these meas- urements are used to study physical properties such as indentation, recovery,

and resistance to abrasion, results obtained by both methods have sometimes

been at variance. In the present evaluation, test data were analyzed statistically in a number of ways. The analysis showed that when experienced

personnel made the measurements, there was no significant difference in the

two methods. Data from all the participating laboratories were found to be in good agreement.

Heat-Resistant Polymers. In exploratory work on high-temperatureresistant polymers, sponsored by the Navy Bureau of Weapons and Office of

Naval Research, recent efforts were turned towards the accumulation of basic

thermal stability data on the small molecules that contain the basic structure

of the polymers. Some newly synthesized compounds were obtained from

569432 O—60 7 89
industry while others were synthesized at the Bureau. Thus far several phosphinoborines have been investigated, as well as telomers of hexafluoropropylene and decafluorodiphenyl, tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl) silane, tris (pentafluorophenyl) phosphine, pentafluorophenyl phenyl ether, and

pentafluorophenyl benzene. Of these compounds, the decafluorodiphenyl was found to be the most thermally stable. Low-Temperature Irradiation of Polymers. In studying the lowtemperature exposure of polymers to high-energy radiation, electron spin resonance was found very useful in determining the quantity and, very often,

the identity of the free radicals formed. Similar irradiation studies were made on small molecules to ascertain the role played by small species like

hydrogen or fluorine in chemical changes such as crosslinking and scission

brought about by high-energy irradiation.

This work, sponsored by the Department of Defense, showed that the very

active species (atoms or free radicals) produced in solids when materials are exposed to high-energy radiation can be stabilized for long periods of time.

Also, very small radicals such as hydrogen and nitrogen atoms and methyl

radicals give relatively clear-cut resonance spectra, but the temperatures re- quired for their stabilization are very low, varying from about 4 to 20 °K.

Polymer Decomposition. The availability- of stable polymers at high

temperatures would greatly enhance the capabilities of modern technology,

but the production of new polymers is hampered by the limited mechanistic,

energetic, and thermodynamic data now available. To obtain such data,

knowledge of the mechanisms of the polymer decomposition is needed.

Drawing of a new facility developed as part of a test method for measuring the

rate of treadwear on vehicle tires in service. Tests on this indoor "road" can

be controlled much more closely than can actual road tests (page 89).

90
Tn a recent investiagtion in this area, experimental measurements of the

rates of thermal decomposition of polymers, both during and after exposure

to ultraviolet light, provided information concerning the details of the

decomposition mechanism. It was found that decomposition phenomena

in unusual environments, particularly those of an extraterrestrial nature,

may be anticipated with the aid of these measurements.

Low Angle X-ray Diffraction of Fibrous Polyethylene. In X-ray

diffraction studies, highly axially oriented fibers of linear polyethylene had

four orders of well-defined, meridionally directed diffraction maxima cor- responding to a fundamental spacing of 408 A. The relative macroscopic

length of the fibers was systematically altered both by simple thermal treat- ment and by crosslinking, melting, and recrystallization. The magnitude of

the X-ray spacings observed did not bear any direct relationship to the

length change incurred, but reflected the change in crystallite size that developed either because of annealing, partial melting, or the introduction of

crosslinks. In a completely shrunken fiber, discrete low angle diffraction

maxima, circular in shape and corresponding to a periodicity of 255 A, were observed. Intermediate types of line shapes were found to depend

solely on the crystallite orientation and not on the method by which the

orientation was developed.

Pyrolysis of Polyamides and Polyolefins. Pyrolysis experiments on

polyamides and polyolefins demonstrated the importance of trace impurities.

With polyamides it was found that traces both of the acid-polymerization

catalyst and of moisture considerably lowered the thermal stability of the

material. Sufficient moisture was generally retained by polyamides to play a significant role in their pyrolytic decomposition in vacuum. On the

other hand, traces of the Ziegler-type catalyst system used to prepare

polyolefins caused a retardation of thermal decomposition. A study of

various molecular structures in polyolefins, in which the number and length

of side branches were altered, showed that the pattern of degradation varied

for different structures. The rate of decomposition in the early stages in- creased with the degree of branching in the structure. This work is part

of a continuing project on thermal stability of polymers sponsored by the

Air Force.

Properties of Monolayers of Polymers. The surface pressure-area

isotherms of linear saturated polyester films spread as monolayers on aqueous

subphases were determined in an investigation sponsored in part by the

Navy Bureau of Weapons. It was found that the isotherms varied from an

expanded-type curve for poly (trimethylene adipate) to a very condensedtype curve for poly (neopentyl succinate) . The study showed the properties

of the monolayers to be closely related to the geometric structure of the

polymer repeating units, the intermolecular attractions, the packing of the

polymer chains, and the interaction of the polymer with the substrate.

Fluorescence of Polymeric Materials. A recent study of a series of

cellulose derivatives showed that their chemical structure is related to the

wavelength and intensity of their fluorescence emission spectra. It was also

91
Sensitive electronic apparatus used to maintain constant temperature and obtain

continuous, accurate weight loss in studies of thermal degradation in polymers.

Data obtained in such studies should be useful in the development of new

polymers which are stable in high-temperature environments (page 90).

possible to react cellulose with various chemical reagents and to follow these

reactions by fluorescence measurements, and to observe the degradation of

cellulose from ultraviolet radiation by changes in its fluorescence spectra.

Noble Metal Content of Dental Gold Alloys. A rapid accurate

method for determining the noble metal content of dental gold alloys was

developed. The procedure makes use of portions of the Gilchrist method for

the complete analysis of a dental gold alloy. It differs, however, in that

glass electrodes instead of indicator solutions are used to establish the pH of

solutions. Gold was found to precipitate completely from solution at a pH

of 3.0 with sodium nitrate. The new method reduces the time required for

analysis by about one-half and is considered to be accurate to within 0.1

percent. This study was conducted in cooperation with the American Dental

Association and the Federal dental services.

Isomers of Zinc Oxide and Eugenol. Mixtures of zinc oxide and

eugenol have found a wide variety of applications in dentistry since they

are probably the most innocuous of all dental restorative materials. An in- vestigation of the setting mechanism, sponsored by the American Dental

Association and the Federal dental services, demonstrated the formation

92
of a chelated zinc eugenolate that acts as matrix for the zinc oxide. The re- action of a group of chelating agents with metal oxides was also investigated

to study the scope of the hardening reaction. Mixtures of o-ethoxybenzoic

acid and zinc oxide were found to be most promising because of their in- creased hardness, adhesion, and density.

Position isomers of eugenol capable of forming chelates were synthesized

in order to correlate structure and properties, and to study the effects of

neighboring groups on the properties of these isomers. It was found that

the reactivity of the vicinal trisubstituted isomers was much lower than

that of the asymmetrically substituted compounds. "Tailor made" chelating

agents are now being prepared which possibly will react with metal oxides

to form cements of high-strength and low-water solubility.

Tensile Properties of Dental Amalgam Alloys. A method for

measuring the tensile stress-strain properties of small specimens of silver-tin

amalgams was developed in research sponsored by the American Dental

Association and the Federal dental services. Strain is observed by a i/^-in.

strain gage attached directly to a small dumbbell-shaped specimen. Stress

is applied at a controlled rate by a low-capacity testing machine, and head

speed is varied from 0.003 to 0.050 in. per minute. Tensile properties were

determined on three alloys representative of American Dental Association

approved materials and one alloy containing 35 percent of tin. The ultimate elongations of these alloys were not more than 0.5 percent,

indicating brittleness. Further studies will be conducted because this property is considered one of the contributing factors to the chipping of fillings

in service.

2.11. METALLURGY

Metallurgical research at the Bureau is directed toward a better understanding of the properties of existing metals in order that improved metals

and alloys may be developed to meet new requirements or to give better

performance. Much of the work is designed to furnish basic information on metals and alloys in terms of their constituent atomic units. The studies

also include the effects of treatment, fabrication, and conditions of service on the structure, behavior, and properties of metals. Particular emphasis

is placed on problems related to metals subjected to high temperatures, corrosion, and fatigue; metal physics; and to the preparation of pure metals.

Metal Creep Investigated. A comprehensive investigation of the creep

characteristics at 300, 700, 900, and 1,200 °F of high-purity copper nickel,

and two alloys of these elements is nearing completion. The creep resistance

of each of the pure metals was significantly increased by alloying with 30

percent of the other metal. At each temperature range, the 70 Ni—30 Cu

alloy had the highest creep strength. Creep resistance of the specimens was

materially increased by cold drawing when crystallization did not occur during creep. However, this increase was usually accompanied by a cor- responding decrease in ductility.

93
Die Steels for Aircraft Components. Studies were continued to determine the suitability of hot-work die steel of the 5-percent chromium type,

for use at temperatures up to 1,000 °F in aircraft components. Thus far

the work shows that the yield strength at room temperature of heat-treated

tensile specimens is materially increased (without a loss in ductility) by

stressing at room temperature under high loads for a period of 1,000 hours.

This procedure may provide a means of increasing the useful working

strength of these steels. Stress-Corrosion Research. Complete stress-corrosion failures, at

stresses considerably lower than the yield strength of the metal, were obtained on type 304 stainless steels when a newly designed specimen was exposed to

chloride corrodents at 575 °F. The effect of notches was found to be a

significant factor in the stress corrosion of low-carbon steels, with the time

to failure decreasing markedly as the sharpness of the experimental notches was increased. The Corrosion Research Council and the Atomic Energy

Commission are partially supporting the stress-corrosion studies now under

way.

Equipment Developed for High-Temperature Research. Work on

a uranium-platinum series of phase diagrams was accelerated by recently

designed equipment that is especially applicable to high-temperature studies.

One instrument utilizes the electrical resistance of a specimen so that when an

electric current passes through the specimen ( held between water-cooled elec- trodes) it may be heated to 1,500 °C and above. Quenching of the specimen is quickly accomplished by turning off the current. This device has

the advantage of operating without a ceramic crucible, thus avoiding the undesirable alloy-crucible reaction which is extremely common when conventional apparatus is used at high temperatures.

To study alloy reactions at temperatures up to 1,400 °C, a thermal analysis furnace was constructed. This apparatus has a controlled heating and

cooling rate between 1 and 5 °C per minute and can be operated either under

vacuum or with an inert atmosphere. The apparatus was modified to permit

the quenching in oil of a specimen after being slowly heated or cooled to a temperature near a phase reaction.

A high temperature microscope stage, that will reach 1,500 °C in vacuum

or 1,150 °C in an argon atmosphere was equipped with a long working

distance objective and with a camera for time-lapse photography. In nor- mal operation, the maximum permissible heating rate is 15 °C per minute.

A rapid quench can be obtained by turning off the power and flushing the

chamber with helium. The vacuum is in the 10~ G mm of mercury range, and

gases are purified by passing through activated aluminum and hot titanium

turnings.

The high-temperature stage was used in a recent study of the decomposition upon heating of the nitrided case of a titanium alloy. It was found that

nitriding the alloy in purified nitrogen for 48 hours at almost 1,000 °C re- sulted in a thin surface layer containing elongated nitride grains, oriented

94
at 45 degrees with the surface and extending down into the matrix. Upon

reheating in the stage these elongated grains usually decomposed into a

lamellae structure parallel with the long axis of the original grain. This

work was sponsored by the Navy Bureau of Weapons.

Diffusion in Crystals Studied. Theoretical studies of the details of

atomic jump sequences in diffusion processes in crystals were continued

with emphasis placed on correlation effects. The studies showed that a flow

of vacancies in a crystal may greatly affect the diffusion process. For ex- ample, such a flow can increase considerably (1) the Kirkendall Shift and

the inter diffusion coefficients for alloys; (2) the drift mobility for an ion

diffusing under the influence of an electric field in an ionic crystal.

An electronprobe microanalyzer was designed and built primarily for use

in the Bureau's long-range diffusion program. It will be used to determine

(he composition gradients in diffusion couple specimens from which portions

of phase diagrams may be assembled. Although the principle of obtaining

phase diagram data through diffusion studies is very old, the use of the elec- tronprobe makes the method more practicable. With this instrument the

chemical composition in situ at the 1-micron level of spatial resolution may

be determined. The resolution is determined by the diameter of the elec- tron beam, which is focused onto the surface of a specimen by two electromagnetic lenses. Characteristic X-rays emitted by the specimen are measured and recorded with focusing spectrometers. With a light optical system

Physicochemical and structural changes occurring in metals at elevated temperatures are observed and recorded by means of this metallograph equipped

with a vacuum high-temperature stage (page 94).

95
centered on the axis of the electron beam the microstructure of the specimen

may be continually observed.

Work with Single Crystals Progresses. Recent studies of metal single

crystals showed that the stressing of a surface parallel to one crystal face in

a definite crystallographic direction resulted in a radically different type of

distortion from that formed by stressing a similar surface in a different

crystallographic direction. The corrosion of these surfaces was found to vary with the distortion.

The rate of film formation on iron single crystal surfaces in passivating

solutions was found, with an ellipsometer being used to measure film thickness. Simultaneous electrochemical potential measurements showed that the

film responsible for changing the potential from active to passive was 15 to 30 A thick irrespective of crystallographic orientation. A new decoration

technique indicates that passive films break down at discrete sites. The interaction of mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen passed through a microwave discharge with single crystals of copper was studied at temperatures down to 4.2 °K. Some films of reaction products were produced on

the crystals by all mixtures of condensed gases but the thickest films

more than 100 A—were produced by mixtures containing less than 10 percent of nitrogen.

Dislocation movements and twin boundaries in copper foils about 500 to 1000 A thick are being studied. Techniques were developed for preparing

these foils as single crystals of predetermined orientation, the main feature

of which is the growing from the melt of an appropriately seeded copper

single crystal only 0.004 in. thick. The foil is then produced by electropolishing. Various etching procedures are being applied to establish a

correlation between the etch pits developed and the dislocations present in

the foils. Stability in Gage Blocks. Periodic measurements of nitrided 410 stainless steel gage blocks show that their excellent dimensional stability characteristics were retained, and the slight growth observed in a 2-year period is linear at the rate of 0.2 microinches per inch per year. As this growth is possibly due to a change in the carbides in the steel, additional nitrided

blocks of a stainless steel with a lower carbon content are being incorporated

into the study. Heat-treated gage blocks of 52100 steel were also observed

for a 2-year period, and some of the results indicate that a high degree of

dimensional stability—especially when the blocks are tempered to a Rockwell C-60 hardness—may be attained. However, some of these blocks

showed a relatively rapid decrease in length during the first 6 months after

heat treatment, and the cause of this behavior is now being sought.

Important Data from Fractured Titanium Specimens. A study of

the fractured surfaces of notched tensile specimens of titanium tested at 100, 25, —78, and —196 °C provided valuable information on the effect of notch geometry on the initiation and growth of the fracture cracks. The

position of the initiation and the propagation of a fracture were readily

and accurately determined.

96
Transmission electron microscope photograph reveals twin boundary in a 1000 A copper foil. The fringes running along the boundary are the result

of an electron interference effect. Studies of such discontinuities in structure

give information on the mechanical behavior of metals (X 63,000) (page 96).

Design criteria are often based on the assumption that approximately 2

percent plastic strain is sufficient to remove the embrittlement due to the

initial stress concentration at the root of a notch of ductile materials. Contrary to this assumption, the results of the present investigation on initially

annealed commercially pure titanium and a titanium alloy containing alu- minum and manganese definitely showed that this notch embrittlement was

not entirely removed, even with deformations up to 50 percent reduction in

area. The fracture of sharply notched specimens was initiated at the root

of the notch, and propagated diametrically across the minimum cross sections; however, the fractures obtained in other notched specimens with large

root radii were initiated near the specimen axis. In general, ductility was

considerably lower for the sharply notched specimens than it was for those

with large root radii. These results again emphasize the importance of

eliminating sharp notches wherever poss'ible in designing for use of titanium

materials.

Preparation of Pure Metals. A halide "hot-wire" reduction unit was

built to prepare tungsten rods for further purification in a large floating-zone

refiner recently constructed. A supply of highly purified halide contained

in a quartz flask is attached to the bottom of a quartz reaction chamber in the

reduction apparatus. The halide is warmed while a low-pressure stream of

mixed argon and hydrogen is pumped through the system. Halide vapors

are carried in the stream until they encounter a hot filament of the same

metal. At this juncture, the vapors are decomposed and cause the pure

metal to be deposited onto the filament. In order to maintain a uniform

temperature of decomposition, the heating current is increased as the de97
posited metal increases the rod diameter, and thus the deposition continues

until a rod from x/10 to 14 in. in diameter has been formed.

Several tungsten rods have been produced in this manner and are being

further purified in the floating-zone refiner. In the refiner, contamination

of the rods is avoided by using electron beam heating. This program is under the joint sponsorship of the Wright Air Development Center and the

Bureau.

Metal Crystals Grown from Their Vapor. The rate of growth of

zinc crystals from their vapor was measured as a function of supersaturation.

The results support the Burton, Cabrera, and Frank theory of crystal growth

which holds that measurable growth rates are observed even at supersaturations as low as 0.01. The zinc crystals, which can be nucleated on either

tungsten or Pyrex glass, have the form of truncated hexagonal pyramids,

about 2 mm high and 3 mm in diameter at the base. These are the first measurements made on a physical system approximating the model assumed

in the theory of Burton et al., and thus far they agree with the predictions

made.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of a Tantalum Nucleus Observed.

In measurements made on a tantalum compound, the magnetic resonance of

the Ta181 nucleus was observed for the first time. From the experimental

data derived in the study, a value of the magnetic moment of the nucleus was

calculated to a more accurate degree than previously possible. The Knight

Shift of the Ta181 resonance in a foil of the pure metal was also determined.

Reversed Plastic Deformation. By means of X-ray diffraction techniques, many investigators have studied the manner in which a metal crystal

lattice is distorted during plastic deformation. Little work has been done,

however, to determine whether this distortion can be reduced when the

direction of deformation is reversed. To obtain quantitative measurements

of reversible distortion, a double-crystal goniometer was designed and constructed which permits measurements of intragranular misorientation.

In recent studies with cartridge brass specimens, misorientation was

found to be very sensitive to small amounts of plastic deformation, but a large part of the misorientation produced by deformation in one direction was eliminated by reversing the direction of the strain. This work is con- tinuing and the results may aid in understanding phenomena such as the

Bauschinger effect and the fatigue failure of metals.

Mechanical Properties Determined for Metal Foils. In studying

the effects of heat treatment, it is often advantageous to use metal foils so

that temperature equilibrium may be quickly reached. However, it is often

difficult to obtain accurate data on the mechanical properties of foil specimens. In a current study of precipitation-hardening stainless steels, a hydraulic bulge tester was used to determine these properties in foil speci- mens. The instrument conveniently measures the pressure and the height

of bulge on loading % in. diameter disks clamped at the edge. It was

possible to determine the yield strength, burst strength, and ductility of

98
these specimens at a much lower cost than analogous properties can be

determined in a conventional tensile test. Apparatus for Controlled Slack Quenching. The best combination

of high strength and ductility in structural steels is usually obtained by

rapid quenching to a fully martensitic structure followed by tempering.

But such a structure is often unattainable commercially because of the

economy of using steels low in alloying elements and the difficulty en- countered in cooling large components rapidly enough to harden them

completely through the entire cross sections. Structural steels are therefore often used in the slack-quenched conditions which consist of mixed

structures of ferrite. pearlite. bainite. etc. To establish a definite relation

between such structures and their tensile properties, the Bureau recently

developed an inexpensive method for producing uniform and controlled

amounts of mixed structures in tensile specimens. Correlations are now

being made between these structures and the tensile properties of steels of

medium hardenability.

Service Failures Investigated. A number of government agencies

requested the metallurgy laboratories of the Bureau to examine metal parts

that failed in service during the year. As in the past, a major part of this

work was performed for the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Navy Bureau

of Weapons. The results of the examinations aid in elucidating the cause and development of metal failures.

Careful NBS studies of metal parts that have failed in service provide important data on the causes of such failures. These data are useful in development of improved materials and design criteria (page 99).

99
2.12. INSTRUMENTATION

Measurement precision depends on two factors: The natural limitations

of the measurement process, and the realizable performance of measuring

instruments. Under a broad instrumentation program, the Bureau investigates both of these factors to improve its measurement capability in

research and calibration activities. The fundamental properties and limitations of instruments, their components and materials, and measuring,

recording, and signal-processing methods are studied. The program also . includes a study of basic phenomena that may be usefully applied to instrumentation.

Modern instrumentation frequently uses electronic techniques, even when

the initial measurement problem is not fundamentally electrical. The elec- tronic program includes investigation of the materials used in vacuum and

semiconductor electron devices, study of the characteristics and capabilities of electron devices themselves, the development of improved electronic

instruments to meet the needs of the Bureau's research program, and a

variety of projects undertaken for other Federal agencies.

Mechanical instrument activities include development of standard hygrometers and humidity generators, calibration methods for pressure and dis- placement transducers, and instruments needed specifically by other Federal

agencies.

To avoid duplication of scientific research effort, it is necessary to keep

abreast of the instrumentation art. The Bureau maintains an extensive ref- erence file of literature on instruments and measurement methods, and the

file itself is designed so that its data can be retrieved by partly mechanical

means. The Resistor Noise Test Set. The resistor noise measurement concept was modified slightly and the previously conceived measure of resistor current noise, conversion gain, was replaced by a new index, microvolts per

volt in a frequency decade. This new index, like the original one, is dimensionless. A noise test set, developed for the Navy Bureau of Ships, capable

of measuring resistor current noise in terms of conversion gain, is equally

capable of measuring noise in units of the new index, since the two are related by a constant. The original noise test set was assembled from modified

commercially available instruments. A commercial organization now has

available a new test instrument to the NBS specification. The new test set contains in a simple instrument all of the functions previously supplied by a number of instruments in the older test set. With the ready availability of

this instrument, the Bureau can now encourage the International Electrotechnical Commission to adopt the NBS test method as its international standard.

Electron Devices Data Service. With the publication of the Tabulation

of Data on Receiving Tubes as Handbook 68, data on 5,000 additional devices including microwave tubes and semiconductor diodes have been placed on punched cards. The Data on Micro.wave Tubes is being published as Handbook 70.

New electronic devices are continually being added to the presently tab100
ulated groups. These data are reissued from time to time to keep up to

date. Industry is developing new devices at the rate of several thousand a

year; the files currently are estimated to contain data on more than 25,000

separate items.

Electrical Properties of Semiconducting Materials. A method for

measuring the lifetime of minority carriers in semiconducting materials has

been developed as an outgrowth of the work on electroluminescence and

because of the need for a method applicable to the new large energy-gap

materials. When alternating current is applied to a semiconductor through

poor rectifying (injecting) contacts, the electroluminescent intensity re- mains approximately constant as the frequency is increased until the fre- quency becomes comparable with the minority carrier lifetime. The

electroluminescent intensity then decreases according to a specified relation

involving frequency and lifetime.

This method has been used to determine the lifetime in such materials

as silicon carbide and boron phosphide. It is especially applicable for

measurements of lifetimes in the millimicrosecond range in samples having

arbitrary dimensions and small size. The method has been checked on

samples of silicon whose lifetime was measured by conventional means. A new family of low contact-resistance alloys for use on ferrites and controlled valency semiconductors was developed.

Properties of Mica Essential to Electron Tube Use. Large quantities of mica are consumed each year in the manufacture of electronic and

electrical equipment. However, the great variation of type and quality in

which the material naturally occurs and the degree to which its properties

appear to be dependent upon type and quality have made proper processing

and extensive classification necessary. Little correlation has been found in

the past between quality and observed properties.

Under the sponsorship of the General Services Administration, the pres- ent program, with emphasis on use of the material in electron tubes, has

shown how optical, electrical, and structural properties are related. Color

structure, one of the least understood properties, has been identified with

a definite spectral characteristic, which correlates with optic angle and

density.

Electronic Scanning Microscope. An electro-mechanical scanning

microphotometer was constructed for analyzing spectrographic plates easily,

rapidly, and accurately. A small area of a spectrographic plate is scanned

at one position of the plate and converted into an X-Y coordinate display

of wavelength versus density. The coordinate display is presented on a cathode-ray oscilloscope as a steady-state pattern with a stable, electronically

generated fiducial line. A mirror-image presentation may be superimposed

on the normal X-Y plot.

Resolution to better than 0.001 mm on the wavelength scale is consistently

obtained, while the fiducial line remains stable to this accuracy for several

hours. The integrating effect of the "line" scanner resolves faint lines in

the spectrum which are nearly invisible in the visual microscope.

101
FOSDIC—Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers—developed and

maintained for the Bureau of the Census, is playing an important part in the

1960 census (page 102).

Electronics for Rubidium Vapor Frequency Standard. A prototype frequency standard is being developed for the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration for possible use in an earth satellite determination of the gravitational frequency shift. A rubidium vapor gas cell is being tested as a frequency standard, and the optical pumping techniques

involved are being studied.

The electronic circuitry of this transistorized standard contains a 5 to 60 Mc/s frequency multiplier, a diode modulator, and a servo system which

consists of a 10 c/s oscillator, tuned amplifier, and phase detector. The

rubidium gas cell is located in a microwave cavity (see also page 65)

FOSDIC. The 1960 decennial census documents are being read elec- tronically by FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers)

Developed for the Bureau of the Census by NBS, these electronic machines

rapidly read microfilmed census documents and transcribe the data on magnetic tape for direct input to an electronic computer. The documents are read by scanning microfilmed images using a cathode-ray tube as the light source and a photoelectric cell as the receiver. The equipment has undergone numerous evaluation tests at Census and appears to be a valuable tool

in Census procedures, offering large potential savings to the Government.

Four similar machines are currently under construction by Census under

NBS supervision. Indoctrination of Census personnel in the maintenance

of FOSDIC has been a continuing activity.

102
Hygrometry. To meet the need for a basic reference for humidity measurements, the Bureau developed a gravimetric hygrometer that determines

the moisture content of known gas volumes with high precision. Considerable effort was devoted to locating and evaluating the sources of error in

this hygrometer. Operational procedures have been improved. Preliminary calibrations were made for one of the Bureau's humidity generators.

An improved circuit has been developed for radiosonde use in tele- metering upper atmosphere humidity data sensed by a fast-responding electric hygrometer element. The circuit and the hygrometer were developed

under the sponsorship of the Bureau of Naval Weapons as part of a program

of improving humidity measuring equipment for meteorological use. Telemetering Pickups. Telemetering pickup elements are essential for

remotely measuring the performance and environment of aircraft and guided

missiles in flight. Under the joint sponsorship of the Navy Bureau of

Weapons and the U.S. Air Force, the Bureau investigated the characteristics

of telemetering transducers and developed improved testing equipment and

calibration devices.

A dual centrifuge for testing and calibrating accelerometer transducers was designed and built. It provides a frequency range of 0.5 to 30 c/s and

acceleration amplitudes from ±0.25 g to ±100 g. Work is under way in

extending the frequency range to about 10,000 c/s so that vibration trans- ducers can be evaluated.

Preliminary investigation of the effects of thermal shock on pressure

transducers indicates that, under conditions much less severe than those

encountered in liquid-fuel rocket engines, zero shifts as much as % of the

instrument range may occur with flush-mounted diaphragm gages. The

magnitude of the zero shift appears to be nearly proportional to the rate

of heat transfer through the flush diaphragm.

An improved transistorized circuit

was developed for

a radiosonde for

telemetering upperair meteorological

information (page

103).

103
Instrument Reference Service Enlarged. Industrial and government

scientists must know what has been done in developing instruments in order

to establish effective designs without duplication of effort. The Bureau's

basic instrumentation service provides reference and consultation services

for all scientists who work in research and development of scientific

instruments.

The Bureau enlarged its card index of instrumentation literature by

selecting, analyzing, coding, and recording additional information in a

special punched-card system known as Microcite. A large number of

inquiries were answered by use of references already stored in this index

system and by other means. Work continued on developing methods of replicating the punched cards

used in the Bureau's instrument reference files. Construction of an elec- tromechnical device to increase the speed and efficiency of searching the

instrument index is nearing completion.

2.13. APPLIED MATHEMATICS

The Bureau's central applied mathematics facility conducts basic and ap- plied research and renders advisory services in various mathematical fields. These services are available to other government agencies as well as to the

Bureau's staff. Modern computing equipment aids the facility in supporting

its research and development program.

During the past year the Bureau continued to place emphasis on statistical and numerical analysis and on mathematical physics. Extensive assist- ance was rendered in these areas and in digital computation. Special

attention was given to problem formulation and analysis to select and develop numerical methods suitable for the solution of engineering and

physical science problems on both automatic and nonautomatic computing

machines. An appreciable share of the mathematical program was devoted to problems encountered in business management and operation,

sometimes referred to as "data processing" problems. Significant progress was achieved in the exploration of the utility of modern digital computers in the mechanical translation of scientific publications, for which

there is an extremely urgent need.

As in previous years, the Bureau's applied mathematics program was

strengthened by the active interest and support of other government agencies. The Office of Naval Research and the USAF Office of Scientific Research supported fundamental and applied research in numerical analysis

and mathematical physics. The National Science Foundation continued to support the compilation of a handbook of mathematical tables and mathematical research related to information retrieval.

Combinatorial Analysis. Combinatorial analysis is the branch of

mathematics which studies the various arrangements of finite sets of objects.

It finds application in selecting the best pattern of linkages in transportation or communication networks, in selecting the most efficient method for

encoding messages to provide automatic correction of possible transmission

104
errors, and in designing experiments to maximize the useful information

obtained from a given number of measurements. Attempts were made at the Bureau to introduce the notion of abstract spaces into combinatorial analysis. Studies of the structure of such spaces is a continuing project. In

developing the theory of incidence spaces, a method of constructing them

by use of permutation groups was found to be an effective tool. Eigenvalue Theory. The determination of eigenvalues for operators

is of great importance in mathematical physics but frequently involves considerable numerical difficulty. A new scheme was devised for the calculation of upper and lower bounds for the eigenvalues of the associated Legendre equation. An error bound was derived for the Rayleigh-Ritz approximation of eigenvectors.

Matrix Theory. The problem of bounds for various quantities related

to matrices still attracts many investigators. New bounds were obtained for

the characteristic roots, the determinant, and the P-condition number of

matrices.

Approximation Theory. Although approximation theory is fundamental to much of numerical analysis, not much research has been con- ducted in the important but difficult area of nonlinear approximation. The

Bureau made extensive investigations of best approximation by nonlinear

families.

Numerical Experimentation. In many areas of numerical analysis

where no theory exists or existing theory is merely suggestive, numerical

experimentation provides some insight into a given method of problem

solution. Extensive experiments were conducted in the numerical solution

of elliptical boundary value problems by means of orthogonalized particular

solutions. A considerable body of numerical data is now available which

can be applied to practical problems; for example, in harmonic approximation to boundary functions of different continuity classes and harmonic

interpolation.

The accuracy of Monte Carlo methods in computing finite Markov chains was investigated. Statistical theory confirmed the observed Monte Carlo

data, which can therefore form the basis for an estimate of accuracy in

computations of large chains not solvable by matrix methods.

Machine Translation. Significant progress was made on the automatic

Russian language translation scheme being developed by the Bureau for the

Army Office of Ordnance Research. In contrast with other machine translation projects, the Bureau project is characterized by emphasis on syntax

in the conventional sense and by a system of predictions. A Russian word

in a sentence "predicts" certain other grammatical forms; for example, a

transitive verb predicts a direct object.

The program first instructs the computer to transform the words of a Russian sentence into a highly condensed representation for matching in a

glossary, then to recognize the syntactical relations between the Russian

words, and finally to arrange the corresponding English words into a meaningful sentence.

569432 O—60 8 105
The Bureau's applied mathematics facility conducts basic and applied research

and provides advisory services to the NBS staff and to other government agencies. Here two mathematicians discuss new methods for solving differential

equations (page 105).

Improvement in Facilities. The capacity of the electronic computing

facility was increased through the addition of a tape-controlled, high-speed

printer. The computer remained on three-shift operation, performing computations arising in the work of the Bureau, carrying the main computing

load of some other government agencies, and serving as a standby facility

for the Weather Bureau.

Digital Computation. Increasing the accessibility of the problem for- mulator to the computer by means of efficient programing methods is an

important part of the research activity in digital computation. A particularly worthy recent development is the Black Box Computer—a tool devised to speed a problem from originator to machine. Actually, the Black

Box Computer is a man-machine operation in which the machine, its operators, card handlers, and coders constitute the "computer." For the types

of problems presently within its scope—reading, computing, and printing

tables of numbers; numerical integration, differentiation, and interpolation;

least squares fit of numerical data, as well as curve plotting directly from

the printer—the elapsed time between the presentation of a feasible problem and the return of the desired results is a matter of only hours. This

accelerated service is now provided at the Bureau on a routine basis, thus

minimizing both machine and personnel time on any given problem and

maximizing the productivity of the facilities. Digital computers were applied in both the scientific and the data processing fields. Some scientific applications were determination of gas tube

106
characteristics, calculations on scattering of electrons by hydrogen atoms,

determination of microwave absorption in ferrites, analysis of color fading,

studies of dielectric relaxation in gases, molecular collision studies, and

calculation of ionospheric properties. Important problems in data processing included allocation of oil supplies, assignment of radiofrequencies,

analysis of electrocardiograms, traffic studies, mathematical investigations

related to postal operations, housing analysis, and simulation of military

engagements.

Experiment Designs. A new theory was developed on the construction and analysis of asymmetrical factorial experiment designs. In many

physical science and engineering experiments it is desirable to study the

effects of varying two or more factors through a finite number of levels

of each. An experiment is termed a factorial experiment when it is designed to test all possible combinations of the factors and levels; it is termed an asymmetrical experiment when the levels over which a factor is varied are not the same for each of the factors. The literature on asymmetrical factorial designs is somewhat limited. The main advantages of

the newly developed theory and methods are: (1) They are applicable to any asymmetrical factorial experiment arranged in accordance with a wide

class of partially balanced incomplete block designs, thereby allowing

greater flexibility in adjusting the experimental design to fit the physical

situation; (2) there is no restriction that the levels must be a prime (or

power of a prime) number; (3) the reduction of the data from an asymmetrical factorial so designed is relatively simple no matter how many factors or levels are involved; (4) the analysis is independent of the concept

of "confounding" in the sense that one can compute the best linear esti- mates of all main effect and interaction terms without knowing which of the

terms is "confounded" with any of the others; and (5) the analysis is

strictly algebraic in nature and avoids difficult combinatorial arguments

that would otherwise be required to treat cases involving partially balanced

incomplete block designs with more than two associate classes. In addition, application of mathematical methods of combinatorial

analysis led to a nearly complete enumeration and construction of a new

class of balanced incomplete block "weighing" designs that promises to be

of exceptional value in the calibration of groups of standards of nominally

equal magnitude.

Life Testing and Reliability. Intensive studies were made of the behavior of a number of current life-testing procedures when applied under

conditions different from those assumed in their development. Almost all the statistical procedures in current use for evaluating the reliability of

components or equipment rest on the assumption that the failure times fol- low an exponential distribution. However, in practical situations, rarely

are there enough data to determine whether this assumption is correct. The

behavior of several popular statistical life-testing procedures was investigated

under the supposition that the true failure law was one of the Weibull family

of distributions, which includes the exponential distribution as a special

case. It was found that the statistical techniques are very sensitive to de107
partures from the exponential assumption, and that application of these

techniques to life-test data when the exponential failure law is not satisfied

may result in substantially increasing the probability of accepting components or equipments having poor mean-time-to-failure characteristics.

Probability and Mathematical Statistics. Considerable progress was made on a unified exposition of the Method of Least Squares consistent

with the modern theory of statistical estimation, with special attention to matrix methods and automatic electronic digital computation. Three

selected bibliographies of publications during the period 1930 to 1957

on "Correlation and Regression Theory," "Time Series," and "Limit

Theorems" were completed and published. An "Index to the Distribution

of Mathematical Statistics" was completed.

Mathematical Physics. Research in mathematical physics and related

fields continued during the year with emphasis on the formulation of

mathematical theories basic to the development of theoretical physics and

engineering science. Investigations included a quantum theoretical generalization of the foundations for plasma theory, studies of plasma dynamics,

and applications of magnetohydrodynamics to astrophysics.

With the support of the USAF Office of Scientific Research, a program

of research was conducted on satellite orbits. Attention was given to the

solution of the kinetic equations of motion for a satellite orbit expressed in

spheroidal coordinates. Also investigated was the feasibility of using a new set of orbital constants to facilitate further calculations in terms of

elliptical integrals.

Other work included analysis of the solution of the Chapman-Kolmogoroff

functional equation governing one-dimensional Brownian motion, study of

the mechanism of shielding in three-body plasma statistics, and development of bounds in the Cauchy problem for the biharmonic equation essential

in the treatment of certain elastic plate problems.

A senior mathematician explains a mathematical theorem to summer undergraduate trainees. During the past year, 195 students in mathematics, physics,

chemistry, and engineering took part in the Bureau's summer training program.

(See page 159.)

108
2.14. BUILDING RESEARCH

Advances and new developments in science and technology often can

assist in solving problems related to building materials, structures, equipment, and facilities. A major objective of the Bureau's building research

program is therefore the development of new knowledge through research in

chemistry, physics, and engineering. Another important objective is development of measurement and testing methods needed before some of the

modern knowledge can be applied to the building industry. To facilitate

the use of new knowledge, the Bureau provides aid to other laboratories by

devising techniques for accurate measurements, by developing and supplying calibrated laboratory reference standards, and by participating in interlaboratory programs for checking the precision of measurements. The

Bureau also provides advisory and consultative services on building problems to government agencies and others. It cooperates with public and pri- vate organizations in formulation of specifications and national standards

affecting the building industry.

During the year, the Bureau was designated to centralize an accelerated

program of fundamental fire research on a national scale. Meanwhile, in one phase of fire research, the Bureau developed a quantitative method for

measuring the potential heat of building materials in fires. Fire behavior in rooms was studied. The Bureau also prepared samples of material of

measured flammability and made them available for purchase.

In other projects:—Conditions that a family would face in a small underground fallout shelter were studied. Performance of residential heat pumps

was investigated. Further study of reinforced concrete beams determined

the effect of magnitude of stress in the reinforcement on the bond of deformed reinforcing bars. New data were obtained in experiments through

which better and more economical design criteria are being sought for

plumbing systems.

Program of Fire Research. The Bureau was selected as a central

agency for fundamental fire research in the physical sciences and was asked

to provide a mechanism for dissemination of information on fire research

programs. The designation of the Bureau for this coordinating activity fol- lowed a study by the Committee on Fire Research of the National Academy

of Sciences. The Committee's recommendations were considered first at an

interagency conference and then by the Federal Council for Science and

Technology. To enable prompt initiation of the new program, funds were made available to the Bureau by the Department of Defense and the Office of

Civil and Defense Mobilization. Most of these funds were used to support

fundamental research at other laboratories.

Potential Heat of Materials in Building Fires. Although the extent

to which building materials burn and add heat to building fires is of importance, the commonly used methods of measurement often show the flammable, smoldering, and heat release properties of a material, with no clearcut indication of potential heat. However, a differential bomb calorimetric

109
method developed by the Bureau now appears to provide a quantitative

method of measuring potential heat.

The method, which is similar to one used by the French Government,

involves determinations of the heating value of the material in a high pres- sure oxygen bomb calorimeter, both before and after exposure to a "standardized fire." The difference in values represents the heat released during

exposure to the fire, or the potential heat. To insure combustion of small

quantities of combustibles in otherwise inert materials, a combustion accelerator is added to the samples, and a correction for the heat released by the

accelerator applied to the results. A two-hour exposure to air in a muffle

furnace at 750 °G serves as the fire exposure. From determinations on a wide variety of building materials the method appears to provide a useful

tool for the quantitative measurement of the liberated heat.

Behavior of Model Crib Fires. Fires in buildings are extremely complex and there is a dearth of basic knowledge on fire growth and propagation. Moreover, because of excessive cost of performing full-scale tests of

fires involving rooms and buildings, techniques are needed for use of models

in fire research. Employing this model-study approach, the Bureau is en- gaged in a program of research on the factors influencing fire behavior in rooms. As an initial step, experiments were performed in which geometrically similar unenclosed cross piles of wood were burned under

controlled conditions.

Flammability Standard. The radiant panel method of measuring sur- face flammability of materials, previously developed by the Bureau, is being

adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials as a tentative standard method of test. Meanwhile demand has developed for a material of

known flammability for comparison purposes. The Bureau accordingly has

prepared a supply of specimens of measured flammability. Samples of this

Flammability Standard No. 1002 are available for purchase.

Prefabricated wall

panel at the time

of failure in a fire endurance test. The panel is of a special lightweight

construction designed for use in

arctic regions (page

109).

110
Underground Fallout Shelters. A study of environmental factors of

temperature, humidity, heat transfer, and ventilation in a family-sized

underground fallout shelter was carried out for the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization. Using simulated occupants to represent the metabolic

heat release of six adults, the investigation measured the heat transferred to

the surrounding earth and to the ventilating air, for maximum summer and

minimum winter temperatures. Further analysis of the data will be undertaken to develop more generalized relations between the earth characteristics, the above-ground weather conditions, and the internal heat input in

similar shelters.

Heat Pumps. Studies of residential heat pumps were completed, to determine the effects of changes in the rate of air flow through the indoor coil on the coefficient of performance for heating and cooling. The studies also

covered the effect of changes in the refrigerant charge, outdoor and indoor

temperatures and humidity. Heat losses in refrigerant lines and four-way

valves were also explored, and data were obtained on the effect on heating

capacity of winter defrosting of the outdoor coil. These design data are being prepared for publication.

Studies are in progress on improving measuring techniques for determining heating and cooling capacity of the heat pumps. These efforts are

directed toward greater precision in measurements of wet- and dry-bulb

temperatures in a moving air stream and toward better mixing of the air

stream whose conditions are measured.

Thermal Conductivity of Semiconducting Materials. Currently

there is widespread interest in thermoelectric materials used for direct con- version of heat energy to electricity. The thermal conductivity of these

materials has an important effect upon efficiency of the process. However,

accurate measurements of the thermal conductivity over the temperature

ranges of major interest cannot be made by methods commonly used, be- cause the materials of greatest interest often are available only in specimens

much smaller and of different shape than needed for existing equipment.

Under the sponsorship of the Navy Bureau of Ships, a method and apparatus were developed for steady-state thermal conductivity determinations

at temperatures to 800 °C and above on small specimens (%-in. by 1-m.

diam disks). The objective is to supply samples of materials to other

laboratories for thermal conductivity reference specimens for investigations

of solid semiconductor materials.

To permit operation up to 1,200 °C, the high temperature working parts

of the apparatus are being changed from stainless steel to 60 percent platinum-40 percent rhodium alloy. It is expected that thermal conductivity

calibration samples for use at temperatures from 100 to 1,000 °C will soon

be available.

Bond Between Concrete and Deformed Reinforcing Bars. The in- crease in availability of commercial grades of high-yield-strength deformed

bars is stimulating interest in use of high stresses in tensile reinforcement.

Because the integrity of a reinforced concrete structure depends upon the

111
Thermal conductivity studies of small solid specimens using specially developed

equipment. Specimens such as those shown at right have been studied at temperatures up to and above 800 °C (page 111).

strength and permanence of bond between the concrete and reinforcement, an investigation was carried out to determine the effect of the magnitude of

the stress in the reinforcement on the bond of deformed bars. Bond

strengths were determined in a series of beam and pullout specimens with

deformed reinforcing bars having a nominal yield strength of 100,000 psi.

The new data provided information not previously available on the bond

properties of modern deformed reinforcing bars when subjected to very

high tensile stresses. Physical Properties of Masonry. Portland cement-base masonry ce- ments are being used extensively for mortars in masonry construction.

Freshly mixed mortars containing these cements include considerable en- trained air in the form of many very small bubbles or air voids. To determine properties of these modern air-entrained masonry mortars, a comprehensive study was carried out at the Bureau with over 40 portland cementbase masonry cements. The properties studied were water retentivity,

workability, compressive strength, and bond with various masonry units.

Some of the masonry mortars were used to build large walls which were

tested for compressive, racking, and flexural strengths. The data obtained

will be included in publications being prepared.

Asphalt Degradation. New procedures were investigated with 24 coat- ing-grade roofing asphalts to obtain information about processes of deterioration and to determine possible correlations of laboratory data with

durability under exposure to the weather. Among the most promising cor- relations were: Solubility parameters, filtration rates, infrared spectral

characteristics, thin film oxidation rates, voluminosities, and viscositygravity constants. Aging Effects in Hydrated Cement. Gas adsorption techniques, similar to those which have been developed to study catalysts and other colloidal

solids were used at the Bureau to show that hydrated portland cement undergoes changes in structure similar to the changes of aging in other colloidal

solids. This process involves an irreversible coalescence of the submicroscopic primary particles to form agglomerates of some kind, and it results

112
in a decrease in colloidal surface area. It was concluded that aging effects undoubtedly play a role in shrinkage and creep, as well as in the development of strength in concrete. Magnesium Oxysulfates. The thermochemical properties, and in particular the heats of formation, of substances occurring in cementitious

systems are being investigated. Data of this nature, helpful in predicting

stability when combined with other measurements of thermodynamic properties, are relatively few. Currently work is being done on the magnesium

oxysulfates, and measurements are essentially complete on the compound,

4Mg(OHU-MgSCv8H2 0, stable in magnesium sulfate solution at room

temperature and hence a potential product of the setting of magnesium

oxysulfate cement.

Calcium Aluminate Complex Salts. Tricalcium aluminate combines

with various calcium salts in aqueous solution to form a group of hydrated

compounds which are important in hydration and hardening of cements.

Several members of this group, particularly the carbonate and sulfur derivatives, are being investigated. The two calcium aluminate carbonate hydrates were prepared and studied by microscopic, X-ray diffraction, and

other methods. A thermochemical study of the calcium aluminate trisulfate was completed.

Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory. The Cement Reference

Laboratory expanded its activities to include concrete as well as cement.

This service, jointly sponsored by NBS, the Bureau of Public Roads, the

Corps of Engineers, and the American Society for Testing Materials, seeks

to increase the dependability of tests used in concrete design and in assess- ment of the finished product. The new name, Cement and Concrete Refer- ence Laboratory, was adopted.

Cement Reference Samples. Highway laboratories of 46 States as

well as Federal agency laboratories engaged in cement testing are participating in an NBS program designed to evaluate testing laboratory competence. Samples from uniform lots of cement are submitted in pairs to each

laboratory at two-month intervals. The paired-sample technique can indicate the degree of variation of results at the different laboratories, and also

which test procedures need improvement. Laboratories showing considerable inconsistency are offered assistance through correspondence or through

the services of the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory.

Floor Friction Standards. These studies are related to measurement of

slipperiness of floors, walkways, and highway surfaces. Reference plates,

each with a fine, medium, or coarse cut—on hard, heat-treated steel—were

constructed in an attempt to fill the need for surfaces of different degrees

of roughness. These surfaces in turn are designed to serve as standards in

the calibration of instruments for measuring the coefficient of friction of

floor, walkway, and highway surfaces. The surface characteristics of these

standards will be transferred to secondary standards of other materials, in- cluding softer metals, for use by selected laboratories with a variety of in- struments for measuring slipperiness. The dependability of the plates as

113
calibration standards and their reproducibility will be checked further by detailed measurements of the geometry of the surfaces, and by investigating

the uniformity of plates made at different times.

Abrasion Resistance of Protective Coatings. The Bureau made a number of improvements in its methods for measuring the abrasion resist- ance of protective coatings. An abrasive jet apparatus developed at the

Bureau is used in these measurements. The changes did not alter the basic

manner of operation but increased speed, ease, and precision. Several

subtle sources of error in the original method were identified and eliminated.

Practical operating limits were established. Within these limits good precision can be expected over a wide range of test conditions.

Studies showed that the method is not limited to the organic coating materials for which it was originally designed. It also is applicable to ceramic,

porcelain, and anodic coatings, as well as to films and tapes when attached

to a rigid substrate. Sheet metal of aluminum, brass, or steel may also be

tested. Moreover, a good qualitative correlation was observed between test

results and the service performance of protective coatings applied to military aircraft.

During the year, the abrasive jet apparatus was demonstrated and advice

and assistance were given to industry and governmental laboratories on construction of the apparatus and training personnel in its use. Design Loads for Plumbing Systems. Although present knowledge of

the physics of plumbing systems and of the typical loads to which such sys- tems are subjected is inadequate for development of realistic design criteria,

Testing a reinforced concrete specimen to determine the strength of the bond

between the concrete and deformed reinforcing bars. The integrity of a reinforced concrete structure depends upon the strength and permanence of

bond between the concrete and reinforcement (page 112).

114
progress was made in obtaining new data on the factors affecting the surge

flow capacities of nominally horizontal drains. Recently completed experiments indicate that reasonably accurate estimates of capacity can be made by

taking account of the slope and diameter of the drain, the roughness of the

pipe material, the duration of the surge and the relationship between the

volumes of flow in the main and the branch drains.

2.15. DATA-PROCESSING SYSTEMS

The Bureau's program in data-processing systems includes research, development, systems design and analysis, and technical advisory services in

both digital and analog computer technology. The Bureau serves the

Government as a central agency for providing comprehensive and readily

available information in both the development and application of highspeed automatic data-processing systems. Many requests are received from

other government agencies for assistance and advice relative to their dataprocessing problems in engineering, management, and operations research,

as well as control systems and simulation. These advisory activities

strengthen the Bureau's basic computer program, which ranges from re- search in components, circuits, systems, and simulation to advanced work

in new computer applications.

Among the accomplishments during the past year were continued applied

research and development on components and circuits applicable to improved operations of the basic units of data-processing devices and systems,

the engineering and construction of a flexible multipurpose high speed

digital data processor, the machine processing of voluminous logical design

data to automatically create manuals and indexes for a large-scale installation, the development of special-purpose information storage and retrieval

devices, and technical assistance on the application of automatic dataprocessing techniques and equipment to government problems. Of particular significance was extensive assistance to the Bureau's own research

laboratories in identifying problem areas where experimental data could be

automatically prepared for direct computer input. The range of dataprocessing applications for the Bureau and other government agencies in- creased materially during the past year.

SEAC and Analog Computing Facilities. SEAC has continued to be

used as a high-speed digital research facility for experimental investigations

of specialized information processing, data conversion and reduction, real- time simulation, and picture-pattern processing. In some instances processing these problems required modifications that improved the utility of the

machine. For example, provision was made to accept six-bit information

from a magnetic tape unit in the analog computer room controllable from

the SEAC console. Engineering of a multichannel magnetic tape unit sys- tem was completed, in preparation for installing four high-speed recording

units. New silicon photocells were installed on the high-speed photoelectric

punched paper tape reader, which has had error-free performance since its modification.

115
The output format capability of the Bureau's analog computer was

extended by the addition of a manual keyboard to a 10 in. X 15 in. recorder

to permit point-by-point plotting of data in digital form, and a logarithmic

converter was obtained to permit semilog plotting of either digital points

or analog curves. The Bureau's simulation facility, which includes SEAC, the analog installation, and appropriate display devices, was used to demonstrate some

of the functional requirements for air traffic control equipment as applied

to airways traffic in the Washington, D.C., area. PILOT Data Processor. The NBS PILOT Data Processor, a highly

flexible research tool developed for investigating new and unusual dataprocessing problems for government, is nearing completion. Power distribution, clock distribution, circuit protection, and all the printed circuit

connectors were installed in the 24-rack assemblies. Approximately half

of the logical wiring was completed, and all of the printed circuit packages

required for the initial installation were delivered and inspected. The console also is nearing completion, and the associated input-output typewriter,

wire drive, paper-tape punch, paper-tape reader, and high-speed punch are ready to be connected. Three plugboards were installed and connected, and

a light panel containing approximately 1,000 pilot lights was connected into

the system.

Technical Assistance for Data Processing. A continuing survey of

laboratory operations throughout the Bureau revealed a variety of dataprocessing tasks, some of which had special data conversion problems. In some instances, technical assistance was provided through study of the problem to determine whether analog or digital techniques were applicable and

to demonstrate the feasibility of such applications. Additional assistance was given in the design and development of special data logging equipment,

as needed to convert the data to acceptable input form for the computer.

Some of this was constructed in the user laboratories with advice in the

utilization of NBS packaged circuitry.

Typical problems included design of a bandpass filter for use in a seismic

galvanometer, determination of rate of oxidation of niobium, determination

of the parameters defining the refractive index of crystalline material, mathematical analysis of lens quality by multiple ray-tracing techniques, temperature distribution throughout a cylindrical ceramic rod, measurement of

thermal expansion in dental amalgams, the production of Mollier charts

representing solutions of equations relating pressure, temperature, and volume for gases at very high temperatures, and the production of isoenergy

curves on the intensity/angle field from the electron scatter measurements.

Components and Techniques. The development of faster, more complex computers and data processors requires the judicious choice of new

components and better understanding of existing ones. In both cases, measurement of properties of components is fundamental. Improvements

in computer performance can be expected from the utilization of components that make novel application of physical phenomena. For example,

116
because evaporated nickel-iron films show promise as very fast memory and

switching elements, a large evaporator was placed in operation and instruments were set up for measuring thickness, coercivity, anisotropy, and

reversal time for films.

Investigation of the operation of medium-speed alloy junction transistors

in large-signal switching circuits was continued. New techniques were developed for applying the general nonlinear equivalent circuit devised to describe the large-signal switching behavior of transistors to circuit design

problems, and a circuit optimization procedure is being programed for a

digital computer.

Special-p u r p o s e computer, AMOS

IV, developed for

the Weather Bureau for use as the central element

in an automatic

weather station.

The computer collects and processes

the data picked up

by the station before it is transmitted (page 118).

Techniques for measuring the parameters of high-frequency semiconductor devices are under investigation, concurrent with a literature survey on

tunnel diodes and mesa transistor types, in anticipation of extending the application of the large-signal equivalent circuit and simulation studies to these components.

Under the sponsorship of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, several new transistor circuits were designed by means of the equivalent circuit technique

and added to the series of medium-speed logical building blocks.

Digital Circuitry. The design and development of improved digital circuits for use in advanced digital computing and information handling

systems and for performing switching and memory functions was continued under the sponsorship of Air Force Cambridge Research Center and

U.S. Army Supply Agency. An instrument was developed for quickly and

accurately setting phases on a set of clock signals in a five-phase system by

comparing all other phases with one arbitrarily chosen phase. Prototype

assemblies of shift registers and counters were devised and constructed on

very thin flexible fiber glass laminate. These assemblies were then rolled

into compact cylindrical modules for evaluation. Electrical performance was measured and found satisfactory in an experimental sub-unit of typical

117
digital equipment in which density of 10 components per square inch was

achieved with singlesided printed circuit wiring.

Investigation of the switching behavior of small ferrite cores, potentially

useful for increasing the speed of large random access memories, was continued. The investigation was directed at evaluating the properties of the core itself. Some of the parameters describing core switching were defined

and important mathematical relationships between them derived. In addition, a useful graphical representation of core switching behavior was

made. This information will be useful in the development of the necessary

high-speed and high-reliability circuits needed for the functions of driving,

selection, and detection in a large fast memory.

Digital Systems Research. In information retrieval systems, the tasks

of locating, manipulating, and producing the sought-for information may

be assigned to several independent devices that can search, process, and

display data automatically. All of these different devices must be organized

to interact together, cooperatively and concurrently, in an effective ensemble

operation. In order to establish priority methods for establishing clearly

the necessary and sufficient order of precedence among the different devices

at every step, further applications of techniques of graph theory and Boolean

matrices to the organization and programing of large-scale information retrieval systems were studied under the sponsorship of the National Science

Foundation. Results indicate how these methods can be used to detect er- rors in programs, and what further study must be made to lead to methods

of optimum scheduling.

Special-Purpose Digital Computer. Under a program sponsored by

the Weather Bureau, a special-purpose digital computer, AMOS IV (Automatic Meteorological Observation Station), was developed as the central ele- ment in an automatic weather station to collect and process weather data

prior to transmission. This computer permits a considerable reduction in

peripheral equipment and many simplifications in the input instruments.

The computer is built around a drum memory operating at 1,800 rpm and

having a capacity in excess of 20,000 three-digit words. It uses transistorized circuitry built of standardized compatible 50-kc/s building blocks.

Data Transmission Link. Because of the widespread interest in the

development of more effective, economical means of transmitting digital

data between remotely located high-speed digital computers, a two-way digital

data link from magnetic tape to magnetic tape via a microwave path was

established between the commercial computer at NBS and the Weather

Bureau in Suitland, Md. The work was completed by an outside contractor,

under the Bureau's technical guidance.

Fallout Predictor. The prototype model of a special-purpose analog

computer was developed and constructed for the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

The instrument, an outgrowth of an earlier Bureau development, predicts

radioactive fallout for any selected locality in about 5 seconds after entry of

input data on approximately 100 parameters, such as direction and velocity

of the winds and the distribution of radioactivity within the cloud. This

118
model has such special aids as a monitoring oscilloscope and a plotting table

to permit rapid marking of the fallout pattern on a standard Army map.

Biomedical Data Processing. At the request of the Air Force's Office

of Scientific Research, the design specifications for a system developed earlier

for processing electrocardiograph data were modified for processing psychological data at Georgetown University Hospital. Transducers to convert

psychological reactions to analog voltages were tested.

Computer Systems Evaluation. Assistance was provided the Bureau

of Naval Weapons in evaluating proposed computer methods and equipment

for a real-time computation system for the Pacific Missile Range. The system

must provide real-time computation of missile and satellite trajectories, predicted impact point, vehicle control functions, and target acquisition aids for

remote tracking equipment. A related telemetry digitizing system now being

designed will process telemetry data either during or after a missile flight

and include such functions as channel selection, sampling rate and sampling

times under control of a general-purpose digital computer.

Analog-Digital Differential Analyzer. Two integrator units and two

multiplier units of a novel form of combined analog-digital differential

analyzer are under construction. The advantages and limitations of this

system will be evaluated for applicability to test-range instrumentation.

Automatic Mail-Sorting Developments. The Bureau is continuing to

assist the Post Office Department's Research and Engineering Division in

its objective of applying automatic equipment and data-handling techniques

to the improvement of the mail-sorting operation. A plan for conducting

the tests and demonstrations of the prototype code-sort equipment was developed, including a distributor and file directory which were designed by

an outside contractor. The primary purpose of the plan is to obtain basic

statistical data on important human factors through controlled operation of

the installation. Procedures for setting up efficient mail distribution schemes

to be used with code-sort equipment and for preparing scheme data for the

file directory were developed, and a scheme for using code-sort equipment

to sort the present manual and the proposed keysort distribution schemes

at the Washington, D.C., Post Office was specified in complete detail. Preparation of the detailed file directory data was initiated, to be available when

the equipment is ready for operation.

Mechanization of Patent Searching. The cooperative program with

the Patent Office for mechanizing patent search operations was continued.

Major emphasis was devoted to the preparation of a representative data file and to the planning, developing, programing, and checking out of data-assembly and data-checking routines. In connection with the generating, sorting, and compiling of patent data into a format that meets HAYSTAQ

requirements, a routine for the sorting and assembly of new data was completed and checked out. In addition, an error expurgation program routine was programed and partially tested and checked out. Plans have been

prepared for large-scale tests using diverse types of realistic questions in

119
order to determine the practical applicability of these chemical search

strategies.

Studies were also continued on several possible ways of writing a grammar for English that can be mechanized in the form of a computer program.

Some of this work was directed at grammars for the whole English language

and others at certain specialized dialects of English.

Pictorial Data Processing. Under the sponsorship of the U.S. Naval

Training Device Center, a study was undertaken to develop a technique that can digitally scan aerial stereo-photographic information and, with proper

computer programing, translate this information into elevation profiles. In

the course of this development three-dimensional models of a terrain were

constructed, photographed, scanned, and digitalized with SEAC. A program was completed to derive from these digitalized stereopairs measure- ments of the height of simply recognized features in the terrain.

Prototype model of

a special-purpose

analog computer

which predicts ra- dioactive fallout

for any selected lo- cality in about 5

seconds after the

input of data on

approximately 100

parameters. It was

developed for the

U. S. Army Signal

Corps (page 118).

Research Information Center. The collection and organization of

literature and bibliographic references covering a wide range of interests

in information storage, selection, and retrieval for the Research Information Center and Advisory Service on Information Processing was continued

under sponsorship of the National Science Foundation. Information was

also assembled on current and proposed research projects and workers in

the field. In addition, interdisciplinary research areas were studied to identify techniques which are potentially applicable in solving complex

problems in information processing and literature retrieval, and a primary

review of overall problems, and a suggested framework for research in mechanized information selection system was presented to the sponsor. Spe120
cial state-of-the-art reviews on mechanized chemical information searching

and the states of character recognition developments were completed.

Simulation of Traffic Flow. At the request of the Bureau of Public

Roads, a program for simulating municipal traffic flow by means of highspeed automatic data-processing and display equipment has been under way

as a basis for the design of more efficient highway signaling. A computer

program prescribing the rules for the simulation of the movements of both

cars and trucks along nine blocks of a Washington, D.C., street was completed. This program generates vehicle positions and writes the coordinates on a magnetic tape output. A SEAC program then converts the vehicle

position from the tape over to an oscilloscope and also actuates a camera to photograph the displays of successive traffic configurations. The result is a motion picture film that projects in real time the traffic movement for a three-minute period.

Statistical Data-Processing Installation. The U.S. Army Chemical

Corps requested the Bureau to undertake a study of the performance requirements, evaluate available data-processing systems, and recommend suit- able equipment in the moderate price range to meet the statistical requirements for processing results of tests and experiments in support of their

research and development program. This collaborative program resulted

in the recommendation and purchase of a commercial computer, which was

installed and accepted at Fort Detrick in February 1960.

Communications Data Processing. The Federal Communications

Commission requested the Bureau's advice and assistance in applying auto- matic data-processing techniques and equipment to improve the efficiency

in handling their massive paperwork operations. Following completion

of the initial information gathering phase, a joint study was conducted to determine the data-flow pattern and the procedural activity of each functional area. Through this joint study, the tentative conclusion was reached

that automatic data processing techniques are applicable, and systems design work was then undertaken. Concurrently, computation of antenna

signal intensity patterns was programed as typical of the way in which

technical data enter into the Commission's activities. This program for

the computations of antenna pattern has been completed and is now available for production runs on a computer. In each area the data were classified according to the FCC function being carried out and whether they were

in the form of source documents, permanent records, intermediate records, or final reports. This inventory was used to chart, for each function, the

flow of information from the source documents to the final documents on which the decisions reached are recorded.

Additional Data-Processing Applications. The task of mechanizing

personnel data recording and reporting was continued. Data describing

each NBS employee, as well as each research associate and guest worker, were

encoded and recorded on a magnetic tape. This tape will be updated each

month and various reports generated from the data. Present plans include

569432 0—60 9 121
the programing of 44 regularly recurring personnel reports and 1 budget re- port. Codes for about 15 of these reports are now written, and an auxiliary

routine to be used for generalized editing was designed and partially programed.

Continuing technical assistance and advice was provided to the Federal

Home Loan Bank Board in connection with the processing of data from re- ports of savings and loans associations. These monthly reports serve as one

index of the status of the national economy. Since personnel of FHLBB are now in a position to prepare their own codes, only the Bureau's computational services are presently required.

At the request of the General Services Administration, assistance was

continued in the final evaluation of proposals for an automatic data-processing system to integrate management control over the Federal Supply Services network of stores depot. A series of training sessions was conducted

for top management, systems analysts, and computer managers in the techniques of automatic data processing.

The U.S. Public Housing Authority constantly reviews and edits a substantial volume of reports of eligibility for continued occupancy of low-rent housing. Under preliminary studies, the Bureau had concluded a feasibility

study of machine editing of report data for internal consistency. Subsequently, changes in rules and regulations extended the volume of data to be

edited. In addition, machine editing facilitates administrative reviews that

cannot otherwise be made on an adequate sample of the reports. The PHA

data for the entire year were edited on the 704 computer, query output was

processed and machine-prepared letters were printed on the off-line printer.

Under the sponsorship of the National Institutes of Health, a preliminary

study to investigate data processing techniques having adequate growth capability to maintain and select information on the NIH grant program was

instituted. NIH administers the Government's support of medical and

biological research through grants to universities and other research organizations, and the objective is to develop automatic means for storing, sorting,

and retrieving information concerning the program.

The Maritime Administration has large and complex data handling problems arising from its regulatory activities for ship operation and construction. At the request of the Maritime Administration a preliminary study of

the overall data-processing functions and engineering calculations was instituted for the purpose of determining the feasibility of and identifying

specific areas for further detailed applications studies.

2.16. CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING

The Bureau's activities in cryogenic engineering, a rapidly growing specialized field, center at the Boulder Laboratories. The Bureau provides

information needed for practical applications of materials, systems, and

techniques at very low temperatures, and assists Government and industry

with problems arising in this field.

122
Demand for assistance in projects involving cryogenics has increased

greatly as a result of missile and space programs which rely on cryogenicliquids as propellants. Meanwhile the growth in acceptance of the importance of cryogenic engineering has been accompanied by emphasis on purely

scientific programs in which the use of extremely low temperatures can be an important aid. To cooperate in the above activities, the laboratory

conducts research on the physical properties of materials and properties of

fluids, as well as on cryogenic processes and equipment. In addition, it maintains a national Cryogenic Data Center where information on cryogenic engineering is collected and organized for use by other government

agencies, industry, and the public.

Cryogenic Engineering Data. The Cryogenic Data Center currently

has nearly 10,000 listings of published literature and reports useful in the

cryogenic engineering field. Over 7,000 of these now are primary-coded on manual punched cards for storage and retrieval. All citations with characteristics of the documents are being assembled in a catalog of references soon to be available. Bibliography service is being furnished on request

to the Bureau staff and to a limited extent to outside groups. Plans were made during the year for early conversion from manual operation to a mechanical system. This will permit extension of the reference service,

with some increase in scope, to the cryogenic engineering industry.

The evaluation and compilation of cryogenic data, another activity of

the Cryogenic Data Center, is being expanded to permit more exhaustive

correlation of data. A compendium of Properties of Materials at Low Temperature (phase 1), prepared under sponsorship of the Wright Air Development Division of USAF, was completed.

Low-Temperature Transformations in Steels. Austenitic stainless

steels are widely used in cryogenic equipment because of their retention of

toughness at low temperatures. While it is known that plastic deformation

of these steels tends to produce the martensite phase with consequent modiMartensite band

produced spontaneously on cooling an

unstable AISI 304

steel to 76 °K. The

conversion of austentic steels to martensite at low temperatures modifies

their mechanical

properties (page

123).

123
fication of their mechanical properties, the nature of this inter-relationship

is not always clear, nor are the mechanisms for formation of the new phase.

As part of a larger program, sponsored by the Department of Defense,

the alloys, AISI 304, AISI 202, AM 350, and USS Tenelon, were tested in

tension and impact at temperatures down to 20 °K. The first of these

alloys, AISI 304, is already widely used in cryogenics. The strength data

obtained in these tests will be useful to equipment designers.

In addition, magnetic analyses for martensite helped to explain the observed dependence of the mechanical properties on temperatures. The

mechanism for martensite formation in AISI 304 is being studied by

dislocation etch pit and X-ray techniques.

Thermal Insulation. Last year the discovery of evacuated laminates

giving revolutionary improvement in insulating efficiency was reported by

the Bureau. These "super insulations," which have wide applications in

the cryogenic industry, have now been thoroughly examined, and the choice

of materials and the techniques for installation suitable for achieving the

best results have been established. The effectiveness of this kind of insulation was found to depend strongly on the mechanical loading and on the care taken to preserve the continuity of the laminae when installing over

surfaces of complicated shape.

Reactor Materials. A rocket powered by a nuclear reactor receives

optimum thrust if the propulsion fluid is the low molecular weight substance, hydrogen. However, the hydrogen must be carried as a liquid in

order to achieve compactness in a light-weight container. In liquid form

it can also provide cooling for the reactor and other components of the

rocket.

The physical properties of the reactor materials at low temperatures are

therefore of considerable interest. In cooperation with the Los Alamos

Scientific Laboratory of the AEC, the Bureau measured the mechanical

properties and the thermal conductivity of beryllium, molybdenum, tungsten, and graphite, and the thermal expansion of graphite down to 20 °K.

Thermocouples for Low-Temperature Use. Thermocouples are widely used for temperature measurements where compactness and quick

response are desired and where moderate accuracy of the order of 0.1 deg

is acceptable. Moreover, the rapid expansion of liquid hvdrogen technology

has created a demand for thermometers that are usable in the region of

20 °K. Because conventional thermocouples are insensitive at such low

temperatures, a thermocouple composed of gold-cobalt alloy versus copper

or a silver-gold alloy has come into use. The Bureau completed a study of

the temperature-emf relation, the homogeneity, and the stability of these

thermocouples, including for comparison a similar study of the commercial

thermocouple, copper versus constantan. Detailed reference tables for

these instruments were given widespread advance distribution in response

to numerous inquiries from users. Work also is in progress on the low

temperature characteristics of other established thermocouples that find

occasional use in special cryogenic applications at temperatures below their

124
300 °K 195 °K 76°K 20 °K

Specimens show how ductility of annealed AISI 202 steel decreases as its temperature is lowered. Unbroken specimen at left shows original size (page 123).

usual range of applicability. Meanwhile new thermocouple materials are being investigated in the search for higher sensitivity, improved homogeneity and stability, and lower thermal conductivity.

Cryogenic Fluid Flow. Knowledge of phenomena which occur when

cryogenic fluids are flowing is essential to the understanding of almost all cryogenic equipment. Several of these phenomena were studied during the

year. The Bureau completed its experimental studies of pressure drops in

steady, two-phase, single-component fluid flows; data obtained with highly

diabatic flows confirmed the conclusions drawn from previous tests with

trichloromonofluoromethane—that the Lockhart and Martinelli correlation can predict these pressure drops. Work completed thus far on choking

two-phase flows shows that, contrary to widely held beliefs, the critical

pressure ratios are significantly larger than those for the pure vapor phase

alone. This result is expected to influence the design of many transfer

systems.

The electrokinetics of flowing oxygen were studied to assess the actual

hazards resulting from electrostatic charges. It was found impossible to create d-c potentials from pure liquid, pure vapor, or pure two-phase oxygen

125
flows; however, a-c potentials were created in two-phase flows when the

liquid-vapor interface traversed the electrodes. On the other hand, more

than 10,000 volts dc could be created when the oxygen was contaminated

with solid particles. The hazards due to this effect will be better understood when present experiments which are determining the energy that can

be stored by this effect and the energy required in an electric discharge to

initiate combustion of the contaminant, are completed.

Heat Transfer. A comprehensive survey of heat transfer between fluids

and solid surfaces was completed. Available data for cryogenic systems were evaluated, and pertinent theoretical and empirical formulations were compared with the data. The results were prepared in a readily usable form.

Investigations of the effects of ambient conditions (wind velocity, air

temperature, and humidity) on heat transfer to uninsulated liquid oxygen

containers showed that wind velocity is the dominant parameter, although

for large changes in air temperature (e.g., 32 °F compared with 70 °F), the

temperature effect is significant. Since the formation of frost on the exterior

surface of these containers is a controlling phenomenon, theoretical and ex- perimental studies of frost formation on surfaces at minus 297 °F were carried out. The behavior of liquid and gas in a relatively well-insulated hydrogen container when the container is pressurized, permitted to remain pressurized,

and then rapidly emptied, was investigated. It was demonstrated that the

temperature history in the liquid can be closely predicted from the one-dimensional, unsteady heat conduction equation.

Cryogenic Equipment. The Bureau is constantly working on innovations to make cryogenic equipment more reliable, rugged, efficient, and eco- nomical to fabricate and operate. The ruggedness and reliability of some

demountable transfer lines utilizing condensing-vacuum insulation and a

simplified bayonet coupling with a metallic piston-ring nose seal were demonstrated through field use. A double bayonet coupling was invented and

tested; this coupling has the advantages of having a single parting plane and

being neuter. Low-Temperature Seals. Practically all cryogenic engineering applications benefit from successful use of low temperature seals. For example,

most equipment such as pumps, valves, transfer lines, and storage Dewars

can be simplified by these seals. Techniques were developed in cooperation with the Boeing Airplane Company which make it possible to use ordinary elastomeric O-rings to make

excellent static seals between high vacuum and moderately high pressures at

all temperatures between 20 °K and ambient. It also was found that highstrength plastics such as nylon can be used as thin flat gaskets.

Emphasis is placed on determination of pertinent physical properties

which will aid in predicting seal effectiveness. Moreover, for a better understanding of the mechanical behavior of elastomers under the highly stressed

conditions which are required to make a seal, additional attention is being

given to thermodynamic and molecular phenomena.

126
Refrigeration Processes. Many devices such as masers, bubble chambers, computer elements and electro-magnets need a very-low-temperature en- vironment for successful operation. Various kinds of refrigerators capable

of maintaining low temperatures continuously, are therefore required.

With these refrigeration needs in view, the most recent and reliable thermodynamic data available for many low-boiling fluids over widely varying

temperature and pressure ranges were tabulated for use in computing re- frigeration processes. A great many processes using helium gas as the process fluid were programed and calculated using one of the Boulder Laboratories' computers.

Studies of cryogenic machinery and certain machinery elements, such as bearings suitable for use in refrigeration processes, also are in progress.

Physical Equilibria. A major problem in liquefaction of gases is that

of preventing the equipment from being fouled with solid impurities which

are likely to be frozen. Research is therefore necessary in physical

equilibria to establish accurately the exact design for impurity removal.

To help meet this need, a comprehensive literature search for material on

the physical equilibria and related properties of some cryogenic systems was

completed and the bibliography made available to researchers in this field. In a related program, a theoretical and experimental study of the adsorption of impurities at low temperatures was pursued. The study concentrated on the removal of methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide from

hydrogen by adsorption. Valuable experimental data were obtained, and

an important first step in developing the theory of multicomponent adsorption was taken.

Studying the low-temperature adsorption of impurities from high-pressure

hydrogen gas streams. This program provides data necessary for the design

of efficient gas purification systems (page 127).

127
In addition, theoretical and empirical studies were carried out on the behavior of fluid gas systems, and methods of predicting equilibria were

developed. Methods of computing vapor pressure, heats of vaporization and

heats of sublimation from a minimum of information were developed. This

work was accomplished at the Georgia Institute of Technology under an NBS contract. Gas Liquefaction. Production of liquefied gases was reduced as a

result of liquid hydrogen being furnished to local government contractors

from other government plants. Approximately 105,000 liters of liquid hydrogen, 800,000 liters of liquid nitrogen and 3,400 liters of liquid helium were produced. Over 2 million standard cubic feet (scf) of hydrogen gas was recovered from on-site handling and use of liquid, thus reducing the

need for commercially supplied gas to about 1 million scf. There was an increase in the number of users of liquid helium supplied

this year. However, because of the termination of the NBS Free Radicals

Research Program in Washington, the total volume of liquid delivered was somewhat less. A continued decrease in requirements of those using liquid hydrogen is expected this coming year because of the increasing availability from other

plants. This is expected to make the Bureau's liquefaction facilities more

conveniently available for special runs and for evaluation and development

of cryogenic equipment and processes. The availability of liquid helium

from other sources, on the other hand, is not so imminent. As a conse- quence, for this phase of the program, there may be some increase in

production requirements.

2.17. RADIO PROPAGATION

The Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, located at Boulder, Colo.,

has the primary responsibility within the U.S. Government for collecting,

analyzing, and disseminating information on the propagation of radio waves at all frequencies along the surface of the earth, through the atmosphere, and in outer space. To carry out its responsibility, this Laboratory

conducts research on the nature of radio waves and the media through

which they are transmitted, the interaction of the waves with the media,

and the nature of the radio noise and interference effects. A network of

field stations is operated from the Arctic to the tropics, and data are ex- changed with other laboratories throughout the world. The work of the

Laboratory is divided into four areas: Ionosphere research and propagation,

radio propagation engineering, radio communications and systems, and

upper atmosphere and space physics.

Ionosphere Research and Propagation

Within the field of ionosphere research and radio propagation, the

Bureau conducts and coordinates basic research on the propagation

of radio waves as affected by the ionosphere and on the special factors which

128
can cause large departures from the normal behavior; investigates the nature

of the media through which these radio waves are transmitted and the interaction of radio waves with the media; prepares predictions of radio wave

propagation and warnings of disturbances; acts as a central repository for

data, reports, and information in the field of ionospheric radio wave propagation; and provides consultation services on the characteristics of the

ionosphere and on radio wave propagation to other government agencies

and industry.

VLF Propagation Deduced from Lightning Discharges. Considerable electromagnetic energy in the very-low-frequency region of the fre- quency spectrum is radiated into the atmosphere from lightning discharges.

Most of this radiated energy is contained between the earth and the ionosphere and propagates to great distances in a waveguide type mode.

Various propagation characteristics were determined by analyzing the

broadband waveforms of atmospherics recorded at different distances along

a propagation path. The attenuation rates and phase velocities as a function of frequency were analyzed to yield the complex (amplitude and phase)

spectra, and the spectral values were compared. This analysis was made

on many waveforms simultaneously recorded at a network of stations. The

characteristics were averaged for propagation from East to West.

F-Region Scatter in the Far East. An interesting finding of IGY work

at the Bureau was the discovery of a new mode of propagation above the F2

MUF in the Far East originating in the F region of the ionosphere. This

propagation mode, which has been called the Far Eastern anomaly, was the

subject of an expedition in September to October 1959. Signals were determined to be coming from high in the F region (400 to 500 km) and to

the west of the great-circle-path. These measurements showed that the

phenomenon could be observed at a radius of about 2,000 miles around the

transmitters in the Philippines and in Okinawa, indicating that the phenomenon does have substantial geographical extent. As the phenomenon was not

observed in the Carribbean (at 50 Mc/s), it apparently has a very strong

longitude effect. World Maps for the Prediction of F2 Propagation. For measuring

ionospheric characteristics, a network of observing stations is maintained

in many countries. A major objective of this network is the development

of an optimum global representation of the ionosphere for use in long dis- tance communications in similar applications. Until such a representation

is available, ionospheric predictions must be made by interim methods.

The Bureau issued 222 world maps that make up the first portion of a semipermanent representation of average propagation characteristics of the

F region in the summer of 1959. These maps, based on data from the

world network, give characteristics for alternate hours, Universal Time, for

six selected months. Data for an additional six months have now been

completed and will be issued shortly.

Polar Blackout Film. An animated motion picture film was prepared

showing the sequence of events during five periods of worldwide blackout.

129
Angle of arrival antennas on Okinawa for use in studying an unusual mode

of radio propagation occurring only in the Far East (page 129).

The film portrays the changing patterns and apparent motion of blackout

areas over the northern hemisphere. Although the data used for making

the film are far from ideal, the sequence of events shown for each of these

five periods, especially in the initial stages of development, is thought to represent accurately the physical phenomena actually occurring in the upper

atmosphere.

New Fading-Spectrum Representation. A unique fading-spectrum

representation was developed wherein the amplitude and phase of the fading

signal is displayed in detail for substantial periods of time. One day's representation of fading spectrum occupies typically about four feet of facsimile

paper. This technique makes possible the recording of the complete fading

spectrum for long periods of time in a very compact form without going

through intermediate and arbitrary steps of determining a fading rate for a complex fading signal. The technique has many other possible uses such

as the study of geomagnetic pulsations and subaudible acoustic variations.

At present, a resolution of better than 0.1 c/s is possible at 20 Mc/s.

Morphology of the Daytime Equatorial F2 Layer. The formation

mechanism of the F2 region of the ionosphere has been a major problem

of ionospheric physics for many years. A new model involving only photoionization, recombination, and temperature variations, was developed to explain the main features of behavior of the daytime equatorial F2 layer.

The new model does not rely on electromagnetic drift. By including the

diffusion of charge under pressure and concentration gradients, the model

can be expected to account for the main features of the middle latitude F2

layer as well.

True Height of the Ionosphere. When high frequency radio waves

are used to probe the ionosphere, their group velocity varies with the electron density on the ray path and with the intensity of the earth's magnetic

field. Thus the echo heights from conventional ionospheric soundings are

130
virtual heights, and the true heights of reflection can be determined only

by complicated calculations.

The most recent developments have been a great increase in the volume

of computations possible through the use of a much larger and faster computer, and the computation of a new parameter—the quarter thickness of the

F layer near the maximum density of the F2 layer. This scale height could

make possible an estimate of the temperature in this region.

Radio Propagation Engineering

More efficient use of the radiofrequency spectrum is the aim of the Bureau's program in radio propagation engineering. This objective requires

a basic understanding of radio-wave propagation, noise, and interference.

To this end, statistical samples of data on radio-wave propagation and radio

noise are collected so that the underlying phenomena may be accurately

described. Methods are developed for using these samples to predict the

statistical characteristics of propagation and noise variables required in

engineering applications.

Ground Communication Systems. Present-day communication re- quirements demand the utmost in reliability and information capacity. At

the same time the demands on radiofrequency spectrum space have been in- creasing over the past few years at a phenomenal rate. The preparation of

performance standards in the form of handbooks will assist the Air Force, as well as other users of communication circuits, to plan, design, and operate

various systems in the most efficient and effective manner. The first six volumes of material was completed. These six volumes will cover the respective communication media of VLF—LF ground-wave and

ionospheric transmission, MF and HF ground-wave and ionospheric trans- mission, ionospheric scatter transmission, tropospheric beyond-the-horizon

and line-of-sight transmission, and metallic circuit transmission. One of the

volumes will introduce the material in the remaining five. One volume deals with tropospheric beyond line-of-sight and within lineof-sight transmissions. The subjects covered include complete discussion of

propagation characteristics, meteorological considerations, reliability and

bandwidth factors, equipment, prediction formulas, siting considerations,

and miscellaneous supplementary data and examples. The remaining five

volumes are expected within a few months.

Long Distance Propagation Studies at 9100 Mc/s. A narrow band

9100 Mc/s receiver has been designed and constructed together with a 2 kw,

9100 Mc/s transmitter, each using a crystal oscillator that has a frequency

stability on the order of a few parts in 1010 per day. With this equipment,

reliable information can be obtained on the utility of this frequency range

over larger distances than possible with earlier equipment. Such studies are

expected to lead to a more efficient use of the radiofrequency spectrum.

Path Length for Tropospheric Scatter Circuits. Recent developments in phase measuring techniques of signals propagated through the at- mosphere led to a system which should enable an accurate determination

131
of the physical radio path length in a beyond-the-horizon transmission. An

accurate measure of this length will determine the actual location of that portion of the scattering volume which plays a role in this phenomenon. Such

a measurement is expected to increase the theoretical understanding of the

scattering concept.

Equipment used to investigate the ef- fect of atmospheric

turbulence on radio

direction finding

and guidance sys- tems. Measurements are made of

the phase stability

of radio signals

propagated over

line-of-sight paths

(page 133).

Airborne Television Studies. Methods of describing the coverage to be expected from a system of UHF airborne television transmitters were

developed and used in evaluating the potential of such a network. This

study, sponsored by the Ford Foundation, was undertaken because of the

recent interest in this means of transmission for educational purposes.

Actual on-the-air tests of a single station will begin in 1961 under the

direction of the Midwest Program on Airborne Television Instruction at Purdue University.

A wide range of system conditions and mutual interference situations

is being investigated. Comparisons can be made of the effectiveness of

ground and airborne systems and of the results of varying different system

parameters. Predictions are made of the frequency spectrum and equipment requirements for systems designed for coverage of the entire area of

the continental United States. Computations, in statistical terms, have been made for aircraft at alti- tudes of 7,500 and 10,000 meters, with interference from a single station or

132
from stations in a triangular lattice. Service probability contours and

effective areas are the principal devices used for showing the results. Comparable predictions for transmitting heights of 300 and 450 meters were

also made.

Energy Spectrum Recorder. An instrument for slowly scanning the

radiofrequency spectrum and recording the energy every 200 c/s was developed and is being field tested prior to installation in a worldwide net- work. The instrument scans the spectrum from 200 c/s to 550 kc/s in a

five-day period. Using a bandwidth of 200 c/s, the equipment records for

2.5 minutes on each of 2,750 frequencies 200 c/s apart. Over the scanning

range, spectrum occupancy of signals are recorded and radio-noise levels are recorded between signals. Positive frequency identification is coded

on the record every 10 kc/s and each 200 c/s step is indicated. Accurate

frequency identification of the recorded signals can thus be made. Therefore, not only will valuable information as to spectrum occupancy and radionoise levels be obtained, but identification of individual signals and their

received field strength will give a wealth of information for the study of

propagation over a very large number of signal paths.

Radio Ray Refraction. Work was completed on the numerical determination of radio ray refraction in standard atmospheres of exponential

form. In addition, a detailed analysis of the radio refractive index climate

at ground observing level was made for the United States, based on 8 years

of individual weather observations. This work is believed to be the first treatment of the radio climate of any country.

Phase Stability. Measurements of phase stability of radio signals propagated over line-of-sight tropospheric paths were undertaken to evaluate the

limitations imposed by atmospheric turbulence on direction finding and

guidance systems. The investigation is expected to provide basic knowledge

of turbulence, in general, and such other engineering applications as elec- tronic distance measuring techniques. The experiments, made for the U.S.

Air Force, include frequency effects, various types of propagation paths,

and a wide variety of weather conditions.

The data obtained so far permit reasonably accurate estimates of the

phase stability of line-of-sight tropospheric paths from knowledge of their

general terrain characteristics and meteorology. Phase fluctuations are

significantly correlated with radio index of refraction variations on a time

scale consistent with the path length. For many purposes, the variations of

both phase and index can best be described by the slope and intensity of

their frequency spectra. The most significant changes in these spectra with

time appear to be in the intensity, the slopes remaining relatively unchanged.

Tracing Radio Rays Through Model Atmospheres. Simple graphical methods were developed for tracing radio rays through an arbitrary

exponential atmosphere to define the geometry appropriate for actual ter- rain profiles. Very general ray-tracing methods were also programed on

a digital computer to determine the angular distance, defined as the angle

between rays projected beyond the radio horizons of two antennas.

133
Long-Term Transmission Loss Data. Approximately 700,000 hourly

median values of VHF and UHF radio transmission loss were grouped into

summer and winter periods and cumulative distributions have been obtained. The mean and the median for each clock hour and each month

were calculated and listed for each propagation path, as well as the variance

of these means and medians for each year. These lists give summer and

winter hourly median values of field strength and transmission loss ex- ceeded for 1, 10, 50, 90, and 99 percent of the time.

Engineering Standards for Tropospherie Transmission. A description of how various terrain and atmospheric conditions affect the performance of quick-fix and long-distance tropospherie circuits was made

available in a handbook to help with the design, installation, and operation

of such circuits. This description includes methods for calculating line-ofsight, knife-edge, smooth and rough earth diffraction, and forward scatter transmission loss. Mobile Radio Noise Recorder. Recording equipment was installed in a panel truck to study the effects of locality on manmade radio noise. The

equipment records the average voltage of the noise received on a seven-foot

vertical whip antenna mounted on the roof of the vehicle. Measurements

of noise were made on a 4,000-mile trip from Boulder, Colo., to Washington, D.C., and back, a route that included a variety of types and sizes of

cities. Recordings were made on a Sunday and a Monday in the same

A Loran-C clock and its associated UHF timing system was developed to achieve

time synchronization on the order of one microsecond over long distances, using

the existing Loran-C radio navigation system (page 136).

134
city to determine the effect of a nonworkday and workday on the noise

levels. The noise was checked in the same city during the day and during

the night to determine diurnal variations.

Radio Systems

The aim of the Bureau's program in radio communication and systems is

to develop and disseminate technical information relating to radio propagation factors affecting radio systems. This information is directed toward

guiding engineering practices, allocating and using radiofrequencies, and

evaluating system capabilities. Standards and measurement methods are developed for radio systems to fulfill the needs of Federal agencies and in- dustry involved in radio operation and regulation. Emphasis is placed on promoting more efficient development and use of radio systems and the

radio spectrum.

Arctic Communications. High-frequency transmission loss studies for

auroral regions, and propagation studies for evaluation of high-frequency

modulation techniques under disturbed ionospheric conditions, continued

with the support of the U.S. Air Force. Transmission loss measurements

over arctic paths were carried out, and correlated with measurements of

auroral absorption by the VHF cosmic noise observation (riometer) techniques. Recordings were made continuously over several paths, including

a long path from Barrow (Alaska) to Boulder (Colo.), a short path entirely

within Alaska from Barrow to Kenai, and over a path from Thule (Greenland) to Barrow which lies across the polar cap, entirely north of the

auroral zone. Statistical predictability of auroral attenuation, and the applicability of the synoptic riometer observations to this problem, are being

investigated.

Disturbed Ionospheric Propagation. Observations and analysis of

amplitude and phase fluctuations of signals were carried out for the arctic

paths over a frequency range from 10 to 20 Mc/s. This work included

study of the distribution of duration of fades, and of the fading characteristics of pulse groups at closely spaced frequencies.

Propagation Characteristics of ELF and ULF Waves. The determination of electrical properties of snow and ice for the U.S. Navy was completed. Further studies are planned on radiation fields of horizontal antennas, the electrical properties of the earth's surface at ELF, VLF, and LF,

and on the theory of excitation of terrestrial wave guide modes. A new

technique for determining the effective conductivity of a radio propagation

path at LF and VLF was evaluated by measuring sferic wave forms at two

points on a line to deduce the complex propagation constant and finally

the effective path conductivity. The method appears to be able to provide information for accurately predicting transmission loss and delay

times needed for the LF and VLF systems of position fixing, surveying, and

timing.

LIS
Seven 5-element Yagi antennas erected at the Bureau's Table Mesa (Colo.)

field site. The antennas, in conjunction with an electronic scanning device, are used to pinpoint the direction of radio signals received from forward scatter transmission (page 137).

Transient Propagation at LF and VLF. The analysis of pulse LF

and VLF propagation by ground wave and through an electron plasma

medium with superposed magnetic field was continued. A theoretical study

of LF skywave transmission loss was carried out for the U.S. Air Force.

This investigation of LF prediction techniques included the influence of

the earth's magnetic field induction, and recent electron density-altitude

profiles and collision frequency-altitude profiles.

VHF Ionospheric Scatter. A study of the frequency dependence of

D-region scattering was completed. Continuous simultaneous observations were made at five frequencies from 30 to 108 Mc/s, using narrow beam an- tennas scaled in dimensions and height according to wavelength. The path was from Long Branch, 111., to Boulder, Colo., U.S.A., 1,300 km. Hourly,

diurnal, and seasonal variations in system loss were attributed to changing

relative roles of turbulence and meteoric reflections. Normal ionospheric

absorption was found not to affect scatter signal strength or frequency

dependence. Special analysis was made of frequency dependence during

weak signal conditions for engineering purposes.

Loran-C Clock. A "Loran-C Clock" and its associated UHF timing

distribution system was developed to achieve time synchronization on the

order of one microsecond over long distances, using an existing Loran-C

radio navigation system. The technique makes use of the accurate knowledge of propagation characteristics of the low frequency ground wave, and

the separability of the sky wave from the ground wave. The system provides time code distribution by UHF to peripheral stations near a central

136
Loran-C Clock station. The program is sponsored by the U.S. Air Force,

and is intended to lead to greater precision in time synchronization throughout the Atlantic Missile Range.

Antenna Development. A high resolution electronic scanning antenna

having a narrow main beam that scans rapidly over a predetermined sector in

azimuth was developed. While initially the importance of this development

lies in its application to propagation studies, a number of communication

applications are possible. Another project was completed on theoretical

design for a low-silhouette, high-gain, low-angle-of-departure antenna for

the U.S. Air Force.

Exosphere Propagation. An experiment was carried out to determine

whether high frequency waves might be guided through the exosphere along

a line of the earth's magnetic field to the magnetic conjugate point of the

transmitter where part of the energy would be back scattered, returning

through the exosphere to the point of origin. Echo returns corresponding

to such a propagation path were observed on several occasions. The technique may provide a new method for study of the electric and magnetic

characteristics of the earth's exosphere.

Consulting and Advisory Assistance. A technical adviser was furnished for the U.S. Delegation to the International Radio Conference, held

at Geneva, Switzerland, from August through December 1959. In connection with the work of the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee's

Subcommittee on Frequency Allocation, a preliminary report was prepared on the technical factors affecting frequency allocation in the VHF and UHF

portions of the radio spectrum. The FCC and IRAC have requested further

work on this program. In connection with the Mercury (Man in Space) program of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, propagation

analysis, and engineering recommendations were made for worldwide

ground communication system being set up by a government contractor.

Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics

The aim of the upper atmosphere and space physics program is to in- crease the knowledge and understanding of the physical properties and processes in the medium surrounding the earth. Such knowledge and understanding is essential to the expanding application of radio communication

in the space age. Whistler-Mode Propagation in Thermonuclear Plasma. The

whistler mode of propagation was reproduced inside the hot, dense plasma

of the British thermonuclear machine, ZETA. This propagation method

showed the feasibility of precise measurements of local electron density, intensity, and direction of the magnetic field ; and electron temperatures within

the dense plasmas produced for thermonuclear research. The results indicate that it will be possible to determine the space distribution and time

evolution of these variables. The results also indicate that Cerenkov radiation could be used to detect high-velocity particles moving through the hot

5tt9432 O—60 10 137
plasma. The cooperation of the British Atomic Energy Research Establishment in this study is acknowledged.

Ionization in Shock Waves. Intense, transient ionization in shock waves was studied by radio-microwave techniques. Properties investigated are the ionization, velocity, energy, and temperature of a shock wave created

by discharging a large capacitor bank into a thin metallic wire. The reflection of microwaves by the advancing shock front reveals the presence

of ionization, and the Doppler effect gives the velocity of the shock front.

Two or more frequencies are used simultaneously in order to compare the

properties of the shock waves as a function of frequency. These radio techniques are much more sensitive than optical methods and permitted the

verifying of the predictions of cylindrical blast-wave theory by giving wavefront velocity values of three times the speed of sound in air. Electron Density Measured Directly. The radio propagation parameters that are most useful in communications application are derived directly

with fair accuracy from measurements of echo heights by soundings with

1 to 25 Mc/s radio-wave pulses. However, the dynamics of the ionospheric

layers can be understood only if the electron density is known at each

height. The Bureau's experiments with scatter radar showed that direct

measurements can be made of electron densities throughout and well above

the ionosphere.

Electron Densities Measured to 750 Kilometers. Radio waves are strongly reflected from ionospheric regions containing enough free electrons so that the plasma frequency is equal to the frequency of the probing radio wave. Radio waves of higher frequencies penetrate this region and travel

out into space, but a minute fraction of the energy is returned to the earth

by scattering from the free electrons. Experiments performed by the

Bureau confirmed the prediction that the intensity of the scatter is proMicrowave techniques are used to study the characteristics of the plasma generated by an exploding wire.

Using the shock wave developed in

a gas-filled, cylindrical container,

evacuated to low

pressure, temperatures are attained

up to and beyond

100.000 °K (page

138).

138
» portional to the density of free electrons. These experiments also showed

that the Doppler broadening of the echoes is considerably less than had been ^ predicted. This broadening is explained in terms of scattering from a statists tical assembly of free electrons rather than from individual free electrons

ted scattering independently, and a precise theory was developed by several

re cooperating laboratories.

ice Experimental measurements of the vertical profile of electron density

nl continued with the Bureau's marginal-sensitivity equipment located near

if Havana, 111., although only on a part-time basis, since the transmitter was

i required for other purposes. Several of the profiles were used to deduce

if the temperature of the ionosphere above the maximum of the F layer.

it Ionospheric Mapping. Work is under way to replace cumbersome

graphical hand methods of numerical mapping by rigorous and objective

rn operations making use of the best ionospheric data available, the full capatlv bilities of a large-scale computing system, the most suitable methods of

ill numerical analysis and statistics, and the empirical knowledge accumulated

it in ionospheric studies.

tli Equatorial Scatter. A series of experiments in Peru at the magnetic

«l equator resulted in obtaining radar reflections from irregularities in the

it electron distribution of the equatorial electrojet. Contrary to the belief

that these irregularities are magnetic field-alined columns of ionization, the

re observations indicate that they are plane wavefronts alined in the magnetic

is north-south direction and moving in the east-west plane at various elevation

io angles. The marked similarity of these equatorial 50 Mc/s radio observael tions to those of high-latitude radio auroral echoes indicates a strong reti semblance between the two phenomena and suggests the need for a new

it approach to the interpretation of radio aurora.

) Subvisual Red Auroral Arcs Studied. Investigation of subvisible red

auroral arcs showed that they appear to be exclusively enhanced in a particular radiation wavelength, the 6300 A line from atomic oxygen. They

also seem to constitute an equatorial fringe to auroras in general; this

fringe moves toward the equator during times of strong magnetic activity.

They are oriented along magnetic parallels of latitude ; individual arcs have

been traced over some thousands of miles.

o

• [ On the night of November 27-28, 1959, one such arc was widely observed

in the western part of the United States. From simultaneous observations

at three stations (Fritz Peak, Cactus Peak, and Sacramento Peak) the height

and geographical position of the arc was determined throughout the night.

Its photometric center was at a height of about 400 km; it remained within

about 300 km north of Fritz Peak throughout the night.

Interesting observations were made when the satellite Explorer VII passed

I over the arc several times during a night at heights between 800 and 1,000

km. As it passed over the arc there was a marked increase in the rate at which high-energy particles entered the satellite from the outer Van Allen

zone.

139
Satellite recording shelter (below) at the

Bureau's Table Mesa, Colo, field site. Satellites have proved to be useful tools for studying the effects of the ionosphere on radio waves. Right : Meteor data re- corder used in research to improve communications systems using meteor trails for the reflection of radio signals (pages

139 and 140).

Digital Recording of Meteor Bursts. During recent years, studies of

the possible value of meteor-burst communication (intermittent radio communication between widely separated points via meteoric ionization in the

upper atmosphere) have been hampered by lack of information on the statistics of the radio energy scattered by the transient meteor ionization.

Therefore, an extensive automatic data-taking and analysis system was put

into operation as part of a program of research on meteor-burst propagation

characteristics.

The system utilizes three digital data recorders as the primary means for

data gathering. Each recorder has three independent data input channels

to measure the amplitudes of incoming meteor-burst signals and to record

them in binary code on punched paper tape. These tape records are analyzed on an electronic computer which produces various statistical characteristics of the ensemble of burst signals received. The use of automatic

digital techniques for this work has provided a flexibility and speed of

analysis far greater than that previously considered feasible.

Large Scale Ionospheric Irregularities. Experimental evidence

yielded information concerning ionospheric irregularities which are 100 to 500 km in horizontal extent. The angle of arrival of 108 Mc/s waves from

a radio star was observed to fluctuate erratically by as much as one-half

degree in 20 minutes. The large prismlike structures in the ionosphere

which cause such fluctuations are confined to the daylight hours and occur on about one-third of all days. Their effect upon the angle of arrival of

extraterrestial radio waves often exceeds the systematic refraction caused

by the rest of the ionosphere.

Examination of the Faraday rotation of the plane of polarization of signals from Sputnik III confirms the existence of the large irregularities. As

measured by the Faraday-rotation method, the total electron content of

140
the ionosphere varies by one or two percent across an irregularity. Observations made when the satellite was at different heights in the ionosphere

indicate that the irregular structure is not confined to any particular height,

but is distributed throughout the F region.

D Region Temperature Measurements. In a program carried out

jointly with the Geophysical Institute of University of Alaska, the effective

electron temperature of the auroral-zone D region was studied. Measurements at a frequency of 2.89 Mc/s during both daytime and nighttime disturbances indicated temperatures in the range 200 to 300 °K. These

observations showed that, contrary to earlier suggestions, the electron temperatures in the D region are relatively unaffected by auroral disturbances.

Magneto-Ionic Ray Tracing. The tracing of the path of a radio ray

through an ionized gas in the presence of a magnetic field is of considerable

theoretical and practical importance in the study of many propagation

and geophysical problems, including whistlers and other conjugate point

phenomena. Radio waves from satellites are affected by refraction and

by polarization changes; the observed Doppler shift is also affected by the

presence of the ionosphere. A major computer program was therefore prepared to calculate accurately ionospheric refraction, polarization and Doppler effects for a satellite moving in a known orbit through a model

ionosphere. Since the propagation paths are affected by the intensity and

direction of the magnetic field, it was necessary to prepare a program which

calculates the geomagnetic vector at any point in the earth's atmosphere or

out in space. This program uses spherical harmonic coefficients to the

sixth order, rather than the simple dipole field. Solar Proton Events and Polar Cap Radio Blackouts. As a result

of intensive study of the great solar cosmic ray outburst of February 23, 1956,

and study since then of the signal intensities on the U.S.A.F. North Atlantic

chain of ionospheric scatter communication links, one distinct class of polar

radio blackouts was identified and largely explained.

These periods of intense radio wave absorption result from low-level ionization produced by the bombardment of the polar ionosphere by protons

ejected from the sun during certain intense flare events. It was shown that

these protons, after the first few hours, arrive essentially isotropically. For

the few cases where the spectrum of solar protons contained a significant excess of energetic particles over normal cosmic ray background, which could

be detected at ground or balloon levels, it was found that the spectrum determined by conventional cosmic-ray techniques is continuous and consistent

with the spectrum of the low-energy protons required to account for the

observed polar absorption.

IGY World Data Center A

IGY and IGC data continued to be received by the Data Center with no

decrease in volume. About 600,000 ft of ionogram film were copied for NBS

files, for the exchange with other Data Centers, and to fill requests for copies

141
of ionograms. A total of over 2,100,000 ft of film copied has been received

in the three years of Data Center operation. While most of the IGY data have

been received, some material is still coming in. Three catalogs of the data on file were prepared during the year, two of

which were for inclusion in the combined catalog issued at six month

intervals, for all disciplines of IGY World Data Center A. During the year,

this Data Center began the typing of tables of IGY vertical incidence ionospheric data for publication in the "Annals of the International Geophysical

Year."

2.18. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

One of the statutory responsibilities of the National Bureau of Standards

is "cooperation with the States in securing uniformity in weights and

measures laws and methods of inspection." The responsibility of regulatory control over commercial weighing and measuring devices and commercial transactions involving quantity has been left by the Congress to the individual States. The Bureau contributes by offering consultative and

advisory services to the States and calibration and physical adjustment of

State reference weights and measures standards.

This program is implemented through the Bureau's Office of Weights and

Measures. The range of services is quite broad, including: (1) Development of model weights and measures statutes, rules, and regulations; (2)

properly designed and accurate physical standards of length, mass, and

capacity; (3) effective procedures for testing commercial weighing and

measuring devices; (4) specially designed testing equipment; (5) plans

for systematic and effective quantity checking of prepackaged merchandise;

(6) administrative procedures; (7) specifications and tolerances for commercial devices; (8) training schools for weights and measures officers;

(9) visual aids; and (10) publications.

During the past year, a completely new Model Regulation for Packages was developed and modernizing changes were made in the Model State Law

on Weights and Measures and the Specifications, Tolerances, and Regulations for Commercial Weighing and Measuring Devices.

The national weights and measures training laboratory facility neared completion. Here technical courses in weights and measures supervision will

be offered to supervisory personnel of State weights and measures offices. Requests for Bureau assistance in conducting technical training schools at the State level have increased to the point where the Bureau's limited staff is severely taxed to attempt to fulfill the demand. The training laboratory

should ease this situation.

New equipment was designed specifically for testing large weighing scales,

fabric-measuring devices, and liquid meters dispensing liquid fertilizers and

other ammonia products. Specific procedures were developed to facilitate

the use of the testing equipment.

142
At the request of the National Conference on Weights and Measures and

the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture, effort is being devoted to the development of new physical standards of weights and

measures for the States—standards that will be more accurate, more constant, and more durable. In 1836 and in 1866, the Congress provided the

States with reference standards that became the basis for nationwide uniformity. Since then, through obsolescence and some individual purchases,

nonuniformity in the physical characteristics of the standards has developed.

The Bureau's current efforts will provide a sound basis for repeating the

19th-century actions, bringing about complete uniformity in State weights

and measures reference standards. During the past year, metallurgical

studies were completed, specifications drawn, and bids awarded for prototypes of the new State standards, including standards of mass, capacity,

length, and precision balances. The mass and capacity standards have

been received and placed under examination and test. In response to an official request from the United Nations, a member of the

staff was sent to survey the weights and measures situation in Central America

and to advise as to the establishment of a modern system of standards and

weights and measures supervision.

This set of weights and measures (including standards of length, mass, and

capacity) was presented to the new State of Hawaii at the 45th National Conference on Weights and Measures (page 144).

143
Studies were continued and recommendations were made to the States in

the area of control of prepackaged commodities. The Department of Agriculture now estimates that at least three-quarters of each retail food dollar is spent for packaged food. In addition, many other commodities are offered

at retail in package form. With the tremendous increase in packaging, more

and more weights and measures effort must be devoted to package control.

Studies have continued in this field, and much effort has been devoted to the

training of State and local officials in the control-by-sampling technique.

In a ceremony held at the auditorium of the Department of Commerce

during June, a set of weights and measures comprising standards of length,

mass, and capacity was presented to the new State of Hawaii by Secretary of

Commerce Frederick H. Mueller. These standards are providing a firm basis

for an accurate, uniform measurement system in the new State, so vital to the

growth of commerce and industry.

Traditionally, the National Conference on Weights and Measures has been one of the principal means of promoting uniformity and raising performance

standards in weights and measures administration in the United States. Sponsored by the Bureau, the 45th Annual Conference was held in Washington, D.C., during the year. Thirty-six States and the District of Columbia

were officially represented at this 5-day meeting. The total registered

attendance was 391.

144
3. APPENDIXES

3.1. ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU

OF STANDARDS*

DIRECTOR

DEPUTY DIRECTOR

Assistants to the Director

Consultants to the Director

Associate Director for Physics

Associate Director for Engineering

Associate Director for Chemistry

Consultants

Associate Director for Planning

NBS Reactor Program

Associate Director for Administration

Financial Management Officer Legal Advisor

Patent Advisor

Allen V. Astin

Robert D. Huntoon

C. N. COATES

U. Fano

W. A. WlLDHACK

L. F. Curtiss

K. E. Shuler

Robert D. Huntoon

Archibald T. McPherson

Edward Wichers

W. Souder

M. B. Wallenstein

Irl C. Schoonover

C. O. Muehlhause

R. S. Walleigh

N. L. Christeller

H. J. Johnson

D. Robbins

F. W. Brown

Lyman J. Briccs

Director for the Boulder Laboratories

Director Emeritus

NBS WASHINGTON

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DIVISIONS AND SECTIONS

ELECTRICITY

Chief

Resistance and Reactance

Electrochemistry

Electrical Instruments Magnetic Measurements

Dielectrics

METROLOGY

Chief

Assistant Chief

Photometry and Colorimetry

Refractometry

Photographic Research

Length

Engineering Metrology

Mass and Scale

Volumetry and Densimetry

C. H. Page

J. L. Thomas

W. J. Hamer

F. M. Defandorf

I. L. Cooter

J. D. Hoffman

A. G. McNish

D. B. Judd

L. E. Barbrow

F. E. Washer

C. S. McCamy

B. L. Pace

I. H. Fullmer

H. S. Peiser

C. T. Collett, Acting

•As of September 1, 1960.

145
HEAT

Chief

Assistant Chief for Thermodynamics

Temperature Physics

Heat Measurements

Cryogenic Physics

Rheology

Molecular Kinetics

Equation of State

Statistical Physics

Molecular Spectroscopy

C. M. Herzfeld

C. W. Beckett

J. F. Swindells

D. C. Ginnincs

R. P. Hudson

R. S. Marvin

F. L. Howard

J. Hilsenrath

M. S. Green

D. E. Mann

RADIATION PHYSICS

Chief

X-ray

Radioactivity

Radiation Theory

High Energy Radiation

Radiological Equipment

Nucleonic Instrumentation

Neutron Physics

L. S. Taylor

H. 0. Wyckoff

W. B. Mann

L. V. Spencer, Acting

H. W. Koch

S. W. Smith

L. Costrell

R. S. Caswell

CHEMISTRY

Acting Chief

Acting Assistant Chief

Surface Chemistry

Organic Chemistry

Analytical Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry

Electrodeposition

Molecular Structure and Properties of Gases

Physical Chemistry

Thermochemistry

Spectrochemistry

Pure Substances

Edward Wichers

R. G. Bates

Vacant

H. S. Isbell

J. L. Hague, Acting

R. Gilchrist

A. Brenner

F. Buckley

R. G. Bates

E. J. Prosen

B. F. Scribner

C. P. Saylor

MECHANICS

Chief

Consultants

Sound

Pressure and Vacuum

Fluid Mechanics

Engineering Mechanics

Combustion Controls

B. L. Wilson

W. G. Brombacher

J. M. Frankland

E. C. Lloyd

R. K. Cook

D. P. Johnson

G. B. Schubauer

L. K. Irwin

F. R. Caldwell

ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS

Chief

Rubber

Textiles

Paper

Leather

Testing and Specifications

Polymer Structure

Plastics Dental Research

G. M. Kline

L. A. Wood

H. F. Schiefer

R. B. Hobbs

J. R. Kanacy

R. D. Stiehler

N. P. Bekkedahl

F. W. Reinhart

W. T. Sweeney

METALLURGY

Chief

Assistant Chief

Thermal Metallurgy

Chemical Metallurgy

Mechanical Metallurgy

Corrosion

Metal Physics

J. I. Hoffman

T. G. Dicces

T. G. Dicces

L. L. Wyman

J. A. Bennett

G. A. Ellincer

L. M. Kushner

146
MINERAL PRODUCTS

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultants

Engineering Ceramics

Glass

Refractories

Enameled Metals

Constitution and Microstructure

BUILDING RESEARCH

Chief

Consultant

Structural Engineering

Fire Research

Mechanical Systems

Organic Building Materials

Codes and Safety Standards Heat Transfer

Inorganic Building Materials

APPLIED MATHEMATICS

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultant

Numerical Analysis

Computation

Statistical Engineering

Mathematical Physics

DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS

Chief

Assistant Chief for Systems

SEAC Engineering Group

Components and Techniques

Digital Circuitry

Digital Systems

Analog Systems

Applications Engineering

ATOMIC PHYSICS

Chief

Consultant

Spectroscopy

Radiometry

Mass Spectrometry

Solid State Physics

Electron Physics

Atomic Physics

INSTRUMENTATION

Chief

Engineering Electronics

Electron Devices

Electronic Instrumentation

Mechanical Instruments

Basic Instrumentation

OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultant

OFFICE OF TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Chief

Assistant Chief

A. D. Franklin

C. H. Hahner

R. F. Geller

E. R. Lippincott

M. D. Burdick

C. H. Hahner

Vacant W. N. Harrison

H. F. McMurdie

D. E. Parsons

W. F. Roeser

D. Watstein

A. F. Robertson

P. R. Achenbach

W. W. Walton

R. L. Lloyd, Acting

H. E. Robinson

R. L. Blaine

E. W. Cannon

F. L. Alt

W. J. Youden

P. Davis

D. I. MlTTLEMAN

C. ElSENHART

W. H. Pell

S. N. Alexander

H. K. Skramstad

J. F. Rafferty

R. D. Elbourn

S. Greenwald

W. A. Notz, Acting

H. Skramstad

E. Glaser, Acting

L. M. Branscomb

F. L. Mohler

K. G. Kessler

E. K. Plyler

V. H. DlBELER

H. P. R. Frederikse

L. Marton

S. J. Smith

G. F. Montgomery

G. Shapiro

C. P. Marsden

G. F. Montgomery, Acting

A. Wexler

J. Stern

W. S. Bussey

M. W. Jensen

R. W. Smith

W. R. Tilley

W. K. Gautier

147
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

ACCOUNTING

PERSONNEL

ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES

SHOPS

SUPPLY

MANAGEMENT PLANNING

BUDGET

INTERNAL AUDIT

PLANT

J. P. Menzer

G. R. Porter

H. P. Dalzell

F. P. Brown

G. B. Kefover

I. ASAY

J. E. Skillincton

J. P. Menzer, Acting H. Graham

BOULDER DIVISIONS

DIRECTOR FOR THE BOULDER LABORATORIES

Consultants

Mathematics

Math Physics

Statistics Astrophysics

Radio Wave Propagation

Communications Liaison Officer CRPL Liaison and Program Development

Executive Officer and Chief of Administrative Division

Technical Information Officer CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING

Chief

Assistant Chief

Cryogenic Equipment

Cryogenic Processes

Properties of Materials

Gas Liquefaction

IONOSPHERE RESEARCH AND PROPAGATION

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultant

Low Frequency and Very Low Frequency Research

Ionosphere Research

Prediction Services

Sun-Earth Relationships

Field Engineering

Radio Warning Services

RADIO PROPAGATION ENGINEERING

Chief

Assistant Chief for Research

and Development

Consultant Data Reduction Instrumentation

Radio Noise

Tropospheric Measurements

Tropospheric Analysis

Propagation-Terrain Effects Radio Meteorology

Lower Atmosphere Physics

RADIO STANDARDS

Chief

Assistant Chief for Radio Frequencies

Assistant Chief for Microwave Frequencies

Assistant Chief for Technical Planning and Coordination

Consultants

F. W. Brown

J. J. Sopka

E. H. Brown

E. L. Crow

R. N. Thomas

J. R. Wait

Allen Barnabei

A. H. Shapley

S. W. J. Welch

J. R. Craddock

R. B. Scott

B. W. Birmingham

R. B. Jacobs

B. W. Birmingham

R. J. Corruccini

V. J. Johnson

E. K. Smith, Jr. T. N. Gautier

D. K. Bailey

A. G. Jean

K. Davies

W. B. Chadwick

R. W. Knecht

H. G. Sellery

J. V. Lincoln

K. A. Norton

J. W. Herbstreit

E. F. Florman

W. E. Johnson

W. Q. Crichlow

Vacant

P. L. Rice

R. S. Kirby

B. R. Bean

M. C. Thompson, Jr.

M. Richardson

W. D. Georce

D. M. Kerns

E. C. Wolzien

W. W. Brown

P. F. Wacker

•These divisions comprise the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory.

148
High-Frequency Electrical Standards

Radio Broadcast Service

Radio and Microwave Materials

Atomic Frequency and Time Standards

Electronic Calibration Center

Millimeter-Wave Research

Microwave Circuit Standards

M. C. Selby

A. H. Morgan

J. L. Dalke

R. C. Mockleh

H. W. Lance

W. CULSHAW

R. W. Beatty

•RADIO SYSTEMS

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultant

High Frequency and Very High Frequency Research

Modulation Research

Antenna Research

Navigation Systems

Space Telecommunications

R. C. KlRBY

D. W. Patterson

G. W. Haydon

R. SlLBERSTEIN

J. W. Koch

H. V. Cottony

G. Hefley

W. C. Coombs

UPPER ATMOSPHERE AND SPACE PHYSICS

Chief

Assistant Chief

Consultants

Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics

Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter Airglow and Aurora

Ionospheric Radio Astronomy

C. G. Little

D. M. Gates

R. J. Slutz

D. K. Bailey

R. M. Gallet

K. L. Bowles

F. E. Roach

R. S. Lawrence

FIELD ESTABLISHMENTS

Lamp Inspector

Visual Landing Aids Field Laboratory Master Railway Track Scale Depot

Materials Testing Laboratories

:

CALIFORNIA COLORADO

San Francisco Denver

Radio Transmitting Station WWV

Radio Transmitting Station WWVL

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory Field Stations

ALASKA

Anchorage

Barrow

Kenai

ARIZONA

Bowie**

COLORADO

Beulah

Brighton

Cheyenne Mtn.

Erie

Fritz Peak

Gunbarrel Hill Haswell

Hygiene

Karval

Kendrick

Kolb

Lafayette

Marble

Marshall

Table Mesa

Sunset

HAWAII

Maui (WWVH)

Kekaha

ILLINOIS

Long Branch

KANSAS

Garden City

NEBRASKA

Shickley

NORTH DAKOTA

Cavalier* * Fargo**

OKLAHOMA

Norman**

UTAH

Salt Lake City**

Brookline, Mass.

Areata, Calif. Clearing, 111.

PENNSYLVANIA

Allentown

WASHINGTON

Seattle

Beltsville, Md.

Boulder, Colo.

VIRGINIA

Fort Belvoir Front Royal

Sterling

WYOMING

Bill ANTARCTICA

Marie Byrd Base**

Pole Station**

AUSTRALIA

Cook**

BRAZIL, S.A. San Jose des Campa**

CANADA

Fort Churchill

Manitoba**

GREENLAND

Thule**

149
ICELAND

Keflavik**

NIGERIA

Ibbidan**

PERU

Lima**

INDIA

New Delhi**

JAPAN

Ohira**

MALAYA

Singapore**

MOROCCO

Rabat**

••Contract or Mutual Cooperation.

NORWAY

Andenes**

OKINAWA

Onna**

anma"

PANAMA CANAL ZONE

Balboa**

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Poro Point**

PUERTO RICO

San Juan

SOUTH AFRICA

Pretoria**

SWEDEN

Enkoping**

3.2. STATEMENT OF THE NBS MISSION

The Enabling Act (15 USC 271-278c) determines the scientific areas in which the Bureau is authorized to function. Within those areas, the Bureau

is given broad authority to formulate and carry out technical programs

suited to changing national needs. The Act is broad and permissive, allowing for the selection of programs to be emphasized at any one time and not

requiring activity simultaneously in all fields authorized. The most effective use of the funds and facilities which are available to the Bureau requires

the continuing exercise of selective judgment.

To make optimum and orderly progress within the administrative latitude

given to the Bureau, it is desirable to establish objectives which provide a

basis for selection and emphasis among the variety of activities authorized

by statute. These objectives (or goals), should provide a statement of

Bureau mission which is more directed than the permissive authorization

provided by the Enabling Act. A mission statement should provide purpose, focus, and urgency to the

Bureau's operations. It should highlight those characteristics which make

the Bureau a unique institution. It should encourage imaginative and ex- ploratory work at the frontiers of science and technology. It should permit

reasonable flexibility for initiating new programs and services.

As national requirements change, the relative emphasis in Bureau programs should likewise change, while remaining within the areas authorized

by legislation. There will always be, however, a central, continuing activity

which it is the unique responsibility of the Bureau to prosecute at all times

with an appropriate level of effort. The mission statement which follows provides primarily a description of

this central, continuing responsibility. It does not directly embrace the some- what independent, special responsibilities which have been assigned to the

Bureau, such as the Central Badio Propagation Laboratory, the National Hydraulics Laboratory, the data processing systems program, the cryogenic

engineering program, the building technology program, and the fire research

program. Such areas of specially assigned responsibility will be dealt with

in later separate statements.

150
It should be further emphasized that even with allowance for the foregoing exclusions the mission statement does not encompass all of the activities of the Bureau. Such is not its purpose. It provides a focus for the overall effort recognizing that from time to time specific and important tasks,

outside of the central mission, may be specially authorized.

THE CENTRAL, CONTINUING MISSION OF THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF

STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards must provide national leadership in

the development and use of accurate and uniform techniques of physical

measurement. The provision of effective standards for physical measure- ment demands measurement competence of the highest order since the ac- curacy with which measurement data may be exchanged is limited by the

accuracy with which the standards can be utilized. This requirement for the

highest order of measurement competence is especially important in the provision of standards and measurement techniques for use at the frontiers of

science and technology. Attainment of such competence is an important

aspect of fulfilling the Bureau's mission. Furthermore, consistent with the

Bureau's responsibility for measurement leadership, there should be a sustained effort to seek out and take advantage of measurement excellence

wherever it may exist, and not to try to do everything within the Bureau.

The Bureau will then be better able to concentrate on problems where

adequate measurement capability does not exist. The Bureau, in its measurement leadership responsibility, must strive to

stay ahead of the measurement requirements of science and technology. It must anticipate tomorrow's measurement problems and lead in their solution particularly in assuring that adequate standards and measurement

techniques are available. It is the Bureau's responsibility to insure that

measurement inadequacies do not retard scientific and technological progress.

With the goal of leadership in physical measurement as the focus of the

Bureau's activities, the mission of NBS has three major components:

1. PROVISION OF THE CENTRAL BASIS WITHIN THE UNITED STATES OF

A COMPLETE AND CONSISTENT SYSTEM OF PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT,

AND COORDINATION OF THAT SYSTEM WITH THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS OF OTHER NATIONS.

Providing the central basis for the national measurement system constitutes the most unique aspect of the Bureau's mission. It includes

the development and maintenance of the national standards for physical

measurement, fundamental studies to improve or create new standards

to meet existing or anticipated needs, research on the interaction of basic

measuring processes on the properties of matter and physical and chemical processes, determination of the important physical constants which

may serve as reference standards, analysis of the self-consistencies of

measured values of the important physical constants, and international

correlation of the national standards and definitions of the units of

measurement.

151
2. PROVISION OF ESSENTIAL SERVICES LEADING TO ACCURATE AND

UNIFORM PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT THROUGHOUT THE NATION'S

SCIENCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE, AND CONSONANT WITH THEIR

ADVANCING REQUIREMENTS.

The furnishing of essential services to promote accuracy and uniformity of physical measurements, includes (but is not limited to) the

calibration of instruments in terms of the national standards, the development of appropriate multiples and submultiples of prototype standards,

development of transfer standards and standard instruments, the broadcasting of radio signals of standard frequency, general research and

development on measuring processes and instrumentation, development

and dissemination of standard samples, encouragement of calibration

and standards laboratories in other government agencies and private

organizations and correlation of their standards with the national standards, cooperation with the states in securing uniform weights and

measures inspection and enforcement, and cooperation with other

organizations in the development of standard codes and specifications.

3. PROVISION OF DATA ON THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND MATERIALS WHICH ARE OF IMPORTANCE TO SCIENCE, INDUSTRY, AND

COMMERCE, AND WHICH ARE NOT AVAILABLE OF SUFFICIENT ACCURACY ELSEWHERE.

The accurate determination of the properties of matter and materials

affords a major opportunity to apply the measurement competence

essential to the development and maintenance of adequate measurement

standards. Here the effort is focused on data that are of great importance to science and industry and not available of sufficient accuracy

elsewhere and on the measurement techniques essential to obtaining such

data. The effective achievement of this objective demands a broad,

systematic program of surveying what data are available or becoming

available elsewhere, what data and measurement problems are important, and a coordinated effort to fill the gaps. A vigorous experimental

and theoretical research program in the major areas of materials science

and measurement science is also essential.

In addition to the focus given above, priority is given to precision,

standard-type data on substances that are susceptible to accurate scientific characterization. Furthermore, as measurement techniques become

well standardized and measurement competence becomes widely available, the Bureau will tend to encourage others to compile data in such

areas, thus permitting the Bureau to redirect its resources to those areas where the need for increased measurement competence is most urgent.

152
These three components provide a description of the fundamental

measurement-standards mission of the NBS. It is recognized that work in

these areas requires the provision of specialized scientific and technical

services which are essentially of a supporting nature, such as those in applied

mathematics, and instrumentation reference. It is recognized that such

supporting activities must, per se, have continuing research programs in

order to retain high-level personnel and to provide effective technical contributions to the Bureau's mission-oriented projects.

3.3. Fiscal Data on NBS Program

Program and Source of Financing

Supported by NBS Appropriations:

Operating Programs:

Research & Technical Services .... Construction and Facilities Program:

Plant and Facilities Construction of Facilities

Total NBS Appropriation

Supported by Other Funds:

Research and Development Programs:

Other Federal Agencies

Nongovernmental Sources

Calibrations, Testing, and Standard

Samples

Reimbursable Administrative Services

.

Total Supported by Other Funds . . .

Total Program

Obligations Incurred

(in thousands of dollars)

$550

198

$17, 138

748

$17, 886

14, 491

237

14, 728

3,373

1,100

19, 201

$37, 087

569432 O—60 11 153
3.4. ADVISORY COMMITTEES

STATUTORY VISITING COMMITTEE

[Reports annually to Secretary of Commerce on NBS activities (Dates indicate expiration of appointment)]

Dr. M. J. Kelly, Former President and Chairman of the Board, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. (1962) , Chairman

Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, President, National Academy of Sciences ( 1960)

Professor F. Seitz, University of Illinois (1961) Dr. Lloyd V. Berkner, President, Associated Universities Inc. (1963) Dr. Crawford H. Greenewalt, President, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (1964)

Technical Advisory Panels

[Appointed by the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council in cooperation with the leading scientific and technical societies to advise NBS Director in

specific technical areas. Cooperating societies are: American Ceramic Society

(ACerS) ; American Chemical Society (ACS) ; American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) ; American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) ; American Insti- tute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME) ; American Institute of Physics (AIP) ; American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ; American Society

of Mechanical Engineers (ASME); Building Research Advisory Board (BRAB);

Conference Organization for Mathematical Sciences (COMS) ; and Institute of Radio

Engineers (IRE). Members listed served during fiscal year 1960]

Dean R. B. Lindsay, Brown University, Chairman, Committee of Panel Chairmen

Dr. 0. F. Schuette, National Research Council, Executive Secretary

ADVISORY PANEL TO ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS DIVISION

Prof. W. A. Lewis, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chairman (AIEE)

Prof. Norman I. Adams, Jr., Yale University (AIP)

Dr. John G. Brainerd, University of Pennsylvania (IRE)

Mr. H. P. Corwith, Western Union Telegraph Company (AIEE)

Mr. Robert W. Larson, General Electric Research Laboratories (AIEE)

Prof. Henry B. Linford, Columbia University (ACS)

Mr. Leon Podolsky, Sprague Electric Company (IRE)

ADVISORY PANEL TO OPTICS AND METROLOGY DIVISION

Prof. John Strong, Johns Hopkins University, Chairman (AIP)

Prof. Clarence E. Bennett, University of Maine (AIP)

Mr. Floyd W. Hough, Arlington, Virginia (ASCE)

Mr. Paul V. Miller, Taft Pierce Manufacturing Company (ASME)

Dr. Brian O'Brien, Pomfret, Conn. (AIP)

154
ADVISORY PANEL TO HEAT DIVISION

Prof. Mark W. Zemansky, City College of New York, Chairman ( AIP)

Prof. C. Harold Berry, Belmont, Mass. ( ASME)

Prof. Henry A. Fairbank, Yale University (AIP)

Dean Henry Eyrinc, University of Utah (ACS)

Prof. Joseph Kestin, Brown University (ASME)

Dean R. B. Lindsay, Brown University (AIP)

Prof. J. E. Mayer, University of Chicago (ACS)

Prof. Glen C. Williams, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( AIChE)

ADVISORY PANEL TO ATOMIC AND RADIATION

PHYSICS DIVISION

Prof. A. 0. C. Nier, University of Minnesota, Chairman (AIP)

Prof. John Bardeen, University of Illinois (AIP)

Prof. J. W. M. DuMond, California Institute of Technology (AIP)

Dr. William A. Hicinbotham, Brookhaven National Laboratory (IRE)

Prof. Polykarp Kusch, Columbia University (AIP)

Prof. Harold A. Lamonds, North Carolina State College. ( AIEE)

Dr. Otto Oldenberg, Harvard University (AIP)

Dr. H. M. Parker, General Electric Co. (AIP)

ADVISORY PANEL TO CHEMISTRY DIVISION

Prof. F. Daniels, University of Wisconsin, Chairman (ACS)

Prof. N. Howell Furman, Princeton University (ACS)

Prof. Hans H. Jaffe, University of Cincinnati (ACS)

Dr. J. R. Ruhoff, Malinckrodt Chemical Company (ACS)

Dr. Norman A. Shepard, Stamford, Conn. (ACS)

ADVISORY PANEL TO MECHANICS DIVISION

Dean Dana Young, Yale University, Chairman (ASME)

Prof. Lynn S. Beedle, Lehigh University (ASCE)

Prof. S. R. Beitler, Ohio State University (ASME)

Prof. A. T. Ippen, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (ASCE)

Dr. H. F. Olson, Radio Corporation of America (AIP)

Prof. Jesse Ormondroyd, University of Michigan (ASME)

Dr. Milton Plesset, California Institute of Technology (AIP)

ADVISORY PANEL TO ORGANIC AND FIBROUS

MATERIALS DIVISION

Dr. Norman A. Shepard, Stamford, Conn., Chairman (ACS)

Dr. J. H. Dillon, Textile Research Institute (AIP)

Dr. Milton Harris, Harris Research Laboratory (ACS)

Prof. Herman F. Mark, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (AIP)

Prof. C. S. Marvel, University of Illinois (ACS)

Dr. C. G. Overberger, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (ACS)

Dr. J. F. Downie Smith, Carrier Corporation (ASME)

155
ADVISORY PANEL TO METALLURGY DIVISION

Dr. E. C. Smith, Republic Steel Corporation, Chairman (AIME)

Dr. D. J. Dienes, Brookhaven National Laboratory (AIP)

Mr. John Freeman, Jr., American Brass Company (AIME)

Dr. Francis L. LaQue, International Nickel Company (ACS)

Mr. Arthur R. Lytle, Linde Company (AIME)

Dean Elburt Osborn, Pennsylvania State University (ACerS)

Dr. Joseph A. Pask, University of California (ACerS)

Dr. Albert J. Phillips, American Smelting and Refining Co. (AIME)

Mr. D. B. Rossheim, M. W. Kellog Corporation (ASME)

Dr. Cyril S. Smith, University of Chicago (AIME)

ADVISORY PANEL TO MINERAL PRODUCTS DIVISION

Dean Elburt Osborn, Pennsylvania State University, Chairman (ACerS)

Mr. Herbert Insley, Washington, D.C. (ACerS)

Dr. Norbert J. Kreidl, Bausch and Lomb Optical Company (ACerS)

Mr. John T. Roberts, Ingersoll-Humphreys Division, Borg-Warner (ACerS)

Prof. Pierce Selwood, Northwestern University (ACS)

Mr. Karl Schwartzwalder, A. C. Spark Plug Div., General Motors Corporation

(ACerS)

Dr. Robert B. Sosman, Rutgers, The State University (ACerS)

Prof. Bertram E. Warren, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (AIP)

Dr. Clarence Zener, Westinghouse Electric Corporation (AIME)

ADVISORY PANEL TO BUILDING TECHNOLOGY DIVISION

Dr. G. H. Hickox, Fort Belvoir, Va., Chairman (ASCE)

Mr. G. M. Dusinberre, Pennsylvania State University (ASME)

Dr. James F. Eversole, Union Carbide Development Corporation (ACS)

Mr. W. C. Hansen, Universal Atlas Cement Company (ASCE)

Prof. Robert A. Hechtman, The George Washington University (ASCE)

Mr. Paul V. Johnson, Structural Clay Products Research Foundation (ACerS)

Prof. James T. Lendrum, University of Florida (BRAB)

Dean W. L. McCabe, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (AIChE)

Dr. John S. Parkinson, Johns-Manville Products Corporation (AIP)

Mr. Raymond C. Reese, Toledo, Ohio (ASCE)

ADVISORY PANEL TO APPLIED MATHEMATICS DIVISION

Prof. A. H. Taub, University of Illinois, Chairman (COMS)

Prof. David Blackwell, University of California (COMS)

Dr. Alston S. Householder, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (COMS)

Prof. Mark Kac, Cornell University (COMS)

Prof. Philip M. Morse, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (COMS)

Prof. J. Walsh, Harvard University (COMS)

ADVISORY PANEL TO DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS DIVISION

Dr. Alston S. Householder, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Chairman (COMS)

Mr. John C. McPherson, International Business Machines Corporation (IRE)

Prof. Charles L. Miller, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (ASCE)

Prof. Raymond Pepinsky, Pennsylvania State University (AIP)

Prof. William H. Radford, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (IRE)

Mr. Morris Rubinoff, Philco Corporation (AIEE)

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ADVISORY PANEL TO CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING DIVISION

Prof. Charles Squire, The Rice Institute (AIP)

Prof. S. C. Collins, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (ASME)

Mr. A. Latham, Jr., Arthur D. Little Company ( AIChE)

Dr. Clyde McKinley, Air Products Incorporated (AIChE)

ADVISORY PANEL TO CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION

LABORATORY

Prof. Henry G. Booker, Cornell University, Chairman (IRE)

Mr. Stuart L. Bailey, Washington, D.C. (IRE)

Mr. A. B. Crawford, Bell Telephone Laboratories Dr. S. W. Herwald, Westinghouse Electric Corporation (AIEE)

Dr. John S. Smyth, Smyth Research Associates (AIP)

Dean George Town, Iowa State University (AIEE)

Prof. A. H. Waynick, National Science Foundation (IRE)

Dr. H. W. Wells, Carnegie Institution of Washington (IRE)

Prof. J. B. Wiesner, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (IRE)

ADVISORY PANEL TO RADIO STANDARDS DIVISION

Prof. E. C. Jordan, University of Illinois, Chairman (IRE)

Prof. Walter Gordy, Duke University (AIP)

Prof. W. A. Lewis, Illinois Institute of Technology (AIEE)

Prof. Arthur A. Oliner, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (IRE)

Dr. John C. Simons, National Research Corporation (IRE)

Mr. Robert C. Spracue, Sprague Electric Company (AIEE)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ADVISORY COMMITTEE

[Members are nominated by the National Conference on Weights and Measures]

Dr. A. T. McPherson, National Bureau of Standards, Chairman

Prof. L. J. Gordon, Weights and Measures Research Center, Denison University

Mr. Rollin E. Meek, State Board of Health, Indiana

Commissioner P. C. Brinkley, State Department of Agriculture and Markets,

Virginia

Mr. L. T. Gustafson, Creamery Package Manufacturing Company

Mr. J. E. Moss, American Petroleum Institute Mr. E. C. Westwood, City Sealer of Weights and Measures, Salt Lake City, Utah

ASA-ASTM ADVISORY COMMITTEES

For many years the National Bureau of Standards has worked in close cooperation

with the American Standards Association and the American Society for Testing Materials. The committees designated by these organizations to advise the Director of the Bureau in areas of mutual interest currently are being reorganized.

157
3.5. AWARDS AND HONORS

Recognition of the Bureau's contributions to science and technology often

takes the form of awards and honors from government, academic, professional, and industrial groups. The following list reflects such recognition

bestowed on Bureau staff members during fiscal year 1960.

RECIPIENT AWARD

Appel, William D. Honorary degree of Doctor of Science from North Carolina State College Astin, Allen V. Honorary degree of Doctor of Science from New York University Astin, Allen V. National Civil Service League Career Service Award

Astin, Allen V. Eli Whitney Memorial Award from the American Society of Tool Engineers

Astin, Allen V. Elected to the National Academy of Sciences Bright, Harry A. Anachem Award of the Detroit Section of the American Chemical Society Bussey, William S. Elected a Vice President of the British Institute of Weights and Measures

Administration Cunningham, James A. Certificate of Merit from the D.C Council of Engineering and Architectural

Societies Davis, Marion M. Elected President of the D.C. Chapter of Sigma Xi Dellinger, J. H. (retired) Annual Pioneer Award from the Institute of Radio Engineers

Foster, Bruce E. Elected Director of the American Concrete Institute Fullmer, Irvin H. Cited for leadership by the Board of Codes of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Gardner, Irvine C. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Gibson, Kasson S. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Harrison, William N. Award of Merit of the American Society for Testing Materials Hudson, Ralph P. Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation

Judd, Deane B. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Keecan, Harry J. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Kiess, Carl C. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America Mason, Henry L. Elected a Fellow in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

McPherson, Archibald T. Honor Award by the American Institute of Chemists Mebs, Russell W. Burgess Memorial Award by American Society for Metals Mohler, Fred 1 Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Norton, Kenneth A. Harry Diamond Memorial Award for 1960 of the Institute of Radio Engineers Parsons, Douglas E. Honorary membership in the American Society for Testing Materials Plyler, Earle K. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Richardson, John M. RESA Boulder Scientist Award

Rosenberg, Samuel J. Elected to Alpha Sigma Mu

Scribner, Bourdon F. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Sitterly, Charlotte M. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America Skramstad, Harold K. Best Presentation of a Technical Paper by the Eastern Joint Computer Conference

Spencer, Lewis V. Distinguished Service Award from the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization Stromberc, Robert R. Elected President of the Washington-Baltimore Chapter of the Society of Plastic Engineers

Sweeney, William T. Wilmer Souder Award of the International Association for Dental Research

Taylor, Lauriston S. Honorary degree of Doctor of Science from the University of Pennsylvania

Teele, Ray P. Elected a Fellow in the Optical Society of America

Tipson, Robert S. Elected Member-at-Large of the Council of the Gordon Research Conferences Wildhack, William A. Elected a Fellow in the Instrument Society of America Wood, Lawrence A. Elected president of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Joint Award

Block, Stanley

S. B. Meyer, Jr., Award of the American Ceramic Society Levin, Ernest M. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE MERITORIOUS SERVICE AWARDS

RECIPIENT TECHNICAL AREA

Achhammer, Bernard Chemical structure and stability relationships of plastics and polymers

Burdick, Milton Engineering properties of materials at high temperatures

Cassel, James Chemistry and structure of collagen Deming, Lola Mathematical and statistical analyses

Irish, Carolyn Physical metallurgy Kerns, David Microwave standards and measurement techniques

Levin, Ernest Phase studies in nonmetallic minerals Logan, Huch Stress corrosion cracking of metals

158
Mann, Lytle

Pace, Benjamin

Selby, Myron

Smith, Patia

Stober, Alfred

Taylor, John Wachtman, John. Jr. Whitney, Virginia

Instrumentation for the electron physics program

Intercomparison and calibration of line standards of length Radio standards and radio measurement techniques

Administrative duties Free radicals research program

Electrochemical methods of analysis Mechanical properties of ceramic materials Extensive and special ized reference and bibliographic assistance DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE EXCEPTIONAL SERVICE AWARDS

RECIPIENT

Keulecan, Carbis McNish, Alvin G.

Pace, Chester H.

Sitterly, Charlotte

Testa, Leonardo Wyckoff. Harold

Joint Award

:

Bass. Arnold

Broida, Herbert

TECHNICAL AREA

Hydrodynamics

Geomagnetism, ionospheric physics, metrology and standardization

Electronics, ordnance, physical research and measurement

Spectroscopy and astrophysics and interpretations of the solar spectrum

Contributions as a creative glassblower to scientific programs

Radiation shielding and measurements

Free radicals research program

3.6. EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAM

The Bureau sponsors a broad Employee Development Program oriented

to the education and training needs of all staff members. Primary program objectives are increasing efficiency in the conduct of official, assigned

duties, and systematic preparation for increased responsibilities. This program is implemented through two major educational media: The NBS Graduate School, and training through non-Government facilities. The program

covers educational levels up through postdoctoral research and includes

general staff development courses. The curriculum of the Bureau's Graduate School, with an average of 40

courses a year, includes graduate and undergraduate courses in the physical

sciences, mathematics, and certain branches of engineering; and a series of

scientific colloquia and seminars led by research leaders from the Bureau

staff and from other research centers in this country and abroad. Educational counseling and a program of thesis accreditation are also provided.

A series of general staff development courses is also offered through the

Graduate School. Typical examples in this category are mechanical drawing, scientific Russian, and preparation of technical papers and reports.

The Graduate School curriculum is divided into courses classed as NBS

out-of-hours, NBS in-hours, and NBS university-sponsored out-of-hours.

Course offerings, based on periodic need surveys, are determined by the

NBS Educational Committee. The program is flexible to meet the varied

and changing needs of the staff. For example, a Technician Career Program was established in 1960 to increase job efficiency and to offer broader

educational opportunities for subprofessional laboratory personnel. Since

the establishment of the Graduate School in 1908, more than 15,500 registrations have been recorded, and more than 270 graduate degrees have been

awarded by 40 different universities, partly on the basis of credits obtained,

or thesis work carried on, through the Graduate School. During the past

year, there were 1,322 registrations in 72 courses offered at the Washington

159
and Boulder Laboratories. Approximately 500 of these registrations were from the Army's Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratories and other government agencies in the Washington area. The Bureau sponsors three major training programs through non-government facilities under authority of the Government Employees' Training

Act of 1958. These are:

1. Full-time (3 to 12 months) postdoctoral study and research assignments at universities and research centers, both in this country

and abroad.

2. Full-time (less than 3 months) attendance at institutes, seminars,

short concentrated courses, workshops, etc. Generally, these are

offered through the educational facilities of major universities and

industrial laboratories throughout the country.

3. Part-time, job-related, academic courses at local educational institutions, generally in early evening classes.

Approximately 240 staff members were trained through non-government

facilities in 1960. Nine selected career scientists were sent on full-time

research assignments to universities and research centers. Thirty-one staff members, primarily scientists and subprofessional laboratory personnel,

attended short concentrated courses and training programs at universities and

in industry. In addition, 200 employees, mostly from technical divisions,

attended job-related courses at local educational facilities. Participants' full

salaries and expenses in non-government training programs were paid by the

Bureau. These included tuition, related fees, travel, and per diem, as well

as transportation of family and household effects for full-time, long-term

training.

An annual summer student trainee program at the Bureau is open to college

students majoring in the physical sciences, mathematics, and certain branches

of engineering. This activity is an integrated work-study program including

lectures, tours, demonstrations, supervised laboratory assignments, and

professional counseling. The program has the twofold purpose of acquainting

young people with career opportunities in scientific research at NBS and

preparing select students for such careers. The 1960 summer student program

had an approximate enrollment of 200 students, 100 of whom were returnees

from previous summers. The new group included 13 outstanding high school

students who had obtained recognition through the Westinghouse Science

Talent Search or other national science competition.

The 1960 student group represented 58 colleges and universities from a wide geographical area. In collaboration with the National Research Council, the Graduate School

offers postdoctoral resident research associateships to young scientific investigators of unusual ability and promise of becoming creative leaders in basic

research. Associates are given an opportunity for advanced training in basic research in the various branches of the physical and mathematical

sciences. While acquiring basic knowledge, they have opportunities for

160
developing new scientific approaches and laboratory skills, thus advancing

scientific knowledge. Associateships, which are limited to 20 at any one

time, are tenable at both the Washington and Boulder Laboratories.

The Bureau's educational program also includes weekly Scientific Staff

Meetings which run from September through May. Of less specialized nature

than colloquia and seminars offered in the Graduate School, the Scientific

Staff Meetings are open to all members of the professional staff at the Bureau

and are also regularly attended by scientific personnel from neighboring

laboratories. Designed to keep Bureau personnel abreast of current developments in the various fields, these lectures are given by members of the staff and by scientists from universities and other laboratories in the United States

and abroad. Lectures by members of the Bureau staff include a yearly report

to the staff by the Director, lectures on current research of broad general

interest to other members of the staff, reports by staff members on international meetings, and reports from fellowship scientists on research work at other institutions in this country and abroad. About two-thirds of the

program is devoted to lectures by guest scientists.

3.7. COOPERATIVE RESEARCH WITH INDUSTRY

The Bureau's Research Associate Plan, a cooperative program with

American industry, has resulted in many significant developments in science

and technology. Under this plan, technical, industrial, and commercial

organizations can support work at the Bureau on projects that are of special

interest to them, yet are of sufficient general interest to justify use of government facilities. These projects must also be important from the standpoint

of the Nation's sum total of technological knowledge. Supporting industries

donate both funds and personnel for the projects. At the present time 12

groups are supporting research associates at NBS in the following areas

:

Sponsor Field of Activity

American Dental Association Dental research. American Electroplaters Society Porosity and corrosion of electroplated

surfaces. American Society for Testing Materials Cement reference laboratory.

American Standards Association Codes, specifications, and standards. Asphalt Roofing Industry Bureau Asphalt roofing research. Bone Char Research Project, Inc Studies of adsorption and adsorbents. Calcium Chloride Association Hydration of portland cement. NBS-Joint Committee on Chemical Analysis by Standard X-ray diffraction powder

Powder Diffraction Methods: ASTM, Ameri- patterns, can Crystallographic Assoc., Institute of Physics (British), National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers.

National Research Council Electron physics.

Atomic physics.

Porcelain Enamel Institute Development of standard tests. Portland Cement Association Basic research in physical chemistry

related to portlanu cement.

161
An important and similar area of cooperation between the Bureau and

industry is the program authorized in 1950 by Public Law 619 under which

the Bureau is authorized to accept funds for the purpose of furthering its work. This arrangement permits individuals as well as technical, industrial, and commercial organizations to support work at the Bureau when the

results are expected to be of value to the general public.

During the past year 11 projects were supported by gifts from 10 organizations as follows

Gift-Supported Projects

Donor Field of Activity

American Iron and Steel Institute Durability of steel pilings.

American Iron and Steel Institute Ship plate steels. American Petroleum Institute Metal-organic standards. Corrosion Research Council of the Engineering Foun- Reactions at metal surfaces and

dation. on stress corrosion. Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr., Foundation Ether peroxides.

Edward Orton Jr., Ceramic Foundation Research in clays.

Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute Shale aggregate.

Illuminating Engineering Research Institute Programing computers for cal- culating the chromaticity co- ordinates with lamps having

line spectra.

National Lime Association Hydration of lime. Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry Air-leak smoothness testers. UNESCO Ionization chamber.

3.8. PUBLICATIONS AND PATENTS

Publications in the Bureau's Series*

Journal of Research. Contains full research papers, including laboratory data, experimental procedures, and theoretical and mathematical analyses. Advances in measure- ment standards and techniques . . . physical constants . . . properties of materials . . . instrumentation . . . radio propagation.

The Journal is published in four separate sections . . . A. Physics and Chemistry—issued six times a year.

B. Mathematics and Mathematical Physics—issued quarterly. C. Engineering and Instrumentation—issued quarterly. D. Radio Propagation—issued six times a year. The papers listed below have appeared in the four-section Journal since July 1959.

Volume 63A, July—December 1959

Description and analysis of the first spectrum of iodine, C. C. Kiess and C. H. Corliss. CH in the solar spectrum, C. E. Moore and H. P. Broida. Infrared studies in the 1- to 15-micron region to 30,000 atmospheres, C. E. Weir, E. R.

Lippincott, A. Van Valkenburg, and E. N. Bunting.

Phosphinoborine compounds: mass spectra and pyrolysis, L. A. Wall, S. Straus, R. E. Florin, F. L. Mohler, and P. Bradt. Experimental and theoretical study of kinetics of bulk crystallization in poly-

(chlorotrifluoroethylene) , J. D. Hoffman, J. J. Weeks, and W. M. Murphey.

Reflection of fast neutrons from water, M. J. Berger and J. W. Cooper.

Some vibrational-rotational bands of deuterated methanes, H. C. Allen, Jr., and E. K.

Plyler.

Precise coulometric titration of acids and bases, J. K. Taylor and S. W. Smith.

•Publications in the9e series are available, unless otherwise indicated, from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C

162
Heat of formation of titanium tetraiodide, W. H. Johnson, A. A. Cilliland, and E. J. Prosen. Reactions of pentafluorohalobenzenes, W. J. Pummer and L. A. Wall.

Tritium-labeled compounds I. Radioassay of tritium-labeled compounds in "infinitely

thick" films with a windowless, gas-flow, proportional counter, H. S. Isbell, H. L. Frush, and R. A. Peterson. Tritium-labeled compounds II. General-purpose apparatus, and procedures for the

preparation, analysis, and use of tritium oxide and tritium-labeled lithium borohydride, H. S. Isbell and J. D. Moyer.

Preparation of trichloride and tetrachloride of molybdenum, D. E. Couch, and A. Brenner.

Infrared spectra of asphalts, B. D. Beitchman.

Multiple ionization of rare gases by electron impact, M. Krauss, R. M. Reese, and V. H.

Dibeler. Light scattering by commercial sugar solutions, C. J. Rieger and F. G. Carpenter.

Analysis of the first spectrum of ruthenium ( Ru i )

, K. G. Kessler. Supplementary Zeeman data for the first spectrum of ruthenium (Ru i), J. R. McNally,

Jr., and K. G. Kessler. Low even configurations in the first spectrum of ruthenium (Ru i), part 2. R. E. Trees. Thermal degradation of polymers at high temperatures, S. L. Madorsky and S. Straus. Influence of impurities on the pyrolysis of polyamides, S. Straus and L. A. Wall.

A preliminary list of levels and g-values for the first spectrum of thorium (Th i). R. Zalubas.

OH in the solar spectrum, C. E. Moore and H. P. Broida.

Use of Chebychev polynomials in thin film computations, K. D. Mielenz.

Volume 64A, January—Juoe 1960

The "1958 He4 scale of temperatures," F. G. Brickwedde, H. van Dijk, M. Durieux, J. R. Clement, and J. K. Logan.

Energy levels and spectrum of neutral helium (

4 He i), W. C. Martin.

Vibration-rotation structure in absorption bands for the calibration of spectrometers from

2 to 16 microns, E. K. Plyler, A. Danti, L. R. Blaine, and E. D. Tidwell.

Combustion calorimetry with fluorine: constant pressure flame calorimetry, G. T. Armstrong and R. S. Jessup.

Pits in metals caused by collision with liquid drops and rigid steel spheres, 0. G. Engel.

Theory of formation of polymer crystals with folded chains in dilute solution, J. I. Lauritzen, Jr., and J. D. Hoffman.

Studies of beryllium chromite and other beryllia compounds with R203 oxides, C. E. Weir and A. Van Valkenburg.

Uranium-platinum system, J. J. Park and D. P. Fickle. Nitriding phenomena in titanium and the 6A1-4V titanium alloy, J. R. Cuthill, W. D. Hayes, and R. E. Seebold.

Stability of silver and Pyrex in perchloric acid-silver perchlorate solutions and in conductivity water, D. N. Craig, C. A. Law, and W. J. Hamer.

Note on the preparation of sodium amalgam in the form of pellets, H. S. Isbell, H. L. Frush, and N. B. Holt. A carbon-14 beta-ray standard, benzoic acid-7-C14 in toluene, for liquid scintillation counters, W. F. Marlow and R. W. Medlock.

A comparison of experimental and theoretical relations between Young's modulus and

the flexural and longitudinal resonance frequencies of uniform bars, S. Spinner,

T. W. Richard, and W. E. Tefft. Determination of copolymer composition by combustion analysis for carbon and hydrogen,

L. A. Wood, I. Madorsky, and R. A. Paulson.

Some effects of aging on the surface area of portland cement paste, C. M. Hunt, L. A. Tomes, and R. L. Blaine. Conformations of the pyranoid sugars. I. Classification of conformers, H. S. Isbell and

R. S. Tipson.

Tritium-labeled compounds III. Aldoses-Z-t, H. S. Isbell, H. L. Frush, N. B. Holt, and

J. D. Moyer.

Determination of aluminum in precipitation hardening stainless steel and high tempera

ture alloys, L. A. Machlan, J. L. Hague, and E. J. Meros. Phase shift effects in Fabry-Perot interferometry, C. J. Koester. Infrared absorption spectrum of methane from 2470 to 3200 cm"1

, E. K. Plyler, E. D. Tidwell, and L. R. Blaine.

Elastic constants of synthetic single crystal corundum at room temperature, J. B. Wachtman, Jr., W. E. Tefft, D. G. Lam, Jr., and R. P. Stinchfield. Radial distribution study of vitreous barium borate, A. Bienenstock, A. S. Posner, and

S. Block.

163
Separation and determination of small quantities of aluminum in steel, B. B. Bendigo

and R. K. Bell. Conformations of the pyranoid sugars. II. Infrared absorption spectra of some

aldopyranosides, R. S. Tipson and H. S. Isbell.

Volume 63B, July-December 1959

Relations between summation methods and integral transformations, W. Greub.

On a modification of Watson's lemma, F. Oberhettinger.

Principal submatrices of a full-rowed non-negative matrix, K. Goldberg. Zeros of certain polynomials, A. J. Goldman.

Tables of transport integrals: a supplement, W. M. Rogers, W. J. Hall, and R. L. Powell.

Lens design: a new approach, 0. N. Stavroudis.

Analytical integration of the differential equation for water storage, V. M. Yevdjevich.

Compressible turbulent boundary layers with heat transfer and pressure gradient in flow

direction, A. Walz.

Applications of a theorem on partitioned matrices, E. V. Haynsworth.

Capacity requirement of a mail sorting device : II, A. J. Goldman.

Analytic comparison of suggested configurations for automatic mail sorting equipment,

B. K. Bender and A. J. Goldman.

New method of solution for unretarded satellite orbits, J. P. Vinti. Effect of sudden water release on the reservoir free outflow hydrograph, V. M. Yevdjevich.

Uniform asymptotic expansions for Weber parabolic cylinder functions of large orders,

F. W. J. Olver. Volume 64B, January—June 1960

Theory of diffraction in microwave interferometry, D. M. Kerns and E. S. Dayhoff.

Some solutions for electromagnetic problems involving spheroidal, speherical, and cylin- drical bodies, J. R. Wait.

Kantorovich's inequality, M. Newman.

A symmetric continuous poker model, A. J. Goldman and J. J. Stone. Moebius function on the lattice of dense subgraphs, R. E. Nettleton and M. S. Green. The minimum of a certain linear form, K. Goldberg.

Space of k-commutative matrices, M. Marcus and N. A. Khan.

Selected bibliography of statistical literature, 1930 to 1957: I. Correlation and regres- sion theory, L. S. Deming.

Selected bibliography of statistical literature, 1930 to 1957: II. Time series, L. S. Deming.

Non-self-adjoint boundary value problems in ordinary differential equations, W. Greub

and W. C. Rheinboldt.

Criteria for the existence and equioscillation of best Tchebycheff approximations, J. R.

Rice.

Note on the solution of Riccati's differential equation, H. H. Howe.

On a generalization of the index notation for absolute tensors of arbitrary order, E. H. Brown.

Upper and lower bounds for the center of flexure, L. E. Payne.

Half-round inductive obstacles in rectangular waveguide, D. M. Kerns.

Volume 63C, July—December 1959

Creep of cold-drawn nickel, W. D. Jenkins and C. R. Johnson.

Friction and endurance of prelubricated and unlubricated ball bearings at high speeds

and extreme temperatures, H. S. White.

Effect of light and water on the degradation of asphalt, L. R. Kleinschmidt and H. R. Snoke. Current and potential relations for the cathodic protection of steel in a high resistivity

environment, W. J. Schwerdtfeger.

A tilting air-lubricated piston gage for pressures below one-half inch of mercury, U. O. Hutton. Compact multi-anvil wedge-type high pressure apparatus, E. C. Lloyd, U. O. Hutton. and

D. P. Johnson.

A coulometric-titration coulometer, S. W. Smith and J. K. Taylor.

Electron beam magnetometer, L. Marton, L. B. Leder, J. W. Coleman, and D. C. Schubert.

A refined X-band microwave microcalorimeter, G. F. Engen.

Conical coaxial capacitors and their advantages, M. C. Selby.

A photoelectric followup and recording system, and its application to remote observations

of the beam in high-precision balances, H. A. Bowman and L. B. Macurdy.

A stroboscopic vibration analyzer, S. Edelman, R. Brooks, S. Saito, E. Jones, and E. R. Smith.

Evaluation of lens distortion by the inverse nodal slide, F. E .Washer and W. R. Darling.

164
Evaluation of lens distortion by the modified goniometric method, F. E. Washer and

W. R. Darling.

Proposed criteria for defining load failure of beams, floors, and roof constructions during

fire tests, J. V. Ryan and A. F. Robertson.

Conductive flooring for hospital operating rooms, T. H. Boone, F. L. Hermach, E. H. MacArthur, and R. C. McAuliff.

Measurement of the aging of rubber vulcanizates, J. Mandel, F. L. Roth, M. N. Steel, and

R. D. Stiehler. Volume 64C, January—June 1960

Power loss and operating temperature of tires, R. D. Stiehler, M. N. Steel, G. G. Richey,

J. Mandel, and R. H. Hobbs.

Effects of antioxidants on asphalt durability, B. D. Beitchman.

Temperature stratification in a nonventing liquid helium Dewar, L. E. Scott, R. F. Robbins, D. B. Mann, and B. W. Birmingham.

Expansion engines for hydrogen liquefiers, E. H. Brown. A statistical chain-ratio method for estimating relative volumes of mail to given destinations, N. C. Severo and A. E. Newman.

Standard free-air chamber for the measurement of low energy X-rays (20 to 100 kilovolts- constant-potential) , V. H. Ritz. Transmittance of materials in the far infrared, E. K. Plyler and L. R. Blaine. Equipment and method for photoelectric determination of image contrast suitable for using square wave targets, F. W. Rosberry.

Formation of silver sulfide in the photographic image during fixation, C. I. Pope.

Capacitor calibration by step-up methods, T. L. Zapf.

Measurement of cobalt-60 and cesium-137 gamma rays with a free-air chamber, H. 0. Wyckoff.

Apparatus for the measurement of the normal spectral emissivity in the infrared, A. G. Maki, R. Stair, and R. G. Johnston.

Electrostatic deflection plates for cathode-ray tubes. I. Design of single-bend deflection plates with parallel entrance section?. II. Deflection defocusing distortion of singlebend deflection plates with parallel entrance sections, L. Frenkel. The functional synthesis of linear plots, J. P. Vinti and R. F. Dressier. Radiation field from a rectangular source, J. H. Hubbell, R. L. Bach, and J. C. Lamkin.

Microwave attenuation measurements with accuracies from 0.0001 to 0.06 decibel over

a range of 0.01 to 50 decibels, G. F. Engen and R. W. Beatty.

Effect of oleophobic films on metal fatigue, H. E. Frankel, J. A. Bennett, and W. L. Holshouser.

Ratio-recording spectroradiometer, H. K. Hammond III, W. L. Holford, and M. L. Kuder.

An intermittent-action camera with absolute time calibration, G. Hefley, R. H. Doherty,

and E. L. Berger.

Volume 63D, July-December 1959

Preliminary results of the National Bureau of Standards radio and ionospheric observations during the International Geophysical Year, D. M. Gates. Origin of [OI] 5577 in the airglow and the aurora, F. E. Roach, J. W. McCaulley, and

E. Marovich.

Comparison of absolute intensities of [OI] 5577 in the auroral and sub-auroral zones,

F. E. Roach, J. W. McCaulley, and C. M. Purdy.

Origin of "very-low-frequency emissions", R. M. Gallet and R. A. Helliwell. Climatology of ground-based radio ducts, B. R. Bean. Power requirements and choice of an optimum frequency for a worldwide standard- frequency broadcasting station, A. D. Watt and R. W. Plush. Measurements of phase stability over a low-level tropospheric path, M. C. Thompson, Jr., and H. B. Janes. System loss in radio wave propagation, K. A. Norton. Mode expansion in the low-frequency range for propagation through a curved stratified atmosphere, H. Bremmer.

Transmission and reflection by a parallel wire grid. M. T. Decker.

Synoptic variation of the radio refractive index, B. R. Bean and L. P. Riggs.

Low-frequency propagation paths in arctic areas, A. D. Watt, E. L. Maxwell, and E. H. Whelan.

Stratification in the lower ionosphere, C. Ellyett and J. M. Watts.

Effect of small irregularities on the constitutive relations for the ionosphere, K. G. Budden.

Ionospheric investigations using the sweep-frequency pulse technique at oblique incidence, V. Agy and K. Davis.

165
Fields in electrically short ground systems: an experimental study, A. N. Smith and T.

E. Devaney.

Diffraction of electromagnetic waves by smooth obstacles for grazing angles, J. R. Wait

and A. M. Conda.

Very-low-frequency radiation spectra of lightning discharges, W. L. Taylor and A. G.

Jean. Radio-wave scattering by tropospheric irregularities, A. D. Wheelon.

Study at 1046 megacycles per second of the reflection coefficient of irregular terrain

at grazing angles, R. E. McGavin and L. J. Maloney.

Synoptic study of the vertical distribution of the radio refractive index, B. R. Bean, L. P. Riggs, and J. D. Horn.

Radio-refractive-index climate near the ground, B. R. Bean and J. D. Horn. Path antenna gain in an exponential atmosphere, W. J. Hartman and R. E. Wilkerson.

Effect of atmospheric horizontal inhomogeneity upon ray tracing, B. R. Bean and B. A. Cahoon.

On the correlation of solar noise fluctuations in harmonically related bands, L. R. 0.

Storey.

A monochromatic low-latitude aurora, F. E. Roach and E. Marovich.

Pattern synthesis for slotted-cylinder antennas, J. R. Wait and J. Householder.

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory exponential reference atmosphere, B. R. Bean

and G. D. Thayer.

Excitation mechanisms of the oxygen 5577 emission in the upper atmosphere, E. Tandberg-Hanssen and F. E. Roach.

A method for measuring local electron density from an artificial satellite, L. R. 0. Storey.

Volume 64D, January—June 1960

Effect of antenna size on gain, bandwidth, and efficiency, R. F. Harrington.

Surface-wave resonance effect in a reactive cylindrical structure excited by an axial line source, A. L. Cullen. Basic experimental studies of the magnetic field from electromagnetic sources immersed

in a semi-infinite conducting medium, M. B. Kraichman.

A very-low-frequency antenna for investigating the ionosphere with horizontally polarized

radio waves, R. S. Macmillan, W. V. T. Rusch, and R. M. Golden.

Effects of high-altitude nuclear explosions on radio noise, C. A. Samson.

Measured frequency spectra of very-low-frequency atmospherics, T. Obayashi.

Determination of the amplitude-probability distribution of atmospheric radio noise from

statistical moments, W. Q. Crichlow, C. J. Roubique, A. D. Spaulding, and W. M.

Beery.

Measurements of coastal deviation of high-frequency radio waves, C. W. McLeish.

An exact earth-flattening procedure in propagation around a sphere, B. Y.-C. Koo and

M. Katzin.

Limit of spatial resolution of refractometer cavities, W. J. Hartman.

Conference on arctic communication, R. C. Kirby and C. G. Little. Tropospheric scatter propagation and atmospheric circulations, W. F. Moler and D. B. Holden.

Layered earth propagation in the vicinity of Point Barrow, Alaska, G. M. Stanley.

Optimum frequencies for outer space communications, G. W. Haydon.

The joint use of the ordinary and extraordinary virtual height curves in determining

ionospheric layer profiles, L. R. 0. Storey.

Measured statistical characteristics and narrow-band teletype message errors on a single-sideband 600-mile-long ultrahigh-frequency tropospheric radio link, E. F. Flor- man and R. W. Plush. Impedance of a corner-reflector antenna as a function of the diameter and length of the driven element, A. C. Wilson.

The electric field at the ground plane near a top-loaded monopole antenna with special

regard to electrically small L- and T-antennas, H. L. Knudsen and T. Larsen.

Terrestrial propagation of very-low-frequency radio waves, a theoretical investigation,

J. R. Wait.

Aurora of October 22/23, 1958, at Rapid City, South Dakota, F. E. Roach and E. Marovich.

A theory of radar scattering by the moon, T.B.A. Senior and K. M. Siegel.

A theory of wavelength dependence in ultrahigh frequency transhorizon propagation

based on meteorological considerations, R. Bolgiano, Jr. A preliminary study of radiometeorological effects on beyond-horizon propagation, F. Ikegami.

The trade-wind inversion as a transoceanic duct, M. Katzin, H. Pezzner, B. Y.-C. Koo,

J. V. Larson, and J. C. Katzin.

166
An analysis of propagation measurements made at 418 megacycles per second well beyond the radio horizon (a digest), H. B. Janes, J. C. Stroud, and M. T. Decker.

On the calculation of the departures of radio wave bending from normal, B. R. Bean and

E. J. Dutton. On the mode theory of very-low-frequency propagation in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, D. D. Crombie.

On the theory of reflection of low- and very-low-radiofrequency waves from the iono- sphere, J. R. Johler and L. C. Walters. Focusing, defocusing, and refraction in a circularly stratified atmosphere, K. Toman.

Response of a loaded electric dipole in an imperfectly conducting cylinder of finite length, C. W. Harrison, Jr., and R. W. P. King.

Impedance characteristics of a uniform current loop having a spherical core, S. Adachi.

Monographs. These are usually contributions to the technical literature which are too lengthy for publication in the Journal of Research. They often provide extensive compilations of information on subjects related to the Bureau's technical program. Until

July 1959 most of this type of material was published in the Circular series.

1. Energy dissipation by fast electrons, L. V. Spencer. 45 cents.

2. Temperature-induced stresses in solids of elementary shape, L. H. Adams and R. M.

Waxier. 25 cents.

3. Volume 1. Table of wavenumbers, 2000 A to 7000 A, C. D. Coleman, W. R. Bozman,

and W. F. Meggers. $6.00.

3. Volume 2. Table of wavenumbers, 7000 A to 1000 /i, C. D. Coleman, W. R. Boz- man, and W. F. Meggers. $6.00.

4. CRPL exponential reference atmosphere, B. R. Bean and G. D. Thayer. 45 cents.

5. Preservation of documents by lamination, W. K. Wilson and B. W. Forshee. 20

cents.

6. Properties of high-temperature ceramics and cermets. Elasticity and density at room

temperature, S. M. Lang. 20 cents.

7. Precise measurement of heat of combustion with a bomb calorimeter, R. S. Jessup.

25 cents.

8. Mercury barometers and manometers, W. G. Brombacher, D. P. Johnson, and J. L. Cross. 40 cents.

9. A method for the dynamic determination of the elastic, dielectric, and piezoelectric constants of quartz, S. A. Basri. 15 cents.

10. The "1958 He4 scale of temperature", F. G. Brickwedde, H. Van Dijk, M. Durieux, J. R. Clement, and J. K. Logan. 20 cents.

11. Conductive flooring for hospital operating rooms, T. H. Boone, F. L. Hermach,

E. H. MacArthur, and R. C. McAuliff. 20 cents.

13. Mechanical properties of structural materials at low temperatures. A compilation

from the literature, R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons. $1.50.

14. Bibliography on molecular and crystal structure models, D. K. Smith. 15 cents.

15. Calibration of line standards of length and measuring tapes at the National Bureau

of Standards, L. V. Judson. 15 cents.

16. Vibration-rotation structure in absorption bands for the calibration of spectrometers

from 2 to 16 microns, E. K. Plyle, A. Danti, L. R. Blaine, and E. D. Tidwell. 20 cents.

Circulars. Circulars are compilations of information on various subjects related to the Bureau's scientific and technical activities. They not only include the results of Bureau

studies but give data of general interest from other sources. The Circular series was

discontinued in June 1959. After this date, material that would formerly have been

published in the Circular series has been largely directed to the Journal of Research and

the new Monograph series.

539. Volume 9. Standard X-ray diffraction powder patterns, H. E. Swanson, M. I. Cook, T. Isaacs, and E. H. Evans. 40 cents. 583. Supplement. X-ray attenuation coefficients from 10 kev to 100 Mev, R. T. McGinnies. 15 cents. 601. Recorder survey: Recording surfaces and marking methods, G. Keinath. 30 cents.

Miscellaneous Publications. As the name implies, this series includes material, which,

because of its character or because of its size, does not fit into any of the other regular

publication series. Some of these are charts, administrative pamphlets, Annual Reports, Weights and Measures Conference Reports, and other subjects appropriate to the Miscellaneous series.

227. Hydraulic research in the United States, 1959, H. K. Middleton. $1.25. 228. Report of the 44th National Conference on Weights and Measures, 1959. 65 cents. 229. Research highlights of the National Bureau of Standards. Annual report, 1959. 55 cents. U>7
Handbooks. These are recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice,

including safety codes, developed in cooperation with the national organizations and

others concerned. In many cases the recommended requirements are given official status through their incorporation in local ordinances by State and municipal regulatory bodies.

28. (1957) —Part II. Screw-thread standards for federal services 1957. 75 cents.

68. Tabulation of data on receiving tubes, C. P. Marsden, W. J. Kerry, and J. K. Moffitt. 81.00.

71. Specification for dry cells and batteries. 25 cents.

Applied Mathematics Series. Mathematical tables, manuals, and studies.

50. Tables of the bivariate normal distribution function and related functions. $3.25.

57. Basic theorems in matrix theory, M. Marcus. 15 cents.

Technical Note Series. This series was initiated in 1959 to supplement the Bureau's

regular publications program. Technical Notes provide a means for making available

scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. They are available by purchase

from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D.C. (Order by PB number only.)

8 (PB151367) Thermodynamic properties of helium at low temperatures and high

pressures, D. B. Mann and R. B. Stewart. $1.25.

9 (PB151368) Frequency dependence of VHF ionospheric scattering, J. C. Blair. 75

cents. 10 (PB151369) Calculated behavior of a fast neutron spectrometer based on the total absorption principle, J. E. Leiss. $1.00. 11 (PB151370) Penetration of gamma rays from isotropic sources through aluminum

and concrete, M. J. Berger and L. V. Spencer. 50 cents. 12 (PB 15 1371) Transmission loss in radio propagation—II, K. A. Norton. $3.00. 13 (PB151372) Technical considerations leading to an optimum allocation of radio

frequencies in the band 25 to 60 Mc, K. A. Norton. $2.50. 14 (PB151373) Analysis of ionospheric vertical soundings for electron density profile

data—I. Facilities for convenient manual reduction of ionograms, J. W. Wright and

R. B. Norton. 50 cents. 15 (PB151374) Prediction of the cumulative distribution with time of ground wave and

tropospheric wave transmission loss—Part I. The prediction formula, P. L. Rice, A. G. Longley and K. A. Norton. $1.50. 16 (PB151375) Some applications of statistical sampling methods to outgoing letter mail

characteristics, N. C. Severo, A. E. Newman, S. M. Young, and M. Zelen. $2.75. 18 (PB151377) Radio noise data for the international geophysical year July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958, W. Q. Crichlow, C. A. Samson, R. T. Disney, and M. A. Jenkins.

$2.50.

18-2 (PB151377-2) Quarterly radio noise data—March, April, May 1959, W. Q. Crichlow,

C. A. Samson, R. T. Disney, and M. A. Jenkins. $1.00. 19 (PB151378) Analysis of ionospheric vertical soundings for electron density profile

data—II. Extrapolation of observed electron density profiles above h m , x F2, J. W.

Wright. 50 cents. 20 (PB151379) A preliminary analysis of amplitude scintillations of radio stars ob- served at Boulder, Colorado, R. S. Lawrence and J. L. Jespersen. $1.00. 21 (PB151380) Variations of gamma cassiopeiae, S. R. Pottasch. 75 cents. 22 (PB151381) Precise time synchronization of widely separated clocks, A. H. Morgan.

$1.50.

23 (PB151382) Design of single frequency filters, F. F. Fulton, Jr. 50 cents. 24 (PB151383) Radio wave propagation in an inhomogeneous atmosphere, J. R. Wait.

$1.00.

25 (PB151384) Communication theory aspects of television bandwidth conservation,

W. C. Coombs. 50 cents. 26 (PB151385) Survey of Central Radio Propagation Laboratory research in tropospheric propagation 1948-1956, J. W. Herbstreit and P. L. Rice. $4.00. 27 (PB151386) Distribution of mail by destination at the San Francisco, Los Angeles,

and Baltimore post offices, N. C. Severo and A. E. Newman. $1.50.

28 (PB151387) A history of vertical-incidence ionosphere sounding" at the National

Bureau of Standards, S. C. Gladden. $2.00.

29 (PB151388) Photographic dosimetry at total exposure levels below 20 mr, M. Ehrlich

and W. L. McLaughlin. 50 cents. 30 (PB151389) Aerodynamic phenomena in stellar atmospheres—A bibliography. $1.25.

31 (PB151390) An atlas of oblique-incidence ionograms, V. Agy, K. Davies, and R. Salaman. $2.25.

168
33 (PB151392) Distribution of incoming lettermail at the Baltimore, Maryland, city post

office, B. M. Levin and A. E. Newman. $2.50.

34 (PB151393) Resistance diode bridge circuit for temperature control, L. H. Bennett and V. M. Johnson. 50 cents. 35 (PB151394) Service area of an airborne television station, M. T. Decker. 75 cents. 36 (PB151395) A multiplet table of astrophysical interest (Revised Edition). Part I. Table of multiplets and Part II. Finding list of all lines in the table of multiplets, C. E. Moore. $4.00.

37 (PB151396) Application of RF micropotentiometers for calibration of signal generators to 1000 Mc, L. F. Behrent. 50 cents. 38 (PB151397) Design and construction of a liquid hydrogen temperature refrigeration

system, D. B. Chelton, J. W. Dean, and B. W. Birmingham. 75 cents. 39 (PB151398) Helium refrigeration and liquefaction using a liquid hydrogen refriger- ator for precooling, D. B. Chelton, J. W. Dean, T. R. Strobridge, B. W. Birmingham,

and D. B. Mann. 50 cents. 40-1 (PB151399-1) Mean electron density variations of the quiet ionosphere I—March

1959, J. W. Wright and L. A. Fine. $1.25.

40-2 (PB151399-2) Mean electron density variations of the quiet ionosphere 2—April

1959, J. W. Wright and L. A. Fine. $1.25. 41 (PB151400) Expendable modules as bases for disposal-at- failure maintenance, R. 0.

Stone, P. Meissner, and K. M. Schwarz. $2.25. 42 (PB151401) Analog-digital conversion equipment for electrocardiographic data, L. Taback. $1.25. 43 (PB151402) A summary of VHF and UHF tropospheric transmission loss data and

their long-term variability, D. A. Williamson, V. L. Fuller, A. G. Longley and P. L. Rice. $2.25. 44 (PB151403) Tables for the statistical prediction of radio ray bending and elevation

angle error using surface values of the refractive index, B. R. Bean, B. A. Cahoon

and G. D. Thayer. 50 cents. 45 (PB151404) Operating instructions for ARN-2 auxiliary log-linear noise recorder, R. T. Disney and C. A. Samson. 50 cents. 46 (PB151405) Experimental plating of gun bores to retard erosion, V. A. Lamb and

J. P. Young. $2.50. 47 (PB151406) An improved hydrogen atom beam furnace, R. Klein and J. Pararas. 50 cents. 48 (PB151407) Report on the IGY oblique-incidence sporadic-E and F-scatter program,

J. W. Finney and E. K. Smith, Jr. $2.50.

49 (PB151408) Dynamic measurements of the magnetoelastic properties of ferrites, V. E. Bottom. $1.00. 50 (PB151409) Magnetic drum directory and programming system for codesorting letter mail, P. C. Tosini. $1.75. 51 (PB161552) Isotopic abundance ratios reported for reference samples stocked by the National Bureau of Standards, F. L. Mohler. 50 cents. 52 (PB161553) Field strength calculations for E.L.F. radio waves, J. R. Wait and

N. F. Carter. 50 cents. 53 (PB161554) Carrier frequency dependence of the basic transmission loss in tropospheric forward scatter propagation, K. A. Norton. $1.00.

54 (PB161555) Determination of a general index of effort in sorting mail by conventional methods, S. Henig. 50 cents. 56 (PB 161557) A bibliography of the physical equilibria and related properties of some

cyrogenic systems, T. M. Flynn. $1.75. 57 (PB161558) Variable capacitor calibration with an inductive voltage divider bridge,

T. L. Zapf. 50 cents. 58 (PB161559) A survey and bibliography of recent research in the propagation of VLF radio waves, J. R. Wait. 75 cents.

Publications in Outside Journals*

Achenbach, P. R., Studies of air-to-air residential heat pumps for USAF, Proc. USAF

Refrigerating & Air Conditioning Conf., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio,

p. 75 (1959).

Achenbach, P. R., Phillips, C. W., Heat sink method for measuring the cooling loads of refrigerated structures, Proc. 10th Intern. Congress on Refrigeration, August 1959,

Copenhagen, Denmark (1959).

*For completeness, a few references to publications issued previous to July 1959 are

included.

569432 O—60 12 169
Achenbach, P. R., Phillips, C. W., Goddard, W. F., How the method of rating the cooling load of refrigerated trailers has been standardized, Am. Soc. Heating, Refgr.

Air Cond. Engrs. 2, No. 5, 45 ( 1960)

Achhammer, B. G., Tryon, M., Kline, G. M., Chemical structure and stability relation- ships in polymers, Kunststoffe combined with German Plastics Digest 49, No. 11, 600

(1959) ; Modern Plastics 37, 131 (1959).

Allen, H. C., Jr., Plyler, E. K., Ethane carbon-carbon distance obtained from infrared

spectra, J. Chem. Phys. 31, No. 4, 1062 ( 1959)

Alt, F. L., The outlook for machine translation, Proc. Western Joint Computer Conf.,

1960, San Francisco, Calif. 17, 203 ( 1960)

Ambler, E., Hayward, R. W., Hoppes, D. D., Hudson, R. P., Beta-gamma correlations from polarized nuclei, Comptes Rendres du Congres Intern, de Physique Nuclair, July

1958, Paris, France, p. 18 ( 1959)

Ambler, E., Plumb, H., Use of carbon resistors as low temperature thermometers in the presence of stray rf fields, Rev. Sci. Instr. 31, 656 ( 1960)

Armstrong, G. T., Marantz, S., Coyle, C. F., Heat of formation of nitrogen trifluoride and

the N-F bond energy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. Comm. to Editor 81, 3798 (1959).

Astin, A. V., Introductory remarks, Proc. 5th Tech. Session on Bone Char 1957, p. 1 (Bone Char Research Project Inc., Charlestown, Mass., 1959)

Astin, A. V., The basic standards for physical measurement, 28th Annual Meeting Am.

Soc. Tool and Mfgr. Engr., Detroit, Mich., April 21-28, 1960. Astin, A. V., The long look at national research needs, Anal. Chem. 31, 21 A (1959)

Athay, G., Johnson, H. R., The excitation of He I in the solar spectrum, Astrophys. J. 131,413 (1960).

Bailey, D. K., The effect of multipath distortion on the choice of operating frequencies

for high-frequency communication circuits, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP—7, No. 4, 397

(1959).

Bailey, D. K., Cottony, H. V., Kirby, R. C, Norton, K. A., Slutz, R. J., Davis, R. M.,

Merrill, R. G., Radio transmission by ionospheric and tropospheric scatter. (A report

of the Joint Technical Advisory Committee.) Proc. IRE 48, 4 (1960).

Barbrow, L. E., Memorandum on a procedure for obtaining spectral radiant intensities of tungsten filament lamps, 400-700 rmt, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 49, No. 11, 1122 (1959).

Barger, R. L., Kessler, K. G., Correction for systematic wavelength shifts in atomic beam

devices, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 50, No. 4, 352 (1960).

Barghausen, A. F., McGavin, R. E., The power spectrum of the variation of a carrier envelope in tropospheric scatter propagation, Conv. Record, 5th Natl. Communications

Symp., October 5-7, 1959. Bass, A. M., Broida, H. P., editors of the book. Formation and trapping of free radicals,

522 pages (Academic Press Inc., New York, N.Y., 1960)

Bass, A. M., Kessler, K. G., Large-aperature grating spectrograph utilizing commercial camera components, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 49, No. 12, 1223 (1959).

Bateman, R., Finney, J. W., Smith, E. K., Tveten, L. H., Watts, J. M., Unusual radio

signals enhancement in the far east, IGY Bull. 26, 1 ( 1959)

Bates, R. G., Concept and determination of pH, Chapter 10. Treatise on Analytical

Chemistry, Pt. 1. Theory and Practice, Vol. 1, Sec. B. Application of Chemical

Principles, p. 361 (The Interscience Encyclopedia Inc., New York, N.Y., 1959).

Bates, R. C, Electrode potentials, Chapter 9. Treatise on Analytical Chemistry, Pt. 1. Theory and Practice, Vol. 1, Sec. B. Application of Chemical Principles, p. 319 (The

Interscience Encyclopedia Inc., New York, N.Y., 1959)

Bates, R. G., Bower, V. E., Canham, R. G., Prue, J. E., The dissociation constant of CaOH+ from 0° to 40° C, Trans. Faraday Soc. 55, No. 444, 2062 (1959).

Bay, Z., McLernon, F., A time delay to amplitude converter, Proc. 2d Symp. Advances in Fast-Pulse Technique for Nuclear Counting UCRL-8706, 55-58 (Feb. 1959).

Bazley, N. W., Lower bounds for eigenvalues with application to the helium atom. Proc.

Natl. Acad. Sci. 45, No. 6, 850 ( 1959)

Beale, G. E., Jr., Broida, H. P., Spectral study of a visible short-duration afterglow in nitrogen, J. Chem. Phys. 31, No. 4, 1030 ( 1959)

Bean, B. R., Gallet, R. M, Applications of the molecular refractivity in radio meteorology,

J. Geophys. Research 64, No. 10, 1439 (1959)

Bean, B. R., Horn, J. D., Riggs, L. P., Refraction of radio waves at low angles within

various air masses, J. Geophys. Research 64, No. 4, 1183 (1960).

Beatty, R. W., Magnified and squared VSWR responses for microwave reflection coefficient measurements, IRE Trans. Microwave Theory and Tech. MTT-7, No. 3, 351

(1959).

Beaty, E. C, Bender, P. L., Hyperfine transitions in rubidium 87 vapor, Proc. 13th Annual Symp. on Frequency Control, 668-675 (May 1959)

Becker, J. H., Several new methods to measure diffusivity of semiconductors, J. Appl.

Phys. 31, No. 3,612 (1960).

170
Bender, P. L., Atomic frequency standards and clocks, Book, Quantum electronics, p. 110 (Columbia University Press, New York, N.Y., I960)

.

Benedict, W. S.. Plyler, E. K., Tidwell, E. D., Vibration-rotation bands of ammonia.

IV. The stretching fundamentals and associated bands near 3/t, J. Chem. Phys. 32,

No. 1,32 (1960).

Berger, M. J., Raso, D. J., Monte Carlo calculations of gamma-ray backscattering, Radiation Research 12, No. 1, 20 (1960).

Berman, H. A., An improved 8-hydroxyquinoline method for the determination of magnesium oxide in portland cement, ASTM Bull. 237, 51 ( 1959)

.

Bersch, C. F„ Stromberg, R. R., Achhammer, B. G., Structural changes in irradiated

plastics films, Modern Packaging 32, 117 ( 1959)

.

Bestul, A. B., Application of the Williams-Landel-Ferry equation to silicate glasses, Glastech. Ber. 32K, No. VI, 59 ( 1959 )

.

Bestul, A. B., Energy requirements of mechanical shear degradation in concentrated

polymer solutions, J. Chem. Phys. 32, No. 2, 350 ( 1960)

.

Bolz, L. H., Mauer, F. A., Peiser, H. S., Exploratory study, by low temperature X-ray

diffraction techniques, of diborane and the products of a microwave discharge in diborane, J. Chem. Phys. 31, No. 4, 1005 ( 1959)

.

Boone, T. H., Some aspects of conductive flooring and Epoxy floor toppings, Proc. Conf. on Maintenance & Repair of Building Components, U.S. Air Force, Kessler Field,

December 1959. Bowles, K. L., Cohen, R. S., Ochs, G. R., Balsley, B. B., Radio echoes from field-aligned ionization above the magnetic equator and their resemblance to auroral echoes, J. Geophys. Research Letter to Editor 65, 1853 (1960)

.

Brandt, J. C, Chamberlain, J. W., Interplanetary gas. I. Hydrogen radiation in the night sky, Astrophys. J. 130, 670 ( 1959)

.

Brauer, G. M., White, E. E., Jr., Burnes, C. L., Woefel, J. B., Denture reliners—direct,

hard, self-curing resin, J. Am. Dental Assoc. 59, 270 (1959)

.

Breckenridge, F C, A correlation of signal color recognition tests, Special Report 5-1-22,

6th Intern. Tech. Conf. on Lighthouses and Other Aids to Navigation (1960).

Breckenridge, F. C, Background and objectives of the U.S. standard for the colors of signal lights, Highway Research Board Bull. Night Visibility Publ. 686, No. 226,

7-13 (Jan. 1959).

Breckenridge, F. C, Comments on revision of Association of American Railroads signal

section specification 69-59, Signal Glasses, Proc. 60th Annual Meeting of Association

American Railroads Signal Section, p. 270 ( Oct. 1959)

.

Brodd, R. J., On the internal resistance of dry cells, a new pulse method, J. Electrochem.

Soc. 106,471 (1959).

Broida, H. P., La recherche sur les radicaux libres au National Bureau of Standards, J. chim. phys. 56, No. 2392, 813 ( 1959)

.

Broida, H. P., Nicholls, R. W., Phosphorescence of nitrogen and nitrogen-argon deposited

films at 4.2 ° K, J. Chem. Phys. Note 32, No. 2, 623 ( 1960 )

.

Broida, H. P., Peyron, M., Emission spectra of N2, 02 , and NO molecules trapped in solid matrices, J. Chem. Phys. 32, No. 4, 1068 ( 1960)

.

Brown, N. L., Barfield, R. N., Shielded coaxial leads for low temperature electrical measurements, Rev. Sci. Instr. 31, No. 5, 517 ( 1960 )

.

Burkhard, M. D., Corliss, E. L. R., Koidan, W., Biagi, F., Calibration for carrier operated

microphones and other reversible transducers, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 32, No. 4, 501

(1960)

Bussey, H. E., Accurate microwave wavemeters with convenient calibration tables, Rev.

Sci. Instr. 31, No. 4, 410 ( 1960)

.

Bussey, H. E., Cavity resonator dielectric measurements on rod samples, Insulation, p. 26 (November 1959).

Bussey, H. E., Birnbaum, G., Cavity resonators for dielectric spectroscopy of compressed

gases, Rev. Sci. Instr. 30, No. 9, 800 ( 1959)

.

Bussey, W. S., Jensen, M. W., The development of weights and measures control of packaged goods in the United States, Supplement to The Monthly Rev. (April 1960).

Capot, R. J., Newman, S. B., Mandel, J., Paper test data from pendulum and inertialess

testers, Tappi 42, No. 6, 480 ( 1959)

.

Carpenter, F. G., Development of a new test for the abrasion hardness of bone char, Proc. 5th Tech. Session on Bone Char 1957, p. 99 (Bone Char Research Project Inc., Charlestown, Mass., 1959)

.

Carpenter, F. G., Sugar retention by char, Proc. 5th Tech. Session on Bone Char 1957, p. 279 (Bone Char Research Project Inc., Charlestown, Mass., 1959).

Carpenter, R. J., Ochs, G. R., The NBS meteor burst communication system, IRE Trans. Commun. Systems CS-7, 263 ( 1959)

.

Carrington, T., Line shape and / value in the OH2 S

+ —2ir transition, J. Chem. Phys. 31,

1243 (1959).

171
Carrington, T., Rotational transfer in the fluorescence spectrum of OH (*2+ ), J. Chem.

Phys. Note 31, No. 5, 1418 (1959)

Carter, T. J., Water penetration testing machine for sole leather, J. Am. Leather

Chemists Assoc. 55, No. 3, 139 (1960)

Carwile, N. L., Rosenberg, S. J., A study of 17-7 PH stainless steel, WADC Tech. Report

58-653 (June 1959). Available from the Office of Technical Services, Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D.C.

Cassel, J. M., Effects of gamma radiation on collagen, J. Am. Leather Chemists Assoc. 54. No. 8, 432 (1959).

Cassel, J. M., Increase in mileage of leather soles, Naval Research Rev. p. 7 (January

1960)

Chadwick, W. B., Prediction of sunspot numbers for cycle 20, Nature 184, 1787 (1959).

Chapman, S., Cosmic examples of heat conduction in very rare rotating or expanding

gases, Ann. Geophys. 5, 434 ( 1960).

Clark, J. E., Mrose, M. E., Period, A., Burley, G., Studies of borate minerals (VI) : In- vestigations of Veatchite. Am. Mineralogist 44, No. 11-12, 1141 ( 1959)

Clarke, J. T., Gorden, R., Jr., Thermal conductivity of condensed films: Methane, J. Chem. Phys. 32,705 (1960).

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Schaffer, R., Branched-chain higher sugars. III. A 4-C-(hydroxymethyl) -pentose, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 81, 5452 (1959).

Scheer, M. D., Klein, R., The double bond isomerization of olefins by hydrogen atoms at -195°, J. Phys. Chem. 63, 1517 ( 1959)

.

Schneider, S. J., Roth, R., Perovskite-type compounds in binary rare earth oxide systems,

J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 43, No. 2, 115 ( 1960)

.

Schnepp, 0., Dressier, K., Photolysis of ammonia in a solid matrix at low temperatures,

J. Chem. Phys. 32, 1682 (1960).

Schoen, L. J., Broida, H. P., Spectra emitted from rare gas-oxygen solids during electron bombardment, J. Chem. Phys. 32, No. 4, 1184 (1960).

Schoonover, I. C, The research frontier, Saturday Rev. p. 58 (May 2, 1959).

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.

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.

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.

Seliger, H. H., Agranoff, B. W., Solid scintillation counting of H

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.

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.

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.

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186
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.

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.

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187
PATENTS

The following U.S. patents have been granted to NBS inventors; assigned (or licensed

as indicated) to the United States of America, as represented by the Secretary of the department noted in parentheses:

Apstein, Maurice, No. 2,921,522, January 19, 1960. Multiple detonator operation.

(Army.)

Beatty, Robert W., No. 2,922,963, January 26, 1960. Adjustable waveguide termination.

(Commerce.)

Brauer, Gerhard M., No. 2,936,242, May 10, 1960. Cements from metal oxides and chelat- ing agents. (Commerce.)

Clabaugh, Wilbur S., and Gilchrist, Raleigh, No. 2.915,364, December 1, 1959. Preparation of pure titanium tetrachloride. (Navy.)

Cooke, Finley L., No. 2,929,027, March 15, 1960. Amplifier including hum elimination

control means. (Navy.)

Cordero, Fidel, No. 2,913,008, November 17, 1959. Nonlinear sensitive d'aphragm.

(Commerce.)

Cunningham, James A., and Holt, Arthur W., No. 2,913,600, November 17, 1959. Diode

amplifier and computer circuitry. (Commerce.)

Davis, Merlin, No. 2,900,861, August 25, 1959. Electronic musical instruments. (Licensed to the United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Commerce.)

deMinjer, Clara H., and Brenner, Abner, No. 2,929,742, March 22, 1960. Electroless deposition of nickel. (Commerce.)

Forman, Ralph, No. 2,935,624, May 3, 1960. Electrostatically controlled reference tube. (Commerce.)

Golden, Sidney, No. 2,924,562, February 9, 1960. Method of free radical production and

stabilization. (Licensed to the United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Commerce.)

Harman, George G., Jr., No. 2,928,937, March 15, 1960. Electroluminescent microwave

receiver. (Commerce.)

Hinman, Wilbur S., Jr., No. 2,897,759, August 4, 1959. Electrical arming circuit. (Navy.)

Hinman, Wilbur S., Jr., No. 2,926,611, March 1, 1960. Circuit controlling means. (Navy.)

Hoffman, Joseph G., No. 2,927,214, March 1, 1960. Signal translating svstem. (Navy.)

Holt, Arthur W., and Friedman, David C, No. 2,895,077, July 14, 1959. Gas diode

linear register. (Commerce.)

Huntoon, Robert D., No. 2.903,593, September 8. 1959. Dosimeter. (Commerce.)

Huntoon, Robert D., No. 2,921,518, January 19, 1960. Explosive ordnance construction.

(Navy.)

Huntoon, Robert D., No. 2.934.712, April 26, 1960. Gain control circuit. (Navy.)

Kovasznay, Leslie S. G., No. 2,900,442, August 18, 1959. Electro-optical contour out- lining apparatus. (Licensed to the United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Commerce.)

Kovasznay, Leslie S. G., and Joseph, Horace M., No. 2,903,507, September 8, 1959. Electro-optical contour enhancement. (Commerce.)

Kuder, Milton L., No. 2,907.011, September 29. 1959. Automatic information sorting

system. (Commerce.)

McLean, William B., No. 2,928,347, March 15, 1960. Inertia arming switch. (Navy.)

McLean, William B., No. 2.935.950, Mav 10, 1960. Release mechanism. (Navy.)

Marion, Thomas M., and Streib, John F., No. 2,927,213, March 1, 1960. Electronic

control circuit. (Navy.)

Marsden, Charles P., Jr., No. 2,894,795, July 14, 1959. Automatic evacuation system for electron tubes. (Navy.)

Marsden, Charles P., Jr., and Brewer, Frank H., No. 2,897,394, July 28, 1959. Ceramic

wafer, electronic tube. (Navy.)

Mason, Henry L., No. 2,896,450, July 28, 1959. Mass flowmeter. (Commerce.)

Montgomery, George Franklin, No. 2,894,206, July 7, 1959. Transistor beta tester. (Commerce.)

Montgomery, George Franklin, No. 2,906,968, September 29, 1959. Transistor-controlled reactance modulator. (Commerce.)

Montgomery, George Franklin, No. 2,913,524, November 17, 1959. Loud-speaking interoffice telephone. (Commerce.)

Morse, Malcom S., No. 2,902,262, September 1, 1959. Temperature regulating tube

shield. (Commerce.)

Moynihan, John T., No. 2.920,984, January 12, 1960. Paper coating composition, paper

coated therewith, and method of improving the strength of paper. (Commerce.)

Nefflen, Karl F., No. 2,937,934, May 24, 1960. Plastic film abrasive sheet. (Commerce.)

188
Pelander, Carl E., No. 2,914,993, December 1, 1959. Tool shaping machine. (Army.)

Pelander, Carl E., No. 2,923,209, February 2, 1960. Tool shaping machine. (Army.)

Rabinow, Jacob, and McLean, William B., No. 2,911,573, November 3, 1959. Multiple

point altimeter for use with toss bombing integrators. (Navy.)

Rabinow, Jacob, No. 2,912,933, November 17, 1959. Safety device. (Navy.)

Rabinow, Jacob, and Andrews, Laurence M., No. 2,915,604, December 1, 1959. Inertia operated switch. (Navy.)

Rabinow, Jacob, and McLean, William B., No. 2,920,157, January 5. 1960. Inertia

switch. (Navy.)

Rabinow, Jacob, No. 2,920,568, January 12, 1960. Turbo-generator system. (Army.)

Rabinow, Jacob, No. 2,921,524, January 19, 1960. Fuze safety device. (Navy.)

Rabinow, Jacob, Bailey, Emmett C, Shepard, Francis H., Jr., No. 2,935,900, May 10, 1960. Servo control mechanism. (Navy.)

Roberts, Aaron G., Crouse, William A., and Pizer, Robert S., No. 2,907,200, October 6, 1959. Apparatus for measuring abrasion resistance. (Navy.)

Scheer, Milton D., and Klein, Ralph (guest workers), No. 2,934,578, April 26, 1960. Process for low temperature hydrogenation of olefins. (Commerce.)

Schrodt, John P., and Craig, David N., No. 2,936,327, May 10, 1960. Deferred activation

battery. (Commerce.)

Schwenk, Earl L., No. 2,921,549, January 10, 1960. Holding fixture for spin-forming

blanks. (Commerce.)

Selby, Myron C, and Behrent, Lewis F., No. 2,933,684, April 19, 1960. Attenuatorthermoelectric high-frequency voltmeter. (Commerce.)

Simpson, Philip A., Barclay, Catherine, and Phelps, Francis P., No. 2,931,924, April 5, 1960. Quartz oscillator unit for operation at low temperatures. (Commerce.)

Tsohiegg, Carroll E., No. 2,922,121, January 19, 1960. Gated beam tube relaxation

oscillator. (Commerce.)

Thorensen, Ragnar, and Ambrosio, Biagio F., No. 2,913,706, November 17, 1959. Transcriber selection circuit for magnetic drum memory. (Commerce.)

Thorensen, Ragnar, Arsenault, William R., and Ambrosio, Biagio F., No. 2,925,587,

February 16, 1960. Magnetic drum memory for electronic computers. (Commerce.)

Wall, Leo A., Hellman, Max, and Pummer, Walter J., No. 2,927,138, March 1, 1960. Method for the preparation of hexafluorobenzene. (Commerce.)

Wall, Leo A., and Michaelsen, John D., No. 2,933,536, April 19, 1960. Inhibited

pyrolysis of fluorocarbon polymers. (Commerce.)

Weaver, Preston R., No. 2,897,306, July 28, 1959. Acceleration responsive microswitch.

(Navy.)

White, Hobart S., No. 2,911,911, November 10, 1959. Antifriction gascheck wads.

(Licensed to the United States of America as represented by the Secretary of Commerce.

)

Witt, Richard P., No. 2,910,616, October 27, 1959. Sine wave collector modulation

memory. ( Commerce.

)

189
I

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