NBS MONOGRAPH 99

Automatic Typographic-Quality

Typesetting Techniques:

A State-of-the-Art Review

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards ' provides measurement and technical information

services essential to the efficiency and effectiveness of the work of the Nation's scientists and

engineers. The Bureau serves also as a focal point in the Federal Government for assuring

maximum application of the physical and engineering sciences to the advancement of technology

in industry- and commerce. To accomplish this mission, the Bureau is organized into three

institutes covering broad program areas of research and services:

THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS . . . provides the central basis within the

United States for a complete and consistent system of physical measurements, coordinates that

system with the measurement systems of other nations, and furnishes essential services leading

to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific community,

industry, and commerce. This Institute comprises a series of divisions, each serving a classical subject matter area: —Applied Mathematics—^Electricity—Metrology—Mechanics—-Heat—Atomic Physics

Physical Chemistry—Radiation Physics—Laboratory Astrophysics ^—Radio Standards

Laboratory,^ which includes Radio Standards Physics and Radio Standards Engineering-

Office of Standard Reference Data.

THE INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH . . . conducts materials research and

provides associated materials services including mainly reference materials and data on the

properties of materials. Beyond its direct interest to the Nation's scientists and engineers,

this Institute yields services which are essential to the advancement of technology in industry

and commerce. This Institute is organized primarily by technical fields: —Analytical Chemistry—Metallurgy'—-Reactor Radiations—^Polymers—Inorganic Materials—Cryogenics ^—Materials Evaluation Laboratory—Office of Standard Reference

Materials.

THE INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED TECHNOLOGY . . . provides technical services to promote the use of available technolog}' and to facilitate technological innovation in industry

and government. The principal elements of this Institute are: —Building Research—Electronic Instrumentation—-Textile and Apparel Technology

Center—Technical Analysis—Center for Computer Sciences and Technology—Office of Weights and Measures—^Office of Engineering Standards Services—Office of Invention

and Innovation—Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information.^

' Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted ; mailing address Washington, D.C. 20234.

2 Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.

3 Located at 5285 Port Roval Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Alexander B. Trowbridge, Jcting Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • A. V. Astin, Director

Automatic Typographic-Quality

Typesetting Techniques:

A State-of-the-Art Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens and John L. Little

Center for Computer Sciences and Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C.

National Bureau of Standards Monograph 99

Issued April 7, 1967

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 70 cents
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 66-62198
Foreword

The Research Information Center and Advisory Service on Information Processing,

(RICASIP), which has been incorporated in the Technical Information Exchange,

Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, National Bureau of Standards, has been

engaged in a continuing program to collect information and maintain current awareness

about research and development activities in the field of information processing and

retrieval. An important responsibihty of RICASIP which has been jointly supported

by the National Science Foundation and NBS, has been the preparation of state-of-theart reviews on topics of current interest in various areas of this broad field. This report is one of a series intended as contributions toward improved interchange

of information among those engaged in research and development in this field. The

report considers new techniques for typographic-quality composition based upon machine generation, manipulation, and processing of textual and other materials to be

reproduced in multiple copies for distribution or publication.

It should be noted that names and descriptions of specific proprietary devices and

equipment have been included for the convenience of the reader, but completeness

in this respect is recognized to be impossible. It is also to be noted that certain

important developments have remained proprietary or have not been reported in the

open Uterature. Some of the major contributors to key developments in the field may

thus have been inadvertently omitted.

The omission of any method or device does not necessarily imply that it is con- sidered unsuitable or unsatisfactory. Conversely, inclusion of descriptive material on any proprietary instrument, product, or process does not constitute endorsement.

In general, we shall be concerned with the techniques that offer reproduction copy of typographic quality, which may be defined in terms of a variety of' factors involving

human engineering, aesthetic, economic, and productivity considerations.

It is to be noted that this report was prepared on the Linofilm equipment of the

United States Government Printing Office.

A. V. ASTIN, Director.

Ill

Contents

Page Foreword ,. HI

1. Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose and scope of report 1 1.2 Background 2

2. Typographic quality and the compositor functions 9

3. Hardware for typographic composition , H

3.1 Hot metal casting equipment 11

3.1.1 Line casting equipment 11

3.1.2 Tape-controUed hot metal typesetters 13

3.2 Cold type techniques 15

3.2.1 Sequential card camera systems 15

3.2.2 Ribbon impression machines without tape perforators 17

3.2.3 Perforated paper tape systems 18

3.2.4 Tape perforators without printers 18

3.2.5 Teletypesetter systems 20

3.2.6 Tape perforators with ribbon impression printers 20

3.3 Photocomposition equipment 21

3.3.1 Techniques of photocomposition 22

3.3.2 Classes of photocomposers 22

3.4 Electronic character generator systems 34

3.4.1 Techniques of electronic character generation 34

3.4.2 Specific character generating equipment 35

3.5 Computers used for typography 37

3.5.1 Small special-purpose typography computers 37

3.5.2 General purpose computers used for typography 38

4. Automation of the compositor functions 41

4.1 Horizontal justification 42

4.1.1 Equipment and techniques for horizontal justification 43

4.1.2 Semi-automatic and automatic hyphenation 44

4.2 Corrections, updating, and merging 50

4.3 Vertical justification and page composition 53

4.4 Two-dimensional composition 54

4.5 Specific photocomposing equipment 56

5. Documentation appUcations 59

5.1 General purpose computer programs : 60

5.1.1 Barnett and others at M.I.T 60

5.1.2 Newcastle program 63

5.1.3 University of Pittsburgh program 63

5.2 Primary pubHcations 64

5.2.1 Computer-compiled and computer-generated primary publications 64

5.2.2 Newspaper composition 65

5.2.3 Book composition 66

5.3 Secondary pubhcations, speciahzed bibhographic aids, and integrated systems 67

5.4 Service centers 71

6. Problem areas 72

6.1 Character sets, encoding and alphabetization 72

6.2 Programming 77

6.3 Imphcations for management planning, industry adjustment and systems design 79

6.3.1 Problems of author-editor-publisher relationships 79

6.3.2 The possible role of automatic character recognition 80

6.3.3 Keyboard design and related problems 81

6.3.4 Imphcations for systems design 82

6.3.5 Imphcations for industry adjustment 85

7. Summary: The present state-of-the-art and future prospects 96

Bibliography 91 V
List of Figures and Tables

Page Figure 1. Example of computer-typeset tables of physical data 6

Figure 2. Typical page, "Automation and Scientific Communication, Short Papers, Pt, 1" 7 Figure 3. Special notice. Index Medicos 8

Figure 4a, 4b. Foundry type character matrices and example of cast line 11 Figure 5. Linotype Comet 12 Figure 6. Intertype linecaster 12 Figure 7. Linotype Elektron 13 Figure 8. Monotype keyboard 13 Figure 9. Monotype caster 14 Figure 10. Monotype matrix case 14 Figure 11. Recordak Listomatic 16 Figure 12. Fotolist 16 Figure 13. Compos-o-line 16 Figure 14. Fairchild Graphic Standard Teletypesetter perforator 18 Figure 15. Fairchild Graphic Multiface perforator 19 Figure 16. Mergenthaler Linomatic perforator 19 Figure 17. ATF Typesetter 19 Figure 18. Monotype narrow tape keyboard 19 Figure 19. The Teletypesetter (TTS) code 19 Figure 20. Perforated tapes used in typesetting 21 Figure 21. Sample output, Varityper Series 800 photocomposing machines 23

Figure 22. Sample output, Friden Typro 23

Figure 23. Monophoto optical system 24

Figure 24. Intertype Fotosetter 25

Figure 25. Photon disc 25

Figure 26. Photon Series 540 Tapemaster 25

Figure 27. Photon photographic system 26

Figure 28. Harris-Intertype system 27

Figure 29. Harris-Intertype installation 28

Figure 30. Harris-Intertype equipment 28

Figure 31. Linofilm grid font 28

Figure 32. Linofilm grid font turret 29

Figure 33. Linofilm system 29

Figure 34. Alphatype photocomposer 30

Figure 35. K & E engineering symbol disc 30

Figure 36. ZIP optical system 31 Figure 37. ZIP reciprocating lens 31 Figure 38. GRACE installation. National Library of Medicine 32

Figure 39. Linotron video device 32

Figure 41. Digiset characters 34

Figure 41. SC-4020 equipment 35

Figure 42. Benson-Lehner Transdata equipment 36

Figure 43. RCA Newscom system 39

Figure 44. Newscom equipment .^.-s-.V'-i 39

Figure 45. TRW-Fairchild Comp/Set 39

Figure 46. Linofilm mathematical setting examples 55

Figure 47. Output of Technical Text Compiler 57

Figure 48. Barnett program output 61 Figure 49. Sample page, Chemical-Biological Activities 74

Table 1. Speeds of automated photocomposers 23 Table 2. Character widths, TTS Systems 43 Table 3. Companies represented at a photocomposer bidders conference. Government Printing Office, August 12, 1963 87

VI
Automatic Typographic-Quality Typesetting Techniques:

A State-of-the-Art Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens and John L. Little

This report describes the current state-of-the-art in automation of graphic arts composition, start- ing from either of two sources: (1) keyboard entry of manuscript material, or (2) mechanized input in the form of available perforated tapes or magnetic tapes. The gamut is covered from one extreme in which a skilled keyboard operator performs all of the compositor functions required to operate a typesetting machine, to the other extreme in which the input merely provides text whether or not including

designation of desired font changes, followed by a high degree of automation through all operations

leading to type set for printing. Intermediate automation aids for the compositor functions, including

characteristics of special-purpose digital computers and functions performed by typography programs

for general-purpose digital computers, are reviewed.

Characteristics of automatically operated typesetting mechanisms, including hot metal casting

machines and photocomposers, slow, medium and high speed, are outlined. Applications of new tech- niques for typographic-quality automated composition that are of interest in scientific and technical information centers, libraries and other documentation operations include sequential card camera

listings, computer-generated KWIC indexes, photocomposition of technical journals, automatic composition of books containing both computer-produced tabular data and natural language texts, and the incorporation of mechanized processes throughout the publication cycle from the author's original manuscript preparation to the final printing. A bibUography of 363 references is included. Key words: Automated type composition, computerized typesetting, graphic arts, photocomposition, printing and publication.

1. Introduction

1.1. Purpose and Scope of Report

This report is one of a series prepared for the Research Information Center and Advisory Service on

Information Processing (RICASIP), and intended

as a contribution to improved cooperation in the

fields of information selection systems development,

information retrieval research and mechanized

translation. In each of these areas, increased use

of automation has led to increased concern both for high speed and for high quahty of machine output.

Methods range from manual keyboard entry of

textual material to computer printouts at high speed

but low quahty (uppercase, fixed spacing and poor

paper utilization). There is a third class of methods

involving machine and computer-generated tapes

to control automatic typesetting to batteries of

low speed composing-printing devices. Finally

there is a new class involving computer control via

magnetic tape of high-speed composition systems.

At one extreme, a skilled keyboard operator per- forms all of the compositor functions required to operate a typesetting machine; at the other, the

input merely provides text copy, which may or may

not include designations of desired font, style, size,

and format changes, to be processed with a high degree of automation through all operations

necessary to produce type or plates set for printing.

The practical reahzation of several major tech- nological developments affecting both printing and

data processing operations has so recently been

achieved that a state-of-the-art report on this topic

may appear to be premature. Nevertheless, with

the initiation of planning for either high-speed

photocomposition or direct computer output of

typographic quality, or both, these developments

herald wide-spread adoption in many areas of documentation. There is, in addition, considerable

advantage to be gained in systems planning and

inter-system cooperation if users not now contemplating application in their own operations are nevertheless familiar with such applications as those of STAR (Scientific and Technical /Aerospace

/Reports of the , National Aeronautics and Space

Administration) and MEDLARS {Medical /literature

/Analysis and /?etrieval System of the National

Library of Medicine) and with the general potentialities of these new techniques.

Anticipating the probable impact of these de- velopments upon many organizations active in the handling of scientific and technical information, RICASIP in 1962 contracted with Information

Dynamics, Inc., for a review of the situation. The

present report is based in part on this earlier study,-^

Where appropriate, portions of the text of the ipC

report prepared by Lawrence H. Berul have been

incorporated in this report.

1
The Information Dynamics report to RICASIP

was followed by an updated and condensed version

prepared for the conference on "Libraries and

Automation" held at Airlie House in May of 1963,

(Sparks et al., 1964).' Since the later version in- corporates much of the material originally prepared

for RICASIP, it will also be quoted extensively

as appropriate.

Where exceptionally good reviews about a particular system or piece of equipment have been

published earlier, these will be referenced and

only brief mention will be given in this report. In

particular, nearly all of the pioneering exponents

of either photocomposition or computer-driven

composition techniques (whether linecasting or

film setting or both in combination) have pubhshed

at least brief accounts of their efforts and proposals.

In alphabetical order, for illustrative example, we

note: Bafour, Barnett, Bozman, Duncan, the two

IBM-Mergenthaler teams, Kuney-American Chemical Society, Luhn, the Medlars system, Moyroud,

the NASA system, and others. In a supplement to the November 1964 edition

of Print in Britain, there was set out a check list of machines, materials, and methods for both film- setting and cold type methods which was characterized by Robert E. Rossell, Managing Director

of the Research and Engineering Council of the

Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., in a letter covering

distribution of reprints to members of the council,

as "the most comprehensive checklist of machines,

materials, and methods on the subject that we have

uncovered to date."

This report attempts to describe the principal

automation techniques and the ingenious inter- weaving of these techniques into a multitude of

configurations each attempting in its own particular manner to accomplish the compositor functions

by mechanized aids to human effort. Because the

report is one of a series intended as contributions

toward mproved interchange of information among

those engaged in research and development in the

fields of information processing, information selection, and information retrieval, the applications

stressed are generally in the area of scientific and

technical information handling and related documentation operations.

Apphcations of these techniques that are of

interest in scientific and technical information

centers, abstracting and indexing services, pubUshing houses, libraries, and other documentation

operations include sequential card camera listings

of bibliographic information, computer-generated

^ey fl^ord-in-Context (KWIC) indexes, photo-composition of technical journals, and announcement

bulletins, automatic composition of books or re- ports containing both computer-produced tabular

data and natural language text, and the incorporation of mechanized processes throughout the pub-

' Note: Bibliographic citations to references are arranged in alphabetical order by

author or title in the appendix, pp. 91-98.

hcation cycle from the author's original preparation

of manuscript to the final printing.

The emphasis will be on devices and techniques

which provide typographic quaUty in the output —

proportional spacing, upper and lower case, large

character sets, variety of fonts and type sizes,

margin and column justification, and the hke. Generally, the definitions of typographic quality are subjective and not objective. That is, while type

designers and typographers have followed precise

traditions of craftsmanship through the centuries,

the bases for their specifications have been aesthetic

or artistic rather than scientific findings as to legibility or readability.

1.2. Background

The use of machines and of mechanizable processes to improve the utilization of scientific and

technical information has a first and obvious area

of application in the preparation of copies of text and tabular data for distribution or pubUcation.

Mechanized printing began with the invention of

movable type as applied to this purpose since the

15th century, the first scientific journal began publication in 1665,2 jj^g f^j.gj abstract journal appeared

in 1807.3 Today, the increasing demands for timeliness and

economy of both primary and secondary publications and the emergence of the computer itself as

the generator of data tabulations, composite test report compilations, extracted portions of pre- stored text, index and citation listings (and even

automatically prepared "abstracts" or translations)

impose new requirements for speed and cost- effectiveness of production and for customer ac- ceptance of the machine-prepared products.

A special problem has been that of currency of

coverage and prompt dissemination by secondary

publications (catalogues of holdings, announcement

of acquisition bulletins, index lists or abstract

journals, and cumulative indexes to all of these). In particular, the question of revision and updating

of existing catalogs and files, for re-issue, has been

an important factor in many of the existing deficiencies of both current awareness and retrospective

search systems.

The importance of improved techniques of typesetting and composition to the whole area of generating, processing, disseminating and using

scientific and technical information manifests itself in at least three major ways. First, improved techniques offer great promise of speed and increased

economy in the editing, preparation for printing,

and proofreading of primary pubhcations. Secondly, they offer new potentiaUties of economy and

timehness in the preparation of announcement

2 Shilling, 1963. p. 49.

^ G. M. Conrad, statement hearings on "Dissemination of Scientific Information",

U.S. Congress, House, 1959, p. 99.

2
bulletins, indexes, abstract journals, printed cata- logues, demand bibliographies, and other vital aids

to maintenance of current awareness and to Htera- ture search. Finally, they offer the prospects of restoring greater legibility and readabiUty to materials compiled or produced by computer, thus en- hancing the utihty of machine output, again offering

significant proofreading advantages for computed

material such as extensive numerical tables. The art of printing, originating with the Chinese

who made wood engravings for printing on silk, has an interesting history^ of development. About

the 12th century, B.C., the Chinese first introduced

wooden blocks of movable t\-pe. The development

of this technique which led to modern printing is generally attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, a German stonemason, who in the decade of 1440 demonstrated the practical use of movable metal type.

Production of printed pages thus dates back at least 500 years. Gradual mechanization of typesetting operations occurred during the following

four centuries, including the introduction of keyboards for type selection and the development of

devices for the automatic sorting of used type slugs.

An interesting early example of possible mechanical

processing for composition of revised and updated

bibhographic listings was reported by Charles C. Jewett to a convention of librarians held in New

York in 1853.

"The title of every book and of each distinct edition

is stereotyped upon a separate plate. The author's name also stands by itself. Each plate shows at a glance the heading to which it belongs. It is ob- vious that these plates may be placed together in alphabetical order, as may be desired. They are mounted on blocks, for printing Hke other stereotype

plates. It is proposed to preserve the plates or blocks in alphabetical order of the titles, so as to be

able readily to insert additional titles, in their proper

places, and then to reprint the whole catalogue.

By these means, the chief cost of republication (that of composition) together with the trouble of revision

and correction of the press, would, except for new

titles, be avoided."" ^ Jewett went on to claim such advantages as the

following: '".

. . The great ends to be gained are:

1. To avoid the necessity of preparing, composing, and correcting anew the titles once

printed, when the Libran,- has received accessions, or the ahernative of printing the titles of these accessions in supplements, which are very inconvenient appendages.

2. To prevent the repetition of the work of

preparation of titles, composition and correction

of press, for copies of the same book in different

libraries. The title once prepared and stereo- typed remains at the Smithsonian Institution,

to be used by any hbrar>' having the same book.

3. To secure uniformity in the construction of

^ "Proceedinas of the Librarians' Convention . . . 1853". 1915, p. 26.

catalogues, thus greatly facilitating the researches

of the student . . . "There will also be great saving of the expense

of paper and presswork under this system. It is customary now to print off a larger number of copies

of every catalogue than are immediately wanted,

because it cannot be known how many may be

required before the catalogue may be reprinted.

On this plan, wlien a new edition, with all additions

incorporated, can be had at any time, it will not be

thought necessary to print more copies than

enough to meet the immediate demand.'" = As Clapp reports, "a sample catalog, printed in 1854 for the Library of Congress from these plates,

still exists and constitutes one of the handsomest

pieces of printing produced in the 19th century.

Unfortunately, however, Jewett was betrayed by

the imperfect technology- of the time. The plates

warped in storage: the information was lost and with

it the success of the venture." ^ Not until nearly

a century later, with both manual and sequential

card camera shinghng techniques, were some of these advantages reahzed.

In the late 19th century, a great leap forward

had been made in typographic composition by the

invention of two ingenious and powerful machines —

the Linotype by Mergenthaler and the Monotype by

Lanston. The Linotype, first used by the New

York Herald Tribune in the late 1800"s, is a keyboard-operated machine which casts a hot metal

slug for each complete fine of type. The Monotype

equipment involves two separate machines. First, a large keyboard is used to operate a paper tape

perforator. The 31 channels of this tape store information with respect to designated characters,

fonts, type widths, and space widths. This per- forated paper tape then controls the operation of the

second machine, a hot metal type slug caster, which

casts each symbol on a separate type slug and which

uses controlled dimensioning to fill out a complete

fine by insertion of additional type slugs to provide

the required spacing.

Thus, equipment to accomphsh in standing type

the full range of functions covered by this report,

from keyboard, perforated tape and typesetting for

printing, was already available in the 19th century.

However, the complete range of compositor functions was then concentrated in the keyboard

operator, who needed to be a highly skilled person

with a production capabihty sharply limited by the

necessity to keyboard aU composition details, and

who was restricted especially by the requirements for manual page make-up.

During the last few decades, and particularly

during the most recent decade, there has been a notable increase in the availability of mechanical

aids in composition operations. Chronologically, some of the key developments have been as follows:

' Ibid., pp. 26-27.

Clapp. 1963, p. 2.

3
The first patent applications for what is now

known as the Photon (the Lumitype in France) were

filed in 1945. Since that time the inventors,

Messrs. Higonnet and Moyroud, have taken out over 40 U.S. patents as well as numerous foreign

patents on various inventions in the field of photocomposition. Further impetus was given to this type of photocomposition technology by the Graphic

Arts Research Foundation Inc., from about 1948-

1949 onward (Higonnet and Moyroud, 19.57, 1960). In 1946, Corrado reports, "Mergenthaler was

experimenting with a cathode ray tube, closed loop,

television system to produce type on film. The

state-of-the-art of cathode ray tubes was such that the tubes did not have the resolving power or the

illumination capability to produce the quality of

type that most people wanted . . ." ^ Instead of

pursuing this approach further, therefore, work was begun on the photocomposer Linofilm, the

first prototype production model having been tested

in the period 1955-1956.

At about this time, or earlier, the Intertype

Corporation also was experimenting on phototypesetting techniques in cooperation with the Government Printing Office, leading to development of

the Fotosetter. Eastman Kodak was active in the field of elec- tronic character generation in the middle-to-late

1940's, leading to demonstrations of DACOM (Datascope Computer Output Microfilmer) equipment in

in the early 1950's. As early as 1948, this company

filed patent applications with respect to means for displaying characters on the face of a cathode ray

tube, using monoscope generating techniques similar to the test pattern techniques used in television

systems. These patents were then cross-licensed

to RCA, to IBM and to at least one British organization. Reporting in 1959 on then current progress in photocomposition, Winkler said: "The Fotosetter,

developed in 1947 by the Intertype Corporation, was the first commercially available phototypesetting machine. The Photon, of Photon, Inc., was the second phototypesetter placed on the

market. In succession, the Monophoto of the

Lanston Monotype Company and the Linofilm

machine of the Mergenthaler Linotype Company

were introduced. The American Type Founders,

Inc., has recently made the ATF Typesetter

available." * Winkler also describes the Research & Engineering Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., which was started informally in 1948, and formally

incorporated in 1950.^ A special case with respect to automatic aids

to type composition, relating to problems of two- dimensional or graphic material composition, is that of machine composing of Chinese ideographs.

The University of Pittsburgh reports, for example.

' Corrado, 1964, p. 109.

" Winkler, 1959, p. 70.

" Ibid., pp. 75-76.

that "in 1953-1954 a study of the Chinese lan- guage to determine the feasibility of developing a machine that would economically and effectively

compose Chinese ideographs in the field was

begun."

The year 1954, however, marks the official date

of disclosure of the first comprehensive approach

to the use of modern machine techniques to typographic quality composition generally involving

both computer processing and automatically controlled composition devices (Bafour, 1965).

As Duncan reports: "The proposal to apply the

power of modern digital computers to text processing originated with Bafour, Blanchard, and Raymond. Their patent application was made in France in March 1954, and must have been preceded

by a great deal of work. Their system as originally

conceived embodied a special-purpose tape-typewriter keyboard (at least one prototype was built by Barriquand and Marre) with additional keys for function codes, and means for producing correction

tapes and merging them before processing in a spe- cial-purpose computer, details of whic'i were also specified in the patent . . . They clearly envisaged that the output would control both automatically operated hnecasters and other more advanced

photo-composing machines." " The year 1958 saw the first publicly available

production of KWIC {Key fFord-in-Context) indexes,

those for the Preprints of the International Conference on Scientific Information (machine-produced

but not of typographic quaUty),'^ the initiation of

projects to explore the potentialities of photocomposition at the American Chemical Society'^ and,

in France, "experiments . . . carried out using

a computer of the Societe d'Electronique et d'Automatisme. The output tapes were fed into the

Intertype casters of the Imprimere Nationale,

equipped with Fairchild readers and control

units."

Duncan comments with respect to the latter experiments as follows: "The tragedy is that after the brilhant demonstration of November 1958, the

French Syndicate did nothing to exploit the system.

The latest information from France is that a large

computer firm (SCF) and the typewriter firm of

Japy together with Barriquand and Marre are about

to carry on the work, having lost a lead of six to ten years."

The lead thus lost in France was to be picked up

both in the United States and in Great Britain in the period 1959-1962 with respect to photocomposition equipment as such and also with respect to computer control of various compositor functions.

Hoffman, in a 1959 survey of composing room materials and machines, reported as follows: "PhotogUniversity of Pittsburgh. 1964, p. 1. Duncan, 1964, p. 152. " Citron, Hart, and Ohiman, 1958, Luhn, 1959. " Kuney, 1963, p. 249; Skolnick, 1962, p. i. " Bafour, 1965, p. 194. Duncan, 1964, p. 152. 4
raphy ... is an industrial phenomenon creating

a major upheaval in the graphic arts industry. . . . Electronic control of the photographic composing

process is already here ... hile not at present

available commercially, machines such as Monophoto and ATF Typesetter indicate that photographic

composition in justified Hnes of straight matter can be expected soon from several machines."

From 1959 to 1961, an investigation and study

of "graphic-semantic" composing techniques was

conducted by the Syracuse University Research

Institute for the Rome Air Development Center

(Buck et al.. 1961). which concluded that suitable

techniques were available or could be provided

under short-range development for good quality

page composition combining machine-translated

text with original graphic material. IBM. which was developing the concurrent machine translation

efforts, subsequently demonstrated output of text via computer program and Linofilm. Then, the

Mergenthaler company conducted a further study

of the feasibihty of the proposed combined lexical- graphical composition system.

By 1961. developments at IBM under Rome Air

Development Center sponsorship led to the driving

of a Linofilm from computer output of translated

Russian text.'' Thus, "when a translated magnetic

tape has been prepared, it is used as input to a 704

digital computer program . . . [that] removes all characters which are meant only for the flexowriter.

It computes justification information as well as information needed to center a line, or to print a

line on the right hand side of the page. It converts

the flexowriter codes into the code needed by the

Linofilm photo unit. It also converts the edit in- formation which wiU change the character fonts,

the point size and the distance between successive

lines."

Appropriately, a part of the final report on Mergenthaler's study for RADC of lexical-graphical

composer-printer systems design (1963) was itself automatically typeset by computer-Linofilm combination, using the Autoset computer program

developed by Mitchell Saxon.

A two-year program for the investigation of the use of photocomposition techniques in the setting

of mathematical text, such as the journal Mathematical Reviews, was initiated at the American

Mathematical Society in January 1962. In 1960, as a result of the American Chemical

Society's graphic arts research program, production

of the quarterly yourna/ of Chemical and Engineering Data by photocomposition techniques was

begun, utilizing manually keyboarded Photon equipment. In the project summary prepared for Current

Research and Development in Scientific Documentation, No. 7 (for November 1960). it is stated that

results with respect to the economics of the process were not conclusive as of that time, but "there are

Hoffman. 1959. p. 194. " See Blondeau. 1963. p. 84.

'* International Business Machines Corp.. "Graphic Composing Techniques", 1%2, p. 1.

indications that the process is at the very least competitive with hot metal costs." Concurrently, at M.I.T.. Barnett and his associ- ates were engaged in work relating to "the photocomposition of the output of one type of computer

(the IBM 709), on one type of photocomposing unit

(the Photon), which is used essentially as a papertape driven off-fine printing device."-** Their early

efforts aroused such comments as the following:

"Exciting and promising is the work of Professor

M. P. Barnett at MIT on the use of computers.

He has successfully programmed a computer to punch and correct a tape suitable for operating

Photon equipment. These are the beginnings of what is visuahzed as a computer-photocomposition set-up for producing a quality product suit- able for reproduction of scientific papers."-'

'As a by-product of their computerized research

in theoretical chemistry, these two professors [Bar- nett and Kelley. MIT. July 1961] unknowingly

had ht one of the major fuses that subsequently

erupted into this new era in typesetting tech- nology."-^

For example, as of late 1961. plans were already

well under way to use the M.I.T. computer-Photon

combination "to produce a Union List of Communist

Chinese Serials, under the direction of Ryburn M.

Moss, Associate Director of Libraries for M.I.T."^^

In a 1963 report, presented at the Spring Joint Computer Conference. Barnett et al. provide as Appendix Mil a part of this hsting.

The period 1961-1962 was also marked by Mitra's

re-programming of the Bafour-Blanchard-Raymond

hyphenation rules for the English language to be

processed on Ferranti computers,^^ by the American

Chemical Society's use of the Photon for the Journal

of Chemical and Engineering Data and for the pro- duction of the Journal of Chemical Documentation

beginning with its first issue (Januarv. 1962).-^ and

bv the installation by the Compugraphic Corporation of the first Directory Tape Processor at the

General Telephone Directory Company on May 1, 1961.26 In 1962, the Joint Committee on Printing of the U.S. Congress initiated action which led to the

establishment of the Federal Electronic Printing

Committee, to the setting up of the post of Electronic Printing Officer at the U.S. Government

Printing Office and eventually to the ordering of

Linotron equipment for the Government Printing

Office. (Mergenthaler had already entered into a contractual arrangement with the Columbia Broadcasting System Laboratories for cooperation in the

graphic arts field, resulting in the eventual Linotron

design.)-''

" National Science Foundation. 1960. p. 3. ^Barnett et al.. 1962. p. 58. Skolnick. 1962, p. i. "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 1. " Markus. 1962, p. 18; see Shih and Snyder, 1963. Duncan, 1964, p. 153. "Skolnick. 1962, p. i. ^ Swanson, 1963, p. 92. ^Corrado, 1964. p. 110,

5
Wavelength Spectrum Energy Levels

A K

2289.98 Ni I 0 - 43655

2300.78 Ni I 205 - 43655

2310.96 Ni I 0 - 43259

2312.34 Ni I 1332 - 44565

2313.98 Ni I 2217 - 45419

2317.16 Ni I 1332 - 44475

2320.03 Ni I 0 - 43090

2321.38 Ni I 2217 - 45281

2325.79 Ni I 1332 - 44315

2329.96 Ni I 2217 - 45122

Ld J 1 .Hy IN 1 1 u 4Z /Oo

2337 82 NiIN J. Ti 1 / X J — 44475

2345.54 Ni I 0 - 42621

2346.63 Ni I 1332 - 43933

2347.52 Ni I 0 - 42585

Figure 1. Examp'le of com[)uterBy this time, also, the Russian All-Union Institute

for Scientific Information (VINITI) was evidencing

specific interest in computers and high speed composition techniques. Thus, in 1962, Mikhailov

reported "development of new highly-productive

printing equipment including photo-setting and

photo-engraving machines, high-speed mono- and

Uno-types. composing typewriters",-** and the like. He also emphasized that: "A comprehensive apl)roach in the advancement of information services

presents entirely new objectives to copying and

reproduction as compared to those expected of conventional printing practices. There should be

developed rapid printing devices transforming into

visible characters the pulses received from the

information logical machines."-^

In July 1962, occurred what is probably the first finished book of tables involving the combination

of computer processing and automatically controlled

photocomposition, NBS Monograph 53, Experimental Transition Probabilities for Spectral Lines

oj Seventy Elements (Corliss and Bozman, 1962;

Bozman, 1963). The introduction to these computer-generated tables of values states in part:

"At the beginning of the preparation of this table it was realized that equipment was available

which would permit essentially automatic preparation of the finished book. It was therefore decided

to attempt to produce this publication by completely

Mikhailuv. 1962. p. 55. "Ibid. p. 51.

gA

108/sec

5.0 0.39 -0.40

2.2 0.18 -0.75

7.6 0.60 -0.22

9 5 0 76 -0 12

10. 0.82 -0.09

7.8 0.63 -0.20

11. 0.86 -0.07

13. 1.1 0.04

8 9 0 72 —0V/. 114*T' 7.3 0.59 -0.23

2.0 0.16 -0.79

1.1 0.088 -1.05

5.5 0.46 -0.34

1.2 0.10 -0.99

1.9 0.16 -0.80

typeset tables ofphysical data.

automatic methods. An electronic computer could

be used for the computation, then the magnetic

tape output from the computer could be used to operate an automatic phototypesetting machine

which would produce film ready for making the

printing plates.

Programs were written for computation of the

table values on the IBM 7090 computer and for preparation of an output tape in proper format for the phototypesetter. "The pages were photographically typeset with a Mergenthaler Linofilm machine

onto 8-inch wide film in 50-foot rolls. About 8 min. were required to set each page. Printing plates were made from the film positives which are actual

page size."^' Figure 1 shows a typical page. It is to be noted, of course, that this first formal book

publication employs only a single tabular format

throughout.

Also occurring in 1962 were the initiation of the

automatic composition program at the University of

Newcastle,^^ preliminary demonstrations of typesetting by Computaprint Ltd. for the British Insti- tute of Printing and delivery of the prototype

Linasec to the Alden Press.^" The ROCAPPI

(/Research on Computer ^ppUcations in the Printing

and Publishing Industry) organization initiated a program for automatic control of hot metal hne-

" Corliss and Bozman, 1962, p. xvi. » Ibid.

'2 Duncan, 1964, p. 154. ^ Statement of C. T. Ross, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965.

p. 98-99. ^ Morton. 1963, p. 96.

6
casters in October 1962 and went into limited pro- duction in January 1963.^^ In December 1962, ''RCA and the Los Angeles

Times jointly announced their computerized newspaper typesetting system. Within the next few

weeks, the Palm Beach Post-Times had thrown

their 'tape' into the ring."^^

These two newspaper composition applications

followed an earlier and less successful venture —

"the first 'composing room computer' to go on the

air was also the first and only to suspend operations."^^ This was the case oi the Arizona Journal

which, in November 1961, had announced plans to use a GE 225 computer for both typesetting operations and customer billing of classified ads, to begin

with the paper's first issue scheduled for February

1962. Yasaki describes some of the difficulties encountered as follows: ''Two weeks before publication

date, the rate structure for classified ads had not been firmed — much less programmed. . . . There was cause for concern. A new metropolitan

daily . . . was beginning with non-union labor to operate newly-introduced offset presses and a new

tape perforator, the ATF typesetter. Both were

the first installations anywhere. Without experi- ence in the manual processing of advertising copy

and billing, the Journal was trying to run a parallel

operation with the computer system . . . "The 225 did not justify hnes or hyphenate at ends of hnes, these being coded by tape perforators

at the Journal office. The information . . . was

then transmitted by Bell System's Data Speed to GE's information processing center.

"It was here that some of the trouble lay. Ex- perienced ATF typesetter operators were not

available and . . . the punched tapes were not proofread before transmission as had been planned.

Also, the Typesetter tapes lacked a parity bit. Result: garbage in, garbage out. In the early

stages, about 50 percent of the input was

unusable. . . ." Although this first combination of perforated

tape, computer, cold-type and photo-offset for newspaper composition was in actual use only briefly,

the following year, 1963, may be said to mark the

major beginnings of automatic composition. As

re|)urted in "The Penrose Survey" for 1964: "A

number of firms had intalled the Intertype Fotosetter and the Monotype Corporation's Monophoto,

but the more elaborate machines still awaited major

acceptance. This came in 1963 when a number

of installations of the Linofilm and Photon-Lumitype

were made . . . the decline of printing from movable type can definitely be associated with 1963

. . . 1963 also saw the development and acceptance

of setting by computer." In the same Penrose

Annual volume in which the survey appeared.

Statement of C. Barber, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965,

p. 105. ^"Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 2. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 27. ^Ibid.. pp. 27-28. "The Penrose Survey." 1964, pp. 290-291.

Duncan's article 'Look! No hands!' was itself set in accordance with the Newcastle computer

program.

In October 1963, the registrants at the annual

meeting of the American Documentation Institute

received two volumes of short technical articles,

claimed to be the first of its kind to be typeset by

computer. Figure 2 shows a typical page for a

412 A FORMAL INDEXING LANGUAGE FOR AUTOMATED DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS

By Thomas S. Walton

Applied Mathematics Laboratory David Taylor Model Basin Washington 7, D.C,

ABSTRACT: A tormfil indexing language has been de- vised to facilitate the mechanization ol literature search'

ing. A categorized and hierarchically arranged voca- bulary iB employed, with syntacHc relationships being dis- played In a simple, stylized notation. An analytlco-synthe- Sc procedure for gencraUng document descriptions Is pre- sented and search strategies are discussed.

The use of mechanical aids in scientific communication

can expedite the recording, processing and dissemination of Information. At the same time, however, It accentuates certain fundamental problems connected with Indexing and

seardilng (^rations d). These are highly complex Intellectual tasks which will yield to mechanization only after much

progress has been made In UngulsBc analysis, The prospect Is not enhanced by the tendency to express Ideas In abstruse

Jargons understood only by specialists. Information cannot be

useful unless It Is comprehensible. There Is. nevertheless, growing recognition that document

retrieval systems can be made more effective by employing

lai analytlco-synlhetic techniques for generating multifaceted

descriptions of subject content (2) and (b) procedure-oriented languages which enable such data lo be subjected to formal

manipulation by machines (3i. These principles have guided

the development of an artiflclal language called FROLIC

(Formal, Retrleval-Orlenled Language for Indexing Content) designed for general application In scienBflc and technical do- cumentation (41. It is built around a categorized and hierar- chically arranged vocabulary combined with a simple grammar for indicating certain essential roles or relationships between index terms. These features are intended to produce

a high recall factor while maintaining a low noise level. The

work Is based on the premise that a successful system will re- quire a synthesis of ideas and techniques which have evolved

In library science, Unguindcs, philosophy, symbolic logic and

computer technology.

The«sii nu-Dlcdonary

The key to the proposed system Is a thesaurus-dictionary

in which word associations and meanings are recorded. This

gives users a clear Indication of the significance and scope of each term, and helps to bring the vocabularies of searcher and indexer Into coincidence (51, All information about the vo- cabulary Is entered into the Alphabetical Index In a formal

designed for easy access. Every term is defined either by Its class affiliations, by analysis Into simpler concepts, or by

cross-referencing to synonyms. In addition, the basic or elemental concepts of the language are displayed In a Oassitied

Schedule, where they have been gathered into a few general

categories. The primary division Is Into the names of thing* and the various characteristics that can be ascribed to them,

vi2.. properties, comlltloiu. actions and relattona. Within each of the major categories, clusters of terms are

placed under appropriate generic terms to form hierarchies. However, the classes so formed are not necessarily mutually

exclusive. Some terms appear under several headings, so that the arrangement corresponds lo a lattice rather than a tree

(G, ?). The higher levels of the classification devised for things

are depicted In Fig. 1. Each of these classes is subdivided into many convenient subclasses. Similar schedules have been

partially worlted out for the other categories. None the less, the task of organizing a vocabulary Into such arrays Is by far

the most time-con-sumlng part of the undertaking, even allowing for the help provided by existing dIcUonaries end thesauri, and much work remains to be done.

Grammar.

Many frequently encountered index terms do not pertain

exclusively to Just one of the fundamental categories but, in- stead. Imply a combination of two or more elemental concepts

(8). Such terms are regarded as complex, and distinctive analytical definitions are sought for them, eg., radiating—emmlt- Ung radiant energy, ImecUdd^-subat&nce lor UlHng loMcts. The Erst problem Is to Idenbty the relationahips that are

essential to the Indication of subject content (9). These have

been analyzed and classified as follows:

I. Internal, i.e., between a tiling and some portion of or transformation of Itself: (a) whole~part

(bl product-material (output-In put) n. External, I.e., between separate entities and Involv- ing some logical, spatial or behavioral relation or action:

(a) entity' relation-entity

(b) patient-action-agent

III. Attributive, in which some condition (state! or property (quality, capability) Is ascribed to something:

la) entity-condition

(b) entity-Inert property

(c) padent-active property-agent The next question is how to symbolize these relationships unambiguously. This Is accomplished In FROLIC with a simple notation liased on the follov^ing principles:

1- The fact that terms are associated syntactically Is shown by grouping them within parenthetical boundaries:

2- The type of relationship Is Implied by the categories

to which the terms belong:

3- The sense or direction of a relationship is Indicated by the order In which ihe terms are written; and

4- The pivotal or focal term of a topic is shown by en- closing qualifying terms and phrases '.vlthin additional sets

of parentheses. This procedure allows any term to be associated with as many other terms as necessary to give an accurate rendition

of subject content, without the risk of false coordination. It ov- ercomes certain objections to schemes using roles and links raised by Taube (10), who points out that a term may have

quite different roles with reaped to each of the other terms in a description Furthermore, the system ol nesting terms and

phrases within parentheses permits qualifiers to be qualified

In turn, so that the definition of one complex concept may in- volve another one. These properties result from adopting a

phrase-strncture grammar (11) for FROLIC.

Subject Analysli.

Document descriptions composed In this stylized language

are referred to as "captions". They are best developed by re- ferring to a Check List of the particular Idnds of Information needed to characterize content This guide to subject analysis comprises three sets of questions. The first set concerns the Identity of the primary subject. This includes (a) the name of the thing described or Im'es- tlgated. (b) whether, If an object, It has any distinctive parts,

Auiomailon and Sclinilfic Communlcailon, Topic 4: SymbolliMrlon, Trani/ormailon and Translalion at SeUnllfie Informallon 21

Figure 2. Typical page, ''Automation and Scientific Communication, Short Papers, Ft. 7."

special edition of Volume 1. In addition to computer-controlled setting of the text, computer proc- essing was used to produce author, KWIC

(Key Word-in-ConXext), and citation indexes, all of these operations having been accomplished

within three weeks or less from the receipt of author's manuscripts (Luhn, 1963).

Finally, in August 1964, appeared the first issue

of the National Library of Medicine's Index Medicus

to be computer compiled and automatically typeset at high speed directly from magnetic tape.

Figure 3 reproduces the special notice appearing

in that issue.

7
SPECIAL NOTICE

This Issue of Index Medlcus was printed on the Photon 900 Computer Phototypesetter referred to by the Library staff as GRACE (Graphic Arts Composing

Equipment).

GRACE transfers data received from the NLM computer directly onto positive photographic film. It operates at a speed of approximately 300 characters per

second, and employs three fonts of type including 6-, 10-, and 14- point sizes in

both upper and lower case. The three fonts contain a total of 226 characters, including special characters such as diacritical marks.

The Library wishes to thank the users of the Index Medlcus for their patience

with earlier issues printed by standard computer printer. All subsequent issues,

including the Cumulated Index Medlcus, will be prepared by GRACE.

CHARLES J. AUSTIN

Chief, Data Processing Division

National Library of Medicine

Bethesda. Maryland 20014

August, 1954

Figure 3. Special notice. Index Medicus.

Meanwhile, ignoring the Arizona Journal failure,

other news publishing organizations had moved

ahead with the installation both of photocomposers and of computer control systems to operate

either hot metal casting or photocomposition equipment.^" Thus, by 1964. it could be reported that "a recently conducted survey . . . revealed more

than 75 installations involving the computing

equipment of some ten different manufacturers. . . . During the past few years, we have

seen the movement of typesetting technology from

a relatively stable mechanical craft into a rapidly

changing and expanding science engaging principles of electronics, optics, photography, data

processing and computers."^'

Additional evidence of the rapidly emerging

state of the art is that of labor relation reactions.

In July 1964. union printers went on strike in Toronto.'*- As recently as July 16, 1965. Time re- ported on the current situation, in part, as follows: "The major obstacles to the onrush of automation

are almost all human. On the one hand, newspaper management has been slow to grasp the importance of the new technology; on the other the

labor unions fear that automation will cost them

their jobs. . . . Most papers using computers

. . . have generally satisfied the union by guar- anteeing that no one will lose his job except through

attrition. . . . Still, some papers already report

'» Hattan. Iy64. p. 46. "Conipulerized Typesetting." 1^64, p. 3. " "Signs of the Future?", 1964. p. 88.

substantial savings from a reduced work force. . . . At some papers, no printers have lost jobs, not even

through attrition. . . . Publishers are eager to take advantage of increased printer productivity."'*^

Two distinct technical advances in type composition have thus emerged over the past two decades

and especially in the past two years: first, the substitution of photocomposition and/or cathode ray tube character generation coupled with photographic, xerographic, thermographic and other

copying processes, and secondly, the use of computer techniques or devices up to and including

general purpose high speed digital computers to control either hot metal casting or film-set printing processes. In addition, both types of technological

development may be and have been combined in a single application.

A third technological development, that of tie-in to communication networks, has come to practical

fruition, from 1963 onward, for stock market ex- change quotation and newspaper special edition

apphcations at remote locations, such as the

RCA-TTS Dow Jones system, the Wall Street Journal system and that of the New York Times.

Even more intriguing perhaps, were demonstrations of transmission via communication satellite of news copy. "On the occasion of the American

Newspaper Producers Association conference in June 1963, the eleventh and twelfth successful

transmissions via Relay I took place between

Chicago (the ANPA conference) and several newspapers in Britain, and a similar transmission from

Rio de Janeiro to Chicago on 10 June. For these

transmissions the RCA 301 computer was employed

to justify the setting and to transmit the correct TTS operating codes. "^^ Before leaving this area of chronological background we should also note another interesting his- torical precedent for much later development using more recent technologies which was that of the

Thompson patent for an electromagnet typesetting

device. As reported in The Inland Printer for April 1899, a number of magnets would be con- nected in parallel, each corresponding to a specific

key of a sending station keyboard by virtue of re- quiring successively smaller electric currents for energizing them and successively longer periods

of time to be energized. Keystrokes would pro- duce in a single electrical circuit currents of dif- ferent strengths which when the appropriate magnet

reactivity is reached cause appropriate typesetter

action either directly (keyboard line casting) or

indirectly (keyboards producing perforated tape

to activate secondary casting equipment). At

the same time, the circuit would be broken so that

all of the slower-reacting magnets beyond the one

to be energized are cut off. Several advantages were foreseen, but apparently never actually realized. Since a number of

machines could be interconnected with a single

" "The Troubled Tide "I Aul..mjli..n. ' I'X>.>. p. 42. " Duncan, 1954, p. 150.

8
sending station, it was envisioned that: "Associated Press dispatches could be set up in type

simultaneously in various cities by one man operating a keyboard in Washington or any other

point. ... If that class of typesetting machines

which assemble the type in a continuous line, the

justification being subsequently done, were used,

the matter of differing measures of newspapers

would cut no figure; nor, with that or any other style

of . typesetting machine, would the fact that the

various newspapers use different fonts in their

offices, for with a fat nonpareil a normal minion

and a lean brevier, for instance, the same matter

could be set in varying fonts in the same

measure. . . . "By having two or more machines in each office equipped with Mr. Thompson's apparatus . . . when a breakdown occurs in the receiving machine

it could be 'shunted' and another thrown into cir- cuit instantly. . . ." More than 60 years later, can it be that the spirit

of the ingenious John S. Thompson of Chicago,

who was himself an "expert hnotype operatormachinist," may rest content in latter-day achievements of his dream?

2. Typographic Quality and the Compositor Functions

The history of typography since Gutenberg has

been marked by the development of a graphic arts emphasis and by craftsmanship in typeface design

based predominantly upon subjective and aesthetic

judgments rather than upon objective determinations of comparative readabihty-legibihty.

Nevertheless, as these arts of typographic composition have evolved over the last few centuries,

the necessary compromises between quahty and

printing economy have been centered in the human

compositor functions. These reflect, in various

balancings, contradictory requirements for aesthetic

pleasure, legibihty, readabihty, subject content

differentiation and emphasis on the one hand, and

for ease, speed, and economy of preparation, proc- essing and publication on the other. In general,

"typographic quahty is defined by several considerations which are a combination of technical and

psychological factors. Most important of these

are the choice of typeface, the point size, the use

of upper and lower case, the alternation of type

faces, and skilKul use of the ratio of text to white

space surrounding it." ' More specifically, those compositor functions

which enter into the preparation of copy and the

setting of type for a printed page of high quality

include some or all of the following considerations:

1. Type faces. Variations are used for text, headings, footnotes, captions and the like, and

" "Setting Type by Electricity," 1879. p. 1.

' Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 161.

detail design reflects such artistic choices as

serif embellishments, relative weights (degree

of inking or boldness) and spacing of characters

and the availability of ligatures (overlapping

character pairs). The diversity of type faces

that have been developed over the years is underhned by the fact that 325 different designs are provided in the Mergenthaler specimen book.-

2. Point sizes — the relative sizes of the characters, from those too small to read without

magnification to those used for newspaper ban- ner headlines, for display advertising, and for book jackets. The Mergenthaler specimen book

includes in its 325 designs "well over 1500 point

sizes, with a range of 4 to 144 points."^

3. Leading (space between lines). "Variation

of interlinear space in type composition is called

'leading,' from the insertion of thin strips of lead

between lines of type in the manual typesetting

operation."^ Leading with respect to even col- umn length and placement when two or more

columns are to be set on the same page involves

vertical justification or column balancing.

4. Line and column widths, in terms of a fixed

number of characters and spaces allowed.

5. Intralinear spacing and horizontal justification. This involves left and right margin

alignments (whether for pages or columns or

both), requiring alterations in the amount of space

provided between words and/or that "space is added before and after hyphens inside the line; space is added before and after dashes; space is added between the letters of a word."^

6. Hyphenation. If all procedures for line justification have failed, it may be required that the 'overset' word (that word exceeding the

available fine width adjustments) be hyphenated.

If so, traditional practice dictates that the hyphenation occur at a 'proper' point, i.e., one enabUng the reader to anticipate that successor

part of the word which is carried over to the next

line.

7. Page formatting. This typically includes

allocations for illustrations, positioning and style

of title and other captions, footnotes and biblio- graphic citations.

8. Treatment of special symbols, equations,

chemical structure diagrams, and other inter- polations of graphic material not adaptable to line-by-line composition. (This is often regarded

as a special case of the page or area composition

function.)

9. Line positioning or "quadding," defined as: "positioning of the line with respect to the al- located space, e.g., flush left, flush right, centered,

or justified." ^ 10. Patterning. ". . . The patterning of typeface ... is a technique of emphasizing words

2 Mergenthaler, 1964, p. 3.

' Ibid.

" Sparks et al., 1964, p. 168.

= Pay, 1963, p. 330.

" Sparks et al., 1964, p. 174.

9
by the use of bold or italic faces so that they are

easily visible in text. Patterning could well be

used in computer composed text as a means for emphasizing search points without resorting to extensive reformatting." ^ More generally, these factors are summarized

in the dictum that: "The absolute and relative di- mensions of symbols, spaces, and blocks of printing are of prime concern in composition."^

Further, a number of these factors may be combined in the single criterion of type density. "[It]

is measured in the number of characters per square

inch of the printed page and is a function of the

point size of the type, the characteristics of the

font, and the boldness of the typeface. Other

factors affecting type density are the intercharacter

spaces required for right-hand margin justification

and interlinear spacing or leading. Type density

is a measure of the efficiency of typesetting in making use of printing space." ® The single criterion may also be of value with

respect to the introduction and evaluation of computer devices and techniques to be used as aids

to the composition operation itself, involving the

recognition of necessary difficulties, because of

subjectivity, in obtaining human agreement as to what constitutes "high" typographic quality.

As Duncan emphasizes with respect to typesetting

under the control of a general purpose computer:

"The writing of a programme presupposes a knowledge of the precise styles that will have to be ac- commodated by it. . . . There is no doubt that programmes would be simple if we had a relatively

uniform style. It would, however, be sufficient

if we had a consistency in our different styles. At

present there is none, and I have yet to find any one

feature except perhaps close, even spacing which

all agree is a desirable component of style."'"

Garfield remarks: "the proper selection of ty- prographical style is an important ingredient for consumer acceptance of printed publications.

Unfortunately there is no quantitative measure of

this extremely subjective consideration — the

esthetic and psychological reasons why we accept one format and reject the other.""

However, although there are no known accurate

objective measures of the effects of type density on either effective design or user acceptance, it is recognized, from the human factors point of view,

that: "Type density raises psychological considerations. A text which is printed in densely packed

type may be difficult to read: on the other hand,

text which is dispersed by too much white space

between characters and by too much leading between lines can also be difficult to read. Optimum type density is a matter of balancing the

Il)i<l. |). IfiH. » Buniell ft al.. 1462. p. 58.

" Sparks ,M al.. l';64. p. 163. C. L. Duncan, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965.

p. 9. " Eugene (iarficltj, panel discussion, Markus. 1962. p. 2.3.

demand of the text to be set with measures of

readability."'^

Type density, however, is also related to productivity on the economic side of the typographic

quality compromises available. Thus, "obviously,

the productivity or density of the type setting will influenc e the total quantity of the text, considered

in units of output pages, and thus the cost of the

printing run. Where large quantities of text are

involved, close attention to type density may result

in savings of many thousands of dollars." The question of quality vs. economy is a crucial one today, especially in terms of the increasingly

vast quantity of machine-compiled or machinegenerated output. For example, as Forbes re- marked at the 1964 London automatic typesetting

conference, ". . . The reason the Government

Printing Office got into this business was because we had a great many millions of dollars of composition copy, essentially computer listings, which we

are putting on the camera. They are very bulky

and they are wasteful. We had to have some means

of compressing the information on a tape so we

need print only half as many pages." '"^ An even more dramatic example than that cur- rently afforded by typical documentation activities,

and yet presaging the future, is the following:

"One of the services has a stocklist catalog problem

involving about IV2 biUion pages per year of the 19

bilhon pages of total production. You can see that

if we can improve the density by a factor of three, the

IV2 billion pages will be reduced to V2 biUion pages.

Just in terms of paper and ink, using a budget of

$2.00 per thousand pages, the savings would be

$2 million per year." '^ Thus, with the advent of high speed automatic

data processing equipment capable of compihng

numeric tables and listings of alphanumeric material at rates of thousands of characters per second,

the dilemma has become more acute — very high

speed with poor quahty; good quality at speeds

uneconomic unless separate devices can be driven

in parallel ofif-hne.

Still another factor is the expanding volume of

the scientific and technical literature, straining

the composition facilities, adding to the cost of

technical publications (both books and journals),

and increasing the time lag between discovery and

disclosure. The problems of the secondary publications, particularly abstracting and indexing

journals, have been especially severe. The solu- tion to a part of the overall problem — the emer- gence of the unpublished report as a major means

of scientific and technical communication merely

aggravates the difficulties of the abstracting and

indexing services with respect both to coverage

and timeliness of announcement.

'-' Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 16.3. 'Mbid., p. 163.

1^^' remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings." 1965.

p. 236. ''Corrado, 1964, p. 115.

10
Before considering the machine aids to typographic-quahty composition now available we will

first review briefly the principal characteristics of

hot metal composition and printing, selected cold

type systems, photocomposition, and electronic

character generation.

3. Hardware for Typographic

Composition

As noted previously, two different technologies

are involved in the present-day advances in high

quahty type composition. The first is with respect

to cold-type and photocomposition methods of

reproduction; the second is with respect to special- or general-purpose computer apphcations in the

compositor processes. The two developments are

not necessarily congruent.

In this section we shall be concerned primarily

with the hardware generally available in the printing and reproduction industries, whether manually,

semi-automatically or automatically controlled. This includes hot-metal casting equipment, certain "cold-type" devices ranging from the office typewriter and sequential card cameras through

photocomposition to computer-driven photocompositors and high-speed character generators.

3.1. Hot Metal Casting Equipment

The 19th century developments of hot metal

casting equipment involved, on the one hand, machines capable of casting a complete fine of type at_ one time and, on the other hand, the Monotype

machines that cast a single piece of type at a time

and that are operated by a unique 31-channel paper

tape. "The hot-lead composing machines developed by Mergenthaler and Lanston in the latter part of the 19th century were the first practical

mechanized composing systems."'

3.1.1. Line Casting Equipment

In general, the principles of operation of machines

that cast a complete fine of hot metal type slugs

are as follows. First, in hne casting equipment,

the composing machines are typically equipped

with multiple storage units or containers (magazines) which hold supplies of brass casting molds

(matrices) for each individual' character in the type

font or type fonts desired. (Examples of matrices

and a cast hne are shown in figs. 4a and 4b.) As

the appropriate key is struck on the keyboard or

is actuated by a sensing mechanism which reads

the character code from perforated paper tape,

the corresponding character matrix is released

from its magazine into an assembler. Whenever

a full line is completed in this assembler, molten

metal is poured into the assembled hne of matrices.

' Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 170.

A complete, sohd line or "slug" of type is then cast and ejected from the mold. After use, the char- acter matrices are automatically returned to their

proper places in the storage magazines so that they

may be used again.

This operation typically takes less than a minute.

High speed hne casting machines are typically

capable of casting from 375 to 840 fines an hour,

when operated under tape control. Each different face and size of type requires a separate storage container or magazine. However,

present-day machines are built to hold several

magazines at any one time, so that a variety of type sizes and faces can be available for a given

application.

Figure 4a, 4b. Foundry type character matrices.

231-313 OL-67-2
There are basically two kinds of line casting

machines. They are, respectively, mixer (multifont) or nonmixer machines. The number of magazines which can be held on a mixer machine is typically eight. Thus, there are four main magazines with 90 channels each and four side magazines

with 34 characters each. The total number of

channels, therefore, is 496. If dual letter (upper

and lower rail) matrices are used, the maximum

number of characters that can be mixed is typically 988. (While this is a considerable number, it is

still small in comparison to the number available

with photocomposition techniques because of the

availability in the latter systems of variable magnification which (;an be used to achieve a variety

of point sizes for any of 1400-1500 characters.)

Since hot lead line casting machines require a separate matrix for each character in each size and in each font, it is necessary that there be a reasonably large quantity of each individual matrix

stored so that the supply will not run out before

the matrices are returned and redistributed after use. The supplies of the various matrices must

eventually be replenished due to normal wear and

breakage. When standing lead must be stored

for repetitive use in frequently updated and re- printed publications, the volume and weight in lead

and in other supplies becomes a considerable

problem.

Manually controlled hot-metal Hne-casting has

been generally available for over 70 years and tape

operation of linecasting machines has been avail- able since 1927. As a result, a weahh of technical

and descriptive material is available that adequately

describes this composition technique.

There are currently two major manufacturers

of line casting equipment: the Mergenthaler LinpFlGURE 5. Linotype Comet.

type Company and the Harris-Intertype Company.

In the late 1920's and the early 1930's, tape-operation of Hne-casting equipment was successfully

introduced for line-casting equipment. The present

Linotype line has several tape-operated line cast- ers including the Comet (Fig. 5), the Meteor,

the 31 Race Horse, the Rangemaster 33 and 35, the

Model 29 Blue Streak, and the Elektron. Intertype

offers five machines (see Fig. 6) for automatic

operation including the Monarch, the Model C,

the Model V, the Model F, and the Model G. Automatically controlled line-casting involves

the use of a tape-interpreting unit attached directly

to the composing machine. As the perforated

tape runs through this unit, a sensing mechanism

reads the code perforations which have been

punched for each character and automatically

translates them into key-release movements per- forming the same functions that would be carried

out under manual keyboard operation. The operating interpretation unit is thus basically a paper

tape reader that actuates the keys to release matrices. It also functions to control the upper or the lower rail in the assembling elevator (e.g., to select italic or boldface rather than Roman versions

of a character), and to operate an automatic

"quadder" which computes the space values nec- essary to center or justify a line. The better known tape-operating units are: Fairchild Graphic Teletypesetter

Star Parts Autosetter RCA Electrosetter

Mergenthaler Linomatic Operating Unit

Fl(;URE 6. Intertype Linecaster.
Figure 7. Linotype Elektron.

The Linotype Elektron (shown in Fig. 7) is the

fastest slug casting machine currently made and it is available in mixer models. It operates at a maximum speed of 15 lines of single column newspaper copy per minute. Prior to the introduction

of the Elektron in April 1962, the Intertype Monarch, which can deliver up to 14 lines per minute, was the fastest and most advanced line casting

machine. The Monarch can carry two, three, or four magazines at one time. Converted into characters per second, the tape operating speeds of

hot lead hne casting machines are still a very moderate 7 to 10 characters per second in contrast to the new computer output graphic arts composers

which are capable of operating at speeds above 500

characters per second.

Moreover, as Yasaki comments: "Reputedly

the fastest typesetter is the Linotype Elektron,

which casts 15 Unes per minute from computer

tapes. This contrasts with seven to eight hnes

from manually-operated machines. But if an hour

of computer time wiU produce sufficient tape to keep a battery of linecasters running all day, even

the Elektron becomes a weak link." ^

3.1.2. Tape-Controlled Hot Metal Typesetters

Returning now to the other 19th century hot metal

casting developments, we note first that the Monotype^ is probably the oldest tape-operated composing machine in existence, followed in time by

^Yasaki, 1963. p. 31, ^"Monotype Composition Caster," 1961.

Figure 8. Monotype keyboard.

tape-controlled accessories for the Linotype^ and

Intertype^ line casters. The most significant feature of the Monotype by

comparison with its linecasting competitors is that

it composes by casting single pieces of type rather

than entire, solid lines. Characters and spaces

must be assembled to provide justified lines of

equal width for the column or page. The single

matrix casting principle makes it easier to make

simple corrections in type as it is cast (such as reversing the order of accidentally transposed characters) than is the case with the linecasting processes. It is also relatively easy to insert special

characters as required in the hand-setting of difficult composition work involving mathematical equations

or other special symbols.

The Monotype keyboard is a unit that is separate

from the lead caster proper. As shown in Figure 8,

it resembles a very large typewriter carrying a

vertical graduated drum and a horizontal scale

which progressively indicates the total amount of

space left in the line as the characters and spaces

being set are accumulated. When the full line has

been completed, the keyboard operator presses

special control buttons in accordance with the indi- cation of a rising pointer on the drum, which has

rotated in the meantime. The perforated paper

tape ribbon is then punched with the line justifica-

* Mergenthaler Linotype Co., "The Linotype Line", n.d.

^ Intertype Co., "Intertype Linecasting Machines", n.d.

13
Figure 9. Monotype caster.

tion signals required by the lead caster (shown in Fig. 9). The Monotype caster must receive these line justification signals before it can commence casting

the hne. For this reason, the caster reads the

punched paper tape ribbon in a reverse direction.

That is, the last operator action made on the keyboard for a given line results in the first signal used

to control the operation of the caster as it composes

that line. The character matrices for Monotype (as in the case of slug-casting techniques these are small

bronze molds for each character) are mounted in a matrix case small enough to be held in the palm of

the hand (Fig. 10). For type sizes up to 14 point,

there is room in this case for 255 individual matrices

which are arranged in 17 rows of 15 matrices each.

A typical piece of final printed text may thus involve

a choice of up to 255 different characters consisting,

for example, of upper and lower case alphabetics,

numerics, punctuation marks and selected special

symbols, which are available in Roman, bold face,

and italic versions. With the Monotype composition caster, up to seven different alphabets are

available in one typesetting operation.

The Monotype perforated paper tape which operates the caster, however, "is incompatible with most

computing equipment"^ since it uses a 31-bit code

and a tape width of 4^/i6 inches. Difficulties in terms of accepting Monotype tape sources of potentially computer-usable text are obvious, even aside

from the more difficult problems of handwritten

indications to compositors to change fonts and to insert corrections where there is a high incidence of

hand-corrected typographical errors. It is also obviously difficult to automate, or to provide

computer-prepared input for, a Monotype printing

plant.

» Sparks el al., 1964. p. 171.

Figure 10. Monotype matrix case.

Duncan discusses three possible methods of

automating such a plant as follows: "The first is to replace the keyboard by a typewriter input, calculator, and thirty-one-hole punch.

This is available as a commercial system, 'Monotron', developed by Walter Bally from Guttinger in Switzerland. It aims at typewriter input speed with

simultaneous hard copy and smoothed continuous

caster output with accurately spaced and justified Hnes. Word splitting is decided at the input stage

by the typist compositor but a number of timesaving automatic display instructions can be keyed

in from the console. . . . The second method is to convert the eight-hole tape produced by computers into thirty-one-hole 'Monotype' control

tape — this has only been done experimentally so far

at Newcastle. . . . The third method, attempted

so far only by Bafour, is to control the caster or

setter directly from five- or eight-hole tape without

the intervention of the unnecessary thirty-one-hole

roll."^

It is interesting to note that the Photon Corporation has introduced a tape-operated Photon photo

unit which will operate directly from Monotype

tapes. This development resulted from the recognition on the part of the Photon Corporation that a

large number of Monotype keyboards are in use

' Duncan. 1964, p. 141.

14
today and represent substantial capital investments.

The new Photon photo units wiU make it possible

for composition houses to replace their Monotype

casters without having to dispose of the Monotype

keyboard units. Likewise, the Monotype keyboard

operators will not need special training in photocomposition techniques.

In the case of Une-casting equipment, by contrast with Monotype, the perforated tape control systems

are compatible to a greater or lesser extent with 6-. 7- and 8-channel tapes used in other machine proc- essing or in communication systems. In particular,

many of them use. or can be made compatible with,

the 6-bit Teletypesetter (TTS) system and code

format. In order to utihze standard perforators

for automatic tape operation of these slug casting

machines. Mr. ^ alter Morey. the inventor of the

TTS system, with the cooperation of the Linotype

and Intertype Companies, has developed a unit

counting system similar to that used by Monotype.

Each character is assigned a unit value regardless

of its size or face. This is a relative width value,

and the system usually involves 18 units of width to the em quad. An em is usually defined as the area occupied by the capital letter M in a given font of

type. Each unit therefore is Vis of an em. The

Linotype and Intertype Companies have developed

whole famiUes of unit cut fonts which were designed on the 18 unit relative width system. These unit cut fonts can therefore be composed at a standard

TTS keyboard because the upper magazine and

lower magazine fonts are compatible.

3.2. Cold Type Techniques

From the combining of office typewriter paper

sheet output with relatively inexpensive, office- operatable reproduction devices (Thermofax,

Ultrafax, Xerox. Multigraph. Duphmat. and a dozen

or more others) there has been developed a wide

variety of non-hot-metal techniques available for multiple copy preparation of material for distribution or pubhcation.*

The first practical alternative to hot metal casting

and printing of telephone books, directories, catalogs, bibhographies. announcement journals,

indexes, and similar materials requiring re-assembly

and up-dating before re-issue in large editions, was

the coupHng of photographic techniques with either

manual or semiautomatic "shinghng"" techniques.

For example, in the preparation of the BibUography

of Agriculture, "each of the author shps is pasted

onto the Master Sheet, one on top of the other so as

to expose only the top line of print containing the

author's name and citation number. This process

is called shinghng".^

" See fi>r example. "Office Copying— A Technology in Flux ', Chemical and Engineering News for July 13 and July 20. 1964.

' U.S. Department of Agriculture. "ABLE"". 1965. p. 5.

3.2.1. Sequential Card Camera Systems

The need for updating and recomposition of Hsts,

catalogs, indexes, directories, and the hke led to the

development of the sequential card camera tech- nique. The manual shinghng technique employed

in producing cumulative indexes served to eUminate the need for retyping the entire index at the

end of each period of cumulation: however, shinghng

is notoriously time consuming.

The sequential card camera, in effect, automatically shingles the cards and photographs the composite listing on a galley of film. The use of

tabulating cards and punched card equipment

provides the added flexibiHty of sorting and merging

by machine.

An excellent writeup of the sequential card camera method formerly used for producing Index

Medicus was pubHshed in the January 1961 issue of

the Bulletin of the Medical Library Association.

That article describes the equipment and processing, the method of punched card preparation, and

the operational history, and it provides a detailed

cost analysis and a general appraisal of the system.

The sequential card camera systems typically

involve three basic steps prior to printing. These

are:

(1) Composing the copy on camera-ready cards

that can be manually interfiled with the cards

stored for previous copy.

(2) Page makeup (specification of column lengths

and pagination, and insertion of header and

space cards).

(3) Automatic assembly onto film (listing the cards on film).

Individual fines of copy are composed on cards by

ordinary office typewriter, by Varityper equipment,

or even by a Linotype and proof press for bold headings, and the Hke. In some systems, several

multiple fines of information can be composed on and simultaneously copied from the same card.

Accurate placement or registration of the copy on

the card is a critical factor. Consequently, special

card-holding platens have been designed for various

typewriters. The Addressograph-Multigraph Corporation's subsidiary, Varityper Corporation,

manufactures a special model known as the Line

Composer for use with its Fotohst system. The

Fotolist has a "pin gripper" method of registration.

That is, the cards have pre-punched round and

square holes which are used for accurate afignment

both by the Line Composer and by the Fotolist camera. Standard punched cards are frequently

used because of the increased flexibility which can

be achieved by machine sorting and collating when

special sequencing codes are punched into the card

in a non-image area. Keypunching makes it possi- ble to produce cumulative lists by automatically

merging additions to the file or to produce special

geographical or other classified lists by sorting out the appropriate cards on punched card equipment.

15
There are, of course, some corresponding disadvantages. Typically, "the actual text printed on the

EAM card is not punched on the card, and the use

of text on the card eliminates some of the columns

for punching of data."'"

The page makeup step involves inserting heading

cards and page number cards and, if required,

column spacers to prevent splitting an entry in the

front of each deck or column of cards, and then

counting the appropriate number of lines of copy

which are to appear on the column or page. This is usually done on a Pitney Bowes Tickometer. Once

the cards have been counted, they are refiled with

separator tabs indicating the proper page number,

ready for automatic listing by the sequential card camera.

At publication time, the cards are removed from

their files and placed in the hopper of the sequential

card cameras. The camera automatically photographs the appropriate area of the cards (one, two,

or more lines depending on the special device) at rates ranging up to 14,000 cards per hour. The

product of the camera operation is an exposed photographic negative which contains the information

appearing graphically on the cards in the desired

sequence. The negative can then be processed in a darkroom or, more typically, in an automatic film processor. All of the sequential card cameras

available can produce a paper positive for proofing

as well as a film negative.

Figure 11. Kecordak Listomatic.

'"Spark.- I-I al.. VIM. p. 176.

The sequential card camera can photographically

reduce or enlarge the size of the copy on the card. In some applications, special anamorphic lenses are employed to reduce the copy horizontally rather

than proportionally in all directions, thereby pro- ducing the effect of squeezing the type together.

This is particularly useful in reducing the column

width proportionately more than the character

height when photographing punched cards that are

self-interpreted (printed), with one character per

punched column, so that characters are spaced

relatively far apart.

There are at least three commercially available

series of cameras. These are the Recordak Listomatic as shown in Figure 11, the Varityper Fotolist as shown in Figure 12, and the Friden Compos-ohne as shown in Figure 13. Each of these will be

described briefly and some of their similarities and

differences pointed out.

Figure 12. Fotolist.

Fli.URE 13. Compos-o-line.

16
The most distinctive feature of the Listomatic camera is its ability to intermix one to three lines of

copy per card at a rated speed of up to 13,800 cards

per hour. This is in response to "an appropriately positioned keypunch". " The FotoHst camera

has a system for accurately positioning the text on

the card. This involves a pair of round and square

holes in each card which are engaged by pin gripping mechanisms in both the keyboard and the camera. The Compos-o-hne's chief virtues are its abihty to handle many sizes of cards and to photograph a larger area of the card than its competitor

devices. "The area of the card to be photographed

may be selected for any given run."^^

It should be noted, however, that "with the FotoHst and Compos-o-Line cameras, the aperture can

be set for a desired number of hues beforehand but

cannot be changed automatically during a run."^^

Several automatic film processors are available

including an automatic developer for the Fotolist, a Recordak Listomatic processor, and a high quahty

continuous processor by Oscar Fischer, Inc. AppUcations of Fotohst, Listomatic and Composo-hst systems have included, in addition to Index

Medicus from 1961 to 1964 (when GRACE highspeed photocomposition techniques were intro- duced), the Index Handbook of Cardiovascular

Agents, produced by IBM typewriter with modified

card-holding platen and by Listomatic camera,

Nuclear Science Abstracts, and International Aero- space Abstracts.

Duncan reports: "In 1961 the British National

Bibhography introduced the Fotohst camera using

eighty-column cards with entries typed on Varitypers (one line to each card) to produce the cumulative annual volumes of the BNB from intercalated

copy from the separate issues. It was so satisfac- tory as compared to hot metal, that the unit now

handles the British Technology Index, the British

Humanities Index, the British Education Index, and

the British National Film Catalogue, as well as an

increasing number of directories and membership

fists of all kinds."

Coates cites a special advantage from the standpoint of timefiness of secondary pubfications.

"The non-conventional method by which the British

Technology Index is produced probably varies

fittle in cost from the conventional processes with

single keyboarding . . . However, the pecufiar

virtue of this process, to us, is that is saves time.

This is all-important in our case because the utifity

of our pubfication is very much bound up with the

shortness of time-lag between the date upon which

an article appears in the technical press and the

date of the B.T.I, issue which records it."'^

" Markus. 1%2. p. 17. '^Rogers, 1964. p. 191.

'3 Markus, 1962. p. 17. " Ibid., p. 18. Duncan, 1964, p. 148.

'« Coales. 196.5, p. 45.

With respect to other British and West European

developments Duncan notes several simple 'cardshuffling' systems such as the Remington-Flexoprint

and the Kalamazoo-Photostrip. He describes

operation and appfication of the Dutch NHM (NoHot-Metal) system as follows: "The NHM system

proper was intended for web offset newspaper pro- duction and originally comprised a special version

of the IBM Executive typewriter with a special

register platen to allow the typed camera copy pro- duced to be spliced together accurately for make up,

a special justifying camera using anamorphic optical

stretching and headliner device and an editing

table with a cathode ray tube display which seemed

to foreshadow the devices reported from America

for newspaper mark-up. . . . "[The] NHM Cartoprint . . . has been used in Denmark for telephone directories (a similar system

has also been used in Holland) and part of it in this country to print the Woking Telephone Directory

(December 1961) and the gazetteer to Philips G. B. Road Atlas of Great Britain (six miles to the inch —

1962). The cards in this case are typed in a con- tinuous web which is subsequently cut and punched

with registration tags, assembled on metal storage

boards, and photographed column by column in pre-set page array by a special camera at five columns a minute." ^'^ Many commercial composition houses offer sequential card camera services on a service bureau

basis. Running charges usually average about 1 to IV2 cents per card, plus the cost of film. An advantage of service bureau operation is that it eliminates

the necessity for hiring specialized personnel to operate and maintain the camera and processor. The customer suppfies the camera-ready cards and

receives back either columns of film or completely

stripped up galleys.

3.2.2. Ribbon Impression Composing Machines

(Without Tape Perforators)

Typewriters and other ribbon impression composing devices may be divided into two major groups;

those that utifize perforated tapes or cards, and

those that do not. The standard office electric typewriters are monospacing devices and are there- fore not included in this report. Computer line printers are likewise monospacing and are not included, with the exception of certain chain printer

applications which involve simulation of boldface

and more versatile character sets than the uppercase-only fimitation found on most high speed

printers.

The IBM Executive is distinguished from other

electric typewriters in that it is a proportional spacing machine. There are a maximum of only five different spacing values, however, whereas in quafity printing there are usually 18 units of width,

and sometimes 36 or more. (On the IBM Executive, for example, the capital letter "M" would

" Duncan, 1964, p. 148.

17
occupy the largest of the five relative width values

whereas the small "i" would occupy the smallest

width value.) The significance of this feature for typescript, however, is two-fold: (1) it improves the

appearance of the printed page; and (2) it will pack

10-15% more characters onto the page. The IBM Executive is not equipped for perforating paper tapes. It is, however, suitable for typing

cards for sequential card camera systems, or for typing text to be photographed for reproduction,

offering the obvious advantage of proportional spacing over monospacing typewriters or tabulator

interpretation of keypunched characters.

Another machine which offers proportional spacing, but not tape perforation, is the Varityper. The

Varityper is perhaps the most versatile of the cold

type machines. Its primary disadvantage is that it cannot be operated by paper tape. It is quite

suitable, however, as a partner to the sequential

card camera. The Varityper has easily changeable

type fonts, two of which can be mounted on the

machine at any one time. This feature makes it possible to intermix light and bold face with Roman

and italics plus many special symbols, superscripts,

subscripts, and the like. Compared to an electric typewriter the Varityper

keyboard has a rather heavy touch, and the composing speed is somewhat slower because of the need

to make font changes and the requirements for the

manual insertion of each card individually. Horizontal spacing of characters is variable in four increments up to an escapement of V54 inch. A variety

of condensed type faces are available which can produce more characters of copy per page than any

electric typewriter available. Justification is computed automatically (but a retyping is required to justify) and spacing is variable from 0 to 18 points.

The Model 100 Varityper has a specially designed

card holder which accepts a tabulating card pre- punched with round and square alignment holes in columns 1 and 80 of the card to provide good

registration.

3.2.3. Perforated Paper Tape Systems

Turning now to the perforated tape equipment

for control of casting machines, it is to be noted

that keyboard operated devices producing the per- forated paper tape are sometimes combined with a typewriter to provide proof copy. In other cases,

a contrary opinion is advanced that the proof copy

is considered to be a distraction to the keyboard

operator and no printout mechanism is included.

Such nonprinting perforators, however, usually

provide right column justification information to aid the operator in the preparation of the copy. Punched card perforators are not included in this report, because until 1965 conventional punched

cards had such a restricted repertoire that they

could not represent both upper and lower case

letters as unique punching patterns in a single

column.

The Alphatype photocomposer employs a special

magnetic tape. It is omitted in this section, but

described in the section on photocomposing

machines.

Perforated paper tape output systems are commonly used:

(a) to drive a hot metal or phototypesetting

machine.

(b) as input to a special purpose hyphenationjustification computer.

(c) as input to a general purpose digital computer

designed or programmed for some degree of

typography computation.

3.2.4. Tape Perforators Without Printers

Composition tape perforators which do not have

cold type printers include the following:

Fairchild Graphic Standard Teletypesetter

Perforator

Fairchild Graphic Multiface Perforator

Mergenthaler Linomatic Perforator

ATF Typesetter Keyboard

Star Parts Perforator

Lanston Monotype Narrow Keyboard

Some of these keyboards are shown in Figures

14-18.

The Monotype wide tape keyboard produces a

perforated paper tape 4^/i6 inches wide containing

31 information hole positions. This tape contains

information on 255 selectable characters, and their

proportional spacing to provide right column justification. These tapes can drive a Monotype hot

metal type casting machine, or a Photon photocomposing machine adapted to read these tapes. In England, the Ferranti Pegasus computer has been

equipped to handle these 31 channel Monotype

tapes, and in the United States at least one attempt

has been made to use these tapes as computer inFlGURE 14. Fairchild (Graphic Standard Teletypesetter

perforator.

18
Figure 15. Fairchild Graphic Multiface perforator.

Figure 17. ATF Typesetter.

Figure 19. The Teletypesetter {TTS) code.

19
put. The Monotype narrow tape keyboard shown,

however, is compatible with the standard teletypesetter system.

3.2.5. Teletypesetter (TTS) Systems

All of the tape perforators above except the

Monotype wide tape unit can generate a 6-hole

Teletypesetter tape Vs inch wide, with 64 unique

code patterns. The Teletypesetter (TTS) system was introduced in 1932 by the Teletype Corporation,

which later divested its interests to the Fairchild

Graphic Equipment Division of the Fairchild

Camera & Instrument Corporation.

Teletypesetter tapes are widely used to transmit

newspaper copy via communication networks, in- cluding news stories and such material as stock

market tables. Tapes can be reproduced at dis- tant newspaper locations, and these tapes can be

fed directly into hot metal or phototypesetting machines that have been adapted for this purpose to produce final copy, fully justified and formatted.

Suitable type styles and point sizes can be selected

to match the desired column widths, which need

not be the same for the different newspapers re- ceiving the same initial copy. Unlike most other perforated paper tapes, Teletypesetter tapes employ an advanced-feed sprocket

hole so that the tapes cannot be read if they are introduced into the reader with the trailing end

first. Ironically, however, the tapes are symmetrical, with three code hole positions on either side

of the sprocket holes, so that they can be introduced

upside down, generating nonsense. The Teletypesetter code is an adaptation of the

5-level Baudot code, which has been used throughout the world in automatic telegraph and tele- printer (e.g., Teletype) equipment for many decades.

Before 1970 the Baudot code is expected to give

way to an international standard 7-bit code, repre- sented in a standard 1-inch 8-level perforated tape, as recommended by the Research and Engineering

Council of the Graphic Arts Industry.

Of the 64 unique codes in Teletypesetter tape,

four codes are generally used as "precedence

codes" to affect the operational meaning of codes

that succeed them, as follows:

Shift (for upper case)

Unshift (for lower case)

Upper Rail (boldface or italic) Lower Rail (Roman)

There are 19 other spacing, printing, format and

machine control codes which are unaffected by the

precedence codes, so that the available set of characters which can be set in type is 166. Some systems, used in local service, or by pre- arranged agreement between the sender and the

recipient of transmitted tapes, sacrifice the use of

two available codes (paper feed and quad right) in order to gain two additional precedence codes,

called Upper Magazine and Lower Magazine. The

Mergenthaler Linomatic is an example. This al- lows a hot metal machine, such as Linotype, to mix two different fonts. Quite complex counting

logic is required to keep track of the different

character widths in the two fonts, and still provide

justified copy, unless the two fonts are compatible

in widths.

The complete TTS code is shown in Figure 19.

It includes upper and lower case alphabetic char

acters, numerals, punctuation symbols, and all of

the control functions necessary for hot metal Unecasting machines. Where three symbols are shown for a given code, this means that a choice can be made between two different standard TTS

codes in common use. Either fractions Vs to Vs

are available for printing stock market tables, or the ligatures (ff. fi. fl. ffi. and ffl) are available for printing of text. The question mark and ampersand

are available in both sets, but with different code

patterns.

It has been claimed that the introduction of tapeoperated line-casting has driven the "first sig- nificant wedge between the mental and mechanical

functions involved in typesetting."'^ In addition,

this type of equipment offers production advantages

in the printing shop itself. Thus, "the impulses

actuating the keyboard are uniformly timed causing the mats to be assembled with less chance of

piling up, thereby enabling the machine to be

operated at a faster number of slugs per minute."

3.2.6. Tape Perforators With Ribbon Impression

Printers

Tape perforators without associated printing devices for producing hard copy, and intended primarily for the mechanical control of hot-metal

casting machines, have been noted. However,

keyboarding devices for the simultaneous production of both readily legible copy and machine-usable

paper tape serve several major purposes: These

include:

(1) Since the tape is machine-usable, it is also machine-re-usable, e.g., for the merging of

variable address information with common

message or text corpus and especially for the

insertion of editing instructions and corrections to previously composed text.

(2) Humanly-legible copy is desired for on-line

error-correction control and for proofreading

generally: "The original 'Monotype' system,

and teletypesetter systems, all placed rehance

on the operator being able to 'read' the codes on the tape, i.e., to examine and understand

them, but as codes become more complex and

systems of alteration and merging faster and more automatic it is better to provide a 'plain'

language output."^" Furthermore, in photocomposition systems, problems of page revi-

"* "(^tmputfrizcd Typesetlinj:," 1964. p. 1.

'' Hoffman. 1959, p. 192.

•" Duncan. 1964. p. 129.

20
sion and insertion of corrections are severe,

therefore. . . hard copy is becoming more

essential in order to produce clean tape to put into a phototypesetting unit. . . (3) A single keyboarding operation provides both

control information and material for multipurpose use. Examples involving paper-tape

production of library catalog card information

and of even more comprehensive systems en- visioning the complete cycle from original

manuscript preparation through pubhcation

to automatic derivation of related biblio- graphic data will be discussed in a later section of this report.

Ribbon impression typewriters that can operate

tape perforators include the following:

Friden Flexowriter

Friden LCC-S Justowriter

Friden Justowriter

Remington Rand Synchro-Tape

Smith Corona Typetronic

Mergenthaler Linofilm Keyboard

IBM 870 Document writing system

IBM 1050 Data Communication Terminal

Dura Mach-10

Invac TMP 200

Invac TMP 100

Greene Data Tape Letteriter

Soroban Tape Key Punch

Crosfield Roboset 18

Photon Keyboard

The machines hsted above are basically electric

office typewriters combined with paper tape perforators. In some cases the tape perforator is built into the frame of the typewriter and is driven

by the same motor. In other cases, the tape per- forator is external to the typewriter.

Communication teleprinter tape perforators are

not included here because these machines have

historically been monocase, printing upper case

in the United States and England, and lower case

in Germany and other parts of Europe. In a year

or two communication teleprinters should be avail- able in dual case versions with internationally

standardized 7-bit codes and 8-level perforated

tapes, the extra level allowing a parity bit to be

included for each tape character.

The printer-tape perforators listed above can

generally perforate the Vs inch 6-level teletypesetter (TTS) code. They are also used with

inch 7-level tape or 1 inch 8-level tape, but the tape

codes are far from standardized, being computer

codes or unique codes. The Letteriter is a pneumatically operated machine having a code not used

in any other equipment. The Linofilm perforates

a 15-level tape, for typesetting purposes only, with

each tape character containing information on the

character and its font, size and width, or a machine

control function.

• • ••

••• • ••

• ••••••••• • •

• ••••• •• • •• • • • • • k

• • • ••• ••• ••••• • • • • ••• • • • • • •

I I I I I • I i • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Figure 20. Perforated tapes used in typesetting.

Figure 20 illustrates some of the perforated paper

tapes currently used for typesetting, taken from pro- duction samples, including an example of at least one keystroking error.

3.3. Photocomposition Equipment

The introduction of photocomposition techniques

has been described as the third major development,

following movable type and hot metal casting, to change the structure of the printing industry.'^"^ "The classical method of 'setting type' as a pre- liminary to actual printing operations has been

supplemented during the last two decades by 'photocomposition.' In this latter process, images of

the successive characters that are to appear on a printed page are projected by an optical system

onto successive portions of a sheet of photosensitive material. This is developed and used as the

basis of offset or letterpress reproduction."-^

As we have seen, in the chronological outline

given earlier, from the Photon (Lumitype) work of

about 1945 onward and the introduction of computer programs to drive photocomposers (IBMMergenthaler and Bozman for the Linofilm, Barnett

for Photon), a number of techniques and devices

H. P, Whillaker. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965,

p. 171.

' "Phototypesetling Picks Up the Pace." Business Week, Dec. 14. 1%3. p. 158.

' Barnett et al., 1962, p. 59.

21
have occurred up to the more recent developments

involving the use of electronic character generators

in photocomposition systems. Deferring discussion of the latter developments, we will first consider briefly the principles underlying photocomposition techniques and then discuss classes of

available and proposed photocomposer devices

and systems.

.3.3.1. Techniques of Photocomposition

Photocomposition involves the transfer of optical

characters from a negative master onto a photographic emulsion, with provision for proper illumi- nation, image formation, magnification or reduction,

and positioning of each image. Many techniques

and configurations of mechanical, optical and elec- tronic equipment have been devised to accom- phsh photocomposition.

These are "machines, which, typically, photograph letters and numbers and produce pictures

of columns of type. These pictures can then be

pasted into a page layout, which is photographed

again. The resulting negative is used to make a photoengraving of the page that is used in the

actual printing."'^''

Typographic quality output is achieved in photocomposition by automatic selection of the right one

of relatively large sets of characters, by point size adjustments including those necessary for subscripts and superscripts, by controlled positioning,

and by insertion of special symbols and characters.

Thus, for example, as described by Barnett,

Kelly, and Bailey: "In photocomposition . . . suc- cessive characters along a line are displayed with

collinear base lines, regardless of their magnification (i.e.) point size. . . . The same character is displayed in different point sizes, in photocomposition, by the use of different lenses. . . . Special

characters can appear anywhere in a text, and can be magnified and spaced in the same ways as ordinary alphabetic characters."

The generation, accurate placement, and per- manent storage of hundreds or thousands of highquahty symbols per second demand that opticalphotographic techniques be employed, since the

speeds are too great to permit mechanical symbol

selection. Photography on film or paper seems to offer the preferred recording method, although

other graphic storage techniques, such as electrostatic, thermographic, thermoplastic, photochromic

or video signals on magnetic tape offer alternate

recording possibilities. However, since all photocomposers existing or under development appear

to use photographic recording, we can start at the

light-sensitive emulsion, and explore the various

methods used to form and position the optical

images.

High-speed photocomposers may be classed

broadly into six principal categories:

a. Those which have a stationary master glass

liluinl.-ll. \')M. p. 2K. " Barnett ct al.. 1962. p. Wl-M.

grid from which the symbols are selected, sized

and positioned onto the photographic emulsion

by purely optical-mechanical means. An ex- ample of this is the Mergenthaler Linofilm System.

b. Those which have the symbols on a spinning

master glass grid and a single stroboscopic flash tube that can be flashed at the proper instant to select any desired character, with size control,

imaging and positioning by optical-mechanical means. Examples of this are the Photon 200,

500, and 700 series machines and the HarrisIntertype spinning disc photocomposer.

c. Those which have the symbols on a sta- tionary master glass grid, with a separate flash tube for each symbol, a reciprocating lens which

positions all symbols across a complete line through an optical tunnel, with the various flash tubes being fired as each symbol is imaged in each

of its desired positions in the hne, permitting a complete hne to be composed in one pass of the

lens. The only machine of this type is the

Photon 900 (Zip or GRACE) machine, the first of

which was dehvered to the National Library

of Medicine in 1964.

d. Those which have the symbols on a sta- tionary master glass grid, steadily illuminated

and optically projected onto a light-sensitive

cathode of an image-dissecting tube, which si- multaneously produces scanned video electron

beams from all symbols, one of which is allowed

to pass through an electrostatic wire grid selection

matrix to produce a video brightening signal for a high-resolution cathode ray display tube, with

positioning and size on the display tube being

controlled electronically. The only such machine of this type is the Mergenthaler-CBS Linotron system being developed for delivery to the

Government Printing Office and the Air Force in 1967, employing the CBS "Reconotron" image

dissector-scanner, and the CBS "Microspot"

high-resolution cathode-ray display tube.

e. A special cathode-ray tube employing a beam-shaping metal plate perforated with the

symbol shapes, with means to cause the electron

beam to impinge on any symbol area, emerging

as a shaped electron beam, which can be deflected

to display the symbol at any position on the

face of the cathode-ray tube. An example is the Charactron tube, employed in photocomposers

built by the Stromberg Carlson Division of the

General Dynamics Corp., such as the S-C 4020.

The repertoire of symbols is usually severely

hmited to less than 100.

f. Methods employing a conventional or highresolution cathode-ray tube to display the symbols as they are generated by some means which

will produce suitable beam deflections and video

brightening to form the symbols.

3.3.2. Classes of Photocomposers

There are many simple keyboard or manual dial operated photocomposers for making heading and

22
19 Typography for 30 typoQRaph 50 Typography

11 Typog 20 Typography f 31 Jypagwp 51 Typography f

13B III' Ell 3 21 Typography fo 33 Tqpograp 52 Typography

13 TyPOGRAP 23 Typography f 34 Typography f 53 lypogtapWi

16 Typograph 24 '^(/fd^vifi^ jmu t 36 Typography 54 Typograp

17 Typography 25 Typography for 37 Zypogmpkyf 55 Typog

18 Typography f 2S Typography fo 38 ^((p(X}naftit^ (

27 TNlfXgxSBAPKl 45 Pea$....6 ~ 60 Typography for

28 tiffe^Mfk^ ic 40 Typography forms 61 Jypogfaphyf

29 Typography f 49 Typography fo 62 Typograp

Fk.URE 21. Samfile Output, Varityper Series 800 Fftotocom- posing machines.

SCRIPTS f4L

CALLIGRAPHIC STYLES Aa TXu. Aa

CONTEMPORARY CASUALS HaAa Md na

FREE STYLES & NOVELTIES Aa /in ROMANS Aa iXci Aa

SANS SERIFS MA nO SQUARE SERIFS h Aa Aa Aa

EXTENDS DS Aa Aa AO.

18 Point ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ.,

FUTURA abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz & I? Demibold 1234567890 i23456789o $$<%/.,:;'""-()...

s6f>^t 1234567890 '^3^678qo scy,/ -.() •

hi son TSFI IDOFt Smill Hid Ri| mi lifii Eilnl

Ripi Roll Rfilli Roll Roll Rgll Roll Sock Slchi S*l Slio SIIO Silo Silo SIto Slio Tin Ilni Oi Pi Pit Plot Ub Hod Lit UOl Plol Roi. eoi. 10 Oi. Lb Ub 01 Till Bit Boi Bolt Boil Bolt Btit Btl Btl. Btl. Boi BoDCb Cihot Com Coo Coo Con Con Con Coo Lb IIHIT of

300 JOO WSo), Qt 80i 10 01 WOi 2 Lb Glint Con Cto. Count Ctn. Oop Osion Co Font) Flltb Fiooh Gil Gigu Hoodl Joi lor Pit Plit Pbi Pbi Pl| Pt| Pis

Figure 22. Sample Output, Friden Typro.

title strips. Examples of such machines are the

Filmotype, Headliner, Typro, Hadego, Foto-Riter,

Protype, Photo Typositor, and Strip Printer. These

are machines which "use the principle of exposing

individual characters one at a time from a master

pattern on a strip of photosensitive paper which

can then be simply developed." For example,

the Dutch phototypesetting machine, Hadego, in- volves manual assembly of character matrices

(white on a black plastic material) into a special

composing stick and setting of the desired enlargement factor with a range of sizes from 4 through

82 point.'^^ Samples of some of the character set, type size, makeup and display advantages of such

devices are illustrated in Figures 21 and 22. Traditional hot metal typecasting machines have

also been modified into photocomposing machines.

Examples are the Fotosetter, Fotomatic and Monophoto. Concurrently with these evolutionary modifications of hot metal machines into photocomposers, there has been a steady development of

freshly-designed photocomposing machines, per- mitting greater flexibihty and a breakthrough in the composing speed barrier imposed by the

mechanical symbol selection necessary in typecasting.

Table 1 shows the range in speed attainable from

various American-built photocomposers.

In 1964, the Lanston Monotype Company intro- duced the "Monophoto," an adaptation of the Monotype hot metal typecaster. Monophoto utilizes a separate punched paper tape keyboard, which is a slightly modified version of the Monotype keyboard. The output from the keyboard is a 31

» Hoffinan, 1959, p. 196. " "Filmsetting and Cold Type Methods," 1964, p. 8.

Table 1. Speeds of Automated Photocomposers

Theoretical Text Composing Speed,

Characters/Second

Photocomposer

Lanston Monophoto 3 ATF Typesetter 5-6

Harris-Intertype Fotosetter and

Fotomatic 6-8

Photon Spinning Disc Series 200 and 500 8-10

Filmotype Alphatype

Mergenthaler Linofilm 10-18

Harris-Intertype Spinning Disc 20 Photon Spinning Disc Series 700 22 Photon Series 900 (ZIP or GRACE) 300-500

Mergenthaler Linotron*...' 1,000-10.000 General Dynamics S-C 4020 12,500-17.400*=^ Benson Lehner Transdata 62,500

*First delivery to the GPO in late 1967. **Repertoire limited to 64 or 88 symbols.

channel paper tape which is used to drive the

photo unit. The photo unit is similar in physical design and

in operating characteristics to the Monotype leadcaster. The film negatives are mounted in in- dividual single character matrices and are stored

in a matrix case with room for 255 individual matrices (characters) as in standard Monotype systems.

The optical system (diagramed in Fig. 23) utiHzes a 40-watt hght source which is directed through a condensing lens, through the die case (particular

character), through two right-angle prisms, through

a magnification lens and then onto a single piece

of sheet film which has been taped onto a drum.

23
Prism

Ftxecl tof 6 ' 1 2 potnt. adjustable for 1 4 - 24 pomi

Lens

Position (Of 1 4-24 point

Poiitton for 6 - 1 2 point

Fk.URE 23. Monophoto Optical System.

Changes in point size are accomplished by changing the position of the lens. Corresponding

changes in spacings between letters and set sizes are accomplished by moving a gear shift lever. Leading (vertical spacing between lines) is variable

within a hmited range. The effective speed of

the tape operated photo unit is three characters

per second.

Although this machine is apparently the slowest

of the available photocomposers, it has been

pointed out that "the chief virtue of the 'Monophoto'

has been that it has acted as a bridge between hot

metal casting and photocomposition and has given

works managers sufficient experience of film cor- rection techniques to know that they are better

avoided.'"-^

The ATF Typesetter (Figure 17). made by the

American Type Founders, Inc., consists of two

units, a keyboard unit and a photo unit. Both

units have a keyboard and perforated tape reader.

The keyboard unit is basically a Flexowriter which

has been modified by the inclusion of width card

circuits for indication of justification range plus

the addition of special functions. The keyboard

does not punch the width information for each char- acter into the tape. The photographic unit has

identical width cards from which the width infor- mation is obtained. The photo unit has an optical

matrix disc that holds 168 characters, hmiting the

type mixing ability to two fonts. Different point

" Duncan. 1964, p. 140.

sizes are obtained by using different discs, but this requires manual changing of discs. The disc is held stationary for each exposure, and is controlled

by an 8-level perforated tape from a computer or from the keyboard unit, or it can be controlled by

the keyboard on the photo unit without the use of

perforated tape.

The speed of the basic model is about 5-6 characters per second. Duncan notes that the ATF

typesetter (Model B) uses a disc with 3 sets of 168

characters and that these models retain "the justowriter's ability to edit on the job by stopping composition at any time and overriding the tape with

a manual keyboarding . . . [and] to read the

justification and instruction codes before setting

the Une even though these codes occur later in the tape than the character codes being set." In 1949, a modification of the Intertype line- casting machine was made commercially available.

The modification was such that each matrix had its casting mold replaced by a window surrounding

an optical master of the symbol represented by

that matrix. The matrices are selected one-by-one

and assembled into a Une, as in line-casting, but

instead of casting a fine, the line of symbols is photographed. Then the matrices are automatically returned to their storage magazines, as in line-casting, and a new line is composed. This

machine is known as the "Fotosetter" (Figure 24). The Fotosetter fonts are contained in individual

»Ibid., pp. 146-147. 24
Figure 25. Photon disc.

Figure 24. Intertyi>e Fotosetter.

single-character matrices in the form of the trans- parent images and are stored in four magazines

having 117 channels each. It is necessary to maintain a supply of each character. The Fotosetter does have a lens system, however, which

eliminates the need for matrices in different point

sizes. That is, "by exposure to a turret-type camera the images are photographed in a number

of possible sizes: the result is a film that is ex- tremely sharp." The Fotosetter is widely used

in book pubhshing and operates at 6-8 characters

per second.

In 1964 Intertype introduced the "Fotomatic"

machine which can use upper and lower rail dualletter matrices, or the single-letter matrices of the

Fotosetter. Photon, Inc., of Wilmington, Massachusetts,

originated a new class of photocomposer (following

the inventions of Moyroud and Higgonet), having

the master matrix of characters on a spinning disc, as shown in Figure 25, with an intense strobe Ught

accurately timed to flash as the desired character comes into position. A mechanically-operated

lens and prism system controls the size and placement of each character onto a roll of photographic

film.The matrix discs of Photon machines provide

for sets of 1440 characters which are etched onto

eight concentric annuh on a disc of opaque material

and standard size. Many different Photon discs

have been designed and, in addition, as in use by

the American Mathematical Society, Pi-mat attachSKEiEBS 540 TAPEMASTKR

JUST A FEW ADVANTAGES OF THE PHOTON

Here for the first lime is a typesclling lechnique that enables you to produce galley after galley of leiicr-pcrfect t>pography—with little more efTon than it takes to type a page of copy! Here is a type composing technique that permits you to mix type sizes and faces instantaneously ... to correct

errors without "killing" lines ... to turn out razor sharp

area composition. Here is a completely self-contained "composing room"

... a compact task force of typesetting equipment that

ofTers and delivers unlimited versatility . . . unparalleled economies. The 540 Tapemaster— for peak efficiency—consists of a number of upe-perforating keyboards, a single photographic unit and a control unit with tape reader. This

system allows full capacity operation and permits the printer 10 double or even triple his output with a mini- mum outlay of capital.

540 TAPEMASTER

PHOTON 540 FEATURES

• 10 characiers-a-second output from tape

• Unlimrted mixing of style and size

in the same line

• 16 typefaces—12 sizes—5 point

to 72 point

• Fingertip access to at least 192

type fonts

• Length of all line setting in pica measures

• Line lengths up to 42 picas

• Corrections v/ithout "killing" whole

lines

• Automatic line justification of mixed

type

• Automatic quaddtng. leaders, centering

CONSOLIDATION OF THE COMPOSING ROOM OPERATION PHOTON newsmaker in phototypesetting

Wilmington. Massachusetts

» Hoffman. 1959. p. 196. Figure 26. Photon Series 540 Tapemaster.

25
Figure 27. l^hoton photofiraphic system.

ments can be provided, consisting of an auxiliary

disc whicli contains up to 8 interchangeable characters. The optics arrangement is such that any

one of these Pi-mat positions can be reached by

keyboarding.

"When the machine is in operation, the disc

rotates at a high speed about a fixed axis. During

each revolution of the disc, a Hght beam may be

projected along a fixed path, through one of the

annuU on the disc that is etched with characters.

The illumination persists for a time interval that

is very short compared with the period of rotation

of the disc. An almost static image of any single

character on the disc thus can be produced for a very short time interval during each rotation. The

timing of the burst of illumination and the choice

of annulus determine which character is displayed

during any rotation."^' Switching between annul!, as required, is accomplished by mechanical

displacement of the disc axis. The Photon Model 200 is operable either by keyboard or from paper tape. The members of the

^' Bamelt el al., 1962. p. 59.

newer 500 series such as the 540, shown in Figure 26, were designed specifically for tape operation and

therefore separate the keyboard from the photo

unit. The Photon can mix 16 different type styles of

90 characters each in 12 different point sizes ranging from 5 point to 92 point for a total of 17,280

characters available at the keyboard without changing magazines or fonts. When a character to be

photographed is selected, a stroboscopic flash of

light (four milhonths of a second) optically floods the corresponding character at the proper instant

and exposes its image through appropriate lenses onto photographic film or paper. One character can be exfposed at each revolution of the disc. The

speed of the disc which is 8 to 10 revolutions per

second is therefore a determining factor in the

composing speed of these Photon models.

The variable escapement unit carries the prism

shown in Figure 27 which directs the beam of light onto the film. This is a mechanical movement

which could not be too effectively speeded up with- out creating mechanical problems due to mass

26
and vibration. The leading unit drives the film take-up magazine thus providing the vertical spacing between hues. It can provide spacing from

.1 point to 49.9 points for each leading code and will operate in the forward or reverse direction.

The perforated tape that drives Photon models

constructed prior to the magnetic tape machines

(GRACE and ZIP) contains in coded form the

specifications for the appropriate track (half an

annulus) on which the desired character is located,

the sequence number of the position of the desired

character along the track, the lens setting which

determines the magnification or point size factor and, in most models, a precise width or escapement

code which sets the distance required between the

leftmost edge of the desired character and that of

the character to follow. An exception to the latter case is the Photon

513 (as used, for example, with the RCA 301 computer at Perry pubhcations). The 513 uses only a

single code for each character together with infor- mation as to fine space deficit and hence the word

spaces required for justification. "The 513 ac- cepts a 6-level code without information as to widths

of the characters. Therefore, the width has to be re-generated in the machine and justification has

to be re-calculated."

The Photon 500 series, in general, provides

various tape-driven units which operate from 6-,

7-, or 8-bit (channel) perforated tape. The model

R. A. Higgonet. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings," 1965,

p. 223.

560 (as used by Barnett, for example) operates

with 8-channel tape. The character code for 560

operation has two components: the character

identification code itself and the precise escapement code which is the relative width value for the character. Operating speed for actual typesetting in 560 systems is at 8 characters per second.

The total number of bits required is 16, however

the Photon accepts this as two successive 8 bit codes. The keyboard unit produces the char-, acter identification in standard 8-level paper tape.

(Photon will provide a special tape reader and translator for any of the various codes which employ

8-level tape.) The relative width identification is added by the photo unit by the use of printed circuit width cards for each type font. It should be noted

that Photon is now offering photo units which will accept standard Monotype tapes (31 channel) and

standard TTS tapes (6 channel).

In 1964 the Harris-Intertype Corporation intro- duced a spinning disc photocomposer, similar in principle to the Photon spinning disc machines,

having a strobe flash of one microsecond, and a disc speed capable of yielding 20 characters per

second (Figures 28-30).

At the "Westprint 1964" exposition held in Los

Angeles June 7-13, 1964, this equipment was

first publicly demonstrated in operation along with

the Intertype Monarch typesetting machine. The

Intertype disc is of glass inscribed with 480 differ- ent characters. Nineteen different point sizes,

from 5 to 72, can be accommodated. Output is to either film or photographic paper.

HARRIS-INTERTYPE ELECTRONIC PHOTOGRAPHIC TYPESETTING SYSTEM

The Photographic Print-out Unit is the heart of the System. With an exposure

rate of up to 20 type characters per second it is capable of processing

the output of four or more Keyboard Consoles. It automatically produces

type on film or photographic paper In 19 sizes from 5 pt. through 72 pt.

Figure 28. Harris-Intertype system.

27

KEYBOARD

231-313 OL-67-3
Fl(;URE 29. H(irris-lntertyi>e inslallaiion. J i(,L iit 30. Harris-Intertype equipment.

The system is composed of two basic units — one,

a keyboard used to prepare copy in the form of per- forated tape (6-, 7-, and 8-channels) to activate either

hot-metal or photocomposition machines, and the

other, a relatively high-speed photocompositor unit. Built-in justification-hyphenation techniques in- volve the use of various combinations of manual

monitoring (Series 100), logical rules (Series 200)

and logical rules plus an exception dictionary of

up to 10,000 words.

Six-channel tape inputs enable use of four fonts

intermixed, and the 7-bit code keyboard allows up

to eight fonts to be processed and mixed. It is also possible to accept wire service copy and to re- justify and rehyphenate as necessary. Prior to the 1964 Westprint demonstration, prototype in- stallations were field tested at Graphic Services,

Inc., for book composition applications and at the

South Bend Tribune.

In quick competition, the Linofilm system was

introduced by Mergenthaler Linotype Co., after the appearance of the Photon spinning disc machines. In Linofilm, the master characters are stored on glass grids, one of which is shown in Figure 31. There are 88 symbols on a grid, cor- responding to the 88 symbols on an electric typewriter. Eighteen of these grids are stored in a

turret, as shown in Figure 32. Choice between

these 18 grid fonts is under tape-code control. Thus 1,584 characters are available under tape

control, and additional grids can be substituted

manually if needed.

For each type style, there are usually three dif- ferent grid fonts of 88 characters to give proper

proportionality to the characters. The font series are designated A. B. and C. for small, medium, and

large point sizes. It therefore uses three different

size fonts, each covering a separate portion of the

total range of point sizes. In the Linofilm system, a selected grid font is stationary at the time the character is being photographed. A flash tube exposes the entire 88-

character font, and a shutter system consisting of

a series of eight shutters masks out all but the one

character called for. A series of 88 "lenslets" carry the light to a collimator which projects the

character in the proper plane. At this point, the

image is magnified by a pair of lenses mounted on

a sliding bar which provides the variable magnification. From here the image is redirected by a

front surfaced mirror to the film plane. The mirror

is mounted on a sliding bar which moves across the

page as the line is being exposed.

The Linofilm system consists basically of a keyboard unit and a photo unit. Its keyboard unit

Figure 31. Linofilm ^rid font.

28
Figure 32. Linofilm inid font turret.

produces a 15-channeI tape which includes character identification and width values. The photo unit operates from the 15-channel

paper tape and automatically changes font and

type size and composes onto film at a maximum

speed of from 10 to 18 characters per second. Additional time is used up by font changes, lens changes, and the interlock between hnes. The

output from the Linofilm photo unit is positive film or paper which is processed in a darkroom by

photographic processing methods.

Mergenthaler has introduced a Linofilm converter which will convert magnetic tape produced

on a computer into 15-channel Linofilm paper tape.

Mergenthaler has also introduced the Linofilm

"Quick," a photo unit that operates directly from

6-channel Teletypesetter perforated tape.

A pioneering example of the use of a Linofilm

photo unit in conjunction with a large general

purpose computer was that of the Russian translation project at the IBM Thomas Watson Research

Center at Yorktown Heights, New York. Here it was necessary to provide buffering to step down

the high speed of magnetic tape (200 microseconds

per character as computer output) to that acceptable

to the photocomposer (20 milliseconds per character). A set of relays replaced the normal paper

tape input action.^^ This was also the equipment

used in Bozman's first work.

The Linofilm system includes the Linofilm Composer which is used for positioning, and for enlarging or reducing any fine to exactly the size required

with no reference at all to conventional point sizes. This simplifies the work of the make-up man as all he need indicate to the keyboard operator is the

type face and size that falls within the extremes of

the finished job. The keyboard operator has a simphfied job as well since he need not shift from

^ International Business Machines Corp., '"Graphic Composing Techniques," 1962,

p. 18-19.

Figure 33. Linofilm system.

one size to another. (A complete Linofilm System

is illustrated in Figure 33.)

The composer operator works from a layout on

tracing paper which is placed over the screen of

the composer. He loads the exposed and processed

film from the photo unit into the composer, and by

manipulating four simple controls, he can take

any type up to 36 point from the photo unit, reduce

it two-thirds, or enlarge it to six timc^- its original

size — a range of from 4 to 216 points. He can set lines at any angle up to 90°. Duncan reports that "the keyboard has recently

been modified to include mixing facilities ('Linamix') and editing simplified by a tape merging and

reproofing device ('Tape Combiner')."

As in the case of the Photon spinning disc machines and other disc-type photocomposers,.'speed

is essentially hmited by the mechanical system. "In Linofilm, the shutter, magnification system, and

escapement system all have mechanically moving

parts with considerable mass to overcome. "^^ Nevertheless, "the Linofilm is built hke a battleship

and produces a fine quahty product. "^^ The Alphatype, made by the Filmotype Corporation, is comprised of three units. The keyboard

unit is an electric typewriter. The recorder unit

records characters and controls on a special 10- channel magnetic tape, employing mixed frequencies on the continuously moving tape, which is started and stopped by means of a foot pedal. This

tape is not compatible with any computer. A width

card for each font provides 15 widths, from 4 to 18

units, for the different symbols. The character

width and hne justification information are gen- erated by the recorder unit and recorded on the

magnetic tape.

» Duncan, 1964, p. 144.

•^ Sparks et al., 1964, p. 178. ^ Duncan, 1964, p. 144. 29
Prim Carrier Companrrwnt Slot lor Insortmg Font

Figure 34. Alphatype photocomposer.

That is, "justification operations are calculated on the recorder and inserted when the carriage

return-line-feed button is pressed."''^ This tape is read into the photo unit at a speed 30 percent faster than the recording speed. Maximum recording

speed is about 8.5 characters per second, and the

corresponding playback speed is about 11 characters per second.

Keyboarding speeds are reported as up to 60

words per minute, and typeset copy "is composed

at speeds up to thirteen characters a second on

the exposure unit in reverse order onto film or photopaper."^^

The optical characters are contained in a manually-changeable grid of 84 characters. The grid

has two positions, automatically selected, and there

are 3 shutters, 5 flash tubes, and 21 lenslets to provide selection and optical gathering.

A Japanese spinning disc photocomposer, the

Sapton, is reported to have speeds of about 6-7

characters per second.''^ A special case of a spinning disc photocomposing device is the PHOTODRAFT system of the Keuffel and Esser [K & E]

Company which allows an operator to transcribe

^' Duncan, 1964. p. 147. "Ibid. TM "Filmselting and Cold Type Methods", 1964, p. 7.

Fl(;URE 35. K & E enixineerin^ sy mbol disc.

from an engineer's sketch on graph paper fined for synchronization with the keyboard unit to produce

tape to control the photocomposer and prepare a finished schematic. Up to 168 symbols are available, as shown in Figure 35. Photon's development of the GRACE (Graphic

Arts Composing Equipment) for the National

Library of Medicine provided the basis for the commercially available equivalent, the ZIP. The

Photon "ZIP" or 900 series photocomposers, intro- duced in 1964, represent a substantial operational

breakthrough in the speed barrier, permitting composition at speeds of 300 to 500 characters per

second, fully justified fines up to 8 inches in length,

with a choice of 264 different characters while

operating on a single pass. Operating principles of Zip are illustrated in Figures 36 and 37. The only moving parts in ZIP

are (1) a travelfing lens that traverses the page hori- zontally composing a line with each sweep; and (2) the film advance mechanism. The mass of the

lens is intentionally kept small. Stationary matrix

plates contain the character images. By means of an optical device comprising two parallel mirrors,

all the images in the same vertical column are directed to the same point of the film. Instead of

a single light source, ZIP uses a separate flash tube

for each character. The flash tubes flash at the

precise time that the travelling lens is in the proper

position with respect to the character matrix. The

electronic timing system takes into account the

proper escapement for each character, the value of

word spaces, the location of each character on the

matrix plate, and the position of the travelling lens. The film advances to the position for the next fine during the lens return stroke.

30
Figure 36. ZIP optical system.

,^1- Aj

1

1

1

I

1

21LAMPS

Figure 37. ZIP reciprocatinf: lens. The type matrixes are manually interchangeable,

permitting a wide choice of fonts and symbols.

The first machine of the ZIP class, known as GRACE, was dehvered in 1964 to the' National

Library of Medicine, at Bethesda, Maryland, where

it is currently composing the massive monthly /nc?ejc

Medicus. (Figure 38.)

On the day of installation at NLM (May 20, 1964) one of the co-inventors of the Photon machines said

that the new equipment represented "the first radical departure from all conventional typesetting

machines as it is 20 times faster than any existing

machine on the market."^" He also stressed

another feature of interest to designers of information storage, selection and retrieval systems: "By

turning . . . knobs [of the control console], you

can select a given page from the roll of input magnetic tape, and cause this particular page to be

composed. You can extract a page or special

article. The National Library of Medicine will

' Moyroud, 1964, p. 105.

31
Figure 38. GRACE instailation. National Library of Medicine.

Utilize this feature to supply a print of an

article . . ."^^ The Mergenthaler Linotype Company has under

development, in cooperation with CBS Laboratories, an all optical-electronic page composing photocomposer to be known as the Linotron. The first Linotrons are scheduled for delivery to the U.S. Government Printing Office and the U.S. Air Force

in early 1967. The Linotron has glass matrix grids of characters,

similar to Linofilm grids except that there are 256

characters on a grid, and the grids may be selected

and changed under automatic control. The entire

grid is steadily iUuminated and optically projected onto the light-sensitive cathode of an imagedissecting tube. This image dissector tube is similar in principle to the earliest television camera

tubes. It produces scanned video electron beams

from aD 256 symbols, but only one of these beams

is allowed to pass through an electrostatic wire

grid selection matrix. This selected beam then

passes through an electron multiplier, where it is amplified to become a video brightening signal for a

high-resolution cathode ray display tube. The

images of the symbols thus formed on this display

tube are accurately controlled for size and position

by electronic means, are optically imaged and photographed onto film. An entire page is composed

while the film is held stationary.

Film advance between pages, and grid changes

to accommodate additional fonts are thus the only

mechanically moving parts in the Linotron system.

A grid change takes about V2 second. For this reason, the Linotron is programmed to compose all of the symbols from one grid onto the entire page. Then the grid is changed and the symbols from it are added to the page whenever required, etc. A

grid change can occur during film advance to save

time.

During composition of a page in the "galley proof

mode" the Linotron can compose at a speed of about

10,000 characters per second. "If you can content

yourself with lower output quality, the machine can

do 10,000 characters per second at 6, 8, and 10

•" Moyroud, 1964, p. 109.

32
points, or about 5,000 characters per second in all point sizes. What we do here is to cut out the

alignment servo. The output is not perfectly

aligned, but it is adequate for most proofing pur- poses. "^^ When operating in its normal composing

mode, with electronic servo systems operating to provide accurate placement of each symbol, then

the speed of the Linotron is about 1,000 characters

per second.

The Linotrons being built for the Air Force will also provide for the generation of graphical material,

such as line art illustrations, continuous tone illus- trations and screened halftone illustrations in a separate video display system, with optical mixing

of the lexical and graphical material.

Because of its high speed, the Linotron will be

driven by computer-generated magnetic tape,

rather than by perforated tape, since the fastest available perforated tape optical readers do not read much above 1,000 characters per second.

As Duncan reported in 1964, "in addition to ZIP

several other electronic composers are under development: One in England (with a specification similar

to ZIP, but using a rather more highly developed

keyboard for input. . . ." At the July 1964, Computer Typesetting Conference, Schwartz described the proposed Alphanumeric Photocomposer system to be operationally

coupled with a computer sometime about mid-1965.

While not intended to be made commercially avail- able, the system as planned represents an interesting

compromise between high speed (4,000 characters

per second) and a less restricted character set (270

at any one time, comprising any 3 of up to 700 90- character fonts available on magnetic tape) than

most of the high speed character generators.

Some details of the Alphanumeric specifications

are as follows: "The maximum line length the system

can accommodate is eight inches of 48 pica.

Printed type can vary in size from six to fourteen

points. The only movable element in the entire

system is the film transport which moves the film

at constant speed past the character generator.

When film is in the proper position for printing, an

entire hne of information is scanned across the

cathode ray tube and is directed to the film via an appropriate lens. ...

"Type fount characters to be printed are previously coded and stored on magnetic tape which

acts as a slow access bulk storage medium . . . The computer itself can hold in rapid access storage over three founts of 90 characters each. Any of

these 270 characters can be intermixed on a Hne . . . When composing with six point characters, the

output speed will be approximately 4,000 characters

per second. It will be reduced to approximately

850 characters per second when printing fourteen

point type."^^

"Corrado. 1964, p. lU. « Duncan, 1964, p. 136. " Schwartz remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedmgs ', 1965, pp. 188-191.

Character patterns to be displayed via the CRT

generator are encoded with a digitized coding

scheme which minimizes the total information

needed to be stored so that the equivalent of 63,000

different characters can be stored on a single reel of high density magnetic tape. It is further claimed

that "the handhng of characters in this manner

aUows the user the capability of designing, coding,

storing, copying, and generating type fount characters of any design or size without dependence upon

the manufacturer."^^

A sUghtly higher speed, and a more restricted

character set is provided in the British Rank-Xerox

Xeronic equipment, "which currently produces a 26 inch Hne of ten or eleven characters per inch at a rate of 2,880 lines per minute. The standard

repertoire is fifty-six or 112 characters, and character generator designs have been produced for a number of relatively exotic languages. The output

is produced by Xerography . . . and pre-prepared

material may be superimposed at the output from a

store of thirty-two drawings held on a movable film band." 46 Several other phototypesetting machines in the

speed range of several hundred characters per

second are in various stages of design, prototype

development and field installation and test. The

CIS [Composition Information Services] Newsletter

for August 1, 1965 reports on equipment demonstrated at an exhibition in Paris, including CAE's

computerized typesetting system, a new tape merging device for Roboset, the prototype of a Monotype

Computer Input Keyboard capable of handHng

6-, 7-, or 8-channel tape, as weU as the high speed

CRT photocomposers of Dr. Rudolf HeU (Digiset)

and the K. S. Paul (P & M) Filmsetter.

"Using optical matrix CRT techniques, the K. S. Paul (P & M) Filmsetter was designed primarily for text filmsetting at speeds from 150 to 400 Hnes per

minute. This device is now ready for field-testing,

and marketing should begin in England next year. A relatively low-cost keyboard, based on the P & M

Hnecasting tape keyboard, although somewhat more

elaborate, has been designed for use with the

Filmsetter"."*^ The Digiset developed by Dr. Rudolf Hell of Kiel

utiHzes an 8-bit character selection code and it sets justified and hyphenated Hnes of 11, 18, or 28

picas at rates up to 400 characters per second.

Dr. HeU claims that higher speeds are possible:

"By means of indirect or direct control input over magnetic tapes the setting speed can be in- creased up to the limit of 2,000 characters per sec- ond. With modern electronic stores with 10 times

higher working speed than the stores now in use, even higher setting speeds seem possible if film material and Hght emission of the picture tube would

not ultimately set a Hmit.""*^

« Ibid, p. 189.

"= Duncan, 1964, p. 133. " CIS Newsletter, Aug. 1, 1965, p. 3. "Digiset", n.d., p. 4.

33
Figure 40. Digiset characters.

Character-dot resolution in the Digiset equipment

ranges from 48 x 10 to 48 x 46 in 6 point type.

Figure 40 illustrates enlarged characters as they

are generated and viewed on a projection screen.

In a telephone directory apphcation, the character

set consisted of 180 alphanumeric and other symbols. Character patterns are stored in a core memory of 180,000-190,000 bit capacity. A character set may be replaced with an alternate set of 180 characters by transfer from auxihary store in approximately one-half second.

3.4. Electronic Character Generator Systems

For the most part, electronic character generators

developed to date have such limited repertoires of

character sets that they do not as yet offer the typographic quality and versatility required in most

scientific and technical documentation applications.

An obvious exception is the Linotron development.

Their great virtue, of course, is their extremely

high speed which may extend up to and even beyond

60,000-70,000 characters per second. Improvements in size of character repertoire and for rapid

switching under automatic control are under active

development. In addition, some systems incorporate interesting potentialities for program-controlled,

light-pen inserted, or reproduced-from-storage inter- polations of graphic material with text, ranging

from formatting grids and lines to separate or to emphasize tabular or columnar matter to the incorporation of reproduced photographs with half-tone

fidelity.

A number of these developments were foreseen

by potential commercial suppliers, at least four or

five years ago. In the Syracuse study for the Rome

Air Development Center on "Lexical-Graphical

Composing Techniques", Buck and his associates

report, for example, that: "At the present time, the

Recordak DACOM System displays up to 60 dif- ferent alphabetic, special or numeric characters . . . The 14-line raster scan employed in the present

DACOM system permits a wide variety of type

styles. However, only one font can be used at any

given time. A photographic plate, containing 60

characters (the image source of the character generator employed by DACOM) is conveniently

inserted into the side of the apparatus . . . "[However] future DACOM apparatus is proposed

to include the following features: 1) complete sets

of fonts, as specified, to be displayed inter-changeably with true upper and lower case within each

font, italics within each font as required, and a total number of characters ranging to 2000 or more;

2) proportional spacing; and 3) right hand justification."'*'* The DACOM (Datascope Computer Output

Microfilmer) equipment was apparently operated

only for a year or two at the Washington Service

Bureau of the Recordak Corporation, where it was

shortly to be replaced by the General Dynamics

Stromberg Carlson S-C 4020, despite earlier claims

that, although "the unit first produced was geared

to the associated IBM 727 tape drive, around 15,000

characters per second . . . with only slight modifications it could handle speeds up to 90,000 characters per second. "^'^ Before considering the S-C 4020, however, let us

briefly outline the principal techniques used for electronic character generation to date, whether

as yet used for photocomposition or computercomposed systems or not. Typically, the electronic

character generators are computer driven and were

developed to meet computer output requirements.

Thus, the typical device operates upon the basis of

digital codes generated by a computer.

3.4.1. Techniques of Electronic Character Generation

In outline, the principal techniques used for electronic character generation are as follows: "Essentially, there are five distinct electronic

and optical methods of forming or generating characters from digital codes.

1. The character can be formed by passing an

electron beam through a stencil-like cut-out in the

shape of a character located between an electron

gun and the face of a cathode ray tube (CRT).

2. The monoscope method of character generation utilizes an electron beam that hits a metaUized

target within a CRT, with characters printed there- on, causing a video signal corresponding to the

desired character, which signal is amphfied and

displayed on a separate CRT face.

3. A digitized matrix is generated wherein the

character selected represents a series of intersection points with the raster fines of the matrix dis- played on the face of a CRT.

4. A CRT scans a character mask, which is larger than the face of the scanning CRT and out- side of its envelope, by using an optical tunnel, and

" Buck et al.. 1961, p. VI-27-28.

'° Webster, 1963, p. 27. 34
the resulting video signal is displayed on the face

of a separate CRT.

5. The characters are generated optically by

flashing a light behind a rectangular matrix and

directing it onto film by means of a pair of parallel

mirrors, a travehng lens, and appropriate electronic

timing circuitry."^'

3.4.2. Specific Character Generator Equipment

First and foremost among the character generator

techniques embodied in equipment of direct use in composition-publication systems is the S-C 4020

(Figure 41). The Stromberg-Carlson Division^ of General

Dynamics Corporation has produced several dozen

S-C 4020 systems during the past few years. These

systems are photocomposers that operate from

magnetic tape at speeds up to 17,400 characters per

second. The repertoire of characters is obtained

from a stencil matrix inside of a special cathode

ray tube, known as a Charactron tube, which serves

as the display tube. The repertoire is limited to 64 or 88 symbols, and those symbols which have

isolated centers, such as "O" and "A", appear to be broken characters from the point of view of

graphic arts quahty, because of the visible tiny wires

which hold in place the centers of these symbols

in the beam-shaping stencil used to shape the elec- tron beam into the shape of the symbol to be dis- played. Serifs can be readily generated if they

are included in the beam-shaping stencil. Burger (1964) has described a means whereby a Charactron tube is used in the vector mode, in which the symbol "period" is selected continuously or intermittently, and deflected in accordance

with a computer program to generate a variety of

symbols.

Duncan comments: "As it is built at present the

General Dynamics machine produces either 35 mm

film or a paper copy (or a paper offset plate) and the

character repertoire needs enlarging, but it is also capable of handhng fine diagrams, and adjustments

of scale are possible either direct or from the film intermediate, which can be reproduced on a highspeed dry diazo microfilm enlarger . . As an example of S-C 4020 graphic composition

capabilities, the equipment has been used for generation of system and program flow chart diagrams,

such as the automatic drawing of PERT charts,

demonstrated by North American Aviation in 1963.^^ Possible use of S-C 4020 and other General

Dynamics equipment for the "lexical-graphical

composer" (a proposed system to be capable of

imposing illustrations and the like in proper page

position with text or translated text) were noted by

Buck et al., as follows: "The proposed Composer

Printer is an adaptation of General Dynamics/Electronics S-C 4020 High Speed Microfilm Recorder

with an F-50 (Tape Adaptor) option. This unit is

Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 178.

'- Duncan. 1964. p. 1.34. "Dalamalidn 9, no. 6. 80 (June 196.3).

Figure 41. SC-4020 equipment.

specifically designed to print out alphanumerics

from digital computer code. It is possible to project information previously recorded on film (graphics in this case) superimposing same on the

alphanumeric display. The final output of the

system is a 35 mm film."^^ "The S-C 3000 High-Speed Communication

Printer ... is designed to accept binary coded

alphanumeric data from remote sources over tele- phone, telegraph, radio or other communication

systems. It prints at rates up to 10,000 words per

minute. "^^ "The S-C 5000 High-Speed Electronic Printer . . . (utihzes) the CHARACTRON Shaped Beam Tube

in conjunction with the Xerox printer . . . 100,000

words (5,000 lines) per minute. "'^^ "The S-C 6000 Facsimile Printer . . . receives

incoming video signals, created by the [S-C 6400

Facsimile] scanner or other equipment and trans- mitted to the printer, which reproduces the original

material on the face of a cathode ray tube. Print

out onto hard copy is achieved by the Xerox proc- ess ... 16 pages (8V2 X 11) per minute. Resolution is equivalent to 100 TV lines per inch.""

Early disadvantages of the Charactron tube

approaches led, for example, to developments at RCA involving fiber optics or optical tunnel

techniques.

"The Charaqtron tube has a limitation in the

matrix which contains in the order of 42 characters,

and every time you change a font, you just don't

change that matrix, you have to change the whole

big Charactron tube." ^® Thus it was desired to provide a design in which

different fonts or character sets could be inter- changed and in which resolution would be of rela- tively high quahty. "The fiber optics tube is

"Buck et al.. 1961, .p. VI-29. ^ Ibid., p. VI-60.

»«Ibid., p. VI-60, VI-59. "Buck el al., 1961, p. VI-61.

s» Flint, 1963, p. 126.

35
designed with 1,000 fibers to the inch in each direction. We don't actually get a resolution of 1,000

lines per inch, but we can come pretty close . . . and this resolution is beginning to approach the

kind of quality that a printer requires for his work."^^

Moreover, "the fiber optics tube . . . can make

use of an external matrix which can be inserted at will, so that you can change type faces, and have

control over your end product, as you do in a fine casting machine . . As of a year or two ago, it could be stated: "The RCA developments have been described

by Haynes who gives the design speed of 500 characters per second or fifteen lines a second, with a

resolution of 400 lines to the inch (sixteen lines/

mm.), and a repertoire of 275 up to 500 characters

'on-line.' It makes use of the 'optical tunnel' to improve the resolution of the system."**'

Developments at CBS Laboratories, particularly

the cooperation with Mergenthaler from 1962 on- ward, have been noted in the discussion on the

Linotron system. A related approach has been

described as follows: "The CBS Vidiac 389-10

generator with a standard fount of sixty-four characters and the rather low resolution of ten lines per

Vs in. character will work at a speed of 50,000 characters a second. The modifications proposed for Graphic Arts quality will aim at a resolution of

twenty line pairs per mm. and speeds between 1100

characters a second for 6 pt. and 200 characters a second for 18 pt., with positional accuracies to 0.001-in. Basic character repertoire will be 256

characters, with alternative blocks of this size readily available for simple switching in and out."^' Another example is the Videograph Printer which

is produced by the A. B. Dick Co. This is a "high

speed electronic page printer which is available in two types. One produces hard copy print out of

fully edited six bit digital information at speeds of up

to 20,000 characters per second. The other type

reproduces facsimile copies of graphic material

from video signals at rates of up to three 8V2" x 11" pages per second. An electrostatic printing tube is used in both types of printers."

"The Alphanumeric Printer consists mainly of a character generator, an electrostatic printing tube,

image-fixing device, and the paper transport mechanism. The character generator, which provides

video signals to the electrostatic printing tube is essentially a cathode-ray tube having a matrix of

small diameter wires fused in and through its face

plate. The CRT electron beam, whose strength

varies according to the video signal voltage received

from the character generator, sweeps over the inner

ends of the tube face wires. Electron charges are deposited through the wires onto the dielectric

coated paper thus forming latent electrostatic

images. . . ."^'^

TM Flint. l';53. p. 126. "Ibid., p. 126.

«' Duncan, 1964, p. 136. « Ibid., p. 136. Buck et al., 1961. pages VI-51.

•"Ibid., pp. VI-.51.

Figure 42, Benson-Lehner TramddUi equipment.

"The Electrada Typoscope is a compact, nonflickering display system . . . currently capable

of performing the display operation at rates of up

to 15,000 characters per second. . . . "Expensive and complex electronic storage and

character forming systems are avoided by utilizing a unique shaped beam, direct-view storage tube. Upon receipt of the code for a particular character,

the electron beam is passed through a stenciled

matrix, deflected to the desired screen location,

and stored within the tube by means of a suitable

dielectric mesh. A total of sixty-four characters

are available in this matrix. . . ."^^ "A Simpix electron gun can also be incorporated

in the Printapix system . . . designed to provide

extreme ease of character selection by accepting

six channel binary data from a computer and auto- matically selecting the proper alphanumeric characters. This can be done at rates of up to one

million characters per second. The size of the

character printed can be varied by means of one

voltage thus permitting the generation of subscripts,

capitals, and italics (by a shght rotation of the elec- tron beam), etc., utilizing a single character matrix.

Extremely high resolution of up to some 150 to 250

printing lines per inch is possible. ... By the use

of several tubes or several passes of the paper over one tube, color can also be incorporated in this print out system. "^^ The Benson-Lehner Transdata (Figure 42) is also included here because of its claimed high speed of

62,500 characters per second and its optional line drawing and format superimposition features. The

usable character set, however, is limited to 63 characters at one time, each defined by a 15 x 16 dot

matrix in CRT character generation. Three varia- tions of character sizes and four different character

orientations may be program-selected. The 944

model is claimed to be compatible with various

magnetic tape transports and to accept binary-

" Buck el al.. 1961, p. Vl-39. « Ibid., pp. VI-58.

36
coded-decimal data. An earlier model, the 943,

accepted binary coded data only. Output is to either 35 mm film or hard copy. A special advantage offered by this equipment for book composition is cited by Duncan as follows: "The task of producing scrambled and upside down

composition that may be required for book production, and may even be necessary for some newspaper operation, seems already to have been solved

satisfactorily on one computer output printer — the

Transdata. The processed pages can be stored on magnetic tape in any order required, or in random

order, and called out in any order desired."^'

3.5. Computers Used for Typography

From the slowest photocomposers operating at less than ten characters per second through the

intermediate range of several hundred cps to the

fastest electronic generation systems it is to be noted

that, in general, size of character set must be traded

off against speed. In almost aU cases, however,

other aspects of at least partial automation of the

compositor functions can be achieved by built-in computer-hke calculations in special keyboards,

by the use of smaE special purpose computers and

by programs in large general purpose computers

producing as output both text and control codes to operate printing equipment.

3.5.1. Small Special-Purpose Typography Computers

If some of the compositor functions are performed

in an intermediate computer, there are usually

two tapes involved. Both tapes may be perforated

or magnetic, or one may be perforated and one magnetic. A code conversion is not always necessary,

but if a reasonably complex computer is available

as a composition aid. then code conversion generally

does not pose a great penalty. In some systems

employing a general-purpose computer, the input

tape is the one most conveniently generated by the

perforation keyboard. Its code may be converted

by the computer to the internal code of the computer. After typographic processing, this code may

again be converted by the computer to the code and

tape employed by the typesetting machine. In computers designed for typography processing,

these conversions can be avoided.

The simplest class of special-purpose computers

perform the repetitious and arduous tasks of hne

justification, including variable spacing control and

automatic insertion of hne formatting controls, as

well as automatic or semi-automatic hyphenation

control. Computers which accept unjustified

tapes and generate justified, hyphenated and for- matted tape include the following:

a. Compugraphic Directory Tape Processor

b. Mergenthaler-Compugraphic Linasec

c. Fairchild Graphic-Thompson Ramo Wooldridge Comp/Set Computer

Duncan. 1964. pp. 133-134.

d. Harris-Intertype-Cognitronics Editape Computers

e. RCA 30 Newscom Computer

These computers permit faster keyboarding of

tape by less skillful operators using simpler machines which are not encumbered by justification counters. Format controls, such as carriage

return, inserted by the keyboard operator are either

omitted in the tape or ignored by the computer,

which inserts new format controls for the justifiedhyphenated output tape. These computers can be~ readily modified for font, point size and format

changes. In the Directorv^ Tape Processor. Linasec

and small Editape machines, words requiring hyphenation are displayed to an operator, along with

the allowable hyphenation range that will permit

justification. The operator must then decide where

the hyphen is to go, and press a button corresponding to that position. In more complex computers, hyphenation is achieved automatically by table look-up or by the

apphcation of logical rules to the letter structure of

the word. Neither type of system is completely

rehable because of ambiguities, dual meanings, and

different hyphenations for identically spelled words,

and other quirks of natural languages. Some sys- tems use a combination of logical rules plus table look-up for anticipated exceptions.

Use of the less complex devices in practical operation is exemphfied by the Linasec installation at Alden Press and the use of Compugraphic Directory

Tape Processor for telephone directory hstings.

At Alden, the system involves 4 tape punches and

4 tape-operated hnecasting machines to produce

output of an estimated 2,560 hues per man-day by

comparison with 1.472 such Unes in the manual

system even with the relatively slow (45 characters

per second) first model Linasec reader. A console

is provided which continuously indicates to the

operator the point on hard copy corresponding to the punch position on the output tape.

Morton describes some further details of operation as follows: "If 65 percent of the available space

band extension will not expand the hne . . . signal

lights on the console, over the characters on the

hard copy, will indicate the letters following the

fiUed hne. The operator will count back the number of spaces from the last hne to a proper point

for hyphenation, and he will punch a button numbered on the corresponding responses to the number

of responses so counted. The computer wiU then

insert a hyphen and an elevator code and continue

to operate line after line until the next operator

decision is called for. ... A change in font is handled by removing the 3-by-5-inch plug . . . and

replacing it with one designed for the particular

font to be used. This operation of taking out a plug

and putting another in place takes from 5 to 10

seconds. "^^

" .Morton. 1963. pp. 98-100.

37
Swanson reports use of the Directory Tape

Processor for telephone directory listings in part

as follows: "After the name and address of a line have been set, one special key stroke signals the

Processor to do at least three things:

a. Calculate and insert the leaders required.

b. In a telephone number composed of letters and

digits, make the letters in caps and the digits

in bold face.

c. If there are no letters in the telephone number,

set the seven digits in bold face."^^

Among the advantages and operational gains

claimed are the following: "Our teletypesetter pro- duction of 15 pica lines has increased from 100 to 125 lines per hour to 250 to 300. Eight-hour aver- ages of 310 to 315 lines per hour have been made

by some operators using Friden Flexowriters. . . . By using the Directory Tape Processor we have

reduced our operators' and linecasting machine

errors from 10 percent to 4 percent of all hnes

cast. ... In an average telephone listing line of

40 characters, including leaders, we save approximately 20 key strokes. The strokes eliminated are the control and functional ones that are usually

difficult for operators to master and, therefore, take more time than the regular alphabetic or numeric

keys."^"

Compugraphic also produces the Tabular Tape

Processor which uses plugboard wiring to set column widths for multi-column tables. "Replacing

the time-consuming, arithmetical process of figuring

the 'cast' of a table, the TTP requires . . . coded

instructions on the tapes to tell the TTP where to

fiU a column with blank space (without regard to how

many spaces are required), where to fill with

leaders, when the end of a column has been reached,

and the end of a line." A recent development for directory composition

outside the United States and the United Kingdom

is to be noted as follows: "It is reported from Milan

that SEAT are just about to change over to magnetic

tape storage of Italian telephone directories with

computer controlled updating and output ready

for composing machines."

The RCA 30 Newscom is essentially a cut-down

version of the company's 301 computer, having a 20k core memory, and capable of carrying out line justification and automatic hyphenation following

the Los Angeles Times program. When fitted with

a 100 character per second reader and punch it produces some 5,400 column lines per hour with

higher speed options up to 17,400 hnes per hour also

available.^^ Typical Newscom installations are diagrammed in Figure 43, and equipment is shown

in Figure 44.

Swanson. 1963. pp. 93-94. TMIbid, pp. 92-94. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 31.

'2 Duncan, 1964, p. 149. " Duncan. 1964, p. 146; Datamation, >). No. 12. 67 (1963); Data Processing, 6, 38, 39 (1964).

With respect to the TRW (Thompson RamoWooldridge) — Fairchild equipment (Figure 45) it is reported that it will "run 9,000 newspaper lines per hour with standard equipment. With special

equipment this can go up to as high as 27,000 newspaper Hnes per hour."

3.5.2. General Purpose Computers Used for Typography

In a special sense, the large, high speed, general

| purpose computer plays several different roles in I modern developments in automatic or semi-automatic typographic quality composition.

In particular, "There are two entirely different uses of the computer, one is to produce something

which has gone through the computer because the

computer is serving a function in compiling the

output and has been an essential part of the mechanism. The other is to use the computer to save some of the operations which are now done by the

skilled keyboard operator."^^

Certainly, the advent of the electronic computer

has focused new attention on the problems of auto- mated typographic composition. Automatic data

processing has not only made it possible to organize,

assemble, and produce many existing types of publications quickly, automatically, and sometimes at lower cost, but it has also created a proliferation of new types of reports, indexes, and publications.

The basic content of many new types of reports

including for example, key-word-in-context (KWIC)

indexes, mathematical tables, accounting and financial reports, and U.S. Census Bureau reports, is

j produced by the computer. I To date, the natural tendency has been to utilize the high speed computer printout as camera-ready

copy without regard to the readabiUty of the output

or to the size of the printing run. This creates

certain disadvantages including poor typographic

quality and higher printing costs resulting from the

lower type density of computer printout, and ineffi- cient utilization of white space unless carefully

planned.

On the other hand, a manually composed, high

quahty pubhcation using the computer printout for working copy defeats one advantage of the computer

system — its rapid response time. For this reason,

several companies are developing high speed composing machines that will operate directly from the

perforated tape or magnetic tape produced by a computer.

We have already witnessed the wide usage of

mechanical computer output printers for pubhcation of stock market tables, census reports, bookform indexes, and the like. During the next decade, we will undoubtedly witness an expansion

of these apphcations to include machine translation,

automatic indexing and abstracting, dictionary comF. S. Angell, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965,

p. 180. A. H. Phillips, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965,

p. 78.

38
Figure 43. RCA Xeicscom system.

Figure 44. Newscom equipment.

pilation. display advertising, scientific textbook

composition, and many more, through the medium

of high speed, graphic arts quaUty composing machines operable from computer readable codes.

Typical adverse comments on the practice of using high-speed computer printout are as follows: "A major disadvantage of computer print-out is its poor legibihty and its low information density. . . . The U.S. Air Force prints something like a billion and a half pages from computer print-out just in the one area of its stock hst catalogues. ... We have

found that we can pack three times as much infor- mation a page if we use Linotron typography, which Figure 45. TRW-Fairchild ComplSet.

39
gives quite a saving— more than the cost of the

machine"/*'

The principal benefits to be derived from employing electronic data processing equipment in a typographic composition system are a reduction in manual clerical effort, a reduction in response time,

and an opportunity to use each record for multiple

purposes. The reduction in manual clerical effort can be realized through reducing the amount of

keyboarding required for input. Textual matter

that is to appear more than once in any publication

or that is to appear in more than one publication

need be keyboarded only once. The keyboard

operator need not be concerned with justification.

The data processing equipment can duplicate the

record as many times as is required. Response

time is reduced by the speed with which electronic

equipment can retrieve information from tape,

sort it into pubhcation sequences, and produce an

edited output. Thus the cut-off time for entering new information into the master record file need

not be more than a few hours prior to the time that the edited tape is required.

With the file of textual information stored on magnetic tape, the data processing system can use the same information over again for different pubhcations, for new editions of a previously published

document, or as a source of information for responding to Hterature search requests. Thus, once a record is stored in the file, it may be used for many purposes without requiring further manual

operations. In addition to its normal function in the typographic composition system, the master record file can be used as a source of information for answering

specific inquiries. This adds a literature search

capabihty wherein the allowed complexity of the

inquiries and the content of the answers depend on

the extent and organization of the master record

file. Responses to search requests can be in the

form of fists of references to pertinent documents

or in the form of references and abstracts, if the

texts of abstracts are included in the master record

file. In extreme cases, the entire text of selected

items may be printed out. Assuming that keyboarded tapes can be read into a general purpose digital computer, then the subsequent processing for typography (or any other

purpose) is a function of the ingenuity of the pro- grammer, the investment in his time, and the

hmitations in memory size, processing speed, and

output capabihty of the computer.

At the U.S. Government Printing Office, a system

has been evolved using Friden LCC (Line Casting

Control) Justowriters equipped to punch Teletypesetter code in a 1-inch paper tape of the usual

variety, with sprocket hole centers in line with code

hole centers, rather than advanced-feed sprocket

holes as in conventional TTS tape.

These paper tapes are read into an IBM 1401

computer. After processing, the computer pro- duces a y2-inch magnetic tape with the composed data. The data is in the format of the

Mergenlhaler Linofilm photocomposer, except that the data for one Linofilm character (15 bits) is distributed over three consecutive magnetic tape

characters, each containing up to 6 information

bits. These magnetic tapes are then read into a magnetic-tape-to-Linofilm-perforated-tape converter,

which can punch 300 Linofilm characters per second

by means of a specially adapted Soroban high speed

tape perforator. These Linofilm tapes are then

ready to drive the Linofilm photo unit, at its characteristic speed of about 12 characters per second.

It has been the experience at the Government

Printing Office, using the above system, that about

half of the programming effort and half of the computer time is devoted to control of the format of the printed page. Many formats are now available

for production use. A system has been devised

for detailed control of the line-by-hne formats, in- cluding indentations, font changes, point size changes, quadding, carry-over of headings, and the

hke, using a "punched card image" of the desired

format. There is a straight forward correspondence

between hole positions punched in the image card

and indentations and line spacings for various cate- gories of the printed material.

The list of general purpose digital computers

used for some phases of typographic composition

is growing steadily. The following is a list of American-made general-purpose computers known to have been programmed and used for typography:

RCA 301 IBM 7094

IBM 1620 IBM 360

IBM 1401 Honeywell 800

IBM 701 NCR 315

IBM 704 GE 225

IBM 709 Control Data 8080

IBM 7090

Examples of computers used elsewhere than in the United States for similar purposes include the

British Ferranti computers Argus 104, Pegasus, and

Orion, the English Electric KDF 9 installed at the

University of Newcastle upon Tyne in mid-1964,

and also in Great Britain, the Elliott 803 B. As

another example, it is reported that, ". . . The

Compagnie Europeen d'Automatisme Electronique

(CAE) ... is now ready to supply a computer

typesetting equipment, based on the CAE 510

computer."

A special case involves the use of the SDS-910

computer as programmed controller of an automatic

character recognition device, the Electronic

Retina Character Reader of Recognition Equipment Inc., to accomplish justification, hyphenation

and editing for both automatic typesetting from

• V. M. Corrado, 1965, p. 221. ' G. Bafciur remarks. "Ciimpuler Typesetlins: Conference Pniceedings". 1965. p. 195.

40
typewritten copy and the input of original text to machine translation systems.'**

Examples of development of general purpose

computer programs and appUcations to problems

of documentation will be discussed in a later section

of this report. Perhaps unusual in any area of

emerging technologies is the fact that, in general,

"the cobbler's children" have been shod. Bozman,

Barnett. and Duncan provide well-known examples.

The report on Graphic Composing Techniques is another. More recent illustrations are also to be noted:

"AU the text has been typeset by computer

methods: part of chapter 4 by the Rocappi general

purpose computer system, and the rest by the

Linasec special purpose computer method."'^

"A data sample of two journal article manuscripts,

20 first pages of journal articles, and journal vol- ume index (for one year) of titles and authors have

been processed."*"

"All of the copy in this appendix was typeset

automatically, on a tape driven Model 200 Photon,

from original journal machine record with the

following exceptions.

(1) Figures and multiple line equations were

exposed from the original copy and stripped in.

(2) The index machine records were sorted

manually, because sort programs were not avail- able at the time the data was processed."*'

IBM has issued a program called Text-90 to accomphsh computerized typography, using

punched card input of mixed text and controls,

for processing on a 7090 computer, including justification, hyphenation and formatting into one or two columns per page. Three magnetic tapes are produced, called a print tape, an exception tape and

a master tape. The exception tape is used by the

program to produce automatically tables of contents,

indexes and lists of misspelled words. After Usting, editing and correction, the exception tape is reprocessed by the program to produce the final print tape, which is fed into an IBM 1401 computer

where a special utility program hsts the tape on a 1403 chain printer. If a special 120 character

chain is employed, then the document is printed in both upper and lower case. If only a standard

chain is available, then the document is printed in aU upper case. The master tape contains text and controls, and is retained for use in producing

revisions (updating) of the document.

The remainder of this report will be devoted to

a review of known attempts to automate various

portions of the compositor functions, and to some

the documentation applications, problems and

prospects that can be foreseen. The material to be covered will be arranged somewhat in order of

increasing complexity, somewhat in order of chronology-, and somewhat in order of function, but it

" Le Brun. 1963, p. 150; Data Processing Magazine 7, 47 (February 1965). Allen. 1963. p. viii. "» Bur-kland. 1965. p. 2. " Ibid., Foreword to appendix.

wiU necessarily remain somewhat disorganized,

since the various techniques, systems and avail- able hardware do not fall clearly into distinctly

separable categories. Rather, they overlap in varying degrees as was evident in the present section describing typesetting equipment.

Turning now to semi-automatic and automatic

techniques and devices to accomplish many of the

compositor functions, we will consider the questions

of horizontal line justification and hyphenation,

vertical justification and page make-up; the insertion of corrections, editing and merging: the typesetting of two-dimensional graphic material, and the

intermixing of typeset text with facsimile rephcas

of graphic material such as drawings and photographs.

4. Automation of the Compositor

Functions

Perforated tape itself is an intermediate automation aid, since it can, when fed into a tape reader

connected to an "operating unit," operate a typesetting machine, hot metal or phototypesetter, at a

consistent speed limited by the typesetting machine

rather than by the speed of keyboarding. Thus,

maximum utilization is obtained from the composing machine, which may absorb the output from several keyboard tape perforators.

If the perforated tape is the only automation aid

employed, then most or aU of the compositor functions must be concentrated in the keyboard operator. In such case, it is essential that the same tape

and tape code required by the operating unit be

generated by the keyboard perforator. Otherwise a code conversion and generation of a new tape

is required, which is unnecessarily costly and time

consuming, nullifying some of the advantages of

perforated tape. Thus, where perforated tape is the only automation aid employed, the tape and code

used by the operating unit should be generated by

the keyboard perforator.

Magnetic tape systems are being developed employing "stepping motors" to give an incremental

advance for each character. These incremental

tape systems can perform all of the functions per- formed by perforated tape, but they do not offer the same ease of visual editing and correction.

They can, however, be read into and out of a computer at much higher rates than perforated tapes.

Perforators can punch 300 characters per second,

and the fastest optical tape readers read less than

2000 characters per second, whereas magnetic

tapes are typically "read" and "written" at rates of 10,000 to 100,000 or more characters per second.

Since the principal methods for achieving a desired type density obviously relate to the proljlems

of close and even spacing, both horizontally with

respect to the line and vertically with respect to the column or page, we shall consider here the

problems of horizontal and vertical justification

41
and the concomittant difficulties of word-hyphenation or the avoidance of "widows," together with

both the difficuhies and advantages promised by

semi-automatic and automatic aids to the accom- phshment of these compositor functions.

4.1. Horizontal Justification and

Hyphenation

For high typographic quahty pubhcations, the

typographic composition system must perform

both horizontal and vertical justifications. If these functions are Jo be performed automatically,

the equipment used in the system must be able to determine what combination of line structures will minimize the number of hyphenated words, to adjust the spacing between characters so that margins

are aligned, to adjust spacing between Unes so

that subheads are not placed at the bottom of a column, to change margins, to indent lines, and to center lines. Each of these operations can be

performed by available data processing systems if the appropriate specifications are included in the

computer program, or in the input records, or can

be entered via punched cards or punched tape as an input to the cycle.

Barnett, Kelley, and Bailey have summarized

the operations required to effect horizontal justi- fication in these terms:

"Justification can be regarded as the expansion

of a hne of type to some specified length by an in- crease in the spaces between appropriate pairs of adjacent characters. In describing a justification

procedure, it is necessary to specify (i) the minimum space to be left between different pairs of characters, (ii) the spaces which may be expanded,

and (iii) the hmits that will be placed on the allowed

expansion. In general, justification will be ef- fected by increasing the distance between successive words for which some minimum non-zero spacing has been specified. In the simplest case, each

such space along a line is increased by the same

amount. At times it is necessary to stipulate that only certain of the spaces in a line of type may be

expanded. A further method of justification that

will be used quite often involves the expansion of non-zero spaces to some preset Umit, with the dis- tribution of any further spacing that may be necessary between characters whose fields otherwise

would touch." '

It is to be noted, however, that ". . . Some fixed

hmit must be placed on the justification range

otherwise the word spaces in the justified line might

become too large. This would result in a waste of

page space and in unacceptable typography that

is characterized by 'rivers' of space which pervade

the text column and make it relatively difficult for the eye to read."-

' Barnctl el al.. 1%2. p. 60.

- Mergenlhaler. 1963, p. 4.

In manual control of hot metal casting equipment,

horizontal line justification is typically accomplished

as lollows: "By establishing the cut-oH point |of the line], the

operator is satisfied that the available width expansion of the space bands, which are adjustable slid ing wedges, is sufficient to expand the width of the

line to the width of the mold at which the line is cast. Thereafter the assembled Hne containing

the matrices and space bands is positioned at the

mold face and the space bands in the hne are ex- panded by ram action ... so that the assembled

line expands as required to the full width of the

mold." * In [fhototypesetter techniques, generally, the

space-width considerations required in hot-metal

justification processes are replaced by escapement

values (i.e., "an escapement can be regarded as the distance between the left edges of the fields of two consecutive characters" ) and the physical

displacements required in the optical system are controlled by escapement codes in the input tape.

"The Photon machine can be driven by tajje that contains a track specification (a track is half an annulus of characters), a lens specification (in ef- fect a scaling factor), and then, for each of the char- acters to be printed, the sequence number (i.e.. position around the disc) of that character, and the

escapement (i.e., distance to be allowed between

the left edge of that character and the next). Codes

to change track number and lens size and to effect carriage returns are interspersed with the sequence

number escapement codes where necessary."''

Some differences between various available

photocomposing systems are to be noted, however.

If a Linofilm unit is to be used under computer

driven control, complete horizontal justification

information must be developed by the data processing unit and it must be recorded in such a way as

to provide a paper tape that will control the Linofilm

photocomposing equipment. This means that in- formation with respect to exact character width

values must be available to the computer so that character spacing and line length can be computed accurately.

If a Photon 200 unit with its built-in computer

element is used, the adjustment of spacing be- tween characters would be done by the Photon

equipment; only the end-of-line signal need be

included in the paper tape from the data processing

unit. In this case the adjustment of character

spacing to align left and right margins is a fairly

simple operation even with large alphabets having

considerable variation in type widths.

The character width information can be deter- mined from a table during the character code

conversion operation. In this way the detailed in- formation required in a Linofilm system could be

Koniiisbersi. 1963. p. 3.

J Barnell iM al.. 1962. p. 60.

• ll>kl. p. .W-60.

42
developed by the data processing system in rela- tively little more time than that required to produce

the lesser information required in a Photon system.

In both the case of hot metal casting and photocomposition where tapes are used to operate the

equipment, it is obvious that keyboards and tape

codes must provide for the insertion of controls

to indicate length of lines, relative spacing, quadding, and the like, specifically including an approximate line-width-count for justification purposes.

The latter usually requires a complex keyboard

with built-in calculators to count the widths of the

characters, compute the space remaining in the

fine and the number of interword spaces used,

thus keeping track of the accumulative line deficit.

It is to be noted further that "since different

typefaces all have different set, or width values, it is necessary to look up the width value of each

character in the selected font and subtract that width value from the total remaining space in the

line being set. Individual width cards or magazines which are inserted in the keyboard device

are suppHed for each type font. The keyboard

device also keeps track of the number of interword

spaces which have been inserted in the line. These

word spaces may be expanded from a minimum to a maximum value thereby providing a justification

range of some latitude for the keyboard operator."^

In addition to the pioneering Friden LCC-S

Justowriter, a number of keyboard-tape punching

systems having calculators for brass matrix widths

are commercially available, including Robotype,

Perfoset, Linomatic, Lino Quick, and others.^

A recent device of this type is the DI/AN Controls

Inc., punched tape keyboard for high speed typesetting. It is reported to produce "justified, cor- rected copy on punched paper tape, which controls

automatic typesetting machines at rates up to 700

fines of 11-pica newspaper type per hour and 400

characters per minute in book production".^

Control functions typically encoded into perforated tape are exemplified by reference back to Figure 19,^ showing the teletypesetter code format.

Thus, for example, the quad functions are for use

on linecasting machines which have automatic

space fill to the margins. The "quad center" code

wiU cause the centering of a short line of text, as in a heading, and will automatically generate equal

amounts of blank space to the left and right margins.

"Quad left" positions the fine to the left and puts

all of the blank space to the right, and "quad right"

puts all of the blank space to the left. "Space band" is the normal space used between

words. Each one is an adjustable wedge. After

the line of matrices (casting molds) and space

bands are assembled, the space bands are driven

in tightly to fill out the available space, and to equafize the spaces between words in that line.

' Sparks el al.. 1964. p. 166.

' See Duncan. 1964. p. 141.

^ Data Processing Magazine 7. 5 (February 1965).

^ See page 19 of this report.

43

If additional space or blank areas are needed, then

"thin space", "en space", or "em space" can be

selected. Em space is the width of letter "m",

en space is half an em, and thin space is one third of em. Note that in TTS code space band is coded

with a single hole in track 3, and thin space is a

single hole in track 0. The function "add thin space" is 0 and 3, and it causes selection of a space band and a thin space

at the same time. Thus if it is discovered that the

space bands are not adequate to fill out a line,

then the perforator operator can go back and punch

"thin space" over each space band code in the

tape.

"Em leader" and "en leader" are dots used to

fill out lines in tables where blank space is not

desired.

"Return" resets the the justification counter or

printers on the tape perforator. "Elevate" delivers the line of type for casting and also feeds a

line of paper if a printer is used with the tape

perforator.

The widths of the various characters used in TTS systems are shown in Table 2. Note that all figures (numeric digits) are 9 units wide. This

facilitates the composing of aligned columns of

numbers.

Table 2. Character grouping of unit system matrices iUNIVERS).

Unit

Size6 Period, Comma, Apostrophe, Hyphen, Vertical Rule, Quote, Thin Space, Lower case i 7 Lower case j f t 8 Capital I 9 All figures. Dollar mark. Pound sterling. Semicolon, Colon,

Exclamation, EN leader. Asterisk, Left and right hand

brackets. All reference marks. Figure spaces. Lower

case r s z. En dash, ( ) 10 Lower case ceo

11 Lower case abdghnpquvxykfifl. Capital J S ? 12 Capital Z

13 Capital C T L ff 14 Lower case a;. Capital ABFOPQV&

15 Lower case w oe. Capital DEGRUXYHKN

18 EM space, EM leader, EM dash, EM fractions, % lb Capital

M W OE AE, Lower case ni, ffi, ffl, @

Source: TTS Perforator Operator's Manual.

4.1.1. Equipment and Techniques for Horizontal

Justification The simplest solutions to problem of right-hand

margin justification are (1) to ignore it completely,

as in most ordinary typescript, or with respect to arbitrary line lengths in KWIC and other indexes

produced by computer printers, (2) to limit justification to that which can be achieved by purely

automatic means, such as the use of anamorphic

231-313 OL-67-4
lens stretching and compression of lines to be re- produced and (3) reliance on strictly manual decision-making.

One technique to improve page space utilization

is that of the use of the principle of the anamorphic

lens: "use of optical stretching or compression to alter the horizontal dimensions of a line of type

without affecting the vertical dimensions . . . [Examples are] the Optype . . . the Cape Graphatron . . . the NHM Cartoprint automatic camera

system".'" This technique has also been claimed

to achieve justification by purely mechanical

means, in the case of the French-built Optype, as

follows: "This, by a system of distorting photography, will stretch or compress individual hues of

unjustified material until it justifies . . .""

The methods employed for semi-automatic and

automatic justification and word-hyphenation (as

required) range from machine calculation of space

usage within the line and display of the word in- volved in oversetting for operator decision to fully

automatic modes of operation in general purpose

computers used to drive copy reproduction devices on either an on-line or off-line basis. From the manual decision case to the fully auto- matic systems, several different categories of in- creasing machine sophistication are available. In computer-driven, automatic systems, the principal

methods used to date involve dictionary look-ups,

application of pre-supphed 'logical' rules for hypention, look-up of pre-stored probability values for hyphenation between various letter pairs or tri- grams, and combinations of these methods. Typically, each method within the available range offers advantages and suffers disadvantages.

The least sophisticated methods, of course, are those of machine "deference"! to operator decision

whenever a given line cannot be justified by ap- propriate automatic adjustments of interword and

intraword spacing. Two quite different approaches

to the man-machine interaction solution are ex- emplified by the so-called discietionary-hyphen

system and by the Linasec devices developed by

the Compugraphic Corporation.

"A manual technique for hyphenation, either with

or without a computer system . . . was first tried by Louis Moyroud. . . . This technique requires

the keyboard operator to insert a discretionary

hyphen in every long word. The computer or out- put printer can then utilize or disregard the dis- cretionary hyphen during the actual process of

completing horizontal justification. Although the use of discretionary hyphens is estimated to in- crease keyboard operation time by 2 to 5 percent

and storage requirements by 2 percent the simplicity of the technique is somewhat attractive,

especially for noncomputer output printing sys- tems."'- The obvious disadvantage, of course, is

Duncan, \')M. p. U8,

"O'Donnell. 1961, p. 151.

1= Sparks <-l al.. VIM. p. 184.

the requirement for many decisions and many keystrokes that will not be used.

Operation of the Linasec I at Clay, Ltd., has

been described by Boyd: "If no word space falls in this (justification) area, the word by which the

line is overset is displayed on the cathode ray

tube. . . . When this happens there are three

possibihties: firstly, hyphenation by any of the left hand group of buttons at the appropriate point;

secondly, if the word is unsplittable it can be

removed completely to the next line, in which case

the interword button is pressed; thirdly, if both

hyphenation and interword have been tried and the

word still remains on the screen, it indicates that the remaining 40 percent of band expansion is not

sufficient to fill out the line. The monitor then

presses the bell button followed by the interword

button. This puts a caster stop code in the output

tape and add-thin space codes can be punched in by hand or the thin spaces manually inserted on

the casting machine." ''^ Of the Linasec II device, Duncan remarks: "In

the case of the Linasec II. two functions are para- mount. The output tape is coded correctly for the

character widths so that no tight or loose lines

result, and no redundant codes, and, more important, hyphenation is performed by manual selection on a monitor tube face. Compugraphic, the makers of Linasec, are convinced that this is a more

economic solution at present than computer hyphenating routines, at least in apphcations where

time is not the consideration it is in newspaper

plants." '^ The newer Linasec is abo reported

to have an increased speed (from 45 to 100 characters per second) and to provide improved scope

display and correction features.'^

4.1.2. Semi-Automatic and Automatic Hyphenation

If a requirement for right-margin-justified lines

in the printing or reproduction of textual and bib- hographic material has in fact been established,

then the problem of hyphenation will almost in- evitably arise. The sole practical exception to date

is the computer-compiled KWIC index with arbi- trary line-length truncation and 'wrap-around'

principles so that such horrors occur as: "HEROIDAL WAVE EQUATION PROGRAMMING FOR

FINDING CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF SP"

"EAN FUNCTIONS OF N VARIABLES USING A SINGLE

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT/STRAIGHTFORWARD WAY OF

GENERATING ALL BOOL"

"IGNMENT METHOD FOR ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING CIRCUITS A STATE VARIABLE ASS"

"CHNIQUES IN THE LOGICAL DESIGN OF SWITCHING CIRCUITS RELAY CIRCUIT DESIGN TE"

Note that these examples were taken from just a few pages of Youden's Computer Literature Bib-

'' Boyd. 1%5. p. 26. " Duncan. 1964. p. 143. " Morton. 196.3, p. 99. 44
liography, for which the 120-character hne format

should give rather better resuhs than the two- column formats often used. On page 119, the fol- lowing word breaks occurred at the right end of

the title line: programmin"[g]

cohe""[rence]

"MANL FA"[CTURING]

"arb""[itrary]

"c"[haracter]

"componen""[ts]

"OPE""[RATIi\G]

"cla"'[mped].'^

The generally poor typographic quality of such

computer print-out indexes in all respects of typographic composition is probably a major factor in deterrents to their use, even when their prompt

availabihty has been hailed as a major new bib- Uographic breakthrough.

The lack of any regard for 'proper' hyphenation

is thus an extreme in the case of the KWIC index.

Even for newspaper column composition, where

reader tolerance for numerous typographical errors both intra- and inter-line is self-evidently high, concern with respect to improper and misleading

hyphenation is obviously important. Such ex- amples of least-tolerable 'goofs' in machine hyphenation include: " 'han-gover', 'fig-hting'. and 'Goodyear",'^ or " 'lam-plight', 'ons-laught' and 'ho- wever' What might happen with words hke

"therapist'" is all too obvious.

As we have noted, syllables (hence, proper hyphenation) depend on sound rather than letter combinations. It is not possible to develop a set of rules based on small sequences of letters that

will invariably result in proper hyphenation [Bafour,

1961]. Ledley and Wilson, in a study of the potential use of computers for the publication of Index Medicus included a subroutine for auto- matic hyphenation, using one of the possible computer techinques. The resulting program, although

fairly lengthy, would make many incorrect hyphenations, even on commonly used words. Ledley

and Wilson could have reduced the number of incorrect hyphenations by enlarging their program,

but the technique could never be made infallible. As many as 35 different approaches to this problem have been taken by suppliers of computerdriven typesetting systems.'*^ In general, however,

the various approaches may be grouped with respect

to reliance on logical rules, dictionary look-up.

W . ^ . Yuuden, "Computer Literature Bibliography 1946 to 1963". National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 266, U.S. Government Printing

Office. Washington. D.C.. 1965. 463 p. Experience with IBM 1620 at the San Francisco Chronicle as reported in "Signs

of the Future?". 1964. p. 88.

"* Mitra routine for computer hyphenation of English, reported by Duncan. 1964.

p. 156. '»^Cf. "The lR)evolution in Book Composition ... 11. 1964. p. 46: "International Business Machines alone has worked on more than 35 approaches to word division. Radio Corporation of .\merica has at least two very different systems in operation." and Blondeau, 1963. p. 84: "In one of our laboratories we have written and developed

over .35 approaches to the simple problem of grammatii-al word division and hyphenation."

probability tables, and combinations of these

principles.

Automatic hyphenation techniques were first explored by Bafour, Blanchard, and Raymond in France beginning in 1954,'^ with emphasis on the

application of logical rules to words of the French

language, but with some consideration also given to English. Bafour discusses how it is possible for a computer to determine the hyphenation at the

end of a hne:

"The information previously supplied to the

computer enables it to recognize and distinguish

the different letters of the alphabet, the justification spaces, punctuation signs, numbers, etc. The

internal circuits are also able to add up the size of the letters and spaces, as they are coded, and

to compare the total with the fixed point reached

would require expansion of the spaces between the

words (or between letters) beyond a tolerance fixed

in advance (and always capable of being modified).

It is able, at the same time, to recognize if a divi- sion between two words is possible or not. If it is not, it is necessary to search within a word for a possible cut. The empirical rules for the French

language have been established and effectively

proved. It is not possible to enumerate them within

the outhne of the present description and we will give only the following incomplete summary of

them:

Not to cut after less than two letters. Not to cut so as to leave less than three letters. Not to cut after a consonant followed by a vowel.

Not to separate certain vowel couples forming an

inseparable doublet.

Not to cut after a vowel if it is followed by two

consonants which do not form an inseparable

doublet.

Not to cut before the letter y. Not to cut before a punctuation sign.

Not to separate two numbers, etc." One computer technique that could be used for hyphen minimization would consist of a repetitive

application of a hne justification routine. Each

repetition seeks a better solution for the para- graph as a whole. The iteration would stop when

a solution was found that required no hyphens,

when the approximation goal has been reached,

or when all possible solutions had been tested. After each iteration, the best solution obtained up

to that point would be retained for comparison with

future iterations. The adjustment of character

spacing would be accomplished simultaneously

with the minimization of hyphenation.

A computer dictionary look-up operation would

provide correct hyphenation for a high percentage

of the words in the dictionary. Some Enghsh words

are hyphenated differently in different usages so even with a dictionary some errors would be

expected.

Bafour. 1965, p. 194: Sparks et al., 1964, p. 184; Duncan. 1964, p. 152.

45
A typical computer-controlled justification-hyphenation process proceeds as follows: "As characters are received as input, a subtractive process begins, each character, symbol, and

space being assigned a unit count. When the

number of units exceeds the capacity of a line, the

last word is dropped and three questions are asked:

1. Will the expansion of space bands (from a normal 10 units to a maximum 40) fill the line?

2. If not, will the addition of thin spaces suffice?

3. If not, will an en space fill it?

If the answer to all three questions is 'No', the 301

goes to the hyphenation routine . . . "After selecting the maximum number of syl- lables to fill the line, the computer returns to the

space-band routine — in rare instances, resorting

to letterspacing with the longest word, then to the

addition of another space between words."

Operational examples of semi-automatic or auto- matic justification and hyphenation have been de- scribed in detail in the literature, for example, with

respect to the Los Angeles Times, Perry Publications, and the Oklahoma Pubhshing Company.

At the Los Angeles Times, an RCA 301 computerbased system uses the dictionary look-up approach.

Requirements involve not only the initial calculations for reporters' news copy, but also for re-justi- fication (and, obviously, re-hyphenation as necessary) of copy received via wire service tape since, even though the latter may contain justification

control data, it is typically for point sizes other than

the 9-point type used by the TimesP

"The Times began with plans to store a dictionary

of some 60-70 K words. When possible inadequacies and the high cost of this approach became obvious, the decision was made to switch to a logic

system . . . ."-'^ The system developed is based, so far as practical, on grammatical rules for word division used in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. More specifically, "the logic is based on the following principles.

First, vowel and consonant patterns in a word are

classified into one of four basic types. The computer then scans key letter sequences to see if they foUow the rules governing this type. If so, an immediate solution is reached. For example,

prefixes and suffixes which are commonly used can

automatically determine hyphenation. Where

exceptions are indicated, they are defined and

analyzed by following special subroutines such

as testing against letter sequence tables."-^

It is to be noted that the rules required to apply

this hyphenation logic "occupy only 5,000 positions

of the 20,000 positions of the computer's magneticcore memory, less space than would be required

•" Yasaki, 1%3. p. 28. D. Ellis, remarks. "Computer Typesetlins Conference Proceedings". 1965, p. 128. " Yasaki, 1%3, p. 28. Sparks el al. 1964. p. 184.

to Store 500 eight-letter words averaging two

hyphens per word."

Success, in terms of agreement with first-prefer- ence Webster word-divisions, has been variously

estimated as within the range of 85-95 percent

accuracy.-'' Toothman points to the occurrence

of input spelling errors: "Obviously you are going

to have some words that are in the dictionary and

are not detected because there is a misspelling

and so forth. These will be arbitrarily hyphenated.

In most cases it will be wrong, and in that case

it will be picked up by the proofreader."^^ The

computer programs are owned by the Times but

are available from RCA for use with the 301

computer.^"

At Perry Publications in Florida, where an RCA

301 computer is also used, a dictionary look-up

approach is the principal basis for automatic hyphenation. One of the reasons for this is the

commitment to photo-composition techniques,

where the relatively higher costs of page corrections (by comparison with hot-metal line-casting

methods) dictate a better than 90 percent accuracy

as a minimum performance requirement. Hence,

the use of a dictionary involving approximately

40,000 root words of 5 or more characters each

has been established.-'' Some of the operational details that have been

reported in the literature are as follows: "The

justification process begins with the read-in of approximately IK characters. The input block

is . . . [this] length, paragraphs of some 25 lines being considered the longest received at any one

time. . . . While the paragraph is being read in, the unit count of each character begins on a simultaneous mode. Following the space band after each word, a check is made to see if the line is justified. These checks continue until a line is filled, the 301 then branching to subroutines (if necessary) for the insertion of additional spacers

and to the dictionary if hyphenation is called for."^^ For greater access speed and efficiency, the

stored dictionary is divided between 4 tape units. "Since the RCA 301 computer can search tape in both directions, the tapes are always maintained

at a given 'homing' position and the most fre- quently occurring words, based on their first letter, are located closest to the homing position on each

of the 4 tape drives. An index to the positions of

the dictionary on . . . [these] units is maintained

in core memory using the first 2 letters of the word

as a key."-*"

Thus, "the search begins with a determination

of the first two letters in a word; this isolates the

word to a particular block. ... To save time, the

most frequently used blocks are grouped around

Pay. Vm. p. .331. -T.iollinian. \')bA. p. 103: Sparks el al.. I%4. p. 184: "The iRlevolulion in Book

Comiiosilion." |y64, p. 47. Toolhman. 1%3. p. 10.5. Pay. 1963. p. 330. -'""The lR)evolulion in Book Composition . . ." I%4, p. 47-48.

=" Yasaki, 1963. i>. .30. Sparks el al. 1964. p. 183. 46
a middle, homing position. About 98 percent of

the word, as a resuh. are accessible within one

second."

Moreover, "if the word being searched is not in the block, it is automatically hyphenated after the

third, fifth, or seventh letter. . . . Thus, all words

w^hich correctly break at these points have been

purged from the dictionary."'^- Accuracies of up

to 99 percent are claimed.^^

These two cases represent, respectively, a logic- rule approach and a dictionary look-up approach.

A third method, that of pre-storing statistical probabihties for correct hyphenation depending

upon observed letter sequences is involved in the

Oklahoma Pubhshing Company operation, together

with some of the "better aspects" of the logical

and dictionary approaches.^* This system "uti- hzes two IB^^ 1620 computers with 20,000 characters of core memory, IBM tape readers operating

at 500 characters per second, and tape punches

operating at 50 characters per second . . . "The hyphenation program begins with an edit of the word to determine the number of syllables,

and in some cases determines the hyphen point, or the inabihty to hyphenate at a point. It next de- termines the probabihty of hyphens between any

two letters in the word and hyphenates at the most

probable point. . . . Accuracy of 94 percent is reported for this program . . ."^^ More specifically, "an analysis was made of

40,000 different w^ords with their frequency in order,

and the probabihty of a hyphen occurring before,

between, and after every possible letter pair was

figured. Then these probabihties were stored in the computer. When a word was to be hyphenated,

it was scanned letter pair at a time, thus developing the probabihties of a hyphen occurring at the

various points. The most probable points are

selected as hyphenation points."

The Oklahoma example may perhaps represent

a trend, at least in the United States, to the combining of various techniques in a single system.

Thus, "the various approaches being taken today seem to be converging toward a combination sys- tem—a basic logic program supplemented by a small exception dictionary of words that cannot be

broken properly by the rules . . . Opinions dif- fer, however, on how large the exception dictionary

wiU have to be to achieve this goal. One manufacturer beheves it can be reached with 2,000

words, while another maintains it requires 12,000

words."

The principal advantage of dictionary look-up

approaches is that accuracy can arbitrarily be improved, although short of 100 percent perfection,

by the inclusion of more and more words in the

" asaki. 196:1. p. 30.

Ibid. "The iRjevululion in Bouk Composition . . 1964. p. -W. " Blondeau. 1963. p. 87.

»^ Sparks el al. 1964. p. 1&4. " Blondeau. 1963. p. 86-87. ^ "The iRlcvolulion in Book Composition . . .", 1964. p. 48.

dictionary store. The corresponding disadvantage

is, of course, the size and cost of memory storage

space required.

Two relatively recent developments envisage

the use of large-capacity random access storage

devices for this purpose. Announced in 1965 was

"a low-cost computer for automatic hyphenation

and justification in the pubhshing field by Automatic

Media Systems, Inc., Boston, Mass. It features

a 2 milhsecond memory storage of 3.3-miIhon bits,

enough for all the 325,000 Enghsh word entries in Webster's dictionary. The machine is pre-pro- grammed, and comes with two paper tape readers

and punches. Accuracy is reported to be better

than 99 percent of all hues hyphenated."

Also, at National Cash Register, it is claimed that "we can, if we are pushed, store the whole of the

big Webster in one CRAM deck with the hyphenation points, in practice one would use two."^^

However, it is by no means clear that even such

large dictionaries are fully adequate. Special

requirements are imposed by high incidences of

proper names in newspaper work, by highly specialized practices in scientific nomenclature,"*" and

by the emergence of new words and word-combinations both in English and in other languages.

Some representative opinions with respect to these considerations are as foUows:

(1) "If a dictionary look-up is resorted to then it must be continuously updated and arranged

so that the most quickly available items are those most used."*^

(2) ". . . A dictionary of some 600,000 words

might ultimately be needed. It is possible

to compile a hyphenation dictionary of these

words for insertion into a random access device. However, the number of words in- volved and the constant appearance of new

words makes this an expensive procedure if

it is to be sufficiently comprehensive to be

effective."*^

(3) ". . . The problem as regards the Dutch lan- guage is not finite, because we make any

compound word we want; we string words to- gether without spaces, as is the case in cer- tain other languages such as German. . . ." The last of the above quotations reflects the ex- perience of the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam. Corstius reports further: "We have to . . . [use] a logical process. . . . We tried our solution on 50,000 running W'Ords in normal Dutch text. We achieved 99.5 percent accuracy. . . . Most

mistakes were made in words which were not Dutch

but English or French. They often occur in Dutch

text. The machine cannot see which language it is."«

^Data Processing Magazine 7, no. 5, 12 (19651. A. H. Beaven. Comp. I yp. Conl. Pn.o. 196.i. p. 193. See. for example. Kuney. 1963. p. 249. Duncan, 1964. p. 156. « Pay. 1963. p. 331. H. Brand Corstius. remarks. Computer Tvpeseltini; C<mf"erence Proceedings.

1965. p. 183. " Ibid. 47
Results reported for other automatic hyphenation

programs include successful experiments by Mitra

using Ferranti computers"*'' and trials of the TRWFairchild system: "Right now, we are running at 95 percent accuracy. . . Other programs are the technique developed at the Mathematical Center in Amsterdam, used for example, in the preparation of an anniversary publication of the Dutch

Computer Society;"*^ IBM experimental programs

for French, German, and Dutch,^^ and continuing

work at CAE (Compaginie Europeane d'Automatisme Electronique) in applications of the

Bafour-type logical system to French, English,

German, and Italian."*^ "Programme de justification de textes" in the

November-December 1964 issue of Electro Calcul

provides a current account of the CAE logical sys- tem for hyphenation of French language texts, as tested with Flexowriter input, giving only three

errors in over a thousand word divisions.

An unusual and interesting application of the

Dutch justification-hyphenation routine is the auto- matic typesetting of Braille. "We are going to use the same programme for a TTS machine. For

a Braille printer, which is being installed in Delft,

Braille characters are rather large, there are only

about 30 on a line, so you have to hyphenate fre- quently, the same programme will be used."^"

"At M.I.T., Assistant Professor Dwight Baumann

has developed a high speed Braille printer using a computer as an integral part of the system."

In view of the obvious difficulties of achieving

proper justification by any set of fixed and invariant

rules, it is not surprising that a number of different

approaches to semi-automatic and automatic justi- fication and hyphenation have been taken: for ex- ample, as previously noted, in a single organization

as many as 35 different methods have been tried. Nevertheless, "at the moment, the clash between

the strict logic of computers and the largely illogical

basis for word division in the English language

present programmers with one of their most press- ing challenges. In a very real sense, it is the hyphenation problem that continues to exert a re- straining influence on the more rapid spread of

general-purpose computers beyond the newspaper

industry."

One special problem with respect to techniques

for automatic hyphenation involves the question

of ligatures (spatially overlapping character pairs or triples) in a given composition style or type face

design. "Provision for hyphenating between characters forming hgatures is not included in many

programs currently in use. Programming this requirement is more complex than a first glance would

indicate . . . [for example, after a hyphenation decision 'of-ficial', it may be necessary to] re-analyze

the second / and the i to recombine them into a

different hgature".^^

One service center organization, ROCAPPI, has

proposed a working solution to this problem as

follows: "What you have to do ... is to perforate

'ffi' normally, forget that ligatures exist altogether,

and let the computer programme in its final stage

determine, (a) whether or not that 'ffi' is in the lower

case, (b) whether or not this line involves any letter spacing, and (c) whether it is in a font where you

have a Ugature available. This is in the [Rocappi]

system now."

The difficulties associated with semi-automatic

and automatic hyphenation are manifold. The

first of these is that natural languages typically re- quire word sphtting at points of phonetic stress which do not always agree with usual syllable

boundaries.^^ Moreover, the syntactic usage of

word forms that are orthographically identical may

dictate different hyphenation points, as in the case

of "pre5-ent" and "pre-sent".^^ Some breaks are

to be preferred to others largely because of pro- viding greater context expectancy to the reader for the remainder of the word to follow: thus "conferencing", "conflag-ration", "conduct-ance" and

"conversa-tion" are certainly to be preferred to the

rigorously correct splitting after a prefix. There

are also, regardless of the authority used, many ex- ceptions to the usual rules of syllabification.

The existence of variations in both rules and con- ventions of preferred practice raise the even more

fundamental question of what criteria are to be

used in judging "proper" hyphenation, as Duncan

remarks: "Our first difficulty was to find an authority on what was right and what was wrong, and we

found those in English texts confusing and, in some

cases, contradictory . . Other corroborative testimony on this difficulty

includes the following:

(1) ". . . First dictionary preference hyphenation. The only problem that you get into there

is which first dictionary, because dictionaries

don't agree, either."

(2) "One of the first problems to be faced in developing hyphenation programs is what standards to use — word division differs from one dic- tionary to another. However, a consensus seems

to be developing for use of Webster's Unabridged

dictionary."

(3) "It must be emphasized that there is no

error-free technique for hyphenating a word.

« Duncan. 1964, p. 154.

F. S. Angell, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," !%5,

p. 180. " "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceeding," 1965, p. 183. Duncan, 1964. p. 157. " Bafour, 1965. Corslius, remarks. "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965,

p. 184. Kehl, 1965, p. 25. " "Computerized Typesetting," 1964, p. 5.

y.i "Xhe (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . 11." 1964. p. 48. C. Barber Comtyp Conf Proc 1965 p. 164. See Duncan. 1964, p. 156. Statement of C. Barber, Computer Typesetting Conference Pn)ceedings, 1965,

p. 107. C. J. Duncan, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1961.

p. 13.5. Tootbman, 1963. p. 103. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . ." 1964. p. 46. 48
either automatically or manually. Human keyboard operators do not have perfect recall for the content of Webster nor do they always refer

to a dictionary when in doubt."

The last point, namely, the incidence of at least some human error in manual hyphenation raises

two further questions for system design: whether, on the one hand, errors introduced provide either

quantitatively or qualitatively a serious enough situa- tion to warrant expensive equipment and costly

proofreading and whether, on the other hand,

hyphenation problems might be avoided entirely.

A practical question is the number of lines in running text that must be hyphenated in order to achieve effective horizontal justification.

Operating experiences reported in the literature include the following data:

(1) "The [Los Angeles Times] system generally

involves one hyphenation per 7 lines of text."^' Moreover, in view of the 85 percent average ac- curacy expected, "lines incorrectly broken are then reset manually after the type has been cast.

If the computer hyphenates one line in eight, an

accuracy of 85 percent will mean resetting 30

Unes in 800 (two lines must be reset for every

word division error), or 3.75 percent of all Unes

cast." 62

(2) "The magazine Printing Technology, pubUshed by Britain's Institute of Printing, Ltd.,

recently pubhshed an article set via the Newcastle installation, in which about 4 percent of

the Unes set were hyphenated."

(3) "We have found that decisions on 8-point on 12 pica will run about one for every five lines. We have also found that when running 8-point on 15 pica, the decisions drop tremendously —

a decision every twelve lines." ^

It is to be noted that the situation changes favor- ably and rapidly the greater the column width and

hence the more opportunity for variation in both

inter- and intraword spacing. For text page composition without column breaks it is reported that: "On long-measure book work, in the area of 25

picas, manual operators may hyphenate one Une

in 10, while initial computer experience has pro- duced a record ranging from one Une in 100 to one

in 1,000." 65 Quantitatively, then, the problem may not be too

severe. From a quaUtative standpoint, however,

the ludicrous cases will of course leap to the eye

and be well remembered to the detriment of recol- lection of the proportion of lines requiring no spUtting or ending in correct hyphenations.

A final solution to the problems of automatic

hyphenation is therefore that of returning to the

"ignore" solution of avoiding or at least minimizing

word breaks by iteratively resetting a number of

lines. This solution has been advocated by Duncan,

on the basis of the University of Newcastle experi- ence, as follows: "The first programs were used in processing texts to procure some information, until then totally lacking, on the percentage incidence

of word splits in various widths of lines when set within certain spacing limits, and an early decision was taken to try to avoid word breaks as often as

possible, i.e., to minimize the difficult part of the

problem — hyphenation.

"Within certain limits it appears that word breaks

and wider word spacing are interchangeable, and

by the processes programmed at Newcastle it is possible to avoid word breaks completely in the

wider line lengths common in quality bookwork . . . "There is already evidence that a computer can

do what the better compositor-typographer desires —

going back over several, perhaps many, lines and

adjusting spacing to improve evenness and close- ness and avoid awkward splits."

It is further reported that "In Britain, experiments in computer justification at the University

of Newcastle upon Tyne have attempted to limit the spUtting of words to an absolute minimum.

The computer is programmed to hold an entire

paragraph in its memory until the last line is set. If a Une must be hyphenated to justify it, the computer will first try to reset the previous lines in the

paragraph to eliminate the word split. If it can't eliminate the spUt, it will then set the paragraph

with the fewest possible splits." ^'^ Further evidence of the probable merits of the

no-hyphenation solution is offered by the following:

"One newspaper recently tried an experiment in which an entire page was set without hyphenation.

Loose Unes were justified by adding all required

space between words. Printed samples were dis- tributed to a number of editors and executives on

several papers, and their comments were re- quested. The experimenters were surprised to discover that no one seemed to miss the hyphens,

and that added space between words aroused almost no comment."

On the other hand, while "some doubt has been

cast upon the value of horizontal justification by

psychological studies designed to test its effect on reading efficiency,' it has a psychological value

rooted in long tradition." In addition to such psychological or aesthetic

factors, the gains from introduction of semiautomatic and automatic justification and hyphenation

techniques include increased productivity in the

keyboarding of copy, gains in the efficiency of hot- metal casting equipment, and type density improvements with less waste space and thus less page and

paper cost. These gains, combined, can produce

« Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 185. " Ibid., p. 184. "The (R)evoluiion in B(»ok Composition . . . " "Computer Hyphenation . . ." 1964. p. 45 " Morton. 196.3. p. 100. "Computer Hyphenation . . .". 1964. p. 45.

11." 1964. p. 47, « Duncan. 1964. p. I.S4-16(I.

®^ "Computer Hyphenation . . 6» Ibid. Sparks et al.. 1964, p. 166.

", 1964, p, 45,

49
both "significant cost reductions and faster publication schedules." '"^ With respect to the first of these factors, it ap- pears that the keyboard operator works faster and

makes fewer errors when stroking unjustified and

unhyphenated output copy, than when producing

justified tape and making manual hyphenation

decisions. Representative operational data re- ported in the literature include the following:

"Although figures published as to the economics

of unjustified tape perforation have varied widely,

it is generally conceded that a net productivity

increase of 30 to 40 percent can be reasonably anticipated. With keyboarding a major focal point

in typesetting costs, this saving can be significant."

"We have developed statistics at Perry Publications that indicate they get about 45 percent faster production by having a typist type unjustified paper

tape as against typing with the justified."

"A 30-40 percent increase in the production of

punched tape is claimed by the [Los Angeles]

Times using a

301."^'^ "The most difficult saving to estimate accurately

is also the most important: that is, increased keyboard efficiency. Before we committed ourselves

to Linasec we made some initial trials with one

particular operator, and this showed that an in- crease from 10,000 ens an hour on justified work to 15,000 ens an hour on unjustified work was possible. In practice, what we hope to achieve is somewhere

around 20 percent to 30 percent average increase over a roomful of perforators."^'^

Results of Oklahoma Publishing Company's use

of 1620:

"1. A computer copy tape requires about 80

percent of the strokes that are necessary for normal teletypesetting operation.

2. The operator perforates about 30 percent

faster since he isn't concerned with justifica- tion and hyphenation decisions."

"Rocappi, Inc., has estimated that a TTS per- forator operator who theoretically could produce

15,000 characters . . . per hour of justified tape

would be able to set 25,000 characters ... of

unjustified computer input tape."^^

"The studies revealed that a skilled tape punch

operator may be expected to meet production of

2,560 Unes per eight-hour day, based on 80 percent

productivity of an operator punching and justifying

at a working rate of 400 lines per hour. It was

estimated that a relatively skilled typist producing

copy at 80 words per minute, 6 words per Une,

might be expected to net approximately 5,120 lines per eight-hour day, based on an 80 percent pro- ductivity.""

Kunc). 1%.J. p. 2 W.

" "Computerized Typesetling," 1964. p. 4. "Toolhman, 1963. p. 106. " Yasaki. 1963, p. 28. " Boyd. 1965, p. 31. " Blondeau. 1963, p. 86. "The (K)evolution in Book Composition ... 11, 1964, p. 50. " Morton, 1963, p. 96.

A second gain, in some cases, that of increased

efficiency of the finecasting equipment itself, has

been hailed as unexpected: "An unexpected ad- vantage has been less down time on the hnecasting

machines. Since the computer is not apt to set

lines either too loosely or tightly, the hnecasting

machines can operate at steady high speeds without

jamming or undue wear."''''* Boyd comments to much the same effect as

follows: "Another saving that computer justification . . . brings is on the hnecasting machine itself. Tape

processed by Linasec [I] is almost entirely free from either slack or tight lines and also the lines where the keyboard operator has forgotten to press any end-of-line key at all. . . ." "A tight line in a caster causes a stoppage and loss of production out of all proportion to the fact it is just one tight line. . . ."^'^ Finally, to the extent that computer justified

input tapes minimize machine stops, they also "reduce accordingly the need for monitors and

machinists on line casting machines."**"

4.2. Corrections, Updating, and Merging

Still another advantage of the introduction of

semiautomatic and automatic methods to the composition operations is the provision for making cor- rections, updating, and merging with greater

efficiency, less cost, and higher speed. The problem of the high costs and difficulties of making

corrections to standing type, as a result of author

changes in proofreading has long been recognized

as a special problem in scientific and technical

primary publications. It has become so severe

that, as Duncan claims, "A number of scientific periodicals, particularly American ones, and a number of book pubhshers, can only continue in business by refusing all corrections subsequent

to acceptance of final typescript."^'

In the pioneering Bafour system it was anticipated:

"Further it is possible to obtain at the same time

as the coded tape, a typed copy which is an exact

indication of the contents, including the registered signals. It is also possible to produce,

after this initial operation, a second tape of the

modifications or additions which one wishes to incorporate in the initial setting, by recording

them with respect to the initial signals.

"At the input of the computer we only have a reader for two tapes of which the second, much

shorter, serves to control modifications of the

signals of the first in the desired places."

In particular, even the deletion of a single word,

the substitution of a longer word for a shorter and

vice versa, or the addition of one or more words

Goodwin. 1964. p. 34. TMR. Boyd, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1%5, p. 37.

»" Yasaki, 1963. p. 29.

»' Duncan. 1964, p. 124. 50
to a single line typically affects far more than the

resetting of that one line. 'Even if the problem is only that of correcting an improper hyphenationdecision, at least two hnes must be reset. The introduction of photocomposing techniques

not only did not help the text revision correction

problems — it made them worse. "In the composition of newspaper text, photocomposition has never been widely employed be- cause of the page revision problem. Part of this problem results from the fact that it takes so long

to phototypeset corrections and get them into new

plates for printing."

Systems involving punched paper tape output

as well as hard copy have also been notoriously

awkward to use for the insertion of corrections

and changes unless tape merging devices have been

provided. Otherwise, the operator must reproduce

the original tape with careful watch for indicated

positions for change and, upon reaching such positions, manually step the tape through character by

character until those requiring change occur, then

punch their replacements into the new tape and resume machine reproduction until the next cor- rection indication is reached.

The two such systems usually credited with

pioneering introduction of calculators for hne space

counting were also innovators with respect to tape

merging and editing functions. Thus, "the Friden

Justowriter . . . pioneered built-in calculation of

the justification-spacing parameters and of tapeediting procedures,"**^ and "Robotype is the first automatic merging system specifically designed

for printing. The keyboard in this case is a modified IBM typewriter. It produces a justified tape

and also the hard copy on prenumbered paper."

Duncan reports further that: "Semiautomatic

methods of keying-in corrections were demonstrated quite conclusively by Bafour in his 1958

examples and have been further developed in the

Robotype auto correction system in which the input

is in coded blocks with tagged lines." Today, "Linofilm, Robotype, Justowriter and

Photon among others aU provide facihty for merging tapes used in their typesetting systems."

The Intertype computer is another example, offer- ing both readers and punches which can be controlled in various merging operations at rates up

to 100 characters per second.

A special feature of such automatic tape merging

systems may be the provision of means for auto- matic detection of at least some errors which might

be introduced by the keyboarding-punching-processing operations. For example, "The computer

produces paper tape and, as it is punching, it adds

up the values of each code, just the binary values

of every single character, whether it is a character

\', M. Corrado. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 221. Duncan. 1964. p. 146. " Boyd. 196.5. p. .32. Duncan. 1964. p. 164. """The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV", 1964, p. 70.

or a function. At the end of each line the pro- gramme puts that total out on the tape. At the

end of a page, the programme tells the operator it has finished the page, and the operator takes this piece of paper tape and immediately puts it straight

back into the computer again . . . When this tape is right we take it to our typesetting device,

which has ... an output punch . . . [that] punches a second tape. At the end of the page we compare the two tapes . . . If there is an error, the computer prints out a little note saying 'line 4, 7th character might be an error' ".**''

It is to be noted, therefore, that: "Merging op- erations offer an obvious and immediate area in which computers can automate the composition

process. Merging is involved in many composition

jobs — everything from inserting corrections in new type to revising and updating previously printed

material."

Working with either source manuscripts or re- vised editions of previously printed material, ex- tensive insertions and deletions may be necessary.

The new advanced techniques offer such capabilities as the following:

"This article reports a new approach to the

paper tape updating problem, which involves the use of a high-speed electronic digital computer.

A computer program that is called the ESI system

has been written to enable the 709 computer to re- vise paper tapes for a Friden Flexowriter . . . The facihty to update Flexowriter tapes with a computer . . . implies the facility to produce updated

Photon tapes . , . "The style of the editing instructions used with

the ESI system is illustrated by the following

examples ....

"Delete and close from the fifth paragraph

through the second occurrence of a paragraph beginning with the name 'Alice' . . . "Start a new line with the last sentence in the

seventeenth paragraph.

"Start a new paragraph with the last two words

in the fourth line of the seventh paragraph . . ."^^ Similarly, at Rocappi, it is claimed that "we have

the abihty to accept input from any known conventional paper tape perforator. We can justify and

hyphenate. We have correction procedures to insert and/or delete material at will. In other

words, we can kill from the third word on hne 90

to the eighth word on line 737 and insert one word,

two lines or the Encyclopedia Britannica."^"

Still other prospects are for automatic asseribly

by computer of completed galleys, plus editorial changes, deletions and insertions into appropriate

page make-up for the completed article or book.

This would also involve the merging-in of footnotes,

titles, section headings and the like.^^ Looking

C. r. Koss. remarks, 'Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings". 1965.

p. 99. " "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IH", 1964, p. 56.

8» Barnett and Kelley, 1963, pp. 99-101.

C. Barber, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 108. " See Ohringer, 1964, p. 313.

51
ahead to the muhiple processing capabiUties of

general purpose computers Barnett and Kelley

suggest further: "This approach could be generahzed to deal with source material on several input tapes. The material would be selected, organized, and edited in accordance with an edited text description that the computer read from another tape. The description of the material to be copied could use several

different addressing systems. These could involve

page numbers, chapter and section numbers, document date or author, chapter and section names,

and combinations of these and other forms of ref- erence. The ordered selection of material could

be augmented by further computer operations,

such as sorting, in the production of the final output. "^^ As of today, however, while automatic aids to horizontal justification and hyphenation have been

extensively tried, with varying degrees of success,

the problems of vertical justification and page

composition have been attacked sparingly and,

usually, on a strictly experimental basis. Thus

the conclusions reached in a relatively early study

are still highly pertinent today. From "Report on

the Study and Investigation for the Design of a Lexical-Graphical Composer-Printer System,"

in the words of reports of the Mergenthaler Linotype Co., we find the following (page 7): "The page composition and page make-up functions involve the ordering of alpha-numeric char- acters into lines of type, the arrangement on makeup of these lines into the text columns of a page,

and the allocation of space on the page for related

illustrations, all in accordance with specified page

formats."

In that study, an examination was made of the

most flexible conventional techniques, methods,

and equipment for page composition and page

make-up, employing hot metal casting of either

individual characters or complete lines. Hot

metal methods were selected because their extreme

flexibihty offers a "worst case" from the point of

view of duphcating the functions in an automated

system. The results of that investigation of hot

metal procedures is summarized, in the list of functions given above, which omits manuscript preparation, galley proofs, art work, dummy make-up,

proof reading, preparation of table of contents and

indexes, and operations leading to printing.

Quoting again from that report (page 7): "To

those unfamiliar with the graphic arts processes

that lead to the printed page, these results serve

as an eye-opening revelation of the complexity of the tasks involved in producing a product that is so casually accepted and taken for granted. To the

initiated, these results serve as explicit confirmation of the fact that the incorporation of page composition and page make-up capabihties in a lexicalBarnelt & Kelley, 1963. p. 108 Mergenthaler Linotype Corporation, 1963, p. 7.

graphical composer-printer system is a complicated

and formidable task."

Similarly, with respect to a specific job undertaken for Random House, Freiman reports that "on the Linofilm, using the normal set-up with

conventional ready-made grids, we discovered that we would have to average about 10 grid changes

per line. This made the Linofilm absolutely out of the question because of the slowness thus en- gendered."^'' The same commentator also sug- gested, however, that the Linotron with its very

high speeds and multiple-pass capabilities would

provide an adequate solution to such problems.

Merging in of corrections, insertions and deletions has already advanced so far in newspaper

composition work that in the Los Angeles instal- lation, for example, it is claimed that: "Much of the

savings generated by computerized typesetting at the [Los Angeles] Times is based on computer in- sertion of editing changes.""''

Still another advantage of new facilities for auto- matic or semiautomatic insertion of editorial changes and corrections lies in the area of variously

styled editions, revisions, and re-issues of material

ranging from training manuals to textbooks and

even to the automatic combination of several

texts.*"* Some typical claims with respect to primary

publications or secondary publications, or both,

are as follows: "One application is the conversion of source documents into any kind of a composition system,

either directly from authors' manuscripts or from

previously printed documents into a new format —

such as hard-cover books into paperbacks.""^

"There is a useful by-product for the book printer

in a continuous tape system: that is, that a book

once set can be produced in a variety of type faces

from the original or corrected tape.""^

"If a new edition is required, then the original

tape, with a correction tape, and the new style in- structions can be re-submitted to the computer.

This provides a substantially new product, but one

in which the cost of keyboarding is probably only

10% of the full cost.""" "A second type of re-issue involving only altera- tions in style arises from the use of the computer

generated tape with compatible but relatively minor

changes in the photo-composing machine. Just exactly what is possible will depend on the output

machine used, but a simple example would be composition in 8 pt. on 9 pt. body to some suitable

reduced page width and depth in place of the origi- nal which was 10 pt. on 11 pt. body composition."'

Finally, there is the prospect stressed by Corrado

that material available in computer-usable form but

R. A. Freiman. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

pp. 230-231. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill"*, 1964, p. 56. TM Barnett and Kelley, 1963, p. 106. " Merz, 1964. p. 85.

"" Boyd, 1965, p. ^^5. »» Duncan, 1964, p. 162.

' Ibid.

52
not presently reproducible with typographic quality

may in the future be re-processed:

"We are preparing a master typography program

for a general purpose computer. . . . Input to this master typography program can be existing magnetic tape. For example, there may be a tape

standing today that was meant to be run on a 1403

hne printer. With a minimum number of editorial insertions for what we caU an insertion program,

the information on that tape can be made sophisticated enough to permit the master typography

program to provide all the information for the

Linotron."- Barnett and KeUey point out, further, that: "In

general, the production of a revised publication

requires typesetting and proofreading processes

that repeat the expense and time delays of the origi- nal production, even though the changes may affect only a small fraction of the characters in the text. Changing a few words here and there may cause

quite considerable changes in hne and page breaks,

and 'stripping in' can be very awkward and time

consuming."'^

4.3. Vertical Justification and Page

Composition

Just as close, even spacing desiderata are achieved

by line-by-hne horizontal justification, so also are

vertical justification and page make-up considerations important in terms of the page as a whole.

"The advent of computer actuated type-setting

and photosetting devices makes it all the more

important and advantageous to focus attention on

the problem of finding the most effective formats

for the composition of the printed page."^

One possible computer solution to the problems

of horizontal justification and minimized hyphenation requirements has already been reported: that of holding the contents of a set of hues in memory

and iteratively re-trying line justifications to improve the entire paragraph or page. This solution

is closely related to problems of vertical composition, whether of column or page, especially avoid- ance of "widows" (i.e., left over at the bottom of a paragraph or page, or carried over to the beginning

of the next page). In this connection, some idea of the difficulties of providing broadly applicable machine rules in the automation of compositor functions is provided

by the example of the programmer who "told the

computer that a widow of three characters was

possible — whereupon the computer produced a line containing only a period and two closing quote

marks.

In book composition planning at the Westerham

Press, for example, Maclntyre reports: "The items we were interested in controUing were word-spacing.

^Corrado, 1964, p. 116.

' Barnelt and Kelley, 1963. p. 99.

* Eugene Garfield, panel discussion, Markus, 1962, p. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . II," 19ft4, p. 47.

letter-spacing, removal of widows, short lines, and

multiple hyphenations occurring sequentially."^

Page composition operations at ROCAPPi (which

had, in collaboration with RCA, produced over 50

samples of book pages as early as 1963) involve

such operations as the following: "The function of

Phase III is to make up the matter from the gaUey

output into pages, putting in running heads, folios and chapter headings, picking out footnotes and

references, putting in captions, and so on, and at the same time eliminating widows, short lines at the top of a page, hyphenations breaking over a page

and other typographical horrors." ^ Another aspect of the page composition problem

involves the question of requirements for switching

between character sets, beyond the single-run

capabihty of the specific equipment.

With respect to relatively early Linofilm experi- ence, for example, it is reported that:

". . . Since point size may be changed only at the beginning of a line, it is not possible to switch

from an A grid, which can produce point sizes from

six to twelve, to a B grid, which has point sizes from

twelve to twenty-four. If it is desired to vary point

size within a line, it would be necessary to make two

passes, changing point size and film advance to accomplish the desired result." ^ In the case of scientific and technical text in- volving frequent insertion of mathematical and other

special symbols, the problem is particularly severe. For example, Croucher remarked on some of these

difficulties, involving several different systems at the

London computer-typesetting conference as follows: "We found that we averaged 200 grid changes per

page, on Maths, on the old 88 matrix grid", and,

"we found the Linofilm difficult because of the fact that we had to bring in practically all the 18 grids even on one page of mathematics." ^ The multiple-pass solution to the problem of

changing fonts and hence enlarging the total character set repertoire is also suggested for more recent developments such as Linotron which, to an extent,

trades character set size during a run for extremely

high speed character generation. Thus, "in area composition . . . you can do all of your Century,

say, first. At the end of that pass you go back, and

while you are going back, you can change the character grid to your Spartan, and then fill in all the

holes with your Spartan. Consequently, the number of font changes is only as large as the number

of different type faces on a page."'"

Prospects for progress include recognition that: "The computer can assign page numbers, allow

predesignated spaces for inserting drawings, photographs or other graphic information, and can insert

subject headings and column headings automati-

* Maclntyre, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, p. 34.

' T. H. v. Archer, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference "Proceedings", 1965,

p. 120.

^ "Graphic Composing Techniques", 1962, p. 22.

' G. Croucher, remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings", 1965,

p. 230. "Corrado, 1964, p. 114.

53
cally. By minute variation in the leading between

lines, the computer can easily accomplish vertical

justification so that the bottom and top hues of all columns on the same page will be flush."'' Barnett and his colleagues also point out that: "The problem of linearizing formulae is really a special case of the more general problem of linear- izing two dimensional topologies. A scheme is being developed by the authors, that gives names

to objects, and then compounds these names in expressions in which connective symbols and

operators are used to indicate topological association, scahng and ahgnment."'^

"The aim to produce close even spacing throughout is not a mathematical ruling — in fact due to optical variations it calls for slight variations in spacing according to the shape of the encompassing

letters, just as do the beginning and ends of lines with some characters or sorts, and some founts. This information can be fed into the computer's

memory and used repetitively."'^

Other prospects promised in current computer

programming developments include: "A further

refinement of spacing concerns rivers of white.

It should be possible to define them by a string of

numbers or place labels. They can then be

searched for, before they occur in the computer

output, and possibly avoided. . . . "Fully automatic editing can be achieved using

the type of special language created by Barnett for

'calling' the changes and for finding the correct place to make them using the text itself to indicate

the 'address'." '"* Finally, the problems of vertical justification and

page composition are related to the problems of area composition as in display advertising, composition of book jackets, and the interpolation of two

dimensional graphic material. Barnett considers

the latter to be far more difficult as such than those

of page makeup:

"Page composition provides a descriptive problem that is less serious, as the subdivision of pages

into rectangles of material that can be set as units

usually is simpler than the corresponding subdivision of formulae. A simple notation can be used

to describe a page by an expression which uses names for items of text, and a nested algebraic

notation for the distribution of these, in adjacent

rectangles of different sizes."''' In terms of hardware developments applicable to many cases of page and area composition, one example is Linofilm.

"The Linofilm system . . . embodies one important 'first' — the Composer, which is essentially

a selective rephotographing device completely

under the control of the layout operator. With

this editing and re-arranging device the operator can do compHcated display work with reductions

" Sparks et al., 1964. p. 185. " Barneti el al.. 1953, p. 270. " Duncan, 1964, p. 160. " Ibid., p. 164. I '= Barncit el al., 196,3. p. 270.

down to ^3 and enlargements up to 6X. The key

board has recently been modified to include mixing

facilities ('Linomix') and editing simphfied by a tape

merging and reproofing device ('Tape Combiner').""^

"The primary advantage of the rapid display

response time of a cathode ray tube is in the editing

of texts where several sequential editing steps are required and where the editor cannot proceed with

a particular step until he has seen the results of a former step. . . . This rapid response capability

is useful in page makeup where rewriting and re- justifying of text are required to fit text items in their allotted spaces."

4.4. Two-Dimensional Composition

Over and above requirements for a large, versatile

character set, pre-prepared and available either

directly or indirectly, many applications have need

of a capability to insert within a printed page symbols and other material extending in both dimensions beyond the confines of a single line. In scientific and technical information processing, the most

obvious examples are mathematical equations and

chemical structure diagrams. The two professional

societies most obviously concerned have therefore

been studying these problems over the past several

years. At the American Mathematical Society use has

been made of specially designed Photon discs and

a pi-mat attachment for the setting of Critical Reviews of Mathematics. Subscripting and superscripting operations are readily available. At the

American Chemical Society, Kuney and his associates have been exploring various approaches to the setting of chemical symbols, as well as other

aspects of high-speed, higher-quality machine-aided

composition, since 1958. One obvious alternative in both the mathematical

and chemical cases is to abandon the traditional

symbols and to use alphanumeric names for them

instead. "With the limited keyboard available on

the present Flexowriter, most mathematical symbols

and Greek characters must be essentially spelled

out in abbreviated form. . . . This not only reduces

the speed at which the input text can be transcribed

but also results in tedious typing for the operators,

thus increasing the possibihty of errors." '^ The typesetting of such special symbols is claimed

to be "one of the most difficult tasks in the modern

composing room . . . the setting of mathematical

equations, chemical structural formulas, and other

items that, although part of the text, differ from

ordinary text. . . ." '^ It is also reported that,

quantitatively, the number of two-dimensional in- sertions, from tabular data to diagrams and illustra- tions in scientific and technical text, ranges from

40% to 70% of the total text.^" Moreover, require-

'» Duncan, 1964, p. 144. " Buckland, 1963, p. 179. "Graphic Composing Techniques", 1962, p. 33.

'» Kraft, 1963, p. 8.

2" Buck et al., 1951, pp. 1-3.

54
ments for manual setting of complex mathematical

and chemical formulas are such that conventional

typesetting facihties tend to become saturated.^! "The process of preparing chemical structures

for printing purposes is complex, slow, and expensive. While much has been done using the characters available in cast metal type, such structures

are subject to spillage and breaking of characters,

particularly subscripts." ^"^ Photocomposition techniques have offered some new possibilities. Thus, Barnett reports of Photon

developments:

". . . Letters, digits, and other symbols to be

used as subscripts and superscripts are available on many discs. . . . The base hnes of such characters are displayed with respect to the normal character base line, so that they are displayed automatically

in the appropriate position with respect to the

characters which they append".^^

An example of Linofilm capabilities is provided

in Figure 46. As Feldman notes, "The recently introduced

'cold-type' typesetting machines [such as Photon

and Linofilm] appeared to offer promise for the composition of chemical structures, because these

machines do have the ability to go from one hne to another before either line is finished. However,

certain computations still have to be made in this process; there is also a backlash which becomes

noticeable when a hne is approached once from

above and then from below."

As previously noted, work on typographic-quality

composition by semi-automatic and automatic means began at the American Chemical Society at least as early as 1958. A first approach was the

development of a Photon test disc providing 50 lines and angles with which to construct the characters

proposed at American Cynamid for the typing of

structural formulas. Using this approach, for example, benzene rings can be constructed which

range from V4 to 3 inches in height.^^ Then,

". . . to develop compatibility with the input of the

Army chemical typewriter, the proposed character

design was extended to include:

1. Full-length single and double bonds.

2. Combinations of half-length straight and

angle bonds for corners and inserting of alphabetic and numeric characters within the ring.

3. Offset single bond hnes to be used to form

double bond effects within the inner structure.

4. A complement of miscellaneous characters." A report by the University of Pittsburgh research

group working oft the Chinese ideograph project

exemplifies some of the difficulties but also points

to some of the potentiahties for other types of

" U.S. Senate. 1960, p. 117. Kuney and Lazorchak. 1964. p. 303. Barnett et al.. 1962. p. 63. Feldman. 1964. p. 20.S. " Kuney and Lazorchak, 1964, p. .304. ^Mbid., pp. 304-305.

Q. Can formulas be set flush left, flush right or centered? A Yes. Quadding of the component lines in formula composition is the same as for normal text, so long as the start of each hne is at the same reading (ems and units) on the Keyboard Unit indicator tubes. Likewise each line must end on the same indicator reading. These

readings are determined by the cast-off hne. The following examples show all three types of quadding:

jdxFix) [-»£6U)] = jdx(x^ + F'js{x)=F{Oj

jdxFlx) ^-x£b(x}j = jdx(^x^ + F'^&{x)=Fm

Q. Can the formula be centered and the reference number set at the right? A. Yes, as shown in the following example:

jdxF(x) \^-x£&{x)'^ = jdx{^x^ + F'^Six)=F{0) (32.0-27)

Q. Can one character be superimposed over another?

A. The examples here show superimposition achieved by the same

technique in text lines and in a display formula.

It can be done readily as this S in this justified line and also as shown in the formula below.

Fk.URE 46. Linofilm mathematical setting examples.

Stylized two-dimensional graphic material, such as

line drawings.

Pertinent findings and observations include the

following:

"The input writer is a modified 'Flexowriter'

with a keyboard containing the strokes needed

to form Chinese ideographs, and keys controlling

the operational functions which place the fully

formed ideographs in the filmstrip text. The

keyboard also furnishes information to a code

generator and to the logic system within the

machine.

"The keyboard contains 21 basic strokes, 20

ideographic entities, and 11 punctuation marks.

Each stroke has been assigned a letter of the

alphabet. Special English alphabet key caps

have been fitted so that non-Chinese operators can compose on the machine by using Chinese

language copy that has been English-language

coded in advance by Chinese-English linguists.

"Each stroke generates a 5-bit code which is fed into shift registers and then into a coincidence

detector. The magnetic drum . . . has a capacity for storing codes for 10,000 ideographic characters. These characters are made of as many

55
as 20 strokes. . . . When coincidence occurs between the stroked character and the same

character stored on the drum, a signal is generated.

"Employed in the optical system are an optical

tunnel, a vidicon imaging lens and faceplate, and

a photographic memory plate (called a character

matrix) with a matrix illuminator, containing 160

groups of 16 ideographs each. This system

transfers a replica of the character, selected by

the operator and located by the logic system, from

the character matrix to the input of the video

system. The video system electronically scans

that group of 16 characters on the character

matrix which contains the one demanded by the

operator. It then selects the one required and

presents it to the operator, on a display kinescope . . . for verification. "A character, generated on the exposure kinescope . . . is transferred by means of the 'photograph' key on the keyboard to the optical system

and is imaged by means of the lens system onto photographic film. "When the operator strokes a sequence that defines more than one ideographic character,

the first character recognized at the coincidence

detector will have associated with it a special

pulse indicating ambiguity. In this case, a maximum of four characters can be displayed. . . . The operator can select the desired character

by stroking keys on the keyboard that are especially marked to indicate the quadrant of the

display kinescope where the desired character is shown.

"An insertion vidicon camera is built into the

machine to allow the insertion of characters not contained in the machine vocabulary.

"If a required character is not present in the

machine vocabulary, the operator can place his copy, or a document containing the desired character, on an insertion tray. When the 'insert' key is depressed, the insertion vidicon is acti- vated and will scan the document or other

material, and the vidicon system will reflect what

it sees on the display kinescope. The operator can relocate the document until he has the display

he desires. The zoom lens of the vidicon is then

adjusted to display the character in the desired

"97

Size.

4.5. Specific Photocomposing Equipment

The possible development of keyboards specifically designed to feed photocomposition systems

has been under consideration for a decade or more. A special case of two dimensional symbol composition is that required for typing or printing

Chinese ideographs. The Lin Yutang typewriter

is an example.

"On 8 June 1955 a contract, supported jointly by

the Army and the Air Force, was awarded for the

development of a prototype machine . . . dehvered

in December 1959. The Sinotype had a basic

vocabulary of 2,333 ideographs and was of an elec- tric-pneumatic-mechanical design. It proved to be

quite slow in operation, too sensitive to the shocks

of field use, and difficult to maintain."-^

Radio Corporation of America has developed a Chinese ideographic photocomposer for the U.S. Army Natick Research Laboratories. A modified

Flexowriter provides keyboard input for 20 complete

symbols, 21 strokes, and 11 punctuation marks.

Codes generated by the keyboard address a memory drum, which in turn directs the illumination of portions of an optical character matrix. The character is viewed by a vidicon camera tube and

displayed on a verification oscilloscope before photographing. Special characters can be inserted by means of an insertion vidicon. The machine vocabulary is 2500 characters, expandable to 10,000

characters.

Characters are photographed on film in 10, 12,

18, or 24 point size, in a page format of vertical

columns set from right to left, or horizontal rows set from left to right.

Methods for reproducing chemical structure information by special typewriter and keyboard or by high speed computer printout have been explored

by Jacobs and Feldman at Walter Reed, by workers

at American Cyanamid, by Crane and associates

at Eastman Kodak, and by Waldo at Monsanto.

In the Army chemical typewriter developments

of Jacobus and Feldman, for example, a set of char- acter and conventions of usage are first developed.

"Then, as the structure is typed, a tape is perforated

with the codes of the characters typed, and the

codes of the coordinates of the position of the char- acters on the typewritten page. ... A computer

program, rearranging the output of the . . . typewriter so that chemical structures can be typed out

line-by-line, was written by Harold L. Manceaux.

. . . Grouping according to the y-coordinates

brings together all characters that appear on the same line; these characters are then spaced proportionately to their x-coordinates. By ordering the

y-coordinates sequentially, a tape containing a line- by-hne output is obtained. Such computer-produced tapes are suitable for driving tape-controlled

typesetting machines." ^®

It is planned that encoding and typing of struc- tures in accordance with the Army chemical typewriter scheme can be computer-processed to obtain

a tape to drive the Photon for setting of chemical

structures.^** Holm points out, also, that: "Mechanical input is possible through the

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research type-

" U. Pitt., 1964. pp. 1-2. ^FeMmin, 1964. pp. 206-207. "U. Pitt.. 1964, pp. 7-11. M kiinev and Lazi.rchak. 1964. p. 305. 5^
TecHnlcal Text Co»»<pIl«r

>

a = 1 •42 d'= 1 •50 ^b =

b = 1 •75 d'= 1 •SO (ass.

)

^bc =

c = 1 •80 p = 1 •90

: 113°

: 100° = 13?"

(Brrors uncertain)

C

0

The crystal I ograp'^ic observations are consistent with thg chemical representation of the skeleton tHo«n above. NOTE - The numbers refer

to bonds not to atoms. = 1 •M 7 = 1 •5? 13 = 1 •64 19 = 1 •55 ?5 = 1 47 31 = 1 •44 a =

= 1 •M 8 = 1 •59 14 = 1 •67 ?0 1 39 ?6 = 1 39 3? = 1 •51 b =

= 1 •41 9 = 1 •66 15 = 1 •38 ?: = 1 •50 27 = 1 •53 33 = 1 •55 c - = 1 •40 10 = 1 •66 16 = 1 •61 ?? =^ 1 54 ?8 = 1 •5? 34 = 1 •5? d

--- 56 11 = 1 •56 17 = 1 •69 ?3 ^= 1 54 ?9 = •5? •6? ;a = 1 •56 18 = 1 •51 ?4 = 1 39 30 = 1 •57 Mean C - C = 1 ^54 i 0^09

: ;c,)

Fl(,URE 47. Outimt of Technical Text Compiler.

Cio-'o9rN40fS 5-Bromo-?-metanI lamidopyrimidlno

M

C

e / \ a

Br—C C—NH

0 0

C.S. 1 (O

P = 0-?4 (Structure dominated by heavy atoms)

Cjr'-'33!0; Lanostenyl lodoacetate

C.S.

writer or through optical scanning. However,

the capabiHty exists today to take any of these

input forms and transform them within computer

memory ... if the input generates a unique and

unambiguous form. . . ." Lnder U.S. Army sponsorship, also. General

Electric investigators and personnel of the Redstone

Scientific Information Center have developed an

experimental Technical Text Compiler System, uti- hzing an IBM 7094 computer and the S-C 4020 dis- play capabilities. Input can be accepted from either

hne-at-a-time devices such as the Flexowriter or from the Army Chemical Typewriter providing X

^' Holm. 1965. p. 162.

and Y coordinate information (Burger, 1964). Sample output, as of December 1964, is shown in Figure 47. Kraft, in 1963, described the Mergenthaler "Diagrammer" as follows: "Mergenthaler's Diagrammer

is a prototype device by means of which an operator can project any one of 400 symbols onto a viewing

screen, move the projection across the screen to any

one of a series of positions, and expose the symbol

onto the corresponding position of a D-size (or

smaller) photographic film or paper. ... In the

prototype Diagrammer, the entire symbol complement is composed of electronic symbols and their

associated nomenclature. . . ."

Kraft. 1963. p. 13.

57
In a Diagrammer model demonstrated in July

1965 a basic character set of 256 symbols is available

to the operator at any one time. These are stored on glass slides for optical projection onto a viewing

screen. The operator is free to move a selected

symbol about and to change its size as required.

Two other examples of computer output capabilities are the generation of printout of annotated

flowcharts and weather maps, as follows: "The present approach was to define an algorithm capable of one-pass operation a small (IBM1620) computer, using a Calcomp digital incremental plotter online to produce the annotated

flowchart. The use of a digital plotter capable

of operation under program control seems largely

to have been overlooked in past considerations

of automated flow charting. Two advantages are immediately apparent: (1) solid-hne unrestricted

definition of chart symbols; and (2) an essentially

unlimited character set. . . ." "Another approach to handling computer out- put is to scan and transmit microfilms generated

by devices hke the General Dynamics S-C 4020,

the Data Display dd-80, or the scanning converter

built by Burroughs Michigan Laboratory to re- place the 30 by 30 inch printer plotters now used

with the Weather Bureau's 7094 computer to pro- duce weather maps for facsimile distribution."

Another surprisingly early direction of experimental investigations, stemming in large part from the

interests of the Rome Air Development Center, has

been the question of intermixing textual and graphical material, in high typographic quahty output,

especially for such areas as output from mechanical

translation programs where it is desirable to inter- polate equations, charts, drawings, figures and other

illustrations including half-tone representations of

photographs in the appropriate positions with re- spect to the machine-translated text. A series of

three reports highlight projects at Syracuse University (Buck et al., 1961): IBM ("Graphic Composing

Techniques," 1962), and Mergenthaler (Mergenthaler, 1963).

Some of the aspects that are of general and continuing interest include the following:

Syracuse Report, 1961. This survey outlined var-- ious system proposals and extensively reviewed the

then available technology and equipment, including

proposed developments and modifications. Perti- nent details, such as planned modification to provide

better typographic quality of the S-C 4020 and the

CBS character generator, early versions of the

Alphanumeric and Videograph systems, and de- scriptions of equipment not now available (DACOM,

Electrada), have been cited as appropriate else- where in this report. Two further examples, of peripheral interest to the main topic of this report

but reflecting future prospects for two dimensional

composition and interpolation of graphic with textual

^"Anderson. 1965. p. 38. " Alden. 1964. p. 13.

material have to do with a potential mix of character

recognition techniques for text and the identification

and location of graphic material to be copied or stored for later interpolation in proper page makeup. First, it was noted that:

". . . The microfilm containing text and graphics can be used in an optical projection system.

The shutter of the projection system may be

controlled by signals established by the text reader to indicate the presence and extent of

graphics. . . ." Secondly, with respect to the proposed FMA "Text

Discriminator and Reader Programmer", it was re- ported that: "This equipment, as proposed, would be an elec- tronic read-in device incorporating . . . techniques

to distinguish text from graphics. . . . Some of the more promising techniques are:

"1. Frequency response differentiation between

text and graphics. Text is characterized by

sharp edge and maximum contrast while

graphics contain slow changes and all shades

of gray.

"2. Recognition of special marks associated with

graphics and equations. Generally minus

and plus signs will be present in equations,

thus providing unique symbols which can be

recognized easily. Also the density of marks

and equations is not uniform as in the text." IBM Report, 1962. This report concerns the

exploratory work undertaken to tie together the

AN/GSQ-16 (photoscopic disc) machine translation

system with the special IBM 704-Mergenthaler

Linofilm system also used by Barnett. More specifically, the project objectives were to process graphic

data through the translator in order to reproduce

such data in the printed output, and to improve the

typographical quality of the translated-text output.

Some specific details are as follows: "The

composing rate is only about 60 words per minute. . . . There are usually quite a few font changes

per page, and each font change requires several

seconds. . . . Most articles have a number of untranslatable items, such as charts and pictures.

It is necessary to leave blank film in the output, so

that the items may later be pasted in their proper

positions. A page or text with no font changes or pictures can be printed at about 110 words per

minute.

"The translated information would contain a quad

space, or tabulate, character between the two sections of the information [i.e., text, and graphics

to be interpolated]. This causes the program to quad left the information which is in the output

area at the time of the quad space character. Then

a character is placed in the output area which sets

a zero film advance, and the remaining information

is assembled and written out with a quad right end

"Buck el al., 1961, pp. lV-12.

58
of line command. This causes the second section

of the information to be written on the same line as the first part. hen the line has been written, the

normal film advance is restored, and the program

continues.

"If the information is to be centered on two or more fines, the total width of the information to be

centered has been accumulated in the 704 memory.

This value is divided by the number of lines on which the information is to be centered, to get an approximate width for each line. "If graphical material interrupts a sentence, the sentence must be completed to the nearest punctuation mark (except for a comma) before the necessary

Par. and Tab. instructions can be given for the space

allotment. Control or edit instructions must not

interrupt a sentence or idea. If edit information

is inserted in the midst of a sentence, an improper

translation may occur.

"If the information is to be centered on two or more lines, the total w-idth of the information to be

centered has been accumulated in the 704 memory.

This value is divided by the number of fines on which the information is to be centered, to get an approximate width for each fine. . . . "Most of the work done to prepare the translated

information for the Linofilm unit is done by an IBM

704 computer. ... A number of instructions have

been added to the 704 which, although not necessar\-. simpfify the working program. For this rea- son, the particular 704 program which is used is not directly compatible with another 704."

Mergenthaler Report, 1963. This report, and its appendices. carr>- forward still further the question

of present and future prospects for "Lexical-Graphical Composing-Printing" (LGCP) systems. Specific

consideration is given to machine-controUed composition, reproduction and/or material ranging from

fine art iUustrations, tabular matter and mathematical equations to screened halftone iUustrations.

Thus: "'The tonal scale of the illustration is simulated

in the printing process by making the dot pattern

structure on the printing press plate a function of the tonal gradations of the original illustration. Thus the dark areas of the original illustration are represented by a dot pattern in which the dots are

relatively large and with fittle white space between

the individual large dot areas. . . . "The output graphic must be a dot pattern struc- ture in which the distribution of the dots over the

image area represents a faithful reproduction of the

continuous tone input image. It should be noted

that since the dot pattern structure does not appear

in the input graphic, it must be created within the

LGCP system."'^'

Other pertinent comments in the fiterature on

present and future prospects for two-dimensional

composition and interpolation of graphic material

in machine-processed text include the following:

First, a negative reaction: "The keyboarding re-

* "Graphic Composing Techniques". 1962. pp. 7, 14, 17, 18, 29. "MeiKenthaler, 1963, pp. 13-14. 59

quired to code a complex formula would probably

be greater, or at least no easier or less expensive,

than direct setting without the intervention of a computer."

Secondly, optimistic, including the incorporation

of color: "The practical application of such displays

as chromatron photo chromic dyes, coupled with

such reproduction means as thermoplastic recording

or smoke printing will usher in an era of true elec- tronic printing in all the flexibifity we have come to expect in printed communication."

Thirdly, some specific difficulties: "If the original

is screened halftone or a combination cut. however,

it is essential that the enlarged output have the same

size as the original: inasmuch as it is impossible to change the size of the picture without changing

the size of the screen, w-hich will damage the ap- pearance of the halftones. . . . "Because it is a highly skilled operation, considerable difficulty can be anticipated in incorporating

automatic screening into the Lexical-Graphical

Composer-Printer. However, such recent developments as the Logelectronics projector may make it feasible." ^° Fourthly, impfications for man-machine collaboration: "The paste-and-cut method for transferring

equations, graphs, etc.. could now be replaced by

the post-editor indicating w^hich figure from the source text should be placed where in the output

if optical printing techniques are used."^^ Again.

". . . Special mathematical symbols which do not appear in the tape as it comes from the printer are added ... on the character display tube by use

of the light pen which we have attached to our PDP

4 computer."

Fifthly, the prospects for drastically reduced

image-storage requirements, with a reasonable

facsimile reproducible upon demand. "Much work

is under way to store pictorial representation, such

as the chemical structure in packed coded or binary

form, with the reproduction of the original pictorial

form upon request either as a display on film, or printed."

Finally, with respect to both present and rea- sonably predictable future technological developments, we may agree with Duncan's conclusion that: "There appears to be no real technical barrier to the simultaneous or practically simultaneous composition-imposition of both text and graphics." ^

5. Documentation Applications

In the broad field of documentation, generally,

the introduction of high speed semi-automatic and

automatic composition techniques will undoubtedly

have its first and greatest impact in the field of

^ "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 5. ^ Herbert. Ohlman. Panel discussion. Markus. 1962. p. 25. Kraft. 1963. pp. 7-8. " Reitz, 1964. p. 278. -•-Ohringer. 1964. p. 313. « Holm. 196.5. p. 166. Duncan. 1964. p. 135.

231-313 OL-67-5
primary publication especially that new genus,

the publication of computer-compiled and computergenerated materials. This new genus ranges from

numeric tables through directories and revised

editions of training manuals to text and tables of

reports automatically generated by machine ref- erence to and selection from stored data. Applications to computer output also include the

complementary operations of conversion of text of computer-usable records for storage and subsequent search and selection, on the one hand, and

use of computer-usable text for multiple purposes, on the other. Apphcations in the area of the more conventional

primary publications range from typesetting of text

for articles, books and newspapers through the is- suance of revised or different editions to the merging

in of editing changes at early manuscript or proofing

stages and the merging of "core" material with

special local variations. In the area of secondary publications, indexes

whether automatically, semi-automatically or manually prepared, announcement journals, computerized book and card catalogs, accession lists, bibliographies generally and demand bibliographies

resulting from machine-searches, abstract journals,

automatically prepared abstracts, shelf lists, accession lists and output of translations of material

from one language to another (whether by man

or machine) are all technically promising candidates.

A new impetus might be given to the "current contents" concept if cooperating journals could trans- mit text of their table-of-contents pages by wire to a center which would assemble and reproduce

them preserving the original typography if desired.

Special-purpose or more sophisticated applications will probably extend from today's experiments on composition of relatively stylized two- dimensional materials such as chemical structures,

mathematical equations and drawings to the page

composition of both text and graphics, and per- haps eventually to the results of man-machine

interaction via display consoles and light pen

insertions. In the remainder of this section we will consider

examples of some of these applications which are

either in practical production, have been demonstrated experimentally, or have been extensively

investigated. Before discussing applications to primary and secondary publications, newspaper and

book composition, specialized bibliographic aids

and relationships to mechanized storage, selection

and retrieval systems and service center operations, however, we will consider prototype general

purpose programs for computerized typesetting.

5.1. General Purpose Computer Programs

The first of the general purpose computer pro- grams developed for a variety of possible documentation operations is that of Barnett and his associates at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

5.1.1. Barnett and Others at M.I.T. The pioneering work of Barnett and his associates

at M.I.T. runs a gamut from proper presentation of

computer-compiled and computer-generated primary pubhcations and to secondary pubhcation in many forms precisely because its intent is general

purpose. Generality is achieved in allowing Flexowriter, punched card, and other forms of input and

in program 'packaging', while output versatility

(709-driven Photon processing and later, 7090) is as is illustrated in Figure 48.

This was produced from the input record, in part as follows: [indn77dl21s24stl, , 36cnxsl]

EXCERPT FROM ALICE IN WONDERLAND

[nllslS]

December 6, 1961

[sp4st2, 10, 36st3, 11, 36st4, 12, 36st5, 13, 36st6,

14, 36st7, 15, 36st8, 16, 36st9, 17, 36stl0 18

361sl4dllxs2rl]

[scl9scl9]Fury said to [xs3]a mouse, That

[nlxs6]he met

[xs7]in the

[xs8] house

[xs9] [scl9]Let us [xs7]both go

[xs61sl2]to law:

[xs5dl9]I[dll] will [xs3] prosecute

[xs2dl9]you.

[nlxs3dll] Come, I'll [nlxs4]take no

[nlxs5] denial:

[nlxs7]We must

[nlxs81sll]have a [nlxs9] trial [sc47]

[nlxslO] For

[xs7]really

[xs6]this

[nl] morning

[nlxs81sl0] I've [xs6] nothing

[xs5]to do.' [xs4]Said the

[xs2] mouse to [xsl] the cur, [nlxs3] [scl9]Such a [nlxs41s9] trial, [xs3]dear sir, [xs2] With no

[xs2]jury or [xslls8]judge,

[nlxs2] would be

[xs2] wasting

[xs2] our breath.' [xs31s7] [scl9]ril be

[xs2] judge,

[xs2] I'll be

[xs2]jury,'

60
[xsl] Said

[xslls6] cunning

[xsl] old Furv:

[xs2] [scl9]rUtry

[xs2]the whole

[nLxs31s5] cause, [nlxs4]and

[xs3] condemn

[xs3]you

[xs3]to

[xs3] death."'

[en]

Note should be taken first of the intermix of

"program" (i.e., input, processing, and output in- structions) and textual data and secondly of the

extent of the total input occupied by precedence

and special coding. This may involve a high initial keystroking penalty, as mentioned elsewhere.

The anticipatory control subroutine may be of

particular significance in integrated publication

processes since, as Buckland points out: "Page,

volume, and issue numbers are needed for journal

citations in an index. This data is not known until the typesetting and page and journal layouts are complete and would therefore, have to be derived

from the composition information, whether or not a computer is used to prepare the type." ^ A specific appUcation example is the production

of the Union listing of Chinese Communist sci- entific periodicals prepared by the M.I.T. Libraries. Barnett reports: "The source material has been

punched on a Flexowriter, with special symbols

representing diacritical marks in an arbitrary cor- respondence. Certain types of input item are de- limited by carriage returns, tabulations, slashes,

periods, and combinations of these and a few other

simple criteria. The relevant control codes are

inserted for new lines, indentations, columnar

alignments, changes of type and diacritical marks,

by a program that is specific to this apphcation." ^ In general, in the M.I.T. program, ". . . The

computer is used to set material, organize and to impose elaborate formats mechanically onto material that is keyboarded in a convenient and casual

manner, thus avoiding the extensive clerical work

and precise typesetting that would otherwise be

necessary . . ."^ and, "It has been our objective

to develop a general purpose program which could

deal with a considerable variety of photocomposing

problems that were defined in a suitable input

language. A language and the corresponding pro- gram have been developed that take care of fea- tures which are common to many typesetting

situations."*

Some specific details of the computer-composer

programs, at various stages of development, serve

to illustrate both programming challenges and di- verse application potentiahties. First, an initial

Photocomposit ion

"Fury said to

a mouse, That

he met

in the

house,

'Let us

both go

to law:

/will

prosecute

you.

Come, I'll take no

denial

We must

have a

trial;

For

really

this

morning

I've nothing

to do.'

Said the mou.se to

the cur, 'Such a

trial, dear sir,' With no

jury or

judge.

would be

wa.stinp our breath. •nibe

riibtjury,'

S:ii(l

<'ii|)nlii^' old I'lirv:

1 11 Irv

t lie whdUiillil ititiilcniii

' Buckland. 1965. p. 8.

= Bamell el al,. 1963. p. 269.

1 Luce and Barnell. 1963. p. 293.

' Bamelt el al.. 1963. p. 264. Figure 48. Barnett program output.

61
control code sets certain composing parameters

such as page width and page length, sets the type

style by table lookup, and selects the type size (usually, the smallest lens size available).^ This

initial code also controls the setting of body lead

(distance between the base lines of two successive

lines) and specifies vertical spacing.*"

The input code, for example, for Flexowriter

material contains both the style codes which by

suitable conversions will control the selection of

the appropriate disc track number of the Photon

and other control codes, specify justified or unjustified hnes, flush left, centering, or flush right, and,

for justification, specification of the criteria to ex- pand or compress interword spacesJ Essentially,

such Flexowriter input "is treated as a continuous

stream of information which is split into lines in the output by reference (i) to line width and justi- fication considerations, (ii) to control codes in the

input that specify the beginning of new lines explicitly or implicitly, and (iii) to paragraph breaks." * Next, the input codes are converted by computer

program (with the various control codes in the material automatically calling up the appropriate pro- gram sub-routines) to a composition-controlUng code.

"The disc level, lens size, sequence number,

escapement, carriage return and vertical space

codes constitute the fl^-code, that is produced by

the photocomposing programs and is written on magentic tape, from which punched paper tape is produced off line, using an improvised magnetic to paper tape converter."^

In terms of the internal computer processing,

"The status of the setting process at any instant is recorded by some 70 parameters. These are stored

in a 'status' array. . . . Whenever a parameter is changed, a record is kept in a 'backtrack' array of

the position in the status array of the parameter

that has been changed, and of the superseded value.

If overset occurs before an interword space is encountered, the contents of the backtrack array may be used to restore the status of the setting

process to that which was current when the previous

word-end was encountered."

It is to be noted further that, in the Flexowriter

input case, "The input subroutines for Flexowriter

material deal with backspacing and error correction codes in the tape, both in the representation

of the text and within interspersed control infor- mation. . . .""

With respect to vertical justification and page

composition it is noted that: "The 'run-on' instruction ... is used to remove a paragraph break, by

bringing the first word of a paragraph in the unedited

text into a position two blanks beyond the period

ending the previous paragraph. If the end of the

previous paragraph was too close to the right

Barnell el al., 1962, p. 61. Mbid. p. 64.

' Ibid, p. 62; 1963, p. 266.

" Ibid, 1962, p. 61.

• Barnett et al.. 1%3, p. 265.

'"Ibid, p. 268. " Ibid, p. 267.

margin, the first word of the 'run-on' paragraph

would be brought back to the left margin and the

blank line between paragraphs closed out . . and "If page breaks are not specified, a text of

arbitrary extent is split into pages of the appropriate

length by the photocomposing program."'^

Programming complexities and attempts to maintain adaptability to future, more sophisticated

requirements are further exemphfied as follows: "The evolution of the programs that effect the . . . (input code to composition code) conversion has

consisted largely of the provision for an ever in- creasing variety of format requirements."'^

"... A further subroutine that deals with control codes is then called. . . . This is switched by

the control code to a subroutine that deals with

the particular code that has been encountered.

This segregation of the effects of individual control

codes facilitates continued expansion of the set of codes with a minimum of recompilation."'^

"It can be seen that in some types of apphcations,

certain combinations of control codes would occur

repeatedly in the input, if interspersed coding were

employed. For this reason, it is convenient to define macros, for an individual job, by suitable

statements that precede a text in the input medium,

and then to use the names of the macros, between

square brackets in the text, whenever necessary.

At present 25 macros may be defined for concurrent

use . . . (incorporating) up to 12 individual control

codes." "The nested structure of the program

can be extended to include further layers, and this

will be done to deal with problems of page composition." "Expansion of the program to deal with

larger units of text in a coordinated manner (e.g. providing page justification, arranging 'run arounds'

to leave space for diagrams that will be visible when

the relevant portion of the text is read) will require

increased provision in the program for retrospective

modification of the w string that has been formed."'^

"Delayed action codes will make it possible to specify elaborate formats in which changes in style and

so forth occur at points, such as line endings, which

cannot be anticipated until the spacing considerations have been determined by the p to w

conversion."'^

The work of Barnett and his M.I.T. colleagues has

obvious applicability, because of its generality, to service bureau or service center operations where

many different customers may send their work for processing. Duncan says: "The practical result of the M.I.T. team's work to date are best exemplified by the Typrint and Tabprint manuals which

editorial staff use to order up their work from the

computer."

'- Barnett ari Kclley, 1963, p. 104. "Barnett el al., 1962, p. 65. " Barnett el al., 1963, p. 264. 'Mbid, p. 268. Barnell el al., 1963, pp. 268-269. " Ibid, p. 268.

Ibid, p. 268.

'» Ibid. p. 269. Duncan, 1964, p. 153.

62
5.1.2. INewcastle Program

At the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in England, consideration of the possible uses of computer techniques in automatic or semi-automatic

t}-pesetting apparently began at least as early as 1957-1958.21 However, it was not until 1961 that Duncan and his associates at Newcastle received

a grant from DSIR (Department of Scientific and

Industrial Research) for the experimental investigation of computer programs for this purpose.

Using first a Ferranti Pegasus computer, the out- put of Newcastle programs could be "reproduced

either on a proportionally spaced IBM Executive

Typewriter for "economy* work or put through a

five- (or eight-) to thirty-one-hole tape converter producing the thirty-one-hole tape to operate a 'Monotype' caster or 'Monophoto' setter." Duncan and his associates have offered proof of

their "pudding", "first a report to the Institute of

Printing at the 1963 IPEX including composition

for a double spread in Ferranti Computer ^ orld, the communication to Printing Technolog>- being

set by Newcastle programme. This was followed

by the setting of 'Look No Hands!' in the Penrose

annual for 1964. . . ." Then, in May 1964, the Enghsh Electric KDF 9

computer was installed and 8-channel input and out- put paper tapes were adopted. Present program

objectives include the further development of practical programs for use in industry, especially for book make-up work, then the exploration of general

purpose programmes for table and display composition including the interpolation of mathematical,

chemical, and other special symbols, the continuation of development activities, especially in the area

of keyboard design, and the making available of the

experimental facihties to other laboratories and

to users in the printing industry.

Duncan reports further: "Once the existing pro- grammes have been augmented with an effective

editing routine they can form the basis of a series

of tests of real work, with an attempt to specify in accurate terms the precise economies of the proc- essing employed. This may very well reveal that

a different system is needed before (and perhaps

after) computer processing to make sensible economies, and it will then be necessary to try and set up

at least a demonstration 'new' system for evaluation

purposes."

5.1.3. University of Pittsburgh Program

At the University of Pittsburgh there has been

for some time considerable interest and experimentation in machine processing and machine

search of natural language text. These interests

have combined the endeavors of the Computer

Center staff with those of subject matter speciahsts.

Duncan. 1965 (b), p. 1. ^ Duncan. 1964. p. 154.

-i Duncan. 1965 Ibl. p. 1. «Ibid. p. 2.

especially Prof. John Horty and other members of

the Health Law Center. In addition to over six miUion words of computer-readable text of various

statutes, the Pitt Center has a cooperative arrange- ment with the Lancaster Press whereby, for example, computer-readable copy of the text of The Physical Review is available even before it is printed and distributed. ^ ith the acquisition, under a National Science

Foundation arrangement, of the former M.I.T. computer-Photon equipment used by Barnett and

his associates, the University of Pittsburgh teams

are able to explore both aspects of high-speed

composition and computer combination potentiahties: . . This system wiU supply information

to the information speciaHst which he previously did

not have available. . . . This includes type font,

type size, and page layout in addition to the text. This will be important in identifying words or phrases in italic or bold face, thus providing re- searchers with an additional tool to enable true information retrieval instead of simply word or document retrieval." More specifically, in the developing Pitt program,

many typical difficulties have been encountered

and certain anticipatory solutions sought. Ohringer

describes some of these as follows: "Problems

which we have had to solve to be able to implement

our plan included: (1) There did not exist a paper

tape reader capable of reading these [typesetting]

tapes into a computer. Nor could we locate a company which was interested in designing or building one for us. (2) The codes in these tapes

are not directly computer compatible. (3) The

meaning of the codes in the tapes vary from printer

to printer and often a single printing plant will use several different codes. (4) A complete article

is not punched onto a single tape but is generally

divided onto several rolls. (5) The editing changes

and corrections are not incorporated into the paper

tapes. (6) Some special mathematical symbols

are omitted from the tape completely. And (7), the character set used by the printing industry contains several thousand characters, compared to less than 50 characters readily accessible to our computer."

Planned solutions include provision in the computer system for input from any of the different perforated tapes now used in the publishing and

printing industries. "These include tapes which

are 5, 6, 8, 15, and 31 channels wide. Although

the codes used on these different tapes are not

directly computer compatible we have written the

necessary decoding programs which allow the

computer to accept and make sense of these

different codes."-"

The Pitt system also envisages on-hne man- machine interaction using techniques of display

" Ohringer, 1964, p. 312.

2«Ibid., p. 312.

2- Ibid., p. 312.

63
console and light-pen intervention, especially for the insertion of mathematical and other special

symbols.

". . . Special mathematical symbols which do

not appear in the tape as it comes from the printer are added and any necessary corrections are made.

This is done on the character display tube by use

of the Hght pen which we have attached to our PDP 4 computer." "^'*

5.2. Primary Publications

As the pioneering example of a formal scientific publication typeset by computer-photocomposer

combination, Bozmah's work with the cooperation

of the IBM Mergenthaler team will be considered

first. It is noteworthy, also, in demonstrating how

effectively proofreading requirements may be

reduced or eliminated by the adoption of such

techniques.

3.2.1. Computer-Compiled and Computer-Generated

Primary Publications

At the National Bureau of Standards, William R. Bozman has programmed an IBM 7090 computer,

using FORTRAN programming language and FAP

symboUc coding subroutines, to generate magnetic

tapes in Linofilm code, for the preparation of

scientific tabular data. These magnetic tapes are converted to Linofilm 15-channel perforated tapes,

which are in turn used to control a Linofilm photo

unit. Some of the details of the first publication are

as foUows: first, the values for the transition probabilities for the spectral lines of 70 chemical elements were computed by an IBM 7090 and the results were read out onto magnetic tape in binary codeddecimal (BCD) form. Next, using a program coded

in the FORTRAN language, the BCD tape was

converted to binary coding for the characters

making up the numerical values to be included in the tables, for the control codes, and for the for- matting instructions (e.g., 10 quad-left codes were

used at the end of each page in order to give blank

hnes between pages so that they could subsequently

be cut apart.

This binary coding, output to another magnetic

tape, provided the precise bit (punched hole)

patterns necessary to operate the experimental

magnetic-tape controlled Linofilm installation at IBM's Watson Research Center, thus, "The binary

magnetic tape for input to the paper tape converter was recorded in 'records' of 2.50 computer 'words'

of 36 bits each. . . . Each computer word contained

two characters to be typeset, corresponding to two rows of holes on the 15-channel paper tape. . . . "The computation of the data and preparation

of the BCD tape to the binary tape in Linofilm format

took twenty minutes on a 7090 computer: the

» Ohrincer, 1964. p. 313.

conversion from the BCD tape to the binary tape in Linofilm format took thirteen minutes. It would

have taken about 300 hours to set the table by

conventional methods."

Bozman notes the following observed advantages:

"The proofreading and correcting of typographical

errors would also have taken considerably more

time, especially since the table produced was

not completely proofread (after proofreading the

first few pages without finding an error, a decision was made to check only the first and last fine of

each page)." In addition, "computer and computer-processed data can now be prepared for pubhcation by an automatic method that retains

the high typographic quality of conventional typesetting. Better page formats with less waste

space result in less cost for paper, with the added

benefit of a smaller size which is easier to handle."

". . . Automatic setting of a large amount of tabular data processed by computer for commerce,

finance, scientific and governmental purposes . . . [involves copy which is] relatively unsophisticated,

typographically speaking, but for reasons mostly

associated with the precision required and the

variety needed within the framework, this has been

fairly expensive by composition methods apart

from the inherent error rate." '^' Errors reside not only in the re-keystroking to provide reproduction copy and/or perforated tapes

to control casting equipment but also in the casting

equipment itself, and, in addition, human proofreading of copy before final printing is by no means

infallible. Primary publications in the sense both of technical reports and articles in journals that deal with

the subject of automatic composition itself have

been noted elsewhere in this report. An example

of space saving and other advantages to be achieved

by the introduction of these techniques to the re- production of reports and technical papers was

provided by 1963 Mergenthaler experiments, as

follows:

". . . Two experiments at Mergenthaler Linotype

Company. In the first, a 43-page article (standard

single-column, typewritten format from an ASTIA

listing) was reset and automatically, made up with

the assistance of a specially programmed electronic

computer. The phototypeset article occupied only

22 pages —only one-half as much as the original

typewritten article. In the second, a paragraphstyle parts list, produced directly from computer

print-out as eight and one-half by eleven inch,

double-column, all capital, 7-point copy, was reset

in a 6-point sanserif type in a 3-column format on

the same size sheets. This page carried 180

percent more material than the original."''"^

"Starting with a typewritten, unjustified manuscript, with illustrations, and with simple editing

Bozman. 1963. p. 1. " Ibid. p. 4.

'" Duncan, remarks, Compulcr Typeseller Conference "Proceedings", 1965. p. 6. Krafl, 1963, p. 275.

64
rules, the contents of the article were fed to an IBM

1401 computer programmed to operate on the input

information in accordance with predetermined

format rules. The output of the computer was a magnetic tape that carried (in coded form) justified,

double-column text that had been properly made

up into pages, space having been assigned for the

insertion of the illustrations at the most appropriate

points in the text. This tape was then fed into a Linofilm Converter to produce a tape that controlled

a Linofilm Photographic Unit to produce fully composed pages, phototypeset in an attractive combination of type faces." In a more general sense, potential apphcations

in the area of primary pubhcations are demonstrated

by the experience to date in both newspaper and

book composition developments.

5.2.2. Newspaper Composition

With the minor exception of science news re- porting, the problems of newspaper text, classified ad display advertising, and stock market table typesetting have Uttle direct appHcabihty to the problems

of handHng, processing, and using recorded scientific and technical information. However, it is in

this area of apphcation that the greatest progress

has been made, to date, in the use of automatic

and computer-controlled typesetting techniques.

Text typesetting using unjustified tape has pro- duced gains not only in lower keyboarding cost and

increased efficiency but also in column space

density, hence lower page and total issue cost. Yasaki cites Los Angeles Times experience as

follows: "Any newspaper with 50 K circulation or about 20 typesetters can justify the rental of hard- ware for typesetting purposes alone at $3.5 K per

month. Booth (L. A. Times operations director)

says. ($3.5 K is the average rental for a 301 configuration with out the high-speed reader and

punch.)" ^ Similarly, "The RCA 301 can output

in excess of 30,000 hues per hour producing justified

tape for a 21 in. column in seventeen seconds."

Furthermore, "Major benefits of computer controlled typesetting systems are speed and efficiency. Fast breaking stories can be covered in earher

editions and normal typesetting loads can be

handled by fewer people. Computer justified

lines usually contain more type and thus the news

to space ratio is improved. "^^

It has been claimed that: ". . . The greatest

number of automatic systems to date are in newspaper composing rooms, where raised type is generally used. In these systems, the typesetting is performed by tape-controlled Linotypes, which are

controlled by electronic computers to arrange the

type properly in the page make-up. Such systems

permit the use of high-speed rotary presses, and

thus lend themselves to the rapid, economical

" Krafi, 1963, p. 276. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 29. ^ Duncan, 1964, p. 146. Goodwin, 1964, p. 34.

production of the large number of copies demanded. . . ."^^ As of 1964, it could be reported that "more than

two dozen daily papers now own, lease, or have

ordered computers. "^^ More specifically, "The

use of computers in printing has made greatest

headway in newspaper pubhshing. The first computers used in production were RCA 301 models

installed at the Los Angeles Times and Mirror and

the West Palm Beach, Fla., Post-Times almost two

years ago. Since then, 22 other computers havegone into operation or are on order by the nation's

daihes, according to a recent study by the American

Newspaper Pubhshers Association."^^

In the same year, 1964, opinions of newspaper

pubhshers with respect to the introduction of the new techniques, despite possible labor-relation

difficulties, could be reported as follows: "The

Toronto Telegram had 49 linecasting machines.

PubHsher John Bassett has been able to scrap seven, immobihze eight others, and put another 25 on

part-time production. Nearly aU the type for his 60- to 70-page, 200,000-circulation afternoon daily

is now produced by just nine automatic, computerfed Hnecasters, which require only four monitors

a shift to keep them running. The 200-man composing room is now about 120, and wage savings alone

are estimated at $10,000 a week."'*'* " 'If newspapers are to operate efficiently', says pubhsher John S. Knight, 'they must automate'. Knight's Miami Herald houses an IBM 1620 and an IBM 1460 that set type, bill advertisers, and — in the absence of a strong union — can be harnessed for other labor-saving tasks. ""^^ The "notable installations" remarked on by

Goodwin, as of 1964, included "the Los Angeles

Times, Palm Beach Post-Times, and Washington

Post with RCA 301 systems, and the Daily Oklahoman Times, Washington Star, and South Bend

Tribune with IBM 1620 systems." ^2 More recent examples include the use of the NCR 315 in Florida,

where "the people at Orlando Sentinel Star claim

to be setting more editorial copy by computer, as

distinct from classified ads, than any other newspaper"; and the British plans for ". . . The Evening

Post — the new evening newspaper to be launched

by The Thomson Organisation Limited in September . . . wiU be printed by the Web-offset process

using a new computerised typesetting system and

photofilm composition. The photographic composing technique wiU be initiated by twelve keyboards coupled directly to a general purpose digital

computer — the Elhott 803B."'*3 Newspaper composition applications also illus- trate some of the additional advantages promised

by automatic composition: direct tie-ins to communication Unks, merging of "core" with peripheral

3' Krafl, 1963, p. 276. M "Signs of the Future?", 1964, p. 88. s'BlundeU, 1964, p. 28. « "Signs of the Future?'", 1964, p. 88. "Ibid. « A. H. Beaven, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, pp. 191, 193. «The Computer BuUetin 9, 19 (1965).

65
or locally revised material, and semi-automatic or automatic aids to two-dimensional composition,

especially for display advertising. First, internally:

"The New York Times columns are compiled on hot metal linecasters from tape produced from a Friden

Add-Punch which adds the current price to the pre- perforated tape carrying the main invariant body of

the table." Next, with respect to wire association services or

to the various members of a particular newspaper

chain where it is desired to merge national with

local interest copy. Thus, the same basic copy

may be processed many times "to produce columns

for editions sold in ten different geographical zones. (These zone editions may differ in their local news

content, but contain common state, national, and

international news.)"

Another example is the Associated Press: "AP

in New York have recently installed an IBM 1620

system which puts out six-hole TTS tape direct over

the wire news network so that it is punched out at the newspaper plants ready for the Une-casters. . . . "Local alterations to wire tape services can be

added by a simple tape merging system while the

material is held in a magnetic tape or disc file." Yasaki notes, with respect to the Los Angeles

Times installation that: "Unlike other computerized

typesetting systems, the Times' 301 can accom- modate teletypesetter tapes of wire services

(Associated Press, United Press International).

These tapes already contain justification codes, but

for a type size at variance from that used at the

Times, and only for one column width. (AP stock

market tapes, however, are compatible and being

used.) The 301 has been programmed to eradicate

justification codes on news story tapes, to re-justify

and, if necessary, to hyphenate lines."

Although under active investigation and in some

cases experimental trial in several different organizations, the potentiahties of semi-automatic and

automatic aids to typographic composition have

been less apphed to display advertising than to textual copy. One of the reasons for this has

apparently been the hne-by-hne rather than area

or page composition approach so far practically

available.

For example, Corrado has reported on different

occasions as foUows: "Several major computer

manufacturers are trying to do computerized display

advertising with the conventional phototypesetting

machines. They are finding it very hard to justify

the use of the computer with their existing, line-byhne machines. An area-composition machine

like the Linotron is much more suitable."

"The basic problem in doing display advertising on a phototypesetter is that existing phototypesetters set type line-by-line. This makes it hard

to set copy properly on the page. It would be better

if we could set copy in block form, as can be done

with an area composition device like the Linotron."^''

However, IBM, RCA. Photon, and other suppliers of equipment have been working with potential customers in this area. For example: "The

applications of the Perry Publications and the

Los Angeles Times center around text-matter composition. . . . We (RCA) are getting involved in other areas, particularly with Perry Publications,

where they are now setting the Palm Beach Life

and parts of the AU-Florida Magazine by computer,

and where they are now in the advanced stages of

developing of procedures for composing display

ads on the Photon machine. They are also in experimental stages in the composition of pocket

books. . . ."^'' ". . . IBM is currently developing

a system for setting hot metal display advertising

type by computer."^'

Looking toward future progress, Yasaki quotes

H. C. Durbin of the American Newspaper Pubhshers

Research Institute, Inc. as prophecying, in 1963,

that: "When properly programmed, stories and

pictures contained in a computer memory auto- matically will be justified, composed, capitalized,

and positioned in the desired form at extreme

speeds. . . . Pictures are displayed as halftones

in the proper position and size, ready for production

of an engraving for letterpress printing, a litho- graphic plate, or any other system of printing.

Tear sheets, including halftone photographs, can

be produced on Electrofax paper or by Xerography

directly from the face of a cathode ray tube."^^

Moreover, as Spencer comments: "Today we are

in the throes of another technical revolution in printing. Metal is gradually being eliminated from

composition. Released from its discipline the

designer is free to place his lines of type at angles,

and he can curve, cut, or display lines and juxtapose one line of type closely against another or he can,

if he wishes, superimpose one word upon another."^^

5.2.3. Book Composition

While newspaper composition has held the limefight in terms of practical production operations

involving high speed, high quality, automatic composition to date, book composition advantages are

at least on the horizon. One of the major gains from

semi-automatic and automatic composition tech- niques is, as we have seen, the relative ease of re- issue with or without corrections and updating or

in different sizes and type-styles. These possibiUties may offer significant advantages for scientific and technical texts. As a representative of the

British pubhshers. Hazel Sun Ltd., has pointed out:

"It is our very firm opinion that a prima facie case

" Duncan, 1964, p. 149. V. M. Corrado, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 196.5, p. 221. " Pay, 1963, p. 330. "Toothman. 1963, p. 101. Duncan, 1964, p. 149. "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill", 1964, p. " Yasaki, 1963, p. 28. '-Yasaki, 1963, p. 31. Corrado, 1964, p. 115. '^Spencer, 1964, p. 21.

,S8.

66
has already been made out for computer typesetting

as applied to general printing. "^^ In 1963 it could be reported by representatives

of Alden Press that "as innovators we are moving

slowly into volume typesetting. We have completed

many small commercial jobs and several complete

books, including textbooks. We look forward to high-volume production of quality type at reduced

costs on a faster production schedule. "^^ In the same year, 1963, Westerham Press Ltd.,

in England, began a research program for computerized typesetting. At ROCAPPI (/?esearch

On Computer /ipplications in the Printing and

Pubhshing /ndustries) book composition developments are under way on a service bureau basis. Here, "one of the first problems encountered was

avoiding widows at the tops of pages. This reportedly has been solved by retaining two pages in memory storage until the first hne of the third page

is checked. If this line is a widow, the machine

can then remake the preceding pages to eliminate

it. . . . Effort has since been concentrated on pro- grams for handling footnotes, captions and double

column makeup. "^^ Where the newspaper organization has control over both the format and media of input (and, as in the case of the Los Angeles Times, can impose re- quirements that reporters write the original version

of their copy on special typing equipment), the book

pubhsher typically does not. At Westerham Press

for example, the use of a general purpose computer

in automatic composition was decided upon:

"We decided on a general-purpose computer for the following reasons. We ascertained that we

could accept varying types of imput; by that I mean

that we would not be hmited to one specific perforator. The tape had to contain certain function codes,

and provided the perforators produced these function codes and produced either a five or six-channel

tape we could accept them into the computer and

translate them into a computer code by means of

a translate table. This would enable us to accept

a perforated tape from a printer or a publisher or,

if necessary, from an author.""

Blundell claims: "A special advantage of computers for book printers is that type only has to be

set once. . . ! A copy of the book is produced by

a print-out device at the same time the computer

is performing its justification and hyphenation functions. Corrections in this copy are fed into the

computer, which then produces the tape used by

the printer."^^

5.3. Secondary Publications, Specialized

Bibliographic Aids, and Integrated Systems

In the area of the preparation and reproduction of secondary pubMcations, especially announcement

" Fullick, 1965, p. 23. Morton, 196.3. p. 99. ^ "The (R)evolutinn in Book Composition . . . Ill," 1964, page 59.

"^ Maclnlyre, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc., 1965, p. 34. Blundell, 1964, p. 28,

journals, the dilemma between the high speed of computer compilation and the desire for high

typographic quahty of the product has been particularly acute. On the one hand, a trend toward computer proc- essing is developing because of such consideration

as the following: "As the bulk of the text increases,

it becomes increasingly necessary to seek highspeed composition and printing techniques in order

to reduce the time between the editorial closing

date and the actual press work. ...

"Response times for large cumulations will be

significantly shortened through the mechanization

of the prepublication manipulation activities necessary for preparation of the text. . . . "Although publications are now being produced

by conventional techniques, the problems of up- dating and cumulation have made many of them too expensive to produce as frequently as required. "^^ Another gain in the area of secondary publications, particularly abstract journals, announcement

journals, and indexes stems from tape or computer

merging capabilities. This "lies in the fact that

setting takes place during the month concurrently

with indexing, whereas with every other method

setting commences after the month's issue has been

closed and sorted."

On the other hand, a number of considerations

with respect to secondary publications and other

bibliographic tools point toward continuing requirements for good typography. First are questions

of space utilization and hence of cost. In the case

of many large indexes, for example, both the size of the printing run and the number of pages per

volume dictate maximum page space utilization. Other reasons have generally to do with questions

of user acceptance, such as the following:

"The typographical quality of bibliographical

tools is an important factor, since they are intended

for continual visual lookup and as such are subject

to the same rigorous demands for quality and

legibility as are the publications intended for retrospective search."^'

"Technical information bibliographical guides,

in Great Britain at least, are themselves struggling

for a wider acceptance, and I do not think that our newly converted consumers will accept standards

of visual clarity lower than those we obtain with

Varityper."^'^

Attempts to provide the timehness and speed of compilation and reproduction offered by KWIC

(and other computer-compiled indexes such as WADEX^^) with improvements in the typographic

quality of the product range from the use of a modified 1403 chain printer to provide upper and lower

case or to simulate bold face effects to full-scale computerized high speed photocomposition.

•« Sparks et al., 1964, p. 188. TMCoates, 1965, p. 46.

8' Sparks et al., 1964, p. 157. Coates, 1965, p. 47. »'WADEX ((ford and /iuthor Index) is a machine-prepared index to Applied Mechanics Reviews, sponsored by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and pro- duced by the computational facilities at the University of Texas.

67
"The result's of this study indicated that the use

of a chain-type mechanical computer printer would

require the printing of 100 percent more pages for an issue of Index Medicus than would a specially

designed photographic typesetter.''''^

We shall consider here as examples the Index

Medicus of the National Library of Medicine, the

STAR (Scientific and Technical /ierospace /Reports)

of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the proposals for more complete computerization at the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific

and Technical Information and at the National

Library of Agriculture.

The most complex and the most successful largescale computer-photocomposing installation to go

into production to date is the MEDLARS (Medical

Literature /inalysis and /Retrieval System) at the

National Library of Medicine. Production of the

Index Medicus by means of the fastest computerdriven photocomposer yet in operation began in August 1964. This first issue (see also Figure 3) was comprised of some 600 pages, containing over

9,000,000 characters, and was processed in approximately 16 hours, including set-up, computer run, and correction time. It is not surprising that some

have hailed this achievement as "the great biblio- graphic break-through of our generation".^'^

It is especially to be noted that, because of the

multi-purpose usage aspects of the overaD system

design, the question of how much depth-indexing

information was to be included in each of several

outputs was solved by a "compromise between the

conflicting requirements of the publication and

retrieval systems . . . (Previously) the Index

Medicus subject section included an average of about two entries per article. For the retrieval system, this level appears to be entirely inadequate

and the goal has been raised to an average of eight

to ten subject tags per item. . . . The publication

average was upped 50 per cent . . . and the re- mainder of the selected headings . . . are retained

in the computer system for search purposes. "^^ The Library of the Office of the Surgeon General,

U.S. Army (later, the Army Medical Library, and

now, the National Library of Medicine) has been

for approximately a hundred years an innovator

and advocate of machinable techniques. First,

it was John Shaw Bilhngs, appointed as a consultant

to this Library in 1865, who collaborated with

Herman Hollerith in the original ideas for mechanical processing of information punched into perforated, machine-processable cards and to whom

"will always belong credit for having created the

most monumental medical bibUography the world

has known. "^^ Developments since Billings' day have exemplified considerable continuing receptivity to new and

improved techniques, specifically including con-

"The Medlars Slory," 1963, p. 54. "Taine. 1964, p. 125, remarks of R. T. Esterquest. ^Taine, 1964. pp. 123-124. "Rogers and Adams, 1950, p. 271.

sideration given to varied possibihties for the mechanization of bibliographic tools for the processing

and use of the medical literature. In 1949, "a

Committee of Consultants for the Study of Indexes

to Medical Literature Published by the Army

Medical Library . . . was appointed. ... As a

result of the committee's activities, certain decisions were made in 1950 that radically affected the

Library's publications program. The venerable

Index-Catalogue, which had been published for three quarters of a century by the traditional letter- press method, was suspended. In its place were

issued two separate publications, the annual Printed

Catalog and the monthly Current List of Medical

Literature, both prepared by the then novel method

of shingling individual 3" x 5" slips or cards into columnar or page formats."

Roughly concurrently (that is, in the period 1949-

1953), a special project at the Welch Medical Li- brary, Johns Hopkins University, began the exploration of machine methods potentially useful for bibliographic work.

"... a research contract was granted to Johns

Hopkins University in October, 1948, by the Medical

Research and Development Board, Office of the

Surgeon General".^^ This Army Medical Library

Research Project had among its contract objectives

that of exploring "existing and projected methods,

emphasizing machine methods, apphcable to such

pilot projects as may be necessary."^" The work

at the Welch Library continued for several years,

the final report being issued in 1955. Beginning

in 1951, the project maintained in punched card

form the Current List of Medical Literature. Garfield has stated that this work "clearly demonstrated

the ease of converting alphabetic subject heading

lists to categorized or classified lists of terms." ^' Ingenious use was made of a modified IBM 101

punched card machine for the preparation of printed

subject indexes.

Then, from about 1950 to 1959, "the Current List

of Medical Literature . . . was typed on individual

3x5 cards which were laid out in shingle form by

hand for photo-offset publication. In January

1960, . . . Index Medicus was launched as the successor. . . . The entries . . . were typed with

the paper tape-typewriter onto Hollerith cards

. . . and fed through the Listomatic camera,

. . . for photo-offset publication . . . (they) have now established the requirement ... to publish

Index Medicus with the aid of a computer. . . ."^^ Next, the Council on Library Resources made a grant to the NLM for an "index mechanization proj- ect" between July 1958 and June 1960. As a result of this project, the production of the Index Medicus

since January 1960 used the Listomatic Camera,

IBM card punching and handling equipment, and

the Friden Justowriter (tape-typewriter with a justi-

«Taine, 1964, p. 110. " Rogers and Adams, 1950. p. 283. Larkey, 1949, and 1956, p. 243. " Garfield, 1959. p. 471. " Gull, 1962, p. 62. 68
fied right hand margin). Bibhographic citations,

author entries, and subject headings were punched

onto paper tape by Justowriters and proofread, the

tape permitting automatic duplication of entries on IBM cards in different formats. Collating and sort- ing equipment produced a mechanically sequenced

deck of cards. Proofreading was from a positive

paper print produced by the camera. Following

correction the film was processed, and columns

stripped up for page makeup. The monthly publications were produced by photo-offset. The 12 monthly decks of cards were interfiled by IBM

equipment to produce the annual Cumulated Index

Medicus of the American Medical Association.

In August 1961 the NLM undertook its MEDLARS

project (Medical Literature /inalysis and Retrieval System) by contract with the Information

Systems Operation Division of the General Electric

Co.'s Defense Systems Department. The monthly

Index Medicus, the annual Cumulated Index Medicus, the annual printings of Medical Subject Headings, the Bibliography of Medical Reviews, and

recurring bibhographies all continued. Under subcontract let to Photon, the Graphic Arts Composing

Equipment (GRACE) was to be designed to compose

finished copy on film suitable for offset printing.

Most demand (nonrecurring) bibhographies and aU

statistical information to be prepared by the system

would be printed by a standard computer printer,

in single font copy on continuous paper or on 3 x 5" card forms.

The equipment now used in MEDLARS is the

developmental prototype of what is now commercially offered, for dehvery in the near future, as the

Photon ZIP. It is noted that: "GRACE accepts

electrical signals from a magnetic-tape transport

operating fuUy under her control. These signals

arrive in bursts of coded characters which represent

a full line of legible type across the multi-columnar

page. This type is made up of a combination of 226

different alphanumeric symbols which are set on

film or paper at a rate in excess of 440 characters

per second."

Operations since August 1964, when GRACE pro- duced its first Index Medicus issue are typically as

follows: Abstracts are punched on Flexowriter per- forated tape, and these are read via a high speed

photoelectric tape reader into a Honeywell 800 computer having 65,000 words of magnetic core memory.

The 10,000 to 15,000 citations per issue are arranged

for multiple entry and cross indexing and stored on

magnetic tape. Then the computer generates an

output tape used to drive a Photon 900-type photocomposer, which composes at a speed of 300 to 500 characters per second, setting the entire Index

of nearly 2,000,000 words in about 16 hours.

It is estimated that with this new system "the

monthly issue of Index Medicus wiU require but

five days for completion of the film 'manuscript'.

" National Library of Medicine. 1963 (311), pp. 4-5; Taine, 1964. pp. 119-124. Taine, 1964, p. 122.

and recurring bibhographies will be processed in one or two days."

The format of the Index Medicus is based on the

unit citation. . . . "A typical unit entry consists

of the following elements: the names of all authors

cited in the original publication, the title of the

article either in the original English or in English

translation, the abbreviated journal title, the volume

number, inclusive pagination, date of issue, and a symbol indicating the language of the article if other than Enghsh." ''^ The MEDLARS experience is important to those

concerned with improved handling of scientific and

technical information in several ways over and

above the high-speed, high-quality secondary publication aspects. First, it is a system involving

multiple computer processing and outputs and

multiple types of usage of the output material. Record tapes generated in computer processing and

containing not only the unit citation data but

search-selection tags with respect to subject content, geographical location, type of document, and

other tags as weU are retained in the master file while copies are also circulated to cooperating organizations elsewhere in the country.

Secondly, the MEDLARS system plan involves

consideration of more than one type of usage and more than one type of user requirements. For

example, "two basic output techniques [are] avail- able in MEDLARS. For routine man-machine communication, some of the recurring bibliographies

and most of the demand searches, a high-speed

computer printer will provide single font copy in continuous paper, or on 3" x 5" card forms. The

Index Medicus, Cumulated Index Medicus, Bibliography of Medical Reviews, most of the recurring bibhographies and a small number of demand

searches . . . {wiU be produced by] GRACE. . . ." "

Finally, the MEDLARS experience has a bearing on size of character repertoires required and minimization of page costs for massive secondary pubhcations of this type. "We need enough fonts to distinguish the subject headings from the citations

and to distinguish, within the citations, the beginning of the journal title abbreviation from the

author and title. We have a 6-point font, which is a quite small size, probably the limit of what you

would want, for the citation itself. We are trying

to pack 10,000 characters on a page. Our present

load is 5 to 6 milhon characters a month and will soon be 10 milhon characters. It costs a lot of

money to print that many characters; therefore, we

have adopted the smallest type size that we think

is at all reasonable."

Another example of a secondary publication based

on photocomposing techniques is the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration's STAR

Scientific and Technical Aerospace J'?eports). In

the early 1960's, Information Dynamics Corporation

" Ibid..'p. 123.

'«lbid.. p. 112.

"'Ibid., p. 122. TM F. B. Rogers, discussion. Sparks et al., 1964, p. 194. 69
developed for the Scientific and Technical Information Facility (operated by Documentation, Inc., for NASA) a tape-operated system for photocomposing

STAR. Although eventually more comprehensive

computerization of these operations is planned,

time pressures for system installation in advance of some of the more recent technological developments

both in computer programs and in photocomposer

equipment dictated the use of a modified Friden

LCC—S keyboard to produce a paper tape to drive

a Photon machine.

Price reports: "Due to time limitations, it was

decided to begin operation from the Photon keyboard (on-line) and then at a later date, increase

production capacity by driving the Photon with

punched tape generated from four off-line keyboards. . . . The Photon was delivered in April,

1962, and within the month, journal copy was being

produced".'''*

An illustration of some of the difficulties involved

in incompatibihty between machine languages is also afforded by the NASA example. The Photon

equipment to be used then required a special code

and tape format, incompatible with IBM 1401 computer requirements necessary to process the infor- mation used in STAR for storage and retrieval

purposes elsewhere in the system. The decision was: "to stay with this unique code rather than use standard eight-channel coding which would have

required the design of a special translator for the

Photon. For computer input, commercially avail- able equipment would be used to translate the

Photon code to IBM 1401 language as an integral

part of the tape-to-card conversion."^"

"Searching capability should be derived as an

intrinsic by-product of the primary system complex

which, in the case of the NASA system, is heavily

oriented to scheduled publications. It is necessary

to achieve this capability at the lowest possible

cost in terms of additional operating dollars and

design effort over the basic needs of the system".^'

The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and

Technical Information (an outgrowth of the former

Office of Technical Services) is, like NASA, pres- ently using an interim approach whereby its U.S. Government Research and Development Reports is paper tape produced and transmitted to the U.S. Government Printing Office for composition on

Linofilm. System planning for a computer system

is, however, well under way.

Similarly, at the Department of Agriculture a comprehensive proposed system, ABLE (.Agricul- tural and fiiological Literature ^Exploitation) would

involve computerization of the preparation of the

Bibliography of Agriculture. "In our proposed

system, the B of A would be composed and printed

from a magnetic tape using either a printer with

upper and lower case letters or a photocomposition

machine. . . .

"Price, 1963, p. 261.

""Ibid., p. 261. "'Swid, 1964, p. 322.

"Further computer processing would compose

the columns for a page and the entire page would be

printed at one time, producing camera copy with no stripping or other hand processing" .^^ In each of these applications, systems planning

calls for an integrated operation where the information required for announcement or indexing can

be automatically merged with files permitting

mechanized search, selection, and retrieval. Additional comments on this point include the following:

"Since citations for all announced documents

would be composed on Justowriters, the tape used

for input to the Photon could also be used as input

to the computer search and retrieval system, thereby

eliminating repetitive keyboarding of information."**^

"It seems clear from our preliminary analysis

that the tapes generated in the program we are proposing may prove to have an importance equal

to or greater than their use in the graphic reproduction of scientific documents. Once original papers

are available in some form of punched or magnetic

tape, then all of the potential of computers is opened

to development and use".^"*

". . . We are looking ahead to the use of computers, both to speed the process of setting struc- tures and to investigate further the usefulness of the

output of such a system in the searching and

retrieval of chemical structures. "^^ An approach combining the ideas of using computer-usable material for multiple purposes and of converting text into machine language form at the

earliest possible stages of preparation for publication has been advocated by research workers at ITEK Corporation and more recently at Inforonics.

First, the ITEK Crossfiler is a special purpose

device which was developed for the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. It has been de- signed "to manipulate a machine-interpretable

paper-tape record of a Library of Congress catalog

card and to produce sets of diversely headed cata- log cards automatically".^^ Lipetz describes tech- niques and equipment for simultaneous production

of manual and machine-usable book cataloging

records as a first step in introducing a machine

record system for the book catalog at the Research

Library of the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass. Punched

paper tape was created in the course of continued

production of 3 x 5 inch index cards as similar as possible to those in the existing catalog. The input

typing format, designed for a special-purpose computing machine, the Crossfiler, produced sets of catalog cards at less cost than the utilization of a general-purpose computer. Sets of catalog cards were obtained with identical text in the body of card but different tracings (entries at the top of

card for title, abridged title, subject, etc.) derived

Deparlmenl of Agricullure, "Reporl of Task Force ABLE," 1965, p. 4. "•'Price. 1963, p. 261. Kuney. 1963, p. 249. "^Kunev and Lazorchak. 1964, p. 305.

"« .Sparks el al.. 1964, p. 170.

70
automatically from the text contained in the primary

punched tape.*^

Next, a grant from the Council on Library Resources enabled Inforonics to explore, in cooperation with the Library of Congress, the possibihties

for multi-purpose recording of bibhographic infor- mation in computer-usable form. "The firm [In- foronics] . . . has undertaken to demonstrate that bibliographic information, when suitably punched

into a perforated paper tape record by a tapeproducing typewriter, can be reproduced in any

form, whether complete or abridged, typewritten

or printed in any one of a variety of type faces, as may be required for the various records used in library operations."*^

Pertinent illustrative details of more recent

Inforonics developments excerpted from a recent Buckland report are as follows: "The approach used in this project is to develop

a system which identifies the text item content in enough detail to carry out any functional use of that item. The identification does not need to represent

the typographic form of the end use, because most

aspects of the output form, such as the typeset

journal itself, can be machine derived if the identity

of the item is known. . . . "The typographic control word specifies the

output form of an information item. The specifications contained are: Font

Point size Column width

Quadding (flush left, flush right, center, justify, center justify)

Leading

Set size Special commands. . . . "A record from a relatively simple input typing

operation can be processed to form a multiplicity

of high typographic quality, complex output products. Since the scheme developed was output

independent, any typesetting machine can be controlled from the input record and the keyboard

operator's training is not difficult. . . . "This recording procedure is different from other

text recording approaches, because it mcntSfies the

journal text item content rather than its typographic

form. This procedure allows the primary record

to be processed into a variety of secondary products,

regardless of their typographic forms. A computer

processing system has been developed to produce

the primary journal typesetting tape, an author

index typesetting tape, and an abstract journal entry

typesetting tape. All of these programs operate

from a single input manuscript record. . . . "The processing of the primary record could be

extended to create citation index entries, subject

index entries, permuted title index entries, ordinary

Lipelz. 1963, pp. 1 19-124. Council on Library Resources, 1964, p. 1.

title index entries, and perhaps an abbreviated

announcement publication."*^

Buckland concludes: "The accomplishments so

far have demonstrated that it is possible to satisfy

both the primary journal publication process and

the requirement of data recording for certain sec- ondary uses with a single publishing system."^"

5.4. Service Centers

Closely related to the newly emerging applications of book composition is the notion of the service

bureau or center which will do automatic typographic quality composition on input from a variety

of sources. Already, "service center developmental activities are fermenting and materializing

in many sections of the country".^' Examples

include ROCAPPI (/Research On Computer y4pplications in the Printing and Publishing /ndustries) both

in cooperation with other Philadelphia firms (W. B. Saunders and Computer Composition, Inc.) and in England (Hazell Sun Ltd.), Keydata Corporation

(Boston), and others. Developments involving linkages with communication networks will probably encourage the growth

of these and other centers. Duncan reported at the

1964 Computer Typesetting Conference that ". . . data relay equipment over wired networks ... is at last available ... of adequate performance and

at a reasonably economic cost. We can now expect

to see the expansion of service bureaux activities and they may eventually be able to provide computer typesetting programmes for their customers

and an off-peak service at acceptable rates." As early as 1963 Morton reported that, at Alden

Press, various publishers were exploring the feasibility of "furnishing punched tape for us to process

through the computer. This possibility is recognized, as is the possibility of Data-Phone transmission from publisher to typesetter where volume or service demands so indicate."

Still another potential advantage of computerized

systems is that: "Output printing of auxiliary data

stores using high-speed typesetting techniques will be possible and, in the case of national libraries,

highly desirable. The attractive feature of this is, of course, the assurance of frequently up dated

editions of the class schedules and subject heading

list." 94 In this connection, it is of interest to note that proposals for using computer printouts to produce

updated and revised UDC (Universal Decimal

Classification) schedules have already been made by

the United States National Committee for the Inter- national Federation of Documentation.

The most extensive service bureau experience

to date is undoubtedly that of ROCAPPI. They

"Buckland, 1965, pp. 2-20.

"Ibid., p. 3. ^ "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 6. "^Duncan, Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965, p. 5.

»^ Morton, 1963, p. 100. "Sparks et al., 1964, p. 158.

»^ Mills, 1964, p. 71.

71
accept from various customers manuscript copy

prepared on Justowriter, Dura, Fairchild TTS and

otiier input tapes and formats. This is processed

through an RCA 301 computer to prepare justified,

merged, and corrected copy for use in typesetting

operations. With respect to output they report:

"There is a separate programme for each output

device, but they all produce the standard RCA 7- level paper tape. Obviously, it is necessary to convert for Linofilm, Lumitype, Monophoto and

the new ATF B8 machine. We have at present out- put programmes for the Linofilm, for the ATF, both

B and B8 models, and for TTS linecasting equipment. We are working as well on output pro- grammes for the Monotype and Monophoto and for the range of Photon-Lumitype equipment. . . . "Output is of course coded according to the converter concerned. Thus for the Linofilm our output

is coded for a converter produced by the Navigation

Computer Corporation in the States. Since the

Linofilm tape has 15 channels, we have to produce

three rows of five channels per character. The

sixth channel is a synchronization hole perforated on the first row at every three-row character, and

used by the converter to synchronize the input tape

with the output tape. The seventh channel is parity, which is ignored by the converter." A recent example of ROCAPPI efforts is the

computerized typesetting of Nuclear Applications,

a bimonthly periodical published by the American

Nuclear Society.

A special case of service center operation in- volving dissemination of news and current trade

development information to its subscribers is Composition Information Services, Los Angeles, which

issues at regular intervals the CIS Newsletter. In the August 1965 issue, for example, coverage was

provided to the impact of potential automation and

implied re-education as viewed by the 46th Inter- national Association of Printing House Craftsmen, news of a grant for continuation of Newcastle proj- ects for computerized typesetting, and reporting of

phototypesetting equipment at an international exhibition in Paris, including Hell, K. S. Paul (P&M)

Filmsetter, CAE, Monotype, Photon, Mergenthaler,

and others.

6. Problem Areas

Notwithstanding the rapid progress that has been

made, in the past two years in particular, toward

the use of high speed composition techniques that preserve relatively high typographic quality in the

printed output, a number of problem areas remain.

The first of these is that of adequate character sets, especially since the new high speed composition

techniques (whether linked to computers or not)

have in many cases restricted available character

repertoires and have in addition raised new problems of encoding and alphabetizing. Another

T. H. V. Arrhc-r. Comp. Type. Conf. Proc, 1965. pp. 120-121.

problem area is that of programming and programming languages.

Questions of new impacts on management and

systems planning include problems of changes in job production concepts, in planning for multiple

off-fine processing, in resolving the problems of

requirements for proof copy, and in adjusting to the

differences to be faced as automation tends to replace traditional industry practices. Closely

related are the questions of human factors and sys- tem design, including such specific questions as the re-design of keyboards and the possible roles of

automatic character recognition techniques and

communication networks in new, integrated systems.

6.1. Character Sets, Encoding, and

Alphabetization

One of the first and most obvious problems in high-speed photocomposition and/or computercontrolled pubhcation, is that of adequate character

sets, especially for scientific and technical information texts. For example, "a large number of symbols is needed to set mathematical equations —

more than is available on many composing machines." ' Another obvious requirement is for diversified character sets, especially in the sense of providing the same characters in boldface, itaUc,

and other styles.

With respect to the latter requirement, some rep- resentative comments to be found in the literature are as follows: "Special attention must be given to the library

practice of using changes in type faces or of type

fonts to convey certain meanings. . . . Mechanization of typesetting for such publications must take

these semantic uses of typography into consideration. . . . Careful attention must be paid to pro- viding those visual cues which can assist this searching activity. Appropriate use of type size,

position, boldface, italics, underscoring, and white

space can achieve this result."^ "The very complexity of concepts in a technical

index makes the use of bold type essential for marking a clearway through the apparent maze of

indexed material."''

". . . When you mass bibhographical citations on a page and reduce their size, you place demands

on the human eye which must be taken care of by

providing a variety of type sizes and a flexibihty

in placing the images of the characters in the proper

place." * Traditionally, of course, these requirements

have been met by relatively unhmited repertoires

in conventional printing equipment. Moreover,

type faces were often designed to reflect niceties

of both pleasing appearance and space utilization. With the introduction of phototypesetters com-

' Krafl, 1%3. p. 8. -Sparks et al.. 1964. p. 161. ^Coates. 1965. p. 47.

' D. E. Sparks, discussion. Sparks el al, 1964, p. 195.

72
promises at least as to aesthetic quality of individual

characters have often been required. . . The

concession which printers and their customers had,

in effect, made in accepting photosetting . . . meant that they had accepted that the type character would have the same proportions whatever

size it was reduced to or enlarged to by optical

means, rather than each size having its own pro- portions based entirely on aesthetic considerations.

This was a step on the path to the quantitative

analysis of typographical work."^

While both the Linofilm and Photon machines

have quite satisfactorily large character sets (1,400-

1,500), and considerable coverage can be built up with specially designed grids or discs, grid and

disc changes substantially reduce effective rate of

throughput and/or require multiple passes. Problems of intra-system compatibihty may also

arise. For example, with respect to NASA's Photon installation for the production of STAR,

. . Specifications were prepared for Photon type

fonts to be used in conjunction with LCC-S (Line

Casting Control-Special) Justowriters. Each font or

face had to be compatible in relative width value

not only with Justowriter type but with each of the

other fonts used on the Photon disc. This latter limitation arose from the fact that although font selection on the disc can be controlled automatically

from tape, selection of the corresponding style

cards, which provide the escapement or width value

for characters in each face cannot be controlled

automatically. Therefore, several faces had to be

based on a single but common set of escapement

values. . . . "The Univers family of type was

found to provide the compatibility sought. Medium, bold, and Italic Univers faces could be composed using the single set of escapement values for bold face characters. The Greek alphabet in upper

and lower case as well as special mathematical,

chemical, and logic symbols were arranged on the

disc so that they could be composed and set on the same Univers Bold escapement values." ^ The introduction of electronic character generation techniques as integral parts of high speed composition systems again seriously restricts the size of character sets available on any one pass or run and aggravates the character sub-set switching

problems.

The use of computers for output of material to be reproduced and distributed, however, has until very recently imposed either a radical departure

from previous standards of acceptability (restric- tion to a limited, upper- or lower-case only set of no more than 64 characters and symbols) or the

painful, costly, and time-consuming alternative

of resetting the computer-printer output in accord- ance with traditional methods and with the all too probable likehhood of introducing an unacceptable

incidence of errors.

Fullick. 1965. p. 24.

« Price. 1963, p. 261.

Duncan comments on the last point as follows: "Computer users, who have devoted considerable

effort and money to produce relatively error-free

results, are not likely to tolerate gratuitous errors introduced by other operators using unrelated

technologies." ^ In most cases, the common complaint is that . . . "[The upper-case limitation] reduces readability so much that the page layout must be extremely

open if the material is to be usable at all. With

typeset matter, a much more compact page layout can be prescribed, in fact, the readabihty of typeset

copy can be maintained even if smaller type is used, which produces an even higher degree of

compactness." ** The so-called "upper-case limitation" in the pro- duction of bibhographic tools has apparently been

a major deterrent to more widespread adoption of

automatic data processing capabilities. Clapp,

for example, comments as follows: "Until there is a decent font available, it doesn't

pay anyone to put a great deal of bibliographical

material into machine-readable form. Until there

are large quantities of bibliographical material

available in machine-readable form, it doesn't pay

many libraries to engage in machine processing." ^ The same commentator has remarked elsewhere:

"As long as Mr. Watson would only give us a character font in capital letters there could not be any great

fervor to load [machines with bibliographical in- formation records]. If I may say so, the whole

picture of automation in libraries from the thirties right down to the present date has been controlled

by that uppercase limitation." In a certain sense, a modest degree of typographic quality can be achieved directly from high

speed computer-driven line printers, but with nec- essary compromises in the output speed to improve

the appearance of the product. For example,

Johnston reports: "We do in fact get a reproduction

of bold typeface. The place names are over- printed four times, using what is called a space

suppression feature on the machine."

The IBM 1403 chain printer involves use of a continuously moving chain consisting of 240 char- acter positions usually divided into 5 sets of 48

characters each, so as to minimize access time to the appropriate characters to be selected. However, by redividing, a character set of 120 can be

accommodated, although at significant loss (up to 50 percent-60 percent) of printer speed. This

technique is used, for example, by the Chemical

Abstracts Service to provide upper and lower case

for the KWIC index. Chemical Biological Activities

(Figure 49). In addition, the cover of the Proceedings of the Literary Data Processing Conference

[Bessinger et al., 1964] illustrates an experimental

concordance of the Gothic Bible which "employs

'C. J. Duncan, remarks, "Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings," 1965,

p. 3.

» Kraft, 1963, p. 275 *V. W. Clapp, discussion. Sparks et a!., 1964, p. 194. "Clapp, 1964, p. 54-55.

"Johnston, 1965, p. 51.

73
94 corbox amtdc and 5— exo— ethy 1—2— nor borne n e — 5— endo— carbox amid* viodcratelv >^«v« 94 carbox amtde and S— endo— ethvl-~2— nor boraene — 5— exo carbox anide* more effective th 138 FROM 3- ETHYL-4- METHYL- AND 4-ETHYL-3- METHYL- PYRIDINES138 6.7- BEN20 MORPHANS FROM 3- ETHYL-4- METHYL- AND 4-ETHYL-3- METHYL- PYRIDINES.

9X N«N— dl e t h V I— 5— e n do— methyl-2— nor b o r ne n e— 5— e x o— carbox amide has 137 one and 176— N»N— dl methyl- 17— ethynyt andro st— 5— en— 3— ol do not have androgenic action

166 Inhibit growth of green color In EugLcna gracilis

167 Inhibit growth of green color In Euglcna gracilis

168 formation of green colonies of Euglena gracilis [effect remains after removal of agents]

168 CHLOROPLASTS OF EUGLENA GRACILIS AFFECTED BY FURADANTIN,

168 moderately Inhibit growth of of Euglena gracilis and Inhibit formation of green colonics o 166 AS BLEACHING FACTORS FOR EUGLEN A-GRAC IL I S« 63 ntc gonadotropin Increases excretion of estrone estradiol estrlol and total ncutra

165 dl acetate strongly Increases excretion of trl methyl amine and urea in perch [Pcrca—

165 STIMULATING HORMONE ON THE EXCRETION OF TRI METHYL AMINE AND UREA IN THE PERCH (PERCA

4^ tetracycline antibiotic increase excretion of urea and sodium In urine of human with renal

2 ALLOXAN ON THE ADRENAL CORTICAL EXCRETION, A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN MALE, FEMALE AND PBEGNAN

48 action of 7— cells; blocks excretory action of 7— cells of anterior pituitary of male

66 EXOPHTHALMOS-PROOUC I NG ACTIVITY IN THE SERUM AND IN THE PI 40 CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PHARMACOLOGY OF PARENTERAL SPIRAMYCIN.

147 nicotine response was restored by exposure of tissues to noradrenaline [thyroidectomy reduce

161 BY DE OXY RIQO NUCLEIC ACID EXTRACTS OF THE GROWTH INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF 8- AZA GUANIN

47 CHLORPROMAZ INE FACILATION OF HEPATOCARC I NOGENES I S IN THE FEMALE MISTAR RA 166 ANTIBIOTICS AS BLEACHING FACTORS FOR EUGLEN A- GR AC I L I S

157 NIL NOCERE. RENAL FAILURE AFTER GENERAL ANESTHESIA WITH ESTIL.

156 and amplitude of contraction In failure of Isolated heart [perfused] caused by pcntobarbl

4 STRESS IN THE BIPHASIC CHANGES IN FASCICULAR NUCLEOLAR SIZE IN THE RAT ADRENAL;

4 Increases size of nucleoli In fascicular 2one of adrenal glands of r a t« hypertrophy Is b 78 of nictating membrane and causes f a sc I c u I a t I on [These results show that the nicotinic and m 41 vomiting* vertigo* vasospasm* feeling of coolness and strange taste and does not alter b 2 A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN MALE, FEMALE AND PREGNANT RATS.

157 and causes proteinuria In female human during gynecological surgery given Intravenou

2 sterone In blood of male and female non— pregnant rat but does not Increase content of

3 sterone In blood of male and female non— pregnant rat but moderately decreases content o 2 has hyperglycemic action on female pregnant and non— pregnant and on male ratSactl'on of

2 of cortico sterone In blood of female pregnant rat

3 of cortIco sterone In blood of female pregnant rat 58 saluretic action on sa I I ne— I oa ded female rat 47 carcinogenic action on Liver of female rat* action Increased by chlorpromazlne

47 OF HEPATOCARC INOGENESI S IN THE FEMALE WISTAR RAT BY 2-ACET AMINO FLUORENE.

165 so that before spawning fish Is driven towards fresher water by need for osmotic b 152 fludro cortisone acetate hormone strongly Inhibits growth

47 2— acct amino fluorene weakly has carcinogenic action on liver of female

47 FEMALE WISTAR RAT BY 2-ACET AMINO FLUORENE.

1 blocked by pretreatment with 9oi— fluoro Cortisol

3 9oi— fluoro Cortisol hormone strongly decreases content of cor

141 alkyl fluoro phenyl carblnols tested for choleretic action [Low*

141 ALKYL FLUORO PHENYL CARBINOLS WITH CHOLERETIC ACTIVITY.

32 5— fluoro uracil has toxic action on Escherichia coll while o 32 INDUCED IN E. COLI K- 1 2 BY 5- FLUORO URACIL.

34 [as HCl] and pyrldoxal »and folic acid

34 L— lysine leucine hlstldlne folic acid pyrldoxinc [as HCl] and pyrldoxal Sand folic

165 THE ACTION OF FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE ON THE EXCRETION OF TRI METHY

164 ACTION OF CHLOR TETRACYCLINE AS A FOODSTUFF ADDITIVE ON GLYCOLYSIS IN PIG MUSCLE.

54 thyroxine moderately Inhibits formation of caudal part of Mueller's duct of chicken embr 55 formation of strongly Inhibit formation of caudal part of Mueller's duct of chicken embr

65 hormone does not Inhibit formation of cortico steroids In human with non endocrine

31 testo sterone hormone Increases formation of fructose In accessory organs of castrated bu

168 of Euglena gracilis and Inhibit formation of green colonies of Euglena gracilis [effect re 53 estradiol Inhibits formation of Mueller's duct of chicken embryo

32 pressure of medium; stimulates formation of osmotlcally sensitive spheroplasts during eel

55 with thyroxine strongly Inhibit formation of strongly Inhibit formation of caudal part of 29 growth of and cause atypical cell forms In Bacillus megaterlum

78 with the c I so I d and transold forms of the molecule]

32 p I me I I c acid In acid— soluble fraction of Escherichia coll

30 In Isolated mitochondrial fraction of liver of rat and In Isolated liver of rat

165 spawning fish Is driven towards fresher water by need for osmotic balance

156 sodium In rabbit and frog

31 hormone Increases formation of fructose In accessory organs of castrated bull* ram, boar*

31 AND RELATION TO SEMINAL FRUCTOSE.

41 and does not alter electrical function of heart In human with advanced neoplastic dlseas

166 OF EUGLENA GRACILIS AFFECTED BY FURADANTIN.

168 n I t r of ur an t o I n[ f ur a dan t I n ] and n I t r o f u r az o n c antibiotic moderately Inhl 119 OF NITRO FURANS. I. AMINO FURANS

119 2— sub s t I t u t ed 5— nitro furans do not Inhibit growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Esc 119 REDUCTION OF NiTRO FURANS. I. AMINO FURANS

6 drugs, action not altered by ganglionic blocking agents, mono amine oxidase Inhibitors

157 NIL NOCERE- RENAL FAILURE AFTER GENERAL ANESTHESIA WITH ESTIL.

IS7 estll general anesthetic decreases urinary output and Increases

135 not cause Involution of thymus gland In male rat 134 and cause Involution of thymus gland In male rat given subcutaneously

75 Increases pressure In mammary gland of rabbit; weakly has hypertensive action on rat;

11 of catechol amines In adrenal glands

Figure 49. Sample pa^e, Chemical-Biolo<iical Activities.

74
the upper- and lower-case print chain, and ... a new technique of printing boldface by overstriking

the headword in each citation. The Gothic character "thorn' was synthesized by striking 'p' over

•b'." 12 The question of available character sets affects

also the initial keyboarding operations for input to further machine processing. The shift key on an

ordinary typewriter provides a total character set

availability that is actually double (or nearly so) the number of keys actually operated by the typist.

Where perforated tape is mechanically produced

as a by-product of such keystroking, it is usually

the case that a non-printing symbol or "precedence

code" is punched into the tape as a result of the

depression of the shift key. Extensions of this principle (e.g., red- to black-ribbon shifts) multiply

the available character set size even though the

differentiations may not appear on the hard copy.

Similar considerations apply to the keypunching

of standard punched cards by the reservation of

certain punch combinations as control and prece- dence codes. Examples of elaborate code conventions adopted for keypunching of text include

reports by Nugent (1959) and by Ray (1962), both

of which point out some of the requirements and some of the difficulties encountered with respect

to providing a manual for the keypunching of nat- ural language texts. An even more sophisticated

encoding-transliteration scheme is detailed by

Newman, Knowlton and Swanson (1960) as necessar>' for the keypunching of patent disclosures in which a very wide variety of boldface, normal,

italic faces and of special symbol insertions must

be provided for. Flexible selection from amongst a large variety

of available characters and symbols may thus be

provided for, but at the high expense of multiple

initial keystroking, multiple code-sequence processing and redundant storage requirements for each

"actual" character eventually to be reproduced.

For example, with respect to the early Barnett ex- periments using Photon, it is claimed that the pro- portion of control and precedence coding to actual

character-selection identifications could run as high as 75 percent of the total input. While possibilities for re-design of keyboards and for multipleoutput from a single key depression may alleviate

this problem somewhat,'* the difficulties of pre- cedence coding to achieve larger and more versatile

character sets remain a major problem area. In this problem area of character sets required,

as in most others, a critical difficulty of course is that of defining the problem itself. What are the

requirements, both as to coverage and available set

size, for various applications, especially including

primary and secondary publications involving sci- entific and technical information?

A special case of precedence coding is the escape

character suggested for use in adapting standard

" Bessinger el al., 1964, Title page. "'The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV, 1964, p. 68. " See also p. of this report.

codes such as ASCII or the British Standards

Institute/International Standards Organization 6- and 7-bit codes to local variations and substitutions

such that larger character repertoires may be

accommodated. Chadwick comments:

"This 'Escape' is a vital and very interesting

character in this set. . . . You use the normal

code up to the point where you really require to introduce your own special characters — you encode

"Escape' and from then on you can use your private

characters. It is a character which allows you to say you are using the standard code when in fact (maybe only temporarily) you really are not." A few illustrative examples expressed in the

literature with respect to this question have been

cited in an earlier section dealing with two-dimensional composition capabilities of some of the new

techniques. More generally, such estimates as the following have been made:

". . . Publication of the generally disseminated

library products and of the frequently cumulated

publications can probably be accomphshed with a character set of 300 elements. . . . Larger, more

comprehensive, and more carefully edited pubhcations whose content requires representation of a wider range of language and composition elements

will probably require character sets of 500 characters or more."

"To get an indication of the number of different

alphabetical characters that may be used in a single

scholarly book, I asked Mr. Theodore Besterman

to count the different pieces of type used in his World Bibliography ofBibliographies. This he did,

and as shown in the preface to the third edition

of this work, he used approximately 1950 different

pieces of monotype .... There are a number of

alphabets that are not included in Besterman, as well as mathematical symbols, etc." Added to the number of different symbols, in bibliographic aids generally the use of type style

and weight changes are specifically used to "cue"

the scanner or searcher to particular types of in- formation presented. For catalog cards alone,

there are severe problems, in terms of machine

processing, of mixed font, mixed weight and point

size, mixed alphabets and formats. In addition,

varying conventions of abbreviation, punctuation,

and other types of specialized representation have

been adopted by different libraries to distinguish

the various types of selection, locator or reference

clues most convenient to their users in either scan- ning or filing. For these reasons, it is quite clear

that, with respect to already printed cards, "the

automatic conversion of files, such as the National

Union Catalog, which contain considerable heterogeneous symboUsm, is not Ukely in the near fu- ture",*^ and that, with respect to future preparation,

"typeface changes normally used in library output

'^G. Chadwick. remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 207. " Sparks el al, 1964, p. 161-163. " Shaw, 1962, p. 268.

'» King, 1963, p. 20.

75

231-313 OL-67-6
printing of, say, the Library of Congress, would

require the extensive multiphcation of character

sets." The question remains of selecting the basic

character sets for input, computer processing, and

output which may differ in respect to size, nature,

and coded structure, but which must be made compatible with each other or convertible from one set

to another. Indicated changes of type font, type

face, point size may need to be provided for on

input, ignored in computer processing, and used as control cues on output. Such changes "put added

burdens on the system and make it more difficult to estabhsh a basic character set." Sparks, Berul, and Waite point out further that: "Typographic composition will however present

problems of encoding to handle lexical information

containing character sets in multiple fonts. . . . "The final selection of input codes involves

many complex factors including computer word

length, file organization, and ease of manipulability."When processing text requiring character

sets beyond those of the standard 47-character

set of the IBM 024 or 026 keypunch, the difficuhies

of alphabetizing are greatly increased. ... It is also necessary to eliminate from the text functional

codes which have no bearing on the alphabetizing

sequence.^'

"The method utihzed for alphabetizing will have a direct effect on the interface between output

printing requirements and the console display.

The reason for this is that some of the possible

alphabetizing subroutines are non reversible . . ." These difficulties will be aggravated in many documentation applications by the use of non-Roman

alphabets, diacritical marks, foreign proper names,

and foreign abbreviations (which may involve the use of diphthongs in authors' initials), to say nothing

of mathematical and other special symbols and the

interpolation of other two-dimensional graphic

material. For example, Barnett points out with

respect to mathematical and chemical structures

that "the construction of a convenient and intel- ligible linear representation of such formulae, that could be punched on a keyboard machine such as a Flexowriter, with a limited character set, is not

trivial." Regardless of the size and contents of the input

and output character sets, however, in those cases

involving computer processing, there are additional

special problems of the internal character set which

will affect sorting, ordering, filing, and interfihng.

"Even though we have not yet agreed on a standard

character set for our data processing computers,

each computer has a single set built into it. This

set is the 'natural' set of that computer, and all other

sets are defined in relation to this built-in character

'»S|>arks ct al, 1964, p. 163.

Ibid.

-' Ibid.. |i. 182.

-- Ibid., p. 183.

'I Barncll i-l al. 1963, p. 270.

set. The character set is extremely important in

file definition since the character set defines the

order of a file once it is sorted."

Sequencing records in a typographic composition

system requires the application of complex alphabetizing rules to portions of the text. These rules should be executed by the computer to provide

flexibility for response to changing demands.

An examination of the textual content of records

as they would appear in a typographic composition

system reveals several features that would present

major difficulties if the sort keys were taken unaltered from the text. Three examples are given:

1. All characters must have unique codes for proper identification during the output printing process, but some subsets of such distinct characters must be indistinguishable when

used in the sort key for alphabetizing and file ordering processes. For example, in printing

the following list of town and city names, the

distinction between "a" and "a" must be maintained; however, in sorting these names this distinction should be ignored:

Cabot

Caceres

Cadillac

Cadiz

Calais

If the sort processing did not treat "a" and

"a" as equivalent, one must be lower valued

than the other. This would give one or the

other of these two sequences:

Cabot Caceres

Cadillac Cadiz

Calais Cabot

Caceres Cadillac

Cadiz Calais

Neither of these sequences is in accord with

the usual alphabetizing rules. There are, of course, many other possible examples of this.

2. Some characters in the text must be ignored

when sequencing is performed. This is particularly true if precedence coding is used.

A precedence code defining a change in type

size must have no bearing on the alphabetizing sequence. Similarly, a discretionary

hyphen should not be given a value in alphabetizing; otherwise, the results of alphabetizing would depend on characters that might

never appear in the printer output.

3. As a converse to the ignoring of various control codes, some characters must be added

when part of the text is used directly as a

sort key. The most obvious example of this

is in the alphabetizing of proper names such as

St. Andre or St. Claire. Such names are normally alphabetized as if the word Saint were fully spelled out. Rules can of course be developed to provide the

alphabetic sequences desired with at most only

Patrick and Black. p. .)1.

76
minor exceptions. These rules can be written into the computer program and executed whenever the

questions of proper sequencing arise. Ahernatively, the rules can be executed during the processing of input data and the results appended to the

record.

The program required to implement the alphabetizing rules essentially requires another code

conversion. The full intermediate code would be

converted to a subset of that code. It would be

neither necessary nor possible to reverse the process

since there would not be a one-to-one correspond- ence between the intermediate code and the subset

code.

That part of the conversion to an alphabetizing

subset code related to converting one character to another (i.e., "A" to "a", "a" to "a" or "a" to "a") can be essentially a table look-up operation even when precedence codes have been employed. The

elimination of null-valued characters, such as the

discretionary hyphen, would require that one additional test be performed on each character.

However, the mechanization of rules of the third

type described above (i.e., equating St. to Saint)

would require several extra program steps to deter- mine when each rule applied.

As an illustration of the type of program involved

in the third type of alphabetizing rule, the conversion of St. to Saint might proceed as follows: A specification that the information field being

processed contains proper names, some of which

may start with such abbreviations, is included in the computer program when it is compiled. The

program converts each character to its subset

code in the left to right sequence. Each time an (S) is detected an abbreviation test counter

is set to the value one. Each time a (t) is de- tected the counter is multiplied by two. Each

time a period is detected the value of the counter

is tested. If the counter value is two, the pre- ceding two characters are replaced by the word

Saint in its coded form, followed by a space;

otherwise the counter is reset to zero. Any

other character also resets the counter to zero. This solution is illustrative only and undoubtedly

not an optimum solution. It is sufficient to show,

however, that converting from a full character code

to an alphabetized subset code will require as complex and time consuming computer routines as

will the input and output code conversion functions.

This simple illustration would develop into a substantial computer routine when a full set of alphabetizing rules were included.

6.2. Programming

Another major problem area is that of programming. Except in a few special cases with limited

requirements for versatility, programs tend to be

both complex and large in the sense of demands on

direct access memory. In the Government Print- ing Office's request for proposals for off-line magnetic tape photocomposition, program and soft- ware stipulations illustrate some of the difficulties. First, the equipment to be proposed should be

capable of operating on the function and data codes

available from a variety of computers in use and

on the ASCII (American Standard Code for /nformation /nterchange).

Next, provisions should be included for the in- sertion or imposition of at least 20 different graphic

formats or overlays or for the generation of hori- zontal and vertical lines to format the output data. Third, the proposals should cover the software

support needed for system integration between the

computers originating data and the high speed

composition processes and equipment proposed,

including the provision -of manuals specifying all the detailed information needed for each specific

computer to be accommodated. In particular,

requirements for the preparation of magnetic tape

using the format and code which wil) utilize all functional capabilities of the proposed composing

equipment, and for core memory requirements in each computer accommodated, must be specified

in detail. The problems of compatibility in receiving tapes

from a variety of computers and of telling program- mers how to prepare tapes for the composition

equipment were considered critical and the GPO

request specified that they must be competently

solved.

Still other problems of compatibility exist when

the input may also include punched cards and a

variety of types of punched paper tape. Barnett

points out for example that: "The programs that produce . . . [the internal processing code] from

Flexowriter, punched card and other sources have

been concerned with a variety of specialized problems—special input routines for binary card images

of Flexowriter and other paper tapes, accommodation of different Flexowriter codes, translation of

mnemonic format requirements (macros), separation of case in Hollerith texts, and cyclic insertion

of format changes in tabular and itemized material.

These matters give rise to numerous scanning problems some of which are quite difficult, particularly

for the last two of the topics just mentioned."

Programming difficulties also relate to the necessity for accommodating a wide variety of formats.

"The complexity of the control code combinations

that are encountered in applications of the present

program has already created a need for a higher

level of input language to be converted into existing

control codes by a suitable processor."

A programming difficulty somewhat in conflict with the typical complexity requirements is that a language is needed which will encourage good

communication between programmers, originators

of the data to be printed, editors, publishers, and

printers. To date, this has remained a consideration with respect to further progress rather than

'5 Barnett et al., 1963, p. 264. « Ibid., p. 269.

77
of current concern. In fact, both the Bozman and

Barnett programs have made use of the FORTRAN

language (Formula Translation) originally developed

primarily for mathematical and statistical processing applications.

Duncan at Newcastle, however, at least in terms

of recent plans, intends to use ALGOL 60,^^ also

a language originally designed for arithmetic and

algebraic operations rather than for large-scale

symbol manipulation such as is involved in text and bibliographic processing.

A final difficulty in the area of programming lies in the possible prematurity of programming efforts

in the light of the speed with which the compositor

technology has developed and is still developing.

At the 1964 London Computer Typesetting Conference, for example, the question was raised from

the floor: "It strikes me that a lot of people will be

wondering whether it is worthwhile to enter into the computer typesetting field with existing forms

of hot metal or film setting equipment when, in fact,

they now know there are other forms of filmsetting

coming along within the next two or three years

which will tend to change the picture considerably

. . . Will . . . programmes be adaptable ... or are people going to have to mark time . . . ?"

Several of the London participants were quite

optimistic in response to this question, however,

and their remarks are generally corroborated by

the opinions of Barnett and Duncan, among others,

in favor of proceeding promptly even in an ad hoc

way. Thus, for example, "... I would say that 80 percent of the programming which is being done

for current photocomposition will be most useful

in the programming for Linotron. . .'"-^ "I would agree with Mr. Corrado that a great

deal of the programming which we do for computers now will be very useful, irrespective of what output

unit we use."

"It seems that hazarding an approximation to a useful language, encoding it and trying it on real applications is the most effective way to proceed."

". . . The best way to improve programmes for computer typesetting is to write them and use them.

So far there have been so few written and used

that we cannot be sure we know exactly the best

way to do the job." ^'^ Duncan also makes the further significant point

that ". . . The programmes that have been used

for actual printing jobs have not been subjected

to sufficient public scrutiny and measurement, nor

for that matter have the styles of printing they have

been designed to replace!"^''

"Duncan, 1965(b), p. 1. F. Simmons, remarks. Computer Typesetting; Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 232.V. M. Corrado, remarlis. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965.

p. 232.

"' C. T. Ross, remarks, (^imputer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965,

p. 232. "Harnett et a!., 1963, jj. 264. Duncan, remarks, (-ompuler Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. p. 9. " Duncan. (Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 9.

This latter point raises on the one hand questions

of management imphcations and human factors

and on the other a continuing challenge to pro- grammers and those who design programming

languages. The two foremost exponents and demonstrators of general purpose computer programs

for automatic typesetting of a variety of material, Barnett and Duncan, respectively, conclude:

(1) "The definition of convenient languages for the specification of such problems to general pur- pose programs that could be used for mechanized

documentation requires further consideration."^^

(2) "The conclusion that can be drawn now is that computer-controlled photocomposition is of

practical utihty, and that its further progress depends on increased communication between the

writers and the potential users of the relevant

programs."''^

(3) "For the future, page composition, built-up

formulae, elaborate editing, and human-computer

interaction to allow human judgment and aesthetics

to override blind application of routine procedures

will present programming challenges for many years

to come."^^

"The aim must be, having once satisfied the re- quirements of a reasonable number of standardized

formats and styles, to keep the program compilation system so simple that the instruction for a very

wide variety of styles can rapidly be assembled

from a Ubrary of sub-routines, which are simply

called up as required from a store. Calling them

up for sample pages will then be easy and

economic."''^

"As the structure is being analyzed, further checking by the machine is made to determine the ac- curacy of the input data. The rules for rewriting

structures are integrated in the program so that the

computer is able to take a sophisticated look at the chemist's rewritten structure and the keypunch

operator's work. It will not allow any atom to have too few or too many bonds, nor is a 7-bond

permissible with atoms for which ionic bonds are

not iegal'. Improper atom and bond symbols and

misplaced characters are recognized by the

computer."

(Perhaps the programs of the future will specifically take account of variant British-American

spellings, as for instance of "program" and "programme" which are obtrusive in many of the perti- nent quotations cited in this report.)

"The computer can also be asked to carry out a number of original but useful checks. It can be

set to recognize American and British modes of spelling and to correct one into the other. To this can be added editorial functions — such as recognition of person and tense to ensure consistency."

'•' Barnett et al., 1963, p. 271. Barnett el al., 1964, p. 120.

Ibid, p. 119. Duncan. 1964. p. 161. TM Waldo. 1962, p. 2.

i» Duncan, 1964. page 160.

78
6.3. Implications for Management Planning,

Industry Adjustment, and Systems Design

As in many other areas of application of auto- matic data processing techniques and related new

technological developments, a primary managerial

responsibility is recognition of the need to make

an overall systems planning approach, looking

toward the integration of many now distinct processes, taking maximum advantage of any multipurpose processing possibihties offered and, in general, undertaking a drastic re-thinking of the

possible balancings of objectives with resources now available.

The state of the art of automatic typographicquality composition is well enough advanced to underhne the importance of sound system design

throughout the cycle from initial recording of in- formation to its reproduction and distribution.

Because of the prospects for new system throughput capabilities, attention should be paid to the

least efficient processes: multiple re-typings of

manuscript copy, keyboarding operations in general, which are widely acknowledged to be the

limiting factor in the economics of typesetting,'*"

proofreading and corrections to copy after proofing.

6.3.1. Problems of Author-Editor-Publisher

Relationships

Just as the introduction of truly high speed repro- duction processes coupled with various degrees of

automation of the compositor functions has an ob- vious present or potential impact upon managerial

planning and traditional practice in the publication-printing industries, so also does it have important implications for the traditional authoreditor-publisher relationships.

For example, an important aspect of the NSF

grant to the American Chemical Society for the

investigation of automatic typesetting advantage

was: "A study of changes in the compositor-editorauthor relations that will be required as increased

use is made of machines."

A first and obvious question is that of authoreditor-compositor responsibilities in the area of

editorial changes and corrections after submission

of an original manuscript, author revisions to proof- copy, the problem of proofreading generally, the

requirements for proof copy, and the relative ease

with which suggested editorial corrections may be

accommodated easily and economically into the

final printed text. Obviation or minimization of the need for proofreading is one of the major gains expected from

increased use of computer-driven typesetting sys- tems, especially for computer-produced or compiled numeric and statistical data.

Duncan. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 8: "The (R)evolution in Boole Composition . . . IV," 1964, p. 67. " Kuney, 1963, p. 249. « Duncan, 1964, p. 128. "Ibid., p. 128.

*^ Duncan. 1964. p. 124. also p. .50 of this report.

It is of interest to note that the first system con- cept involving programmable computing devices

may have been directed at least in part to this problem:

"Some works cannot tolerate errors . . . and

Babbage is stated to have invented the first computer, his 'differential engine,' to print navigational

tables free of them. . . ." As first demonstrated by Bozman, the advantages are multiple. The Corliss-Bozman Monograph consisted of 559 pages of numeric data. The first few pages were carefully proofread, but

when not a single error was found, it was decided

to check only the first and last lines of each page,

with significant gains in time and cost of such

checking. Moreover, since ". . . the ordinary

individual is incapable of detecting errors in large

tables of figures, or in nongrammatical symbols,

the advantages of automation for such work is obvious." "^^ In the case of text, however, problems of user acceptance and human factors go hand in hand

with prospects for new methods and media of

communication-publication, new management and

editorial policies and new user attitudes.

If, as has been claimed, changes suggested by

an author after submission of his original scriptcopy are to be heavily penalized or refused (e.g., "we make the charge for corrections in the typewritten text very low but we make it very high for the final page make-up proofs . . ." ^^), then eco- nomic factors alone may reduce requirements for proof copy in the future. On the other hand, as was remarked at the London Typesetting Conference, ". . . The printed message, often in a dif- ferent format, reads differently to authors. I have

found that an author is quite happy with a typescript,

but seeing this in type he will want to alter it . . ." *^ ". . . to try and train every author in the country

to accept something which probably looks to their

uneducated eyes a great deal worse than the clean

typescript they sent to the pubhshers in the first place is asking too much. . . ." Kuney adds: "If the traditional galley proof is to be replaced, editors and authors will need a long

process of education and testing to evolve a workable basis for handling any new form of gaUey

proof."

There is also a special case involving continuing

need for proof copy, at least at the near to last stages, namely, where automatic typesetting

methods are used to drive hot metal casting equipment. As noted by Markus: "If computer output

tapes could be converted automatically to repro- copy by an errorless composing machine, there

would be no need for further proofreading. A Linotype or other hot-metal typesetting machine does

"•^ J. J. Dilckers, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 41.

•^ E. Houghton, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 41.R. Bennett, remarks, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 40. « Kuney, 1963, p. 249.

79
not meet these accuracy requirements, even though

it can be controlled by punched paper Teletypesetting tape. The reason for this is an inherent

residual mechanical error of about 2 percent even

in the best hot-metal slug-casting machines.

These machine malfunctions mean that copy must

be proofread, because an average of one slug in

fifty will have errors that require resetting.""*^

Assuming that proof copy will continue to be

required in at least some stages of the text preparation cycle, some of the policy questions yet to be

decided include the question of when and how much

proof copy will be required and whether it can be in a form other than that of the ultimate finished

product.

"Will computer read-out matter in typed form be

satisfactory as intermediate proofs, or will composing rooms be required to submit proofs in the

type faces to be used in the book? This wiU bear

heavily on the type of automatic equipment to be

used and the new order in which operations are performed." ^'^ Among the solutions that have been suggested

or actively tried for provision of intermediate copy

in less than final typographic quahty are the use

of a 120 or 240 character chain on the IBM 1403

printer and the uncoupling of the Linotron servo

to achieve an output rate of 5,000 to 10,000 characters per second, where the character quaUty

will be the same as the final product but spacing

and alignment will be irregular.^^

Dikkers reports practical experience at the Royal

Printing House in HoUand, as foUows:

"We produce a magazine which we compose on

the ATF photocomposer. We use the hard copy

of the Flexowriter tape punch which gives Roman

and Itahcs in red as the proof. . . . We are trans- mitting these proofs in a facsimile fashion so that the red does not appear red. We do not have any

difficulty at aU with that, as they . . . just want to see that all the characters which should be there

are there."

One of the reasons for selecting a general pur- pose computer at Westerham Press, Ltd., was

precisely for the purpose of providing such inter- mediate stages as a simulated galley-proof in the

form of a computer print-out to which necessary

corrections would be make, and, at a later stage,

page proofs also in the form of computer print-out.^"*

Boyd suggests further that:

". . . As far as the future is concerned, the next

objective in a computerized typesetting system

must be the application of a satisfactory and eco- nomic print-out device which wiU give a proof for correction and re-perforation of a final corrected

« Markus, 1952. p. 28. " "The (R)evolution in Book Compoaition," 1964, 56. " C. J. Duncan, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 149.

^' V. M. Corrado, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings. 1965,

p. 219. " J. J. Dikkers, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 40. ^ Maclntyre, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 34.

tape before starting the high-speed casting or

filmsetting operation."

Another consideration, at least in terms of possible future progress, is the question of the extent

to which proofreading operations can be mechanized, perhaps through the further development

of automatic character recognition techniques.

"Another possible appHcation ... of a page

reader would be the ability to reduce proofreading.

To take the original manuscript, read it into a typecomposition system, through a page reader, set the type, make galley proofs, and compare these

through a page reader with the original manuscript

which was stored on discs or tape, eliminates a percentage of the proofreading time."

6.3.2. The Possible Role of Automatic Character

Recognition

Still another systems planning and management

implication is therefore the question of the possible

role that automatic character recognition equipment

may play in the ongoing development of publication

and re-pubhcation processes.

It is quite probable that the reported gains in keyboarding speed, when the operator produces

unjustified tape versus justified and word hyphenated tape may be substantially incremented if the

operator merely types hard copy, in a pre-selected,

character-reader-designed font, which would then

be read automatically at rates of 300-500 characters per second, or rather faster than most available

perforated tape readers today. Exceptions exist (among them, Digitronics, Omnitronics, and Rheem

Electronics) but even in photoelectric punched

hole readers operable at up to 1,000-2,000 characters per second, problems of handling the paper

tape and preventing its kinking or tearing point to the desirability of page readers capable of automatic

recognition of characters typed on hard copy. A unique feature of the proposed ABLE system

as recently recommended to the National Agricultural Library is the plan to incorporate automatic

character recognition techniques in the preparation

of the Bibliography of Agriculture.

Thus, "the bibhographic citation would be composed as at present except that it would be typed on special paper, formatted for input to an optical scanner." For full text, however, both the need for insertions

of editorial changes and corrections and the in- herent complexities of all the information contained

in a page defy the present capabihties of automatic

character reading equipment. With regard to the

first point, it is noted that: ". . . In most book

composition . . . the machine would have to handle editing changes as well as typed matter to make the system economical. If the original manuscript must be retyped to produce a perfect copy

« Boyd, 1955, p. .32. '"Merz, 1964, p. 85. " "ABLE", 1965, p. 4. 80
for the scanner, the typist might as well create a perfect tape and avoid the scanner completely".

Mcintosh comments even more forcefully:

"By the time you have produced a typescript

sufficiently clear to be read by one of these deviceslet alone Mr. FuUick's point about the codes you

have to put in — you have already reached the stage

when either you can photograph that straight away

or you can use the tape which you could have pro- duced in the meantime. I can see no use whatever for reading devices in the field of printing for a long time."

The second point relates to even so obvious a question as the rules which would enable the

machine reader to distinguish between the variant

usages of punctuation symbols — a period used to end a sentence, as a decimal point or as an indication of an abbreviation. More complex is the problem that the present typographical forms of "a

typeset pubhcation are inadequate to represent

content which might be required by a secondary

system. For example, if one wishes to identify,

in the manuscript, a referenced pubhcation by the use of itahcs, the identification will be ambiguous

because many other types of text items will also be represented by italics."^** "Programming such a device will require the

resolution of fantastic syntactic problems even if the machine has a universal multifont reading

capability. For example, in the citation, J. Chem.

Soc. 1964, 1963, which number is the year and

which the page number? These are not trivial problems."

A third difficulty is, as in the case of output

printing, the very large character repertoire required

for adequate representation of scientific and technical text. Ohringer comments: "There wiD be

many formulas and special mathematical symbols

interspersed with the text. The type fonts used

tend to vary greatly, including many Greek letters

in addition to many styles and sizes of Roman

alphabet. The page arrangement also contains

too much variation for present-day optical character readers." ''^ "To the extent tape cannot be produced as a byproduct of copy preparation, optical character

recognition techniques will probably find typesetting

application as their versatiUty improves and their cost reduces."

6.3.3. Keyboard Design and Related Problems

Solutions to problems of character set that in- volve the use of a larger number of both character

and shift keys for the human operator to manipulate aggravate another problem: that of the design

of the keyboard itself. "The central problem of

"The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV", 1964. p. 70. A, C. Mcintosh. Computer Typesettmg Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 82.

•» Buckland. 1963, p. 309.

Garfield, 196.5. Ohringer, 1964, p. 311. ^ "Computerized Typesetting," 1964, p. 8.

keyboard design is to get a large selection of codes

from a limited, properly spaced, simple-to-operate

arrangement of keys."

Despite the familiar arrangement of the most

frequently used letters in English, the "ETAOIN"

and "SHRDLU" of the hnecasting keyboard, sur- prisingly httle attention has been paid to this problem and techniques of motion study and human

engineering have been little used to take into account not only the number of keys but also travel distances, size and shape of keystroking surfaces,

finger pressure required, and the like.

It has been suggested that "one possible result of this type of analysis could be a bowl-shaped

keyboard, with keys on the sides and rear banked

up from the horizontal. . . . This would enable

the fingers to reach outlying keys by moving in a

straight line, rather than in an arc or in two moves,

over and down. Another feature would be larger

keys on the outskirts, to reduce the need for accu- racy in moving fingers long distance."

With the time required for human fingers to select and strike keys a limiting economic factor in the

preparation of material for publication, various

proposed techniques involve either simplifying the

time-pressure requirements or multiplying the

number of output operations accomplished by a

single keystroke. With respect to the first of these

proposed improvements, Boyd reports: "A new type

of keyboard is one in which the operator starts the depression of the key manually and it is then

pulled the rest of the way by a solenoid. . . . This

has the effect of pulling the key away from the

operator's finger and it spurs him on to the next one!"«6

It is also reported that: "An experimental prototype keyboard has already been developed by Mergenthaler Linotype Company, in cooperation with

the United States Army. The typewriter-style

unit, known as the Army Chemical Typewriter, a

triple-shift Flexowriter, produces a punched tape

containing three codes for each character struck on the keyboard. One code represents the character selected and the other two j record the location

of the character on the page . . . punched into the tape automatically. . . . The codes vary with

changes in position of the carriage and roller platen

in the typewriter.

"The resulting tape is then fed into a computer,

which stores the character codes according to lo- cation on the page. When type is set photographically, the characters are read out of the computer

in fine sequence. . . ." As noted in an earlier section of this report, the use of either built-in spacing, justification, and

automatic hyphenation processes or computer pro- grams operating on unjustified tape not only in- creases keyboarding speed and accuracy but

" "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV," 1964, p. 68.

'•Ibid., p. 69. R. Boyd, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 157. " "The (Revolution in Book Composition . . . IV," 1964, p. 69.

81
reduces the skill level required to that equivalent

to those of a competent typist. Nevertheless, for many purposes involvin<2; lar^ie character sets, inter- mixed text and graphics, man-machine interaction

in page display or composition, and the like, more

training and new methods of operator training may

be indicated. Duncan, for example, recommends:

"We need to improve keyboarding techniques, by

a reconsideration of the problems and the application of new methods of training, such as adaptive

teaching machines."*^** Boyd further suggests:

"Cybernetic or teaching machines exist for Army

Telex operatop, and a keyboard training machine

would be a natural development from them."

Duncan concludes: "Certain it is that we need to be able to measure, assess and improve our keyboarding skills and to develop error reduction and

correction routines which will improve the eco- nomics of subsequent processing." '"^ ". . . The greatest promise for future development seems to be in increasing input flexibility of user terminals . . . We are beginning to see the use of parallel-key devices, based on the stenotype

principle . . ." In the case of the Barnett computer-photocomposer programs, the use of program "macros" (i.e., the use of a few special codes which automatically

call up control subroutines) has been noted as a means to minimize the required number of control

code keystrokes. However, if in addition the keyboard itself could be designed so that a pre-determined set of codes would be punched from a single

master key, it is estimated that the mix of instruction code strokes in the M.I.T. input could be re- duced from 75 percent to 36 percent, a significant

gain.^^

Another example of multiple-output-from singlekeystroke is provided by experimental Chinese

ideograph composition techniques.

"There are a number of groups of strokes which

do not necessarily have meanings in themselves

but which occur often in the stroking of ideographic

characters. The keyboard provides for 20 of the

most frequently used of these stroke groups, which

have been designated entities. If such an entity

is present during the stroking of a character, the

operator can introduce it by depressing the proper

entity key. This action introduces the complete

stroking sequence contained in the entity just as though individual keys had been struck to build it up."

Other instances of desired changes in keyboard

design that have been discussed in the literature include the provision for simultaneously printing

characters along the edge of paper tape as their

bit patterns are being punched and a capability

to print in many different languages or alphabets

"Duncan, 1964. p. 166. R. Boyd, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1%5, p. 162.

'» Ibid, p. 9. " Ohlman. 1963, p. 194. «Tlle lR)evoluli..n in Book Composition ... IV, 1964, p. 68. "Pitt, 1964, p. 11-12. " K. Boyd, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 161.

with operator control to change rapidly from one

to another.^^ One of the important aspects of the overall sys- tem design program being explored at the University of Newcastle, for instance, is the analysis

of keyboarding requirements, where it is hoped that psychologists will contribute to the elucidation and

investigation of the "fundamental measurements

. . . needed before there is any real understanding

of these activities."

It has been suggested, for example, that "another

valuable keyboard capability would be the ability

to set multi-column work using a single set of in- structions for each column, yet producing a completely aligned and made up product from the typesetting machine."

6.3.4. Implications for Systems Design

The system throughput difficulty has been evi- denced to date in various currently expedient ap- proaches to the problems of speed versus quality,

in pressures to achieve both higher speed and higher

quality, and in increased recognition of implicitly

required changes in management philosophy, sys- tems design, and customer attitude. Present and

prospective progress, however, is indicated by the

portion of multiple-purpose, integrated data proc- essing concepts; by system designs involving

multiple off-line production, and by at least some

evidences of willingness to re-examine input, service and output requirements of many documentation activities. One important management and systems planning

implication is that in spite of rapid technological

innovation and apphcation, today's possibilities

encompass a wide range of balanced systems. In

particular, ". . . The equation becomes one of

large in-plant computers for composition alone, versus large in-plant computers for combined operations, versus large computer centers, versus

smaller specialized computers combined with

manual operations."

Nevertheless, as Duncan points out: "The significant fact at this stage is that the newer systems

are more flexible and so will allow a wider variety

of machines to be brought into operation. The

industry will then be able to buy and use the right

machine for the right job, and to seek the right types

of work for that particular installation, instead of

equipping itself throughout with relatively inefficient general purpose machinery."

This means, on the one hand, that sound principles of integrated systems engineering must be

employed: "To begin to understand the impact

of computers on composition, it must be realized

that computerized composition represents far more

F. C. Holland, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965,

p. 167. TM Duncan, 1%5 (b), p. 2. "'"The (R)evolulion in Book Composition . . . IV." 1964, p. 69. "Tile (R)evolution in Book Composition," 1964, p. 57. Duncan, 1964, p. 123.

82
than an improvement in the setting of type. Computers are bringing on a. fundamental revolution

in composition. Studies and applications work

already have shown that the real economies He

in reorganizing the composition process — not in merely trying to superimpose computers on present

systems."

On the other hand, it also needs to be recognized

that: . . whatever the technological possibihties

may be their exploitation involves re-orientation of

management pohcy to a drastic degree."

The problem of re-thinking the processing-printing complex arises in terms both of balancing input

with high speed in intermediate or final operations

and of balancing output with rates of high computer

processing.

With respect to the balancing of final output

capabilities with high speed computer output rates, an obvious solution is the adoption of multiple off- hne production systems. Thus, "the terrific speed

at which computers produce tape raises some

problems. The RCA 301, for example, turns out enough TTS tape to fill a whole newspaper column

in 17 seconds, so fast that conventional typesetting

equipment can't begin to keep up and batteries of

machines must be used."

Such batteries may be operated either on-fine or

off-hne through the use of buffers and allocation

devices. At The South Bend Tribune plant, for example, "Under guidance of the IBM 1620 computer the buffer selects from the six Harris Inter- type Monarch linecasting machines one which is set up for the proper type font and size and column

width for the story. These specifications are marked by the editor on the original copy and

punched into the first tape along with the copy."

Similarly, at J'he Kansas City Star, an IBM 1620

installation is hnked to an allocating capabiHty

which feeds twelve finecasting machines.

With respect to multiple on-line production capabiUties Duncan reports, "In 'on-Une' operation the

processing computer is connected directly to a bat- tery of tape-operated hne-casters which are setting

copy as it comes through. By the use of allocators each machine can be kept loaded with work appropriate to it, and in case of difficulties automatic

re-routing to another machine or to a high density

magnetic tape storage is possible."

This advantage is claimed to be especially valu- able when typesetting equipment can be set up so

that diff"erent machines need handle only a few fonts

at a time. A further advantage is the capabihty

of switching from one type of equipment to another

to meet production schedule demands. Thus, at Westerham Press it is claimed that: "Within our system we can output to a standard line-caster, or

to a photosetter. If the job being computed has

"The (R)evf>Iution in Book Composition," 1964. p. 56,

*" Duncan, 1964, p. 166. '^BlundeU, 1964, p. 28. « Goodwin, 1964. p. 34. " Duncan, 1964, p. 146.

to change from Linotype Baskerville to Monotype

Baskerville, it is possible to recalculate and come

out with a tape which after subsequent conversion

goes on to a Monotype unit. This may be of only

academic interest but we are particularly interested

in this for controlling production in a large printing group, where we may have an urgent job which,

originally scheduled for one piece of equipment,

could be switched to another unit."

Other claimed advantages of allotment to a number of different machines are that it enables an

operator to control machine loadings independently

of the rate of tape output and that down-time and

changeover-time on the typesetting equipment itself can be reduced.

Another important aspect of planning and sys- tems design for multiple off-line production is that

of providing for such production at remote locations

by tie-in to communication networks. This is already evident in a number of news service applications, where, for example, the Associated Press is using the Data-Phone to transmit justified stock

market copy to its customers throughout the country. As Blondeau notes, "this is on the wire minnutes after the markets close in New York."

With respect to prospects for future progress

for multiple printing at remote locations, Duncan

suggests: "As the onset of film composition, of

punched tape, or of thin presensitized litho plates

reduces the bulk and weight of the work content

of printing it becomes a simple matter to convey it rapidly all over the world by jet aircraft, or to trans- mit it practically instantaneously by communications satellite, or coaxial telegraph cable."

Still another advantage of the communication

network tie-in is likely to be a quick and reliable depository system for scientific and technical material (both bibliographic data and full text) in reproducible form at many locations. For safety

and security reasons also, "simultaneous replication

of the printing surfaces at several locations will be

an attractive variation on present-day practice."

Multiple inputs to a single high speed processor

are also a part of the system design equation. The

French CAE system provides for both a double

input and a double output which not only increases

the throughput speed but also allows the computer,

when required, "to accomplish simultaneously two

different tasks on independent texts." Another example is the plan for the Thomson

Computer Setting System in Great Britain. "Unlike existing computer type setting methods which

are being developed in the United States, the new

British system allows for direct communication

between the operator and the computer.

"The twelve keyboard operators will share the one computer and use it as their slave to justify

Maclntyre, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 35, "The (K)evolution in Book Composition . . . IV". 1964. p. 70. Duncan, 1964, p. 162.

"> Blondeau. 1963, p. 89. " Duncan, 1964, p. 121.

»" Ibid, p. 163. " G. Bafour, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 195.

83
lines, to remember type faces and sizes, to store copy for corrections, to construct tables, to identify

paper tape and to hyphenate words. Each operator will fiive his own instructions independently

to the computer. The computer will immediately

tell the operator if he makes a mistake or gives an

impossible instruction. If a mistake has been made

the operator can remove it with a touch on the

keys."

Some of the practical problems in sound systems

planning for the introduction of semi-automatic

or automatic techniques in the composing room or

printing plant include such minor but significant

details as the following: "One of the unexpected

problems which has occurred is that of winding

and unwinding tapes. The photo-electric readers

are very sensitive to tight or kinked tape, and if either fault develops the output tape can soon be- come nonsense. This is the sort of thing that one

tends to ignore when one thinks about computers

but it can very quickly make a loss out of a profit."

Even in relatively slow, relatively unsophisticated

equipment systems, such as Linasec I, ". . . The

standard clockwork tape winder available in this country is about 5" or 6" in diameter, and you have

to change these in a remarkably short space on

Linasec [I] when you are processing at 100 a second."

Another managerial question in terms of an in- tegrated systems approach is that of multiple use,

in the same organization, of the capabilities of

automatic data processing. First, it is to be noted

that "most organizations that are of a size and

structure that warrant a large computer are also of a size and structure that could benefit from an

'in-house' facility for the rapid production of varied

typography."

Secondly, despite the early failure at the Arizona

Journal, there are definite prospects that computers

available for typesetting purposes may also be used

for other productive operations in the same organization. Thus, in one of the on-going newspaper

applications, "in addition to using this equipment

for composition, Perry also uses it for accounting

operations of some 26 or 28 different units of the

organization."

An important change that is promised is in the area of storage requirements for material that is to be revised, corrected and/or cumulated, and re- issued.

"One trip through the mountains of metal stored

in the plants of most large commerical and book

printers drives home the extremely uncommon

utility of compact data storage on tape."^^

In such applications as revised and updated

directories, gazeteers, cumulative indexes, recurrent bibliographies and the hke, the storage prob-

" The Computer Bulletin 9. 19 (1965). " Boyd. 1965, p. 28. R. Boyd, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 38. " l.uce and Barnelt, 1%3, p. 293. "Toothman. 1953. p. 105. "Computerized Typesetting." 1964, p. 5.

lem for hot metal is notoriously severe and the

re-arrangement procedures are slow, costly, and

cumbersome. With the use of photocomposition

techniques, storage is much more compact and

manageable, but the page revision problems are even more critical. As Duncan remarks: ". . . Until recently there was no alternative to storing metal

and updating it by substitutions, or, if alterations

above say 10 percent were involved, by resetting.

The use of film or flat photo copy instead of metal

did not in general make things easier, as it was

less durable and just as difficult to match in as

a mixture of new and used hot metal type."^*

The updating and reissue problems constitute one

of the principal reasons for high speed requirements

in semiautomatic and automatic type composition

systems. For example, in typical directory composition apphcations, ". . . you have several hundred hstings on a page. If you want to re-set that page and add three names and take one out, the

keyboarding which has to be done involves only

three lines, but the new machine has to be fast enough to set the other 300 or 400 lines which are on the page. . . ."^^ At least two special factors may also require

recognition in managerial re-thinking of the preparation-processing-publication cycle as the result of

the introduction of new techniques. One of these

is the question of special copyright considerations,

and the other is the related one of ownership of

products eventually to be sold, especially where

processing and packaging has been shared among

several different organizations. Duncan asks:

"One complex matter will arise when tape is pre- pared in one place for processing to saleable copies

at another. To whom will it by law belong, and by

whom by trade custom can it be used?" ' Copyright considerations may relate first to the

substance of material reproduced, specifically

including the use by abstracting services, whose

output is copyrighted, of an author abstract which

may also be replicated by another organization

either as part of its own accession announcements,

as part of a storage, search and retrieval system

or as part of a demand bibhography.

Next, there is the question of copyrights on material essentially generated, not merely compiled,

by machine systems. This is complicated by the

general question of copyrights in translations,

especially if the translation is the output of a machine translation program. Further compHcations arise from the fact that computer programs as such may now be copyrightable under certain

conditions.

"There is one final problem that may retard and

damage this whole new expansion — that is the

problem of copyright and of regulations governing

the use of text in computer form." ^

»" Duncan, 1964, p. 147. V. M. Corrado, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. pp. 235-236.

' Duncan, 1964, p. 161.

» Kehl, 1965, p. 26. 84
Another highly speciaHzed, but potentially

troublesome question, is that of copyrights in the

typography itself (covered, for example, in the Brit- ish Copyright Act of 1956^). If the original ty- pography of all or part of copyrighted material is accidentally or otherwise exactly reproduced in subsequent reprocessing and resetting is there a

potential infringement? If the typography of a

first printing, whether of primary or secondary

publication, is computer-produced, what copyrights if any, can be lodged with author, publisher,

computer programmer, composition service bureau

or printer?

It has also been demonstrated that facsimile

transmission may be used for sending copy and

proofs to and from various locations. For ex- ample, the Portland Printing Company has used

Western Union's Broadband Exchange Service

for transmission between New York and Boston at rates of one page in four minutes, thereby becoming able to "move copy immediately to our plant,

set in type and return out of town proofs within a

single working day." *

6.3.5. Implications for Industry Adjustment

In the preceding section, we considered some of

the imphcations to be found in the hterature of

automatic type composition with respect, primarily,

to the design of a single system or to the adoption

of the new techniques by a single organization.

There are, in addition, some imphcations hkely to affecting the printing and pubhshing industries as such and thus to point toward requirements for in- dustry-wide adjustments.

First is the question of new publication, repro- duction and distribution possibilities. These imply

the desirabihty of looking toward radical re-orientation of publication and dissemination policies and

toward the introduction of new types or means of

reproduction and distribution.

First, "As printing becomes increasingly involved

in data processing techniques, so is publishing

involved in the tremendous developments taking

place in information retrieval and dissemination . . . The operation of powerful information

retrieval systems may (as in the case of MEDLARS)

produce more or different printed matter replacing some of the books and pamphlets already in production."^

In a study of desired improvements in the communication network for biomedical information,

pilot trials have been recommended for: ". . . using

advanced techniques in the publication of estabHshed biomedical journals, e.g., computer composition, 'phototypesetting', microform editions . . ."^ As the Weinberg Panel report suggests, "the

invention of the new retrieval methods is beginning

' Reed, 1960. p. 152. •CIS Newsleller, Aug 1. 1965, p. 4. ''Duncan. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 11. ""Communication Pn)blems in Biomedical Research", 1963, p. 21.

to affect our traditional modes of communication.

The traditional forms of the book, journal, and re- print may eventually give way to the machine stor- age of graphical and digital information and machine-generated copy."^

Material not now usually typeset — the technical

report and the wide variety of computer-compiled

or computer-generated products — is likely to be

increasingly fed to typesetting equipment in the near future. As Kraft remarks: "Today, the newer

developments in typographic composition and re- production—particularly the development of highperformance phototypesetters and tape-controlled

linotypes — have increased the speed and reduced

the cost of typesetting to such an extent that typeset

copy can compete with other methods of document

reproduction in speed and cost." * High typographic quality of the bibliographic

information may make more feasible the suggestion

of Markus that there should be explored "the

economic aspects of printing indexes in much

smaller type and furnishing a magnifying glass

with each volume." ^ Demand publication (whether of original text, supplemental data and appendixes, or specialpurpose bibhographies and index-document list- ings) imposes additional requirements — often of

small production or replication runs and often re- quiring highly specialized selection-extraction and

re-assembly operations. In this area, a suggestion

of Duncan's indicates some of the new technological possibilities: "When the number of offprints

required is small then some cheap system of short- run production is more appropriate than full-scale printing. In these circumstances the photocomposer, or an attachment to it, can compose

reprints directly on to a photosensitive short-run

plate, or some intermediate suitable for inexpensive

conversion."

With respect to the printing industry, the clearly

implied requirements for industry-wide readjustments range from re-thinking of criteria for accepting jobs and for determining an economic size for a printing run, through the problems of labor

relations to the question of education and training

of those now engaged in printing operations and of

those who will enter the industry in the future. Underlying all these considerations is the recognition that: "There is ever increasing demand for cheap printed matter of good quality. These de- mands cannot be met by old craft methods." "

Turning to the mechanics of production of both

the traditional and newer forms of publication;

Duncan as one of the principal exponents and

students of the impact of the new techniques

points out that: "The concentration of enormous

productive power in a small unit, such as a digital

computer or an ultra fast photocomposing machine.

' President's Scientific Advisory Committee, 1963, p. 32.

« Kraft, 1963, p. 275. 'Markus, 1962, p. 21. '"Duncan, 1964, p. 162. " Harrison, 1964, p. 1.

85
inevitably changes the balance of the machines

that feed it and those that it feeds. This poses

<:reat problems of production while completely

changing the method of operation and the balance

of the plant in use. I believe it also implies, at least to start with, a change in the variety and style

of the operations to be performed." ^"^ Elsewhere, Duncan provides a comprehensive

coverage of the problems of printing industry ad- justments as follows: "The pressures operating in the printing industry and the deficiencies in means

to combat them . . . may be summarized as

follows:

1. Increase in the total quantity of printed matter required. . . . 2. Increase in the speed at which material is required and in its complexity both of content and design.

3. Increase in the speed with which copy is being fed to composing machines (from wire

and business tape and from computers).

4. Increase in production associated with

modern high speed rotary presses.

5. Drive for greater productivity . . . 6. Competition from newer media, and non-traditional methods.

7. Introduction into the industry of work

study . . . 8. Low per capita expenditure on research in the industry as compared with newer growth

industries.

9. Low percentage of technologists (as distinct from arts graduates) employed in the industry.

10. Meagre facilities available for advanced in- struction and research. . . ."'^ A more specific, but exemplary, problem of in- dustry-wide concern is that of lack of compatibility

between systems and hence the need for conversion

capabilities for some years to come. "A considerable number of code translating

machines will be necessary to handle the multifariously coded systems at present in use, and TTS

tape, with its unfortunate non-standard sprocket

hole position, will have to be converted for processing on general purpose systems."

One obvious question is that of possible standardization of perforated tape codes, formats, and proc- essing characteristics.

Duncan suggests that: "We need a moderately

increasing degree of standardization, first over the

machine processing methods and codes, then over

the variety of printing formats and styles."'^

It is also to be noted that ". . . it is likely that we will have to cope with a wide variety of inputs

and formats for some time to come. . . . The

use of code converters, however, requires very

careful attention to code combinations and to the

'^C. J. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 3. Duncan, 1964, p. 126. " Ibid., p. 130.

'••Ibid, p. 166-167.

reservation of codes for control functions and for- mat and geometry of the paper or magnetic tapes."

Further, ". . . large amounts of machinery in use today will either have to be altered or replaced,

or we shall have to go on using converters and translators for a considerable time, and at considerable

expense. The printing industry, particularly the

newspaper industry, is the worst off of all from this point of view because practically all the tape oper- ated plant it uses has its own private code, and its own 'tape' format."'^

The fact that presently proposed standardized

codes such as ASCII or the even more restricted

British-International 6- and 7-bit codes cannot adequately cover the character repertoire required

for scientific and technical material, except with

extensive use of "escape" characters or precedence

coding has been mentioned previously. Finally,

it is to be noted that ". . . even if a common lan- guage tape could be agreed upon in printing, converters would still be needed to connect computerized composition systems with outside sources of

material."

Recognizing the need for code standardization

for newspapers, the American Newspaper Publishers Association in the summer of 1965 nominated

Mr. Harold R. Hoots of the Lindsay-Schaub Newspapers, Decatur, Illinois, to serve as a member of

the American Standards Association's Subcommittee X3.2, Codes and Input-Output, and Task Group

X3.2.4, Code Development. The Mergenthaler

Linotype Co., has had representation on both of

those groups for two years, in the persons of O. R. Arne, now with the New York Daily News, and R. J. Donahue.

The need for standardization in this field is evi- dent, and a substantial development effort is indi- cated, in order that the 96 graphic symbols and

half dozen format effectors of ASCII can be ex- tended, in a standard manner, to encompass all of

the typographic symbols and controls required in the composition of newspapers.

7. Summary: The Present State-ofthe-Art and Future Prospects

The state-of-the-art is well indicated in summary

by the following. In June 1963 the U.S. Government

Printing Office issued a "Request for Proposal for Off-line Magnetic Tape High Speed Photocomposer," which required:

a. typography and formatting by computer processing.

b. computer programs to accomplish this.

c. the use of computer-generated magnetic tape,

in several existing tape formats, as off-line control and information input to the photocomposer.

'".Sparlis el al, 1954, p. 182. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965. p. 10. "*"The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . 1964, p. 70.

86
d. the production of photographic image pages

(8 X 10.5 inches) of graphic arts quahty.

e. composing in full image width (8 inches) or

in two columns, one column at a time.

f. a minimum output speed of 600 characters per

second of six point type (lower for larger type).

g. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10. 12, 14, and 18 point size values.

h. proportional character spacing, computed.

i. justified lines, computed,

j. variable hne spacing.

k. horizontal type width condensation under

code control to 85% and 70% of true width,

without reduction in Une length (optional).

1. multiple type faces, mixed without restriction. m. electronically controlled inclination of the

vertical axis of characters as a means of simulating itahcs (optional).

n. electronically controlled "stroke width" of

characters as a means of simulating bold face

characters (optional).

o. resolution of 250 line pairs per inch at a density ratio suitable for platemaking.

p. reduction to one-fourth and one-eighteenth

size image areas (optional).

q. at least 20 different graphic overlay formats to be inserted on code command in random

order, or means of generating horizontal and

vertical lines, to closely specified tolerances,

in response to code command.

r. operation in various existing magnetic tape

codes with transition to the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).

Sufficient interest in the above "Request for Pro- posal" was evidenced, despite the severe requirement, that a Bidders Conference held at the

Government Printing Office in August 1963 was

attended by representatives of the potential suppliers shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Companies represented at a Photocomposer Bidders Conference at Government Printing Office on August 12, 1963.

*1. Alphanumeric, Inc.

2. American Type Founders Co., Inc.

3. Aries Corp.

4. Arnoux Corp.

5. Auerbach Corp.

6. Burroughs Corp.

7. Data Display, Inc.

8. Di/An Controls, Inc.

*9. A. B. Dick Co.

10. General Dynamics Electronics

11. General Electric Co.

12. General Precision, Inc.

13. Harris Intertype Corp.

14. Houston Fearless Corp.

15. Information Dynamics Corp.

16. Inforonics, Inc. *17. International Business Machines Corp.

18. Itek Corp.

19. Lanston Monotype Co.

20. Litton Systems, Inc. *21. Mergenthaler Linotype Co.

22. Philco Corp.

*23. Photon, Inc.

24. Radio Corp. of America

2.5. Shaza Industries

Several other companies are known to be engaged

in research in photocomposing. The companies

marked with an asterisk (*) submitted formal pro- posals in October 1963, and the final award of a contract was made a few months later to the Mergenthaler Linotype Co., for a photocomposing sys- tem based upon its "Linotron" all optical-electronic

equipment developed in collaboration with CBS

Laboratories. In terms of technical developments as of August

1965, certain conclusions as to the current state of

the art and the prospects for further progress can

be drawn. It should be noted, however, that the

available and developing technology is such that several different approaches may, as appropriate,

proceed concurrently but independently.

First, it should be recognized that the computer,

per se, is not necessarily linked to a single high

speed composition technique.

It can be claimed that, "automated techniques are applicable to all typesetting methods, although the

speed and flexibility of photographic composition

provides the most fertile avenue for fully exploiting

computer capabilities."

Nevertheless, "many people believe that computerized composition will greatly accelerate the devel- opment of photocomposition methods and the

replacement of hot metal. Others, however, argue

that hot metal has a great deal to offer in computerized composing rooms, and it will continue to find a major role in the future."^

On the other hand, it has been recognized that,

"although only one facet of the total picture, the

computer has somehow become the symbol, if not

the synonym, for automation."^

There are several good reasons. The most spectacular of the semi-automatic and automatic aids

to composition and typesetting is certainly the

general purpose digital computer, which has worked

its way into nearly all aspects of human activity:

business, industry, commerce, science, technology,

government, education and the professions.

The computer, then, in one of its many roles, has

been gradually and painstakingly assuming an in- creasingly important position as skilled compositor,

to which it is rather ideally suited, since this task

involves an enormous repetition of well-defined

decision processes. The computer has already

demonstrated its ability to eliminate the need for the complex compositor skills from the keyboard

operator, to provide an enormous increase in the

speed of the compositor functions, and to keep pace

with developments in electronic photocomposers

which promise typesetting of graphic arts quality

at speeds of thousands of characters per second,

intermixed with electronically photocomposed line

art, screened halftones and continuous tone

illustrations. There is, in addition to high speed typographic

quality in black and white, some promise of color

' "Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 4.

^ "The (R)evolution in Book Composition . . . Ill", 1964, p. 61. ^"Computerized Typesetting", 1964, p. 2.

87
as well. While, as of 1963, a Mergenthaler team was pessimistic ("with respect to color capability,

the investigations show that there are no practical

means, methods or mediums available now or in the near future that will simplify or circumvent the

complicated conventional techniques and mediums

currently employed for high quality color imaging

and reproduction." a practical demonstration of

at least limited application of color has already

been achieved: "Art and electronics were interest- ingly combined to produce the cover on the July

[1965] issue of Fortune magazine. The designer's

specifications were converted to a computer pro- gram, punched into 8-channel paper tape and

generated on an oscilloscope via a PDP-1 computer.

Multiple photographic exposures through two filters added color to the electron tube images. . . Thus the present prospects for automatic, high

quality typographic composition at high speed show

progress toward such specifications as outhned by

Ohlman at the 1961 Annual Meeting of the American

Documentation Institute: "What we require is a device that can create a visually attractive page for a competitive price at reasonable speed. It should

provide a full variety of type fonts, the gamut of

colors, and automatic control of placement and

shape, as well as the ability to compose analog

matter, such as graphs and pictures, from digital

inputs."®

As we have seen, there are two complementary

aspects of the current state-of-the-art in automatic

typographic quality composition. They are not necessarily interdependent. Computerized typesetting can be applied as well to hot metal equipment control as to photocorpposers and, by suitable

planning for multiple off-line production, to relatively

slow speed composers and printers and still achieve

significant throughput advantages. Conversely,

high speed photocomposers may or may not be

computer-driven and yet portend significant gains in economy of printing and in timeliness of publication.

Where computers are already involved in the

preparation-to-publication cycle, it is reasonably

certain that they can also be effectively used to assure high typographic quality of finished products.

However, it is with the combination of high speed

photocomposition and computer typesetting control

that the most significant gains are beginning to be

realized. Some of these are already claimed to be

worth as much as the cost of the equipment itself. These include, first, space savings resulting from

fewer pages at lower cost, estimated at up to 7.5%

space saved for the same text in newspaper composition (for example, "significant savings, reported to be up to 5% in the case of the Oklahoman, which

will go a long way towards paying for the computer . . ." ^, far higher savings in the case of printing of material produced as a result of computer

processing. Thus Forbes remarks:

"Reduction in the book bulk is achieved by getting

two pages of information on to one page. Higher

readability will generate sufficient savings to pay

for the major portion of the initial programming."

The future potential in this area is emphasized by

the recognition that in the United States alone, "500

million pages a month are produced by high speed

line printers." ^ Significant gains in the bottleneck areas of keystroking and proofreading have been discussed

earlier. Related research potentialities to be explored

include the further development of automatic character reading techniques suitable for use in inte- grated text processing systems and in further

investigations of "the possibility of eliminating

writing or typing as a means of originating material

is now available in crude form, in the voice-writer,

the IBM 'shoebox,' and a similar machine by RCA." ^ As is to be observed with respect to labor rela- tions problems that have already occurred, the

implications of the current state of the art of auto- matic typographic composition are already affecting

the question of training and skills required in the

composing room and the printing plant. On the one hand, there is the fact that skilled typists pro- ducing unjustified tape for subsequent machine

processing can replace the skilled compositor in many applications. On the other hand, there are new challenges to the industry to become familiar

with and learn to take advantage of the new tech- nological advances.

"As typesetting . . . moves from mechanics to electronics and a host of sophisticated, alien disci- plines, the changes in the approach toward related

education and training must be no less radical."'"

Current progress has been hailed as a "movement from sweat to sophistication [and] more

efficient systems of printed communication are evolving from the cooperative assault on the problems of typesetting by experts in both printing and

electronics." "

Finally, as several of the pioneering users of the

photocomposition-computer combined capabilities

have summarized:

"Considered as a typographic quality output

device, the tape driven Photon bypasses several

cycles of manual keyboard action, proofreading

and correction, when the results of a computation

are to be published. It provides a means for in- creasing the readabihty of results when manual

typesetting would not be cheap or fast enough."

"Probably the most important improvement,

however, is in readability. The printing is not only

clear and distinct, but the availability of a choice

' Mcrgenlhaler. 1963. p. 17. 'CIS Newslcticr. August 1, 1965, p. 4.

* Herbert Ohlman, panel discussion of Markus, 1962, p. 25.

' Duncan, 1964, p. 155.

O. Schwartz, remarks. Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 76. -'Duncan. 1964. p. 131. '""Automation and Education." 1965. p. 1. " "Computerized Typesetting." 1964, p. 3. '•'Luce and Barnett, 1963. p. 293. 88
of type styles, mathematical symbols, special symbols, and Greek and italic characters to fit each

particular job contributes toward the publication

of data which is easier to understand and a pleasure

to read and use."^^

Duncan warns, however, that: "The most that can be said for our efforts so far

is that they have shown the great extent of the

ground work that needs to be done before their

successful use can be assured."

Many questions of operational analysis, human

factors, and user acceptance have not yet been in- vestigated to any significant extent. In the first place, many aspects of these questions involve

subjective or quahtative or even aesthetic judgment,

for which no quantitative measures have yet been

devised. In the second place, even where quantitative measurements are feasible, they have seldom

been developed and applied. Duncan (1964) re- ports, for example, on critical reactions to machinecontrolled interword spacing in the range of 4 to 12 "M" units. He notes that: "All typographers so

far consulted consider closer spacing down to 3

M.U. minimum preferable to occasional lines with

wider spacing and would prefer an upper limit of

about 9 M.U. . . . We must report an actual count

of the interword spacing used on 958 lines by a most

respectable publishers' printer. 9.4% of the lines had spacing over 9 M.U.; 4.5% over 10 M.U., and

there were two fines over 13 M.U. So much for the

'^Bnzman. 1963. p. 4. " C. J. Duncan, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, p. 2.

practical solutions adopted by working compositors,

and apparently disregarded or unobserved by

readers and designers !"^^ How do the problems of improper hyphenation of

such and such a percentage of the number of hyphenated lines compare as between the usual

readers of the newspaper, the typewriter-copyreproduced technical report, the computer-compiled

KWIC index, the periodical article, the full text of

a book on scientific and technical topics?

Again, how serious is an occasional ragged-rightmargin line? Is it better or worse with respect to overall customer acceptance than an occasional

(more frequent?, less frequent?) improper or ludicrous hyphenation?

This is but one example of many such questions

yet to be explored, and demanding early attention.

Mcintosh, for example, makes the following perti- nent comments:

"... I wonder whether a very small sum of

money by comparison with the hundreds and thousands of pounds which are going into this technology

at the moment might be devoted to some fundamental study of readability, typefaces, sizes, hyphenation, justification and supposed standards of

typography. If that study were undertaken on a national basis or an international basis — which, as

far as I know, has never been attempted — it might

ehminate a lot of the problems into which a tremendous amount of effort is going."

'5 Duncan, 1964, p. 155. A. C. Mcintosh, Computer Typesetting Conference Proceedings, 1965, pp. 149-

150.

89

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