Department of Education

STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

Fiscal Year 2017 Budget Proposal

CONTENTS

Page

Account Summary Table.........................................................................................................Q-1

Federal Student Loans:

Authorization .......................................................................................................................Q-2

Program Description ...........................................................................................................Q-3

Interest Rates and Terms—By Type of Loan.......................................................................Q-5

Borrower Interest Rates By Academic Year and Program Component................................Q-7

Student Loan Program Maximums ......................................................................................Q-8

Credit Reform Estimates ...................................................................................................Q-10

FY 2017 Budget Proposal:

Student Loan Reform Proposals .......................................................................................Q-13

FY 2017 Estimated New Direct Loan Volume....................................................................Q-16

FY 2017 Estimated Consolidation Loan Volume................................................................Q-17

The Role of Student Loans................................................................................................Q-17

Postsecondary Cost, Borrowing, and Enrollment by Institutional Sector............................Q-18

FFEL Liquidating Account .................................................................................................Q-20

Federal Student Loan Reserve Fund.................................................................................Q-20

Program Output Measures:

Direct Loans......................................................................................................................Q-21

FFEL Loans ......................................................................................................................Q-22

Student Borrowing.............................................................................................................Q-22

Borrower Average Stafford Debt and Total Debt—Academic Year 2011-2012 ..................Q-23

Median Federal Student Loan Debt...................................................................................Q-24

Undergraduate Stafford Loan Borrower Distribution by Family Income .............................Q-25

Undergraduate Students by Income Category...................................................................Q-25

Loan Volume by Institutional Sector ..................................................................................Q-27

Loan Volume by Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loans.........................................Q-28

Program Performance Information:

Performance Measures.....................................................................................................Q-28

National Student Loan Cohort Default Rate.......................................................................Q-29

FY 2017 Cohort Lifetime Dollar Default and Recovery Rates ............................................Q-31
Account Summary Tabl e

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FISCAL YEAR 2017 PRESIDENT'S BUDGET

Click here for accessible version (in thousands of dollars)

Amount Percent

Federal Direct Student Loans Program Account (HEA IV-D) 

 1. New loan subsidies M 0 0 0 0 ---

 2. New net loan subsidy (non-add) 1 M (4,332,982) (8,364,917) (8,292,464) 72,453 -0.87%

 3. Upward reestimate of existing loans M 14,353,522 9,878,116 0 (9,878,116) -100.00%

 4. Downward reestimate of existing loans (non-add) M (2,024,565) (2,184,826) 0 2,184,826 -100.00%

 5. Net reestimate of existing loans (non-add) M 12,328,957 7,693,290 0 (7,693,290) -100.00%

 6. Upward modification of existing loans 2 M 9,307,220 0 0 0 ---

 7. Downward modification of existing loans (non-add) M 0 0 0 0 ---

 8. Net modification of existing loans (non-add) M 9,307,220 0 0 0 ---

Subtotal, loan subsidies 23,660,742 9,878,116 0 (9,878,116) -100.00%

Subtotal, new loan subsidies and net reestimate/modification (non-add) 17,303,195 (671,627) (8,292,464) (7,620,837) 1134.68%

Total M 23,660,742 9,878,116 0 (9,878,116) -100.00%

Federal Family Education Loans Program Account (HEA IV-B) 

 1. Upward reestimate of existing loans M 1,362,692 1,295,196 0 (1,295,196) -100.00%

 2. Downward reestimate of existing loans (non-add) M (4,656,259) (2,521,474) 0 2,521,474 -100.00%

 3. Net reestimate of existing loans (non-add) M (3,293,567) (1,226,278) 0 1,226,278 -100.00%

 4. Upward modification of existing loans 3 M 0 151,588 0 (151,588) -100.00%

 5. Downward modification of existing loans (non-add) M 0 0 0 0 ---

 6. Net modification of existing loans (non-add) M 0 151,588 0 (151,588) -100.00%

Total, FFEL Program Account M 1,362,692 1,446,784 0 (1,446,784) -100.00%

Total, new loan subsidies and net reestimate/modification (non-add) (3,293,567) (1,074,690) 0 1,074,690 -100.00%

Federal Family Education Loans Liquidating Account (HEA IV-B)

1. Pre-1992 student loans M (129,001) (291,218) (259,736) 31,482 -10.81%

NOTES: D = discretionary program; M = mandatory program; FY = fiscal year 

 For most mandatory programs, the levels shown in the 2015 Appropriation column reflect the 7.3 percent sequester that went into effect October 1, 2014, and the levels shown in the 

2016 Appropriation column reflect the 6.8 percent reduction that went into effect on October 1, 2015, pursuant to the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25). 

Detail may not add to totals due to rounding. 

1 The Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25) requires OMB to calculate a percentage increase in the origination fee charged to students and parents for new Direct Student Loans made after the 2015 sequester order. 

2 The FY 2015 Appropriation column reflects an estimated upward modification in the baseline for expanding the Pay As You Earn (PAYE) repayment plan to all eligible borrowers, regardless of when they borrowed.

3 The 2016 Appropriation column reflects an increase in guaranty agency reinsurance from 95 percent to 100 percent as included in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016.

2017 President's Budget

2016 Compared to 2016 Appropriation

Account, Program and Activity Appropriation

Category 

Code

2015 

Appropriation

2017 President's 

Budget

Q-1

Q-1
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFEL)

(Higher Education Act of 1965, Title IV, Part B)

William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program (Direct Loan)

(Higher Education Act of 1965, Title IV, Part D)

(dollars in thousands)

FY 2017 Authorization: Indefinite

Mandatory Budget Authority:

Loan Subsidies 2016 2017 Change

Net Loan Subsidies:

DL New Loan Subsidy -$8,364,9171 -$8,292,4641 +$72,453

DL Net Reestimate 7,693,290 0 -7,693,290

 DL Total Net Subsidy -671,627 -8,292,464 -7,620,837

FFEL Net Reestimate -$1,226,278 0 +$1,226,278

FFEL Net Modification 151,5882 0 -151,588

 FFEL Total Net Subsidy -1,074,690 0 +1,074,690

NOTE: Fiscal year 2016 and 2017 data reflect the 2017 President’s Budget estimates and include the 

6.8 percent 2016 mandatory sequester.

1 Estimated cost of new loans — A credit reform program account does not typically show subsidy budget 

authority if it is negative. Instead, it is reported (as negative outlays) in a negative subsidy receipt account. However, 

for informational purposes, amounts reflect estimated negative budget authority as shown on page Q-1. 2 Reflects increase in guaranty agency reinsurance from 95 percent to 100 percent, as included in the 

Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016.

FEDERAL STUDENT LOANS

Authorization

Language authorizing the loan programs beyond fiscal year (FY) 2008 was contained in the 

Higher Education Reconciliation Act (HERA) of 2005 (P.L. 109-171). 

The College Cost Reduction and Access Act (CCRAA) (P.L. 110-84) amended loan and other 

Higher Education Act (HEA) programs, starting October 1, 2007. The Ensuring Continued 

Access to Student Loans Act (ECASLA) of 2008 (P.L. 110-227) provided the Government with 

purchase authority to buy Federal guaranteed student loans from lenders and ensure access to 

FFEL loans and increased Unsubsidized Stafford loan limits for undergraduates. 

The SAFRA Act (formerly the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act), Title II, Part A of the 

larger Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-152), terminated the 

Q-2
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

FFEL loan program. As of July 1, 2010, all new Federal student loans now originate in the 

Direct Loan (DL) program. 

The Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25) generated savings by eliminating Subsidized 

Stafford Loans for graduate and professional students and eliminating most repayment 

incentives for all borrowers—starting July 1, 2012. Savings helped cover a shortfall in the Pell 

Grant program. 

The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012, eliminated interest payments during the grace 

period for loans made in award years (AY) 2012-13 and 2013-14, and introduced a lender 

option to choose an alternative index—the 1-month London InterBank Offered Rate (LIBOR)—

for determining special allowance. 

The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) (P.L. 112-141), signed July 6, 

2012, extended the Subsidized Stafford interest rate of 3.4 percent for 1 year and limited the 

Subsidized Stafford in-school interest subsidy to 150 percent of normal program length.

The Bipartisan Student Loan Certainty Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-28) tied student loan interest rates 

to the high-yield 10-year Treasury note plus a basis point add-on per loan type and a cap.

The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-67) reduced guaranty agency maximum collection 

fees from 18.5 to 16 percent and the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016, increased the 

reimbursement percentage paid to guaranty agencies by the Department of Education from 

95 percent to 100 percent and extended Account Maintenance Fees paid to guaranty agencies.

Program Description

The Federal student loan programs provide students and their families with the funds to help 

meet postsecondary education costs. Student loans also help address a major Administration 

strategic goal of ensuring the affordability, accessibility, and completion of higher education, as 

students prepare for employment and lifelong learning. Because funding for the loan programs 

is provided through permanent and indefinite budget authority, student loans are considered 

separately for budget purposes from other Federal student financial assistance programs, but 

should be viewed as part of the overall Federal effort to expand access to higher education. 

The Direct Loan program, created by the Higher Education Amendments of 1992 as a pilot 

program and then expanded by the Student Loan Reform Act of 1993, has operated since 

July 1, 1994. Under this program, the Federal Government provides the loan capital. 

Postsecondary institutions disburse loans, but loan servicing is handled by the Department 

through private sector contractors. New loan volume typically reflects new borrower demand. 

In fiscal year 2017, new Direct Loan volume is estimated at $102 billion and Consolidation 

Loans (which include older loans) are estimated at $48 billion, for a total of $150 billion, about 

80 percent of all postsecondary aid available from the Department.

As provided by SAFRA, the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program ceased making 

new loans as of July 2010, and, as of that date, the Direct Loan (DL) program has originated all 

new Federal loans. Federal student loans were first disbursed in the FFEL program in 1965. 

Q-3
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Because lenders continue to service approximately $253 billion dollars in outstanding FFEL 

loans, the following description includes FFEL information.

Four types of loans are available under the DL program: Subsidized Stafford, Unsubsidized 

Stafford (Unsub.), PLUS, and Consolidation. Loans can be used only for qualified educational 

expenses. Subsidized Stafford Loans are available to undergraduate students from low- and 

moderate-income families and are awarded based on family income reported on the Free 

Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). Unsubsidized Stafford, PLUS, and Consolidation 

Loans are available to borrowers at all income levels. PLUS Loans are available to parents of 

dependent undergraduate students and to graduate and professional students. Consolidation 

Loans allow borrowers to combine all Title IV of the Higher Education Act loans—including

FFEL, Direct Loans, and Perkins Loans, as well as some loans made under the Public Health 

Service Act—into one loan, eliminating multiple monthly payments. 

Direct Loan borrowers are charged an origination fee. Subsidized Stafford and Unsubsidized 

Stafford Loan borrowers pay an origination fee equal to 1 percent of principal. PLUS borrowers 

pay a 4 percent origination fee. Under sequestration, borrower origination fees for Subsidized 

Stafford, Unsubsidized Stafford, and PLUS Loans have been increased. In fiscal year 2014, 

Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford fees were increased to 1.072 percent and PLUS 

origination fees increased to 4.288 percent. In fiscal year 2015, Stafford loan fees increased to

1.073 percent and PLUS loan fees increased to 4.292 percent. Under sequestration, for fiscal 

year 2016, Stafford loan fees are 1.068 percent and PLUS loan fees are 4.272 percent. 

In the FFEL program, private lenders provided loan capital, backed by a Federal guarantee on 

the loans. The Federal Government also sometimes provided interest subsidies to lenders and 

reimbursement to guaranty agencies for most costs associated with loan defaults and other 

write-offs. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016, increased the guaranty agencies’ 

maximum reinsurance percentage on default claims from 95 percent to 100 percent. State and 

private nonprofit guaranty agencies provided services that included insurance payments to 

lenders for defaults, collection of some defaulted loans, default avoidance activities, and 

counseling to schools, students, and lenders. 

In fiscal year 2016, there are 29 guaranty agencies. The Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 

eliminated the amount that guaranty agencies could keep from defaulted loan recoveries and 

reduced the maximum amount they can charge a borrower on a rehabilitated loan (a defaulted 

loan that has returned to performing status) from 18.5 to 16 percent. Guaranty agencies also 

are required to send any rehabilitated loans to the Department if they cannot find a private 

lender buyer.

Under the FFEL program, since January 1, 2000, FFEL lenders may receive a special 

allowance, a type of interest subsidy based on a formula set in law and paid by the Government 

to ensure a specified yield, or rate of return, on those loans. Special allowance payments vary 

by loan type, are determined quarterly, and are based on current borrower interest rates and 

market-yield formulas. 

Special allowance is paid by the Government to lenders on a quarterly basis when the 

guaranteed lender yield exceeds the interest rate paid by a student loan borrower. The 

Q-4
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

guaranteed lender yield is based on the average of bond equivalent rates for 3-month 

commercial paper during a quarter, plus a factor for loans in repayment, and a factor during inschool, grace, or deferment periods. The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2012 gave loan 

holders an option to make a one-time switch from the commercial paper rate to the 1-month 

London InterBank Offered Rate (LIBOR) index for determining special allowance, starting 

April 1, 2012. 

Under current law, FFEL lenders receive the higher of the borrower interest rate or the 

guaranteed lender yield. If the borrower rate is lower than the guaranteed lender yield, the 

Government pays lenders a “special allowance.” Under HERA, for new loans made on or after 

April 1, 2006, when the borrower rate is higher than the guaranteed lender yield, lenders are 

required to rebate the difference to the Government. For outstanding FFEL loans serviced by 

FFEL lenders, the guarantee percentage paid by guaranty agencies to lenders on most defaults 

(for those loans disbursed as of July 1, 2006) is 97 percent of unpaid loan principal (including 

any accrued interest on the full loan principal). 

Interest Rates and Terms—By Type of Loan

Since 1965, interest rates on Federal student loans have been set in statute. For many years, 

the statute set the terms at fixed or variable rates reset annually. Starting July 1, 2006, the rate 

on Federal loans was set in statute with the borrower interest rate on all Subsidized and 

Unsubsidized Stafford loans fixed at 6.8 percent while the borrower interest rate on Direct PLUS 

loans was fixed at 7.9 percent. 

The College Cost Reduction and Access Act (CCRAA) of 2007 included an annual phased 

interest rate reduction for all new undergraduate Subsidized Stafford loans, with fixed interest 

rates dropping from 6.8 percent to 6 percent on July 1, 2008, until reaching 3.4 percent on 

July 1, 2011. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) (P.L. 112-141),

signed July 6, 2012, extended the Subsidized Stafford interest rate of 3.4 percent for 1 year.

The Bipartisan Student Loan Certainty Act of 2013, signed on August 9, 2013, established a 

market-based system tying student loan interest rates to the high-yield 10-year Treasury bill 

plus a statutorily-set basis point add-on up to a statutory cap. Interest rates for each loan type 

are set annually before the award year begins on July 1 but are fixed for the life of the loan, 

similar to fixed-rate home mortgages. The 10-year Treasury rate is determined each year at the 

Treasury bill auction held prior to June 1. The rates for AY 2016-2017 will be set in June 2016.

Q-5
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Summaries of each loan type follow: 

• Subsidized Stafford (Stafford) Loans are low-interest, fixed-rate loans for undergraduates 

based on financial need, and have loan limits.1 The interest rate is set annually, remains 

fixed for the life of the loan, and is capped at 8.25 percent. The Government also pays the 

interest while the student is in school or deferment.2

 Subsidized Stafford loans disbursed 

between July 1, 2015 and June 30, 2016, will have an interest rate of 4.29 percent, based 

on the 10-year Treasury rate of 2.24 percent plus a statutory add-on of 2.05 percent. 

• Unsubsidized Stafford Loans are low-interest, fixed-rate loans available to student 

borrowers, regardless of financial need, and have loan limits. Interest accrues while the 

borrower is in school. Borrowers may defer payment of interest while in school and have it 

capitalized upon entering repayment. New Unsubsidized Stafford Loans to undergraduates 

have the same rate and cap as Subsidized Stafford Loans. However, the interest rate for 

graduate students has an add-on of 3.60 percent and a 9.5 percent cap. For AY 2015-2016, 

the rate is 5.84 percent based on the 3.60 add-on and 10-year Treasury note of 

2.24 percent. 

• PLUS Loans are available to parents of dependent undergraduate students and to graduate 

and professional degree students. There is no annual or aggregate limit on the amount that 

can be borrowed other than the cost of attendance minus other student financial aid. 

Generally, PLUS Loan applicants must not have an adverse credit history. The Government 

does not pay interest accruing on PLUS Loans. The PLUS Loan interest rate for new loans 

issued between July 1, 2015 and June 30, 2016, is 6.84 percent based on the 10-year 

Treasury note of 2.24 percent and an add-on of 4.60 percent. The PLUS rate cap is 

10.5 percent. 

• Consolidation Loans allow borrowers with existing Federal loans to combine their loans and 

possibly extend their repayment schedules based on their total student loan debt 

outstanding. The interest rate for Consolidation Loans is equal to the weighted average of 

the interest rates on the loans consolidated rounded to the nearest higher one-eighth of 

1 percent, which is then fixed for the life of the loan. The Bipartisan Student Loan Certainty 

Act of 2013 eliminated the cap of 8.25 percent. 

____________________

 1 The Budget Control Act of 2011, eliminated graduate and professional student eligibility for these loans, effective 

July 1, 2012. 2 Normally, interest does not accrue during the 6-month grace period—when the loan first enters repayment. 

However, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2012, eliminated this grace period benefit in 2 academic years, 

2012-2013 and 2013-2014.

Q-6
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Borrower Interest Rates By Academic Year and Program Component

Type of Loan Loans made on or 

after Oct. 1, 19981

Loans made on or 

after July 1, 20062

Loans made on or 

after July 1, 20133

Stafford and 

Unsubsidized 

Stafford 

91-day Treasury bill 

rate +1.7%, during inschool, grace, or 

deferment periods, but 

T-bill +2.3% during 

repayment; not to 

exceed 8.25%.

Both types: 6.8%; only 

Stafford loans reduced:

6.0%--2008-2009

5.6%--2009-2010

4.5%--2010-2011

3.4%--2011-2012

3.4%--2012-2013

Undergrads: [Sub and 

Unsub] 10-yr. Treasury 

note + 2.05%, w/cap of 

8.25%;

Grads: [Unsub] 10-yr 

Treasury note + 3.6%; 

w/cap of 9.5% 

PLUS 91-day Treasury bill 

rate +3.1%, not to 

exceed 9%.

Fixed rate of 7.9% for 

Direct PLUS;

increased to 8.5% 

under HERA for FFEL 

PLUS.

Grad and parent: 10-yr 

Treasury note + 4.6%, 

w/cap of 10.5%.

FFEL 

Consolidation 

Loans4

Weighted average of 

the interest rates on the 

loans consolidated, 

rounded up to the 

nearest one-eighth of 

1 percent, not to exceed 

8.25%.

Weighted average of 

the interest rates on the 

loans consolidated, 

rounded up to the 

nearest one-eighth of 

1 percent, not to 

exceed 8.25%.

N/A 

Direct 

Consolidation 

Loans-- 

Stafford and 

Unsubsidized 

Stafford

91-day T-bill rate 

+2.3%, not to exceed 

8.25% for applications 

received 10-1-98 

through 1-31-99; 

weighted average

basis, as above, 

thereafter

Weighted average

basis, as above.

Weighted average of 

the interest rates on the 

loans consolidated, 

rounded to the nearest 

higher one-eighth of 

1 percent.

Direct PLUS 

Consolidation

Same as Direct 

Consolidation Loans for 

Stafford and 

Unsubsidized Stafford.

Same as Direct 

Consolidation Loans for 

Stafford and 

Unsubsidized Stafford.

Same as Direct 

Consolidation Loans for 

Stafford and 

Unsubsidized Stafford.

 1 The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century lowered interest rates for new Stafford, Unsubsidized Stafford, 

and PLUS loans made on or after July 1, 1998, and before October 1, 1998. These rates were extended under the 

HEA of 1998 to July 1, 2003, and further extended to July 1, 2006, through P.L 107-139. 2 Interest rates from CCRAA of 2007 (P.L. 110-84). 3 Interest rates from the Bipartisan Student Loan Certainty Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-28). 4 The Emergency Student Loan Consolidation Act of 1997, which was included in the Department’s fiscal year

1998 appropriations act, temporarily changed a number of laws affecting Consolidation Loans. Under this Act, which 

expired September 30, 1998, the interest rate for FFEL Consolidation Loans made on or after November 13, 1997, 

was based on the Treasury bill--91 Day T-bill + 3.1 percent, not the weighted average of the interest rates on the 

loans consolidated. SAFRA eliminated new FFEL Loans as of July 1, 2010.

Q-7
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Student Loan Program Maximums

(Whole dollars)

STUDENT STATUS STAFFORD 

(Subsidized)

TOTAL (Stafford & 

Unsubsidized Stafford)

DEPENDENT 

UNDERGRADUATES

Annual Limits Annual Limits

Dependent U ndergraduates:First-Year Student $3,500 $5,5001

Dependent U ndergraduatesSecond-Year Student $4,500 $6,5001

Dependent U ndergraduatesThird-Year+ Student $5,500 $7,5001

INDEPENDENT 

UNDERGRADUATES 2,3 Stafford Total (Stafford & 

Unsubsidized Stafford)

Independent Undergraduates : First-Year Student $3,500 $9,5001

Independent Undergraduates : Second-Year Student $4,500 $10,5001

Independent Undergraduates : Third-Year+ Student $5,500 $12,5001

GRADUATE STUDENTS 4 0 $20,500 

STUDENT STATUS Aggregate Limits Aggregate Limits

DEPENDENT 

UNDERGRADUATES

$23,000 $31,0001

INDEPENDENT 

UNDERGRADUATES 2,3

$23,000 $57,5001

GRADUATE STUDENTS 4 $23,000 $138,500 

 1 ECASLA of 2008 increased Unsubsidized Stafford amounts by $2,000 annually for loans first disbursed on or after 

July 1, 2008. Aggregate amounts for dependent undergraduates increased by $8,000 and for independent 

undergraduates by $11,500. Graduate student levels did not change.

 2 Also includes dependent undergraduates whose parents are unable to borrow under the PLUS program. 3

 Students who qualify for only a portion of the maximum Stafford Loan limit may borrow up to the remaining loan 

amount under the Unsubsidized Stafford Loan program, with the total amount borrowed limited to cost of attendance 

minus other aid. For example, a dependent first-year student who qualifies for a $2,000 Stafford Loan would be 

eligible for an additional $3,500 in Unsubsidized Stafford up to the total of $5,500. For students borrowing under both 

programs, the loan limits displayed above in the Total (Stafford and Unsubsidized Stafford) column apply.

 For independent undergraduate students (or dependent undergraduate students whose parents cannot borrow 

under the PLUS program) and for graduate students, the maximum limit during any academic year is: the combined 

Stafford and Unsubsidized Stafford Loan limit shown under the column entitled, "Total (Stafford and Unsubsidized 

Stafford)." For example, a second-year independent student could borrow up to $4,500 in Stafford Loans and up to 

an additional $6,000 in Unsub. Loans for a total of $10,500. Under HERA, qualified graduate and professional 

students are eligible to borrow PLUS loans, where the only limit is the cost of attendance minus other student aid. 4 As of July 1, 2012, graduate and professional students are not eligible for Stafford Loans. Total Stafford 

Aggregate Limit of $23,000 reflects the maximum undergraduate amount, which is included in the graduate level 

cumulative limit. The aggregate loan limit for graduate students is regulated by the Department.

Q-8
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Loan repayment plans: Borrowers may choose from four basic types of repayment plans: 

standard, graduated, extended, and income-driven. The maximum repayment period is 10 

years for standard and graduated plans, as well as the income-sensitive repayment plan that is 

available only for FFEL loans. Under the administrative Pay As You Earn (PAYE), Revised Pay 

As You Earn (REPAYE) for undergraduate borrowers, and statutory Income-Based-Repayment 

(IBR) plans, the repayment period is 20 years. And, under the extended, REPAYE for graduate 

borrowers, income-based, and income-contingent repayment (ICR) plans, the maximum time is 

25 years. The extended plan of up to 25 years is available for qualified borrowers who have 

outstanding loans totaling more than $30,000.

Income-driven plans (except REPAYE and ICR) require partial financial hardship in order to 

qualify for reduced payments—equal to 10 or 15 percent of the borrower’s annual discretionary 

income. After the end of the repayment term of an income-driven plan, qualified borrowers may 

have any remaining balance forgiven. The IBR and PAYE plans lower monthly payments, but

may increase the length of loan repayment, and therefore, the loans accrue more interest over 

the life of the loans. The REPAYE plan provides a new interest subsidy benefit to prevent 

ballooning loan balances for those whose payments cannot keep up with accruing interest. 

FFEL borrowers may change repayment plans once per year and Direct Loan borrowers may 

switch between repayment plans at any time. In general, student loans may be discharged 

when borrowers die, are totally and permanently disabled, under limited hardship 

circumstances, declare bankruptcy or when their schools close. These discharges may or may 

not be taxable, but the 2017 Budget proposes to make all discharges exempt from taxation.

CCRAA of 2007 established the IBR plan, which capped monthly loan repayments based on 

borrowers’ income and family size. Most Stafford, Grad PLUS, and Consolidation Loans made 

under the DL or FFEL programs are eligible. Non-Federal loans, loans now in default, Parent 

PLUS Loans, and Consolidation Loans used to repay Parent PLUS Loans are not eligible. 

This IBR plan sets monthly amounts at 15 percent of a borrower’s discretionary income, capped 

at the 10-year standard repayment plan amount, and any outstanding balances remaining after 

25 years of IBR repayments are forgiven. 

The SAFRA Act of 2010 created a second IBR plan which reduced monthly payments for future 

borrowers starting July 1, 2014, from 15 percent of a borrower’s discretionary income to 

10 percent, and reduced the maximum period for a borrower to receive loan forgiveness from 

25 years to 20 years. In October 2011, the Administration accelerated these benefits for 

qualified borrowers who were new borrowers as of October 1, 2007, and had received a Direct 

Loan disbursement on or after October 1, 2011. This PAYE plan became available for eligible 

borrowers on December 21, 2012. In December 2015, the Administration began offering the

modified REPAYE plan, which resembles PAYE, to all qualified student borrowers regardless of 

when they borrowed. However, the Administration continues to seek to work with Congress to 

create a single, simple, and better targeted income-driven repayment program. Proposed 

reforms to income-driven repayment appear as part of the 2017 Budget Proposal. 

Loan forgiveness: Under both FFEL and Direct Loan programs, new borrowers after October 1, 

1998, who are employed as teachers in schools serving low-income populations for 

5 consecutive, complete school years, qualify for up to $5,000 in loan forgiveness; this benefit is

Q-9
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

increased to $17,500 for mathematics, science, and special education teachers considered 

highly qualified under criteria established in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The 2017 

Budget proposes to change some aspects of the teacher loan forgiveness program by 

increasing the potential forgiveness levels, and pro-rating the amount of forgiveness for each 

year of teaching. Further details are included in the 2017 Budget Proposal narrative.

In addition, the CCRAA provided a public-service loan forgiveness program for nonprofit and 

public-sector employees. Eligible borrowers who make 120 qualifying payments under the 10-

year standard repayment, or any Direct Loan income-driven repayment plan on their student 

loan debt, will have any remaining loan balance forgiven. This benefit is only available in the 

Direct Loan program, though FFEL borrowers may access the benefit by taking out a Direct 

Consolidation Loan. 

Outstanding Loan Levels—September 2015: Based on the schedules published in the 2017 

Budget Appendix, at the end of fiscal year 2015, outstanding FFEL and Direct Loans totaled 

approximately $1,136 billion: 1) $801 billion in DL; 2) $253 billion in FFEL; 3) $5 billion in FFEL 

Liquidating Account loans (loans prior to 1992); and 4) $77 billion in the Ensuring Continued 

Access to Student Loans (ECASLA of 2008) Department-held loans. 

Credit Reform Estimates

Student loan program costs are estimated consistent with the terms of the Federal Credit 

Reform Act (FCRA) of 1990. Under the Act, future costs and revenues associated with a loan 

are estimated for the life of the loan and discounted back to the date of disbursement using 

Treasury interest rates. 

Federal loan programs are often compared using subsidy rates, which represent the Federal 

cost as a percentage of loan originations. Generally, subsidy costs may reflect a combination of 

positive and negative subsidy by loan type with the relative weightings by loan type and other 

accounting rules determining the overall net positive or negative subsidy. A negative subsidy 

occurs when the present value of cash inflows to the Government is estimated to exceed the 

present value of cash outflows. Under Federal Credit Reform Act rules, costs such as defaults 

and in-school interest benefits are embedded within the program subsidy, while Federal 

administration costs are treated on a cash basis and are not included in the subsidy rate.

Both FFEL and Direct Loans programs are funded by mandatory and indefinite budget authority 

and, therefore, do not receive annual discretionary appropriations. Both programs also incur 

various administrative expenses that are funded by the discretionary Student Aid Administration 

(SAA) account. In fiscal year 2017, the Administration requests $1.6 billion in SAA funding to 

administer all Title IV Federal student aid programs. This includes $732.4 million for student aid 

administration, and almost $900 million for loan servicing activities. The 2017 SAA budget is 

discussed in the Student Aid Administration account. 

A subsidy rate is the Federal portion of non-administrative costs—principally interest subsidies 

and defaults—associated with each dollar disbursed. The subsidy rate reflects the estimated 

unit cost per loan, over the life of the loan, to the Federal Government. For example, a $1,000 

loan with Federal subsidy costs of $100 would have a subsidy rate of 10 percent. If loan 

Q-10
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

subsidy costs were negative, such as -$100, the loan would have a negative subsidy rate of -10 

percent, indicating that the Federal Government was earning 10 percent on each dollar of loans 

made instead of incurring a cost. Program changes, economic conditions, and borrower 

repayment patterns can affect subsidy estimates and reestimates.

Annual variations in the subsidy rate are largely due to the relationship between the OMBprovided discount rate that approximates the Government’s borrowing rate, the interest rate at 

which borrowers repay their loans, as well as technical assumptions for defaults, repayment 

patterns, and other borrower characteristics. The loan subsidy estimates are particularly 

sensitive to fluctuations in the discount rate. Even small shifts in economic projections may 

produce substantial changes in the subsidy rate.

In an effort to more accurately reflect interest rate variability of future estimates, given the 

asymmetric uncertainty (i.e., “one-sided bets”) inherent in the FFEL and Direct Loan programs, 

the Department implemented in 2006 probabilistic scoring for the FFEL and Direct Loan 

programs. The Congressional Budget Office uses a similar methodology to estimate costs for 

one-sided bets. Previously, estimates were developed using point estimates of future interest 

rates. The updated method factors in the probability that a range of interest rate scenarios may 

occur and differ from current economic projections about future interest rates.

Costs related to pre-1992 loans in the FFEL Liquidating account and most Federal 

administrative costs are statutorily excluded from credit reform calculations. For FFEL, key 

credit reform costs include reimbursements for in-school interest benefits and special allowance 

payments to lenders, and default reinsurance payments to guaranty agencies. These costs can 

be partially or more than completely offset by various fees, negative special allowance 

payments—referred to as rebates—and collections on defaulted loans. 

In the DL program, cash transactions consist of Federal Government loan disbursements to 

borrowers, payments of origination and other fees by borrowers, default collection costs, default 

recoveries, and borrower loan repayments. 

In fiscal years 2015 and 2016, the Direct Loan program has an estimated net total negative 

subsidy—due in part to lower borrowing costs paid by the Federal Government compared to the 

rates charged to borrowers. For Direct Loans, the overall weighted average negative subsidy 

rate for new and Consolidation Loans was estimated to be -3.09 percent in fiscal year 2015 and 

-5.32 percent in fiscal year 2016. Thus, in fiscal year 2015, the program is projected to earn 

3.09 percent on each dollar of loans made, thereby providing net revenue to the Government. 

However, subsidy rates vary significantly by loan types and loan volume of loan types also 

affect the overall subsidy rate. For example, Subsidized Stafford (9.98 percent) and 

Consolidation Loans (2.61 percent) have positive subsidy rates and represent a cost to the 

Government, whereas Unsubsidized Stafford undergraduate (-3.13 percent) and graduate loans

(-9.51 percent) and PLUS undergraduate (-30.26 percent) and graduate loans (-13.31 percent) 

have negative subsidy rates, reflecting a savings to the Government. 

Q-11
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Reestimates of Subsidy Costs

Under credit reform rules, the Department annually reestimates the cost of outstanding loans 

since fiscal year 1992 by cohort to reflect updated modeling assumptions, the President’s 

Budget economic assumptions, statutory and regulatory changes, and loan performance. 

For the $801 billion in Direct Loans outstanding at the end of 2015, the 2017 Budget calculates 

that net future Federal costs of all outstanding loans is higher than projected in the 2016 

President’s Budget, and is shown as the 2016 reestimate. The 2016 total net upward 

reestimate of +$7.7 billion reflects an upward component of about +$9.9 billion and a downward 

component of -$2.2 billion. The net upward reestimate is due primarily to updated interest rate 

assumptions and changes to the income-driven repayment model and plans. 

Similarly, the total change in costs for all outstanding FFEL loans at the end of fiscal year 

2015—starting with guaranteed loans made as of October 1, 1992—is the 2016 reestimate. 

The 2016 FFEL guaranteed loan reestimate reflects an upward component of +$81 million and 

a downward component of -$2.4 billion, for a total net downward reestimate of -$2.28 billion. 

Thus, the estimated Federal cost of prior FFEL loans (1992-2015) is lower by about $2.3 billion

than previously projected.

The ECASLA programs show a net upward reestimate of +$1.05 billion, which when combined 

with the FFEL net downward guaranteed portion, produces an overall net downward FFEL 

reestimate of -$1.23 billion in fiscal year 2016. The net downward FFEL reestimate in the 

2017 Budget is due primarily to updated deferment assumptions. 

Total net FFEL and Direct Loan subsidy costs for the past 5 fiscal years were:

(dollars in thousands)

Fiscal Year FFEL Direct Loans

2012 -$15,011,166 -$21,534,522

2013 -6,843,641 -38,184,480

2014 -5,676,042 -15,715,097

2015 -3,293,567 17,303,195

2016 -1,074,690 -671,627

 NOTE: Subsidy costs include net reestimates (combined upward and downward) of prior cohorts and net 

modifications, which may produce significant annual fluctuations, such as in fiscal year 2015 when Direct Loans 

expanded an income-based repayment plan to all borrowers. FFEL totals also reflect ECASLA programs. 

Corresponding fiscal year loan volume totals, excluding Consolidation Loans, are shown on page Q-18.

Q-12
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

FY 2017 BUDGET PROPOSAL

The 2017 Budget proposes to streamline income-driven repayment to ensure that program 

benefits are targeted to the neediest borrowers and to safeguard the program for the future by 

protecting against institutional practices that may further increase student indebtedness. The 

2017 Budget also proposes reforming the teacher loan forgiveness program and modernizing 

and expanding the Perkins Loan program. 

Student Loan Reform Proposals

Reform and Streamline Repayment Plan Options

Since President Obama took office, the Administration has improved and expanded the 

protections of income-driven repayment through both legislative changes and administrative 

actions. Today, all existing Direct Loan student borrowers can limit the amount of their loan 

payments to 10 percent of their income, and those payments are limited to 20 years (25 years 

for some graduate borrowers). 

In addition, the Office of Federal Student Aid has conducted, and continues to implement 

significant outreach efforts to inform student loan borrowers of their repayment options, 

including the protections of Pay As You Earn (PAYE) and related income-driven repayment 

plans. This effort has paid off – participation in income-driven repayment plans has more than 

doubled over the past 2 years.

Despite these efforts, choosing and enrolling in the right repayment plan is complicated by the 

numerous repayment plans authorized and required by law to be offered to borrowers. Thus, 

the Administration continues to seek to work with Congress to create a single, simple, and 

better targeted income-driven repayment plan.

The 2017 Budget would reform and streamline PAYE and related repayment plans to 

ensure that program benefits are better targeted and safeguard the program for the future 

by protecting against institutional practices that may further increase student 

indebtedness. The proposal would create a single PAYE plan for loans originated on or after 

July 1, 2017, similar to the Revised PAYE (REPAYE) plan. However, students who borrowed 

their first loans prior to July 1, 2017, would continue to be able to select among the existing 

repayment plans for loans borrowed to fund their current course of study. The single PAYE plan 

will simplify borrowers’ experience and allow for easier selection of a repayment plan, while 

reducing program complexity and targeting benefits to ensure program effectiveness. 

A single PAYE plan would:

• Calculate loan payments at 10 percent of discretionary income, and eliminate the standard 

repayment cap, requiring high-income, high-balance borrowers to pay an equitable share of 

their earnings as their incomes rise;

Q-13
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

• Forgive the remaining loan balance after 20 years of qualifying payments for borrowers with 

only undergraduate debt, and after 25 years for borrowers with graduate debt, to ensure that 

high-debt graduate borrowers, who may have higher incomes later in the repayment period, 

are more likely to repay their debt;

• Calculate payments for married borrowers filing separately on the combined household 

Adjusted Gross Income to ensure that married couples’ payments are based on their true 

ability to pay;

• Cap the amount of interest that can accrue when a borrower’s monthly payment is 

insufficient to cover the interest to avoid ballooning loan balances; 

• Cap Public Sector Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) at $57,500 to protect against institutional 

practices that may further increase student indebtedness, while ensuring the program 

provides generous relief for students committed to public service; and

• Prevent payments made under non-income driven repayment plans from being applied 

toward PSLF to ensure that loan forgiveness is targeted to students with the greatest need.

Strengthen and Streamline Teacher Loan Forgiveness 

The Administration is committed to ensuring that all students, especially those in high-needs 

schools, have access to effective teachers. To meet this commitment, we must attract more 

talented people into the teaching profession, and reward them for the hard, daily work of 

improving student learning outcomes in our lowest-performing schools. 

The Budget proposes to expand and increase teacher loan forgiveness starting in 2021. This 

proposal would simplify existing postsecondary assistance available to teachers, such as 

TEACH grants and the current teacher loan forgiveness program, by consolidating them into a 

single, more generous loan forgiveness program, incentivizing more individuals to teach in our 

neediest schools and encouraging them to stay on the job. 

Current programs have either entirely back-loaded benefits (teachers are eligible for a lump sum 

forgiveness after 5 years of teaching) or entirely front-loaded (grants that may convert to loans if 

students fail to fulfill a 4-year teaching requirement) and have proved insufficient to incentivize 

individuals to join and remain in the teaching profession. 

The new program would reward teachers in high-need schools with forgiveness up to $10,000, 

while those who graduated from effective teacher preparation programs, as determined by 

States, would be eligible to receive up to $25,000. This new program would also reward job 

retention by forgiving increasing shares of student loan balances, awarded at 10 percent per 

year for teachers starting years 2-3, 20 percent for starting years 4-5, and 40 percent for starting 

year 6.

Perkins Loan Program Modernization and Expansion

The Budget proposes to modernize and expand the Perkins Loan program into a new 

Unsubsidized Perkins Loan program which would provide $8.5 billion in loans annually, 

allocating lending authority among institutions on the basis of the extent to which institutions 

enroll and graduate higher numbers of Pell-eligible students, and offer affordable and quality 

education such that graduates can repay their educational debt. This new program would 

Q-14
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

replace the current program, which was recently reauthorized through the end of September 

2017, and would be in effect for the 2017-18 school year. When fully implemented, the new 

Perkins loan program would provide eight and a half times the current Perkins loan 

volume and expand institutional participation by up to an additional 2,900 postsecondary 

institutions.

The Department would administer the new Perkins Loan program as a direct loan program;

however, institutions would continue to have discretion over awarding aid to students. 

Modernizing and expanding the program would give more students increased access to Federal

student loans that carry important protections and benefits, including income-based repayment 

plans and loan forgiveness options.

Q-15
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

FY 2017 Estimated New Direct Loan Volume

New loan dollar volume has increased significantly since 1992, especially from 2007 to 2011, as 

the financial crisis drove many non-traditional students to seek higher education. However, 

from 2011 to 2015, as the economy recovered, volume declined. In keeping with the long-term 

trend in student loans, the budget estimates modest increases in loan volume in 2016 and 

slightly higher increases in future years. Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loans are about

80 percent of new Direct Loan volume, with PLUS loans approximately 20 percent. The 

following table shows actual and estimated new DL program loan volume for Subsidized and 

Unsubsidized Stafford loans and PLUS loans, excluding Consolidation Loans, for fiscal years 

2012-2017.

New Student Loan Volume (Non-Consolidation)

Program Volume FY 2012 FY 2013 FY 2014 FY 2015 FY 2016 FY 2017

New Loan Volume

($ in millions) $104,612 $101,729 $99,187 $95,205 $96,918 $101,636

Number of Loans 

(thousands) 21,958 20,319 19,242 17,910 17,678 18,175

NOTES: Loan volume and number of loans reflect net commitments.

Figures for fiscal years 2015-2017 are estimates.

Many factors such as college costs, legislative changes, eligibility changes, State aid, Federal 

aid, economic conditions, and enrollment demographics affect new loan demand. Historical 

loan volume data and current projections are shown below. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

'92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02 '04 '06 '08 '10 '12 '14 '16

$ (Billions)

Fiscal Year

 New Student Loan Volume (Non-Consolidation)

Q-16
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

FY 2017 Estimated Consolidation Loan Volume

Direct Loan Consolidations grew substantially, from about $35 billion in fiscal year 2014 to 

$46 billion in fiscal year 2015, and are expected to remain steady at about $48 billion through 

fiscal year 2017. Although no definitive explanation is currently available for the surge in 2015,

the increase may be due to increased marketing and outreach on the part of additional 

Consolidation Loan servicers brought under contract in July 2014. Additionally, increased 

borrowing in fiscal years 2009-2011 and higher loan balances of borrowers could all be 

contributing to the increase.

A much smaller increase occurred in 2012 due to a special incentive payment, when borrowers 

in repayment who had both a FFEL and a Direct Loan were offered an additional 0.25 percent 

interest rate reduction incentive to consolidate their loans under this special program (JanuaryJune 2012). Repayment incentives also included the regular 0.25 percent interest rate 

reduction for electronic payment.

The Role of Student Loans

A major goal of the Federal student aid programs is to assist families in meeting college costs. 

Federal student loans play a key role along with Federal grants, Federal Work-Study funds, and 

Federal education tax credits. 

The following chart shows that overall, Federal student loans are the largest component of the 

Federal postsecondary aid system. Data show new Federal student loans (not including 

Consolidation Loans) accounted for about 60 percent of academic year 2014-2015 Federal 

student aid.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

'93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12 '13 '14 '15 '16 '17

Volume: $ Billions

Fiscal Year

Consolidation Loan Volume

FFEL Direct Loans

Q-17
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

These data are based on Table 1 in the “College Board Trends in Student Aid 2015” (Student 

Aid Trends) online report, http://trends.collegeboard.org/student-aid.

Federal Postsecondary Assistance: Academic Year 2013-2014

According to this report, approximately $249 billion in total funds from Federal, State, 

institutional, and private sources were used to help finance postsecondary expenses for 

AY 2014-2015. The Federal Government provided about 68 percent of all these funds, while 

State, institutional, and private sources (i.e., non-Federal) provided about 32 percent. 

Private sector loans, most often available through commercial banks, increased from 

$16.4 billion (using constant 2014 dollars) in AY 2004-2005 to a peak of $24.1 billion in 

AY 2007-08, but have declined to about $9 billion in AY 2014-15. Private sector loans 

accounted for about 10 percent of all postsecondary aid in 2004-05, but just 3.6 percent in 

AY 2014-15. Meanwhile, Federal loans accounted for approximately 40 percent of all 

postsecondary student aid during these time periods.

Postsecondary Cost, Borrowing, and Enrollment by Institutional Sector

The 2015 “College Board Trends in College Pricing” report shows that the average total cost of 

attendance, including tuition and fees and room and board (in current dollars), at a public 4-year

college increased by 61 percent from $12,115 in 2005-06, to $19,548 in 2014-15 (see Table 2, 

http://trends.collegeboard.org/college-pricing). Over the same 10-year period, the average total 

cost at a private 4-year college increased by 53 percent, from $28,743 to $43,921. 

The “College Board Trends In College Pricing” report also shows (Table 2) that in constant 2015

dollars, after adjusting for inflation, during this same 10-year period, public 4-year college costs 

increased 32 percent from $14,797 to $19,548 while private 4-year college costs increased 

25 percent from $35,106 to $43,921. Historically, increases in public 4-year college costs are 

often tied to State budget reductions to higher education funding.

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) data reveal a noticeable increase in the 

demand for student loans. In the 1996 NPSAS, 25 percent of all undergraduates borrowed a 

Federal student 

loans

60%

Federal grants 

and work-study

29%

Federal 

education tax 

credits

11%

Q-18
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Subsidized or an Unsubsidized Stafford Loan, or both. This measure grew to 33 percent in the 

2004 NPSAS, 34.5 percent in the 2008 NPSAS, and 40.1 percent in the latest 2012 NPSAS.

Stafford Loan borrowing varies considerably by type of postsecondary school attended. Based 

on the 2012 NPSAS, less-than-2-year for-profit schools had the highest reported percentage of 

borrowers (74.5 percent), while 2-year public institutions, primarily community colleges, had the 

lowest (16.7 percent). 

NPSAS reports undergraduate Stafford (Subsidized or Unsubsidized) borrowing at 4-year

schools based on whether the universities grant doctoral or non-doctoral degrees. The 

percentage of undergraduates who borrowed a Stafford loan at 4-year public universities ranged 

from 37.4 percent for a non-doctoral degree-granting institution to 53.4 percent for a doctoral

degree granting institution. Private 4-year schools reported a range of 61.3 to 57.8 percent for 

the same categories.

Using undergraduate enrollment data from the Department’s Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS), the College Board’s 2015 “Trends in Student Aid” report

estimates student full-time equivalency (FTE) patterns. This provides perspective on which 

institutions undergraduates choose to attend. For the latest enrollment data (2013-14), the 

2015 report estimates about 40 percent of all undergraduate students were enrolled at 4-year 

public institutions, while 18 percent were enrolled at 4-year private nonprofit institutions. Some 

34 percent of all undergraduates were enrolled at 2-year public colleges and over 8 percent 

were enrolled at private for-profit schools.

2013-2014 Undergraduate Enrollment (Percent of FTE)

Public 4-Year

40%

Private Nonprofit 

4-Year

18%

For-Profit

8%

Public 2-Year

34%

Q-19
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

FFEL Liquidating Account

Per the Federal Credit Reform Act of 1990, the cost of FFEL student loan commitments made 

prior to fiscal year 1992 is appropriated annually under indefinite authority and shown in a 

Liquidating Account on a cash basis. This account does not issue any new loans, nor estimate 

loan-lifetime costs by cohort, and does not use a net present value calculation. The Liquidating 

Account pays for pre-1992 student loan activities, such as loan default payments, special 

allowance payments, and interest benefits. Consequently, as default and in-school interest

costs on these older loans decline over time and recoveries on defaulted loans continue to be 

collected, annual revenues—offsetting collections—will more than offset annual costs, resulting 

in negative program costs for which no new budget authority is needed. Based on the 2017

Budget, total net outlays are estimated to be -$291 million in fiscal year 2016 and -$259 million 

in fiscal year 2017, a net budget savings in each year. A portion of these collections is returned 

to the U.S. Treasury as a capital transfer each year. 

Federal Student Loan Reserve Fund

The Amendments to the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1998 clarified that reserve money held 

by public and non-profit guaranty agencies participating in the FFEL program are Federal 

property. These funds are used to pay default claims from FFEL lenders, as well as other 

claims related to death, disability, bankruptcy, and closed schools. This fund, the Reserve 

Fund, also pays fees to support successful guaranty agency efforts to avert defaults. Federal 

reimbursements for default claim payments are paid into these funds. The Consolidated 

Appropriations Act, 2016, increased the reimbursement percentage paid to guaranty agencies 

by the Department of Education from 95 percent to 100 percent.

The Reserve Fund ended fiscal year 2015 with an adjusted balance of about $1.6 billion. The 

Fund’s major revenues are reinsurance payments from the Federal Government and its major 

expenses are insurance payments to lenders. These and other cash flows are estimated to 

result in an ending balance in fiscal year 2016 of about $2 billion. 

Q-20
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

PROGRAM OUTPUT MEASURES

Direct Loans

2015 footnote2016 Footnote2017 footnote

Direct Stafford Loans:

Direct Stafford: Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $23,658 $23,162 $23,507

Direct Stafford Number of loans (in thousands) 7,297 7,068 7,157

Direct Stafford Average loan (whole $) $3,242 $3,277 $3,284

Direct Stafford Subsidy rate2 9.98% 5.64% 5.25%

Direct Unsubsidized Stafford Loans

(Undergraduate):

Direct U nsubsi dized:Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $24,986 $24,688 $25,853

Direct U nsubsi dized:Number of loans (in thousands) 7,293 7,169 7,425

Direct U nsubsi dized:Average loan (whole $) $3,426 $3,444 $3,482

Direct U nsubsi dized:Subsidy rate2 -3.13% -9.32% -11.12%

Direct Unsubsidized Stafford Loans

(Graduate):

Direct U nsubsi dized:Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $26,597 $27,769 $29,629

Direct U nsubsi dized:Number of loans (in thousands) 1,898 1,936 2,029

Direct U nsubsi dized:Average loan (whole $) $14,013 $14,343 $14,605

Direct U nsubsi dized:Subsidy rate2 -9.51% -22.35% -17.42%

Direct PLUS Loans (Undergraduate):

Direct U nsubsi dized:Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $11,372 $12,133 $12,812

Direct U nsubsi dized:Number of loans (in thousands) 900 958 990

Direct U nsubsi dized:Average loan (whole $) $12,631 $12,663 $12,937

Direct U nsubsi dized:Subsidy rate2 -30.26% -21.44% -35.34%

Direct PLUS Loans (Graduate): 

Direct PLU S: Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $8,591 $9,166 $9,834

Direct PLU S: Number of loans (in thousands) 522 546 574

Direct PLU S: Average loan (whole $) $16,461 $16,779 $17,125

Direct PLU S: Subsidy rate2 -13.31% -35.48% -20.74%

Direct Consolidation Loans:

Direct C onsoli dati on:Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $45,967 $48,841 $48,420

Direct C onsoli dati on:Number of loans (in thousands) 790 809 785

Direct C onsoli dati on:Average loan (whole $) $58,184 $60,360 $61,673

Direct C onsoli dati on:Subsidy rate2 2.61% 12.57% 13.45%

Total Direct Loans3:

Total Di: Loan volume ($ in millions)

1 $141,171 $145,758 $150,056

Total Dire ct Number of loans (in thousands) 18,701 18,487 18,961

Total Dir ectAverage loan (whole $) $7,549 $7,884 $7,914

Subsidy Cost:

Total DirectNew loan subsidy cost ($ in millions)

4 -$4,333 -$8,365 -$8,292

Total D irect Subsidy Net Reestimate ($ in millions)

4 12,329 7,693 0

Total Direct Net Modification ($ in millions)

4 9,307 0 0

Q-21
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

 DL Total Net Subsidy ($ in millions) 17,303 -672 -8,292

Total Direct Average Weighted Subsidy rate2 -2.25% -6.71% -6.69%

Outstanding Loan Volume ($ in billions): 2015 2016 2017

 Total Direct Loans Outstanding5 $801 $899 $992

 

 1 Net commitments (disbursements) that are less than amounts committed (e.g., due to loan cancellations). 2 This rate generally reflects the Federal cost per new loan dollar. When negative, this rate indicates a net gain to 

the Federal Government.

 3 Totals reflect DL program amounts only—no Perkins Loans. 4 Subsidy amounts of existing loans are estimated on a net present value basis. Negative subsidy results in a net 

gain to the Federal Government. Net reestimates and modifications may reflect both upward and downward 

amounts—consistent with data on page Q-1. The FY 2015 Net Upward Reestimate was primarily due to changes in 

IBR repayment options and was corrected from the original PB 2016 estimate to eliminate a double-counting of the 

2015 Modification reflecting expansion of PAYE to all borrowers.

 5 Reflects total Direct Loan principal (including Consolidations) as the end-of-year estimate.

FFEL Program Loans

There are no new FFEL loans. Information on the FFEL annual reestimates and subsidy 

modifications, as well as outstanding loan volume, are presented below.

FFEL Loans 2015 2016 2017

Subsidy Cost

Total FFE Subsidy Net Reestimate ($ in millions)

1 -$3,294 -$1,226 0

 Subsidy Net Modification ($ in millions 0 152 0

TFFEL Total Net Subsidy ($ in millions) -3,294 -1,074 0 Total FF EL

Outstanding Loan Volume ($ in billions):

Outstanding: Total FFEL Loans $253 $222 $196

Outstanding Total ECASLA Loans 77 69 61

Outstanding: Total Liquidating Account Loans 5 5 5

 Total Combined Outstanding Loan Volume2 335 296 262

 1 Subsidy amounts are estimated on a net present value basis and since no new loans are made, only net 

reestimates are reported. Reestimates may reflect both upward and downward amounts—consistent with data on 

page Q-1. 2 Reflects total FFEL and Liquidating account loan principal (including Consolidations) as end-of-year estimate.

Student Borrowing

Students rely on the Federal loan programs to help close the gap between what their families 

are expected to pay (“estimated family contribution”) and the cost of attendance (including 

tuition, fees, and room and board). Based on the 2008 NPSAS, slightly over 60 percent of 

Q-22
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

college seniors who graduated in 2007-2008 from a 4-year institution reported borrowing a 

Federal loan at some point in their undergraduate studies, whereas in the 2012 NPSAS, 

approximately 66 percent of college seniors reported having borrowed.

Data available from the 2008 and 2012 NPSAS show that for those seniors who borrowed, the 

average cumulative Stafford Loan debt (including Subsidized and Unsubsidized Loans) owed by 

“graduating seniors” in 2007-2008 at 4-year undergraduate schools was $17,063, while in 2011-

2012 it was $24,006—an increase of 41 percent. The average cumulative total debt for 

graduating seniors, including private student loan debt, reported in the 2008 NPSAS, was 

$23,118, while in the 2012 NPSAS, average cumulative total debt reported was $29,384—an 

increase of 27 percent.

The following table, based on data from the 2012 NPSAS, provides a snapshot of the average 

Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loan Debt and average Total Debt (which could include 

private student loans) by associate’s and bachelor’s degrees for each school sector for students 

completing their educational programs in 2011-2012. Debt levels vary considerably by 

institutional sector and credential.

Borrower Average Stafford Debt and Total Debt—Academic Year 2011-

2012

Degree and School Sector Avg. Stafford Debt Avg. Total Debt

Associate’s: Public $4,594 $5,888

Associate’s: Private Not-for-Profit $17,229 $21,986

Associate’s: Proprietary $18,521 $21,795

Bachelor’s: Public $13,146 $16,435

Bachelor’s: Private Not-for-Profit $16,726 $23,753

Bachelor’s: Proprietary $29,985 $34,922

 NOTE: Average Stafford (Subsidized and Unsubsidized) and total debt amounts are based on a count of only 

program completers and include non-borrowers—meaning the averages reflect a full distribution of program 

completers ranging from zero debt to high debt. Therefore, averages reflect all students who obtained degrees by 

sector, including those with no loans.

Q-23
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Median Federal Student Loan Debt

National Student Loan Data System (NSLDS) data reveal that the median level of outstanding 

Federal student loan balances owed (i.e., Subsidized Stafford and Unsubsidized Stafford 

Loans) per student for all undergraduate borrowers upon entering repayment has increased 

substantially over time, from $3,504 in 1990, to $8,709 in 2000, and to $16,572 for those who 

entered repayment in 2014. Dollars shown are current, not inflation-adjusted.

Median Undergraduate Federal Student Loan Debt When Entering Repayment

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

'90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02 '04 '06 '08 '10 '12 '14

Debt Level: Whole Dollars

Enter Repayment Fiscal Year 

Q-24
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Undergraduate Stafford Loan Borrower Distribution by Family Income

The Subsidized Stafford Loan is a need-based loan program that goes mainly to lower- and 

middle-income students. Unsubsidized Stafford Loans are not need-based and are available 

regardless of income. These charts reflect the percentage of dependent and independent

undergraduate borrowers of Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loans at various family 

income levels, according to NSLDS data for academic year 2013-2014. 

About 72 percent of Subsidized Stafford Loan dependent borrowers come from families with 

under $80,000 in family income, while about 58 percent of the Unsubsidized Stafford Loan

dependent borrowers come from families with under $80,000 in family income. At the upper 

income levels, about 28 percent of Subsidized Stafford Loan borrowers are from families with 

income over $80,000, while about 42 percent of Unsubsidized Stafford Loan borrowers are in 

the over-$80,000 category. In fact, 38 percent of all Unsubsidized Loan dollars go to dependent 

students from families with incomes over $100,000. Independent student borrowers are fairly 

similar in their borrowing pattern for both Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford loans. Over 

half of all independent student recipients of Subsidized or Unsubsidized loans are from 

households in the under-$20,000 income category. 

Percentage of Recipients and Dollars of Aid by Income Category: AY 2013-14 (NSLDS)

Dependent Students (Income Categories = dollars in thousands)

Loan Type Measure 0-$20 $20-40 $40-60 $60-80 $80-100 $100+

Subsidized Stafford Recipients 21.41% 19.98% 16.19% 14.07% 10.92% 17.42%

Subsidized Stafford Dollars 21.00% 20.23% 16.56% 14.39% 10.97% 16.86%

Unsub. Stafford Recipients 16.23% 15.52% 13.38% 12.86% 11.85% 30.15%

Unsub. Stafford Dollars 14.76% 13.68% 11.25% 10.94% 11.33% 38.04%

Independent Students (Income Categories = dollars in thousands)

Loan Type Measure 0-$20 $20-40 $40-60 $60-80 $80-100 $100+

Subsidized Stafford Recipients 60.79% 22.71% 8.73% 4.24% 2.05% 1.47%

Subsidized Stafford Dollars 59.79% 23.10% 9.03% 4.43% 2.13% 1.51%

Unsub. Stafford Recipients 55.71% 21.92% 10.10% 5.38% 3.22% 3.67%

Unsub. Stafford Dollars 54.26% 20.21% 10.78% 5.86% 3.84% 5.05%

 NOTE: Loan Type measures for Recipients and Dollars, add across columns to 100 percent.

Income category columns $20-40 through $100+ reflect income amounts of $20,001- $40,000 and so forth.

Undergraduate Students by Income Category

These tables, using NPSAS 2012 data from award year 2011-2012, show the percentage of all 

undergraduates according to income categories; and within income categories, the percentage 

of each income group that received Subsidized Stafford Loans, Unsubsidized Stafford Loans, or 

any form of Federal aid, such as Pell Grants, Work Study, or student loans. For example, in the 

Dependent Students table, 15.8 percent of all dependent undergraduates are from families with 

total income under $20,000 and, of that group, 43.7 percent received Subsidized Stafford 

Q-25
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Loans, 33 percent received Unsubsidized Stafford Loans, and 83.2 percent reported receiving 

some type of Federal aid.

These tables show that Subsidized Stafford aid in particular and Federal aid in general goes to 

lower- and middle-income groups, as intended. For instance, for dependent students, the two 

lowest family income categories—0-$20,000 and $20,001-$40,000—have the highest 

percentages of students receiving some form of Federal aid, corresponding to 83.2 percent and 

73.8 percent, respectively, while the highest income category—$100,000+—reflects the lowest 

percentage of dependent undergraduates receiving aid, at 38 percent. 

Percentage of Undergraduate Students by: 1) Income Level and 2) Within Income Level,

By Type of Federal Aid: AY 2011-12 (NPSAS)

Dependent Students (Income Categories = dollars in thousands)

Group Type Measure 0-$20 $20-

40

$40-60 $60-80 $80-100 $100+

Undergraduates Students 15.8% 17.9% 12.4% 13.7% 11.9% 28.3%

Subsidized Stafford % Receiving 43.7% 40.8% 48.7% 39.9% 32.1% 17.8%

Unsub. Stafford % Receiving 33.0% 31.3% 39.1% 37.4% 36.9% 33.2%

Federal Aid % Receiving 83.2% 73.8% 69.2% 49.0% 44.3% 38.0%

Independent Students (Income Categories = dollars in thousands)

Group Type Measure 0-$20 $20-40 $40-

60

$60-80 $80-100 $100+

Undergraduates Students 50.0% 24.1% 11.9% 6.9% 3.5% 3.7%

Subsidized Stafford % Receiving 44.0% 37.5% 28.4% 23.0% 21.0% 9.9%

Unsub. Stafford % Receiving 37.3% 32.4% 25.1% 23.3% 23.1% 19.6%

Federal Aid % Receiving 69.6% 54.9% 42.4% 31.7% 27.8% 20.8%

NOTES: In both tables above, the “Undergraduates” percentages will add across columns to 100 percent. 

However, the “% Receiving” aid measures are not all mutually exclusive and, therefore, are not intended to, and will 

not, sum to 100 percent, either across columns or by income level.

“Federal Aid” reflects percentages of students receiving any form of Federal aid including student loans, grants,

or work-study. 

Q-26
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

Loan Volume by Institutional Sector

Based on NSLDS and related data, about 76 percent of all Direct Loan dollar volume occurred

at 4-year public and private institutions in fiscal year 2015.

Distribution of New Loan Volume Dollars by Institution

FY 2015 4-Yr. Public 4-Yr. Private 2-Yr. Public 2-Yr. Private Proprietary

Direct Loans 40.7% 35.5% 6.5% 0.2% 17.1%

The following graph depicts annual gross commitment loan volume trends by 4-year, 2-year, 

and proprietary school sectors. (DL volume data are from program inception in fiscal year

1994.)

Annual Loan Volume by 4-Year, 2-Year, and Proprietary School Sectors

• Loan volume at 4-year institutions increased sharply from about $5 billion in fiscal year 1983 

to approximately $81 billion in fiscal year 2015, although recent total 4-year volume has 

remained relatively level for the past 3 years. The loan volume at 4-year institutions

accounts for about 76 percent of all gross commitment loan volume in fiscal year 2015. 

• Loan volume at proprietary institutions increased substantially between fiscal years 1999

and 2010. However, proprietary school loan volume continues to decline between fiscal 

years 2010 and 2015, from $29.4 billion to $18 billion. In fiscal year 2010, proprietary 

school loan volume was 26 percent of total volume, and in fiscal year 2015, 17.1 percent.

• Loan volume at 2-year institutions remained steady during the 1990s, rose to $2 billion in 

fiscal year 2001 and then increased to $10.2 billion in 2012. Levels have decreased 

annually for the past 3 years. Relative to the other sectors, student loan volume at 2-year 

0

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60

70

80

90

'83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '95 '97 '99 '01 '03 '05 '07 '09 '11 '13 '15

Volume: $ Billions

Fiscal Years 1983 - 2014

4-year 2-year Proprietary

Q-27
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

schools is comparatively small, accounting for only 6.7 percent of all loan volume in 2015, 

partially due to the lower costs of these institutions.

Loan Volume by Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loans

A substantial portion of loan volume growth in the last decade is attributable to the Unsubsidized 

Stafford Loan program. As of July 1, 2012, graduate and professional students are no longer 

eligible for Subsidized Stafford Loans, explaining the sharp decrease in the Subsidized Stafford 

Loan volume in that year.

Subsidized Stafford Loan and Unsubsidized Stafford Loan Volume

 NOTE: Loan volume is estimated for fiscal years 2015-2017.

PROGRAM PERFORMANCE INFORMATION

Performance Measures

This section presents selected program performance information, including GPRA goals, 

objectives, measures, and performance targets and data; and an assessment of the programs’ 

progress in achieving program results. Achievement of program results is based, in part, on the 

cumulative effect of program resources available in previous years as well as in fiscal year 2017

and future years, and the resources and efforts invested by those served by this program. 

The student loan programs and other Federal financial aid programs help remove financial 

barriers to postsecondary education. Because these programs rely on the same performance 

measures, strategies, and program improvement activities, such measures are discussed in the

Student Financial Assistance account, and are not repeated here. 

Based on the 2008 NPSAS, 46.9 percent of all undergraduates reported receiving some type of 

Federal Title IV financial aid in 2007-08 and 34.5 percent reported borrowing a Federal Stafford 

(Subsidized or Unsubsidized) Loan. In the 2012 NPSAS, 57.2 percent of undergraduates 

0

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30

40

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60

70

'93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12 '13 '14 '15 '16 '17

Volume: $ Billions

Fiscal Year Subsidized Stafford

Unsubsidized Stafford

Q-28
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

reported receiving some type of Federal Title IV aid and 40.1 percent reported having borrowed 

a Federal Stafford Loan in 2011-12. Of undergraduates in 2007-08 who borrowed a Federal 

Stafford Loan, the average amount borrowed was $5,000, while in 2011-12, the average 

amount was $6,400—a 28 percent increase. 

In addition, graduate and professional student borrowing has also increased. According to the 

2008 NPSAS, 38.9 percent of graduate and first-professional students reported borrowing a 

Subsidized or Unsubsidized Stafford Loan in 2007-08 while in 2011-12 this figure was 

43 percent. The average Stafford Loan amount borrowed by graduate and first-professional 

students in 2007-08 was $15,600, while in 2011-12 the average loan was $17,000. 

Also, the percentage of graduate students who reported borrowing PLUS loans jumped from 

4.9 percent to 9.9 percent with the average amount growing from $15,500 to $18,600. Some of 

this trend was due to the change in graduate student eligibility for Subsidized Stafford and to the 

increasing use of PLUS, rather than private loans. 

In fiscal year 2015, the Direct Loan program, excluding Consolidations, provided approximately 

$95 billion in new loan assistance to an estimated 9 million qualified borrowers. In doing so, the 

Federal student loan programs helped ensure access to postsecondary education by providing 

loans to students and their families at lower interest rates and with more favorable repayment 

terms than they would be able to obtain elsewhere. Without access to Federal student loans, 

many students might not be able to obtain educational loans, since many private lenders have 

underwriting standards that would restrict access to students with little or no work experience or 

credit history. In addition, private loans have few of the protections of Federal loans and often 

have higher interest rates.

National Student Loan Cohort Default Rate

Given the annual volume of Federal student loans, ensuring that those taxpayer-funded loans 

are repaid is critical to the long-term success of the student loan program. In addition, since the 

consequences of default on a Federal student loan are high, the Department is committed to 

ensuring that borrowers can easily select a repayment plan and have student loan payments 

that are manageable. This Administration has dramatically improved borrowers’ ability to find a 

repayment plan that makes their debt manageable with the income-driven repayment plan 

options. 

For example, in recent quarterly updates, data from the Department’s FSA Data Center show 

that the number of Direct Loan borrowers enrolled in income-contingent, income-based, and 

PAYE repayment plans increased by 52 percent as of September 30, 2015, compared to

September 2014.

In addition, the Direct Loan portfolio reflecting the outstanding balance of loans in those same 

income-driven repayment plans accounted for 36 percent of the total Direct Loan outstanding 

balance of loans in repayment, deferment, and forbearance as of fiscal year 2015 versus 

28 percent at the end of fiscal year 2014. The Department has expanded outreach efforts to atrisk borrowers to reduce delinquency and default. These efforts as well as the availability of 

income-driven repayment options are factors in decreasing delinquency rates. For example, the 

proportion of Direct Loan borrowers who were 31-360 days late in their payment dropped from 

Q-29
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

31 percent in September 2014, to 27 percent in September 2015. The 3-year Cohort Default 

rate dropped from 13.7 percent last year to 11.8 percent for the most recently published rate. 

The national student loan “cohort default rate” measures student loan borrower default behavior 

in the first 3 years of repayment, but excludes PLUS loan defaults. This measure was 

established by the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA), to exclude “highdefault” institutions from participation in the loan programs. The measure looks at the 

performance of an institution’s loans in the first 2 years of repayment. Under this law, 

institutions were excluded from FFEL, Direct Loan, and Pell Grant program eligibility—for at 

least 3 years—if they hit or exceeded a 25 percent default rate threshold for 3 consecutive 

years. The Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (HEOA) raised the 25 percent threshold 

to 30 percent for fiscal years 2012 and beyond. HEOA also changed the window from 2 to 3 

years, starting with the borrowers who would enter repayment in fiscal year 2009. Only the 3-

year cohort default rate will be published starting with the 2012 cohort. 

The first official 3-year cohort default rate issued for the 2009 cohort, published on September 

28, 2012, was 13.4 percent. The 2010 cohort default rate was 14.7 percent; the 2011 cohort 

default rate was 13.7 percent; but dropped to 11.8 percent for the 2012 cohort. For the 2012 

cohort, over 5.1 million borrowers from 6,121 postsecondary institutions entered repayment and 

approximately 611,000 of those borrowers defaulted. 

The national cohort default rate also includes component data on cohort default rates by school 

sectors. The 2012 cohort default rates published showed public 2-3 year schools sector with 

19.1 percent, the proprietary school sector with 15.8 percent, and the private non-profit 2-3 year 

schools sector with 14.6 percent. The rates are lower for borrowers at 4-year public and private 

schools: 7.6 percent and 6.3 percent respectively.

2-Year and 3-Year National Cohort Default Rates

The national “cohort default rate” (as shown above) measures borrower default behavior in just 

the first 2 years or 3 years of repayment—any defaults outside this period are not incorporated 

into the default rate. As a result, this rate does not reflect the “lifetime dollar default rates” used 

in budget formulation to project future default costs. The lifetime default rates account for 

17.617.2

21.422.4

17.8

15

11.610.710.4 9.6 8.8

6.9

5.6 5.9 5.4 5.2 4.5 5.1 4.6 5.2

6.7 7.0

8.8 9.1 10

13.4

14.713.7

11.8

0

5

10

15

20

25

'87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12

Default Rate (%)

Fiscal Year (Repayment Cohort)

2-Year National 3-Year National

Q-30
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

defaults over the entire life of the loan and are significantly higher than the 3-year cohort default 

rate. 

FY 2017 Cohort Lifetime Dollar Default and Recovery Rates

The following table shows the estimated dollar default and recovery rates for the 2017 cohort of 

new loans in the Direct Loan program. The default rates reflect the percentage of dollars that 

are estimated to go into default over the life of the particular cohort. The recovery rates reflect 

the percentage of dollars the Federal Government estimates it will recover on those defaults. 

Since interest continues to accrue during default, it is the primary driver of the estimate of total 

collections. However, the Federal Government might only recover some or none of the dollars 

for a loan in default, particularly if a borrower enters an income-driven repayment plan after 

entering repayment

FY 2017 Cohort Lifetime Dollar Default and Recovery Rates

Direct Loans

Lifetime 

Default

Rate

Cash 

Recovery 

Rate

Cash 

Recovery Rate

(net of CCC)

NPV Recovery 

Rate (net of 

CCC)

Subsidized Stafford 24.16% 112.13% 99.09% 84.74%

Unsub Stafford (Undergrad) 26.88% 111.10% 98.17% 84.55%

Unsub Stafford (Graduate) 7.76% 103.49% 93.19% 83.79%

Unsub Stafford (Combined) 16.67% 109.21% 96.93% 84.37%

PLUS (Undergrad) 8.76% 112.97% 99.52% 82.96%

PLUS (Graduate) 7.63% 101.02% 91.58% 83.11%

PLUS (Combined) 8.27% 108.18% 96.34% 82.28%

Lifetime Default Rate: Default rates for the 2017 cohort of Direct Loans range from 

26.88 percent for Unsubsidized Stafford Loans (undergraduates) to 7.76 percent for 

Unsubsidized Stafford Loans (graduates). Lifetime dollar defaults as a percentage of 

disbursements, reflect outstanding principal and interest at time of default divided by original 

loan dollar amounts disbursed, all on a cash basis, without adjusting for net present value.

Cash Recovery Rate: The Budget estimates that cash recovery rates exceeding 100 percent 

indicate the Federal Government, on average, expects to collect principal, interest, and penalty 

fees that would more than offset defaulted dollars. This cash recovery rate follows the 

methodology used in prior years where contract collection costs (CCC) are included in the gross 

recovery rate. This column reflects cumulative principal, interest, and fee recoveries on 

defaulted loans divided by the outstanding principal and interest at time of default, all on a cash

basis. It includes collection costs that are assessed on the loans of defaulted borrowers and 

paid to collection agencies. However, these collection costs may not be assessed on those 

borrowers who meet certain conditions and enter back into a good standing on their loans.

Cash Recovery Rate (net of CCC): The cash recovery rates of less than 100 percent show 

recovery rates net of contract collection costs—where contract collection costs are not 

included—since the dollars do not return to the Federal Government but are used to pay private 

debt collection contractors. 

Q-31
STUDENT LOANS OVERVIEW

FFEL and Direct Loans

This column reflects cumulative principal, interest, and fee recoveries on defaulted loans divided 

by the outstanding principal and interest at time of default, all on a cash basis. It does not 

include collection costs. However, these collection costs may not be assessed on those 

borrowers who meet certain conditions and enter back into a good standing on their loans. 

These estimates also assume that borrowers who return to good standing repay their loans 

under the original loan terms. 

NPV Recovery Rate (net of CCC): Shows recovery rates net of contract collection costs using 

a net present value (NPV) basis, which takes into account the factor of time on the dollar value 

of missed payments due to default and subsequent default collections. Under the NPV basis, 

the recovery rates reflect the discounting of missed payments due to default and subsequent 

loan collections over a 40-year loan lifetime window. The NPV recovery rate helps provide a 

broader context over time for determining the success of collection efforts in recovering

defaulted Direct Loans. 

This column reflects cumulative principal, interest, and fee recoveries on defaulted loans divided 

by the outstanding principal and interest at time of default on a net present value (NPV) basis, 

using 2017 budget discount rates. It does not include collection costs. However, these 

collection costs may not be assessed on those borrowers who meet certain conditions and who 

return to repayment and good standing on their loans. These estimates also assume that 

borrowers who return to good standing repay their loans under the original loan terms. 

Q-32