L INST. OF STAND & TECH R IX

111D5 M05SDb

NIST

PUBLICATIONS

(MIST United States Department of Commerce

Technology Administration

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NIST Technical Note 1501

Metering of Fluids at High Velocities

with Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

J.D. Siegwarth

QC

100

U5753

NO. 1501

1998

NIST Technical Note 1501

Metering of Fluids at High Velocities

with Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

J.D. Siegwarth

Physical and Chemical Properties Division

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

325 Broadway

Boulder, Colorado 80303-3328

February 1998

*^TES °*

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, William M. Daley, Secretary

TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION, Gary R. Bachula, Acting Under Secretary for Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY, Raymond G. Kammer, Director
National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., Tech. Note 1501, 40 pages (February 1998)

CODEN:NTNOEF

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1998

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325
CONTENTS

page

1. Introduction 1

2. Vortex Shedding Flowmeter Description 2

3. Test Facilities 2

4. Signal Processing 3

5. Flowmeter Design 4

6. Test Results 5 6.1 The 58.5 mm Bore Flowmeter 5 6.2 The Final 58.5 mm Flowmeter Design 6

6.3 The 5 1 mm Bore Flowmeter 9

6.4 Duct Geometry 1

1

6.

5

Tests of 94-3 - 1 in LN2 Flow 12

6.6 The 28 mm Bore Flowmeter 13

6.7 Gas Flowmeters in the 5 1 mm Bore Duct 1

5

7. Discussion 16

7.

1

Liquid Flowmeters: Water Flow Tests 16

7.2 Liquid Nitrogen Tests 17

7.3 Gas Flowmeters 18

8. References 18

in

Metering of Fluids at High Velocities with

Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

J.D. Siegwarth

Physical and Chemical Properties Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Boulder, CO 80303

Vortex shedding flowmeters have been designed and tested for measuring liquid

and gas flows to the maximum velocities found in the ducts of the Space Shuttle

Main Engines. The flow velocities found in these ducts are several times greater

than found in conventional metering applications. The shedder bar was narrowed

relative to conventional vortex shedding flowmeter designs to reduce the head loss

introduced at the extreme flow velocities. The presence of bends in the duct near

the flowmeter, while expected to degrade the meter performance, rather improved

it in terms of signal quality relative to the performance in a straight duct. The

performance also improved with a decrease in viscosity of the measured fluid. The

signal quality obtained approached that of the modified commercial vortex

shedding meters used to provide flow calibration.

Keywords: flowmeters; high velocity; hydrogen; LOX; vortex shedding

1. Introduction

The objective of this work was to develop vortex shedding (VS) flowmeters that can measure fluid flows in the ducts of the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME) to high velocities but

without large pressure losses. Commercially available VS flowmeters measure liquid flows to about 6 m/s and gas flows to 76 m/s. At these maximum velocities, the pressure loss introduced

by the flowmeter is less than 50 kPa (0.5 bar). Because pressure loss increases as the square of

the flow velocity, the pressure loss across a conventional VS flowmeter could become

unacceptably high at high flow velocities. The intended application of these flowmeters is the

measurement of flow under the conditions found in selected ducts of the space shuttle main

engines (SSME) where higher than normal velocities are encountered.

Flow measurement in the ducts of the SSME is needed both for monitoring the health of

the engines and for controlling them. Venturi and turbine meters have been used in the past for

this application. The linearity of VS flowmeters offers an advantage over venturi meters. Vortex

shedding flowmeters have the advantage over turbine meters in that they are unharmed by high

velocity gas flows encountered during cool down that can destroy a turbine meter.

Flow measurement in the SSME ducts has the added complication that the ducts lack

straight sections of sufficient length in which to place flowmeters. Installation guidelines for VS

1
flowmeters, like many other types of flowmeters, recommend a 20 diameter long straight section

upstream in the absence of a flow straightener and a 5 diameter long straight section downstream.

Straight sections in the ducts of the SSME are less than 8 diameters long.

2. Vortex Shedding Flowmeter Description

The operating principles of VS flowmeters have been discussed in numerous papers but

usually not in depth. Miller provides a brief review [1]. Cousins et al. have delved into shedder

design in some detail and discuss design parameters and the impact on meter performance [2].

The VS flowmeter consists of a bar of uniform cross section spanning a duct on a

diameter. In uniform flow, vortices shed alternately from the sides. For a bar with a suitable cross sectional shape, the spacing of these vortices remains approximately constant in the moving

frame of the liquid. Then the number of vortices shed per unit time is proportional to the flow.

The vortex shedding can be turned into a time varying electrical signal by either sensing the

pressure against, or the lift forces on, the shedder bar that are generated by the shedding process.

Cousins et al. [2] have found that vortex shedding from a body of uniform cross section is most

stable when D/w, the body length (meter diameter) over the body width, is in the range of 3 to 7,

depending on the cross sectional shape of the shedder. A shedder width around 0.3 times the duct

internal diameter, again depending somewhat on the shape, minimizes the sensitivity of the

flowmeter calibration to the shedder width [2].

In this work, liquid flowmeters were developed for three sizes of duct inside diameter,

58.5, 51, and 28 mm (2.3, 2, and 1.1 in). These diameters correspond to the RS007035,

RS007031 and the RS007032 ducts, respectively, of the SSME (NASA duct numbers). Gas

flowmeter tests were carried out only in the 5 1 mm inside diameter duct corresponding to the

7034 duct of the SSME. Three of these four SSME ducts were obtained and retrofitted with

ports to install flowmeters as illustrated in Figure 1

.

The maximum liquid flow velocities exceed those of commercial applications by as much

as a factor of 5 (7035 duct) and the gas flows by more than a factor of 3. The pressure drop in

the 7035 duct that would be introduced by a conventional meter could be as high as 0.86 MPa

(125 psi). In addition, the duct pressures are much higher, up to 53 MPa (7700 psi), and the

temperatures lower than the applications for which most commercial vortex shedding meters are designed. The problems introduced by the low temperature and high pressures are minor

compared to those presented by the bent ducts and the high velocities. The presence of liquid

oxygen (LOX) limits the materials that can be placed in contact with the duct contents for safety reasons. A means of testing flowmeter designs at high flows and in duct configurations like those

of the SSME was needed to determine whether a vortex shedding flowmeter could be designed

that would satisfactorily measure the duct flows.

3. Test Facilities

The cryogenic liquid flow facility at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center can produce

LOX and liquid nitrogen (LN2) flows at high velocities. This facility was eventually used for

some cryogenic tests. However, water is close to LOX in most properties except viscosity, and

tests can be done at lower cost. Unfortunately, most water flow test facilities are not built to 2
provide flow at the high pressures needed to achieve the high flows required.

With permission from the City of Boulder Water Utilities, a water flow test facility was

connected to the penstock of a hydroelectric plant that is part of the city water system. This test

facility takes water from the penstock through a 4 in line at pressures of 3.2 to 3.9 MPa (470 to 570 psi) depending on the flow to the hydro plant. After the water passed through a 4 in or 2 in reference VS flowmeter, the line diameter was reduced to that of the test meter. These reference

flowmeters determined the flow through the test flowmeters. The water then returned to the city

water treatment plant. The pressure in the penstock was sufficient to achieve the desired flows.

The 4 in reference meter could measure flows to 9.3 m/s according to the manufacturer.

This flow was sufficient to achieve the desired maximum flow velocity of 28 m/s in a 58.5 mm

diameter duct. This 4 in vortex shedding flowmeter was assumed linear for these tests even though it was not perfectly linear even over the calibrated portion of its flow range. It had been

calibrated only up to about 4.5 m/s (15 ft/s). It appeared to be linear up to 10 m/s flow velocity in water tests relative to a 4 in turbine flowmeter calibrated by NASA though some hysteresis was

noted in the data. The 2 in reference meter was calibrated against the 4 in reference meter.

Differential pressure transducers that measured the transverse pressure difference across the

shedder bar replaced the original thermal type sensors of both reference flowmeters. The

unfiltered signal spectrum from the 2 in reference flowmeter is shown in Figure 2 for a low and

high flow. The spectra shown are the average of 10 measurements by the spectrum analyzer. The

signal-to-noise power ratio from these sensors was 30 to 40 dB. The width and signal-to-noise

ratio of these spectrum lines served as a performance to strive for in developing the high velocity

flowmeters.

4. Signal Processing

The signal frequencies of both the reference meter and the test meter were measured first using counters. During the later testing, a fast Fourier transform (FFT) analyzer was used to measure both the test meter and the reference meter frequencies.

The meter performance was analyzed qualitatively by examining the signal frequency

spectrum and the fade in the real time signal with a FFT spectrum analyzer using the flat top filter to compensate for the finite time of the measurement. A spectrum line with a width of 3 percent or less of the line frequency and a signal-to-noise power ratio greater than 30 dB was sought

along with the absence of any mechanical resonance spectrum lines of comparable magnitude in or near the vortex shedding frequency range. Harmonics of the vortex generated signal, though

often present, are not a problem for signal processing.

The vortex shedding signal amplitudes of the test flowmeters were less regular and steady

relative to commercial VS flowmeters in the flow range up to 6 m/s and their signal stability

usually did not improve with increasing flow above 6 m/s. The output signals were modulated

often with the degree of modulation increasing with increasing flow. The signal spectrum lines

broadened with increasing signal fade until they eventually split into multiple lines. When a flowmeter gives narrow spectrum lines and the signal fades infrequently, the flowmeter was said

to show a "good performance". Signal fade, when it occurs, usually lasts for about a cycle for a good flowmeter.

Measurement uncertainty and linearity of meters designs tested in this work have been

examined but not extensively. The test system was not well suited to define the uncertainty and

3
linearity because of the hydro plant. The flow into the hydro plant could vary during the

measurement interval because of the flow adjustments made to maintain the generator frequency.

At high flows through the hydro plant, flow adjustments, even though small, alter the penstock

pressure because of the large friction loss in it. A change of pressure in the penstock changes the

flow in the flowmeter test system. The degree of this variation could change from day to day.

The test and reference meters were read sequentially with the FFT analyzer. In addition, the

measuring time of the 4 in reference flowmeter was long at low flows because of the low signal

frequency. The spectrum lines from the reference meters did not show any obvious effects from

flow variation over the course of a measurement. However, when the 2 in reference flowmeter

was calibrated against the 4 in reference meter, data scatter observed could have resulted from

variations in the flow to the hydro plant.

The meter factor of a 28 mm bore flowmeter was tested during this calibration as shown in Figure 3 . For the circled data points, both the 2 and 4 in reference flowmeters were read along

with the 28 mm flowmeter. Only the 2 in reference flowmeter and 28 mm flowmeter was read for

the rest of the data points. The meter factor of the 2 in meter was determined from the 2 and 4 in

data from the circled points assuming both flowmeters had linear flow dependencies. The meter

factor of the 28 mm test flowmeter showed appreciably more scatter at low flows when the 4 in reference flowmeter was also read than when only the 2 in reference flowmeter was read. The

Reynolds number for the lowest flow point was below 10

4 for the 4 in flowmeter, the minimum

flow specified by the meter manufacturer. The solid curve was fitted only to the 2 in reference

meter data at low flows plus the data at the five highest flows where both reference meters were

read. The total scatter of the calibration data, excluding the lowest two points, was 0.7 percent.

The greater scatter at low flows of the data when the 4 in reference meter was read, Figure 2,

suggests that the flow varied a detectable amount over the measurement time.

5. Flowmeter Design

To reduce pressure drop introduced by the VS flowmeter at high flows, the area of the

shedder bar facing the flow can be decreased either by narrowing the shedder bar or shortening it so that it does not completely span the duct. The first decreases the shedding stability and the

second the uniformity of the flow along the bar. Either modification combined with the absence

of straight duct sections of sufficient length could result in an unacceptable degradation of

flowmeter performance.

Shedder bars that partially spanned the duct were tried early on to reduce the pressure

drop across the meter [3-6]. This concept proved marginally successful in a V/z in nominal

flowmeter but failed to scale up to the 58.5 mm size. Flowmeters with narrowed shedder bars

performed much better [3-6]. The narrowed shedder bar had the advantage that a satisfactory

shedder bar assembly could be inserted through an opposed pair of standard SSME duct

instrumentation ports for ducts up to at least the 58.5 mm bore. These ports are 1 1.2 mm

diameter. While narrowing the shedder bar reduces the pressure drop, it carries the disadvantage

that the ratio D/w of the shedder bar is near the limit if not out of the region of stable vortex

shedding.

The maximum liquid flow velocity that can be measured is presumably the velocity at which cavitation occurs. Flowmeters for the SSME must measure to the highest required duct

flows without cavitating. Since the flow at which they cavitate depended on flow velocity and

4
pressure, not the Reynolds number, the maximum velocity to which the flowmeter can measure is the quantity of interest. Thus, the meter factors, the signal frequency per meter per second of

Table 1. Reynolds number for 1 m/s flow.

Duct inside diameter Fluid Reynolds No. at 1 m/s

58.5 mm Water 3.9 x 10

4

58.5 mm LN2 2.6 x 10

5

51 mm Water 3.4 x 10

4

51 mm LN2 2.3 x 10

5

51 mm Air 5.7 x 10

4

28 mm Water 1.9 x 10

4

average velocity, are shown as a function of flow velocity. The pipe Reynolds numbers at the

flowmeter can be obtained by multiplying the average flow velocity in meters per second by the

appropriate factor found in Table 1. Some of the Reynolds numbers approached 10 million.

The development of these flowmeters has been in progress since the early 1980's. The

previous results have been reported periodically [5-10] and reviewed twice [3,4]. The previous

work showed that for the 51 and 58.5 mm ID ducts, a narrowed shedder bar that inserts through an opposed pair of SSME duct instrument ports could measure liquid flow to the required flow

velocities without upstream flow conditioning. The best performing of these flowmeters,

however, was still inferior to that obtained from a properly installed commercially available

flowmeter in its normal operating flow range. The best performance was obtained even when the

shedder bar was placed perpendicular to the plane of the preceding duct bend [3,4,7].

6. Test Results

6.1 The 58.5 mm Bore Flowmeter

Much of the development work was done with this meter size because it is subjected to the highest liquid flow velocity. Most of the determination of best shedder shape and the

suspension and vortex sensor design were worked out concurrently on this flowmeter size. Only

a few of the more successful designs tested will be discussed here.

5
A straight 59 mm bore test duct was used for the earliest water flow tests, and flowmeter

85-4-9, Table 2, gave a good performance. The performance of 85-4-7 was similar but the meter

factor of 85-4-9 was more nearly constant over the flow range of interest. In the first water flow

tests involving the 7035 duct, the flowmeter was placed at the outlet of the duct, a few diameters

downstream of the final duct bend. The performances of 85-4-7 and 85-4-9 were again similar

and acceptable, but here the meter factor of 85-4-7 was more nearly constant. For this reason, 85-4-7 eventually became the preferred shedder design for the 7035 duct.

The head loss across a shedder bar was determined by differential pressure measurements

across the meter location with and without this shedder bar in place. The difference between

these two measurements is the head loss due to the shedder bar. For the 85-4-7 and shedders of

similar cross section, a value of 0.18 MPa (26 psi) was measured for the head loss at the

maximum flow of 28 m/s ( 92 ft/s). This is about a factor of 5 lower than the pressure loss would

be across a commercial flowmeter at the same flow velocity.

Three later versions of a flowmeter with shedder dimensions close to those of 85-4-7 were

built and tested with water flow: flowmeters 88-7-2, 87-9-1, and 91-6-2. The suspension of the

shedder bars all differed [3-8] from each other as well as from 85-4-7. The latter two were similar

to 85-4-7 in that the vortex sensor was outside the duct and driven by the axial motion of an Oring sealed shaft passing through the duct wall. This shaft transmitted the transverse motion from

an extension of the shedder bar out to the sensor. The sensor of 88-7-2 was inside in contact with

the fluid in the duct. The spectrum lines of these three were similar though mechanical differences were substantial. All spectra were narrower than those of 85-4-7 since the vortex sensors had

improved. The meter factors of the three agreed within 1 percent. That meter factor of 85-4-7

was about 2 percent higher can be attributed both to its slightly smaller width and to the lack of

sharp corners on the shedder bar. Rounded front corners on the rectangular-shaped cross section

shedder bars have previously been shown to increase the meter factor [4].

A flowmeter design consisting of a shedder bar formed of two sections cantilevered in

from the opposite flowmeter ports and nearly touching end to end in the center of the duct was

developed as a means of avoiding a shedder bar rigidly spanning the duct. A flowmeter of this

design, 86-4-2, was tested with water in the straight duct [4,7] while the 7035 duct was being

installed in the NASA Marshall LN2 flow facility. It performed well and was selected for the LN2 flow tests in the 7035 duct at Marshall. It was one of only two flowmeters tested with both water

and LN2 and performed well in LN2 . When the 7035 duct was returned to Boulder, 86-4-2 was

tested in it with water. Its performance in the 7035 duct was inferior to that in the straight test duct. The vortex signal often contained multiple lines. When the meter factor proved sensitive to the width of the gap between the cantilevered pair, the concept was abandoned in favor of a single

piece shedder bar provided with axial relief.

6.2 The Final 58.5 mm Flowmeter Design

Flowmeter 88-7-2, Figure 4, has a spring mounting on the end opposite the sensor so the shedder

does not form a rigid coupling across the duct. This flowmeter gave one of the best performances

of the 7035 duct flowmeter designs tested. The design can be made LOX compatible by replacing

the O-ring sealing the mounting flange with a cryogenic seal and placing a LOX compatible

coating over the sensor to eliminate contact between LOX and ignitable material. No rubbing

contacts are present. The meter inserts through an opposed pair of standard SSME instrument

6
ports eliminating the need to do a duct redesign.

Table 2. Liquid flowmeters tested.

Flowmeter Shape and dimensions, mm In ducts:

85-4-9 Rectangular, 7.5 wide by 5. 1 deep Straight, 7035 exit 58.5 mm dia.

86-4-2 Rectangular, 7.6 by 6.5 Straight, 7035

85-4-7, 87-9-1

88-7-2, 91-6-2

Rectangular, 7.6 by 4.

1

7035

86-2-1 Rectangular, 6.4 by 4.9 Straight, 7034 51 mm dia.

93-4-1 Rectangular, 8.4 by 5.6 Straight, 7034 ii

87-10-2 Rectangular, 4.3 by 3.3 Straight 28 mm dia.

87-11-2 Rectangular, 4.3 by 2.5 Straight

n

89-5-3, Widened Rectangular, 6.4 by 3.3 Straight n

91-3-1 Rectangular, 6.6 by 4.3 Straight

»

91-3-2 Rectangular, 7. 1 by 4.

1

length 16.5, centered

Straight, 7032

Side branch

n

92-6-1 Circular, dia. 7.6 slit 0.22 7032 Side branch ii

92-6-2A Circular, dia. 7.6 slit 0.37 7032 Side branch ii

92-9-1 Circular, dia. 6.3 slit 0.29 7032 Side branch n

93-10-1 Circular, dia. 6.3 slit 0.32 7032 Side branch ii

93-10-2 Circular, dia. 5.8 slit 0.32 7032 Side branch n
The vortex-sensing transducer is a lead zirconium titanate (PZT) bimorph. It is a thin flat plate that, when bent, produces a voltage difference between the electrodes on its faces. The PZT

was clamped to a flat surface that spans a transition from a rigid post to a spring section. It acts as a strain gage sensor that detects bending at the transition. The alternating strain produced by

the shedding produces a nominally sinusoidal voltage across the PZT electrodes though harmonics

are often present.

The meter is shown in place in the paired instrument ports added to the 7035 duct in Figure 4b. The port location on the duct is shown in Figure 1 . The port plugs restrict the flow of

liquid through the ports bypassing the shedding element. Their diameter is undersized relative to the port to allow the transverse forces generated by the shedding vortices to displace the shedder

bar slightly sideways.

The end of the shedder bar opposite the sensor is fixed in the directions perpendicular to

the shedder bar but allowed to move axially by the axial relief springs. These springs allow the

duct and shedder to expand and contract relative to each other without axially loading the shedder

bar. The 19 mm long spacer placed between the mounting flange and the instrument port

provides space for the sensor portion of the meter.

The FFT analyzer was used to analyze the output signal frequency, bandwidth, and

signal-to-noise ratio during most of the tests. Each measurement contained 10 sweeps of the

spectrum analyzer. Several measurements of the frequency spectrum were made as the shape and

center frequency of the spectrum line obtained varied from one measurement to the next. Only

the first signal spectrum measured was stored as representative to try to minimize bias that would

otherwise be introduced if the experimenter selected the spectrum. The spectra were recorded for a window width of to f, where f was in the range of 1.2 to 2 times the meter frequency. An

acceptable performance was a line width that was about 3 percent of the line frequency over the

test range. To reduce the effect of line broadening by the flat top window of the analyzer, the

widths in one set of tests were examined using windows 40 to 200 Hz wide approximately

centered about the line frequency. These narrower frequency range measurements of the signal

from flowmeter 88-7-2 gave an average line width of 1.8 percent, while to f bandwidth

measurements during the same test gave an average line width of 3.1 percent. The filter added

about 1.3 percent to the to f bandwidth.

Narrow band logarithmic and linear spectrum lines from 88-7-2 are shown in Figure 5. These are typical spectrum lines. Occasionally wider lines would be obtained. The signal

spectrum lines were at least 30 dB above the background and dominated any other line in the

spectrum up to 10 kHz, the maximum frequency measured. This is considered to be a good

performance even though the signal lines are wider than the spectrum lines of the 2 in flowmeter.

Figure 6 shows the meter factor of 88-7-2 as a function of flow relative to the 4 in reference meter. The measurements were made in 1989 and 1996 in the 7035 duct using water.

The change in sensitivity of the reference meter with increasing flow is included in this curve. Removing this dependence would increase the slope of the curve in Figure 6. The abrupt increase in meter factor above 30 m/s (100 ft/s) average flow is presumed to

be cavitation at the 7035 duct meter. The meter factor increases gradually with decreasing flow

below about 5 m/s. The full width of the scatter of the meter factor as a function of flow was less than 0.6 percent for the 1989 test. The meter factor measured in the first 1996 test, Figure 6, showed hysteresis at low flows

8
between the increasing and decreasing flow test points. Hysteresis had been noted before. It was

not observed when the test was started in the mid-flow range as it was in the 1989 tests. The

higher curve was obtained when the first 1996 test was started from lowest flow and the lower

curve is obtained when the flow was decreased. Hysteresis was seen only on the first time the

flow was increased. The original sensor was replaced in an unsuccessful attempt to improve the

magnitude of the output signal, and a second flow test was done with the intent of further

examining the hysteresis. The meter factor of 88-7-2 with this new sensor showed much greater

scatter, in excess of 1 percent. If any hysteresis was present, scatter masked it. A third 1996 test at a limited number of flows, but with several data points taken at each flow, showed a hysteresis

but it was inverted relative to the hysteresis seen in the first 1996 test. This higher scatter seen

during the second and third of the 1996 tests cannot be attributed to the hydro plant causing

pressure fluctuations because it was shut down during both tests. This hysteresis was often seen. Perhaps some mechanical relaxation of the test meter

installation occurred. However, it was also seen when the 4 in turbine meter used at Marshall on

the LN2 tests was compared to the 4 in reference meter on the water flow facility. This suggests

that the hysteresis is associated with the reference meter.

Martinez-Piquer [11] reported a superior performance obtained with a vortex shedding

flowmeter whose shedding element consisted of a circular cylinder with a full length diametrical

slit through it transverse to the flow. Two shedders of this design were fabricated for the 7035

duct and tested. The performances were poor, and no further effort was made to improve the

7035 duct design. The results eventually achieved with the 28 mm flowmeter design, discussed

below, suggest that a successful flowmeter of this design could be developed for the 58.5 mm

duct.

A pair of ports was placed on the 7035 duct of an SSME test bed engine for the purpose

of testing a flowmeter in the engine environment. Unfortunately, the port pair was oriented 90°

from the correct position relative to the upstream elbow and located at a point along the duct

where the vibration was too great for the flowmeter to meet the fatigue requirements. Further

development of the 58.5 mm 7035 duct flowmeter was deferred to develop a 703 1 duct

flowmeter for a location with less levels of vibration and a better orientation.

6.3 The 51 mm Bore Flowmeter

A successful flowmeter for the 51 mm duct and the last flowmeter tested was 93-4-1

shown in Figure 7a. It was a modification of the 88-7-2 design that eliminated the need for both a sensor coating and for the larger diameter seal. The maximum flow velocity that the 51 mm flowmeter experiences is lower, 16 m/s

(52.5 ft/s) so the shedder width of 93-4-1 was increased to 0.165 of the duct diameter, II. The

ratio d/w, where d is the shedder dimension in the flow direction, was 0.67, the value

recommended by Cousins et al. [2]. The depth could be reduced if found necessary. The sides were specified to be parallel to 0.025 mm. Stress calculations by NASA staff showed that the

design had sufficient fracture toughness to survive measuring LOX flow in the 51 mm bore SSME

7031 duct. The shedder assembly of the flowmeter was successfully pressure tested to 69 MPa

(10

4 psi).

The main difference between the meter designs of Figure 4 and Figure 7 is in the spring

section. Between the shedder bar and the mounting flange of 93-4-1 was a 1 1.4 mm long spring

9
section of rectangular cross section 8.9 mm by 3.2 mm. Centered within this spring section is a

1 mm by 6.4 mm rectangular hole extending the length of the spring section. The slot was cut

using a wire electrical discharge machine (EDM) after which the shedder bar portion was welded

to the lower end of the spring section. Both of the parts were made of Inconel 625. The weld

closes the interior end of the slot so that LOX cannot access it. A PZT bimorph was potted into

this slot with epoxy so that it spanned the transition from the flange to the spring. The sensor

detected bending at the face of the mounting flange in this design. The design is LOX compatible.

In Figure 7b, the meter is shown inserted in the instrument ports fabricated for the 7034

duct. Not only is the sensor removed from any contact with the fluid in the duct, but also the

overall mass of the meter has been reduced because locating the sensor partially into the top

flange shortens the spacer between the top flange and the duct. The slot containing the sensor could be made using a sinker EDM rather than a wire allowing the flowmeter to be made from a

single piece of metal. Eliminating the weld would reduce the length of the port plug. This

modification could eliminate the spacer entirely.

Since a 703 1 duct was not available, the 5 1 mm bore liquid flowmeters were tested with

water first in a straight test duct and then in the 7034 duct. The 7034 duct was assumed to be a tougher test of the flowmeter because it has sharp out-of-plane bends and shorter straight sections

than the 703 1 duct.

The straight duct had 22.5 diameters of straight section upstream of the meter and 7.5

diameters downstream. The upstream end was preceded by reducers stepping from 4 in to 2.5 in

pipe to the 51 mm ID straight test section. The performance of 93-4-1 in it was poor. The

spectrum lines were broadened. As many as four overlapping lines of similar amplitude appeared

during the recording of 10 averages, showing that the shedding frequency was unstable.

Examples of the spectra at high and low flows are shown in Figure 8. Based on the experience

with flowmeter 86-4-2, the performance of 93-4-1 was expected to be better in a straight test duct.

However, a review of earlier testing revealed that one 51 mm flowmeter, 86-2-1, gave a poor performance in a straight duct but a very good one in the 7034 duct. Also, the meter factor

was constant over a wide flow range [3,4,7]. The performance, based on comparable spectrum

lines, was similar to that of 88-7-2 in the 7035 duct. It was retested with water in 1993 in both a

straight duct and the 7034 duct, and the earlier performances obtained in both ducts repeated.

Flowmeter 93-4-1 was then tested with water in the 7034 duct. Figure 9 shows the narrow band spectrum lines obtained there. Figure 9, bottom right, shows the to 10 kHz band

at maximum flow. A flow independent line, probably a mechanical resonance, appears at 2.2 Hz.

Its frequency is well above the maximum of the measurement range, and its magnitude is well

below the level of the vortex-generated line. The performance surpassed that of 88-7-2 in the

7035 duct. The average width of a line measured by the FFT spectrum analyzer in the to f band

width mode using the flat top window was 3 percent, slightly better than obtained with 88-7-2.

Though the vortex-shedding signal was modulated, complete fade occurred less often and lasted

for fewer cycles than for 88-7-2. In part, the better performance probably resulted from the lower

maximum flow. The spectrum line width approached that of the commercial flowmeter, Figure 3. The meter factor of 93-4-1 in the 7034 duct is shown in Figure 10. It is not nearly as

linear as 86-2-1 in the 7034 duct was or as 88-7-2 in the 7035 duct, but the scatter relative to the

fitted line (a fifth-order polynomial) is smaller. Hysteresis was absent in these data, possibly

because data acquisition was started at a flow velocity above 10 m/s.

10
6.4 Duct Geometry

Two flowmeters of very different dimensions had performed much more poorly in the

51 mm bore straight duct relative to the 7034 duct. This suggested that the differing

performances were associated with the duct. Some tests were carried out to locate the cause of

this difference. Four possible causes of the poorer performance in the straight test duct were

examined:

• a distorted flow pattern from the reducers upstream,

• noise from the flow control valve downstream,

• roughness of the duct wall, • lack of duct bends.

The addition of a flow straightener upstream of the straight test section to remove any effects

from the reducers produced no improvement in the flowmeter performance. Adding the 7034

duct between the straight test section and flow control valve to serve as an isolator for any

downstream valve effects gave no improvement. The straight duct was tested with the duct

reversed as well as forward. The only configuration of the straight duct that showed any

improvement of the flowmeter output signal was that with the duct reversed so the short straight

section preceded the meter. The meter factor of 93-4-1 in this configuration is shown in Figure

10. Meter 86-2-1 when tested in the reversed straight duct, also showed some improvement in

performance based on line width. The straight test section was then honed to remove the wavy

surface of the inner wall. The performance of 93-4-1 in the honed duct, if anything, was worse. Elbow effects were examined by placing an elbow three diameters ahead of the straight

test section first with the long straight section upstream. Some improvement was noted; however,

the lines narrowed somewhat from just the straight duct but the performance still remained poor.

When the duct was reversed, the meter moved from 25.5 to 10.5 diameters downstream of the

elbow. The performance of 93-4-1 improved dramatically. The performance became comparable

to that in the 7034 duct. Spectrum lines are shown in Figure 1 1 . Apparently, the flow pattern

introduced by the elbow stabilizes the vortex shedding process. Part of these data was taken with

the shedder axis rotated about 10° from the vertical of the plane of the preceding bend. This

rotation had no apparent effect. The averaged vortex-generated signal, the highest peak in each

spectrum, dominates all the other lines present from less than 1 Hz to 10 kHz. The instantaneous

output signal is typically modulated, and, on rare occasions, the signal fades completely. The

faded portions of the signal are short, about one cycle.

The meter factor of 93-4-1 in the straight duct, Figure 10, left, in the forward and reversed

configurations differed in flow dependence but the average magnitudes were similar at higher

flows. The meter factor was higher for the straight duct relative to the 7034 duct. This could be

caused by a difference in duct bores. However, the close agreement between the meter factor of

93-4-1 in the 7034 duct and in the reversed straight duct preceded by an elbow suggests that the

duct bores are close to the same and the bends are similarly modifying the flow in both ducts. The

close upstream elbow lowered the shedding frequency slightly.

It was anticipated, when this work started, that the meters would only be adversely

affected by the presence of nearby upstream bends. Instead, the flowmeters giving the best

performance in the 7034 duct actually require the presence of nearby upstream bends. Similar

11
elbow effects have apparently been seen but not reported by other workers [12].

6.5 Tests of 94-3-1 in LN2 Flow

A flowmeter with a dimorph vortex sensor had not been tested cold to assure it would still function. Flowmeter 94-3-1 was tested in LN2 flow in the NIST liquid nitrogen flow facility. The

straight test duct with the long straight section preceding the flowmeter was used. A long 3 in

straight section followed by a 3-to-2 in transition preceded the test section.

The signal amplitudes for water and for LN2 flow are compared in Figure 12. The signal

amplitude for LN2 flow was about 1/6 of that for water at the same velocity. The signal amplitude

variation for water was a function of v

2

, as expected, where v is the velocity, but was about v

2' 5

for LN2 . Though some of the reduction in signal at 77 K relative to ambient temperature

probably arises from the lower density of LN2 and increased stiffness of the shedder material,

most of it is assumed to be a loss of sensitivity of the PZT at 77 K. Though it might be desirable

that the signal amplitude did not decrease with temperature, the signal-to-noise ratio is not

diminished by the sensitivity loss. The maximum obtainable flows in the NIST LN2 flow facility, as Figure 10 shows, were

significantly less than available in the water test facility. The spectrum lines obtained for 93-4-1 in

LN2 flow, Figure 13, were single and narrow though not as narrow as those obtained with water

when the duct was reversed and preceded by an elbow. However, since the presence of upstream

reducers had very little effect on the meter performance for water flow, they would not be

expected to have any greater effect on LN2 flow. Different performances of the flowmeter for

water relative to LN2 were observed in the earlier tests of 86-4-2 in the 7035 duct [4,7]. The

earlier test results, covering the full velocity range, were assumed at that time to stem from the

particular meter design. The similar result for 93-4-1 in the straight test duct suggests that the

poorer performance for water flow measurement relative to LN2 might be caused by fluid

properties. The 93-4-1 spectrum lines, Figure 13, were far superior to those obtained for water

flow measured with the same test section configuration when compared at equal flow velocities.

Between flows of 1.02 and 2.2 m/s for LN2 and 7 to 14.6 m/s for water, the Reynolds numbers

overlap. The performance of 93-4-1 in LN2 is also far superior to that in water at the same

Reynolds number. The improved performance seen for LN2 flow, then, must be a viscosity effect. The narrowed shedder bar may have magnified the difference seen in the performance of the

flowmeter in the two fluids. The discrepancy does not seem to be noted for the commercial

designs. Viscosity effects are seen in the meter factor for commercially available meters [13].

The meter factor for 93-4-1 was higher in LN2 , Figure 10, in agreement with the tests of

86-4-2 in the 7035 duct. The meter factor curves are nearly parallel when plotted as a function of

velocity though the data from the reversed straight duct merges with the 7034 duct data at low

flows. The 7034 duct data and the reversed straight duct with a preceding elbow are close in magnitude even though the flow dependence differs slightly. The meter factor is sensitive to the

duct configuration, Figure 10, left. It varies by as much as 2.5 percent for the configurations

tried. The LN2 meter factor as a function of Reynolds number for water and LN2 are shown in Figure 10, right. The reference meter for the water flow tests was calibrated and read low

compared to a calibrated turbine meter by about 1.5 percent. The Latest system is specified

accurate to about 0.25 percent. The uncertainty in the measurement is well below the differences

12
in meter factor seen in Figure 10, right. The data do not correlate with Reynolds number.

The testing was insufficient to establish that the shedder shape of 93-4-1 for the 51 mm

duct was the best attainable. Judging from the meter factor and performance of 86-2-1, a narrower shedder could give a better performance than 93-4-1. A flowmeter with a reduced

depth from that of 93-4-1 or 86-2-1, judging from the 7035 duct tests, could have an improved

linearity.

6.6 The 28 mm Bore Flowmeter

The 28 mm flowmeter was designed for the side branch of the 7032 LOX duct, Figure 1. Obtaining a satisfactory performance from a 28 mm duct flowmeter proved to be more difficult than for the two larger flowmeters. The 28 mm bore meters were tested with water only. The

results of the LN2 test results for 93-4-1 suggest that the designs discussed below that performed

poorly in water may have performed satisfactorily in LN2 or LOX flow.

The first 28 mm bore flowmeters tested were cantilevered from one side of a straight test duct but spanned the diameter of the duct. Two of these meters, 87-10-2 and 87-1 1-2, Table 2,

produced acceptably narrow spectrum lines in the first tests. Their meter factors as a function of

flow had pronounced negative slopes. But when the tests of 87-10-2 and 87-1 1-2 were repeated

about V/2 years later, their performance was very poor and remained poor despite attempts to improve it. A satisfactory explanation for the initial success and subsequent failure has not been

found. Meter 89-5-3 had similar dimensions to 87-1 1-2 but attached to the duct on both ends.

Though it performed slightly better, its performance was still poor. The vortex shedding was

unstable. The vortex-generated signal appeared in bursts. Otherwise the amplitude faded

completely as much as 75 percent of the time.

The performances of two wider shedders, 89-5-3 and 91-3-1, were satisfactory in the

straight test section. Only 91-3-1 was tested in the 7032 side branch where it performed well.

The flow velocity in the side branch of the 7032 duct is 22 m/s (72 ft/s). Increasing the width of

the shedder bar to increase the width-to-length ratio improved the signal spectrum but introduced

a pressure loss across the meter at maximum flow in excess of 320 kPa (47 psi) for water.

Shortened shedding sections were tried again here, but this time the shortened section was

centered in the duct. Narrow streamlined posts supported each end of the shedder section. Six

flowmeters of this design with increasing width and length were tried. The widest was 91-3-2.

The wider three gave good performances in the straight test duct but flowmeter 91-3-2, when

tested in the 7032 side branch, gave an unsatisfactory performance. Further work on shedders

with rectangular cross sections was discontinued when better results were obtained with a round

shedder design.

The mounting design of the first 28 mm flowmeter with a circular cross section and a cross slit [11], 92-6-1, was like that shown in Figure 4. This meter produced a fade-free signal

for flows up to about 20 m/s average velocity. The meter factor showed a strong flow

dependence including a sudden change in slope at about 5 m/s flow. Flowmeter 92-6-1 A, meter

92-6-1 with the slit widened to 0.37 mm, no longer had the sudden change in slope of the meter

factor as a function of velocity. The flow dependence also decreased.

Flowmeter 92-9-1 was similar to 92-6-1 but with the diameter reduced and the cross slit widened. This meter produced narrow spectrum lines over the required flow range. Little signal

modulation was present until the higher flows were obtained. The meter factor, shown in Figure

13
14, again varied with flow.

The final two flowmeters tested were slotted circular cylinders but used an earlier

suspension design. The vortex-shedding portion was a separate piece attached to the sensor and

mounting flange assembly by a clevis pin [4,6]. The opposite end terminated in a round shaft that

pushed into a tight fitting socket in the port cover. This design has the advantage that only one

mounting plate and sensor needed to be fabricated. Various shedder shapes could be fabricated at a much lower cost from V2 in round stock, quickly attached to the sensor assembly, and inserted

into the duct for testing. The sensor assembly used for the tests of the final two was encapsulated

in the spring section like 93-4-1. One of the two, 93-10-2, had almost the same dimensions as 92-

9-1. The other, 93-10-1, was smaller, Table 2. The dimensions of meter 93-10-2 were held close to those of 92-9-1 to try to define the

effects of the different shedder suspensions. The combination of differences in the shedder

dimensions and suspension were enough to lower the meter factor curve, Figure 14, more than 1 percent and change the shape, especially at low flows. The data point at about 5 m/s appeared to

be too high and was not included in the line fit. The performance of meter 93-10-2 in terms of

line width was superior to any other flowmeter tested. The time signal almost never faded out even at the highest flow. The spectrum lines, Figure 15, were the narrowest obtained from any of

the flowmeters tested, approaching the widths found for the commercial meter, Figure 2. The

wide band spectrum shows a broad low-amplitude resonance peak near 4 kHz and several sharper

harmonic lines of the vortex signal. Measurements using 92-9-1, thus by inference 93-10-2,

showed that a head loss for water flow introduced by the flowmeter was 145 kPa (21 psi) for

water at the maximum flow of 22 m/s (72 ft/s). Widening the slit of 92-6-1 to that of 92-6-1 A raised the meter factor curve, whereas the

wider slit of 93-10-2 relative to 92-9-1 decreased the meter factor. This could result from a minimum in the meter factor as a function of slit width, from the fact that the clevis pin mounting

was apparently stiffer than the 91-9-1 mounting, or from the slightly larger diameter of 93-10-2.

It may be some combination of these three factors.

The meter factor of 93-10-1, whose shedder at 5.8 mm was smaller in diameter than that

of 93-10-2, is also shown in Figure 14. The meter factor as a function of average flow seems to have a more linear flow dependence than the other round shedder bars tested. Its performance

was poorer than that of 93-10-2, but still good.

The tests completed on the shedder bar consisting of a transversely split circular cylinder

have shown that a narrowed shedder design can be made that performs well in the 7032 duct.

While rectangular cross sectioned shedders retain a more linear meter factor as a function of flow

when narrowed, the cross-slitted cylinder does not. The flow dependence in the meter factor can

again be removed in the signal processing.

These results suggest that the performance of the meter is sensitive to the dimensions of

the shedder bar; thus, a round shedder bar with reduced diameter might be very sensitive to the

properties of the measured fluid. To obtain a similar performance to 93-10-1 with a lower

viscosity fluid like LN2 or LOX, the flowmeter may require a narrower slit through the shedder

bar.

Since the tests of both 86-4-2 and 93-4-1 with LN2 suggest that lowering the viscosity of

the measured liquid improves the performance, good performance might be easily attained for a

slitted cylinder measuring LN2 and, by inference, low viscosity fluids such as LOX.

14
6.7 Gas Flowmeters in the 51 mm Bore Duct

In the SSME duct locations where fuel metering is desired, the hydrogen is a gas. The

maximum flow ranges from 100.6 m/s (330 ft/s) to 241.5 m/s (792 ft/s). Commercial VS

flowmeters are designed to operate to 76.2 m/s (250 ft/s) of airflow. At flows much above this,

Mach 1 is exceeded in regions around the shedder bar. The velocity of sound in hydrogen

exceeds that of air by a factor of 4 to 5. Therefore hydrogen flow velocities can exceed airflow

by the same factors without exceeding Mach 1

A test facility capable of providing calibrated hydrogen flow at high pressures and high mass flow rates was not available at the time of these tests. Hydrogen flow was simulated to the

extent possible with compressed air at a pressure giving the same density as hydrogen gas. The

viscosity of air under these conditions is higher, up to about twice that of hydrogen. The largest

difference in properties, however, is the velocity of sound.

Because of the high velocities in the SSME ducts and the low temperatures and high

pressures, the pressure loss in the 7034 duct for a conventional meter could be around 2.34 MPa

(340 psi). Narrower shedder bars are needed in the fuel flowmeters. Design testing was carried

out using air at a local calibration facility in which choked nozzles are used as flow standards.

The first tests, using a straight test duct, indicated that a shedder bar of the conventional

triangular cross section with truncated corners gave a satisfactory performance, Figure 16. All

subsequent gas flowmeters tested had this cross section. Even with the narrowed triangular

shedder bar, airflow would choke above about 150 m/s (500 ft/s). With a velocity of sound for

hydrogen at least four times greater, the VS flowmeter tested should be able to measure hydrogen

flows up to 600 m/s before choking. At flow velocities of 150 m/s, the shedding frequency was

about 3.4 kHz.

The later fuel flowmeters tested had the shedder bar suspension shown in Figure 4. A

wire strain gage sometimes replaced the PZT as the vortex detector. The first shedder bars tested were steel. When their signal spectra were found to include rather strong flow independent lines,

shedder bars of lower density material, aluminum and titanium, were built and tested. The less dense material reduced the flow independent spectrum lines in the output signal. The aluminum

shedder bars have less fatigue strength than steel, and one broke at a point near the center of the

duct during a test. The failure of the shedder bar probably occurred after the flow choked at the

test flowmeter as the tests were run up to the choked condition. The titanium shedder bar,

89-5-1, though it was tested more than once, did not fail. The sensors and sensor leads on the

shedder bars were also prone to break. The sensor leads would have been more fatigue resistant

had alloy wire been used instead of copper.

Even though the meters could not be tested to the maximum flow rate, the ability of the

flowmeter to measure gas flow in an engine duct could be inferred. Meter 89-5-1 was tested in the 7034 duct. The shedder bar suspension was like that shown in Figure 4 but its cross section

was triangular. Representative wide and narrow band spectra through the flow range are shown

in Figure 17. Like the liquid flowmeters, narrow spectrum lines can be obtained in the SSME

ducts without the use of a flow conditioner preceding the meter. The spectra are relatively free of

any other significant lines other than somewhat broadened harmonics of the vortex shedding

frequency. An exception is the broadened line accompanying the 3 kHz vortex generated signal

line, Figure 17. The spectrum lines were mostly narrow. In spite of the narrowed shedder bar,

the output signal amplitude showed little fade. The absence of fade may again result from the low

15
viscosity of the measured fluid. The 7034 duct lacked the instrument ports near the flowmeter needed for the temperature

and pressure measurements to convert the flowmeter reading to a mass flow. A pressure

measurement was required to hold the test pressure constant to maintain the density constant as the flow was varied. The closest duct port available for the pressure tap was 1.1m upstream.

For some flowmeters a port was available on the flowmeter itself. The flowmeter port measured

the average pressure at the circular gap around the shedder bar at the sensor end. The pressure at this gap is some average of the pressures before and after the shedder. When the flowmeter port

was used to hold the test pressure constant, the meter factor for flowmeters like 89-5-1 was

relatively constant. When the pressure was held constant at the port 1.1 m up stream of the

flowmeter, the meter factor was flow dependent above about 50 m/s. The meter factor increased

by 10 to 20 percent because of the gas expansion between the pressure port and the flowmeter.

A preliminary set of tests was done using a straight 5 1 mm duct ported to permit

additional pressure measurements. The pressure measurements at high flows were inconsistent

probably because of localized compressibility effects. The pressure loss across the flowmeter for

hydrogen at maximum flow was estimated to be 0.6 MPa (87 psi).

Some of the early gas flowmeters were tested in water prior to the air flow tests. The

meter factors had different Reynolds number dependencies for air and gas and if extrapolated to the same Reynolds number the meter factors could differ by more than 10 percent [3].

Development of hydrogen gas flowmeters for the higher velocity applications is going to require a test facility that can use hydrogen gas. Because of the high flow velocities in these

ducts, the flowmeter, thermometers, and pressure transducer will need to be calibrated as a unit

for best accuracy.

7. Discussion

7.1 Liquid Flowmeters: Water Flow Tests

The results of these flowmeter tests show that vortex shedding flowmeters can measure

water flow to the expected maximum velocities in the 28 mm, 51 mm, and 58.4 mm bore LOX

ducts without upstream flow conditioning. For SSME applications, the duct vibrations might add

interfering lines into the signal spectrum. This needs to be examined.

The head loss introduced by using VS flowmeters to flows well above the conventional

6 m/s maximum can be reduced by narrowing the shedder bar. Doing so, however, reduces the

stability of vortex shedding. The signal instability usually increased rather than decreased with

increasing flow. The occasional signal fade resulting from the unstable flow did not obviously

degrade the flowmeter performance in terms of the linearity and scatter of the meter factor as a function of flow.

The nearby duct bends upstream and downstream of the flowmeters were expected to adversely affect the meter performance. Instead, the presence of close upstream duct bends seems

to be necessary to sufficiently stabilize the vortex shedding of the flowmeters, especially for 93-4-

1 when measuring water flow. The limited testing of a flowmeter in both the straight and SSME

ducts with water indicates that a flowmeter designed to perform acceptably in one duct will

probably perform poorly in the other. Thus, the duct bends are necessary for good performance

of a flowmeter designed for the engine ducts.

If the flow in the 51 mm bore 703 1 duct is to be measured with a flowmeter of the 93-4-1

16
design, then it should be placed within 10 diameters of the nearest upstream bend according to the

water flow test results. Possibly, the poorer performance produced by 93-4-1 relative to 85-4-7

in straight ducts for water could result from 93-4-1 being both wider and having a larger d/w.

The 28 mm bore meters with a width-to-duct diameter ratio similar to 88-7-2 performed

poorly in most water tests. This suggested that the absolute width w as well as D/d, factors into

the signal stability.

A way around the paradox of achieving lowered head loss at the sacrifice of shedding

stability is to use a shedder geometry consisting of a cylinder with a cross slit. For water flow

tests in the 28 mm duct, a flowmeter of this design approached the performance of the

commercial flowmeters used for reference in terms of line width. However, linearity of the

flowmeter is sacrificed to achieve the better performance. Even though the preliminary attempt to use the slit circular cylinder in a 58.5 mm duct flowmeter was unsuccessful, slit cylinders of the

appropriate design still might improve the performances of the 51 and 58.5 mm bore flowmeters.

This has yet to be confirmed experimentally.

These flowmeters with narrowed shedder bars are more sensitive to geometry and fluid

properties than conventional VS flowmeters. For best accuracy, it will be necessary for them to

be calibrated in the duct with the duct fluid as demonstrated by the changing meter factors shown

in Figure 10.

7.2 Liquid Nitrogen Tests

Ultimately, more extensive testing of the flowmeter designs in cryogenic fluids should be

done. The work done so far just shows that the VS flowmeter design tested is suitable for

cryogenic applications.

No flowmeter with the 88-7-2 dimensions was tested with cryogenic fluids. Only two

meters, 86-4-2 and 93-4-1, have been tested with cryogenic liquids, both in LN2. Test results for

both flowmeters showed better performance with LN2 than with water. The improvement was

relatively less for 86-4-2 but it was tested in the 7035 duct, while 93-4-1 was tested in a straight

duct. This is consistent with upstream bends improving the flowmeter performance. Based on

this, it seems likely that 88-7-2 would perform better in the 7035 test duct for LN2 flow than for

water.

Vortex shedding flowmeters commercially available tend to correlate through Reynolds

number. The SSME duct flowmeters tested in both water and LN2 or water and air did not. Finding why they do not was outside the scope of this work.

More tests of flowmeters in LN2 are needed to confirm the expectations of better

performance there. The amount of LN2 testing was insufficient to confidently predict a good

performance. Since LOX has a similarly low viscosity, the flowmeter performance with LOX

should be similar to that with LN2 . LOX differs from LN2 mainly in density. Density has not yet

been demonstrated to alter flowmeter performance. LOX flow testing needs to be done to substantiate the presumption that the performance is the same as that for LN2 . The other best flowmeters from water flow testing need to be tested with LN2 to ascertain

that changing fluids does not degrade the performance of the flowmeter obtained for water. More

tests with LN2 are needed to determine to what extent elbows improve the metering of low

velocity fluids. Viscosity obviously has a strong effect on the performance of these reduced width

shedder bars. Perhaps a different shedder bar shape, such as the cross slitted cylinder, could

17
improve the performance of the flowmeter measuring low viscosity fluids. The testing done so far

in LN2 flow was insufficient to provide any definition of the flow region where the VS flowmeter

gives a satisfactory performance or whether a better cross sectional shape of the shedder might be

found.

7.3 Gas Flowmeters

The development of gas flowmeters for hydrogen has been hampered by the lack of a

suitable hydrogen gas flow facility. Airflow simulation of hydrogen flow is limited to maximum

flow velocities of about 150 m/s by compressibility effects. However, localized compressibility

effects are having an impact at lower velocities. The test results suggest that the VS meter with a narrowed shedder bar can also measure flow in the SSME engine ducts without any flow

conditioning upstream of the flowmeter. The shedder bar should be narrowed further, if possible,

to reduce the pressure loss. The response of the sensor could prove to be the major limitation to measuring flows to

250 m/s. It is not clear that detecting the strain on the shedder bar will be a satisfactory vortex

sensor up to 250 m/s flow. The testing of alternate sensor designs offering higher frequency

response could still be done with air up to near Mach 1 but testing to 250 m/s flow and flowmeter

calibration will eventually require a high pressure, high flow hydrogen test facility. A more rigidly

mounted shedder bar with pressure ports connecting to a diaphragm sensor outside the flow

stream may be a better sensor design. That approach has worked well for the reference

flowmeters used in the water flow tests, but the frequency was much lower and the fluid coupling

the transducer to the shedder was incompressible. It needs to be demonstrated that this sensing

method can be applied to the fuel flowmeters. Employing piezo-resistive pressure transducers

close to the end of the shedder bar so the porting is short may make pressure sensing a viable

vortex detection method.

Igarashi [14] has found that for airflow at lower Reynolds numbers the round cross slitted cylinder provides the strongest vortex shedding signal. Though it has not been tried for this

application, the success of the design in the 7032 duct suggests it could also improve the

performance of the gas meters. In addition, a round shedder bar can further reduce the pressure

loss across the flowmeter.

The author thanks NASA Marshall Space Flight Center for their support of this work, and

the City of Boulder Water Utilities for making high pressure water available for testing liquid

flowmeters.

8. References

[1] Miller, R.W. Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.

[2] Cousins, T., Foster, S.A., Johnson, P. A. A linear and accurate flowmeter using vortex

shedding. Symposium of Power Fluidics for Process Control, 45-56. Guildford, England,

University of Surrey, 1973.

[3] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeters at high flow velocities. National Institute of

Standards and Technology Tech. Note 1302, 1986. 94p.

18
[4] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeters for high velocity liquids. Int. J. Heat and

Fluid Flow 10 (1989) 232-244.

[5] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeters for liquids at high flow velocities. NASA

Conference Publication 2372, 1985, pp. 639-653.

[6] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeter for fluids at high flow velocities. NASA

Conference Publication 2437, 1986, pp. 139-153.

[7] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeters for space shuttle main engines. NASA

Conference Publication 3012, 1988, pp. 429-441.

[8] Siegwarth, J.D. Vortex shedding flowmeters for SSME. NASA Conference Publication

3092, 1990, pp. 382-394.

[9] Siegwarth, J.D, Lewis, M. Vortex shedding flowmeters for SSME ducts. NASA

Conference Publication 3175, 1992, pp. 217-225.

[10] Siegwarth, J.D. SSME LOX duct flowmeter design and test results. NASA Conference

Publication 3282, 1994, pp. 105-112.

[11] Martinez-Piquer, T. Velocity measurement by vortex shedding, contribution to the mass- flow measurement. Thesis, Universidad Politecnicia de Madrid (Spain), 1988.

[12] Corpron, G. and Vignos, J. private communication

[13] Goujon-Durand, S. Linearity of the vortex meter as a function of viscosity. Flow Meas.

Instrum. 6 (1995) 235-238.

[14] Igarashi, T. Fluid flow around a bluff body used for a Von Karman vortex flowmeter.

Fluid Control and Measurement (Pergamon, 1986), pp. 1003-8.

19
64°

Figure 1. a. The exit section of the RS007035 LOX duct of the SSME. The duct makes a 90° bend into the page. This bend is preceded by three 45° out-of-plane bends

preceded by a 90° bend. P - Flowmeter ports.

b. The RS007032 LOX duct with its 28 mm ID side branch.

c. The RS007034 GH2 duct.

20
20

CQ

> -20

o

-J*o -40

-60

r6

Frequency (Hz)

-30 r 20

-110

4 8

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 2. Spectra from a 2 in commercial vortex shedding flowmeter for water. Upper

curve, Log V

2 in dB, lower curve, the signal voltage. The data in subsequent

spectra are similarly shown.

Top: 0.78 m/s average flow.

Bottom: 6.03 m/s average flow.

21
39.5

N39.0 :

38.5

o - o

^38.0 :

0)

37.5

®®

T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 6 5 10 15 20 25

Average Velocity (m/s)

Figure 3. Meter factor of meter 92-9-1 using both the 4 in and 2 in reference meters.

Circled X, both reference meters read; X only the 2 in reference read. The dashed

line is a fourth-order polynomial fit to all the data. The solid curve is a fourthorder fit to the 2 in data plus the highest four flows where both flowmeters were

read.

22
X)

c6

at X)

4>

3>

23
40n

-60:

-120

On

40 80 120

Frequency (Hz)

>

a

0)3

a,

200 400 600 800

Frequency (Hz)

0.4

1000

Figure 5. Spectra of 88-7-2 in the RS007035 duct for water flow.

Top: 4.44 m/s average flow.

Bottom: 33.17 m/s average flow.

24
22.5 i

N

K22.0

U

o

+•>o

0) 21.5 -

21.0 I

I

I—I I I I

I ' «

I I

I

I I II 1 I I

I 10 15 20 25 30 35

Flow Velocity (m/s)

Figure 6. Meter factor measured for 88-7-2 for water in the 7035 duct. The curve is a second order polynomial fit. Solid circles, the 1989 test data. Triangles, the 1996

retest for increasing flows. The diamonds are the data acquired in 1996 for

decreasing flow showing the hysteresis that is often seen on start up. The curve is

fit to the 1989 data.

25
cS o3

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25 50 75 100

Frequency (Hz)

-20

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i

i i 100 300

Frequency (Hz)

-o.o 400

Figure 8. Spectra of 93-4-1 in the straight test duct for water flow.

Top: 3.67 m/s average flow.

Bottom: 16.03 m/s average flow.

27
-30n

— 1 10 I i i i i i i i i i "i 'iTTTTTi i i

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i i 20 40 60

Frequency (Hz)

20

80

5n

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-754^

100 200 300

Frequency (Hz)

2 4 6 8 Frequency (kHz)

10

Figure 9. Spectra of 93-4-1 in the 7034 duct for water flow.

Top: 2.43 m/s average flow.

Bottom left: 16.88 m/s average flow.

Bottom right: 16.88 m/s broad band spectrum.

28
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Figure 11. Spectra of 93-4-1 for water flow in the reversed straight test duct preceded by a 90° elbow.

Top: 1.915 m/s average flow.

Bottom: 15.24 m/s average flow.

30
-70n

-110

40 80 120

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 12. Spectra of 93-4-1 in the straight test duct for LN: Top: 1.05 m/s average flow.

Bottom: 5.77 m/s average flow

[2 flow.

31
10003

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

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li

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Average Flow (m/s)

The output signal voltage from 93-4-1 as a function of flow for water in the

reversed straight test duct with preceding elbow, squares, and LN2 at 77 K in the

straight test duct, triangles.

43

\42

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5 10 15 20 25

Average Velocity (m/s)

The meter factors with polynomial fits for water of three circular cross sectioned

shedder bars with cross slits. In the 28 mm bore 7032 duct side branch. Circles

and triangles, 92-9-1 on different days, third order. Squares, 93-10-2, fourth

order. Diamonds, 93-9-1, fifth order.

32
-50-

-70

> -90

O

O -110

-1304

40 80 120

Frequency (Hz)

160

-15-

-35-

pq

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1000

Frequency (Hz)

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0.00 -90 H i " ' rrrrrm . I""" 1 " ' [

' 2 4 6 8 10

Frequency (kHz)

Figure 15. Spectra of 93-10-2 in the 28 mm side branch of the 7032 duct. The shedder bars

have a circular cross section with a cross slit on the diameter.

Top: 2.77 m/s average flow.

Bottom left: 22.9 m/s average flow.

Bottom right: 22.9 m/s broad band spectrum.

33
CD s

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34
(y\ui) aprqijduiv iBuSig (A) apn^ndmv leuSjs

(9P) 2A Sol*OT (9P) ZA Soi+ oi

(A) aprnnduiv I^uSis

(3P) 7 A Soi + oi (3P) ?A § °1*0T

Figure 17. Narrow and wide band spectra from 89-5-1, a hydrogen gas flowmeter tested with

compressed air at the density of the hydrogen gas:

Top pair: 38.5 m/s average flow velocity.

Bottom pair: 79 m/s average flow velocity.

35
(A) sprnndmv I^uSis (A) apn^ijduiv l^u^ig

(HP) 2 A Soq + I

(y\) aprqifduiv l^uSTg

(9P) 2 A Soq + QT

(A) aprqijcliiiv l^uSig

Figure 17. (Continued.)

Top pair: 128 m/s average flow velocity.

Bottom pair: 150 m/s average flow velocity.

36

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1998-0-673-018/400 84
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