DOED'E-0350 

Fuel Cell Systems 

Program for 

Stationary Power 

1996 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy 

Deputy Assistant Secretary for Advanced 

Research and Special Technologies 
This report has been repduced directly from the best available copy. 

Available to DOE and DOE Contractors from the Office of Scientific and 

Technical Information, B.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37831; prices available from 

(423) 576-8401. 

Available to the public from the U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology 

Administration, Naaiond Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161, 

(703) 487-4650. 

Cover Photos 

Top : 

Second : 

Third: 

Bottom: 

2 megawatt Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Field Test at Santa Clara, California (Courtesy Energy 

Research Corporation) 

250 kilowatt Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Field Test Under Construction at San Diego, California 

(Courtesy M-C Power Corporation) 

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Pilot Manufacturing Facility (Courtesy Westinghouse Electric Company) 

200 kilowatt (PC-ZTM) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Power Plant Assembly Facility (Courtesy ONSI 

Corporation) 
DOELFE-0350 DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States 

Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their 

employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or 

process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, 

manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views 

and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the 

United States Government or any agency thereof. 

Fuel Cell Systems 

Program for 

Stationary Power 

1996 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy 

Deputy Assistant Secretary for Advanced 

Research and Special Technologies 

Washington, D.C. 20585 

DISCLAIMER 

Portions of this document may be illegible 

in electronic image products. Images are 

produced from the best available original 

document. 

TABLE QF CONTENTS 

s!GX%Qn 

I 

I1 

I11 

IV 

V 

VI 

VI1 

Forward 

Summary 

Introduction 

Goals and Strategies 

Technology Description 

Technical Status 

Program Description and Implementation 

Coordinated Fuel Cell Program Interactions 

Fuel Cell Activities Outside the United States 

m 

1 

3 

9 

11 

17 

21 

27 

35 

39 

-1- 

List of Exhibits 

l!ikhEt 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Overall Fuel Cell Plan 

Development Targets for Fuel Cell 

Systems 

Fuel Cell Power Plant 

Representations of Three 

Types of Fuel Cells 

Fuel Cell Program Activities 

f@P 

5 

12 

17 

18 

32 
- iv - 
FORWARD 

This document is intended to foster improved communications among those with an interest 

in the development and application of fuel cells. The document provides a short overview of 

the fuel cell program being conducted by the Department of Energy, Ofice of Fossil Energy 

in partnership with the private sector and other government agencies. 

1 
2 
SUMMARY 

The mission of the fuel cell systems program of the Department of 

Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, in partnership with its customers and 

stakeholders, is to foster the creation of a new domestic fuel cell 

industry. This industry should be capable of commercialization of 

new, improved fuel cell power generation systems and thereby provide 

significant economic and environmental benefits. This program is 

aligned with the Department of Energy's core mission (business line) 

of energy resources. 

Consistent with the concept of sustainable energy resources 

development, the kel cell program supports the Department's natural 

gas program overall mission and strategic plan. These encourage 

economic growth and job creation, make the most effective use of 

domestic resources, promote economic and energy efficiency, protect 

human health and the environment, and enhance energy security. The 

program is conducted within the guidance of the Energy Policy Act 

(EPACT), the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and the 

Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), and Federal and DOE energy 

acquisition regulations. 

The Energy Policy Act lays the foundation for a more efficient, less 

vulnerable and environmentally sustainable energy future. Several 

advanced energy conversion technologies under development by the 

Department of Energy can help achieve these objectives. Fuel cell 

systems are among those technologies having the potential for highly 

efficient energy conversion, enhancement of environmental quality and 

stimulating creation of a major new manufacturing industry. 

The Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Fossil Energy, is 

participating with the private sector in sponsoring the development of 

molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) 

technologies for application in the utility, commercial and industrial 

sectors. Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) development was 

3 
sponsored by the Office of Fossil Energy in previous years and is now 

being commercialized by the private sector. 

Private sector participants with the Department of Energy include the 

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the Gas Research Institute 

(GRI), electric and gas utilities, universities, manufacturing companies 

and their suppliers. The Department of Energy program is also 

coordinated with fuel cell development, demonstration and application 

efforts by the Department of Defense (DOD), and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 

Also within the Department of Energy, the Office of Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy is participating in sponsoring development of 

fuel cells for transportation propulsion systems. The program for 

transportation applications is focused primarily on the development of 

polymer electrolyte or proton exchange membrane fuel cells, and also 

included a demonstration program for three phosphoric acid fuel cell 

buses. DOE fuel cell research, development and demonstration efforts 

are part of the national fuel cell development and commercialization 

efforts which also involve private sector participation and funding. 

This document describes the fuel cell activities of the DOE Office of 

Fossil Energy. 

Through continued government and private sector support, fuel cell 

systems are emerging power generation technologies which are 

expected to have significant worldwide impacts. An industry with 

annual sales of over a billion dollars is envisioned early in the 2 1 st 

century. PAFC power plants have begun to enter the marketplace and 

MCFC and SOFC power plants are expected to enter the marketplace 

around the year 2000. 

In support of the efficient and effective use of our natural resources, 

the fuel cell program seeks to increase energy efficiency and economic 

effectiveness of power generation. This is to be accomplished through 

the development and commercialization of cost-effective, efficient and 

environmentally desirable fuel cell systems which will operate on fossil 

fuels in multiple end use sectors. 

The program objectives are to develop and demonstrate cost effective 

fie1 cell power generation which can be successhlly commercialized 

by the year 2000. 

4 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

The overall schedule of the &el cell program is shown in Exhibit 1. 

EXHIBIT 1 

OVERALL FUEL CELL PLAN 

1 Phosphoric Acid Fuel 

1 Cell Technology 

i Molten Carbonate 

Fuel Cell Technology 

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 

Technology & Advanced 

Concepts 

Advanced Research 

I 

Initial 

I demonstration of 

1 I I Commercial plants 

Technology development 8, COmmercial Plants 

precommercial pilot plants 

development Pilot plants Commercia 

Stack & system 

Cell plants technology development - I 

I 

I I -1 1- -1 

Power module 

& system 

develoDment 

Commercial 

Cell technology development 1 I 1 

II rn 

1 

Supporting research and future concepts I I 

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 

The activities shown in Exhibit 1 include basic and applied research 

and development, proof-of-concept activities, precommercial 

demonstrations, and associated private sector commercial scale 

activity. Some of the key elements of the program include: 

0 

0 

Development and demonstration, in 1996 and 1997, of 

commercial size MCFC and SOFC integrated system units 

meeting functional requirements for utility scale, distributed 

power and on-site generation applications; 

Demonstration of cost reduction, performance and durability 

improvements which would enable private sector production 

of competitive market entry power plants by the year 2000; 

5 
a 

0 

a 

0 

Evaluation and identification, by 1999 of advanced fuel cell 

concepts and configurations which would enable efficiencies 

over 60% (on higher heating value basis; 70% on lower 

heating value basis) and installed costs below 1000 dollars per 

kilowatt for utility scale, distributed power and on-site 

generation; 

Support of advanced research which would ensure availability 

of the critical materials and processes required for commercial 

market entry units by 2000 and advanced units by 2005; 

Cooperation with private sector commercialization activities 

to facilitate rapid cost reductions and rapid market penetration 

enabling industry growth to annual sales over $1 billion early 

in the 2 1 st century. 

Coordination with fuel cell development and testing activities 

of the Department of Defense, DOE'S Office of Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the Electric Power 

Research Institute, the Gas Research Institute, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, electric and gas 

utilities and manufacturing companies in order to leverage the 

available resources, avoid duplication, and maximize taxpayer 

return on investment. 

The program strategy is to assist the private sector in developing 

molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell technologies and to 

participate in those field tests which would greatly improve prospects 

for commercialization by the private sector. The strategy also 

includes supporting advanced research to provide solutions in critical 

areas and to identifl concepts which offer opportunities for significant 

reductions in cost and improvements in performance. 

This strategy has been selected in order to leverage and focus the 

available resources of the government and private sectors. The intent 

is to accomplish important advancements in these technologies 

through research and development and foster the translation of these 

advancements into actual economic and environmental benefits. 

Commercialization plans have been formulated by the private sector 

for market entry of these power plants fueled by natural gas by 2000. 

Introduction of larger power plants with integrated coal gasifiers is 

anticipated prior to 2010. 

6 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

Congressional appropriations for this program in fiscal year 1996 are 

$52.5 million. This is comparable to the appropriation levels in fiscal 

years 1994 and 1995 of $5 1.1 million and $46.9 million respectively. 

Private sector resources being devoted to he1 cell development in the 

United States have also been estimated to be approximately $50 

million per year. 

7 
8 
I 

INTRODUCTION 

Fuel cell power systems are emerging power generation technologies 

for the efficient, economical and environmentally acceptable 

production of electricity. In some applications the by-product heat 

can also be efficiently used in cogeneration. Fuel cells produce 

electricity through the electrochemical oxidation of a hel. They can 

be operated on a variety of fuels, including natural gas, coal gas, land 

fill gas and renewable fuels. First market entry units are heled by 

natural gas. Fuel cells offer the opportunity for a major new 

manufacturing industry. 

System studies have shown that fuel cell power plants can be designed 

with overall system efficiencies in the 50 to 60 percent range (higher 

heating value basis) (55 to 65 percent on lower heating value basis). 

Fuel cell power plants are unique in that they offer high efficiency and 

low emissions even at part-load and in small sizes. Because of their 

efficiency, he1 cells will help in reducing CO, emissions. 

Additional benefits are the environmentally desirable operating 

characteristics offered by fuel cells. Because electricity is produced 

through an electrochemical reaction rather than by combustion, fuel I 

cells generate very little NO, and are extremely quiet. This 

combination of operating characteristics and high efficiency make fuel 

cells attractive for future electric utility applications. On-site industrial 

and commercial applications where the by-product heat can be utilized 

are also attractive. Fuel cells can be sited in environmentally sensitive 

and populated areas and early commercial units have been installed in 

hotels, office buildings and similar locations. The overall program 

goal is to develop and commercialize cost-effective fuel cell systems 

which utilize these advantages. 

9 
Development of fuel cell technologies has been underway in the 

United States with finding support provided by both public and 

private sectors. The DOE Office of Fossil Energy, the Gas Research 

Institute (GRI), and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) are 

cooperatively sponsoring the development of he1 cell systems for 

applications in the utility, commercial and industrial sectors. Funding 

of development and demonstration is also provided by fuel cell 

developers and potential users. 

This document describes the &el cell program of the DOE Office of 

Fossil Energy and its coordination with other fuel cell activities. 

10 
I1 

GOALS AND STRATEGIES 

In support of achieving the power generation vision for natural gas, 

the strategic goal of the fuel cell program is to expand the clean, 

efficient and economic use of natural gas in the utility-scale, 

distributed, and on-site power market sectors through: (1) the 

successful development, demonstration and commercialization of 

advanced fuel cell power generation systems; and (2) the reduction of 

market hurdles and removal of regulatory barriers to the deployment 

of new, advanced gas-based fuel cell power generation technologies. 

The strategic approach to overcome the issues / barriers associated 

with increased fuel cell use in the power generation area is guided by 

the natural gas commercialization strategy in the Power Generation 

section of the natural gas strategic plan and program crosscut plans. 

To achieve this strategic goal, DOE has identified supporting goals for 

(1) developing technology, (2) fostering market pull for technology, 

(3) removing policy impediments, and (4) ensuring the maximization 

of the environmental benefits of advanced gas-based fuel cell power 

generation, while recognizing the changing market forces in the 

electric generation area. 

TECHNOLOGY 

Goal 

The program technology goal is to complete the development and 

demonstration which responds to domestic industry needs leading to 

the commercialization of high efficiency, environmentally benign 

molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell power plants for stationary 

11 
applications in utility-scale, distributed, and on-site power markets 

(domestic and export). Efficiency targets are 55 to 60 percent on the 

basis of higher heating value (HEIV) (60 to 65 percent on basis of 

lower heating value, LHV) for molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and 

solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems, with both technologies cost 

competitive with other power technologies. (Near-Term) 

Development targets for system efficiency and capital cost for MCFC 

and SOFC (based on volume production and the 2010 time frame) are 

shown in Exhibit 2. 

EXHIBIT 2 

DEVELOPMENT TARGETS FOR FUEL CELL SYSTEMS 

TYPES OF FUEL CELL 

r SYSTEMS BEING DEVELOPED7 

Capital Cost 

Natural G as-F u eled 

Plant: 

Electric Utility 

0 On-Site 

, c"'1 Carbonate FCoal-Fueled Plant: 

Electric Utility 

Efficiencies (HHV) 

Natural Gas-Fueled 

Plant: 

0 Electric Utility 

0 On-Site 

Coal-Fueled Plant: 

Electric Utility 

$800/KW . $600/KW 

$1 000/KW $800/KW 

$1 200/KW I $1000/KW 

60% 60% 

55% I 55% 

50% 50% 

I I I I 

12 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

Strategy 

0 Foster the development, scaleup and system integration of 

molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell power plants 

through the demonstration plant stage (with increasing levels 

of private sector cost sharing). (Near-Term) 

MARKET/COMMERCIALIZATION 

Goal 

0 The market and commercialization goal is the private sector 

realization of significant market penetration with molten 

carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell power plants for on-site 

cogeneration and distributed power generation as well as new 

and repowering central power plant applications in domestic 

and export utility and nonutility generator markets. (MidTerm) 

Strategies 

0 

0 

0 

Foster the realization of expanded fuel cell market penetration 

in partnership with industry. 

While each developer has its own specific commercialization 

strategy, common elements exist such as the need to offer a 

product meeting the needs of specific customers, competitive 

costs, and a need to lower the perceived risks associated with 

this new type of power plant. The government role 

complements the private sector commercialization strategies 

by assisting in demonstrating the capabilities and level of 

development of these emerging technologies. (Mid-Term) 

Coordinate with the Department of Defense on fostering 

application of near-term power plants ready for commercial 

offering. (Near-Term) 

Cultivate opportunities for commercialization activities which 

target market entry of advanced he1 cells by 2000. (MzdTerm) 

13 
POLICYDUZGULATORY 

Goal 

The policy and regulatory goal is to foster market 

opportunities by overcoming market and regulatory hurdles 

for commercialization of advanced gas-based fuel cell power 

generation technologies both domestically and globally. (nearTerm) 

Strategies 

0 

0 

0 

Increase DOE interaction with States and other stakeholders, 

including participation in meetings with the National 

Association of Regulated Utility Commissioners, on matters 

such as increased competition, industry restructuring, rate 

making, environmental regulations, and integrated resource 

planning. Participate as an interested party in the state rule 

making process to encourage the enactment of state 

regulations which allow for introduction of new technologies 

into the power generation market. Institute regional strategies 

for changes to rate making and dispatching on basis of 

integrated resource planning including environmental and 

externality considerations. (near-Term) 

Participate in forums to improve networking of users, 

suppliers, and manufacturers and provide opportunities 

conducive to constructive interaction with key local, state and 

federal regulators. wear-Term) 

Analyze domestic and export markets to improve 

understanding of customer needs and concerns. Utilize 

optimization analyses to provide input usehl to government 

or private sector decision-making processes with regards to 

investments, regulations, and market response to changes in 

the power industry. (Near-Term) 

ENVIRONMENTAL 

Goal 

0 The program environmental goal is to realize consistent and 

rational standards set by states and EPA to allow gas-based 

14 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

fuel cell power generation systems to compete in the power 

generation market. 

Strategies 

0 

0 

0 

Spotlight he1 cell technology as a means for power generation 

systems to meet environmental standards. 

Examine environmental incentives as a means of increasing use 

of fuel cell power plants. 

Encourage states and the EPA to adopt scientifically based 

emissions standards that allow economically and realistically 

achievable emissions for specific applications, areas and 

regions. 

The program being implemented and progress toward achieving these 

goals are described in the following sections of this report. 

15 
16 
111 

TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION 

A basic fuel cell consists of two electrodes, the anode and cathode, 

separated by an electrolyte. Fuel cell types are typically characterized 

by their electrolyte. For example, phosphoric acid fuel cells utilize a 

phosphoric acid electrolyte in a matrix between anode and cathode 

electrodes. A fuel cell power plant as shown schematically in Exhibit 

3 has three main components: the power conversion section which 

contains the series of fuel cells (often referred to as the he1 cell 

stacks), the fuel processor, and the power conditioner. The fuel 

processor converts a hydrocarbon fuel (e.g., natural gas or coal) to a 

hydrogen-rich gas that is fed to the fuel cell stacks. The fuel cell 

stacks combine oxygen from the air with the hydrogen from the fuel 

processor to generate direct current electricity and heat. The heat 

may either be used directly as a co-product or applied in a bottoming 

cycle to produce additional electricity. The power conditioning 

section changes the direct current from the fuel cells to alternating 

current. 

EXHIBIT 3 

FUEL CELL POWER PLANT 

Gas 

Containing D. C. 

HVdrosen Uecfricity Power 

Conditioner 

Processor Conversion (Inverter 

(Gasifier or Section and Power 

Reformer (Fuel Cells Controls 

and and Gas Air Cleaning Bottoming 

Equipment) 

Fuel Fuel b Power * 

b 

4 Equipment) Cycle F 

4 

Heat and 

Slam 

A. C. 

Elecbicity 

Heat 

17 
Fuel cell technologies under development in the U.S. include 

phosphoric acid, molten carbonate, solid oxide, polymer, and alkaline. 

A schematic representation of the three fuel cell technologies 

addressed by DOE'S Office of Fossil Energy is shown in Exhibit 4. 

The figure shows the hydrogen and oxygen reacting with the electric 

charge carrying ion of the electrolyte. These reactions produce an 

electric current which powers the external load. Water and heat are 

also produced by these reactions and must be controlled by the overall 

system. In the case of molten carbonate systems carbon dioxide is 

also used at the air electrode and formed at the fuel electrode, 

requiring a CO, supply or recycle in these systems. In the solid oxide 

and molten carbonate fuel cells, carbon monoxide in the fuel stream 

is also typically utilized as fbel. 

EXHIBIT 4 

REPRESENTATIONS OF THREE TYPES OF FUEL CELLS 

Depleted oxidant 

Depleted fuel and ~ , and product 

ma "I Phosphoric Acid 

Anode Electrolyte Cathode 

(ion conductor) 

* In the solid oxide and molten carbonate fuel cells, carbon monoxide in the fuel 

stream is also typically utilized as fuel 

18 
Fuel Cell Svstems Promim 

Phosphoric acid fuel cells use an electrolyte of phosphoric acid in 

a matrix and operate at approximately 200 "C (400 OF). 

Development since the late 1960s has brought the technology to 

market introduction in the electric utility and commercial on-site 

sectors with natural gas as the fuel. Commercial deliveries of 

200 kW on-site units began in 1992 and an electric utility 11 MW 

power plant has been demonstrated in the private sector. 

(larhonateuel Cdli 

Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte composed of alkali 

metal carbonates and operate at approximately 650 "C (1200 OF). 

The high operating temperature is needed to achieve sufficient 

conductivity of the electrolyte. An effect associated with this higher 

temperature is that noble metal catalysts are not required for the cell 

electrochemical oxidation and reduction processes. Molten 

carbonate fuel cells are being developed for natural gas and coal 

based power plants for the industrial and electric utility sectors. 

Solid oxide fuel cells are being developed which use a ceramic 

electrolyte of yttria stabilized zirconia and operate at about 1000 "C 

(1800 OF). The attractiveness of this cell relates to its solid state 

nature, its potential to reform gaseous fuel within the cells, 

demonstrated long cell life and its high operating temperature which 

can provide high quality heat for additional power production or 

other uses. The solid electrolyte eliminates problems of electrolyte 

containment and allows designs which utilize the electrolyte as part 

of the structural members of cells. 

Polymer fuel cells use a class of fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer 

electrolytes. The electrolyte is a solid membrane which is currently 

operated between 40 "C and 90 "C (100 "F and 200 T). Polymer 

fuel cells are being considered for applications where high specific 

power together with high efficiency are important. Examples are 

19 
space power and transportation system applications. Polymer fuel 

cells currently being developed are also sometimes referred to as 

proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Polymer fuel cells 

development is not being funded by the DOE Office of Fossil 

Energy but is being funded by the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy for transportation applications. 

e Fuel (I& 

Alkaline fuel cells have been used since the mid 1960s in the U.S. 

space program. Future space system applications are expected. 

Alkaline fuel cells are not economically attractive for commercial 

terrestrial applications at present because they require the use of 

reactants free of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide contained in 

reformed fuels and air forms insoluble carbonates in the alkaline 

electrolyte. These carbonates hinder operation of the cell. 

Removal of the carbon dioxide from the fuel and-air has not been 

economical. Alkaline fuel cell development is not being funded by 

the Department of Energy. 

20 
IV 

TECHNICAL STATUS 

PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL STATUS 

PAFC systems were developed for megawatt-scale applications in the 

electric utility sector and kilowatt-scale applications in the commercial 

and industrial sectors. International Fuel Cells (IFC) is marketing a 

200 kW system for on-site cogeneration use in the commercial sector. 

Approximately 85 of the 200 kW on-site power plants have been 

produced. Worldwide fleet availability averages 95%. More than 

one-million hours of operating time have been accumulated. The 200 

kW power plant is a first-of-a-kind cogeneration system. The cost of 

these units is expected to decrease from the initial market entry levels 

with increased production and with continued technology 

improvement by industry. 

The Department of Defense implemented a program funded in FY 

1993 and 1994 for fuel cell demonstration and use. Under this 

program the Army, Navy and Air Force are purchasing and installing 

commercially manufactured, 200 kilowatt fuel cell units. The DOE is 

cooperating in these activities to provide information and to obtain 

maximum benefits fiom these demonstrations. A subsequent program 

funded in FY 1995 in the Department of Defense provides partial 

rebates (up to 1000 $/kW or 1/3 of purchase cost) to buyers of market 

entry fuel cell units. The Department of Energy is also cooperating in 

the implementation of this later DOD program. 

21 
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL STATUS 

The MCFC developers have integrated commercial size stacks with 

the balance of plant and are installing field test units. Developers have 

pilot plant manufacturing facilities with capacities of 3- to 17- 

megawatts (MW) per year. Stack testing also continues with 

emphasis on testing that directly supports the pilot manufacturing and 

commercial-scale demonstration efforts. Private sector (Le., utilities 

and manufacturing industries) and regional (state and local) interest 

and hnding support remain strong and industry is proceeding to 

implement commercialization plans. Domestic MCFC developers are 

Energy Research Corporation (ERC), M-C Power Corporation, and 

International Fuel Cells (IFC). 

ERC has constructed a pilot manufacturing facility in Torrington, 

Connecticut which is manufacturing full size 125 kW internally 

reformed test stacks with cell areas of 0.56 square meters each (6 

square feet). Manufacturing capacity of this plant is 17 MWIyear. 

Three full size stacks were tested in 1993 and 1994. Full size stacks 

have been assembled for a 2 MW field test described below. 

An ERC subsidiary, Fuel Cell Engineering Corp. (FCE), signed an 

agreement with DOE in 1992 for a 2-megawatt field test 

demonstration. The 2 MW unit includes 16 of the 125 kW stacks. 

The cost-shared power plant is installed at a municipal utility site in 

Santa Clara, California. Operation began in April 1996. ERC plans 

a second 2-megawatt class field test in 1998, and the stacks required 

will be reduced from 16 to 8. Cell size will be increased to 0.8 square 

meters (8.6 square feet). 

The second developer, M-C Power, is developing an internally 

manifolded MCFC design and has assembled their first full scale stack 

containing approximately 250 cells with an electrical output rating of 

approximately 250 kW plus cogeneration heat. This stack was 

installed at a test site in Brea, California, and testing was completed 

during FY 1995. 

M-C Power produces full size stack components in their pilot 

manufacturing facility in Burr Ridge, Illinois. Manufacturing capacity 

is estimated at 3 to 4 MWIyear. 

M-C Power signed an agreement with DOE in 1992 for a 250- 

kilowatt field test demonstration of a cogeneration unit. The cost22 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

shared power plant is being installed at a site at the Miramar Naval Air 

Station in San Diego, California. Completion of installation and start 

of operation is scheduled for FY 1996. 

In addition to the two continuing efforts described above, another 

developer, International Fuel Cells Corporation has concluded DOE 

funded research contracts to improve MCFC stack performance. 

Further development is planned under private sector sponsorship. 

This private sector effort is being assisted through a Cooperative 

Research and Development Agreement between DOE and IFC which 

makes certain development equipment available to LFC and keeps 

DOE informed on program progress. 

Although significant progress has been made in the development of 

MCFC, further cell and stack technology advances aimed at product 

improvement will be required to achieve the targets for cost, 

performance and durability necessary for prototype MCFC power 

plants. Cooperative agreements for product design and development 

were awarded to ERC and M-C Power in FY 1995 to reach these 

targets. The efforts are scheduled over a 5 year period. 

Designs have been prepared by the developers for 250 to 3000 kW 

plants. Design studies predict 50-60 percent efficiency (HHV basis) 

with small scale units on natural gas and for plants integrated with 

coal gasifiers. Manufacturing cost estimates indicate that stack selling 

prices of less than $300/kW may be feasible at modest production 

rates (200 MW per year). These results increase confidence that 

overall development targets (shown in Exhibit 2) are achievable. 

In cooperation with an initiative by the American Public Power 

Association, ERC has developed a commercialization plan that aims 

to have, by 1998, orders for over 100 MW of early production units. 

A group of electric and gas utilities, known as the Fuel Cell 

Commercialization Group, (presently approximately 26 members) has 

endorsed this plan and is helping to secure the orders for 50 (or more) 

of their early commercial power plants. 

M-C Power has also developed plans for commercial market entry 

around 1998. M-C Power has formed a commercialization team 

including Bechtel Corporation and Stewart and Stevenson which plans 

to package and market M-C Power fuel cells. A number of gas and 

23 
electric utilities and other companies have formed a group known as 

the Alliance to Commercialize Carbonate Technology (with 

approximately 20 members) to facilitate commercialization of the M-C 

Power technology. 

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL STATUS 

Several SOFC geometric configurations are now under development 

or are being evaluated in the United States. These have been 

characterized as tubular and various planar approaches. The tubular 

configuration is much farther along the development cycle than the 

other SOFC approaches. The planar approaches may offer advantages 

in power density, efficiency and fabrication costs, but are at a very 

early development stage and projections have not yet been proven. 

Westinghouse Electric Corporation has been the major developer of 

the tubular configuration. The Westinghouse design, packages tubular 

cells in bundles containing eighteen cells. Groups of bundles are then 

mounted in a thermally integrated system which make up a module. 

Westinghouse has built and tested systems ranging in size from 500 W 

to 25 kW (40 kW peak). Six 20 to 25 kW generators have been built 

and are being tested by gas and electric utilities. Westinghouse has a 

pre-pilot manufacturing facility in operation which is capable of 

producing approximately 6 MW of cells per year on two shifts. 

Testing at Westinghouse has progressed to the point where groups of 

cells have been operated for over 62,000 hours (over seven years). 

Self-supported cells are now used in generators, which improve 

performance and reduce cost by eliminating the porous support tube. 

Cell lengths of up to 200 centimeters have been produced and tested. 

Conceptual design of a 300 MW integrated gasifierhe1 cell power 

plant has been completed. Several 100 kW tests are planned. A 

100 kW module is designed to be the fbndamental repeatable element 

in larger power plants. The first 100 kW generator is scheduled for 

completion of fabrication in FY 1996 and start of testing at a utility 

site in FY 1997. 

Planar cells have not yet been operated above the small module, 

laboratory test scale. Expanded development efforts focused on 

material selection and stack fabrication would be required to realize 

the potential of these alternative SOFC concepts. Under prior DOE 

sponsorship, Allied Signal teamed with Argonne National Laboratory 

and fabricated stacks of several cells by techniques which roll thin 

24 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

uniform layers of the materials used to form the ceramic structure. 

Planar cell stacks of up to several kW output have been reported from 

private sector programs. 

25 
26 
V 

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND 

IMPLEMENTATION 

The Fuel Cell Program Office is in the Office of Special Technologies 

within the Office of Fossil Energy. Program contracts with industry 

are implemented through the Department's Morgantown Energy 

Technology Center. 

The program of the Department of Energy and the private sector 

seeks to develop and deploy fuel cell power plant technology for use 

in electric utility-scale, distributed, and on-site power generation 

applications with 55 to 60 percent efficiencies and producing 

economic and environmental benefits. The following issues are being 

addressed. 

Issues 

Although advanced fuel cell systems achieve high efficiencies 

of 55 to 60 percent in development testing with gaseous fuels, 

they must be scaled up to commercial size complete power 

plants and operated in user environments. Commercialization 

of these power plants will require building market place 

confidence through verifying performance, durability, 

reliability, applicability, and cost-effectiveness of the market 

entry products. 

27 
e Commercialization of fuel cell power plants will require raising 

capital in the private sector for expansion of manufacturing 

facilities. Raising this investment capital in a timely manner 

may be a challenge. 

e Integration of pilot demonstration plants of up to 1 1 MW on 

natural gas has been accomplished with a PAFC power plant. 

However, no large scale integrated system tests (above 125 

kW) have been performed with more advanced molten 

carbonate or solid oxide fuel cell technologies. 

0 

e 

For many on-site and distributed power applications, the costs 

of these new power plants may not be competitive during the 

market entry phase which involves low production volumes. 

Means are sought which aid in achieving lower costs of the 

early units as well as means to stimulate market pull to 

accelerate the market penetration rate and realize the cost 

reductions associated with higher production volumes. 

Notwithstanding the environmental and efficiency benefits of 

fuel cells and their potential for becoming economically 

competitive, the historical position for many state public utility 

commissions (PUCs) has been to pursue only the least cost of 

electricity to the consumer, thereby making the introduction 

of these new technologies into the utility market difficult. 

Further, utilities have generally been discouraged from taking 

risks with these newer, advanced technologies by PUC rulings 

which 1) do not allow passing on costs of power systems 

demonstrations into the rate base; and 2) do not provide any 

return for investments in successful demonstrations by ruling 

that any savings garnered must be passed to the consumer. 

Projzram Outputs 

In support of the Energy Policy Act, the DOE program, with the 

private sector participation, (1) supports technology base development 

of fuel cell systems to provide highly efficient, environmentally 

superior technology for the generation of electrical and thermal energy 

for utility, distributed, and on-site applications; and (2) seeks to 

strengthen the national economy by providing technologies that 

28 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

improve U. S. international competitiveness in this new manufacturing 

industry, and by generating export sales for technology and products. 

Specific projected outputs are: 

0 Near-term (to year 2000) - demonstration and commercial 

introduction of high efficiency, gas-fueled, multi-kilowatt, onsite power plants and low MW electric utility power plants at 

competitive costs; 

0 Mid-term (to year 2010) - significant penetration of all 

markets for high efficiency gas-based systems, and commercial 

introduction of fuel flexible, multi-MW power plants at 

competitive costs; and 

Long-term (to year 2030) - commercial availability of 

advanced, ultra-high efficiency, integrated fuel cell systems. 

The DOE program is providing support toward the development, 

integration, scaleup, and commercial scale demonstration of molten 

carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell power plants with increasing levels 

of private sector cost sharing. In addition, the program facilitates 

technology transfer to the private sector by stimulating interactions 

between manufacturers and potential users. Activities also continue 

involving basic and applied research on materials, processes, and 

components applicable to fuel cell systems in order to achieve steady 

progress in improving these technologies. 

DOE also conducts analyses of domestic and global markets to 

identifl hurdles to commercializing fuel cells and generate strategies 

to overcome those hurdles. Specific focus areas of the domestic 

analyses include prediction of market responses to the introduction of 

&el cells, inclusion of environmental attributes and other externalities 

in integrated resource planning, and the effect of electric utility 

restructuring on fuel cell commercialization. Analyses of global 

markets lead to better understanding of markets and market timing 

for specific fbel cell systems. Results are presented in workshops and 

forums with the participation of industry as well as regional, state, and 

federal government representatives. These interactions foster more 

informed deliberations regarding environmental and other regulatory 

29 
decisions as well as private sector decisions regarding 

commercialization activities. 

FY 1995 Accomplishments 

0 Completed field test of first 250 kW molten carbonate fuel cell 

stack 

0 Completed fabrication tests of 125 kW molten carbonate 

stacks for installation and operation in a 2 MW molten 

carbonate power plant field test in FY 1996 

0 Demonstrated continuing operation of 25 kW solid oxide fuel 

cell generators and demonstrated solid oxide laboratory cell 

life over 62,000 hours (1 50% of life goal) 

0 Initiated market analyses and participated in forums, public 

hearings, workshops and other meetings to accelerate 

commercialization of fuel cells and encourage policy and 

regulatory decisions with sound scientific basis and desirable 

economic results 

Planned Activities 

0 Field test demonstration of a 2 MW molten carbonate fuel cell 

power plant heled by natural gas on a municipal utility grid 

(installation in FY 1995, begin operation in FY 1996) 

o Field test demonstration of a 250 kW molten carbonate cogeneration integrated power plant (complete installation and 

begin operation in FY 1996) 

0 Implementation of rebate program (hnded through Defense 

Department) for stimulating application of fuel cells 

0 Field test demonstration of a 100 kW solid oxide fuel cell 

power plant fbeled by natural gas (install in FY 1996 and 

begin operation in FY 1997) 

30 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

0 Initial commercial production of natural gas-heled molten 

carbonate fuel cell power plants (FY 1999) 

0 

0 

Phase I study on commercialization opportunities and hurdles 

for advanced he1 cells (end of FY 1996) 

Regional forums on development and commercialization 

opportunities involving he1 cell power plants (several during 

FY 1996) 

Major planned program activities are shown in Exhibit 5. These 

activities are, of course, subject to the availability of resources and the 

degree of technical progress realized. 

33 
.- 

rw 

- 

I 

0 

-e 

u) 

w 

z 

n 

s 

I- 

; s! 

JQ) 

32 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

Program Fundinx 

Program funding is shown in the following table ($ in millions). 

Most of the fknded activities involve cost-shared contracts with 

private industry interested in commercializing these power plants. 

Cost sharing sources include the fuel cell developers, gas utility 

companies, the Gas Research Institute, electric utility companies, and 

the Electric Power Research Institute. Some supporting research is 

also performed by the DOE National Laboratories. 

Cost-Sharing 

Cost-sharing in major activities ranged from approximately 30 percent 

to over 50 percent in FY 1995. 

The DOE Fossil Energy program is coordinated with GRI, EPRI and 

the Department of Defense &el cell programs through a joint fuel cell 

steering committee, a memorandum of understanding and periodic 

meetings and fiequent informal communication. The GRI and EPRI 

programs emphasize application to gas and electric utility industries 

and provide synergistic support of the DOE program. Considerable 

synergism also exists with the Department of Defense fuel cell 

program which focuses on operation on liquid fuels compatible with 

the Defense mission. 

33 
34 
VI 

COORDINATED FUEL CELL PROGRAM 

INTERACTIONS 

The natural gas fuel cell power generation program interacts with 

other programs within the Department of Energy's Ofice of Fossil 

Energy, Office of Energy Eficiency, Ofice of Energy Research, and 

Ofice of Policy. Coordination and significant cost sharing on 

development efforts is conducted on projects involving the 

Department of Defense, the Gas Research Institute, the Electric 

Power Research Institute, and gas and electric utilities as well as the 

companies developing the fuel cell technologies and other private, 

state and local interests. The following paragraphs provide brief 

summaries of some of these activities. 

0 The Office of Fossil Energy manages R&D programs to 

develop, scaleup, and demonstrate fuel cell technologies 

applicable to stationary, on-site, and distributed power plants 

and cogeneration in industrial, commercial, and residential 

applications. The primary focus of the work is to develop 

advanced high efficiency, low pollution fuel cell power 

generation technologies for increased effective use of natural 

gas and to overcome technical, market, and regulatory 

obstacles to private sector adoption and deployment. 

Different fuel cell types are being considered for a range of 

power generation applications. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 

(PAFCs) are being commercialized by industry primarily for 

on-site (including cogeneration) power applications. 

35 
Advanced natural gas-based fuel cells (molten carbonate and 

solid oxide) are being developed for on-site, industrial and 

distributed power applications by the year 2000. For the 

longer term, development of larger systems to serve central 

power plant applications is planned for completion by 20 10. 

0 Fuel Cells in Transportation (OBce of Energy Efficiency and 

Renewable Energy): These programs are focused on systems 

with considerably different performance and cost targets but 

provide information applicable to some aspects of fuel cells 

operating on natural gas for stationary uses. This effort has 

been focused on development of proton exchange membrane 

fuel cell technology for automotive use and adapting 

phosphoric acid fuel cell technology to bus applications. 

0 Gas Stream Cleanup Program (OfEce of Fossil EnergyKoal): 

This program is primarily targeted at cleaning hct gas streams 

in coal-fired gasification and combustion systems. Some 

results of the program may have application to natural gas 

systems as well as to operation with gasified coal. 

The Department of Defense initiated a program in FY 1993 

(continued in FY 1994) for the purchase and use of market 

entry fuel cell power plants at sites located on defense bases. 

This effort was followed in FY 1995 with a Department of 

Defense funded, Department of Energy implemented initiative 

to provide rebates to purchasers for up to one-third of the 

purchase costs of market entry units with use in defense 

applications to have preference. Interest by potential 

purchasers from the private sector has been strong. The first 

and second phases of rebates are scheduled to be completed 

by the end of FY 1996 and end of FY 1997 respectively. The 

Department of Defense is also hnding modification of fuel cell 

power plant technology for defense applications emphasizing 

durability and operation on logistic diesel and jet fuels. This 

development activity is being conducted by the Defense 

Advanced Research Project Agency of the Department of 

Defense. The Department of Energy maintains close 

coordination with these activities and is providing support in 

implementing the rebate grant initiative as well as sharing 

some fuel cell test hardware involved in the technology 

modification activities. Total funding of $18.7 million was 

36 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

appropriated in FY 1996 for these Defense Department 

programs. 

0 

0 

The Gas Research Institute fuel cell program is directed 

toward on-site cogeneration and electric utility distributed 

power generation equipment heled with natural gas. With the 

introduction of a 200 kW phosphoric acid fuel cell power 

plant in 1992, GRI’s program emphasis has shifted from the 

development of phosphoric acid fuel cells to supporting the 

development of more advanced molten carbonate and solid 

oxide fuel cell technologies while maintaining some 

monitoring activity in the performance of phosphoric acid fuel 

cell units. GRI’s interest in fuel cell technology spans the 

marketplace from small commercial (30 kW to 100 kW) to 

industrial (500 kW to 40 MW) to electric utility applications 

(1 MW to 20 MW). The GRI budget for he1 cells in FY 1995 

was approximately $3.6 million and FY 1996 funding of $2.7 

million is planned. The objectives of the GRI program over 

the next 5 years are to: demonstrate the operation of a 

250 kW packaged molten carbonate fuel cell system; identifl 

and assess alternate materials and processing techniques for 

solid oxide fuel cell components with emphasis on reducing 

solid oxide fuel cell operating temperatures; and assist with 

phosphoric acid fuel cell system deployment efforts. 

The Electric Power Research Institute fuel cell program is 

focused to develop and commercialize electric power plants 

with the highest possible efficiency and least environmental 

intrusion. With regard to natural gas fed fuel cells, small 

modular distributed generators in the 1 MW to 10 MW size 

range are being developed with the expectation that as capital 

costs are reduced, these fuel cell systems can be adapted to 

central power generation applications. Towards these goals, 

the near-term EPRI projects are aimed at assisting utilities 

which are considering the deployment of fuel cells by 

documenting fuel cell demonstrations in collaboration with 

utility companies, and where necessary, by developing lowercost components and resolving systems integration problems 

in collaboration with DOE or GRI sponsored R&D. The 

EPRI budget for fuel cells in FY 1995 was approximately $7.7 

million and $4.9M in FY 1996 is planned involving co-funding 

37 
by EPRI and member utilities. The major objectives of the 

next five year period are to: complete technical and economic 

evaluation of the 1 MW and 1 1 MW phosphoric acid fuel cell 

power plants being demonstrated overseas; initiate utility 

demonstrations of 250 kW and 2 MW molten carbonate fuel 

cell power plants in distributed power generation applications, 

stimulate fuel cell commercialization programs with member 

utilities; define approaches and risks to the development of yet 

more efficient fuel cell power plants; and develop molten 

carbonate and solid oxide fuel cell technology applicable for 

central station utility power plants in the late 1990s. 

38 
VI1 

FUEL CELL ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE 

THE UNITED STATES 

Fuel Cell development activities are being actively pursued in a 

large number of countries. Some of the major programs are being 

conducted in Canada, European countries and Japan. A sense of 

some of these activities is given below. 

Canada 

The Canadian government is providing significant R&D support 

focused on polymer fuel cell technology and system development at 

Ballard Power Systems. This technology is generally considered the 

leading polymer fuel cell technology in the world today. Intended 

applications include transportation, submarine and other defense 

uses, portable and stationary domestic applications. 

European Counhies 

A number of very significant efforts are being focused on 

development of molten carbonate, solid oxide, and polymer 

electrolyte fuel cells within the European Commission and within 

individual countries in Europe. Several countries are also 

participating in demonstrations and marketing activities involving 

phosphoric acid fuel cell systems. Research funded by the 

European Commission is conducted through contracts with industry 

within its member countries. Funding by the European Commission 

39 
does not normally exceed 50 percent of the cost of an individual 

project. Some particular areas of activity are noted below. 

0 

0 

0 

Japan 

Molten carbonate fuel cell development has been 

emphasized in the program of the Netherlands. A number 

of efforts on developing balance of plant for molten 

carbonate systems are proceeding in other countries with 

plans to utilize cell technology being developed elsewhere. 

Developers in Germany, Italy, and Denmark are among 

those active in these systems engineering activities. 

Solid oxide fuel cell technology development is being 

pursued vigorously in many of the European countries. 

Some of the more active developers are located in Germany, 

Denmark, Switzerland, Norway and the United Kingdom. 

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells are being developed for 

transportation as well as other applications in European 

countries. Some of the major programs reported at the cell 

and system levels are by developers in the United Kingdom, 

Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Laboratory evaluation 

programs are also being conducted in a number of other 

countries. Research on direct methanol fueled systems is 

also being conducted. 

In Japan, there are large and well organized fuel cell development 

programs with funding by the government and private sector. A 

large number of firms are actively pursuing the development of each 

major type of fuel cell. Government funding has been provided 

under the New Sunshine Program through the Ministry of 

International Trade and Industry’s (MITI’s) Agency of Industrial 

Science and Technology (AIST), with the majority of this funding 

going to industry through MITI’s New Energy and Industrial 

Technology Development Organization (NEDO) with the remaining 

funds going directly to government research institutes. The 

Japanese government is also actively supporting fuel cell 

commercialization, in large part to lower manufacturing costs for 

fuel cells and lay a foundation for future fuel cell use according to 

articles in the Japanese press. The Ministry of International Trade 

and Industry (MITI) projects that Japan will have an installed fuel 

40 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

cell capacity of 200 MW by the year 2000 and 2200 MW by the 

year 20 10. 

Russia 

The Russian effort slowed with the end of the Soviet Union. 

However, interest in fuel cell development is being renewed with a 

view to building fuel cell systems that could utilize Russia’s large 

natural gas resources. 

South Korea 

Following prior efforts aimed at developing fuel reformers and 

coupling them with imported fuel cell stacks, South Korea is 

proceeding to establish a national program with a goal of developing 

a 40 kW phosphoric acid fuel cell unit. 

MAJOR 1995 EVENTS REPORTED 

AND PLANNED 1996 EVENTS 

Phosphoric Acid Systems: 

Operational experience with phosphoric acid fuel cells is continuing 

throughout Asia and Europe with the early market entry 50 and 200 

kilowatt units from manufacturers in Japan and the United States. 

Installed operating capacity in Europe is reported to be 

approximately 4 MW. Countries in Europe with the most installed 

capacity are Italy and Germany, however eleven countries are 

reported to have demonstration units. Most of these units are 50 

and 200 kW cogeneration units, but a 1.3 MW power plant 

containing cell stacks from IFC is installed in Italy. Some of the 

test units involve reformers and other system components which 

have been supplied by companies in Europe. 

Commercialization activities have also increased in Japan. The gas 

industry has over 60 units (including 25 units with partial funding 

by MITI) in operation. These are atmospheric pressure units 

ranging in size from 50 kW to 1 MW. The installed capacity of 

these units in 1995 was 9.7 MW. Electric power companies had an 

41 
installed capacity of 18.75 MW in 1995 with over 20 units 

operating in the size range of 50 kW to 11 MW. 

An earlier field test project in Japan continues to acquire operation 

and maintenance records on a group of phosphoric acid fuel cell 

systems installed between 1992 and 1994. Twenty seven units are 

being monitored in the project with sizes ranging from 50 to 500 

kW and a total capacity of 4.05 MW. 

Two new phosphoric acid fuel cell demonstrations (a 1 MW and 5 

MW unit) started operation in Japan in 1995. These are described 

further below. 

A 1 MW phosphoric acid unpressurized plant began operating in 

May of 1995 at Tokyo Gas Company Fundamental Technology 

Research Institute. This unit was built by Toshiba Corporation and 

is intended for on-site cogeneration installations within buildings. 

Design targets include an electrical generating efficiency above 36 % 

(HHV) and co-generation efficiency above 72 % . The unit provides 

steam at 170 C for adsorption chiller air conditioning. 

A 5 MW phosphoric acid pressurized plant began operating in April 

of 1995 at Arnagasaki Technoland of Kansai Electric Power 

Company. The unit was built by Fuji Electric Co. and is intended 

for application to urban energy centers. Design targets include: 

electrical generating efficiency above 42% (HHV); steam at 170 C 

and hot water at 80 C; high temperature off gas at approximately 6 

atmospheres pressure for a gas turbine. 

Molten Carbonate Systems: 

In Europe, the most ambitious carbonate fuel cell programs are in 

The Netherlands, Germany and Italy. These programs have been 

developing cell and system technology and are now scaling up for 

50 kW to 250 kW system demonstrations. A major focus of these 

programs has been to develop cell technologies capable of adequate 

operating lifetime of 40,000 hours. Field trials of complete systems 

have been scheduled as early as 1998. 

Of the 2000 MW of fuel cells projected by MITI to be installed in 

Japan by 2010, about 50% are projected to be MCFC. After 2010, 

MCFC is projected to be the main utility fuel cell power generation 

system in Japan. 

42 
Fuel Cell Systems Program 

Fabrication of a 1 MW molten carbonate pilot plant has begun in 

Japan with operation tests scheduled for completion by fiscal 1997 

at the Chuba Electric Power Company’s Kawajoe Thermal Power 

Station, Saitama Prefecture. The pilot plant contains 4 fuel cell 

units utilizing external reformation and rated at 250 kW each. Two 

units are cross flow design and 2 utilize parallel flow design in the 

stacks. IHI and Hitachi are each supplying two of the stacks. Plant 

design is a joint endeavor of the MCFC Research Association, IHI 

and Hitachi. Design of the reformer subsystem is being done by 

Hitachi. Target electrical generating efficiency is 45 % . This pilot 

plant follows earlier tests of 100 kW class stacks built by Hitachi 

Ltd., and Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. (IHI), 

as well as tests of a 30 kW internal reforming stack (for 13,434 

hours, producing 315,035 kWh) built by Mitsubishi Electric 

Corporation. Test of a Mitsubishi 200 kW unit with internal 

reforming and cell area of 1 square meter is scheduled for 1997. 

Solid Oxide Systems: 

Continued development of solid oxide technology for applicability 

to large and small scale power plants has been continuing and 

accelerating in Europe and Japan. 

In Europe, there are ambitious solid oxide development programs 

reported in Germany, Switzerland and Norway. A number of other 

countries also have significant solid oxide research programs and 

are participating in supplying balance of plant components for solid 

oxide systems. 

In Japan, the NED0 program completed the current phase of 

development of two types of solid oxide cell stacks with testing at 

the 500 Watt to 1 kW levels in 1995. Beginning in 1996, several 

10 kW planar types are to be developed for demonstration in fiscal 

1997. Prior basic research activities tested four planar cell types 

and one tubular cell configuration. 

Polymer Electrolyte Systems: 

Developed of polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems is being pursued 

aggressively in Canada, Japan and a number or European countries 

for transportation and other applications. These programs have 

43 
been aimed at enabling low emission vehicles with range capabilities 

exceeding those available with battery powered vehicles. Some full 

scale stacks of approximately 50 kW (for automobiles) have been 

operated. Major challenges remain at the system level in satisfying 

the fuel reforming and transient operation requirements. The cost 

targets for an automotive application remain a formidable hurdle. 

Canada has focused their fuel cell program almost exclusively on 

polymer electrolyte system development with Ballard Power 

Systems. Ballard is reported to have a number of collaboration 

agreements in place with companies in other countries. 

Major European development programs are continuing in the United 

Kingdom, Germany, and Italy and development programs are 

reportedly being started in other countries. Research on polymer 

electrolyte technologies is also being conducted at some level in a 

number of other countries. Progress is also reported in developing 

direct methanol fueled cells which would eliminate the need for a 

fuel reformer in the system. These systems are in early stages of 

development but are considered of particular interest for small size 

units and for some vehicle applications. 

Three types of polymer cell stacks in the 500 Watt to 1000 Watt 

class have been developed in Japan under a four year program with 

NED0 (1992 through 1995). The next phase of the program would 

be development of a 10 kW class stack. It is reported that polymer 

cell and system technology is also being developed in entirely 

private sector programs involving the automotive companies with 

the results proprietary to those companies. 

Areas of emphasis for further development cited in literature include 

understanding life limiting mechanisms and extending life; cost 

reduction; reducing land area required for power plants; reformers 

and system integration. 

References : 

.IapadM, November, 1995 (several articles) 

European Fuel Cells R&D Review, ANL-94/96, Argonne National Laboratories, 

September 1994 

44