or Pre-Service Science and Mathematics Teachers: Applications to Secondary Classrooms 
Experiential Learning for Pre-Service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

Co-Editors

Penny J. Gilmer, Lori Livingston Hahn, and M. Randall Spaid
This material is based on work supported in part by a grant from the National Science

Foundation (Grant No. DUE-9753546). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or

recommendations expressed in this monograph are those of the authors and do not

necesarily reflect the views of the NSF.

Associated with the School of Education

University of North Carolina at Greensboro

This document was produced in association with Florida State University and

the Southeast Eisenhower Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science

Education @ SERVE.

First Printing 2002

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the pre-service science teachers, Lidia Lanns, Gregory Preston, Leslie

Magalis, Sandra Davis, Christy Tarter, Ron Wark, Rebecca Brockwell, and Janet Macauley,

who are authors of chapters in this monograph. The other co-learners, including the

practicing science teachers and the research scientists, expressed a sincere interest and

concern to assist the future science and mathematics teachers with an understanding of

the nature and culture of science. Also, we acknowledge the staff and faculty of Florida

State University and University of West Florida. Suzanne Spaid helped us significantly by

proofreading all the chapters.

Without the two funding sources listed below, this project would not have been possible:

 NSF/FCETP grant funding the CO-LEARNERS project at Florida State

University and the University of West Florida

 The Eisenhower Consortium for Mathematics and Science Education at

SERVE, which funded us to write and edit this monograph

Citation

Gilmer, P. J., Hahn, L., & Spaid, M.R. (2002). Experiential learning for pre-service science and

mathematics teachers: Applications to secondary classrooms, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Program Support

Dr. Francena D. Cummings

Director of the Southeast Eisenhower Regional

Consortium for Mathematics

and Science Education @ SERVE

Dr. Donna Nalley

Director of Publications, SERVE

Christy Casbon

Assistant Program Specialist, SERVE

Book and Cover Design

Richard Emond

Senior Graphic Designer, SERVE

Funding

This document was produced with funding from the Dwight D. Eisenhower National Programs for

Mathematics and Science Regional Consortia Program, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. R168R950024.

The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Office of

Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention of

trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
The Southeast Eisenhower Regional

Consortium for Mathematics and

Science Education @SERVE

For more information

about the Consortium,

contact the main office:

Southeast Eisenhower

Regional Consortium for

Mathematics and Science

Education @ SERVE

1203 Governor’s Square

Boulevard, Suite 400

Tallahassee, FL 32301

800.854.0476

850.671.6033

Fax 850.671.6010

www.serve.org/

Eisenhower

Field Offices:

Georgia

800.659.3204

North Carolina

800.755.3277

The Southeast Eisenhower Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science Education @

SERVE is one of ten regional consortia created by Congress to improve mathematics and

science education throughout the nation. The Consortium has three objectives:

 Coordinating mathematics and science resources

 Disseminating exemplary mathematics and science educational instructional

materials

 Providing technical assistance for the implementation of teaching methods and

assessment tools for use by elementary and secondary school students, staff, and

administrators

The Consortium frames its work through the following focus areas:

 Collaboration and Communication. Joining forces with other mathematics and

science education organizations at the national, state, and local levels

 Programs and Curricula. Identifying and disseminating exemplary mathematics

and science materials with and through the Eisenhower National Center and other

educational agencies

 Professional Development. Providing for the training of teachers, administrators,

and other trainers in the use of exemplary mathematics and science materials,

methods, and assessments

 Curriculum Frameworks. Assisting in the development and implementation of

standards-based state curriculum frameworks

 Technology. Facilitating the use of telecommunications technology as a tool for

mathematics and science instruction

 Equity. Supporting programs and activities that meet the needs of underserved

groups in mathematics and science

 Informal Education Agencies. Supporting the use of informal mathematics and

science agencies through disseminating information and encouraging collaboration

 Community Outreach. Promoting dialogue with community groups to engage

them in meaningful ways to support mathematics and science

We offer the following services to promote our objectives:

Networks

 Collaborating with existing networks of mathematics and science educators

 Building and supporting new networks

 Providing opportunities for educators to share ideas and observations about what

works in mathematics and science education

 Sponsoring conferences, teleconferences, meetings, and symposia

Access to Promising Practices in Mathematics and Science

 Identifying successful mathematics and science programs

 Publishing information on effective programs

Technical Assistance

 Helping schools and districts adapt and use new programs, policies, equipment,

and resources

 Identifying the training needs of mathematics and science educators

 Developing effective training to meet identified needs through a Technical

Assistance Academy for Mathematics and Science Services (TAAMSS)

Resources

 Providing access to SERVE products and services

 Helping educators gain access to local, state, regional, and national resources

Free and Low-Cost Materials

 Developing practical resources schools can use, including publications, video

tapes, resource lists, and policy briefs that address concerns from schools,

districts, and state education agencies
About SERVE

SERVE, directed by Dr. John R. Sanders, is an education organization with the mission

to promote and support the continuous improvement of educational opportunities for

all learners in the Southeast. The organization’s commitment to continuous improvement is

manifest in an applied research-to-practice model that drives all of its work. Building on

theory and craft knowledge, SERVE staff members develop tools and processes designed to

assist practitioners and policymakers with their work, ultimately, to raise the level of student

achievement in the region. Evaluation of the impact of these activities combined with input

from affected stakeholders expands SERVE’s knowledge base and informs future research.

This vigorous and practical approach to research and development is supported by an

experienced staff strategically located throughout the region. This staff is highly skilled in

providing needs-assessment services, conducting applied research in schools, and developing processes, products, and programs that inform educators and increase student

achievement. In the last three years, in addition to its basic research and development

work with over 170 southeastern schools, SERVE staff provided technical assistance and

training to more than 18,000 teachers and administrators across the region.

SERVE is governed by a board of directors that includes the governors, chief state school

officers, educators, legislators, and private sector leaders from Alabama, Florida, Georgia,

Mississippi, North Carolina, and South Carolina.

At the core of SERVE’s business is the operation of the Regional Educational Laboratory.

Funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Research and Improvement, the Regional Educational Laboratory for the Southeast is one of ten programs providing research-based information and services to all 50 states and territories. These

Laboratories form a nationwide education knowledge network, building a bank of information and resources shared nationally and disseminated regionally to improve student

achievement locally. SERVE’s National Leadership Area, Expanded Learning Opportunities,

focuses on improving student outcomes through the use of exemplary pre-K and extendedday programs.

In addition to the Lab, SERVE operates the Southeast Eisenhower Regional Consortium for

Mathematics and Science Education and the SouthEast Initiatives Regional Technology in

Education Consortium (SEIR◆TEC). SERVE also administers a subcontract for the Region IV

Comprehensive Center and has additional funding from the Department to provide services

in migrant education and to operate the National Center for Homeless Education.

Together, these various elements of SERVE’s portfolio provide resources, services, and

products for responding to regional and national needs. Program areas include Assessment, Accountability, and Standards; Children, Families, and Communities; Education

Leadership; Education Policy; Improvement of Science and Mathematics Education; School

Development and Reform; and Technology in Learning.

In addition to the program areas, the SERVE Evaluation Unit supports the evaluation

activities of the major grants and contracts and provides contracted evaluation services to

state and local education agencies in the region. The Technology Support Group provides

SERVE staff and their constituents with IT support, technical assistance, and software

applications. Through its Publications Unit, SERVE publishes a variety of studies, training

materials, policy briefs, and program products. Among the many products developed at

SERVE, two receiving national recognition include Achieving Your Vision of Professional

Development, honored by the National Staff Development Council, and Study Guide for

Classroom Assessment: Linking Instruction and Assessment, honored by Division H of AERA.

Through its programmatic, technology, evaluation, and publishing activities, SERVE

provides contracted staff development and technical assistance in specialized areas to

assist education agencies in achieving their school improvement goals.

SERVE’s main office is at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, with major staff

groups located in Tallahassee, Florida, and Atlanta, Georgia, as well as satellite offices in

Bonita Springs, Florida; Durham, North Carolina; and Shelby, Mississippi. Unique among

the ten Regional Educational Laboratories, SERVE employs a full-time policy analyst to

assist the chief state school officer at the state education agencies in each of the states in

the SERVE region. These analysts act as SERVE’s primary liaisons to the state departments

of education, providing research-based policy services to state-level education policymakers and informing SERVE about key state education issues and legislation.

SERVE Main Office

P.O. Box 5406

Greensboro, NC

27435

336.315.7400

800.755.3277

Fax 336.315.7457

John R. Sanders, Ed.D.

Executive Director

www.serve.org
Foreword

Bringing Science Inquiry into Secondary Classrooms

Francena D. Cummings

Chapter One

Impact of Scientific Research Experiences: Pre-Service Teachers’

Ideas on How They Think About and Teach Science

Penny J. Gilmer

Chapter Two

Real Science for Real Science Teachers

Sandra Davis

Chapter Three

Making Science Make Sense

Rebecca Brockwell

Chapter Four

Teaching Science is Teaching Life

Lidia Lanns with M. Randall Spaid

Chapter Five

Making Science More Personal

Leslie Magalis with M. Randall Spaid

Chapter Six

Teaching and Learning Science: A Team Approach

Gregory Preston with M. Randall Spaid

Chapter Seven

Making Connections to Science Through the CO-LEARNERS Program

Lori Livingston Hahn

Chapter Eight

Science from a Different Perspective: Through the Eyes of a Mathematics Teacher

Ron Wark

Chapter Nine

Science: Not Your Typical Textbook and Lecture-Based Class Anymore

Christy Tarter

Chapter Ten

Trading Cultures: A Scientist-Teacher Partnership

Janet A. Macauley

Index

Feedback Form

2

6

32

40

48

54

62

68

84

92

104

113

117
Two pre-service teachers at

Oak Ridge National Laboratory
3

Dr. Francena D. Cummings,

Director of the Southeast

Eisenhower Regional

Consortium for Mathematics

and Science Education

@ SERVE

Bringing Science Inquiry into Secondary Classrooms

Francena D. Cummings

Why do we educate teachers, both new teachers who want to

come into the profession and those that are already experienced,

in ways that we absolutely know don’t work and are antithetical to everything that we talk about when we point out the

ways that kids ought to learn?

—Mark St. John, 1991

With the release of the National Science Education Standards,

conversations about science teaching and learning have focused on

students doing science rather than learning about it through teachers

telling and showing or directing students to read textbooks about science.

Teachers are expected to play key roles in facilitating learning by designing

and/or selecting tasks that enable students to engage in inquiry-based activities that encourage them to explore the natural or material world around them.

Students are then expected to construct knowledge from these investigative

experiences. The ultimate goal is to help students learn scientific concepts and

develop scientific thinking skills.

In the National Science Education Standards, the concept of inquiry is widely

advocated, but the extent to which it is integral in science classrooms is marginal because the majority of teachers have not been prepared to teach in this

manner. Inquiry-based teaching requires the teacher to serve as a facilitator or

coach in the classroom. In this role, the teacher first chooses rich tasks by

identifying and defining a domain of study and then facilitating the environment, choosing appropriate materials, and providing guidelines for completing

tasks. Because students are expected to be self-directed, the teacher must play a

key role in stimulating student thinking and actions through the use of process

science skills. If science teachers are expected to make changes in how they

teach, they must experience those changes.

Why do we educate teachers, both new teachers who want to come into the profession and those that are already experienced, in ways that we absolutely know don’t

work and are antithetical to everything that we talk about when we point out the

ways that kids ought to learn (St. John, 1991)? This question posed by St. John

is on target. If we want teachers to engage in inquiry-based teaching, they

must have opportunities to become involved in those kinds of learning experiences. These learning experiences must occur at all levels, especially at the

higher education level. At the higher education level, coursework must focus

on conceptual understanding of the discipline as well as specific pedagogical

content knowledge.

In this monograph, the writers offer the field a significant view of what happens

when pre-service teachers, practicing teachers, and practicing scientists work

together as co-learners. These co-learning experiences create professional

learning communities that stimulate changes and growth for all of the learners.

Said one of the teachers, “I remembered it because I did it.” For some of the

practicing teachers, this was the first time they experienced the culture of science. Working in the laboratories or other settings offered first-hand experience

in testing hypotheses in authentic work settings. Based on these experiences,
4

they began to reflect on how their students might feel in settings where they

learned science by doing science.

The theoretical framework that guided the CO-LEARNERS is constructivism,

which emphasizes that knowledge is acquired through experience. In Chapter 7,

Lori Hahn elaborates on this principle by emphasizing that “science knowledge

is not something that teachers possess and transfer to students through lecture,

the reading of textbooks, and paper and pencil activities.” Instead, the emphasis

is on students making sense of their science experiences.

The stories that the collaborators tell offer some understanding of the complexities of doing science in context. Most of the teachers have to accept the notion

that they start off not knowing the answer. Generating problems and/or questions becomes the norm as they become acclimated to the culture of science.

Through collecting and analyzing data, they learn to value the so often memorized scientific method. The real focus was helping teachers distinguish the

difference between the culture of classroom science and the culture of science.

Some of the most convincing stories are those that offer glimpses of practicing

teachers sharing their understandings with their students. Lidia Lanns offers

some realities of class size and norm breaking. While she left the CO-LEARNERS

program willing to take some of the activities to the classroom, she had to

negotiate the setting and decide what was practical. Yet, with all of the

struggles, she proclaims the following:

The CO-LEARNERS Program was an experience I will not forget. Before going, I

never would have considered donning a pair of waders and stepping into muddy

water....I did it and I would do it again because if students see teachers excited

about going in and not caring about getting dirty, I think they will get excited

about doing it themselves. Neither textbook nor traditional laboratory activities

can compare to experiencing science as it occurs outdoors. (Chapter 4)

The teachers in this monograph communicated clearly about several issues. They

found their learning/working experiences valuable through a heightened awareness of the work environment, and they recognized a unique set of skills and

qualities that are not content-related (i.e., communication, teamwork, community

collaboration, and curiosity). Most of all, they recognized that relevancy is just not

a student thing. Leslie Magalis offers a succinct view on this issue.

I feel that I have worked alongside real scientists and conducted real science

research. I believe that all scientists are driven by curiosity; the way they satisfy

this curiosity is through using the scientific method....I want them [my students]

to experience “real science”, too. (Chapter 5)

If connecting content to real-world settings is important, teachers must find

ways to connect to the community. Many of the participants made that connection and understand that community partners will be an essential concept in

science education in the new millennium. There are similar implications for the

higher education community. One important implication is teaching students

how to research community resources.

The Southeast Eisenhower Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science

Education @ SERVE applauds the CO-LEARNERS Program because it advocates

new approaches to providing basic educational practice at several levels. When

universities embrace this kind of learning experience for pre-service teachers,

they begin a significant step in preparing teachers who understand the value of

experiential learning—experiencing the culture of science. Moreover, it points
5

The three co-editors of this monograph are (l to r) M. Randall Spaid,

Lori Hahn, and Penny J. Gilmer.

Randy and Lori are doctoral candidates in Science Education at Florida

State University (FSU). Penny is

Professor of Chemistry and

Biochemistry at FSU.

out the need to make science relevant. Offering practicing teachers opportunities to engage in the culture of science provides for diversity in professional

development. Practicing scientists get to provide contextual scientific endeavors, but they also learn from their teacher partners. Janet McCauley, one of the

scientists, said it best.

All the while I was teaching the teachers about science, they taught me about

teaching. They have found practical ways to bring this constructivist philosophy

into the classroom. Listening to their stories about methods of teaching and

sharing science with kids instead of feeding it to them inspired me to look into

teaching as a new career path. (Chapter 10)

Congratulations to the co-learners featured in this monograph. The Southeast

Eisenhower Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science Education @

SERVE commends you for your desire to learn with and from each other and for

your willingness to share with others. Achieving a vision for new teaching and

learning in science education will only occur with “steady work” at crafting new

strategies for change. Your work will certainly make a contribution to the field of

science education.

St. John, M. (1991). Science education for the 1990s: Strategies for change.

Inverness, CA: Inverness Research Associates.

Reference

Contact Information

Co-Editor E-mail Address Position Affiliation

Penny J. Gilmer,

Ph.D.

gilmer@chem.fsu.edu Department of Chemistry

and Biochemistry, FSU,

Tallahassee, FL

32306-4390

Mailing Address

Professor of

Chemistry and

Biochemistry

Florida State

University

(FSU)

Lori Livingston

Hahn

LLhan2@aol.com Doctoral

candidate

Florida State

University

(FSU)

Deaprtment of Curriculum

and Instruction, FSU,

Tallahassee, FL

32306-4490

M. Randall

Spaid

mspaid@garnet.acns.fsu.edu Doctoral

candidate

Florida State

University

(FSU)

Deaprtment of Curriculum

and Instruction, FSU,

Tallahassee, FL

32306-4490
Middle-school students are working

together in their collaborative group

in Lidia Lanns’ classroom.
7

Impact of Scientific Research Experiences: Pre-Service Teachers’

Ideas on How They Think About and Teach Science

Penny J. Gilmer

This chapter introduces the monograph entitled Experiential Learning for PreService Science and Mathematics Teachers: Applications to Secondary Classrooms

and introduces the goals of the CO-LEARNERS program. Pre-service teachers

worked with a practicing science teacher and a scientist in a research laboratory

for one or two summers. The teachers have conducted scientific research, with a

general focus on environmental science, using methodologies from chemistry,

biology, microbiology, earth science, and computer science. It examines what they

learned through the process of doing science first-hand and how they are thinking

of teaching and learning science.

This chapter focuses on how such experiences have impacted how future highschool science teachers think about science and how they plan to teach science.

Through qualitative data gathered during and following the research experience,

I have examined patterns in what the pre-service teachers said, learned, and are

currently doing. Lori Livingston Hahn, in Chapter 7, focuses on the pre-service

teachers planning to teach in middle schools.

This monograph is the fifth in a series (Table I) published by SERVE with Florida

State University (FSU). It includes chapters written by FSU teachers about their

experiences conducting action research and/or scientific research. All five monographs are available for free in PDF format from SERVE (2001). The monographs

were all edited by former or present faculty and graduate students from FSU.

The SERVE monograph with a similar perspective to this current one is the third

in the series, Meaningful Science: Teachers Doing Inquiry + Teaching Science

(Kielborn & Gilmer, 1999). Practicing teachers who were also graduate students

at FSU wrote these chapters. They reported how they experienced the process of

doing scientific research, of asking research questions, and of collecting data.

They shared what it felt like to work side-by-side with scientists as they interpreted their data. They learned the importance of teamwork. Six of the teachers

shared how they brought these experiences into their own science classrooms

(Bosseler, 1999; Brock, 1999; Foley, 1999; Greenspan, 1999; Ballas and Kielborn,

1999a). Kielborn (1999) highlights the features of the program that make it work

and indicates ways that teachers can find similar experiences for themselves.

Abstract

Monograph Title Year Editors

1

2

3

4

5

Action Research: Perspectives

from Teachers’ Classrooms

Science in the Elementary School

Classroom: Portraits of Action Research

Meaningful Science: Teachers Doing

Inquiry + Teaching Science

Language, Discourse, & Learning in Science: Improving

Professional Practice through Action Research

Experiential Learning for Pre-Service Science

and Mathematics Teachers: Applications to

Secondary Classrooms

1995

1997

1999

2000

2002

Samuel A. Spiegel, Angelo

Collins, & James Lappert

Jane McDonald &

Penny J. Gilmer

Terrie L. Kielborn &

Penny J. Gilmer

Aldrin E. Sweeney &

Kenneth Tobin

Penny J. Gilmer,

Lori L. Hahn,

& M. Randall Spaid

Table I Monographs published by SERVE1

 with Florida State University

1

Available online: http://www.serve.org
8

Need for Teachers to Experience Inquiry

There is a growing consensus that it is critical for teachers who teach science to

experience the process of science and scientific inquiry first-hand. The National

Research Council (1989) pressed for the importance of all students to learn

through inquiry. It stated, “Universities should develop programs that integrate

all interested local pre-college science teachers into the various science communities of the university” (p. 75). Although they do not mention getting the preservice teacher involved in scientific research, it makes sense to do so.

The Benchmarks for Science Literacy by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards by the National Research Council (NRC, 1996) recommend that science

teachers need to teach using inquiry. Within professional development programs,

Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles (1998) also encourage teachers to become immersed in the world of scientists and mathematicians. In order for teachers to be able to teach inquiry, however, they need to experience it first-hand.

I report in this chapter that pre-service science teachers’ inquiry experiences influence how they think of science and how they teach science in their own classrooms. Ongoing research will extend this project as each of these pre-service

teachers graduates from undergraduate programs (and some from graduate school)

and has more experience teaching. So far, of the eight pre-service teachers, four are

currently teaching, one is in graduate school, and three are still pre-service.

Another example of a program for enabling practicing teachers to experience

scientific research is a national effort called SWEPT (2001) directed by the

Triangle Coalition for Science and Technology Education. These practicing

teachers have, in general, taught for many years. There has been time to do

follow-up case studies on some of those teachers.

However, the focus for this monograph is hearing the voices of pre-service

teachers (i.e., pre-service refers to undergraduates who plan to become teachers), who have chosen to work alongside scientists. All the pre-service teachers

were from Florida State University or the University of West Florida, and they

planned to be middle- or high-school teachers. These pre-service teachers

experienced the scientific process first-hand. The intent, of course, was to

share that understanding and learning with their own students once they have

their own classrooms.

The way that future teachers generally learn science is in traditional laboratory

courses, in which they conduct experiments with a known answer. These future

teachers find, though, when they conduct actual scientific research, no one

knows the answers ahead of time. The teachers learn from analyzing their own

data and from interpreting data from other sources from which they must infer an

answer. Their ideas about what is happening may change in light of new data.

Lori Livingston Hahn and I decided to expand the idea of having just practicing

teachers conducting scientific research (Kielborn & Gilmer, 1999) to include

pre-service teachers in the research experience. Lori is a practicing teacher

who did get to experience scientific research as part of her master’s degree

program (Hahn, 1999), and she thought it critical that pre-service teachers

experience research, too, while they are still undergraduates. Other groups of

researchers have started a multi-week inquiry experiment for groups of preservice teachers (Grant & Vatnick, 1998; Weld & French, 2001; Melear,

Goodlaxson, Warne, & Hickok, 2000).

The focus for this

monograph is

hearing the voices

of pre-service

teachers who have

chosen to work

alongside

scientists.

The pre-service

teachers had

opportunities to

ask their own

research

questions, design

their own

experiments, and

analyze the data

from varying

perspectives.
9

Melear et al. (2000), for instance, have involved pre-service teachers in inquiry

through a semester-long, open-ended laboratory. In this case, a group of seven

students explored the spore of a particular fern for an entire semester. The preservice teachers had opportunities to ask their own research questions, design

their own experiments, and analyze the data from varying perspectives. Not

surprisingly, many of their students were initially at a loss as to how to conduct an open-ended scientific experiment. However, with minimal direction

from graduate assistants, all eventually learned the process of science, with

some learning more enthusiastically. Scientists from the College of Arts &

Sciences worked closely with the faculty in the College of Education to provide

an inquiry-based program as part of the pre-service teacher education program.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports teacher preparation programs

within the Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (NSF Collaboratives, 2001a). Some of these programs support pre-service teachers conducting

scientific research, such as the one in Maryland (Maryland Teachers’ Summer

Research Program, 2001) and ours in Florida (Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation, 2001).

The CO-LEARNERS Program

Lori Livingston Hahn and I developed a program in which we paired a preservice teacher and a practicing teacher with a practicing scientist (Hahn &

Gilmer, 2000). We named this program CO-LEARNERS because all participants

learn from one another. The CO–LEARNERS Program is an acronym for Collaborative Opportunities–Learning Experientially And Research uNiting Educators

and Researchers of Science. The pre-service teachers construct their understandings from their prior experiences and their new learning that is taking

place within the research environment. Lori and I are co-learners as well,

modeling what it is to be a learner in the inquiry process.

There are three locations where Florida teachers were part of the CO-LEARNERS

Program. The teachers who planned to teach high school were at FSU in Tallahassee, and the middle-school teachers were at the University of West Florida in

Pensacola. The third location in Tennessee involved two pre-service, highschool teachers, one in the summer of 2000 and one in the summer of 2001, at

the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Oak Ridge is the site where the U.S.

government during World War II learned how to separate uranium isotopes and

first prepared the fission nuclear bombs, whose use helped end the war.

The two Florida teachers, Rebecca Brockwell and Angel Rogers, went to ORNL

in the Pre-service Teachers Program sponsored jointly by the NSF-funded

Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (CETP) and the U.S. Department of Energy (NSF, 2001b; DOE, 2001). ORNL is the Department of Energy

facility where CETP students from Florida, Louisiana, and Virginia have an

opportunity in the summer to learn to conduct research in science, mathematics, and/or technology. The ORNL summer program also had one practicing

teacher working closely with three pre-service teachers from three states. One

of the two ORNL teachers from Florida, Rebecca Brockwell, an FSU pre-service

teacher, has a chapter in this monograph.

I visited most of the teachers during their research in the laboratories or field

experiences and have visited some of their classrooms once the teachers began

teaching. During the summer of research and/or afterwards, I interviewed all of

the pre-service teachers who were planning to teach in high school. I transcribed their words to help me construct how the teachers learned the process,

nature, and culture of science and how they were starting to bring those ideas

The CO-LEARNERS

Program pairs a

pre-service

teacher and a

practicing teacher

with a practicing

scientist. We

named this

program COLEARNERS because

all participants

learn from one

another.
10

Florida Collaborative for

Excellence in Teacher

Preparation

(FCETP) Logo

into the classroom. This type of science education research is qualitative in

nature (Erickson, 1998).

The following are some of the questions I asked myself:

 What are the future teachers’ struggles as they engage in the scientific

inquiry process?

 What facilitates (and what inhibits) their learning of science?

 What enables (and what inhibits) the future teachers to bring similar

experiences to their own students?

 How do their students respond to scientific inquiry?

 How does technology influence their learning?

 How do the collaborative aspects of the learning influence how future

teachers think about science and learning?

In this monograph, there are two chapters that are evaluative in nature. One is

this chapter in which I focus on the pre-service teachers who planned to become high-school teachers. In Chapter 7, Lori Livingston Hahn evaluates the

CO-LEARNERS Program for the teachers planning to teach middle school.

Chapters 2 through 6 and 8 through 10 are first-hand accounts written by these

prospective middle- and high-school teachers in their quest to learn science.

They describe the struggles and joys they experienced in scientific research, and how they are learning to think of science and of teaching

science differently. Co-editor M. Randall Spaid worked with some

of the teachers to complete their narratives.

Of the participants in the CO-LEARNERS Program, Ron Wark and

Leslie Magalis are just starting their second year of teaching, and

they share not only their experiences in scientific research, but

also how they are bringing science to their own middle- and highschool students. Lidia Lanns has taught for one and a half years in

middle school in Miami. After Gregory Preston’s teaching internship

and four months of teaching in his own classroom in Miami, he

decided to return to graduate school to pursue a degree in information

technology. Christy Tarter recently graduated and is just finishing her first

year of teaching at a middle school. Sandra Davis is finishing her final year of preservice and will be doing her teaching internship during this coming academic year.

Rebecca Brockwell just graduated as a certified science teacher.

Chapter 10, by Jan Macauley, is unusual because she was one of our participating scientists in the CO-LEARNERS Program in Pensacola for two summers.

After her second summer with CO-LEARNERS, she decided to go back to the

university and become certified to teach science. Jan writes about realizing that

she wants to work with people instead of test tubes. She recognizes that she

feels more connected to the science when she is teaching the pre-service teachers in the CO-LEARNERS Program than when she is doing her technical work.

However, when I wrote her that her chapter has been set by the copy editor and

asked if she wanted to see it again, she told me that she decided to stay in her

job as a scientist. Jan decided to keep her own chapter as she originally wrote it

because that is how she felt at the time.

Jan reflects on her first education class:

After my first class in curriculum development, plus some changes at work, I

have again rethought my career path. There are some aspects of teaching that

are quite daunting, and my job stability and responsibilities have increased at
11

UWF. I now have a faculty post. I have once again shelved the idea

of teaching, but not forgotten it. I realize that my brief introduction

to teacher education doesn’t give me much insight into the reality

of the classroom. I enjoyed the lesson planning, but was surprised by the emphasis given to “multiculturalism”. Teaching is

a special calling, and I don’t know yet if it is mine.

In my view, Jan experienced the large change in culture between

science and education. Jan is very competent as a scientist, and I

am sure that her supervisors want her to stay on her job, as evidenced by her being given more responsibility and now being in a

university faculty line. I am sure that the difference in salary of a

faculty post in science versus that of a beginning middle school teacher

would be daunting.

This difference in salary coupled with the dramatic change in culture would be

inhibiting. Therefore, the negatives overwhelm the positives for the K-12 level

of teaching. Perhaps she will be able to bring her passion for science and interest in education to the postsecondary science classroom with science students

and pre-service teachers.

Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation

The CO-LEARNERS Program was an integral part of the FCETP (2001). All preservice teachers were eligible to be FCETP Scholars and received scholarships

through our NSF grant. The National Science Foundation currently has funded

or is still funding 20 “system-wide” and 12 “institutional focus” projects in the

CETP program (NSF Collaboratives, 2001a) to increase the number and quality

of future teachers in mathematics and science throughout the United States.

The focus of our grant is to improve teacher preparation at the middle- and highschool levels in science and mathematics. In Florida, we have a total of 11 institutions of higher learning involved in the FCETP (2001). Our higher education institutions include three community colleges, one four-year, and seven full universities, working together with neighboring middle and high schools associated

with each higher education institution. We represent our diverse culture in Florida

with two historically black institutions (our lead institution, Florida A&M University and Bethune-Cookman College) and two primarily Hispanic institutions

(Florida International University and Miami-Dade Community College). We have

three components in the program: recruitment, pre-service, and in-service. Our

motto is to “expand the sphere of learning.”

Most of the science courses that these prospective teachers have had were

lecture courses or traditional laboratory courses. Therefore, providing an experience to conduct “real science” has enabled the pre-service teachers to see

science as science is actually conducted. We are field testing this type of nontraditional laboratory to see how the teachers enjoy it, what they learn, and how

they implement what they learn in their classrooms.

Lens for Viewing the Teachers

The reader may ask how I view these experiences and how I frame what I see

and hear. My original education was as a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy) in Biochemistry (University of California, Berkeley). My undergraduate degree (Bachelor of Arts, BA) was in Chemistry from Douglass College, and my master’s

degree was in Organic Chemistry (Bryn Mawr College). I have been a Professor

of Chemistry and Biochemistry at FSU for 25 years. Since I started graduate

Recruitment

Pre-Service In-Service

FCETP symbol for bringing

together the three foci

of the grant

“We have three

components in the

program:

recruitment, preservice, and inservice. Our motto

is to “expand the

sphere of

learning.”
12

school, I have practiced science and utilized quantitative research for studying

molecules and cells for more than three decades. My research in biochemistry is cell-surface mediated reactions with a focus on carbohydrate

chemistry of the cell surface and how that can modulate immune

recognition of tumor cells.

I am also one of three co-principal investigators of the FCETP

program, and my responsibility is the pre-service component to our

grant. I have supervised the entire CO-LEARNERS Program at FSU

and UWF and worked closely with the high-school teachers who

are involved in the project at the Tallahassee and Tennessee sites. I

have met with the scientists and teachers at various research sites

and interviewed some of the future and practicing teachers involved

in this project. I am Lori Livingston Hahn’s major professor in her

graduate program in science education at FSU and have supervised her to

help expand the sphere of learning of science through research.

In the last decade, I have learned the value of science education research. In

particular, I have learned to appreciate the value of research in science teaching,

especially using a qualitative methodology. Qualitative research methods include use of questionnaires with free response questions, case studies (of

individual persons or small groups of people), and transcribed interviews. I

utilize fourth-generation evaluation (Guba & Lincoln, 1989), utilizing their 12-

step methodology for conducting qualitative research and evaluation.

The theoretical lens that we use to view what we observe influences how we

see it and how we interpret what we see. This is true in science as well as in life,

in general (Kuhn, 1970; Glasersfeld, 1989). Therefore, because my experiences

include both being a scientist and a science educator, I view people and events

in both ways simultaneously. To use a chemical metaphor, for me it is like a

resonance hybrid, neither one side nor the other, but a view with special properties, some composite of both. I have chosen a theoretical lens for viewing the

pre-service teachers while learning science through inquiry called social

constructivism (Tobin & Tippins, 1993; Taylor, Gilmer & Tobin, 2002b). Noddings

has written about constructi-vism in a powerful way. She says

Constructivism may be characterized as both a cognitive position and a methodological perspective. As a methodological perspective in the social sciences,

constructivism assumes that human beings are knowing subjects, that human

behavior is mainly purposive, and that present-day human organisms have a

highly developed capacity for organizing knowledge. These assumptions suggest

methods—ethnography, clinical interviews, overt thinking, and the like—

specially designed to study complex semi-autonomous systems.

As a cognitive position, constructivism holds that all knowledge is constructed

and that the instruments of construction include cognitive structures that are

either innate or are themselves products of development construction. The latter

interpretation is more characteristic of constructivism as a cognitive position,

and it is the one held by most constructivists in mathematics education. (p. 7)

I think that most science educators who are constructivists would agree with

Noddings. “People make sense of their understandings of the world based on their

prior experiences” (p. 13, Gilmer, 1999). The word constructivism means a theory

of how people learn (Glasersfeld, 1989) or “knowing-in-action (i.e., a theory of

knowing embodied in our actions)” (Taylor, Gilmer, & Tobin, 2002a). A basic part

of this theory is that your prior experiences influence what you choose to emphasize in what you observe and how you make meaning from those events.

Altha Manning, Director of the

Florida Collaborative for

Excellence in Teacher

Preparation (FCETP), planning

the CO-LEARNERS program

with Dr. Penny J. Gilmer,

co-Principal Investigator of

the FCETP and Professor of

Chemistry and Biochemistry at

Florida State University
13

The social part of social constructivism comes in because one of the powerful

ways we learn is by having social interactions or discourse with each other,

talking out what we know and do not know, organizing our ideas, asking

questions, and clarifying for each other. Our entire sociocultural experience

influences how we construct meaning in the world. Lemke (2001) states that

we tend to “ignor[e] the sociocultural reality that students’ beliefs, attitudes,

values, and personal identities—all of which are crucial to their achievement in

science learning—are formed along trajectories that pass only briefly through

our classes” (p. 305). However, I do attend to the co-learners’ “beliefs, attitudes,

values, and personal identities”, since I have chosen the theoretical lens of

social constructivism. Social constructivism helps us think about the relationship between teaching and learning and what happens between teachers and

students when we learn. It is an active and social process. We try to make

meanings as we have conversations. When these conversations are about

science, we engage in the discourse of science.

However, teachers at the college level and at the high-school level generally

utilize teacher-centered lectures. This is utilizing the “transmission metaphor

of teaching as delivery of disciplinary knowledge...and learning as reception

of knowledge” (Taylor, Gilmer, & Tobin, 2002a). While some students may

engage as active learners while listening to someone else profess science

content, many others are only passive learners who promptly forget. For the

passive learners, it is often “in one ear and out the other.” Social constructivism

would say that most people forget such content or do not build deep understandings of science content because, through lecture, they are not encouraged

to connect to their prior learning or to utilize the discourse of science.

Social constructivism promotes the joint metaphors of knowing as constructing (contingent and viable understandings) and knowing as participating

(actively and collaboratively) in a specific discourse community (Taylor, Gilmer,

& Tobin, 2002a).

A critical component of social constructivism is getting students to participate

actively and encouraging the students to use the discourse of the science, often in

collaborative groups (Bruffee, 1995). Science research groups generally do work

collaboratively. As one person in the group learns something, it helps someone

else in the group use that knowledge to learn something else within a similar

domain. We build a community of learners, constructing knowledge together and

advancing in our understanding beyond what individuals on their own could do.

The knowledge is not necessarily true, but it is our best construction at that point

in time. As we learn more, we may reconstruct and develop new understandings.

Looking at the High-School Pre-Service Teachers

Therefore, with social constructivism as my theoretical lens, I have researched

the four co-learners who did their scientific research in Tallahassee (Lidia Lanns,

Gregory Preston, Leslie Magalis, and Sandra Davis) and Rebecca Brockwell who

went to ORNL for the Pre-Service Student Teacher Training Fellowship Program.

I will focus on these five teachers, but I will also introduce the three other

Pensacola-based teachers (Ron Wark, Christy Tarter, and Jan Macauley).

I choose a qualitative methodology since it flows naturally from a social

constructivist inquiry. I do this by sharing what I have written with the co-learners,

working toward a joint consensus, utilizing what is called a “hermeneutic dialectic

circle” (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). In this circle, one recycles the ideas, enabling others

to hear what is said (or written). I may have missed some point or misinterpreted

some occurrence. I might have constructions that the pre-service teachers had not

In the last decade, I

have learned the

value of science

education

research. In

particular, I have

learned to

appreciate the

value of research

in science teaching,

especially using a

qualitative

methodology.
14

formally considered yet. Therefore, as we communicate socially, we influence one

another’s constructions. There is not always consensus, but one works towards

consensus. Negotiation with the participants in the CO-LEARNERS Program continually shapes and tests my ideas (Guba & Lincoln, 1989).

It is through this lens of social constructivism that I have encouraged the preservice teachers to use the language of science. The pre-service teachers are

engaged in discourse with the scientists and with each other at weekly group

meetings, many of which I organized and in which I participated. We asked

questions of each other and thought about the analysis of the scientific data. I

audiotaped those meetings, transcribed them, and analyzed them using a

qualitative software program called QSR NUD*IST. I looked for patterns in what

the co-learners said in group meetings, interviews, and PowerPoint presentations. I have sorted the ideas into data trees, with branches and sub-branches,

to help me organize what each pre-service teacher has said or written.

Research Topics and Research Mentors

All of the pre-service teachers chose environmental research, in part, because

they wanted a topic that not only interested them but also would interest their

students. Interestingly, all the practicing teachers in our earlier monograph also

chose environmental research (Kielborn & Gilmer, 1999).

Some of the teachers worked on more than one project, so their names may be

listed more than once. The research experiences described in this monograph

include the following diverse topics:

 Diesel fuels for greater efficiency of automobiles (Rebecca Brockwell)

 Pattern of river sediments (Gregory Preston)

 Biological indicators of health of river systems (Lidia Lanns, Gregory

Preston, Leslie Magalis)

 Fecal contamination of waterways (Ron Wark and Jan Macauley)

 Culturing grasses for reintroduction into bay bottoms (Christy Tarter)

 Rapid detection of pesticides in agricultural products (Sandra Davis)

 Manatee survival (Leslie Magalis)

 Estrogen-like and androgen-like pollutants in waterways (Leslie Magalis)

 Fluoridation of drinking water (Christy Tarter)

Our pre-service teachers work with scientists, who volunteer their time at a

variety of sites, including state of Florida laboratories, academic laboratories,

and one national laboratory. We recognize and appreciate the participation of

the following scientists and the research institutions in which the research

took place:

 Thomas Frick, Russell Frydenborg, Kelly Schratwieser at the Florida

Department of Environmental Protection (DEP in Tallahassee)

 Taylor “Chips” Kirschenfeld and Erick Harter at the Florida DEP (in Pensacola)

 Jason Stepp and Michael Page at the Florida Department of

Agriculture and Consumer Services

 Jim Ladner and Ron Hoenstine at the Florida Geological Survey

(part of DEP)

 Jan Macauley and Joe Lepo at the Center for Environmental

Diagnostics and Bioremediation, University of West Florida,

Wetlands Research Laboratory (UWF)

 Edward Orlando, University of Florida (UF)

 Janet Hopson and David Greene, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)

Social

constructivism

helps us think

about the

relationship

between teaching

and learning and

what happens

between teachers

and students when

we learn. It is an

active and social

process.
15

We also appreciate the following practicing teachers who worked with our

pre-service teachers and scientists in the research experience:

 Paige Bowron and Sandra Porras worked with Christy Tarter

 David Staton worked with Rebecca Brockwell and Angel Rogers

 Mary Hartsfield worked with Gregory Preston

 Sherri Hood worked with Lidia Lanns

 Margo King worked with Ron Wark and Janet Macauley

 G.S. Rahi worked with Sandra Davis and mentored Leslie Magalis

 Troy Brown worked with Marcus Simpson

 Richard McHenry worked with Erika Reddick

 Jane McDonald was the coordinator of the 1999 CO-LEARNERS

Program in Tallahassee; she mentored Lidia Lanns, Gregory Preston,

and Erika Reddick

About the Pre-Service Middle-School Teachers in Pensacola

Chapter 7 introduces the chapters written by middle-school teachers and focuses

on the Pensacola-based program at the University of West Florida. The author of

this chapter, Lori Livingston Hahn, studied this group of teachers more intensely

because she lives in Pensacola, and she ran the CO-LEARNERS Program at that

site, but she also refers to Lidia and Gregory, since she interviewed them as well.

Two of the middle-school teachers, Ron Wark and Christy Tarter, each have a

chapter. Christy worked in the CO-LEARNERS Program for two consecutive

summers in 1999 and 2000, while Ron participated only in the summer of 1999.

Christy made a commitment to be involved in the entire FCETP program and

attended two of the annual FCETP symposia with attendees from all over the state

of Florida. Christy contributed to a presentation made by Lori in 2000 and gave a

presentation by herself on her experience in the CO-LEARNERS Program at our

FCETP Third Annual Symposium in 2001. She is certified to teach science and

mathematics and has just started her first year of teaching in a middle school.

Ron, who is retired military from Pensacola, returned to the university to earn a

degree so he could teach social studies and mathematics. He is just finishing his

second year of teaching. Ron describes how he has started to incorporate

science into his mathematics lessons.

Jan Macauley’s chapter is interesting because she was the scientist in the COLEARNERS Program with Ron Wark in 1999, but now since mentoring two more

practicing teachers in the CO-LEARNERS Program in 2001, she has decided to

become certified to teach in a middle-school setting.

About Each of the Pre-Service High-School Teachers

Gregory Preston

One of the co-learners, Gregory Preston, became certified in secondary mathematics and science teaching at FSU. In that program, a student needs two

areas of emphasis, and Gregory chose biology and chemistry. Given that I am a

biochemist and interested in the teaching profession, he and I have a lot in

common. With Gregory, I am also able to share my abiding love for use of

technology in my own learning and teaching. Technology ignited a creative

aspect in Gregory’s own career and interests.

Science research

groups generally

do work

collaboratively. As

one person in the

group learns

something, it helps

someone else in

the group use that

knowledge to learn

something else

within a similar

domain. We build a

community of

learners,
16

When I first met Gregory, he was much less confident in himself than he was

just 13 weeks later by the end of the CO-LEARNERS Program in 1999. It was a

transforming experience. The path was not always easy, but Gregory was persistent. Initially, I thought that Gregory would be working on helping with the

development of the educational aspects to the website of the Florida Geological

Survey (FGS), part of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection

(Florida DEP). However, the timing did not work out, as the head web coordinator had not yet been hired.

Fortunately, Mary Hartsfield, a practicing chemistry teacher, whom I had known

for years through the Chemathon competition for high-school chemistry students at FSU, had found a position at the FGS. Through Mary, we found that

Gregory could work with scientist Jim Ladner on collecting samples and taking

sedimentation erosion table (SET) readings in riverbeds around Florida. I will

never forget when Gregory returned from his first trip on the river collecting

samples. He had seen a stingray and a shark. It was as if everything he had

ever learned in biology classes suddenly came alive for him.

However, the research experience did not go smoothly. There were

several problems that summer. He was enrolled in an evolution

class, and that created transportation issues. Even though Gregory wanted to go on additional trips to collect samples, he could

not do so, because the all-day trips to collect samples meant that

he would have to miss the evolution class. In the end, Gregory

learned about analyzing the samples from Mary and a graduate

student on the project. Nevertheless, he was involved in the entire

scientific process, from collecting and analyzing the samples to

entering the data into an Excel spreadsheet and graphing the results.

At the end of the summer, Gregory still needed 40 more hours (to meet the 125-

hour requirement for which he had signed a contract with me). He decided to

learn more chemistry by working with one of the DEP scientists, Thomas Frick,

with whom Lidia had worked earlier that summer. The second research site

gave Gregory a different window into the science world. As I sorted Gregory’s

transcripts and writings of his experience, four themes emerged: science content, technology, collaboration, and self-confidence.

Science Content

I noticed by the end of the summer, Gregory seemed more eager to share his

learning because he was learning. Gregory said in an interview

I feel more comfortable [than I did at the start of the summer]. When I came into

it, I was so confused. I wasn’t really getting the grasp of what Jim (Ladner) was

saying. I knew what cryogenic was, by definition, but I didn’t actually see it, so

actually going out into the field and doing everything, I felt much more comfortable. It was like this biology stuff wasn’t so hard after all. I had a good time!

Gregory told me that he felt he was a “Geologist for a Day.” Since he was given

responsibilities on the boat, he said that he “will retain a true sense of worth.” He

is able to explain concepts, such as sedimentation and the environment, more

thoroughly. This is because he has experienced them in a situation in which he

had a role in collecting the data. Therefore, it is more than just being there; it is

being a part of the learning process that made a difference to Gregory.

Gregory did bring some of his research experiences to his high school classroom.

He designed a lesson plan using SET readings as part of the CO-LEARNERS Project.

I gave him a ring stand and a clamp to set up his equipment in his classroom.

Gregory Preston

I will never forget

when Gregory

returned from his

first trip on the

river collecting

samples. It was as

if everything he

had ever learned in

biology classes

suddenly came

alive for him.
17

Technology

A key part of the experience for Gregory was learning and utilizing technology. At

the start, Gregory was a true beginner, but he moved very quickly to advanced

technology. He even taught his practicing teacher, Mary, about using the technology. As Gregory reflected on the experience two years later, he said, “What got me

interested in the computer field was the PowerPoint I had to do for the initial COLEARNERS Program. I found out that I have somewhat of a creative side.”

Gregory is understating his creative side. It was obvious when he showed me

his first PowerPoint presentation. He had already learned aspects of the program

that I had not utilized. As he showed me his program, his whole body posture

and keenness were different than when he first came to my office to apply to be

a part of CO-LEARNERS Program.

When Gregory began his teaching internship, good technology was available in

his classroom. However, it was a different story once he had his first teaching

job. He had hoped to have a microscope, which could project samples on the

screen for everyone to see. Gregory said

There was a computer in every classroom [during the internship]. I think we had

three in our classroom. There were TV units that could be connected to the

computer, there were white boards instead of chalk boards, and it kind of gave

me the wrong impression, really, because when I got my own classroom, I looked

around and I noticed that I don’t have these things. I had a computer, but it was

nothing like we had at the internship school. So, I had to really improvise.

I think that Gregory saw the writing on the wall. It was going to be tough for him

to teach science the way that he wanted without the resources that would

facilitate learning. He is still interested in teaching, but he wants to do it once he

has earned a master’s degree in information technology.

Collaboration

Instead of staying in teaching, at least for now, Gregory has decided to go to

graduate school in Miami in the field of information technology. He learned his

passion for technology during the CO-LEARNERS experience when he worked

with Mary Hartsfield, the practicing teacher, and with Jim Ladner, the scientist.

Gregory spoke about collaboration.

Both Mary and Jim helped out a lot. Jim was very cooperative...I was able to

provide Jim with not only a much needed helping hand, but also describe to him

the world of science through the eyes of a prospective teacher and current

student.... All in all, working with Mary and Jim has molded my entire outlook

on the field of science. They were able to make a great deal of the material

exciting and understandable to me, and, in turn, I helped each of them by

bringing my own knowledge to the table.

One of the ways that Gregory contributed was by bringing a basic understanding of computer technology to Mary, to help her know how to use Excel and

PowerPoint, so she could bring that into her classroom.

Gregory told me that the way he figured out which graduate school to attend

was based on his experience with collaboration within FCETP and our COLEARNERS Program. Gregory also attended two of our annual FCETP Symposia,

so he had experienced collaboration beyond the research project. He said that

doing the PowerPoint presentation for the CO-LEARNERS Program helped him

decide which computer school he would attend. The school that he was at used

It is more than just

being there; it is

being a part of the

learning process

that made a

difference to

Gregory.
18

the collaborative approach. He said, “According to them, that’s what they use in

the computer industry—a collaborative-type learning environment.”

Self-Confidence

The biggest change I noticed in Gregory during the summer of the program was

an increase in self-confidence. This was also apparent when I sorted the interview and Gregory’s e-mail data using the NUD*IST program as well. From an

abstract that Gregory wrote about his project, he said

By actually showing the prospective and practicing teachers what [the scientists]

do on a daily basis at work and allowing them to take part, gives the prospective

and practicing teachers not only excellent hands-on experience, but also a

substantial amount of confidence in their classroom settings.

Gregory explained that it was important for the prospective and practicing teachers

to have responsibility in the laboratory. Gregory was in charge of obtaining and

labeling samples from the river. He had a responsibility to follow up on the analysis of these samples and to enter the data from the field notes into the Excel file.

Gregory is not sure exactly what he will do when he finishes his master’s degree

in information technology. Given that he is very creative and hard working I am

sure that he will be able to do what he wants to do. He still is very

interested in teaching, perhaps in adult education rather than K–12.

For instance, he has mentioned to me that he could write a computer program for “optometrists where they can figure out what a

disease is, based on the program, based on the symptoms of the

patient, whatever they may be.” Gregory closed with what is

most likely in the future for him. He said

Yeah, [a doctorate program] would be science education, more than

likely. It’s a toss up between that and going to optometry school. I’m

leaning towards the education. If I do come back, I can contact you.

It would be a pleasure to have Gregory back at FSU for graduate school

in science education. He will bring with him all the information technology

and collaboration that he has learned, which are critical in education. He would

also bring his love for learning.

Lidia Lanns

Lidia conducted her scientific research during the summer of her senior year at

the Florida DEP. Like Gregory, she was also enrolled in several summer classes,

so she had to fit the research experience around her class schedule. I have organized Lidia’s experience into three categories: science content, community

involvement, and the learning experience.

Science Content

Lidia’s interest is in biology, so we paired her with a new biology teacher, Sherri

Hood, whose interests include chemistry and biology. Both Lidia and Sherri were

interested in environmental problems. There were three scientists on their team:

Kelly Schratwieser, who has a master’s degree in Marine Ecology; Thomas Frick,

a senior chemist who had worked at the DEP for five years; and Russell

Frydenborg, an administrator at DEP for two years and previously a biologist

with DEP for 17 years. All three scientists were very interested in environmental

education of the public, so they adopted our CO-LEARNERS team.

Lidia Lanns
19

The water shed is tied together by the

habitat, water quality, and biological

communities.

Habitat

Water quality

Water shed

Biological communities

Part of the scientists’ motivation came from the idea that if the public learned to

prevent pollution, we would not need to clean up the environment.

Lidia summarized her experience at the DEP by saying, “It was

beneficial in that I grasped the concepts of biology by analyzing

an ecosystem in its natural habitat.” She learned correct sampling techniques, methods used for quality assurance, the

importance of habitat assessment and environmental education, and technical writing.

The scientists were motivated to improve how they could

explain the science that they do at DEP to the public. They

figured that the teachers could be of help to them. I think that

our team did help them, as they developed experiments and fieldtested them at a camp for middle-school children during that summer. Lidia and Sherri taught the middle-school children at the camp the

difference between the bugs that they would see at a body of water that were

good, marginal, and poor. The children made pictures of the bugs and colored

them green, yellow, and red so they could count up the bugs that represent

good quality water.

Russ Frydenborg is an eminent biologist with a tremendous amount of field

experience. He is like a walking encyclopaedia in terms of what he knows about

biology. He described the work that the CO-LEARNERS team would be doing as

habitat assessment. He said habitat assessment has three corners to it:

 We learn about the habitat from what we expect for that particular type

of habitat. We assess the habitat through observations.

 We test the water quality by measuring the various nutrients, such as

nitrates, nitrites, phosphate, chlorophyll A, pesticides, and metal ions.

 We measure the intact biological communities by observing the insects,

algae, vascular plants, and fish. The primary indicators of the health of a

habitat are insects and algae.

These three indicators are tied together by the watershed concept. This is the

model that the teachers had when they looked at the environment. Russ went

with them in the field to collect data and shared with them what he knew. Lidia

learned a lot from Russ. “I think he’s really good because he’s passionate about

what he does,” Lidia said. She referred to him as a “thoroughbred” because he is

eminently trained and does his job well.

Lidia interacted with Kelly on the biological aspects of the water from the sites once

they got back to the laboratory to see how biological samples would grow in the

laboratory. She worked with Tom on developing the program for middle-school

children. She worked with Sherri on developing a lesson plan for Sherri’s high-school

students. In the end, Lidia said about scientists, “Scientists come in all shapes, colors,

and sizes, and each of us has the potential to make a difference.” Knowing Lidia, I feel

that she thinks the same about her students. We all can make a difference.

Lidia Lanns’ classroom

“It was beneficial

in that I grasped

the concepts of

biology by

analyzing an

ecosystem in its

natural habitat.”
20

Russ taught the teachers that you want to look for patterns in what you observe. It is

through perceived patterns that scientists can make sense of data of different types.

Community Involvement

Lidia understood the value of collaboration and of learning from the

community. I think she was attracted to our project because of the

collaboration theme of the CO-LEARNERS Project and working

with the DEP. Lidia said, “Community involvement is an integral

component for science education in the new millennium.” The

project involved collaboration between scientists who wanted

to reach out to the public, and teachers who wanted to learn

from the scientists.

Lidia also knew that how a teacher utilizes the resources available

can make all the difference in what the students learn. Lidia said

Teachers may not have many resources, but it’s what you do with the

resources that you have that really counts....You could have a great classroom

with great computers and not learn a thing if your teacher is not motivated and

making you apply that information to make it sink in.

Kelly gave Lidia all sorts of posters on fish and turtles and storm warning manuals that she could take into her classroom. Lidia was eager to get her own

classroom so she could display these materials. I visited Lidia’s own middleschool classroom one year after she started a full-time job in Miami. It was

filled with posters, just like she had hoped. It also had posters that her students had created, including paintings on T-shirts of topics on the environment, like deer, the sun, and Earth Day.

Lidia had her students work in collaborative groups to present lessons to the

other students in her classroom. I saw this in an earth science classroom in which

the students presented on the universe. I was impressed when the students asked

me (in front of their peers) what I thought of their presentation and how it could

be improved. I sensed the collaborative spirit of their school community.

The Learning Experience

Lidia thought that learning through experience is critical. She said, “Our goal is to

enhance the strategies presently used (lecture/textbook learning) and supplement

it with experiential learning that directly relates to our environment and our

efforts to improve it.” She thought that bringing the experience of the practicing

teacher to the table was important as well. There was much that Sherri, Lidia’s

practicing teacher, brought to the discussion as they learned in the field and

thought of ways to bring concepts into the classroom. Lidia commented further.

As a prospective biology teacher through my experience at the DEP, I grasped

the concepts of biology by analyzing an ecosystem in its natural habitat. Neither

textbook nor traditional laboratory could compare with experiencing science as

it occurs in nature.

Lidia saw that the middle-school children learned about the environment at the

camp where Lidia and Sherri taught about the environment. She mentioned that

“most people do not think about the impact of litter on the groundwater supply.

When rain washes items, such as cigarette butts, into a storm drain, water

quality may be affected and an ecosystem can be subtly disturbed.” There is a

connection between what we do and what we end up needing to do to clean up

the environment, and there’s a cost to it.

One of Lidia Lanns’ student’s

decorated T-shirts

“Our goal is to

enhance the

strategies

presently used

(lecture/textbook

learning) and

supplement it with

experiential

learning that

directly relates to

our environment

and our efforts to

improve it.”
21

Sandra Davis

After this one-day camp, Lidia had questioned whether she had the patience or

nurturing skills to teach middle-school children. However, her first job was

teaching seventh and eighth graders in a K–8 school in Miami. I had the opportunity to visit her classroom. It was getting near the end of the school year, and

Lidia was about seven months pregnant, so it was getting tough for her to teach

full time. However, Lidia had good command over the classroom, and she allowed her students intellectual space to learn and share their learning. I could

see all sorts of creative ideas in her students’ work in one group presentation

and of projects displayed on the walls of the classroom.

Sandra Davis

Sandra participated in the CO-LEARNERS Program in 2000 as a returning undergraduate student. Sandra owns a beauty shop in Tallahassee, Florida, and has a

young son. She is finishing her college education and wants to make a difference in the world, especially for young people.

As I set up the program each summer, I tried to provide experiences for teachers in

areas that interested them. In Sandra’s case, she had her heart set on working in the

state of Florida Crime Laboratory in Tallahassee. As a beautician, Sandra had an

interest in hair. Years ago, crime laboratories used hair from the scene of a crime as

evidence. The Crime Laboratory no longer analyzes the hair as they used to do, but

may use the DNA obtained from the root of the hair. Therefore, there were no

experts on hair anymore at the Crime Laboratory, so I found something else for

Sandra. Sandra had done some microbiology in the past, so she was familiar

with working in a laboratory. I found a wonderful opportunity for her

with the analytical part of the Florida Department of Agriculture and

Consumer Services. Sandra had just finished taking analytical

chemistry, so she was ready for this learning experience. As I sorted

Sandra’s comments, I classified them in three categories: the

reflective learner, the reflective teacher, and the thoughtful advisor.

The Reflective Learner

What impressed Sandra about the research was “the opportunity

to gain scientific information and techniques in a matter of weeks

versus months or years.” She found it a challenging, rewarding,

memorable experience. About Jason Stepp and Michael Page, the

research scientists with whom she worked, she said, “I appreciate the willingness and enthusiasm of the scientists to share their knowledge, experience, and

input in my experience in learning, discovery, and the application of prior skills.”

One day at the Department of Agriculture laboratory, Sandra asked permission

to analyze a plum to determine the amount of pesticide in it. This was a powerful experience for her because she could follow her own interests. She ultimately found no detectable pesticide, which made her feel better about feeding

her son fruits and vegetables. After this experience, she wanted to provide other

opportunities for her students in which they could follow their own interests.

Sandra said, “I want my students to really enjoy learning science and understand how it could be put to work for their interests.”

Sandra learned from the readings that we discussed when the CO-LEARNERS

group met weekly. We read from the earlier SERVE monograph on practicing

teachers doing scientific research (Kielborn & Gilmer, 1999). The chapter by

Jacqua Ballas and Terrie Kielborn really caught Sandra’s attention (Ballas &

Kielborn, 1999). This was because shortly after Sandra read the story of how

Terrie and Jacqua had studied how to get rid of a non-native grass called cogon-

“I want my

students to really

enjoy learning

science and

understand how it

could be put to

work for their

interests.”
22

grass, she met some shepherds in a city park in Tallahassee. The shepherds were

trying to get rid of an invasive plant called kudzu, a vine that can take over trees and

anything in its way. The shepherds were grazing a type of haired sheep that could

eat the roots of the kudzu. Sandra saw a parallel in what Terrie and Jacqua

were trying to do to get rid of the cogongrass with what the shepherds

were doing to get rid of kudzu. It started to click for Sandra. She could

see the relevance of science right in her local park.

The Ref lective Teacher

I think Sandra wants to make a difference as a teacher because

she sees so many young people, especially African Americans

like herself, turned off to education. She reflected on herself as a

young learner and thought of how to improve things for children

in school. For instance, she spoke about the advantages of block

scheduling in which students take fewer classes but learn a school

subject for a longer period per day. She thought that middle- and highschool students could profit from this because taking seven classes may

overwhelm many of them. She thought that with such a crowded schedule in the

school day that “it doesn’t leave a whole lot of room for discoveries and learning.”

She thinks it is important for young people (and their parents) to learn about

different developmental stages that they are going through as adolescents and

young adults. When she was young, she did not understand why she felt the

way she did. She wishes that when she was young that she had learned what

she is learning now in psychology classes. She feels that young people can be

“hard on themselves and think they are not smart.” She said, “I think that if the

students had an idea about what is affecting them and what the teacher is trying

to do, then maybe the students could relate to learning and understanding

material better.” She feels that as a teacher she needs to be aware of what is

affecting her students and maintain close contact with their parents. Thus, the

student and the parents can help facilitate what it is that she, as the teacher, is

trying to do to increase that child’s learning and understanding.

Sandra has decided that once she starts teaching, she will bring her students to

the park to see the hair sheep that eat the kudzu. Then the students could

explore aspects that interested them afterwards, to extend their knowledge. She

wants to make learning experiences apply to life. She knows that discovery is

important for people to learn. Sandra said, “My experience with the haired

sheep and kudzu is a great example of interest-stimulated learning.” “[My

students’] interest in the actions of their environment and what is important to

them in life could be used to stimulate them to make discoveries through science as solutions and adventures.” I think that Sandra will provide a stimulating

learning experience for her own students.

The Thoughtful Advisor

For those of us who teach pre-service teachers, Sandra said that it is important

to “make future teachers feel that they can do it and make them feel competent.” Science teachers feel more competent and self-confidant if they have firsthand experience with science, teaching, and technology. Sandra thinks that it is

important to offer science experiences to pre-service and practicing teachers to

provide “a greater awareness and appreciation of science that surrounds and

influences our environment and daily lives.” These experiences are “a great

avenue to direct my future students through, to make explorations in science.”

I had invited Sandra as the only pre-service teacher to attend a Faculty-Teacher

Forum sponsored by our FCETP grant funded by the NSF. Sandra had the opportuHair sheep with close-up

look at the kudzu
23

nity to speak to the faculty from the university and community college community

and to some practicing teachers about her perspective in the forum. When Sandra

was speaking at the FCETP Faculty-Teacher Forum, she made a powerful comment: “No one can change teaching but teachers.” She sees teachers complaining

but not banding together to change things. She feels that teachers are taking the

role of victims rather than as problem solvers, that teachers need to confront the

administration and to collaborate with the parents. Instead of complaining, she

urged teachers to become proactive and find ways to solve the problems that are

facing our K–12 schools. The experience helped her see the bigger picture of

faculty working together to improve teaching and learning in science, mathematics, and education classes at the university and community college level.

Leslie Magalis

Leslie participated in CO-LEARNERS Program in summer 2000 with Sandra

Davis. One of our practicing teachers dropped out of the program a few weeks

after it started, so our practicing teacher, G.S. Rahi, who worked closely with

Sandra, also interacted with Leslie at our weekly group sessions. Leslie was

finishing up her final semester of the Secondary Science and Mathematics

Education major, with a specialization in chemistry and biology. Leslie’s program with the CO-LEARNERS Program was a potpourri of activities that interested her. Leslie is now teaching science in the state of Maine.

Science Connections to the World

As evidenced in the analysis of her interviews, Leslie was particularly interested in environmental concerns and in science connections to the world. She had three major experiences:

1. Meeting Ed Orlando at University of Florida and hearing

about how hatching of alligators is sensitive to environmental pollutants

2. Interacting with Tom Frick at the Florida Department of

Environmental Protection and learning about indicator

species and how streams are assessed

3. Canoeing on a north Florida river and getting to observe and

appreciate a manatee mother and her calf for several hours

It was a powerful experience for Leslie to hear about the alligators from thengraduate student, Ed Orlando, who had done research about pollutants influencing the sex of the hatching alligator. Leslie even held a young alligator. At

that point, Leslie had accepted a teaching position in Maine, and she knew that

there was a mill nearby that was affecting the river. She wanted to know more

about pollutants in rivers. Ed told her about the mosquito fish and crayfish that

are indicator species in Florida. She was more interested in the fish and other

species than alligators because alligators are not found in Maine.

Leslie learned more about testing water quality and assessing river quality from

interacting with Tom Frick at Florida DEP. She heard about the program for

middle-school students that Lidia Lanns had developed during the previous

summer. The DEP had planned to take Leslie out on a boat to assess a lake in

Florida. However, Florida had received so little rain that summer that only one

boat could go out, leaving no room for Leslie. Leslie was disappointed to miss

out on that trip, but she did get a lot of information about the environment from

DEP brochures and websites. Tom spoke with Leslie about what is “normal

science” and how they go about doing their research on the lakes and rivers.

Leslie Magalis

The experience

helped her see the

bigger picture of

faculty working

together to

improve teaching

and learning in

science,

mathematics, and

education classes

at the university

and community

college level.
24

Leslie wanted to learn more about test kits about assessing water quality. Leslie

said, “The first thing they do is look at the lake or the river to see what it is being

used for, how many buildings are around it, and whether it is commercial or

residential or wild; that way, they can have a direction. It was really fascinating.”

One summer after the CO-LEARNERS Program, Leslie got a one-week, inservice course for teachers in water quality at an undergraduate college in

Maine, so now she is ready to implement some of the ideas that she learned

during the summers in her science classroom.

The trip to see the manatees was not formally part of CO-LEARNERS Program, but

Leslie talked about it in group sessions. I interacted with her on this, as I am particularly captivated by the manatees myself. Leslie spoke of quietly sitting in her canoe,

just appreciating the opportunity of seeing the amazing mammals up close. She

could see the scars from boat propellers on the backs of the manatees. Just seeing a

manatee come up out of the water and seeing and hearing it breathe in front of you

is amazing. Leslie and I could share the exhilaration of being close to nature.

Thinking Ahead to Her Classroom

Leslie knew that her first teaching job would be with special education students.

She would be teaching all subjects. She wanted to “integrate English and science and go on field trips and have [the students] write up stuff.” However, she

knew she wanted to “bring [her] own expertise to the classroom and have a nice

integrated classroom.” Leslie also said

I feel that I have a strong connection to doing science, and I know the value of

trying to do real science and getting in touch with scientists in the local area and

having them come in and talk with the kids.

After Leslie started her second year of teaching, she said that the

CO-LEARNERS Program was the best experience for her. She built

on some biological research that she had done earlier as an

undergraduate at FSU. I think CO-LEARNERS Program was good

for her because she was able to pursue her own interests and

explore what she found meaningful. She knew what she

wanted to learn, and she found ways to do just that.

Rebecca Brockwell

Rebecca Brockwell participated in a program developed in a collaboration between the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Science

Foundation’s Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation Program. I was

one who was invited from an NSF-funded project to the Argonne National

Laboratory in the fall of 1999 to provide some feedback on ideas that the DOE

and NSF were developing for the Pre-service Student Teacher Training Fellowships. I met the representatives from the ORNL and told them about our FCETP

CO-LEARNERS Program that we had started the previous summer. Afterwards, I

sent them a copy of our SERVE Meaningful Science monograph on practicing

teachers doing scientific research. ORNL decided to include a practicing teacher

to work with the pre-service teachers in their program.

When it was time for CETP pre-service teachers to apply for the program at

ORNL, I encouraged the pre-service teachers in my Science, Technology, and

Society course to apply. Rebecca, one of my best students, was accepted. ORNL

was the site for CETP pre-service teachers from Florida, Louisiana, and Virginia.

Rebecca Brockwell

The CO-LEARNERS

Program was good

for her because

she was able to

pursue her own

interests and

explore what she

found meaningful.
25

I decided to visit Rebecca on site and learn about this program. I interviewed her

after dinner on the night of my arrival. The next day, she took me on a tour of the

National Transportation Research Center (NTRC) where I met her research mentors, Drs. David Greene and Janet Hopson. I also saw the site where the diesel

fuels were tested. Before this trip to ORNL, I did not know much about diesel

engines, so it was an opportunity for me to learn. I sorted Rebecca’s words from

the interview and some e-mail into four categories: applied science, science

policy, teaching, and mentoring by scientists and teachers.

Applied Science

Rebecca’s project was to develop educational materials for a website on diesel

engines [www.fueleconomy.gov]. First, Rebecca wanted to understand and

learn the material herself and then to think of how to bring that learning to

other teachers and their students. Therefore, in the interview, she initially focused on telling me about diesel engines being high-compression engines so

spark plugs were not necessary. Since the fuel is so highly compressed (using a

30 or 40 compression ratio), it combusts on its own without needing a spark.

Because more air is used in the compression, there is more for the catalytic

converter to do to reduce particulates from the increased volume of air that

must go through the converter. Engineers are designing catalytic converters that

work well with diesel engines to meet the forthcoming emission standards.

Rebecca commented to me, “I figured out so much about how a car works.” She

could see the relevance of understanding how a car works for the students who

are interested in such things. She said, “This will help me with the boy-factor in

my classroom.”

Science Policy

When I sorted Rebecca’s text, the category with the most subheadings was

learning science policy. This is not too surprising because Rebecca’s mentor,

David Greene, is an economist and works with others from Washington, DC, to

develop policy on transportation and fuels.

In this category of science policy, there were seven subheadings:

 Exhaust systems

 National laboratories

 Spallation neutron source (i.e., source of a pulsed beam of neutrons

[www.sns.gov] currently under construction at ORNL)

 Human genome project [www.ornl.gov/hgmis]

 Computing [www.csm.ornl.gov]

 Energy [www.ornl.gov/divisions/energy/energy.html]

 Global change [http://globalchange.gov]

She learned about many of these categories from the weekly meetings with her

teacher mentor, David Stanton, and the two other pre-service teachers.

Over the summer, Rebecca became convinced that our federal government

needs to insist on higher standards for our vehicular engines. She said, “I mean,

there is no demand here for diesel cars because gas and diesel are both cheap.”

However, Rebecca added

I’m not a big advocate of government regulation for everything, but I have

become convinced this summer that unless the federal government says these

are the standards and that everybody has to meet them, there is no reason for

any of it to change because people are willing to buy the cars like they are now.
26

Greene has authored Energy and Transportation (1996). According to Rebecca,

Greene encourages people to buy a smaller car because then everybody would

be safer. Instead, we tend to think, “‘Oh, I want to be safe’, so you go out and

buy a tank for your kids, when, in fact, you’re making things more dangerous for

everybody,” Rebecca said.

In a course that Rebecca had taken with me, we studied the Manhattan Project

and ORNL as being the site where uranium was separated into its various

isotopes to get enough of the uranium isotope 235 to make a fission nuclear

bomb during World War II. As an outgrowth of this development, first the

Atomic Energy Commission and later the U.S. Department of Energy wanted to

know how nuclear bombs affect human genetic material. The Human Genome

Project started in 1989 with funding from the Department of Energy and the

National Institutes of Health. In February 2001, the entire human genome was

reported as essentially complete. This was ahead of schedule and was an enormous project, reporting on the sequence of 3 billion base pairs.

At ORNL, there is a “mouse house” where scientists test the effects of changing genes

in mice and “seeing what happens.” Rebecca was impressed by a “little CAT scanner

for a mice, to look at their whole bodies. The scientists anesthetize the mice and then

scan them, so that they can see physical things whereas otherwise they’d have to

dissect the mice, which prevents them from seeing other things.”

More central to Rebecca’s project on diesel engines, however, is the

science and technology policy that Rebecca learned about energy

use. Rebecca said, “My center is working on global warming, which

relates to energy, and we are doing it because we are using all

these hydrocarbons...” By this, Rebecca meant that we are using

hydrocarbons for our fuel in automobiles, trucks, and airplanes for

transportation. Rebecca is concerned with how quickly we are

using up the hydrocarbons that were laid down by years of decomposition of plant material. Rebecca noted that it took millions of

years for plants to take the carbon dioxide out of the air and for the

plants to decompose it to build the reserves of oil that we have had

available to us. Now in about 150 years, we will reverse all of that by

using up the oil and putting the carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. “What

are we going to do? Do people really think nothing is going to happen, that we are

going to go back to horses and buggies when it’s over? I don’t know how many

people will be willing to do that,” Rebecca commented.

Teaching

Rebecca knows that she wants to teach chemistry in high school. She has had

some experience teaching Sunday school at her church to middle-school students, and she felt that middle school wasn’t her calling. Rebecca said, “I think

teaching is a gift, and some people are called to that, to that puberty level.”

Since the summer experience at ORNL, Rebecca has just completed her internship at Rickards High School in Tallahassee, and she’s looking forward to teaching her own high-school students. It will be interesting to see by the end of the

semester how she feels about that.

While Rebecca was at ORNL, she e-mailed me and said, “I just wanted to let you

know that I had a breakthrough today.” She had heard about the idea of constructivism beforehand when she was reading the SERVE monograph, Meaningful

Science, but had not fully understood it. She said, “All the teachers spoke about

constructing knowledge and becoming scientists.” Plus, she had been hearing

about the concept in all of her education classes, but she hadn’t seen it in action.

Basically, at ORNL she learned how important it was “to make a science topic

Lidia Lanns’ students working

in a collaborative group
27

relevant in order for them to carry the understanding out of the classroom.” In her

own searching for material to construct the educational website at ORNL

[www.ornl.gov], she saw the website at Los Alamos National Laboratory

[www.lanl.gov/worldview] “that has a wonderful program on curriculum development as well as examples of things people have done.” The concept of

constructivism became real to her through this experience.

Mentoring by Scientists and Teachers

Rebecca had two scientists at ORNL who acted as her scientist mentors, plus she

had me as her science professor at FSU. Rebecca spoke about David Greene, an

economist and social scientist, with whom she worked. She respects his energy and

drive to get things accomplished. He brings things to fruition. He can listen and “talk

the talk” of social scientists, natural scientists, and teachers.

Rebecca knew I would be interested to know that David was a member of the

Committee on the Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy

(CAFE) at the National Academy of Sciences. David testified in Congress on this

committee’s report while Rebecca worked with him, and he wrote a dissenting

opinion about smaller cars and safety. Rebecca found this very interesting. She saw

how scientists can make a difference and contribute to our country’s decisions.

The lessons Rebecca learned from her mentor teacher, David Stanton, were

critical as well. Rebecca said, “The biggest thing that I think will help directly in

the classroom is every week the PST has done a tour of some kind to a different

part of the lab.” For example, the pre-service teachers saw the graphite reactor

one week and the “mouse house” another week. What has made a difference is

that, as Rebecca said, “I’ve really been able to see a lot of different types of

things and see how it all connects.”

What I have seen with the pre-service, high-school teachers in the CO-LEARNERS Program is that there is much the teachers can learn. Each one’s individual

experience was shaped by prior experiences and by one’s personal interests

during the research project. I think that a program that accommodates a

teacher’s interest will be a powerful force for change.

What really counts is tactical authenticity. Guba and Lincoln (1989) say, “It is not

enough to be stimulated to action. It is quite possible to want, and even to need,

to act, but to lack the power to do so in any meaningful way” (p. 250). I ask to

what degree are the pre-service teachers as stakeholders in the CO-LEARNERS

experience empowered to act once they have their own classrooms?

Of the five high-school teachers I studied, only two, Leslie and Lidia, are teaching now. Leslie Magalis moved to Maine right after graduation, so I could not

observe her teaching.

I visited Lidia Lanns, who was teaching middle school in Miami. My visit only

lasted one day, but I did observe her students as active learners, mainly as they

worked together in collaborative groups. I was there on a day with student presentations, so at this point, I would have to reserve judgment until there are more

opportunities for me to interact with Lidia and her students in the classroom.

However, I did sense a catalytic authenticity in how Lidia’s students interacted with

one another and how they learned from one another and from Lidia. I noted that

the group that presented asked me (in front of their peers) for feedback on their

presentation. It was obvious to me that they wanted to learn from the situation. On

that same day, I also visited one of Lidia’s biology classes, and these students were

especially interested to hear about my work with leukemia cells and had many

Conclusion
28

good questions to ask me. I could also see from the work that Lidia’s students had

displayed on the walls of the classroom that environmental science was a key

theme, like in Lidia’s science experience at DEP. Therefore, I could detect the echo

of what Lidia learned in the CO-LEARNERS Program in Lidia’s own students.

There were several themes that reappeared in the oral and written discourse of

the pre-service teachers: science content, collaboration, and technology. These

are the three triads of our CO-LEARNERS Program.

Science Content

One common theme that was clear from the analysis was that all five highschool pre-service teachers learned science content. The science content often

included two areas, like earth science and biology, or biology and environmental science. It tended to be interdisciplinary at the boundaries of traditional

disciplines, where interesting problems need to be solved. Rebecca’s learning

was focused more on applied science that had science policy implications

connected to her learning. Most of the teachers emphasized the importance of a

pre-service teacher seeing the connection of the science to the real world.

Collaboration

Another theme that permeated all the discourse was the importance of collaboration, whether it is among various scientists from different disciplines or of preservice and in-service teachers or with teachers and scientists. It was important

to the pre-service teachers to have connections from the schools to the rest of

the community. Many of the teachers had tutored middle- or high-school students while they were still undergraduates. This gave the teachers valuable

insights into teaching and learning.

For instance, Lidia collaborated with Sherri, the practicing teacher in Lidia’s COLEARNERS team, to develop curricula on environmental concerns for middleschool students. This helped the DEP to reach students better, but it also helped

Lidia to develop a deeper understanding of the environmental concepts that she

was learning at the time and to think of how to bring such topics to students.

Technology

Learning to utilize technology to record and interpret scientific data was critical in

Gregory’s experience. He had been a novice at technology at the start of the

summer, but he quickly learned how to utilize it, not only for the science but also

for presentation of what he had learned. He presented his PowerPoint slides at a

reception for our local science teachers’ annual social meeting. This experience

with technology opened a world to him, and now he is doing well in graduate

school in information technology. He may bring this expertise that he’s developing

to teaching, perhaps at the higher education level rather than K–12.

Sandra also utilized technology in her science experience with the rapid solvent

extraction method. This equipment had just been ordered, and Jason, her mentor

scientist, was just beginning to do the standard curves on various known samples,

so they could learn the utility of the method. Sandra saw the advantage of using

this technology as it is much quicker to do the analysis than the usual method.

Sandra emphasized that it’s important for teachers to learn the new technology.

Influence of CO-LEARNERS Program on Scientists

Bybee (1998) encourages scientists and engineers to become involved in addressing the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) and translating

I could also see from

the work that Lidia’s

students had displayed

on the walls of the

classroom that

environmental science

was a key theme, like

in Lidia’s science

experience at DEP.

Therefore, I could

detect the echo of

what Lidia learned in

the CO-LEARNERS

Program in Lidia’s own

students.
29

them into effectual science programs that meet the needs of our future teachers.

We did have many scientists involved in the CO-LEARNERS Program, and they

volunteered their time in effective ways. I think the CO-LEARNERS Program

affected them as well. Many of the scientists had children still in K–12 school, so

they felt more connected to the schools and enjoyed working with pre-service

and in-service teachers. I contacted many of them to proof what the teachers

wrote and get their feedback on the chapters, especially to get the science

content correct. They were helpful in this respect.

When Lori Livingston Hahn contacted the scientist, Jan Macauley, to get her

feedback on Christy’s chapter, Lori learned that Jan was interested in going back

to school to become a teacher. Consequently, I approached Jan to write her own

chapter, which she did enthusiastically. With her background as a practicing

scientist, Jan will bring much to the teaching of middle-school science. Therefore, we not only brought pre-service and in-service teachers together, but we

also recruited a scientist into teaching.

Similar Themes to What Has Been Observed with Practicing Teachers

Some of the common themes that we have noted with pre-service teachers in

this monograph have been observed with practicing teachers. In the Meaningful

Science SERVE monograph (Kielborn & Gilmer, 1999), the practicing teachers

chose environmental research, much like the pre-service teachers in this monograph. In the earlier monograph, we emphasized the importance of teachers

becoming “part of the culture and discourse of science in a ‘contextual learning’

experience” (p. 11).

In the NRC (2000) book, Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards,

one practicing high-school physics teacher, after a three-year masters program

that involved learning inquiry, said, “These experiences demonstrated the

complexity and importance of learning to do science as well as learning about

science” (p. 89). The NRC stated the importance of “the need for teachers to do

inquiry to learn its meaning, its value, and how to use it to help students learn”

(p. 91) and of developing a community of teacher-learners who “mirror the

scientific communities” in which teachers have been immersed.

What We Would Do Differently Next Time

I would require a written report on what each teacher learned as a result of the

summer’s research. During the first summer in Tallahassee, I required that both the

practicing and pre-service teachers make a presentation at a local teachers’ group

social meeting. In some ways it was good, because other local practicing teachers

found out about opportunities with FCETP and the CO-LEARNERS Program. The

teachers in the CO-LEARNERS Program chose to do either a poster or a PowerPoint

presentation. Although there were positives to this, in the next summers I required a

written report, due right at the end of the summer, while all the ideas were fresh in

the teachers’ minds. The teachers had a chance to get clarification on concepts

while they were still working with their scientist mentors. Also I learned to go over

the report with the teacher. The teacher and I revised the paper online, as ideas

became clarified through discussion, and that became the final report.

In Lori Livingston Hahn’s Chapter 7, she has indicated other areas that we could

change. One of those I think is critically important is to have at least two scientists involved in the mentoring. It is good for the teachers to see the culture of

science, how scientists interact with each other, and how they debate methodologies to utilize in the experiments and how to interpret results. Also, if one

sci-entist is busy or traveling, there is another scientist available.

It was important to

the pre-service

teachers to have

connections from

the schools to the

rest of the

community. This

gave the teachers

valuable insights

into teaching and

learning.
30

I also think it would be good to arrange for the pre-service teacher to do the

internship in the classroom of the teacher with whom the pre-service teacher

worked in the scientific laboratory. It would continue the connection and enhance the communication.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993). Benchmarks for Science

Literacy. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.

Ballas, J. L., & Kielborn, T. L. (1999). Teachers can be scientists, too! In T. L. Kielborn & P.

J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching science (pp. 27-

37). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Bosseler, M. L. (1999). Learning and growing as a scientist and science educator. In T. L.

Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science (pp. 95-109). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Brock, J. (1999). Ghost shrimp and fish bring real-world experience to a science classroom. In T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry

+ teaching science (pp. 57-65). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the

authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Bybee, R. W. (March/April 1998). Improving precollege science education—The involvement of scientists and engineers. Journal of College Science Teaching, 324-328.

DOE (Department of Energy) (2001). Department of Energy—Office of Science: PreService Student Teacher (PST) Training Fellowships. [www.scied.science.doe.gov/

PST/index.htm].

Erickson, F. (1998). Qualitative research methods for science education. In B. J. Fraser &

K. G. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook of science education, Part 2 (pp. 1155-1173),

Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (FCETP) (2001).

[www.fcetp.org].

Foley, K. R. (1999). How a crab’s sense of smell changes the life of a teacher. In T. L.

Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science (pp. 39-45). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Gilmer, P. J. (1999). Teachers learning inquiry through scientific research. In T. L. Kielborn

& P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching science (pp.

11-25). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Glasersfeld, E. von. (1989). Cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. Synthese,

80, 121-140.

Grant, B., & Vatnick, I. (1998). A multiweek inquiry for an undergraduate introductory

biology laboratory. Journal of College Science Teaching, 28, 88-93.

Greene, D. L. (1996). Transportation and energy. Lansdowne, VA: Eno Transportation

Foundation, Inc.

Greenspan, Y. F. (1999). Scientific inquiry: A journey for a teacher and students. In T. L.

Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science (pp. 79-93). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

Publications.

Hahn, L. L. (1999). Investigating fish mortality: A science teacher’s learning experience. In

T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science (pp. 47-55). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Hahn, L. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (2000, October). Transforming pre-service teacher education

programs with science research experiences for prospective science teachers. Paper

presented at the Southeastern Association for the Teachers of Science, Auburn, AL.

References
31

Kielborn, T. L. (1999a). Blossoming of science involvement through algae research. In T.

L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science (pp. 67-77). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Kielborn, T. L. (1999b). Forming partnerships: How a teacher can become involved in

scientific research. In T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers

doing inquiry + teaching science (pp. 111-119). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Kielborn, T. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (Eds.) (1999). Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science. Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: The

University of Chicago Press.

Lemke, J. L. (2001). Articulating communities: Sociocultural perspectives on science

education. Journal of Research in Science Education 38, 296-316.

Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P. W., Love, N., & Stiles, K. E. (1998). Designing professional

development for teachers of science and mathematics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin

Press, Inc.

Maryland’s Teachers’ Summer Research Program (2001).

[www.towson.edu/~smross].

Melear, C. T., Goodlaxson, J. D., Warne, T. R., & Hickok, L. G. (2000). Teaching preservice

teachers how to do science: The research experience. Journal of Science Teacher

Education 11, 1-14.

National Research Council (NRC) (1989). Fulfilling the promise: Biology education in the

nation’s schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Research Council (NRC) (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Research Council (NRC) (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

NSF Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (2001a). [www.ehr.nsf.gov/

ehr/due/awards/cetp.asp].

National Science Foundation (2001b, April). Research experiences for preservice teachers

(sponsored by the Maryland Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation).

Session at annual meeting of principal investigators and co-principal investigators of

the Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation, Arlington, VA.

SERVE (2001). [www.serve.org].

SWEPT (2001). Providing Scientific Work Experiences for Teachers. [www.trianglecoalition.org/swept/swplan.htm].

Taylor, P. C., Gilmer, P. J., & Tobin, K. (2002a). Introducing transformations. In P. C. Taylor, P.

J. Gilmer, & K. Tobin (Eds.). Transforming undergraduate science education: Social

constructivist perspectives (pp. ix-xxiv). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishers, Inc.

Taylor, P. C., Gilmer, P. J., & Tobin, K. (Eds.) (2002b). Transforming undergraduate science

education: Social constructivist perspectives. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishers, Inc.

Tobin, K., & Tippins, D. (1993). Constructivism as a referent for teaching and learning. In

K. Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 3-21). Hillsdale,

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Weld, J. D., & French, D. P. (2001). An undergraduate science laboratory field experience

for pre-service science teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education 12, 133-142.
Sandra Davis is working in the pesticide

research laboratory at the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
33

Real Science for Real Science Teachers

Sandra Davis

My research project was a challenge, yet it was a rewarding and memorable

experience. As a participant in the Florida Collaborative for Excellence in

Teacher Preparation and CO-LEARNERS Program, the director, Penny J. Gilmer,

placed me with Jason Stepp and Michael Page, scientists at the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, in Tallahassee, Florida. Jason’s

summer research assignment was to develop and validate a pesticide residue

test procedure using the recently acquired Accelerated Solvent Extraction

equipment. Michael was Jason’s supervisor.

I wanted to learn analytical chemistry and methods of separating and isolating

molecules. In addition, I wanted to use sophisticated instruments that can

separate and quantitate molecules using liquid and gas chromatography. I was

excited about the project because I would have a lot to bring to my future science classrooms from this experience. I planned to share with my future students the importance of mathematics and science, how they are applied to

solving real-life problems, and why mathematics and science should not be

forgotten when the school year ends.

The scientists were enthusiastic about sharing their knowledge and expertise.

As a result of this experience, I have increased my science knowledge, learned

new laboratory skills and techniques, and gained a new perspective toward the

work that scientists do in an analytic research laboratory. Concurrently, I fulfilled

three credit hours that I needed for my undergraduate degree in teaching secondary science.

The Weekly Meetings

Each week, the CO-LEARNERS Program participants and scientists met with Dr.

Penny Gilmer to discuss assigned readings and talk about the upcoming activities

and tours on the schedule. We updated each other about our research projects and

shared the new and interesting events we were experiencing. We reflected on how

our experiences were influencing our views toward the teaching of science and

how we anticipated this would impact our classroom planning as future teachers.

The Readings

Our readings were from the earlier SERVE monograph, Meaningful Science: Teachers Doing Inquiry + Teaching Science.

1

 At first, I was not very enthusiastic, although I

thought it might be somewhat interesting to read about science teachers. I quickly

discovered that the assigned readings were thought-provoking. The authors

revealed the nature of science that surrounds me daily and helped me direct my

questions as I discovered new things during the research project and on the field

trips. I learned to apply the scientific method to consider factors that affect our

environment; therefore, I gained a better understanding of the problem.

Tours and Field Trips

Dr. Gilmer planned a full schedule of fascinating activities and field trips for the

FCETP students and students from the Alliance for Minority Participation.2

 Such

trips included the Odyssey Science Center in Tallahassee, the Florida Department of Law Enforcement Crime Laboratory, research facilities at the University

The Learning

Experience

Activities in the

CO-LEARNERS

Program

My awareness

will guide me to

plan more handson activities in my

science classroom

in order to

stimulate student

learning.
34

of Florida in Gainesville, and Sea World in Orlando. We also spent time in the

computer laboratory visiting interactive websites. The tours, readings, personal

experiences, and research opportunities enlightened me about scientific research and prompted me to consider students’ expectations in my classroom

and how they may view science class activities.

FCETP Faculty-Teacher Forum

At the end of the summer, I was invited to attend a FCETP Faculty-Teacher

Forum sponsored by the Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation in Orlando. Those in attendance were university and community college

science and mathematics faculty members as well as six practicing science or

mathematics teachers. I was the only prospective teacher to attend.

The Readings

The readings in Meaningful Science complimented my personal discoveries at the

laboratories. Most applicable was the article about cogongrass by Jacqua Ballas

and Terrie Kielborn.3

 When I began reading this article, I was not very impressed

with studying a type of grass as a research project. Then I became intrigued by

how tough and troublesome the cogongrass problem is and how important it was

to Terrie and Jacqua to map the area the cogongrass covered, apply an effective

herbicide, and get the invasion under control.

Chance Opportunity to See a Connection to Research

Not long after I read about the cogongrass research project, my

family and I visited a local park for an after-dinner stroll. When I

got out of the car, I noticed the smell of animal manure; somehow I had overlooked the group of sheep grazing in a field at the

entrance to the park. As we walked over to see them, we decided

that they were not sheep but goats. They were unique looking,

marked with spots and patches one would expect to see on Elsie

the cow.4

 The animals were happily eating the grass and weeds

within the electric fence that enclosed a section of the field. Later, as

my 13-month-old baby pointed at the animals, I spoke with the shepherd

to learn more about these animals. It turned out that the grazing animals were

hair sheep, a unique breed of sheep that grows straight hair instead of wool. The

sheep are part of a pilot project to eliminate the kudzu vine that grows rampant in

many areas of the park, choking and killing the trees. Kudzu is an exotic plant

species that runs rampant through parks in Florida. These sheep eat the kudzu to

the base of the plant, which often kills the vine.5

These researchers were determined to control the kudzu invasion, like Jacqua

and Terrie who wrote about the cogongrass, so I told the shepherds about the

cogongrass control project. One of them mentioned that they had tried to

graze hair sheep on cogongrass to try to eliminate it in another study, but the

sheep choose not to eat it. I remember reading in the SERVE monograph that

the cogongrass leaf has rough edges due to the presence of silica bodies in the

plant tissue.

The Crime Laboratory Research Tour

I was the only CO-LEARNERS Program participant who went on the tour of the

Florida Department of Law Enforcement Crime Laboratory. I expressed a desire

to see it because for my research study, I had hoped to study hair samples from

crime scenes. My interest in hair stems from my owning a beauty shop in TallaPersonal

Experience

Grazing hair sheep
35

hassee while I am finishing my undergraduate degree. I deal with hair every day

and thought I could bring something to the table with my knowledge of hair.

Also I could increase my own learning while working at the Crime Laboratory.

Much to my dismay, I learned that hair analysis is not done nearly as much as it

used to be, with the advent of DNA analysis. Therefore, there was not a research

place for me there.

However, the Crime Laboratory tour was fascinating. I was not aware of the

different departments and types of analysis that are conducted there. Some of

the forensic analyses include chemical testing, serology, and fingerprint identification using powerful computers.

In the chemical laboratory, sophisticated chromatographs are used to detect the

presence of illegal drugs and identify their purity. In the serology laboratory,

technicians analyze samples of bodily fluids, such as blood and saliva, from

crime victims or suspects to determine the blood type or DNA profile. In the

fingerprint laboratory, various techniques are used to “lift” prints from different

surfaces, including the use of preservative methods to lift fingerprints from

severed hands. We learned that sometimes this evidence is used to link a suspect with a crime. At other times, fingerprints are used when a victim’s identity

cannot be determined because of a disfigured face.

The computer laboratory picks up where the fingerprint laboratory leaves off.

In many cases, fingerprints can only provide limited details of a person’s identity. If a photograph is available, it could be quite old. In many cases, a victim’s

face may be disfigured; not to mention that when “missing person pictures” are

posted, the photo is sometimes old (and therefore not very helpful). However,

in the computer laboratory, images can be produced to show restructuring of a

disfigured face or create the effects of aging based on the individual’s facial

features and structure.

Pesticide Laboratory with State of Florida

I was assigned to work with research scientists at the Pesticide Laboratory with the

Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services in Tallahassee, Florida. Michael

Page, a Florida State University alumnus and laboratory manager, had a

project already in progress when I started. He had assigned Jason Stepp

to develop and validate a procedure for using the newly acquired

Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) instrument [Test Methods for

Evaluating Solid Wastes Physical.Chemical Methods, SW-846. EPA

Method 3545, Third Edition, December, 1996.]. The Environmental

Protection Agency has recently approved the ASE, an automated

device designed to extract semi-volatile organic compounds

(SVOCs) from solid materials. The resulting solution contains the

targeted analyte, such as pesticide residue or fertilizer components.

Using the ASE can reduce sample preparation time and speed up

analysis while using smaller volumes of solvents that are less toxic

than methylene chloride, such as acetone and hexane.

Sample Preparation

Samples are brought to this laboratory to test for the presence of pesticides; in

addition, the laboratory equipment is used to verify the composition and formula of commercial pesticides and ensure that the manufacturer accurately

states the percentage of active ingredients. Calibrating and maintaining the

analytical equipment is tedious and complicated, and preparing samples traditionally is labor-intensive. The method used prior to receiving the ASE was very

With my new

understanding of

what scientists do

and how

researchers are

working to solve

real-life problems,

I can show my

students that

school

mathematics and

science should not

be forgotten when

the school year

ends.

Michael Page, an FSU

alumnus, was my

research mentor.

My Research

Site
36

lengthy due to the number of extractions and large quantities of diverse solvents

required for partitioning of an analyte and cleaning up the sample. The original

extractions usually take three to six hours, and the instrumental analysis takes

one to two hours in “real” time. Work is performed in sets, which may take from

24 to 48 hours.

The motivation for developing the new ASE method is that it would speed up

the preparation and analysis of samples. In addition, it would require much less

solvent, thereby saving on expense of not only purchasing the solvents but also

on disposal of used solvents. A critically important motivation for developing

the new method is to reduce the volume and dependence on ozone-depleting

chemicals, such as methylene chloride.

Many semi-solid or solid samples (i.e., grass, hay, soil, animal tissue)

are analyzed for pesticide residues. Such samples required specific

preparation before the ASE can analyze them. For instance, most

solid samples must be ground and dried for extraction. This

procedure is simple when the soil sample is free of roots, rocks, or

hardened clay. When fruits and vegetables are received for testing, the samples are cut into small pieces and placed in a blender

for further grinding. A solvent is added, and the slush is filtered

through a funnel plugged with glass wool. I watched samples of

watermelons being prepared for analysis. Aside from all of the water;

it did not appear to be a difficult procedure.

On the other hand, preparing the shrubbery samples took more effort. Cutting

the branches into small pieces with scissors was tedious. It is not unusual for

the laboratory to receive samples that require a great deal of preparation work,

thereby delaying the process of extraction and analysis.

The Saving Grace of the ASE

The Accelerated Solvent Extractor uses high temperature and high pressure

distillation to speed up the extraction and analysis process and eliminates the

need for multiple solvents and a lot of glassware. Whereby previous analytic

methods used hundreds of milliliters of volatile solvents for each sample, the

ASE uses only 15–40 mL of acetone or hexane per sample. Using the ASE,

extraction time is only 15 minutes per sample, and a full chemical analysis can

be completed within 24 hours. I read a lot about the traditional and ASE methods of extraction; the comparisons helped me to appreciate the speed, accuracy,

and convenience of the ASE.

My Role in the Project: Assisting in Validating ASE Procedure

When I started at the laboratory, Jason had already started to validate the procedure for using the ASE. Jason described his plans for each step of the validation

process, and I assisted him in the preparation work and set-up of sample runs.

Once we extracted the samples by the ASE, Jason directed the analysis using a

chromatograph. We continued to run sample matrix blanks and “spiked” matrices using various pesticides.

Once we got acceptable recoveries, we began testing the parameters for method

detection limit (MDL). Jason spiked the sample matrices with specific quantities

of one group of pesticide to be analyzed each day. The ASE performed as expected on every prepared sample matrix. The “blanks” were always blank, and

we detected the spiked sample matrices at the expected levels. We analyzed one

spiked sample matrix at 0.06 ng/g (i.e., at parts per billion); this is very low in

comparison to what is considered a “hit.”

I believe hands-on

laboratory

research activities

can be a valuable

experience for

enhancing teaching

and learning.

Here I am preparing

a sample in the hood.
37

At this point, Jason’s work was nearly complete, and his final task was writing

the report to clearly show the accuracy of the procedure and the results of the

analyses. The testing procedure will be considered valid “for official use” after

being reviewed and approved by the laboratory’s Quality Assurance Quality

Control Committee.6

Rethinking My Plans to Teach Science

How will my summer experience influence my future teaching? When

I become a science teacher, I will have a greater awareness and appreciation of what scientists do in research laboratories. I believe that

my awareness will guide me to plan more hands-on activities in

my science classroom in order to stimulate student learning.

Perhaps my students will discover that science class is an adventure. I would love for them to understand scientific concepts

and enjoy my teaching so much that other students hear about

it and want to take my classes.

My experience with the hair sheep motivated me to learn more

about what animals eat as well as how to control kudzu. I wonder

how a field trip to the park would stimulate my students’ interest in

science. The logistics are fairly simple. The trip would not be expensive,

the students could bring a brown bag lunch, and it would take very little time

from their other classes. Perhaps they would want to learn more about the sheep’s

diet, behaviors, and how their grazing on kudzu helps to maintain a balance in the

park ecosystem. It could be a great opportunity for individual and group discoveries.

Rethinking the High School Day

I think administrators and teachers should rethink the way the school day is

designed. When I was in high school, we had only six classes per day; by my

tenth-grade year, the seventh period was optional. That’s a daunting schedule for

students because they cannot focus a lot of attention on each class, and if they do

focus on one class, then they are pushing another class aside. If every teacher is

demanding, then some students may not be able to keep up. I think that block

scheduling has potential benefits, although some children might get a little bored

or tired of sitting in one class for too long. I don’t think the school schedule leaves

much room for discovery learning. Often students either decide to actively participate in classes in which they are interested and work less in the other classes, or

they decide not to pay attention in any of their classes. It seems that there are few

students who are willing to tackle the demands of all of their classes.

Utilizing Hands-On Science Activities

I believe hands-on laboratory research activities can be a valuable experience

for enhancing teaching and learning. Learning about chromatography and how

pesticides are analyzed may lead students to become curious about the use of

pesticides on their favorite fruits and vegetables, and how the use of pesticides

in areas near their local water supply is being monitored. I brought a plum to the

pesticide laboratory one day for lunch this summer and wondered how many

pesticide residues were present. Jason and I decided to screen it using the ASE.

The results were negative for the presence of pesticides.

Although my science students may not have access to sophisticated pesticide

laboratory equipment to analyze their plant samples, I would like to stimulate

this type of thinking and explorative interest in my students. I want my students

to really enjoy learning science and understand how it could be put to work for

their interests.

My Ref lections

As a result of this

experience, I have

increased my

science knowledge,

learned new

laboratory skills

and techniques,

and gained a new

perspective toward

the work that

scientists do in an

analytic research

laboratory.

Hair sheep with

a shepherd
38

Attending Professional Meetings

I suggest that future teachers attend professional meetings, such the FCETP FacultyTeacher Forum. When speaking with the undergraduate and graduate students

for a special session, I shared how taking an education of psychology

course at Florida State University influenced me. As I learned about

the different theories of sociologists and psychologists, I wondered

why someone had not told me about “normal” child development

when I was younger. Perhaps if they had, I could have been a

better student when I was in elementary, middle, and high school.

If students could better understand the different stages that they

are going through, I think it would help their learning in school.

For example, they might say to themselves, “Oh, okay, this is

normal for me at this stage—it’s normal to want to fit in at high

school and normal to have an identity crisis.” If they can accept

themselves, they may keep trying in school.

There is a strategy that teachers use in the classroom that is based on educational theory, but students do not usually know it. I think that if students can

understand what a teacher is trying to do, then maybe they can relate to learning and understanding the material better.

I now have a lot to bring to my future science classroom from the summer COLEARNERS experience. I am eager to share with my future students the importance of

mathematics and science. With my new understanding of what scientists do and how

researchers are working to solve real-life problems, I can show my students that

school mathematics and science should not be forgotten when the school year ends.

1 Kielborn, T. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (Eds.) (1999). Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

2 The LS-AMP (Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation) program is open to

minority students [http://skcweb.skc.edu/amp]. It provides a summer of workshops

in mathematics and sciences courses for students to attend the summer before they

start college. The workshops are designed to strengthen the students’ skills and

expand their career opportunities.

3 Ballas, J. L., & Kielborn, T. L. (1999). Teachers can be scientists, too! In T. L. Kielborn &

P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching science (pp.

27-38). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

4 Elsie is a Holstein cow featured in Borden chocolate milk TV advertisements, circa

1970s.

5 The biological mowing machines are hair sheep, which are non-wool-producing ovines.

Hair sheep are recent immigrants to the United States from more tropical climates and

are well suited to heat, humidity, and rain like you find in Tallahassee, especially in the

summers. Most of the flock in my chapter are the St. Croix White, the Barbados Black

Belly (brown with black bellies) and the South African Dorper (black heads and white

bodies). Bellwether Solutions of New Hampshire has leased this flock to Tallahassee,

Florida’s park service for a five-year pilot project to kill the kudzu.

The idea is to employ a technique called “mob grazing,” in which hundreds of

shoulder-to-shoulder sheep strip down every green thing in their path. Before the

sheep get a chance to tear into any desirable trees, the shepherd moves the flock. A

few days later, the sheep are back again, stressing the kudzu vines’ underground

tubers so much, officials hope, that the plants can at last be eradicated for good by

using a potent dose of weed killer.

Endnotes

Here I am at the FCETP

Faculty-Teacher Forum.

Conclusion
39

I am using the ASE

equipment with Jason Stepp,

one of my research mentors.

6 Method Development Process (8 Steps)

1. Conduct literature search

2. Set up experiment

3. Establish instrument parameters

4. Run reagent blank & fortification tests

5. Run sample matrix blank tests

6. Perform sample matrix residue tests

7. Determine method performance parameters (i.e., method

detection limits)

8. Write up experimental results

STEP 1: Conduct Literature Search

 Check all resources

 Utilize the library

 Search the Internet

 Read relevant articles in journals and magazines

 Search the method files

 Find a usable method or portion of a method

 Decide your strategy

STEP 2: Set Up Experiment

 Order supplies

 Coordinate instrumentation and equipment

 Set up a designated area for method development

 Limit equipment and apparatus needed for project so that materials

are off-limits to others until the development of the project is complete

STEP 3: Establish Instrument Parameters

 Determine the setting of chromatographic parameters

 Demonstrate delectability, sensitivity, efficiency ,and resolution of

target analytes

 Conduct sample calculations

STEP 4: Run Reagent Blank & Fortifications Tests (extraction/cleanup)

 Run one reagent blank and three reagent spikes

 Analyze matrices using proposed method

 Ensure that calculated recoveries fall in range of 80–110%

 Keep trying until there is success with the chosen solvent extracting

the desired analyte

STEP 5: Run Sample Matrix Blank Tests

 Test matrix (i.e., fruit, vegetable, or soil) that is known to be free

of analytes

 Eliminate matrix interference in the area where targeted analyte

elutes in the chromatogram

STEP 6: Perform Sample Matrix Residue Tests

 Obtain matrix known to be free of targeted compound

 Fortify matrix with targeted compound

 Run matrix through proposed procedure

 Ensure recoveries fall between range of 70–120% (thus, proving that

the matrix theory/strategy works)

STEP 7: Determine Method Performance Parameters

 Use results from sample matrix blank test and dry calculations to

estimate the mass detection limit (MDL) (thereby determining the

parameters of the proposed method, i.e., the minimal amount of the

targeted compound that can be detected using the proposed method)

 Fortify sample matrix at estimated MDL

STEP 8: Write Up Experimental Results

 Write the methods and results

 Submit to laboratory quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC)

officer for review

With my new

understanding of

what scientists do

and how

researchers are

working to solve

real-life problems,

I can show my

students that

school

mathematics and

science should not

be forgotten when

the school year

ends.
NTRC is the National Transportation

Research Center in Oak Ridge, Tennessee,

where Rebecca Brockwell conducted her

summer research project.
41

Making Sense of Science

Rebecca Brockwell

My research experience began with a nine-hour drive to Oak Ridge National

Laboratory1

 (ORNL) for a summer internship program. Because of the need for

secrecy and safety during World War II, the Oak Ridge laboratory and town were

founded in a fairly remote part of eastern Tennessee. I was able to experience

some of the most exciting research in the nation in some of the prettiest country

I have ever seen. The weather in Tennessee was beautiful, and although the

locals complained about the heat, I never thought it was too warm. An enormous benefit of the location for me was relief from the sweltering Tallahassee,

Florida, summer temperatures.

Before I arrived at ORNL, I had completed all of the education methods courses

required for graduation as a secondary science teacher. But I really did not feel like I

had a complete understanding of many of the science topics and teaching strategies we had discussed. When my ORNL mentor, Dr. David Greene, called before my

arrival and said, “We need an education expert,” I really felt like they had the wrong

person. But it was certainly too late to back out. I was committed to ten weeks of

service, and I wanted to leave feeling like I had not only gained knowledge from the

laboratory experience, but also that the people I worked with had benefited as well.

I went to ORNL as a part of the Pre-Service Teachers (PST) pilot program,2

called the Energy Research Undergraduate Laboratory Fellowship

(ERULF) program. The Department of Energy (DOE) and the National

Science Foundation (NSF) co-sponsor the program. Its goal is “to

enhance the nation’s source of proficient K–12 science, mathematics, and technology teachers.” It was designed to enhance the

undergraduate experience of students participating in NSF

Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (CETP).3

Participants spend the summer working with a researcher at the

national laboratory teamed with a practicing teacher. From the researcher, the pre-service teachers learn about the laboratory, and from

the practicing teacher, they learn more about the world of education.

David Greene, a Corporate Fellow of ORNL at the Center for Transportation

Analysis, was my mentor. With Dr. Greene and Dr. Janet Hopson, I developed

educational materials for the website at [www.fueleconomy.gov]. The website

is designed to educate the public to make informed decisions about the cars they

purchase. David Staten, a technology teacher at Wartburg Central High School,

located not far from Oak Ridge, was the education mentor for the other two preservice teachers and me. ORNL has employed David for several summers before

the PST program began, so David knew his way through the research complex

and was able to arrange tours of various areas at the ORNL. This really enabled

us to get a feel of the work being done in the laboratory as a whole.

When I arrived at the ORNL, Janet escorted me to the National Transportation

Research Center (NTRC).4

 She told me David Greene had left a stack of reports

for me to sort through. I thought I was well informed about greenhouse gases

and air pollution problems when I started the summer program. I soon discovered how little I knew. For example, throughout the 1990s, our carbon dioxide

emissions increased, but our gross domestic product (GDP) increased even

Choosing the

Summer

Research

Opportunity

Dr. David Greene was

my research mentor.

Here we are standing

by the car that tests

the diesel gasoline.

Addressing

the Task
42

faster. This suggests that our economy became less dependent on

energy intensive industries over the last decade. We are using

more fossil fuels than ten years ago, but we are making better

use of them.

After learning about transportation, greenhouse gases, and

global warming, I began to think about how my new understanding could be conveyed to high school students. As I was

trying to figure out how students could be convinced that their

personal decisions do make a difference, I realized that each

student must conclude that on their own. The realization occurred

to me as I was browsing at a website developed by a team at Los

Alamos National Laboratories at [http://set.lanl.gov/programs/cif]. To

investigate nuclear energy issues, the scientists and web developers had created

a series of activities and research projects for students. With in-depth topics

designed to provide a semester’s worth of work, students can learn about the

history of nuclear energy and nuclear terrorism to form their own understanding

about controversial and difficult topics. I wondered how I could scale this concept down and apply it to the narrow topic that my summer project required.

Fuel Eff iciency of Automobiles

My project had a narrow focus: how can people be encouraged to choose a

more fuel-efficient vehicle when they are ready to make a new car purchase?

The goal is not that everyone drive around in subcompacts without air conditioners, but rather that people assess their needs and then consider the most

fuel-efficient model to suit those needs.

Choosing a fuel-efficient model at the time of purchase is the most significant

choice an individual can make to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from

burning fossil fuels. Plus, it is something that anyone can do. Even if teenagers (like

my own students) do not own a car now, chances are that they will in

the future. If they can internalize the impact of personal vehicle

choice upon air pollution, then when the time comes, perhaps

they will make the purchase with emissions data in mind.

One of my first questions upon my arrival was how the

fuel economy data are determined. I learned that vehicle

tests are run indoors on a machine called a dynamometer

that functions like a big treadmill. The car is “driven” by a

person who follows a pattern of acceleration and deceleration for a set period of time. The exhaust is collected in

plastic bags and analyzed. These experimental values are

adjusted to reflect more real-world driving conditions.

When I began reading about the greenhouse gases, the status of

energy supplies, and global climate changes, something “clicked” for

me. I quickly realized that this was an area where high school students

could make a big impact. In a meeting with my mentor scientist, I said,

“Students don’t think that their cars are polluting unless there is black smoke

coming from the tail pipe. They don’t even know about all the carbon dioxide

that is produced and the impact it has.” David Greene and I decided that the first

thing we wanted students to understand was the amount of CO2 they produced

while driving around in their cars. Each gallon of gas burned produces over 8 kg

of CO2 that has a volume of almost 5m3

 at standard conditions.a Yet, because

this gas is completely odorless, colorless, and generally harmless to people,

most of us do not realize the effect it can have on the environment.

I will remember

more about what

was going on at

ORNL when I am in

my classroom

because I was able

to see research

projects, hear

about them, and

ask questions.

Thinking

About

My Own

Project

I am standing by a

poster that highlights

the research at NTRC.

Here is our Mercedes

test engine.
43

I am beginning to see how an effective science lesson or activity can potentially

change a student’s thinking. If a student chooses to purchase a car with low

greenhouse gas emissions over a less efficient car in the same vehicle class, not

only would the student save money with lower gasoline bills (and often a lower

purchase price), but the emissions over the lifetime of the car would easily be

lowered by 20 tons. The idea that such a simple choice could have such an

enormous impact was amazing. One of my goals as a classroom teacher is to

help my students understand the impact their choices have.

Our attempts to devise a practical and safe way for students to see vehicle

exhaust required several trips to the local hardware store. We drew plenty of

interest from others working in “real labs” when we headed outdoors with our

dryer vent and garbage bags, but we developed a laboratory activity that safely

directs students to collect exhaust gases and show that the gases will not support combustion. This laboratory activity fits in nicely with the time-honored

method of demonstrating that a lack of oxygen extinguishes a burning splint.

Everyone in our group was delighted by the simplicity of the laboratory

and the minimal complications and materials required. Even our

observers commented that they thought we were doing a “real lab”

and were impressed with the significance of the final product.

The activity demonstrates the relationship between engine size

and production of greenhouse gases. By adjusting engine speed,

students can determine the speed at which these gases are

produced while driving. While no one decided to get rid of their

full-size pick-up that day and buy a fuel-efficient subcompact

car, if hundreds or thousands of students discover the part they

play in contributing to the rising levels of carbon dioxide, many

more car buyers could make a more informed decision at the automobile dealership.

The Purchasing Reality

Of course, consumers are limited in their purchasing options. Manufacturers may

say they produce what people will buy, but as individual consumers, we are at

their mercy. We can only choose from the products made available to us. This

realization hit home for me when I considered the vehicles I drive. I own two cars

of the same model name—one is a 1994 model and the other is a redesigned 2000

model vehicle. When I looked up the numbers for fuel efficiency on the government website, I was shocked to discover that my newer car had a poorer fuel

economy! What happened? Since the new car is slightly bigger and more powerful,

apparently the extra increases in engine efficiency went to improving the comfort

and performance of the car and not to boost fuel economy. Without government

regulations, I question whether car manufacturers will be willing to increase the

efficiency of their inventory. This is probably because designing engines with

increased fuel economy is expensive. Manufacturers may not get enough incentive

to conduct the research required to improve fuel economy. It is only when the

entire industry is forced to change that increases in fuel economy are seen.5

Everything is Political

During my summer at Oak Ridge, David Greene testified before the U.S. Senate

about a National Academy of Sciences report6

 he had been working on since

February. The report, Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy

(CAFE) Standards, analyzed the fuel economy policies of the United States.7

 The

committee documented ways that CAFE standards have been effective and

Hands-On

Learning

David Staten was our

education mentor. He is

a practicing teacher from

a nearby high school and

has worked at ORNL during

other summers.
44

described some of the unanticipated consequences of the fuel efficiency guidelines. For example, the committee reported that the CAFE standards have worked

to increase fuel economy over the last two decades, but it was not anticipated

that the demand for light duty trucks, minivans, and sport utility vehicles would

shift the consumer market away from cars. Watching the hearing was interesting.

Most of the session was taken up by the senators’ questions, and each senator

seemed to preface his or her question with prepared remarks. Apparently, this

was a photo opportunity for them, and the proceedings were not focused on the

panel members. When David returned, he said that the senators’ staff members

were attentive and interested, but the senators seemed to know they were in the

spotlight when the official hearings began.

Role of Practicing Teacher

Perhaps for me, the most interesting part of the PST program was

what was made possible by David Staten. David is a mathematics

and technology teacher at a nearby high school. He had worked

at the national laboratory for several summers and was a natural

choice for the master teacher position. Every week, he met with

each pre-service teacher individually and regularly arranged

activities for all of us. He planned these activities to enhance our

understanding of the work being done by the entire laboratory

complex. These activities are an integral part of the PST program and

greatly benefit the participants. It enabled me to see how the entire

laboratory functions.

Weekly Meetings With Other Teachers

Each week, we attended a lecture given by someone working at the laboratory.

Often David would arrange a tour that related to upcoming lectures. This gave

PST students a distinct advantage over the other students at the ORNL sitting

with us in the auditorium. We already had an understanding of the topic and

had seen some of the equipment to which the speaker referred. The advantage

to me was that it really reinforced the lectures. I will remember more about

what was going on at ORNL when I am in my classroom because I was able to

see research projects, hear about them, and ask questions.

Tour of Graphite Reactor

Our first tour was to the famous and historic graphite reactor.8 It was an exciting

experience because this was not just a historical place—it was the site of a

historical event that determined the world’s future. This was the place during

the 1940s where the United States developed its nuclear capabilities. During the

previous spring at FSU, we had discussed the Manhattan Project in a course on

Science, Technology, and Society. I recalled that Oak Ridge formed a part of the

nationwide sites to build nuclear weapons, and in less than a year, an entire

town was built in the mountains of East Tennessee. I am fascinated that the site

of this secret laboratory project was influenced by the depression from which

the country was emerging. The location was chosen, in part, because of the

access to large amounts of inexpensive electricity generated by the Tennessee

Valley Authority hydroelectric plants. Much of the surrounding area lacked

electric service before Oak Ridge was built to process uranium.

I was awestruck thinking about the effort required to build not only the reactor,

but all the laboratories and housing for the city of Oak Ridge. Here in this remote laboratory complex, scientists revealed the secrets of the atom. How different the world might have been had none of this been built. As a child of the Cold

Here I am showing the other

pre-service teachers and staff

from ORNL our previous SERVE

Monograph on practicing

teachers conducting scientif ic

research.
45

War, I grew up with the apprehension that another superpower could quickly and

completely destroy my own country with nuclear weapons; however, standing

before the reactor I realized that this capability is relatively new. It is only recently

that humans have had to contemplate the notion that we can destroy ourselves completely. Other societies have fought brutal wars, and some

groups of people have been exterminated, but we now have the

nuclear weapons to annihilate all life on the planet.

Bringing it to the Classroom

My mentor for my teaching internship, Rick Davies, is a 27-year

veteran chemistry teacher at Rickards High School. As a student

teacher, it is too early to alter the lesson plans to reflect what I

learned at Oak Ridge Laboratory. However, I am eager to discuss

current events in my classroom. I hope I can show my students

the real-world application of what we are doing in class. For example, we are studying a unit about pollution’s effects on the environment. I want my students to recognize that what we are learning in class

deals with issues that are affecting their lives in Florida. They need to be informed about the fragility of the Florida ecosystem.

My summer research experience prompted me to notice some differences

between the teacher and the scientist. The following are some of my thoughts:

1. High school teachers “make do” with the laboratory equipment and

supplies that are available to schools; scientists do not always use “off

the shelf” equipment—they sometimes have to invent the methods and

instruments to conduct their experiments.

2. Scientists know that they do not have to be an expert in every

thing, so they look for other scientists as resources to solve a

problem. They recognize their limitations and accept that it is

OK to be wrong. However, the honors students in the

classes that I teach cannot accept when they are wrong;

they want the right answer and are unsettled when they

cannot easily find it.

All high school science teachers should encourage their students to help plan the lessons and laboratory activities. Rather

than just doing a “cookbook” laboratory, students can actually

help the teacher design a laboratory activity and carry it out.

Usually, science students are not given that opportunity.

The problem I found when I try to involve my students in planning what I

am teaching in science class is that I have to guide them and keep them focused

on the lesson or concept we are learning. I sometimes have to pull them back to

the lesson. High-school students’ minds tend to drift off to personal issues, such

as their social lives, their weekend plans, or what a classmate said or did.

Kissie Anderson was a preservice teacher in the same

program with me.

This poster highlights

activities of ORNL related

to education.
46

My summer at the ORNL changed my perspective on teaching. I experienced the

life of a research scientist. When I combine my knowledge of science and

teaching methodology with my hands-on experience at the ORNL and my

teaching internship, I feel I will be able to blend the theoretical with the practical. Eventually, as an experienced teacher, I hope to design a classroom environment that combines the best of both of my experiences.

a Assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, burns completely in oxygen, O2, to carbon

dioxide, CO2, and water, H2O, one can calculate that for each mole of octane, there

will be eight moles of carbon dioxide. If one assumes a density of octane of 0.7 g/mL

and knowing that a gallon has 3.78 L (or 3.78 dm3

), one can calculate that there

would be 8.2 kg of CO2 product. Using the ideal gas law and standard pressure and

a temperature of 300K, there would be 4.6 m3 of CO2 gas produced. That

volume of CO2 gas from one liter of fuel would fill a cube that measures

approximately 1.7 meters on each side.

1 Oak Ridge National Laboratory. [www.ornl.gov].

2 Pre-Service Teachers Program, with the U.S. Department of Energy:

[www.scied.science.doe.gov/scied/PST/about.htm].

3 National Science Foundation funded program called the Florida

Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation [www.fcetp.org].

4 National Transportation Research Center, part of Oak Ridge National

Laboratory [www.ntrc.com].

5 Greene, D. L. (1996). Transportation and energy, Lansdowne, VA: Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc.

6 U.S. Senate report on the National Academies’ Committee on the Effectiveness

and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards

[http://www4.nationalacademies.org/ocga/testimon.nsf/

aac7d56ca8fd884b852563be00610639/

9e7abd240b48795a85256a9c00641bd6?OpenDocument].

7 Effectiveness of impact of corporate average fuel economy (CAFE)

standards [http://books.nap.edu/html/cafe].

8 Oak Ridge Graphite Reactor [www.ornl.gov/tour/tour.html] and

photograph of reactor at [www.ornl.gov/science-to-life/graphitereactor.html].

Conclusion

Endnotes

Scott Clark, a PST from the

University of Tennessee,

works on modeling software.
47

Experiential Learning for Pre-Service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

This is the treadmill portion of the

dynamometer. The car “runs” on

this treadmill, clocking up the miles,

while the diesel fuel is being burned

in the engine.
CO-LEARNERS in action: (l to r) Sherri Hood

(the practicing teacher), Lidia Lanns (the

prospective teacher), and Kelly Schratwieser

(the scientist), looking at test organisms
49

Teaching Science is Teaching Life

Lidia Lanns

with M. Randall Spaid

The CO-LEARNERS Program is designed to give practicing and prospective

teachers an opportunity to gain hands-on experience within a science research

facility in our community. The state Florida Department of Environmental

Protection (DEP) was my host research site. Our goal was to displace the

teacher-centered strategies typically practiced by high school science teachers

(i.e., lecturing, textbook assignments), with student-centered experiential learning. Our focus was to assess an environmental habitat and decide how to

improve it.

Practicing teachers, prospective science teachers, and scientists worked together for a six-week collaborative science research experience. We followed a

blueprint for success—learning together, practicing real science, and working to

find solutions for real problems. We used the discourse of science every day as

we collected and studied macroinvertebrates and analyzed data to explain

changes in stream ecology. Neither textbook nor traditional laboratory activities

could compare to experiencing science as it occurs in nature. In a world where

change is our only constant, I decided that teachers must expose students to

learning outside the classroom. Effective methods of teaching science have

evolved; community involvement is now a critical component for science education in this new millennium. Now I am eager to share the experiences with

my own students.

A Look at Experiential Learning Outside the Classroom

I worked in a science laboratory as part of my program at Florida State University. Many of my professors are involved in various research projects. I was

interested in working in a science laboratory during the CO-LEARNERS Program

because I wanted to gain hands-on experience with tools not available in a

normal classroom. Also, I was interested in seeing the methods of collecting

data from sample sites and the empirical and inferential statistics used to analyze the data for a scientific report.

I feel that the difference in the true culture of science and the classroom culture

of science is due to the fact that most teachers do not relate concepts to everyday life. This leads to science being characterized as a difficult subject. I view

the study of science to be a never-ending journey and scientists to be crusaders

looking for answers that are never truly complete.

The scientists at the Florida Department for Environmental Protection (DEP)

demonstrated many aspects of scientific research to the teachers in the COLEARNERS Program, including accurate biological sampling, methods used for

quality assurance, technical writing, habitat assessment, and environmental

education. As a prospective biology teacher, my experience at the DEP helped

me to grasp the fundamental concepts of biology as I analyzed an ecosystem in

its natural state.

Educating the public about protecting our environmental is an enormous,

ongoing task. For example, most people do not think about the impact of litter

on the groundwater supply. When rain washes items, such as cigarette butts,

into a storm drain, water quality may be affected and an ecosystem can be

Neither textbook

nor traditional

laboratory

activities could

compare to

experiencing

science as it

occurs in nature.

The

CO-LEARNERS

Program
50

subtly disturbed. To monitor potential problems from storm runoff, ecosystems

throughout the state are assessed regularly by the DEP using a 20-sweep dip net

method1

 or a 4-sweep dip net method for bioassessments.2

My Research Journey with the Department of Environmental Protection

At first, I thought of the DEP’s assessment process as using the basic scientific

method. I had a question about water quality in a specific body of water—in this

case a stream—so I decided to assess the type of habitat. My initial question:

What are some possible causes for the water disturbance or loss of taxa within

the stream? My hypothesis was that it was due to contamination or runoff

affecting the stream. Next, I decided to collect some data about the macroinvertebrates, water chemistry, and turbidity. I planned to research any

historical events that may have affected the stream or look for

previous assessments of that stream. In addition, I would find the

information on an FAC-rated stream3

 with similar structure and

similar taxa, in order to compare water quality to a reference

site. Then the data would be analyzed to reveal any imbalances.

Using Macroinvertebrates as Bioindicators

The DEP scientists use macroinvertebrates as bioindicator

species4

 because they are easy to collect, and they respond very

quickly to disturbances in their environment. Scientists do not have

to wait a month or two to test for changes in water quality because

indicator species respond very quickly and can show what conditions

have been over time. Stream-bottom macroinvertebrates include such animals

as crayfish, mussels, aquatic snails, aquatic worms, and the larvae of aquatic

insects. It may be difficult to identify stream pollution with water analysis, which

can only provide information for the time of sampling. Even the presence of fish

may not provide information about a pollution problem because fish can move

away to avoid polluted water and then return when conditions improve. However, most stream-bottom macroinvertebrates cannot move to avoid pollution.

Therefore, a macroinvertebrate sample may provide information about pollution

that is not present at the time of sample collection. We went into the field and

made some observations, searched the historical background of that particular

site, and compared the data—pH, salinity, water temperature, stream velocity,

turbidity (in NTUs)5

—to a reference site.

We collected other data from “productive habitats”; these are snags (woody

debris), rocks, roots, leaf packs and mats, and aquatic vegetation in the water.

If there is good habitat, such as submerged roots for them to live in, we will

find them, unless there is something out-of-balance in that habitat. Russell

(Russ) Frydenborg, one of my scientist mentors, collected bottom sediment

and compared the macroinvertebrate species he found to notes from a previous visit he had made there. He noticed that the water level had dropped, and

the sediment buildup and new sandbars may be affecting the macroinvertebrate populations.

Working with scientist Kelly Schratwieser, I analyzed our data by identifying and

counting the organisms and calculating the dissolved oxygen. I learned that if

there is insufficient dissolved oxygen due to uncontrolled algal growth, some

macroinvertebrates will not survive. If there is enough turbidity in the water,

then sunlight cannot reach certain aquatic plants that the tiny animals prefer to

live near. I want to teach my students that a high population of any particular

organism may disturb the balance of a water habitat.

Kelly Schratwieser, the

scientist, is guiding me

in analysis of our data

on the computer.
51

Two practicing teachers,

Sherri Hood and Richard

McHenry, worked with

me and the other COLEARNERS at DEP. Here

they were collecting

biological samples.

Applying to My Classroom What I Learned

After student teaching at Barbara Goleman High School, I graduated in December

1999 with certification in secondary science. I was recruited in January to teamteach sixth-grade gifted students at Everglades Middle School for the remainder of

the school year. When I considered teaching gifted students, I thought, “Oh, that’s

fabulous! They are going to be great kids!” I soon discovered that they bounce off

the walls like every other middle schooler; they just may have the potential to

learn more. The students soon became adjusted to me working alongside another

teacher as I learned school and classroom procedures. My co-teacher and I

shared teaching duties. This experience was similar to my internship, but it was

more valuable because I was offered a teaching position with these students the

following year in my own classroom. The students and I learned what to expect

from each other.

One DEP experience that was valuable for me as a classroom teacher was related

to environmental science. The hands-on activities and explanations of how

ecosystems work, and learning about the food web and how each link is important helped a lot as I prepared my lesson plans. I wish that I could have conducted

some of the activities like those we did at the DEP lab, or taken a field trip to local

streams, the Everglades, or the canals, but my classes were too large.

Florida offers so many outdoor resources available for hands-on activities. I

invited two DEP representatives to visit my class and discuss the geology of

South Florida and talk about wildlife in the Everglades. During the recent

drought and water shortage, we had experts from the Storm Center

come talk with our students about the water shortage and why

restrictions are enforced. After the lecture, the students understood

that while we may be getting rain, sometimes it may not rain in

the right place.

New Constraints and Obstacles Arise

With a lot of people are moving into our area, this middle school

is close to capacity. Classes are big, and we do not have an empty

classroom in the building. I started the year teaching sixth grade,

seventh- and eighth-grade gifted, and then was assigned all the rest

of eighth-grade students as well. I now have four preps—I teach seventh-grade comprehensive science, seventh-grade gifted comprehensive

science, two eighth-grade regular science classes, and an earth-space class.

As a new school, it was the baseline year for my eighth-grade students tested

by the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). This test, which is given

each year to students in fourth, eighth, and tenth grades, has always tested

reading and mathematics, but will soon include science, as well. Since our

students scored in the 88–90th percentile as fifth graders last year, making Everglades an “A” school, the administration wanted this to be an “A” school in all

grades. This created stress for our eighth graders to perform, but the results we

have received so far have been good. Our students are actually doing better in

the mathematics than they are in reading, so we are working on reading and

critical thinking skills.

The seventh graders are sharp, so I look forward to next year’s eighth-grade

class. Because most of them have been in this school since kindergarten, and

they know the school and the teachers, it feels like a family. Our science department is small (only three teachers), so my job is stressful. I have to put together

portfolios for Dade County administrators, who track new teachers. Another
52

stressful situation is when assistant principals observe my classes. There is a lot

of material I did not know about observations when I started working here. Administrators check students’ folders and emphasize classroom management. In

a class of 42, it is hard to manage the students, especially when I do not have

that many chairs. During one of the observations, I had 100 percent attendance,

so I had students sitting at the corner of their desks because they could not see

the board.

Many additional factors contributed to my stress, making it difficult to implement

ideas that I garnered from the CO-LEARNERS Program. It is difficult to be creative

and innovative in a class that large. I have PC equipment that I would love to use,

but with 42 kids and only three computers, not everyone can have access to a

computer for group projects. I would love to form groups of three or four, but

when I have so many students, the obstacles can seem insurmountable.

Bringing the Environment into the Classroom

During the CO-LEARNERS Program, I picked up many resources

to use in my classroom, such as PowerPoint presentations. Russ

has a presentation that he uses when he lectures about protecting the environment and what the agency does. This can serve

as an outline for my unit on the environment; to me it is the best

image of what I want my students to do when they go on field

trips. The DEP has a list of environmental sites where teachers can

take their students.

I look forward to next year’s science fair. I am trying to eliminate the big poster

boards and have the students do PowerPoint presentations instead. They were

reluctant this year, and many parents objected when I encouraged my students

to learn to create a slide show. But once they saw their children pointing and

clicking through graphics they put together, the praises came. Initially, I heard

the complaint, “We don’t know how to use the computer; we just bought it

because everyone else bought one....We’re used to spending $5 on the big board

and decorating it.” I explained that there is nothing wrong with being bold,

bright, and beautiful, but you can do it on a disk as well. Administration supported me on that. Preparing a PowerPoint slide show was not mandatory, but I

did give extra credit for making an attempt to do the science fair project.

I believe middle school students have a lot of fun going out into a habitat, but

safety issues may preclude this. So I attempted to put together my own biological habitat. I started with a large fish tank, pebbles, and aquatic plants, and I

tried to create a habitat for students to study as a visual aid. I mixed dried cloves

up to simulate the dark water color of a typical stream habitat, prepared leaf

packs for the middle of the tank, and placed a lamp over it. I wanted to explain

to my students how the environment is self-contained and how water conditions and quality may change due to weather conditions. Unexpectedly, all of

the rocks had tumbled over the next day; I explained to the students that this

could represent how sediment flows into a stream. We discussed rainfall, runoff,

and turbidity levels. My fish tank could not simulate a stream, so I was not able

to simulate flow and have my students measure velocity. Perhaps an air bubble

pump could be used, but I have to work on it.

I am convinced

that science

teachers must

expose students

to experiential

learning outside

the classroom.

This is a habitat

at my school.
53

The CO-LEARNERS Program was an experience that changed me. Before, I

never would have considered donning a pair of waders and stepping into muddy

water. That has totally changed. I did it, and I would do it again because if

students see teachers excited about going in and not caring about getting dirty, I

think they will get excited about doing it themselves. Neither textbook nor

traditional laboratory activities can compare to experiencing science as it occurs

outdoors. I am convinced that science teachers must expose students to experiential learning outside the classroom.

1 Macroinvertebrate sampling using a standard D-frame dip net with a U.S. 30 lb. mesh

bag. The sampling method consisted of collecting 20 half-meter (in length) discrete dip

net sweeps for a given site and combining and sending them to the FDEP Central

Biology Laboratory for processing and taxonomic identification.

2 Bioassessments are based on the premise that the community of plants and

animals living in an aquatic ecosystem will reflect the health of that

ecosystem. When an aquatic ecosystem is damaged, the diversity of

animals and plants often decreases, and the composition of species

changes. Typically, the organisms that are intolerant to human

disturbances die, and organisms that are more tolerant to the disturbance make up a larger proportion of the individuals. For example,

the farmed wetland will most likely have fewer kinds of plants and

animals than the healthier wetland and will be dominated by organisms that can tolerate poor environmental conditions. After examining an assemblage of plants or animals in aquatic ecosystems

ranging from high quality to poor quality, scientists can use this

known range as a measuring stick to estimate the relative health of

other aquatic ecosystems. The bioassessment results will show if an

aquatic ecosystem is damaged in any way. To learn more about biological

assessments, visit [www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/bawwg/biobasic.html].

3 FAC: The Food & Agricultural Council is an organization of Federal agencies spearheaded by the USDA to coordinate their activities. The Water Quality subcommittee

is chaired by the Natural Resource Conservation Service, USDA, and includes participation by other USDA agencies (Forest Service & Farm Service Agency), DOI agencies (Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, Geological Survey & Fish

& Wildlife Service), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

4 Once sites are selected, sampling can begin. Typically, researchers sample at least two

groups of organisms, including algae, amphibians, birds, fish, macroinvertebrates,

and vascular plants. Researchers then measure the number of individuals and the

number of taxa that show clear patterns of response to human disturbance.

5 Turbidity in water is measured in units called NTUs, or Nephelometric Turbidity Units. It

is calculated by measuring the dispersion of a light beam passed through a sample of

water. Fine particles, silt, and suspended matter will cause a light beam passing

through the water to be scattered. It has been found that the amount of scattering is

proportionate to the amount of turbidity present. Therefore, this process gives a good

indication of the relative turbidity of a water sample.

Conclusion

Endnotes

Here I am learning to identify

organisms with Sherri Hood,

the practicing teacher. I am

on the left.
Here is a Florida manatee up close. She

was so close Leslie Magalis could hear the

manatee breathing and see her whiskers.
55

Making Science More Personal

Leslie Magalis

with M. Randall Spaid

My research experience was different from the others in that mine was more of

a potpourri of opportunities to provide experiences in scientific research rather

than one single, in-depth opportunity. This was in part because Dr. Penny J.

Gilmer, our CO-LEARNERS Program director, had a hard time finding a scientist

who could offer an experience that fit my interests, needs, and timetable; and, in

part, because I really wanted a more diverse experience. Therefore, this chapter

highlights the key points in my summer of research.

Going on a Road Trip to Central Florida

My journey began with a trip on the bus with about 40 African-American high

school students from the FCETP1

 and Florida-Georgia LS-AMP2 programs. We

were on our way to the University of Florida in Gainesville for a tour of the science facilities and then on to Sea World on Saturday. I was impressed with my

traveling companions, who were selected for the program based on their high

grades. They were bright and had high hopes for their futures. The girl next to me

was from Michigan and told me she was studying to become a medical doctor.

When we arrived at the University of Florida, we headed to a lecture hall in the

biology building. Once there, several professors told us about the opportunities

in various science careers, such as genomics or genetics research. They described the pros and cons of each field, such as job security and volatility, as

well as the financial benefits. For example, with a Master’s degree in genomics,

one could work for a pharmaceutical company or a related industry and earn

from $60,000 to $100,000 in annual salary. In contrast, the annual salary for a

university researcher could range from $35,000 to $50,000 annually.

All of us were excited to learn about careers in science. I was interested because I was majoring in secondary science and mathematics teaching. It was

my last semester of my senior year. As I listened to what they said about

careers in science, I thought about beginning my first day of teaching school

with a class discussion about careers in biology or chemistry and the potential

salary range that could be expected. I think this knowledge could help motivate my students to do well in science, especially those students who are

working at jobs in fast-food restaurants with a minimum wage. The prospect

of earning a salary at least 12 times higher than their present income might be

an incentive to study harder.

The speakers at the university also emphasized the importance of keeping up

with advances in technology and described the sophisticated equipment they

provide graduate students for their research projects. Dr. Dan Brazeau was the

Director of the BEECS Genetic Analysis Core within the ICBR group3

 at that time.

He talked about some of the instruments, such as a microarray technology that

maps genes on computer chips. Such chips make it easier to work with the gene

sequences. There are also high throughput sequencing machines that order the

individual nucleotides in the DNA. The ICBR offers a one-week workshop in

biotechnology for graduate students. The participants are taught how to do the

science as well as how to interpret it. There are wet laboratories so the students

do the laboratory work, learn how to deal with the necessary equipment, and

are introduced to analysis programs.

Research

Experiences

Science class

activities become

more authentic

when students can

connect them with

real-life

experiences.
56

The university also has several very powerful MRI machines, including one

worth $1.5 million. These are part of the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, originating at my own institution, Florida State University, with primary

partners at University of Florida and Los Alamos National Laboratory.4

 Many

other institutions are associated with this collaborative.

It was fascinating to hear about the advances in technology. One student in the

audience asked Dan how he keeps up with the changes; he replied that it is not

easy and that he uses the Internet for the most part. One website he mentioned

was the Web of Science, an interface for institutional access to the ISI Citation

Databases, which includes over 8,000 international journals in the sciences,

social sciences, and the arts and humanities.5

Our faculty tour guide stressed the importance of technology to scientists, and

I realized just how important using technology should be in my science classroom. I hope to involve my students in technology as much as possible.

Granted, we will not be using million-dollar MRI equipment. However, by

devoting some time each week to exploring recent advances in science and

technology, I intend to keep them informed. The Internet will be my instructional tool to accomplish this. There are many websites for my students to

visit; some feature interactive virtual laboratory activities for students to

investigate high-tech equipment. I want them to discover that technology plays a big part in scientific research.

Assessing the Environment

My experience with the CO-LEARNERS Program also introduced

me to Tom Frick, a Senior Chemist for the Environmental Assessment Section for the Bureau of Laboratories at the Florida

Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), and Amy

Bennett, who also works for the DEP. I learned about the protocols they use to assess the quality of water in Florida’s rivers and

lakes. As part of their job, they help educate people about fresh water

ecology and the problems that living organisms can have when the

environment in which they live is polluted by industrial waste, runoff from

private land use, and airborne pollutants from as far away as South America.

The DEP staff conduct field trips to nearby rivers and lakes to demonstrate the use

of water quality testing equipment such as the Secchi disc. This simple instrument, a metal disc painted with black and white quadrants, is lowered into the

water by a rope until the black color quadrant can no longer be distinguished

from the white color quadrant. The length of the rope at that point indicates the

limit of visibility (the absolute limit of light penetration is about twice our limit of

visibility). Pollution and silt from runoff are two factors contributing to poor water

visibility. This visual depth reading is an indicator of water quality and shows the

depth at which plants may survive as they need light for energy.

Tom and Amy described the larval insects that live in fresh water as indicators

of water quality. I joined with some children on a field trip, and they all loved

looking for the insects in the water. We learned that some stream-bottom

macroinvertebrates, such as certain species of stone fly, feed mostly on decaying leaves and algae and cannot survive in polluted water. Crayfish are sensitive

to pollution, too. Other macroinvertebrates, such as leeches and midge flies,

may actually thrive in polluted water.

To assess habitat quality, the DEP scientists study a grid of the area for water

turbidity, dissolved oxygen levels, and type of leaf litter. In addition, they tally

Here I am, holding a small

alligator in my hands. I’m on a

tour with high school students

at the University of Florida .

I hope to involve my

students in technology

as much as possible. I

want them to discover

that technology plays a

big part in scientific

research.
57

the numbers of bottom-dwelling macroinvertebrates living in a unit of area.

They identify them and see how many there are compared to how many should

be present to determine whether or not there is a pollutant affecting the populations. They look at the lake or the river to see what it is being used for, how

many buildings are around it, and if it is in a commercial, residential, or

wild area. Assessing the quality of the habitat helps them determine

how many macroinvertebrates can be supported in the body of

water. If there are too few macroinvertebrates living in the area,

pollution is suspected and further study is warranted.

The scientists talked about how they go about doing their research on the lakes and the rivers and how they try to educate

the general public and the school children. They shared some

handouts and described a program they designed for high school

students, which integrates science field trips and writing about the

experiences in English class. This program is similar to the one that

Lidia Lanns developed with Sherri Hood for middle school students

during the previous summer in the CO-LEARNERS Program. (For more

information, see Chapter 4.)

Studying macroinvertebrate populations as a measure of water quality is practical for the DEP and can be conducted by science teachers and students as well.

Macroinvertebrates are relatively easy to collect, and because they do not move

around much, they provide information about water quality over a long period

of time. Testing the water quality of rivers and streams with chemical test kits is

only accurate at the time of sampling and may not be practical in the classroom.

Netting mosquitofish may not be reliable because they tend to move away from

polluted water and then return to the area when conditions improve. Little

equipment is needed to survey macroinvertebrates, and best of all, it is great fun

to collect and identify them!

Canoeing With the Manatees

I went canoeing on the Wakulla River recently, hoping to see one of the 20-to-30

manatees that spend the summer there or in the nearby St. Marks River. I was

about to graduate from Florida State University, and this was going to be my last

chance to see one of the endangered manatees before moving to Maine in August

2000. Sadly, the 2,600 remaining manatees in Florida are endangered for several

reasons: (a) they have a low reproductive rate, (b) they are killed by collisions with

watercraft, (c) they are crushed in floodgates and canal locks, or entangled in

fishing gear, and (d) the greatest long-term threat to manatees is loss of habitat.

The beautiful, spring-fed Wakulla and St. Marks Rivers are only a 25-minute drive

from my home in Tallahassee, so I felt a sense of ownership for these rivers and a

strong desire to protect them. My luck was good. As I canoed up a shady tributary,

I spotted not one, but a pair of manatees feeding tranquilly on water hyacinths,

eel grass, and elodea. I had the privilege of observing them from only a few feet

away for two fascinating two hours. Looking at these animals up close, I was

saddened (but not surprised) to see propeller scars on their backs. Powerboats

traveling too fast most likely caused these scars. Manatees are slow-moving and

can easily be run over when they surface for air. Ironically, the propeller scars are

so common among manatees that the Florida Department of Environmental

Protection uses them to identify individual animals.6

A few weeks after my canoe trip with the manatees, Penny told me about a

manatee that was found dead in the St. Marks River. The manatee was reported

in the Tallahassee Democrat7

 to have died from an infection and injuries as a

Tallahassee Democrat,

July 13, 2000

As I canoed up a

shady tributary, I

spotted a pair of

manatees. Looking

at these animals up

close, I was

saddened to see

propeller scars on

their backs.
58

result of a watercraft collision. I felt like one of my neighbors had died. My

memory of watching those two manatees casually munching underwater plants

was bittersweet when I considered that these enormous, gentle animals may

become extinct in the wild within my lifetime.

Hands-on Science Activities Are More Authentic and Interesting

As a future biology teacher, I have long believed that hands-on experiences can

make learning more fun and interesting for students. Fifth grade is when I really

became interested in science. One day I remember doing testing for carbohydrates with an iodine solution, and I thought, “Wow! This is cool!” Unfortunately,

in my school experience, students mostly observe things that the teacher demonstrates. I think that some physics students think the teacher is a magician.

How to Bring Similar Experiences to My Students in Maine

In Maine, provided the rivers and lakes have not frozen over, I intend to conduct

field research with my students. I plan to contact the Maine DEP and find out all

that I can about the local water quality, macroinvertebrate populations, and

other biological indicator species that we can study in science class. The local

watershed and environment will become my teaching laboratory. Science class

activities become more authentic when students can connect them with real-life

experiences. I will be teaching in an area of Maine where the Penobscott River is

being polluted by at least one paper mill in the town. I want to teach my students a variation of the kind of work Ed Orlando,8

 a former science teacherturned-doctoral student at the University of Florida (UF), conducted on the Fenholloway River. There is a paper mill on the river that has allegedly been

introducing androgenic substances to this river for many years.

When I met Ed, he was studying the effects of pollutants from the

paper mill upon alligator embryos. Researchers at UF found that

they could control the sex of the alligator hatchlings by manipulating the temperature of the egg. In his study, if they incubate the

eggs at 30°C (86°F), they produce a female hatching. However, if

they expose the eggs to the paper mill chemicals at the same

temperature, then the hatchling is a male. This same sort of effect

may be happening in the wild.

Ed told us that mosquitofish can be used as a bioindicator of the river’s

health. Researchers have collected female mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki)

living downstream from this mill and discovered that they express male secondary sex characteristics (e.g., altered anal fin and male reproductive behavior).

Previous studies suggested that in the papermill, effluent—an androgenic substance—was produced from the microbial conversion of phytosterols. These

scientists have confirmed that water samples collected downstream of the paper

mill contain a substance from the paper mill, which can interact with the human

endocrine system. The studies suggest that chemicals polluting the environment

can bind the human androgen receptor (HAR) and may induce masculine gene

expression in humans.9

I wonder if the paper mill in Maine is polluting the river with the same kinds of

chemicals. I will contact the Maine DEP and learn about bioindicator species

and take my students on field trips to study the health of the Penobscott River

and several nearby lakes. Perhaps my students will feel some ownership of their

learning experience and get a feel for the interconnectedness of humans, industry, and the natural environment.

Leslie Magalis, a participant

in the CO-LEARNERS

Program of the Florida

Collaborative for

Excellence in

Teacher Preparation

As a future biology

teacher, I have long

believed that

hands-on

experiences can

make learning

more fun and

interesting for

students.
59

The Value of Doing Real Science

I enjoyed the CO-LEARNERS Program very much. Combined with my own

experiments with hermit crabs at the FSU Marine Laboratory with Dr. William

Herrnkind, I have worked alongside real scientists and conducted real science

research. I believe that all scientists are driven by curiosity; the way that they

satisfy this curiosity is through using the scientific method.

I feel that I have a strong connection to doing science, and I know the value of

trying to do real science and getting in touch with scientists in the local area and

having them talk with my students. I want them to experience “real science,” too.

Although it may not be practical or realistic to expect to take a large class out

canoeing with manatees, it is possible to take a class outside to observe the

natural world. There are fascinating creatures that inhabit the school grounds,

including the many species of insects, annelids, snails, amphibians, reptiles,

birds, mammals, plants, algae, and even soil bacteria. I think that canoeing with

those manatees made me want to learn more about them because they became

a real part of my understanding about the environment in which I live.

There is something about observing an animal in the wild that makes me want

to learn more about the creature; perhaps it is an element of ownership here

that I have never found in a zoo. Learning about the living organisms that exist

in our own back yard is inexpensive, immediate, and hands-on, and can give my

students the opportunity to appreciate a part of the natural world that they may

have taken for granted. My students may have a natural curiosity about the

living world around them, and they may discover the quality of ownership that

for me makes learning science more real and more important.

Leslie graduated with a bachelor’s degree in Secondary Science and Mathematics Teaching from Florida State University with an emphasis in chemistry

and biology. After graduation, she moved to Lincoln, Maine, where she taught

an integrated classroom setting for high school special education students. She

is just finishing her second year of teaching ninth- through eleventh-graders in

earth science, biology, and chemistry.

1 Florida State University works with ten other universities on the Florida Collaborative

for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (FCETP). This program is a collaborative

between the Florida Department of Education, 11 of Florida’s colleges/universities/

community colleges, and a number of K–12 school districts. The goal is to recruit and

educate outstanding scholars to teach mathematics and science. It provides students

an opportunity to develop their abilities to become outstanding teachers

[www.fcetp.org].

2 The FGLSAMP (Florida Georgia Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation), open to

minority students, has a pre-freshman summer program of mathematics and sciences. The program is designed to strengthen the students’ skills and expand their

career opportunities and is funded through the National Science Foundation

[www.fg-lsamp.org].

3 BEECS is the acronym for the Biotechnologies for the Ecological, Evolutionary and

Conservation Sciences Biotechnology Program at the University of Florida

[www.biotech.ufl.edu/%7Epccl/beecs/beecs.html]. It includes the Interdisciplinary

Center for Biotechnology Research (ICBR) [www.biotech.ufl.edu].

4 The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory is online: [www.nhmfl.gov]. Of particular

interest to teachers, there is an excellent site for curricular materials on magnets,

Editor’s

Note

Endnotes

Perhaps my

students will feel

some ownership of

their learning

experience and get

a feel for the

interconnectedness

of humans,

industry, and the

natural

environment.
60

optics, and tobacco. In addition, there is information concerning the summer program, Research Experiences for Teachers.

5 ISI Citation Databases [www.isinet.com/isi/products/citation/wos].

6 The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Committee recently produced and has made

available two ten-minute videotapes on manatees. One is entitled, “A Closer Look at

Manatees,” and the other is, “The State of Manatees.” Both are excellent.

7 The Tallahassee Democrat published an article entitled, “Manatee Dies from Watercraft

Collision” by Bruce Ritchie on July 13, 2000.

8 Edward Orlando studied at the University of Florida for both his undergraduate and

graduate degrees. He conducted his doctoral research on the reproductive physiology

of the largemouth bass and the longnose gar in the Escambia and Blackwater Rivers

in Florida. He has done other research with a variety of aquatic species under the

auspices of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and has taught classroom and

laboratory courses, as well as mentored undergraduate senior theses. He currently

teaches at St. Mary’s College of Maryland.

9 Effluent from a paper mill discharging into the Fenholloway River, Taylor County,

Florida, USA, contains chemicals that masculinized females of the resident population of eastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki, as evidenced in females by elongated anal fins, normally a male-specific trait. To identify androgenic components in

the effluent, free-flowing water was collected from the Fenholloway River and a

control tributary in acid-washed carboys. Water samples were filtered through acidwashed glass wool and fractionated using C-18, solid phase extraction (SPE) and

high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC: 20%-100% acetonitrile gradient in

0.25% H3PO4).

The 80% and 90% methanol SPE fractions induced human androgen-receptor-dependent transcriptional activity in transient transfection cell culture assays. From these

SPE fractions, two fractions collected from HPLC gradients induced androgen receptor

transcriptional activity. Of these androstenedione was confirmed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS) with multiple reaction monitoring and was quantified

by HPLC at concentrations of 0.14 nmoles/liter of effluent. See Jenkins, R., Angus, R.,

McNatt, H., Howell, M. W., Kemppainen, J. A., Kirk, M., & Wilson, E. (2001). Androstenedione is Present in a River Containing Paper Mill Effluent and Masculinized Fish [http://

e.hormone.tulane.edu/e2000/posters-2000/2k-Poster-14.pdf].
61

Experiential Learning for Pre-Service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

Underwater photo of

fish taken at Sea World
CO-LEARNERS team of (l to r) Mary Hartsfield,

the practicing high-school teacher; Gregory

Preston, the pre-service teacher; and Dr. Jim

Ladner, from the Florida Geological Survey
63

Teaching and Learning Science: A Team Approach

Gregory Preston

with M. Randall Spaid

When I began the summer CO-LEARNERS Program at the Florida Geological

Survey (FGS, part of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection), I was

confused by the scientific terminology that research geologist Jim Ladner was

using. I knew what cryogenics was, by definition, a branch of physics that

relates to the production and effects of very low temperatures. However, I had

never actually seen anyone use liquid nitrogen that boils at atmospheric pressure at 77 K (or -196°C or -321°F). It is very, very cold! After having the opportunity to go out into the field and help collect cryogenic core samples using liquid

nitrogen, I felt much more comfortable with the language that he was using to

describe field tests the FGS conducts.

As I helped collect data alongside Jim and my teacher-mentor, Mary Hartsfield,

I began to think of ideas for applying what I was learning for use in my future

science classroom. My summer with the CO-LEARNERS Program could be reflected in my lesson plans, hands-on activities, and PowerPoint slide shows, which

illustrated my personal experiences with the Florida Geological Survey and the

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Working with the scientists and a

veteran science teacher required my focused attention but was quite enjoyable.

The CO-LEARNERS project is a pilot program designed to link practicing and

prospective science teachers with science researchers. Scientists from the

Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the Florida Geological Survey had an opportunity to interact with science teachers and discover

a teacher’s perspective of what scientists do. The prospective and practicing

teachers and scientists learned from each other, hence the term CO-LEARNERS.

Collecting SET Data with the FGS

Only a few days after meeting Jim and Mary, we left on an excursion to Port St.

Joe to take “SET readings” for the Florida Geological Survey. For a SET (Sediment-Elevation Table) reading, a benchmark pipe is driven into the marsh soil to

a depth of three-to-six meters, which forms the base for the table. Changes in

elevation of the marsh surface relative to the bottom of the benchmark pipe and

are measured by lowering pins from the SET to the marsh surface. This technique measures both surface and subsurface processes occurring between the

surface and the bottom of the pipe. The difference in rates between the SET and

the marker horizon provides an estimate of the rate of subsurface processes or

what is called shallow subsidence. We recorded the water elevation at each

point for comparison to previous measurements.1

To avoid disturbing the soil structure, we used cryogenic coring and marker

horizon techniques. A “bullet” was used to inject liquid nitrogen into the ground;

the frozen core was then pulled out and examined. The level of sediment accretion (i.e., growth by external addition or accumulation) was then measured for

comparison with the last coring.

Working with Mary and Jim molded my entire outlook on the field of science.

They were able to make the fieldwork exciting and understandable to me, and in

turn, I helped them by offering my own knowledge. Being fairly computer

literate, I was able to simplify some of the computer lingo for constructing

The

CO-LEARNERS

Program

Introduction

“By taking part in

the CO-LEARNERS

Program, I planned

to enter student

teaching with a

substantial amount

of conf idence due

to these hands-on

experiences.”
64

PowerPoint presentations and Excel spreadsheets for Mary. She hoped to incorporate more computers and technology in her classroom. I was able to describe

to Jim the world of science through the eyes of a prospective science teacher

and current undergraduate student. Jim was very cooperative, and Mary helped

me envision learning activities for students. Feeling pleased with my overall

experience at the Florida Geological Survey, I began a new journey into science

at the DEP.

Assessing Stream Habitat with the DEP

At the main facility of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, I met

Tom Frick, Senior Chemist; Kelly Schratwieser, a staff biologist; and Russell

Frydenborg, a staff administrator. I learned how to conduct a habitat assessment

to determine the “health status” of a body of water, such as a stream. The procedure is partially based upon a scoring system of the number and types of

plants, animals, and organic substances that are present. Factors such as bank

stability and vegetated riparian buffer zones, along with other factors, also

contribute to scoring.

First, we measured a 100-meter stretch of terrain. Second, we divided the

stretch into ten-meter sections. At this point, a “trained observer” drew the

terrain to scale while moving upstream, illustrating the number of physical

characteristics recognized along the way: roots, snags, and leaf packs. After

determining the percentage of each stream characteristic based on scaled size,

the observer then recorded the percentage in which they exist in the

stretch. Finally, the chemical characteristics were added to the scoring of the habitat. I helped by weighing each sample that was

collected from the stream while a coworker was responsible for

titration and chemical testing.

I was interested in the protocols these DEP scientists used to

assess the terrain, and what criteria they used to select a section

of the stream for testing. How did they decide where to test for

turbidity? Which section of the stretch would be chosen to gauge

the snag habitats? Russ explained that he chose to work in the

middle of the stream because, based on his previous experience, the

water drained into the middle. He began collecting his samples 50

meters downstream from the beginning of the stretch.

Transferring My Field Experiences to the Science Classroom

I wondered how I was going to apply these field experiences to my science

classroom. I decided that it is possible to feature these stream assessment

activities during a field trip and to have the students take part in the science

firsthand. As Mary and I discussed the possibilities, I made plans to visit Mary

in her classroom during the fall semester to see her in action as a teacher.

By taking part in the CO-LEARNERS Program, I planned to enter student

teaching with a substantial amount of confidence due to these hands-on experiences. I even considered graduate school and earning a Master’s degree

in science education.

I had my teaching internship at Barbara Goleman Senior High School in Miami

and graduated during the following spring semester. My internship supervisor

taught six periods, and I was assigned to teach four periods of anatomy and

physiology. My supervisor was the department head, so her responsibilities

became mine. For instance, the teachers came to me asking for keys to the

stockroom, so I got a taste of everything that school teachers do.

Practicing teacher, Mary

Hartsfield, is titrating some

chemical samples.

Constructing a

PowerPoint slide

show for my COLEARNERS Program

presentation had

an impact on

me—I found

out that I have

somewhat of a

creative side.
65

During my internship, there was at least one computer in every classroom, there

were white boards instead of chalkboards, and the TVs could be connected to

the computer. The experiences that I had in the CO-LEARNERS Program during

the summer had only a minor influence on my teaching because I was teaching

anatomy, but I had my students work with PowerPoint. They really enjoyed it.

When I shared my experience with FGS and the DEP and showed them my slide

show presentation, they were awestruck.

Teaching with a New Understanding

The culture of science has no limitations, whereas, with the culture of classroom science, a teacher is limited to his/her available resources for facilitation.

The collaborations provided a means for me to understand what was being

done on a more technical level. It is easy to teach something straight out of a

book, as I learned during my internship. However, by actually doing

something hands-on, one truly gains a better understanding. I have

made a few contacts with two other scientists—an astronaut and

an engineer—and had them present to my internship class.

I don’t think my student teaching experience enabled me to see

what teaching is truly like. I say this because when I got my own

classroom the following fall, I wasn’t given the same resources

with which to teach. I had a computer, but it was nothing like

what we had at Barbara Goleman. So I had to really improvise.

I had my students do a lot of laboratories because I wanted them to do

hands-on activities. The students loved me for that. I always wanted one

of those microscopes where you can display slides to the entire class. I never got

around to getting it, though, because I got moved to teach sixth grade. I was teaching six periods in a row with no planning period. The classes of 35-to-40 students

were too much. I couldn’t continue teaching because of the outside demands, like

all the paperwork that I had to do, plus taking night classes at the same time. It was

beginning to overwhelm me. I had students there with psychological problems, and

I did not feel that the administration was supportive of new teachers. I taught there

for five months before deciding to resign and start working toward a Master’s

degree in information technology.

Conclusion

In deciding which graduate school to attend that would provide the best training

in computer science, I chose a program that emphasized a collaborative approach to learning, just like the CO-LEARNERS design. I have discovered that

collaboration is the model utilized for project work in industry—everybody

teams together. In every graduate school class, we use a collaborative approach

to complete course projects. We have learned to lean on each other’s strengths

and take turns being the team leader. I am amazed that I now have other graduate students looking to me for advice. Constructing a PowerPoint slide show for

my CO-LEARNERS Program presentation had an impact on me—I found out that

I have somewhat of a creative side. When I first transferred to Florida State

University, I had no idea even of how to turn on a computer, let alone use it.

Look at me now—I’m writing computer programs!

I still have an interest in science, and because I like to write computer programs, I am thinking about writing a program for optometrists to identify a

disease based on the patient’s symptoms. That’s something that I’m going to be

working on within the next year or so. Although my summer experience with

CO-LEARNERS Program will not be reflected in school lesson plans and handsExploring

Career

Options

Dr. Jim Ladner is the

practicing scientist

who worked with me.

The Culture

of Science
66

on science activities, working with a veteran teacher and with the scientists

from the Florida Geological Survey and Department of Environmental Protection

gave me a new perspective toward problem-solving and critical thinking. The

collaborations provided a means for me to understand what was being done on

a more technical level. I think the desire to teach is still in my blood. I definitely

want to stay in the school system in some capacity, perhaps at the high school

or college level.

1 Sediment deposition, plant growth, decomposition, and subsidence are measured in

regionwide field studies to complement laboratory experiments. Data are compared to

local rates of sea-level rise to determine the potential for coastal marsh submergence.

Several innovative field methods are employed for this program. Surface accretionary

processes are measured from artificial marker horizons. To minimize disruption of

these horizons during coring, we use a cryogenic coring apparatus that freezes the

marsh, allowing the removal of only a small segment of the substrate while still

maintaining soil stratigraphy. Surface elevation change is measured with a Sedimentation-Erosion Table (SET). A benchmark pipe is driven into the marsh soil to a depth

of three-to-six meters and forms the base for the SET. Changes in elevation of the

marsh surface relative to the bottom of the benchmark pipe are measured by lowering pins from the SET to the marsh surface. This technique incorporates both surface

and subsurface processes occurring between the surface and the bottom of the pipe.

The difference in rates between the SET and the marker horizon provides an estimate of the rate of subsurface processes or what we call shallow subsidence.

Our findings indicate that the assumption of a one-to-one relationship between

vertical accretion and surface elevation change is too simplistic a generalization of

the complex interactions between accretionary and substrate processes. In many

marsh types, particularly those with highly organic or deteriorating mineral substrates, surface elevation change is lower than the vertical accretion rate. In some

cases, the two processes appear to be completely decoupled. Consequently, the

potential for coastal marsh submergence is often being underestimated and should

be expressed as an elevation deficit based on direct measures of surface elevation

change rather than accretion deficits. These findings also indicate the need for

greater understanding of the influence of subsurface and small-scale hydrologic

processes on marsh surface elevation [www.nwrc.usgs.gov/set/elev.html].

Endnotes
67

Experiential Learning for Pre-Service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

6

I was out in a boat measuring

 the depth of the river sediments.

 I saw nature in all its

beautiful form.
Lori Livingston Hahn is the graduate student

(at FSU) evaluator of the CO-LEARNERS Program at the University of West Florida. Lori is

with M. Randall Spaid.
69

Making Connections to Science Through the CO-LEARNERS Program

Lori Livingston Hahn

Development of an Experiential Program

Providing courses in which future classroom science teachers actually “do”

science in a research setting as opposed to those that are lecture-driven, textbook-dictated, and laden with “cookbook” science experiments should be the

goal of any teacher preparation program. In fact, this is exactly the type of

science classroom that current U.S. national science standards recommend for

the K–12 classroom.1

 We teach the way that we are taught, so why aren’t

teacher education programs teaching pre-service science teachers the way that

current standards and research suggest they should teach? SWEPT (Scientific

Work Experiences for Programs for Teachers) programs,2

 such as the one at

Columbia University,1

 have demonstrated over several years that such experiential science programs have a positive effect on in-service science teachers and

their classroom instruction strategies.4

 The redesigning of teacher preparation

programs should include experiential programs for pre-service science teachers.

Co-Learning, Collaborating, Researching, and Teaching

As a doctoral student in Science Education, I conceptualized the notion of a

program in which pre-service science teachers could work alongside practicing

science teachers and science researchers. The impetus for this idea was based

on my own scientific work experiences as a practicing middle school science

teacher. These experiences made a major impact on my classroom teaching, as

well as my understanding of teaching and learning science. Under the guidance

of my major professor, Penny J. Gilmer, I was able to make this concept a reality.

Dr. Gilmer and other colleagues of hers were developing a major grant proposal

to the National Science Foundation for one of the Collaboratives for Excellence

in Teacher Preparation. My idea, which evolved into the CO-LEARNERS (Collaborative Opportunities—Learning Experientially and Research uNiting Educators and Researchers of Science) program, was a pilot project of the Florida

Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (FCETP).5

 FCETP, a statewide

initiative funded by the National Science Foundation, seeks to improve science and

mathematics teacher preparation programs across the state of Florida through

collaborations with community colleges, universities, secondary schools, and other

agencies. The retention and professional development of in-service science and

mathematics teachers are goals of the FCETP, as well.

Through the CO-LEARNERS Program, an experiential science course was offered to undergraduate teacher education students at two participating state

universities. In-service middle- and high-school teachers, as well as research

scientists, serve as mentors for the pre-service teachers.

During the second summer, there were two teams of teachers in Tallahassee

and three teams in Pensacola where I am located. In Pensacola, two of the preservice participants from the first summer participated again but in a different

research project. Both were eager to have the opportunity once again to be a

part of science research. One of the participants, Christy Tarter who had a

second opportunity to conduct research, is included in this monograph (Chapter

9), while the other participant was unable to contribute to the writing of this

monograph due to personal matters. I have mentioned some of his accounts in

this chapter, however.

Introduction

“All three sets of

participants (i.e.,

the pre-service

teacher, the

practicing

teacher, and the

practicing

scientist) made

significant

contributions

towards

the enhancement of

science and

mathematics

education within

their teams.”
70

I was not involved in the CO-LEARNERS Project during the third summer. We had

only practicing teachers with science researchers. The experience of one of the

science researchers from Pensacola (Jan Macauley in Chapter 10) is included in this

monograph. Her chapter has a different twist because she, as a practicing scientist,

has become interested in teaching science, perhaps at the university level.

At one university, all teacher participants, both pre-service and practicing, were

middle-school science educators. Teacher participants at the other university

were mainly high-school educators, with one middle-level educator.5

The Science Researcher’s Role

The science researcher’s role was to mentor the in-service and pre-service

science teachers with respect to science content acquisition, to expose them to

the nature of science through the research, and to provide them with an opportunity to become immersed in the culture of science. All researchers of science

worked either in a university research setting or at a state governmental agency.

These researchers were not paid by the grant, but voluntarily agreed to mentor

the educator participants.

Pre-service Teachers as Researchers

At the University of West Florida site, pre-service teachers—for their course

requirements—were to complete the following:

 A paper describing their research and how this research can help with

their classroom

 A lesson plan that was based somewhat on the science research; the

plan was coded to the Sunshine State Standards in science (The lesson

plans have been compiled and will be posted on the SERVE website

[www.serve.org] in conjunction with this monograph)

 Research, as assigned by the researcher(s)

 A reflective journal (only required in the second summer)

Students were encouraged to participate in local and national conferences.

Christy Tarter, one of the pre-service teachers, helped to prepare a PowerPoint

presentation and discussion at the Florida Collaborative for Excellence in

Teacher Preparation annual symposia in Tallahassee and Orlando, Florida.

Students at the Florida State University site were required to present either a

poster or a PowerPoint slide show on their research at a citywide meeting of

science teachers.

We paid the in-service science teachers a small salary at both sites, while at

one site we offered the pre-service teachers three hours of course credit and a

tuition waiver for their participation. The in-service science teachers provided

the pre-service science teachers with pedagogical assistance in translating their

summer research experience into classroom lesson plans. The pre-service

science teachers, too, helped in-service teachers with instructional technology

and exposed them to current education research.

All three sets of participants (i.e., the pre-service teacher, the practicing

teacher, and the practicing scientist) made significant contributions towards

the enhancement of science and mathematics education within their teams.

This was accomplished through a collaborative and sharing process. Throughout the entire research, each participant, including me as the doctoral student

conducting the evaluation, assumed the role of learner; hence, the acronym,

CO-LEARNERS.

“If pre-service

science teachers

have only been

taught using

textbooks, lecture,

and cookbook-type

laboratories, then

can we truly

expect them to

allow students to

experience science

inquiry in their

classrooms?”
71

Christy and Paige look at

the seagrasses at the DEP.

A “team” discusses their

project on sea grass cloning.

Programs or alternative courses, such as those offered through the

CO-LEARNERS Program, could prove very beneficial to pre-service science

teachers in a myriad of ways. It is my opinion, based on the interviews and

the writings of the pre-service teachers in this monograph, that the redesigning of teacher preparation programs should include experiential

science courses for pre-service science teachers.

The chapters offered in this monograph are the stories in the

voices of the pre-service teacher participants in the COLEARNERS Program.

For the third summer of the program, the pre-service part of the

program was different in two respects. At the University of West

Florida, only in-service teachers participated with the researcher,

Jan Macauley, in the CO-LEARNERS Program. We had one Florida

State University pre-service teacher who was accepted into the Preservice Teacher Internship Program, sponsored jointly by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Science Foundation (NSF).6

Rebecca Brockwell participated in research at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)7

, a national facility that is part of the Department of Energy.

Rebecca Brockwell writes of her experiences at Oak Ridge in Chapter 3. The

DOE-NSF Pre-service Teacher Internship Program at ORNL was similar to our

CO-LEARNERS Program, but with one practicing teacher facilitating three preservice teachers rather than one practicing teacher per pre-service teacher.

Intra-University Collaboration

Penny J. Gilmer (at Florida State University) and I (at University of West Florida)

collaborated on the design and implementation of the CO-LEARNERS Program

in order to provide pre-service teachers an opportunity to experience authentic

scientific research.8

 Bringing the in-service science teacher and science researcher

into the learning community has brought the cultures together, enabling the preservice teacher to understand the nature of science, experience the culture of

science, and demonstrate how “science” can be brought into the classroom. We

provided an opportunity for the in-service teachers to be immersed in this contextual learning experience as well. For many of the teachers, this was their first

experience in a scientific research setting.

University-School Collaboration

According to the National Science Board, only 63% of high-school science teachers

and 17% of middle-school science teachers hold undergraduate degrees in science.9

 These data suggest a limited background in science for our in-service

secondary school science teachers. Besides not having the formal coursework in

science, most in-service science teachers we interviewed indicated that they have

little or no science research experience prior to teaching science in the classroom.

In other teaching fields, the teacher has at least experienced his/her subject

within a contextual situation. For instance, it is rare to find a physical education

teacher or coach who has never participated in sports. Many English teachers

are writers. Band directors are often proficient with several musical instruments,

while art teachers have painted, sketched, or sculpted. However, many science

teachers with whom I have communicated may have experienced science only

through textbooks and laboratories with instructor-assigned experiments. They

have never experienced scientific research. We found this generally to be the

case with our in-service teachers, as well.

Collaboration
72

Evaluation Questions

Based on the findings of the pilot study, as well as the stories of the participants,

my evaluation focuses on the following three questions:

 How do pre-service science teachers gain content knowledge through

science research opportunities?

 How do pre-service teachers gain access to the scientific community

through collaborations with researchers of science?

 How can the immersion of the pre-service science teachers into a

constructivist-based contextual learning experience in science change

their beliefs and teaching practice?

Significance: A Different Way to Learn

A new element to the collaboration is bringing the pre-service teacher into the

collaboration with practicing teachers and research scientists. This work builds on

the studies edited by Kielborn and Gilmer, in which in-service teachers wrote about

their experiences working alongside with research scientists in scientific research.10

The earlier monograph in this series examines how scientific work influenced inservice teachers’ beliefs about science, and some cases looked at its influence on

how the teacher taught science and how their students learned science.

Future science teachers must be taught the ways that current research

suggests they teach their own classrooms. We tend to teach in the

way we are taught. If pre-service science teachers have only been

taught using textbooks, lecture, and cookbook-type laboratories,

then can we truly expect them to allow students to experience

science inquiry in their classrooms? Pre-service teachers must

also be exposed to the many community resources they can use

with their students. Immersion in a scientific research setting

enables them to experience the culture of science, explore the

nature of science, acquire science content in a con-structivist-based

learning environment, and gain access to the variety of community

science resources that are available to them.

Fosnot asserts that teacher education programs should provide opportunities for

teachers’ beliefs to be illuminated, discussed, and challenged.11 Fosnot planned a

program for pre-service teachers to engage in learning experiences that confront

traditional beliefs. She also encouraged field experiences in which pre-service and

in-service teachers can experiment collaboratively. Her approach to teacher

education stresses the involvement of both pre-service and in-service teachers in

processes of their own learning, cooperative fieldwork, and reflective fieldwork.

The design of the CO-LEARNERS Program incorporates Fosnot’s approach and

adds contextual learning in a scientific setting as a component of the collaboration between in-service and pre-service teachers. We blended the research of

Fosnot and the positive results of SWEPT (Scientific Work Experiences for

Practicing Teachers) programs from across the country. CO-LEARNERS Program

is a model vehicle for meaningful change in pre-service teachers’ beliefs about

the culture and nature of science, as well science content acquisition and the

establishment of a community resource base through collaborations with science researchers and their affiliated research sites.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the CO-LEARNERS concept is that of a constructivist

epistemology. According to Glasersfeld,12 constructivism emphasizes that knowledge

Two students are

constructing their project.
73

cannot be separated from knowing. We do not receive knowledge passively, but we,

as cognizing subjects (i.e., the learners), construct it, based on our prior experiences.

In constructivism, science knowledge is not something that teachers possess and

transfer to students through lecture, the reading of textbooks, and paper and pencil

activities. Instead, students construct science knowledge (as do science teachers and

researchers) to make sense of their world. Students construct their own meaning

based on past experiences and words or visual images they hear or see.

The immersion of teacher participants into the nature and culture of science in

CO-LEARNERS Program enables teachers to experience constructivism firsthand. This would hopefully aid in their formation of empathy as a learner. In this

case, the teacher has empathy for a student/learner. This growing empathy will

hopefully catalyze a change in their own thinking about teaching and learning,

and ultimately the teaching of science and/or mathematics in their respective

classroom. This would include more constructivist-based teaching and contextual learning experiences for their own students.

Giving Voices to the Participants

As one of the evaluators of the CO-LEARNERS Program, I am utilizing the

methodology of fourth generation evaluation outlined by Guba & Lincoln,13

using a qualitative methodology as discussed by Erickson.14 Denzin and Lincoln

state the following:15

Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means

that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,

attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms

of, the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research

involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical

materials—case- study, personal experience, introspective, life

story, interview, observational, historical, interactions, and visual

texts—the described routine and problematic moments and

meanings in individuals’ lives. (p. 3)

One of the most significant and meaningful aspects of studying an educational environment with qualitative research is that it gives each participant a

“voice.”15 Quantitative studies are objective in nature and tend to reject the significance of the participant’s learning process and reflections, relying mostly on

numbered data and statistics. The voices of the pre-service teachers in this study

are critical in regard to improving teacher education programs and, thus, classroom science for our children. Ignoring the perspectives of educators and students may be detrimental to an educational system. Education evaluators cannot

rely totally on test scores, numbers, and other statistics without listening to the

voices of individuals who can provide valuable insights in the new context.

Pre-service secondary science teachers authored chapters two through six and

eight through ten in this monograph. In this chapter, I have included some of the

voices of the pre-service teachers, the practicing science teachers, the researchers of science, and other participants who are not authors in this monograph.

Learning Science Content Within a Contextual Environment

One of the criticisms of science education in the United States cited in the 1997

TIMSS report was that U.S. teachers try to cover “too much information.”16 The

TIMSS report is consistent with what I emphasize. Teachers teach “too much

content” because standards and standardized testing (such as FCAT) mandated

by the state dictate that they must.

Methodology

Two students construct

their own meaning based

on past experiences and

words or visual images

they hear or see.
74

The CO-LEARNERS Program places each participant in the role of teacher,

learner, and researcher in a contextual learning environment. Contextual learning in science is learning in the context of doing, thinking, speaking, and experiencing science.17 Within the context of science, each participant is immersed in

the nature and culture of science through his/her interactions with other scientists.18 This context involves using the equipment to accomplish the scientific

procedures, the language of science to converse with others conducting the

research, and analytical thinking skills to make sense of the research.

To help illustrate this acquisition of science context, I will use voices of

some of the participants of the summer programs. Gregory Preston,

a pre-service teacher, who wrote Chapter 6 of this monograph,

demonstrates his ease with the language of the science used at his

research site at the Florida Department of Environmental Protection:19

(Excerpt from Gregory’s writings):

One such activity involves taking SET site readings. SET stands for

Sediment Erosion Table. The purpose of taking such readings is to

determine water elevations of various marshes throughout North

Florida. The degree of shifting will help in the determination of what may

have accounted for such movements. In conjunction with this technique is a

procedure known as Cryogenic Coring. Liquid nitrogen is injected into the

ground through a pipe, causing the ground to freeze. Analysis of the frozen core

determines the level of sediment accretion. These results were recorded in a

spreadsheet format and then were graphed. They suggest that the majority of

estuaries in this area contain limited sediment input from offshore sources and

minimal sediment contributions from those rivers draining the region.

The research that Gregory conducted is part of recent coverage in the New York

Times on how geologists use the sediment record to reconstruct the history of

past hurricanes.20 Prior to his summer research experiences, Gregory was described by one of the professors as “shy and very quiet.” In describing one of the

activities from his research, Gregory appears to be much more comfortable with

this type of science knowledge than he was prior to his research experiences. In

an interview, he discussed how this type of experience helped him to retain this

knowledge better than when he had mostly read material in earlier courses

dealing with similar topics. We have all heard the expression that you “learn by

doing.” This appears to be true in Gregory’s case.

I heard of a case similar to Gregory’s experiences in an interview with Troy, an

in-service middle-school teacher who worked in the Pensacola area.

(Excerpt from an interview with Troy):

I think the classroom can only do so much for learning. The university ought to take

a hard look at the program and see how it could be incorporated in a science

program. I know from my experience that I have learned as much from experienced

teachers as I did in college classes. There is no substitute for on-the-job training.

Troy is expressing his thoughts on the benefits of experiential learning. Troy

realizes that experience is the best teacher. Troy holds an elementary education

degree, although he is currently teaching sixth-grade science. Having no prior

scientific experience and very few science courses, this experience helped him

gain a new perspective on science.

When asked if he believed that pre-service teachers gain as much content on a

certain topic by doing research as they would in a lecture-driven course, Erick, a

Rick Harter, a DEP scientist,

demonstrates an “invention”

used in the laboratory.

Teachers learned that

scientists must improvise

when budgets are limited,

just like teachers do!
75

scientist participant, explained his perspective as a science researcher.

(Excerpt from Erick’s interview):

I believe [the pre-service teachers] gain much more understanding of the details

related to the research but may not be able to cover nearly as many different

scientific concepts as they would in a lecture-driven course. But most importantly, I think they gain a better appreciation of the practicality of science and its

real-life implications by participating in hands-on research.

Nine months after his summer research experience, I asked Marcus, another

pre-service middle-school teacher, whose paper was not included in this monograph due to family and school obligations, to describe his research to several

students. My request to him was completely impromptu. Marcus, without hesitation, eloquently and accurately recounted the procedures that he and his team

had used to study water quality and pollution levels. He accurately used the

scientific names of the two species of mollusks he had studied. He quickly

answered a fellow student who had posed a question about the relationship

between pollution and using “filter feeding” animals as indicator species. When I

commented on how impressed I was with how he remembered so much of the

content he had learned, he said, “I remembered it because I did it!” This was a

critical insight for Marcus, especially as he begins to teach his own students.

Teacher education programs should consider this when designing and/or requiring

specific science courses for pre-service teachers. The science course considered

should be inquiry-based, hands-on, and should involve meaningful “real-world”

experiences for the student teachers. We should teach future teachers using the

methods research supports as a model for teaching science to their future students.

The Culture of Science Versus the Culture of Classroom Science

Madsen and Gallagher discuss the “culture of classroom science” in their study

on teacher change and beliefs.21 The culture of science is different from that of

the culture of classroom science. The culture of science is seen as constructivist

in nature, as scientists must experience their research to discover “answers” and

obtain knowledge. By contrast, the traditional culture of classroom science is

seen as positivist in nature, in which students are given factual information.

Textbook and lecture-driven, the current culture of science in the classroom

does not enable students to experience authentic science.

Christy, one of the pre-service teachers who wrote Chapter 9 in this monograph,

worked with plant cloning and environmental restoration. Here Christy describes the

“culture of science” and how this differs from the culture of the science classroom:

(Excerpt from Christy’s paper):

The culture of science is very interesting. Working with people who love what

they are doing made me want to bring that feeling back into the classroom.

Research, discovery, focus, and a love of science make the culture of science

exciting. Again, the culture of science in the classroom lacks excitement and

interest. Students are not motivated to seek answers to questions and research

interesting topics. I want to make science fun and interesting. I do not want my

students to just read chapter after chapter and answer questions at the end. I

want students to develop their own questions and then research to find answers.

I want students to share with their classmates what they discovered and why it

was important to them. I hope to make students aware of how much fun science is and that everyone can be a scientist.

Immersion into the culture of science has obviously opened Christy’s eyes to the

relevance of doing and experiencing science. Her classroom boundaries appear

“Working with

people who love

what they are

doing made me

want to bring that

feeling back into

the classroom.”
76

to be broadened, and I predict that in her future classroom, there will be much

excitement and interest in science.

Connecting the Community of Science with the Educational Community

Many beginning teachers do not realize that they can access the scientific community through industrial, academic, or governmental facilities. CO-LEARNERS

Program provided an opportunity for pre-service teachers to work with practicing scientists and realize what is available to them.

(Excerpt from Christy’s interview):

I plan on using less lecture, more hands-on activities, research, and student

participation. I want my students to want to learn more and apply themselves in

science education. I want to invite scientists from the community into my classroom so students can learn what their options are in the future. I also want to

communicate with scientists to create new science plans to implement in my

classroom. Having contacts in the community is beneficial for in-service and

pre-service teachers. During this summer program, I gained several contacts

and teaching materials from the people I worked with at the DEP. One person...

gave me bookmarks, magnets, lesson plans, case studies, and fun activities that

I can give to and implement with my middle-school students no matter what

level they are on. Knowing that people in the community are willing to contribute to science education makes my job easier.

The impact on her newfound ability to access science resources within their

community is evident as well. Christy has made initial connections and contacts

within the community. Whether or not she decides to remain in the same community to begin her teaching career, she knows that there are scientists in every

community eager to be called upon as resources in the science classroom. When

I was a first-year teacher, I lacked this insight and did not begin to access the

scientist community for several years into my teaching career.

All of the participants saw the value of making early “connections” to their local

science community for support in the classroom.

In the first summer of the CO-LEARNERS Program, Lidia was a pre-service

teacher who planned to teach biology in high school. She worked at the Department of Environmental Protection19 and did field work and analysis of samples

from rivers in northern Florida.

(Excerpt from Lidia’s interview):

Some of my students will enter my class knowing more or less than that of other

classmates, but by pulling together all of the resources in the community, we

will all benefit.

From this statement, Lidia appears to realize the importance of the collaborations with the science community. Just becoming aware that the community is

available is a valuable lesson for future science educators. The knowledge and

experience that research scientists can share with educators is extremely valuable. We asked scientists such questions as, “What inspired you to be a scientist?” and “Did a certain science teacher inspire you to pursue science as a

career?” Their answers can shed light on what teachers can do in their classrooms to capture their students’ interest in science.

By providing a window for pre-service teachers to get a glimpse into the scientific community and what is available for them as resources, their students will

ultimately benefit. Benefits range from receiving Science Fair mentoring to

“The voices of the

pre-service

teachers in this

study are critical

in regard to

improving teacher

education

programs and,

thus, classroom

science for our

children.”
77

accessing laboratory equipment (which may not otherwise be available to them)

to working alongside a role model who may inspire them enough to pursue a

career in science.

Contextual and Experiential Learning

Keeping with the science terminology, I use the expression “a catalyst for

teacher change” to describe any experience that may impact the way a teacher

practices in his/her classroom. In this study, the catalyst is the actual contextual

and experiential learning in science and its impact on his/her teaching to

consider and/or to include more contextual and experiential learning strategies

in his/her own classroom. Placing pre-service teachers or practicing teachers in

a contextual and experiential learning situation enables them to experience

their own learning in a new way and forces them to realize that this type of

learning is more meaningful and lasting.

I experienced this catalyst effect when I engaged in scientific research as a practicing middle-school teacher.8

 It had such a powerful effect on me that I was

convinced that pre-service teachers should have such an experience before

they start teaching. If pre-service teachers are given this opportunity

while they are still enrolled in teacher preparation, their teaching

practice would be influenced from the beginning of their teaching

careers rather than after more than ten years of teaching (like me).

In a recent study of Columbia University’s Summer Research

Program for Secondary Teachers, Silverstein and Dubner found

that students of practicing science teachers who had participated in summer research received higher GPAs and higher

scores on the science section of the Regents Examination.3

 Additionally, these students participated in Westinghouse projects,

science clubs, and extra-curricular activities in science at a higher

rate than students whose teachers had not participated in summer

research experiences.

Development of Empathy from Being a Learner

Teachers can develop empathy from being a learner through their science

research experiences. This emerging empathy will ultimately benefit the students in their respective classrooms. The catalyst for this teacher change is

their own research experiences, and the change occurs when their empathy

generates enough desire for them to change their old beliefs about the teaching

and learning of science to the degree that they utilize a more constructivist

epistemology in their own classroom. In my opinion as an educator, teachers

can read about the types of instruction and teaching methods that they “should”

use, but when one actually experiences experiential or contextual learning,

teachers are more likely to implement the methods. This is due to the simple

fact that the type of learning worked for them. The experience of Ron Wark, a

pre-service middle-school teacher and an author in this monograph in Chapter

8, provides a beautiful illustration of this notion.

Ron states in an interview:

Hands-on experience makes you realize that you, the teacher, had fun learning.

Whoa, if I had fun, then do my students have fun in class learning just from

books? Every once in a while, teachers need to be a student to bring them back

to the reality that learning needs to be fun. Learning also needs to be hands-on

and pertinent to their everyday life.

A Catalyst

forTeacher

Change in

Belief and

Practice

Paige and Christy get “dirty”.

Science teachers immerse

themselves into science.

Their students will

ultimately benef it.
78

I believe that Ron encountered a catalytic experience during his own research,

and a change in his teaching is emerging. He understands that his own learning

was more fun and more meaningful when he was actively involved with his own

learning. This realization that his students need this type of learning is very significant for him as a teacher. Although he admits that this style of teaching will be

a challenge for him, his own immersion and experience is much more powerful

than reading the research of others that call for more hands-on learning.

(Excerpt from Christy’s paper):

Teachers should leave textbooks alone as much as possible. It is too easy to just tell

students to open up their book and start answering questions. Student involvement in planning activities could make students more involved in what they are

learning. Allowing students to work in groups for research and laboratory activities

is a good idea to improve student interest. Also, if we want students to have positive attitudes about science education, then we must make what they are learning

useful and applicable in the real world. How we do that is by planning more

laboratory exercises, bringing community scientists into the classroom to answer

questions and promote interest, and taking the time to plan better lessons.

Christy’s statement suggests that she experienced this catalytic effect with

regard to her ideas about teaching and learning. Again, the words “useful” and

“applicable in the real world” indicate a strong desire to make the learning of

science rel-evant to her students. This can best be done by allowing pre-service

teachers to experience science, by providing opportunities to interact with

scientists within their own unique communities, and by allowing students to

think about their own learning and what encourages others to learn.

This indicates Christy’s better understanding of the need to include more involvement on the part of students in their learning versus using a lecture-based

classroom. Having experienced this type of learning, she appears to have developed a stronger empathy for her future students.

(Excerpts from e-mails from Troy):

In the science classroom, teachers assume that every kid is interested in science.

In reality, it is the teacher’s job to make the science lessons as interesting as they

can be for the students. If I can make the lessons more realistic, I think it will

influence my students’ perception of science. I would like to see students get a

chance to experience science in a more realistic way. I feel this would change

students’ perception of what scientists are all about and about what their job

includes. I will try to include more hands-on activities with students. I would

also like to get students in the field and lab more. If I can get students into a

science experience, such as the one I was involved in this past summer,

I know that students will be more enthused about their science education.

Troy, as one of the practicing science teachers, also appears to have encountered a catalytic experience with respect to the inclusion of relevant and meaningful science in his teaching practice. This indicates a shift away from the

science classroom filled with facts and information blasted by the TIMSS study.

Administrators often frown upon a teaching style that strays from the traditional, lecture-based, and information-laden teaching style with which teachers

are mostly familiar from their own past experiences. However, teachers who

have experienced the catalytic effect of having done scientific research feel

more compelled to change not only their beliefs, but practices as well. This is

more powerful than reading or hearing about the benefits of contextual and

experiential learning.
79

Economic Feasibility

In terms of economic feasibility, experiential course offerings for pre-service

science teachers require minimal costs to the university other than the supervising faculty member’s salary. The researchers are not paid, but rather offer their

assistance on a voluntary basis. Therefore, the laboratory space and facilities,

most of which are stocked with state-of-the-art equipment, become accessible

to the pre-service science teachers. The researchers at one site were all volunteers from a state laboratory, so the cost sharing was extensive. We have found

that many scientists are willing to help, sometimes due to the fact that they are

parents of school-aged children, and they wish to do their part to improve

science education in their community.

The summer pay for teachers is minimal and is generally based on the district

in-service rate. Collaboration with the school districts could provide the summer

salary through in-service or other grant funding. Other options include asking a

research facility to pay the teachers. The Florida Department of Environmental

Protection paid the in-service teachers at one site on an experimental basis. We

are hopeful that in the future, with additional funding, we could expand this

program throughout the state, continuing to work with the Florida state laboratories, such as the Florida DEP and Florida Department of Agriculture and

Consumer Services.

Teachers are more than willing to participate as most need the extra income,

and are eager to mentor a pre-service teacher. Many teachers desire to update

their own science content and understanding of science. For those who are

pursuing advanced degrees, course credit could be offered in lieu of a salary. At

one site, two of the three in-service teachers registered for graduate credit.

While an experiential course could involve just the pre-service teacher and

science researcher, the extended collaboration with the in-service science

teacher is highly recommended. There are many creative alternatives to establishing such a program.

Accessibility of Research Scientist/Mentor

One of the major problems that we have encountered was the inaccessibility of

some of the researchers at times, as Christy points out in her chapter. Some of

the pre-service teacher participants often felt as though they were not given the

direction that they needed to complete an effective research investigation. This

negative aspect could, however, be debated by some as providing more opportunity to enable the pre-service teacher to become more self-directed, thus

gaining the content knowledge based on constructivist principles. However,

several of the pre-service teachers did express a desire for more direct communication with the researchers.

This problem can be remedied, as in a few cases, by assigning an extra

researcher to work on the project. Therefore, when planning a program of

this nature, this inaccesibility issue should be discussed thoroughly with the

researcher before assigning him/her a pre-service teacher. The researcher

and his/her assistant must be made aware that the pre-service teachers

need some guidance and are not at the research facility to do menial labor.

The teachers are there to gain science research experience, to acquire

science content, to experience science within the context of an actual science laboratory versus a lecture-based and/or cookbook laboratory setting,

and to become acquainted with working with the science community to gain

access for their respective classrooms.

Glimmers

and Glitches
80

Conclusion

Scheduling Issues

Scheduling is also a key factor. The pre-service and practicing teacher need to work

with each other for the majority of the time, therefore, scheduling can be challenging. This can easily be worked out through collaboration and compromise, however.

(Excerpt from Gregory’s interview):

All in all, working with Mary and Jim has molded my entire outlook on

the field of science. They were able to make a great deal of the material exciting and understandable to me, and in turn, I helped each of

them by bringing my own knowledge to the table. By being afforded the opportunity to take part in the CO-LEARNERS Program,

I can now go into my future classroom with a substantial amount

of confidence and hands-on experience.

Change of Career Plans

One of Gregory’s advisors, Penny J. Gilmer, told me that prior to

Gregory’s experience with CO-LEARNERS Program that he was very

timid and reserved in discussions. She described him as “blossoming” from his

participation, and expressing a great deal of interest, excitement, and knowledge

based on his experiences. However, after less than one year of teaching in Miami,

Gregory has chosen not to pursue teaching as a career due to the low pay and high

stress of the teaching profession. Instead, he is pursuing a master’s degree in

Information Technology. However, his teaching experience taught him many

things, like the power of collaboration. In fact, he chose his graduate school

because of its emphasis on collaboration. On a positive note, the access and

exposure he was given during his summer research experience may have ignited

his interest in technology. It is better to find out early in one’s career what s/he

truly finds interesting and fulfilling and pursue that. While the teaching profession

has suffered a loss, the information technology field has profited; they’ve gained a

valuable worker in Gregory. Gregory shares his perspective in his chapter.

On a reverse note, Jan McCauley, the laboratory manager for the Wetlands Research Laboratory at the University of West Florida has decided to consider a job in

teaching, perhaps at the university level. Her chapter on this monograph highlights

her journey from scientist to science teacher. Earlier in her college education, Jan

had considered pursuing teaching as a career. The low salary, student disciplinary

problems, and a certain intimidation factor led her away from teaching and into

science research.

The impact the science teachers made upon Jan was instrumental in her decision to consider teaching as a new career. This collaborative experience, paralleled with observing her new son’s learning and wonder about the world, helped

spark her interest in science teaching. Jan is extremely excited about venturing

down a new career path and learning how she can touch the lives of future scientists and non-scientists who simply love science.

Based on the stories from the pre-service teachers, as well as the in-service

teachers and researchers, we found that the contextual and experiential learning opportunities for pre-service teachers is most beneficial in a variety of ways:

 Teachers increase their science content knowledge. Teachers experience

the culture of science first-hand. The difference between the culture of

science and the culture of the science classroom is more evident to the

teacher who has experienced scientific research. A merging of the two

A key component of the COLEARNERS project, a practicing

science teacher, Paige Bowron,

prepares a specimen for

propagation.
81

cultures is seen as a necessary step towards making science seem more

real to the students.

 Teachers gain empathy for their students. ‘Teachers-as-learners’ experience the frustration of having to encounter sometimes previously unknown subject matter. The catalyst, in this case, is represented by each

teacher’s own experience with contextual and experiential science. The

change resultant from the catalyst involves the pre-service teachers’

ability to re-create a similar type of learning experience for their own

students, as teachers are able to realize that this type of teaching is an

important part of the classroom.

 Community resources and contacts are more accessible to the pre-service

CO-LEARNER teachers. They, too, are more aware of how to make appropriate contacts when they begin teaching within their own classroom.

In closing, Christy expresses her thoughts on the value of experiential course for

pre-service teachers:

(Excerpt from e-mail from Christy):

The program is worthwhile. I learned valuable information this summer that

will make me a better teacher. The scientists were very helpful and excited about

helping me learn about their field. The lead teacher was excited, as well, and

helpful in suggesting ways to implement various ideas into the classroom. This

program should be a part of teacher preparation programs so future and current

teachers can realize the importance of meaningful science education. University

students need more field experience in their content areas if they are to make

learning meaningful and exciting.

I find this summary quite powerful and supportive of the notion of immersing

pre-service science and/or mathematics teachers in an experiential science

program. The word “meaningful” appears many times among the discourse of

the participants. I find this very significant and consistent with current standards

in science education, which stress the importance of meaningful science and

call for opportunities to “connect” students and teachers to science.1

1

 National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Online access: [www.nap.edu]. 2

 Providing Scientific Work Experiences for Teachers. Retrieved 2 August 2001,

from [www.triangle-coalition.org/swept/swplan.htm]. 3

 Silverstein, S., & Dubner, J. (1999). Columbia University’s summer research

program for secondary teachers. Interim report to the National Science

Foundation. New York; Retrieved 2 August 2001, from

[www.scienceteacherprogram.org]. 4

 Gottfried, S. (1993). A formative evaluation of a scientific work experience

program for science teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the

National Association for Research in Science Teaching (Atlanta, GA. April

15-19, 1993). 5

 Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation. Retrieved 16 July

2001, from [www.fcetp.org] for the main page, and [www.fcetp.org/

pressummcole.htm] for the pages specifically on CO-LEARNERS. 6

 Pre-service Teacher Internship Program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Retrieved on 2 August 2001, from [www.scied.science.doe.gov/PST/

index.htm]. 7

 Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved 2 August 2001, from [www.ornl.gov]. 8

 Hahn, L. L. (2000). Transforming pre-service science teachers’ perceptions of

science teaching through scientific work experiences, Paper presented at the

National Association for Research in Science Teaching, New Orleans, LA;

Endnotes

This program

should be a part

of teacher

preparation

programs so

future and current

teachers can

realize the

importance of

meaningful science

education.
82

Hahn, L. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (2000). Transforming pre-service teacher education programs with science research experiences for prospective science

teachers. Paper presented at the Southeastern Association of Teachers of

Teachers in Science, Auburn, AL. 9

 National Science Board. (1998). Science and engineering indicators, 1998.

Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. 10 Kielborn, T. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (Eds.) (1999). Meaningful science: Teachers doing

inquiry + teaching science. Tallahassee, FL: SERVE. [www.serve.org/

Eisenhower/images/meansci.pdf]. 11 Fosnot, C. T. (1992). Learning to teach, teaching to learn: Center for

Constructivist Teaching/Teacher Preparation Project. Paper presented at the

annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San

Francisco, CA. 12 Glasersfeld, E. von (1989). Cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. Synthese, 80, 121–140. 13 Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury

Park, CA: Sage Publications. 14 Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C.

Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook on research on teaching (3rd ed.) (pp. 119-159). New

York, NY: Macmillan. 15 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) (1998). Strategies of qualitative inquiry.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 16 TIMSS (1997). Third International Mathematics and Science Study. U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. 17 Gilmer, P. J., Grogan, A., & Siegel, S. (1996). Contextual learning for premedical students. In J. A. Chambers (Ed.), Selected papers from the 7th National

Conference on College Teaching and Learning (pp. 79-89). Florida Community

College of Jacksonville. 18 Gilmer, P. J. (1999). Teachers learning inquiry through scientific research. In T.

L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science (pp. 11-25). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE. [www.serve.org/

Eisenhower/images/meansci.pdf]. 19 Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved 2 August 2001.

[www.dep.state.fl.us] 20 Revkin, A. C. (2001, July 24). Experts unearth a stormy past, New York Times,

p. D1. [www.nytimes.com]. 21 Madsen, A., & Gallagher, J. J. (1992). Improving learning and instruction in

science classes through support teaching. Unpublished working paper.

Michigan State University.
83

Experiential Learning for Pre-service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

Ron Wark states, “Every once in a while

a teacher needs to be a student to bring

the reality back that learning needs to

be fun. Learning also needs to be

hands-on and pertinent to students’

every day lives.”
A house wrecked from a hurricane on

a Pensacola, Florida, beach.
85

Science from a Different Perspective:

Through the Eyes of a Mathematics Teacher

Ronald L. Wark

Unlike the average novice, I am a 52-year-old, first-year teacher. Retiring after

24 years in the United States Navy, I decided to embark on a new career. Two

years of technical school and a year and a half of junior college finally led me to

the path of becoming a teacher. Eventually, I became a middle-school mathematics and social studies teacher.

My summer as a “scientist” proved to be the first step in my process of experiencing hands-on learning. I like to think that I might eventually evolve into the

type of teacher who provides my students with many hands-on experiences and

opportunities for inquiry. This is what the current research1

 and my recent

education courses stress for optimal student learning. If I learned to appreciate

the importance of hands-on learning, then I would realize that my students

would also like to learn in ways other than by the book. So far that style of

teaching presented a steep learning curve for me.

Science is a learning evolution just like any other discipline. Based on my own

schooling, I always believed that a lot of hard work and hours of study are required

to earn a degree in science. I chose, instead, to major in mathematics and social

studies. I had even taken enough hours to become certified in language arts. I was

a bit intimidated at the thought of being “immersed” in science. But, when I was

asked to participate in a summer research project at the university, which would

also count as a course for credit towards my degree, I was intrigued.

What better way is there to experience and learn a different discipline

than in an actual laboratory setting? I was told that a middle-school

science teacher, a middle-school pre-service teacher, and a research scientist would be teamed together to experience real-world

science research. We would learn through the execution of experiments and the analysis of results. The project, entitled CO-LEARNERS Program, was funded through a National Science Foundation

grant. This team of learners would collaborate and decide on ways

that science could be brought into our classrooms. I felt that I needed

more experience with hands-on learning in the classroom. I needed to

learn science content as well. Since mathematics and science go hand in

hand, I felt that this would be very worthwhile in my teaching and would

ultimately benefit my students.

I had two reasons for participating in this scientific project. First, the activity

enabled me to experience an unfamiliar discipline while working together with

a teacher and a researcher. According to the Third International Mathematics

and Science Study (TIMSS)2

, high school students from the United States lag

dramatically behind other countries in science and technology. Practicing teachers strongly adhere to the belief that to learn science, teachers and students

must also have a connection to science3

. I felt that this experience would prepare me for interdisciplinary teaching and help my future students through my

own connection to science. The second purpose of my participation was to get

a three-hour credit in mathematics, as I wanted to graduate as soon as possible

and pursue my new career.

A New Career

Making

Science and

Mathematics

Connections

Students show delight

at their design and

construction. Hard

work pays off!
86

Ron Wark

in his classroom.

Why would a pre-service and a practicing teacher team with scientific researchers? We could gain knowledge, build confidence, and acquire skills. According

to Gilmer1

, teachers who are given the opportunity to practice methods of

science and experience inquiry will come to experience the culture of science.

Science no longer means abstract “facts” but a way of understanding the world.

I was teamed with a middle-school science teacher, Margo King, at the Wetlands

Research Laboratory, located at the University of West Florida. Margo and I worked

closely with Jan Macauley, the laboratory manager. We were originally placed under

the guidance of Dr. Joseph Lepo, a biology professor and Acting Director of the

Wetlands Research Laboratory. Because of his multiple duties, Joseph was unavailable for in-depth collaborations. We learned the demands upon the time of a true

researcher. Jan worked closely with us, however, in all aspects of our research.

In the Wetlands project, Margo and I tested the waters in the area near

Pensacola, Florida, for levels of fecal coliform4

 bacteria. Fecal coliform bacteria

come from the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. Contamination of water supplies or bathing areas by sewers, septic tanks, or animal

feces may increase the level of fecal coliforms present. Consumption of or

contact with water contaminated with feces may cause gastrointestinal distress

and, in severe cases, death. Local, state, and federal agencies contract with the

Wetlands Research Laboratory to test the waters in the Pensacola area in order

to monitor environmental health or to meet permit requirements.

Utilizing Science in the Investigation

Prior to our actual research investigation, Margo and I read the literature and

procedures involved with such a study assigned to us by Joseph and Jan.

There are five steps in the process used to test for fecal coliform bacteria in the

waters: sampling, dilution, inoculation, incubation, and the reading of

the results. The first step, the sampling process, involves going to the

site and collecting the samples. The procedure is discussed in

another section of this chapter. The second and third steps involve

the serial dilution and inoculation of the sample. We pipetted

portions of the sample into test tubes containing bacterial growth

media specific for growing fecal coliforms. As a control, we

mixed sterile water at the same dilution with the growth media.

We prepared three serial dilutions (undiluted, ten-fold, and 100-

fold) if we collected the sample during normal weather and four

dilutions (up to 1,000-fold) if we collected the sample after a rain.

Rainwater run-off from up stream usually increases the amount of

fecal coliform. Therefore, the sample must be further diluted to enable

the final count falls within the counting range. After the media are inoculated

with the sample, any fecal coliform bacteria, if present, should grow.

There are many types of media, but the one used mostly by the laboratory for

fecal coliform testing is called A-1 medium. The laboratory also tests for Enterococcus bacteria, which uses three different media: azide dextrose broth, bile

esculin azide agar, and Brain-Heart infusion broth. I helped Margo mix BrainHeart media on two occasions, but the A-1 media is one I used most often.

The fourth step in the process is the incubation of the samples. Margo and I

placed the test tubes in an oven incubator for 24 hours after which we checked

Forming

A Team

Our

Investigation
87

for the presence of bacteria. Using the A-1 broth medium, the positive test for

bacterial growth is the presence of a gas bubble in an inverted tube inside the

sample tube. The method used is called multiple tube fermentation. This test

provides an estimate of the most probable number (MPN) of bacteria per 100

milliliters of sample as determined from the number of test tubes in which gas

bubbles form after incubation. The last step is to record all positive and negative test results on a chart.

I wondered what the gas bubbles were, so I asked Jan. She said,

“The multiple tube fermentation method is based on the fact that

fecal coliforms, along with some other bacteria, ferment lactose

(milk sugar or C12H22O11, a disaccharide, or galactose linked

ß14 to glucose). When the bacteria are grown in a medium

(agar or broth) containing lactose, they will produce gas by

fermentation, as if you were making champagne. The A-1 test

for fecal coliforms uses a small inverted glass tube inside the

culture tube. The inverted tube captures gas released by the bacteria. Any bubbles collected in the tube are considered a positive

result for the presence of fecal coliforms in the sample. Her description

helped me connect to my prior knowledge; I remember from a biology class

that I had taken that the final products of fermentation are carbon dioxide and

water, so the gas must be carbon dioxide (CO2).

2 C12H22O11 (aq) + 23 O2 (g)  12 CO2 (g) + 22 H2O (l)

or

Lactose (in solution in water) + oxygen gas  carbon dioxide gas + liquid water

I also wondered what Brain-Heart media meant, so I asked Jan about it. She replied

The full name of what we use as the third medium for the old Enterococcus

multiple tube fermentation (MTF) test is ‘Brain Heart Infusion’ broth. I believe it is

a dehydrated broth infused with brain and heart material, probably bovine. Think

of the basic chicken broth agar we all used in school. Any growth medium involves a nutrient source, and brain and heart tissues are rich with nutrients. A

selective growth medium also involves other components that kill or inhibit

certain types of bacteria, thus selecting against them. You put together the right

series of selective growth media and you can select for almost any specific bacteria by inhibiting the growth of some other types of organisms at each stage until

you have only one left. We add 6.5% salt (i.e., plain old sodium chloride) to the

Brain-Heart infusion broth at the last step of the test because Enterococcus is

one of the few bacteria in the environment that can tolerate that much salt, which

is why it grows so well in the marine environment. An earlier step in the Enterococcus MTF test involves use of sodium azide (bile esculin azide agar), which is

lethal to most higher living organisms, but Enterococcus tolerates a certain

amount of salt too. It’s a tough group of bacteria.

Here again, I remembered something from my biology class. I remember that

azide is a potent killer. I looked it up, and it is a killer because it blocks the

electron flow, which a eucaryotic cell needs to generate significant energy from

metabolism. Apparently, the azide in the growth medium blocks higher order

cells from using the lactose as an energy source. Therefore, any growth must be

prokaryotes such as bacteria.

By adding salt to this medium, scientists put another block on most forms of

bacteria, so they cannot survive under those conditions. Because the Enterococcus is able to grow in a medium containing salt, the presence of gas bubbles

indicates a group of microorganisms that will tolerate salt and multiply. I guess

“My summer as a

“scientist” proved

to be the f irst step

in my process of

experiencing

hands-on learning.”

Ron labels and stores

water samples taken from

a local marina. It’s a hot day,

but Ron looks cool!
88

Teamwork in science

benef its us all. Margo

and Ron collaborate

on the sample

collection and

water testing.

Pensacola Bay area

that these organisms must be able to grow in various concentrations of salt

in the area where we collected them, as the water we tested was

infused with salt water as the tides from the Gulf of Mexico come

into the Pensacola Bay. Pretty neat stuff! I can bring this to my

students who live here in the area around the Pensacola Bay!

Using Mathematics to Analyze the Data

I used the Standard Methods for Examination of Water and

Wastewater, 19th edition5

 to convert our results on the data chart

to the Most Probable Number (MPN) of bacteria present in each

sample. There are several agencies that contract the laboratory for

sampling. The Wetlands Research Laboratory gives the agencies the

MPN values for their site based on its findings. The Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) sets the MPN standard for safe water, and the business

or agency will use the MPN to determine if the water is safe or not. If the data do

not fall within the parameters of the standards book, there is an equation that

can be used to determine the MPN.

Not long after we participated in this summer project, Jan wrote, “Since the time

that Margo and you were here, we changed our Enterococcus test to a new, much

simpler version. It is a plate method called membrane filter analysis, which

involves filtering a water sample through a membrane filter, which catches the

bacteria on the filter and putting the filter on a plate of mEI agar. Instead of taking

five days like the previous test, it takes 24 hours. After 24 hours of incubation, the

researcher counts the number of blue colonies and reports the number directly in

CFU (colony forming units) per 100mL. No statistics or tables.”

My Part...as a Scientist!

Kielborn endorses the idea of “teacher as researcher” to proclaim

professionalism and professional development in teaching.6

 As we

were teamed, Margo was the science person, and I was the mathematics person. Because mathematics is such an integral part of

science, I was eager to be part of this project. I helped with collecting the data for the science projects and even more with the

mathematical calculations involved with the investigation.

My mathematics studies during this summer, coupled with this

project, made me realize how much of the computations required

in the science laboratory are actually taught at the middle-school

level. Ratios, proportions, percent by weight, and parts per million are

used every day in mixing chemicals needed to carry out the projects at the

Wetlands Research Laboratory. Other areas in which I observed and assisted

involving mathematics were in finding an MPN from a formula and interpolating

MPNs from the standards book.

Enjoying the Field Trip

Probably the most exciting part of this research experience was the collection of

water samples. We took along bottles to store the samples, a depth sampler,

and an instrument that recorded water temperature, oxygen levels, and the pH

of the water. We prepared all the bottles necessary for the sampling prior to the

trip. On the morning of the trip, I loaded the bottles into ice chests according to

the order of sample sites. I was also placed in charge of the sample bottles during the trip. Five of us launched an 18-foot boat into the Pensacola Bay. It took

us about 20 minutes to reach the first sampling position. The boat captain used

“This f ield trip

opened my eyes to

the importance of

getting out of the

classroom every

once in a while.”
89

Ron’s students design their

“hurricane-proof ” house.

a portable GPS direction finder to locate the exact sampling spot. The

GPS7

 uses satellites to coordinate the exact position of latitude and

longitude anywhere on the globe. As with any scientific experiment, the results must be replicated from the same position as

previous sampling. With the GPS, the boat captain could anchor

within ten feet of the desired location.

We collected samples at four locations from three depths:

bottom, middle, and top. Margo was in charge of lowering and

raising the instrument that measured the temperature and

oxygen levels. After collecting data at the first site, I began

recording the measurements that Margo gave me and took care

of the sample bottles. As soon as we returned to the Wetlands

Research Laboratory, we began the testing procedure that I described

earlier. The trip was educational and fun, but very hot on that summer day.

Such is the life of a research scientist! This field trip opened my eyes to the

importance of getting out of the classroom every once in a while.

Based on her own research experiences and later classroom applications, Hahn8

states that teacher preparation programs should involve more activities in the

laboratory to enhance student learning in science. Hahn asserts those teachers

of other disciplines benefit from experiential activities, as well. For instance, art

teachers experience art as artists before they become teachers, and music

teachers generally know how to play three or four instruments before teaching.

However, science teachers (especially new ones like me) often have not experienced scientific research first-hand, as I did that summer. If teachers are to

teach inquiry, they need to experience it first-hand.

Jan planned all the samplings and test schedules. She showed Margo and me

how to set up and run the tests for fecal coliform. From the beginning of the

project, Margo and I had planned how we would apply what we were learning

in this summer research experience during the semester in which I would

undertake a teaching practicum with her as part of my undergraduate teaching

program. I planned to co-teach an integrated, interdisciplinary lesson on ratios

and proportions. I would review and teach the mathematics necessary to complete the science projects that Margo would have her students do. We scheduled

this science investigation for the following spring semester.

I conducted a lesson on ratios and proportions and related how I had used it

during the summer research program with the Wetlands Research Laboratory.

The students were interested in hearing about my experiences as a “scientist”

and wanted to know more about fecal coliforms in the waters. This is a good

example of bringing students closer to science and helping to establish a connection between mathematics and science. Once the students began to see how

science and mathematics affected their lives, the topics became more interesting to them.

Making Lemonade

As a student teacher the following fall, I taught Pre-Algebra and Algebra to

eighth graders. The Pre-Algebra course called for ratios and proportions. My

favorite ratios and proportions lesson to use in the classroom involves making

lemonade. A 29-ounce canister of lemonade mix will make 48 servings. Assuming everyone drinks two servings and 100 people are expected to be there, I

asked how many canisters of lemonade are needed. I did not tell them that this

related to science, but I do feel that it is a very good real-life example.

Teamwork in

Science and

Mathematics

Education

Classroom

Applications
90

A student makes “f inal cuts”

to perfect his house.

Making Houses for the “Hurricane Project”

After being hired as a middle-school mathematics teacher, I have taught ratios and

proportions similar to what I used in my research that summer. Last year as a firstyear mathematics teacher at the middle-school level, I used these lessons to help

prepare students for the Florida Comprehensive Assessment (FCAT) test.9 The

FCAT test results are used to help grade each school in the state of Florida

and to determine the level of individual students.

I also used a lesson in ratios and proportions for the last project

of the school year. The project involved students designing and

building model houses that could withstand hurricanes. Living in

Florida, this is certainly applicable and relevant to these students’

lives. The Hurricane House project lasted two weeks. I divided the

students into groups of five and gave them exact standards that were

to be met. Each group had to design and build a house that they

thought would withstand a hurricane. The main criterion was that the

house had to have a floor area of 400 cm2

. Most of the groups chose to go

with a square house, as it did not require a great deal of mathematics to lay

it out. However, there was at least one group every class period of the school day

that designed and built a round house. The round house required the students to use

formulas for the circumference and area of circles. One group designed and built a sixsided or hexagonal “star” house, and another group designed and built

an eight-sided or octagonal house.

The first two days of lessons involved the drawing of floor

plans for a hurricane-proof house. The students had to use

scales and ratios to draw their houses to fit on the paper.

Doing ratios was fairly easy for the students because we

had learned that process earlier in the year. Establishing

what a scale was and how to use it was a little more difficult for some of the students. The students had fun drawing

either their own homes or a house that they wanted to live in.

This project was hands-on at its best. The students were given

exact directions for what to use, but the groups had to decide what

they would build. The other seventh-grade mathematics teacher and I

collaborated on the project. We answered student questions and posed

others on how they could possibly improve on what they had, but we never

told the students how to construct their houses or what to do next. The last

day of building construction was a flurry of activity. At the beginning of the

day, only one or two houses were complete in each period. By the end of

the day, all the houses were prepared. The anticipation was building.

Students Calling, “Over! Over!”

The last day of the project was the actual hurricane day. All the houses were

built on stilts and were blown with a leaf blower to see if they would fall over or

collapse. The houses were graded on the following criteria:

 If they had all their shingles or not

 If they had a door on each side

 If there were windows on all four sides of the house

 If the house was six inches off the ground

A parent volunteer prepared the leaf blower so that the wind velocity out of the

blower was just over 100 miles per hour. He would then aim it at all sides of the

house. The house had to withstand a total of four minutes of the hurricane force

Girls in Ron’s class

carefully construct

their “hurricaneproof ” house.
91

One of Ron’s students

working on her project

winds. Each house would lose points for shingles that were blown off and any

other part of the house that went flying.

The students became so excited every time a house was put to the test. If a

house started to shake, the class would begin chanting, “Over! Over!” The more

the house shook or came apart, the louder the chant would get. The students

were very motivated by this project and were seldom off task. This was an

exciting end to the school year.

This hands-on experience made learning fun and also raised the following question: Do my students have fun in class learning just from

books? Every once in a while, teachers need to step back into

the role of student to remind themselves that learning needs

to be fun. Learning also needs to be hands-on and pertinent

to students’ everyday lives. The CO-LEARNERS Program

provided me with this experience.

The relationships that teachers and scientific researchers

develop in a project like CO-LEARNERS should promote

the students’ learning of science and mathematics, as

well. Hopefully, either the student can visit the research

facility and see a real life laboratory, and/or the researchers

can visit the classroom and enhance the teacher’s lesson.

Should all teachers do research in their own field? Absolutely! The only

way that a teacher can truly know what is happening in his or her field is

to experience it first-hand. Add a student teacher, and all areas of the community are covered. Because of my own experience, as well as the trend in education today to incor-porate more interdisciplinary teaching, I believe that teachers

and students should be paired with experts in other fields.

1 Gilmer, P. J. (1999). Teachers learning inquiry through scientific research. In T. L.

Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science, pp.11-25, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

2 TIMSS (1997). Third international mathematics and science study. US Department of

Education: Washington, DC.

3 Kielborn, T. L., & Gilmer, P. J. (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

4 MPN calculator—Most probable number for coliform testing [www.chemsw.com/

13069.htm].

5 American Public Health Association and the American Water Works Association (1992).

Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 18th edition. Washington,

DC: American Public Health Association.

6 Kielborn, T (1999). Forming partnerships: How a teacher can become involved in

scientific research. In T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers

doing inquiry + teaching science, pp. 111-119, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

7 The United States Coast Guard Navigation Center [www.nis-mirror.com/systems/loran].

8 Hahn, L. (1999). Investigating fish mortality: A science teacher’s learning experience. In

T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science, pp. 47-55, Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

9 Florida Department of Education. Florida’s Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT)

[www.firn.edu/doe/sas/fcat.htm].

What Did I

Learn from the

Summer

Research

Experience?

Endnotes
Christy Tarter with one of her students
93

Science: Not Your Typical Textbook

and Lecture-Based Class Anymore

Christy Tarter

A CO-LEARNERS Participant Over Two Summers

As a participant in CO-LEARNERS Program for two summers, I would like to

address each summer as a distinct research project. While both experiences

were educational and valuable during my teaching education, each was unique

and presented various challenges. In this chapter, I will discuss each research

experience, then compare the two by discussing the benefits, and finally make

recommendations for improvement.

Prior to my first summer with the CO-LEARNERS Program, the only research

experiences I had were in college laboratory classes. So, when the opportunity

arose to work with real-life scientists, I jumped at the opportunity. In the first

summer, I worked at the State of Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) laboratory on the cloning of various sea grasses. My experience

working in the laboratory and in the field with the DEP was wonderful. I learned

quickly how much work and detail goes into restoring the environment. In the

laboratory, I worked in a sterile environment making sure to follow procedures

correctly. In the field, I participated in rebuilding areas with sea grasses grown

in the laboratory. Much emphasis was placed on detail and procedure. It was a

little tedious sometimes, but fun.

During the second summer of research, I worked at the Wetlands Research

Laboratory located at the University of West Florida. The project involved researching the benefits and concerns of the use of fluoride in local drinking water.

My practicing teacher/partner was Sandra Porras. She and I conducted several

water collections at various sites, performed several laboratory tests, and contributed to a report on the safety of adding fluoride to the county drinking supply. The

Wetlands Research Laboratory prepared the report for the Escambia County

Utilities Authority (ECUA). The report targeted the community’s concerns relative

to the addition of fluoride to the county’s water supply.

Perceptions of the Scientist

When students picture what a scientist looks like, they usually envision a man

with black-rimmed glasses, lab coat, pocket protector, and crazy white hair. I,

too, imagined the same type of individual before working on the summer research projects. I expected the people at the DEP to be boring and nerdy. However, this was not the case. Both Chips Kirschenfeld and Rick Harter were far

from that image. In fact, everyone that I met from DEP was excited about their

work and explained their research enthusiastically. In turn, I became excited

about the work I was doing. I had expected the work to be boring, but I changed

my mind quickly.

“Cloning” Around

During my summer with the DEP, I learned how to clone sea grasses that would

one day be planted in the local environment. Sea grasses are flowering plants that

live underwater. Like land plants, sea grasses produce oxygen. The depths at which

sea grasses are found are limited by water clarity, which determines the amount of

Introduction

Summer One_

Cloning Sea

Grass

“The culture of

science in the

classroom differs

from my

experiences

because most

teachers rely on

textbooks to teach

students what is

science.”
94

light reaching the plant. Although sea grasses naturally occur throughout the

coastal waters of Florida, they are most abundant from Tarpon Springs northward to Apalachee Bay. Sea grasses also grow in protected bays and lagoons,

as well as along the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico.

Florida’s estimated 502,000 acres of sea grass meadows are important natural

resources that perform many significant functions including

 Maintaining water clarity by trapping fine sediments and other particles

in their leaves

 Stabilizing the bottom with their roots and rhizomes in much the same

way as land grasses retard soil erosion

 Providing habitat for many fish, crustaceans, and shellfish

 Providing food for many marine mammals as well as the smaller

organisms that live on their leaves

 Providing a nursery area for much of Florida’s recreationally and commercially important marine life

Sea grass leaves provide excellent protection for young marine animals from

larger open water predators. Some animals, including manatees, eat the sea

grass blades. Still others derive nutrition from eating algae and small animals

that colonize the sea grass leaves. The colonizing organisms provide an additional link in the marine food chain.1

My lead teacher and partner was Paige Bowron. She and I gathered various sea

grasses in the area from local state parks and bayous and brought them back to the

laboratory to begin the cloning process. Gloved, Paige and I worked under a sterile

hood to separate the sea grasses into many smaller parts that were then

placed in test tubes containing a saltwater solution. The test tubes were

dated, labeled, and placed under artificial light for about six weeks.

Once the sea grasses matured, they were split again and placed in

test tubes again. When enough sea grasses were cloned, they were

transported to a tank containing a mesh-like material where they

would continue growing. Once the sea grasses were large enough,

they were taken to the greenhouse. At the greenhouse, Paige and I

continued our work of separating the sea grasses into smaller

plants for continuous growth and reproduction. The process of cloning and growing sea grasses is long and takes a lot of work. However,

when I was able to take the sea grasses I had worked with and plant

them back into the environment where they were needed, I felt a great

sense of accomplishment and pride. Today, two years after planting the sea

grasses, the impact from my efforts to help the environment is still seen. In fact, the

DEP has begun a huge sea grass restoration project based on our initial research.

Textbooks Have Their Place, But...

The culture of science in the classroom differs from my experiences because

most teachers rely on textbooks to teach students what is science. Students

have little opportunity to work in laboratory settings where they can apply what

they learn in the classroom to real-life experiments. Many teachers lack laboratory skills, do not have or do not know how to obtain resources, or do not think

their students are capable of performing in a laboratory setting. There are many

reasons why it is convenient to use a textbook. One reason is that it takes time

to develop and implement hands-on projects and laboratories. What incentive is

there for teachers to spend a lot of time developing curriculum? Well, most of

what a student reads or tries to read in a science textbook is incomprehensible

because of students’ reading level and interest in reading. Someone who has

Why major in

science education

and go into the

classroom just to

teach out of a

textbook that most

students have

trouble

comprehending?

Here I am with Paige in

the laboratory at the

Department of

Environmental

Protection.
95

ever tried to put something together, like a child’s bicycle, by relying on an

instruction manual, understands the difficulty of reading unfamiliar information.

Students who lack prior knowledge face such difficulties with textbooks.

Teachers should use textbooks as only one of many resources. Student involvement in planning activities could make students feel more ownership of their

learning. Allowing students to work in groups for research and laboratory

activities enables students to change previously held science misconceptions

and discover that science exists in the real world outside of a textbook.

If the goal of science education is to promote the learning and interest in science, then we must make what students are learning useful and applicable in

their world. Science teachers can do that by planning more laboratory exercises and bringing community scientists into the classroom to answer

questions and promote interest.

Out of the Lecture Hall and Into the Laboratory

In a lecture-only science course, topics are condensed in order

to cram in as much information as possible, and by the end of

the course, most of the information is forgotten. However, by

reducing the amount of material covered and focusing on learning for understanding and application of what students are

learning, students and teachers benefit.

My interest in science began in middle school in the sixth grade. We

dissected frogs and worms. I loved it! My science education in middle school

was mostly hands-on. This ignited my desire to solve problems and study weird

and exciting topics.

As a teacher, I want to make science fun and interesting. I will not have my

students read one chapter after another and answer questions at the end of the

chapter. I do not learn that way. I encourage students to develop their own

questions from science laboratories and activities and discover how things work

and grow. Using discovery-based lessons and asking open-ended questions

make students think about what they are learning and gives them the opportunity to develop communication, research, and technical skills. I also want

students to share with their classmates what they discover and help each other

understand and explain various concepts. I hope to make students aware of

how much fun science is and that everyone can be a scientist.

Recommendations from Summer One

1. Keep a Journal.

One thing that we concluded from the first summer was that university students

should be required to keep a daily log, be evaluated weekly on progress on what

is being learned, and have continual contact with the university instructor and

research coordinator. This helps when an individual has a question. It is my

opinion, too, that when people write something down, they are more likely to

remember it.

2. Offer Limited Guidance.

The university coordinator and lead teacher should guide the pre-service

teacher to create lesson plans and a research paper. University students need to

know beforehand what is expected of them with a syllabus. They should contact

the teacher if a problem should arise. This recommendation, too, was met

Paige and I examine

samples for growth.
96

somewhat. It was explained to us later that because the project is constructivistbased, we were not told exactly what to do because we were to “construct” our

own learning and develop evidence of this learning.

3. Have a Back-up Researcher.

Because our lead researcher was extremely busy, he did have the foresight to

have Rick Harter work with us directly along with an intern. This was a problem

in the second summer, as I will address later. This point is extremely important

because a science researcher is an integral part of the learning process; therefore, one should be accessible at all times. This was not a problem in the first

summer with the DEP, as Rick Harter worked very closely with Paige and me. He

answered our questions, helped guide us through our investigations, and gave

us necessary feedback. He was also very open to suggestions made by me

and Lori Hahn, the graduate researcher and instructor of the course.

4. Offer Real Research vs. Labor.

Initially, Paige and I felt as though we were doing “free labor” for

the DEP. Since this was the first year with such a project, it was

difficult for Rick to know exactly what we were supposed to be

doing. He was very agreeable that this project needed to be

more research-based. The following summer, while I did not

work with the DEP, the group that did was immersed in an actual

research investigation from the beginning.

Benefits from Summer One

1. Learning Content

All in all, the first summer was very worthwhile. I learned valuable information

that will help me be a better science teacher. The scientists were helpful and

excited about helping me learn about their fields of science. Paige, as the experienced teacher on my team, was excited and helpful in suggesting ways to

implement various ideas into the classroom. This type of program should be a

part of teacher preparation programs for all levels of education so future and

current teachers can realize the importance of meaningful science education.

Teacher education students need more field and laboratory experiences.

2. Making Contacts in the Science Community

Having contacts in the science community is beneficial for practicing and prospective teachers. During this summer program, I gained several contacts and

obtained teaching materials from the people I worked with at the DEP. One

gentleman gave me bookmarks, magnets, lesson plans, case studies, and fun

activities that I can use with my middle school students no matter what their

level. Knowing that people in the community are willing to contribute to science

education makes my job easier.

3. Ideas and Encouragement to Provide More Student Involvement

I now know how much fun science education can be for students. During my

research experience, I enjoyed learning how to solve problems, how to help the

environment, and how interesting environmental science is today. As a teacher,

I will be able to explore with my students all areas of science and find ways to

promote student involvement. I realize that students and I need to get as much

as possible out of what is being learned and taught. Science education needs to

be applicable, interesting, and hands-on if teachers and students are to maintain

interest and develop a love of learning science.

Some of the techniques

are tedius, but fun.
97

Student’s in my

classroom

4. Classroom Applications

What I learned from participating in my first summer research project can

easily be implemented in my classroom. The scientists and staff at the

DEP were very supportive. I received many lesson plans and materials from the DEP that can be used with all grade levels. Many of the

lessons are activity-based where materials are cost-friendly or can

be obtained from the DEP. One idea I found is to present groups of

students with an environmental problem to solve, while taking

into consideration the cost, protection of plants and animals,

resources, and time. Many resources and lesson ideas can be

found on the Internet. The Florida DEP [www.dep.state.fl.us/enved]

and EPA [www.epa.gov/epahome/educational.htm] websites

provide lessons, information, and materials to use in the classroom.

DEP scientists were willing to visit my classroom to discuss what they do

and to show students how the environment can be improved. I also can take

students on a field trip to the DEP laboratories and greenhouse where they could

plant their own sea grasses. Students could return months or years later to see

their work making a difference in the environment.

During the summer of 2000, I worked with Dr. Joe Lepo, Dr. Richard Snyder,

student Angela Harris, and practicing teacher Sandra Porras researching the

impact of fluoridation of the municipal drinking water for Escambia County at

the Wetlands Research Laboratory at the University of West Florida. The

Escambia County Utilities Authority (ECUA) contracted the Wetlands Research

Laboratory to conduct research, which would enable them to answer questions

from concerned citizens about the ECUA’s decision to add fluoride to the county

municipal drinking water at 0.8 mg/L. Several tasks were developed for this

project, including assessing the concentration of fluoride and the pH of area

waters and ground water wells, analysis of hydrofluosilicic acid to be added for

metals contamination, and analysis of the environmental fate of the fluoride ion

by laboratory simulations. Though all tasks were not completed during my

allotted time on the project, I have learned what water fluoridation means, the

pros and cons of water fluoridation, the research findings during that summer,

and the importance of applying hands-on science learning in the classroom.

My Initial Research—Learning What Was Known

Fluorine is a halogen. The word halogen comes from a Greek word meaning

“salt former.” Halogens are nonmetals that combine with metals to form salts.

Halogens, such as fluorine, can accept one electron and form an ion with a

single negative charge, such as F-1

, which is called fluoride. None of the elemental halogens are found as single uncharged atoms but as diatomic molecules,

like with fluorine as F2.

Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay by making teeth resistant to the acids that

cause tooth decay. Fluoride “is an essential element for mammals” and “it is

toxic to both animals and plants at high concentrations”2

 (p. 1). However, the

amount of hydrofluosilicic acid that the ECUA is adding to the municipal drinking water is only 0.8 mg/L, which is between the recommended concentration

level of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L. Water fluoridation “is the process of adjusting the

natural level of fluoride to a concentration sufficient to protect against tooth

decay”3

. Water fluoridation began in January 1945 in Grand Rapids, Michigan4

(p. 20). Since then, water fluoridation has spread across the United States as

a way to reduce dental caries and dental costs.

Summer Two_

To Add or Not to

Add Fluoride?

“Learning about

science by getting

my hands dirty or

conducting

experiments is how

it should be done.

My students will

need to perform

experiments and do

research like a

scientist in order

to understand

scientists’ work.”
98

Fluoride is everywhere. It “flows from the continental drainages to the ocean at

an estimated rate of 3.7 million metric tons a year”2

 (p. 1). It is in all soils and

waters in various amounts. Many water systems in the United States are naturally fluoridated at levels higher than what is recommended. Those cities or

communities who have added fluoride to the drinking water systems do so to

provide everyone, both rich and poor, a nutrient needed by the body to increase

the stability of teeth and bones. The cost to those cities is related to the size of

the community, number of wells and treatment plants, amount and type of

equipment, amount and type of fluoride chemical, and personnel costs.5

In saltwater, “fluoride is naturally present at a concentration around 1.32 parts

per million (ppm), [so] anyone who spends a significant amount of time in the

Gulf/Ocean, consumes seafood, or uses sea salt for food preparation/consumption...already experiences levels of fluoride near that which will be

added to the municipal drinking water supply”2

 (p. 3). Fluoride is a

nutrient used by the body. What the human body does not need is

excreted in urine. However, like other nutrients, there is a toxic

level. A human must consume 2.5g to 5g at one time, which has

not occurred from naturally fluoridated water systems or those

where fluoride has been added6

 (p. 132).

Even though water fluoridation has been around since 1945

and over 35,000 papers have been written reporting its safety,

debates still exist over the issue. However, with this issue, and

countless others, people are influenced by what they learn from

the media, so-called experts, the Internet, and rumors. It is difficult

for most people to read scientific journal articles to understand what

water fluoridation is and its impact over the past 45 years.

Water fluoridation has been provided for over 45 years because it prevents and/

or reduces dental caries. Dental caries are formed when “oral bacteria in plaque

ferment sugars to produce a range of organic acids that promote dissolution of

tooth enamel”2

 (p. 9). When water fluoridation began, people were not taking

fluoride supplements or using fluoride toothpastes and gels because they were

not available. If people could not afford to go to the dentist regularly, they most

likely developed dental caries. Water fluoridation became a solution because it

is the “most equitable and cost-effective method of delivering fluoride to all

members of most communities, regardless of age, educational attainment, or

income level”.7

With regard to all of the research that has been done on water fluoridation,

fluoride added to water would not be here today if it were life threatening. The

National Cancer Institute “evaluated the relationship between fluoridation and

cancer mortality in the U.S. during a 36-year period and a 15-year period. There

were 2.2 million cancer death records and 125,000 cancer case records in counties using fluoridated water, but there was no correlation between cancer cases

and fluoridated drinking water”2

 (p. 15). Other studies have also proven that water

fluoridation does not cause cancer, kidney disease, or heart disease. The American Dental Association has endorsed fluoridation for more than 40 years.3

Many communities all over the United States already provide fluoridated water.

As of February 1996, the following percentage of communities in states had

fluoridated water: North Dakota, 96%; South Dakota, 100%; Iowa, 91%; Minnesota, 93%; Georgia, 92%; Alabama, 83%; South Carolina, 90%; and Kentucky,

100%4

 (p. 20). More than “half the children in the country now live in fluoridated

water districts, and most dental health officials say this is why U.S. tooth decay

rates have plummeted 50% in the last 20 years”8

 (p. 276). Opponents of water

Student in my classroom

display their findings
99

fluoridation argue that adding fluoride is a violation of civil rights. If it works and

has worked for so long and no one has been harmed by it, why fight so much?

What I Learned from the Experience

1. Working as a Team

During my research, I wrote this in my journal:

I met Sandra Porras today, and she is really nice. Angela showed us how to

clean the sample jars with HCl and DI [deionized] water. Everything we

do in the lab is very detailed. We learned how to test the jars for pH

level after cleaning them and the need to return our wastewater to

neutral before discarding it. We also calibrated our stock solutions. Angela has done this before, but she told us that calibrating

the stock solution again lets us know if it is still good to use. This

process took awhile to complete. Angela explained all the steps

clearly, which made it easy. Angela also showed Sandra and me

what we would be taking out to the field to collect samples, in

case she couldn’t come with us. After completing the lab activities,

all three of us discussed different school issues, such as discipline,

lesson plans, state testing, etc. Sandra informed me of many useful

points and ideas. I feel comfortable asking her questions. I also spent two

hours looking up fluoridation/fluoride articles to begin my paper.

This passage illustrates the value of teamwork and collaboration in science.

Pre-service science teachers, practicing science teachers, and science researchers truly learn from one another. This will ultimately benefit the students in the

science classes.

2. Getting Dirty

One of our first tasks was to collect water samples to test for the presence of

fluoride as it occurs naturally.

From my journal:

Angela, Sandra, and I went to the Bayou Marcus Water Reclamation Facility to

collect water samples. We collected three jars each of raw sewage, sludge, clarified,

and final effluent. The ECUA men at the facility explained the treatment process and

walked us through the facility. They also gave us a pamphlet. The information and

treatment process was very interesting. We put the jars on ice and carried them

back to the lab where they will refrigerate until we begin fluoride testing.

Teachers need to get their students out of the classroom and get “dirty” sometimes. Students are pretty resilient. There is a lot to be learned from expanding

the classroom from the traditional four walls.

3. Gathering our Scientific Findings

Experiments and tests still needed to be conducted so conclusions could be

drawn for this project. Because fluoride is a nonmetal, it naturally bonds to

metals to form salts. So, reactions with copper and solder piping and the

hydrofluosilicic acid will occur, but the amount of change and how quickly were

to be determined. We were not able to perform tests with the hydrofluosilicic

acid because it was on back order.

The Bayou Marcus Water Reclamation Facility in Pensacola, Florida, uses a

state-of-the-art water treatment process to purify wastewater before it is re-

“Teachers should

use textbooks as

only one of many

resources. Student

involvement in

planning activities

could make

students feel more

ownership of their

learning.”

Here I am in my

classroom.
100

leased into surrounding wetlands. Fluoride will remain in the soil. How much is

dependent on the type of soil, pH conditions, amount of calcium in the soil,

precipitation, and water flow. “Clay soils retain fluoride better than sandy soils”2

(p. 2). Escambia County has both types of soil, so the amount of fluoride retention will be determined.

With the research conducted for the ECUA by Angela, Sandra, and me, we made

the following conclusions:

 There is natural fluoride in our area waters and municipal water wells

(see Table I).

 Fluoride does not disappear or go away. It gets recycled and filtered

through wastewater treatment processes, soil, precipitation, and

water flow.

 Fluoride eventually is released into the environment and back into area

waters and the ocean.

 Fluoride will most likely react with copper and solder piping, but the

effects will take years to determine.

 The effects of fluoride, when released into our local environment and

area waters, will take years to determine.

Recommendations from Summer Two

1. Making Researchers and Materials More Accessible

Sandra and I conducted as many experiments as possible during this summer

project. One inhibiting factor was the inaccessibility of the researchers. While

these researchers were willing to work with us, volunteered their time, and

were committed to helping teachers with bringing science into their classrooms,

they were very busy researchers. I see this as a possible weakness in this type of

program. While another student did work with us, teachers need someone with

knowledge of the project with whom to be in direct contact, if the researcher is

unavailable at any time.

During my first summer, this was remedied by having Rick Harter work directly

with us. Mr. Kirschenfeld knew that he would be busy with many projects and

designated Rick to work closely with Paige and me. I see this as an answer to

such problems. We also had a few other minor problems such as waiting for

materials on order. I suppose this is part of the culture of science, however.

2. Scheduling to Avoid Conflicts

However, sometimes there are scheduling conflicts. It is very important that the

pre-service science teacher, the practicing science teacher, and the science

researcher work together as much as possible. This can be easily remedied with

good planning. This should not be considered as a barrier to establishing such

programs to allow pre-service teachers the opportunity to experience science

research prior to their classroom teaching assignment.

Fluoride Concentrations of Water Treatment Facilities (mg/L)

“A prospective

science teacher

should be required

to perform

research and tests

in a laboratory

setting before

graduating.”

Table I

Treatment Site Sample 1 Sample 2

Main Street (Final Effluent) 1.63

Sample 3

Main Street (Clarified)

Bayou Marcus (Final Effluent)

1.20

0.0838

1.55

1.17

0.0365

1.60

1.18

0.0362
101

Benefits from Summer Two

1. Learning Science Content

This project was a good experience because I learned what water fluoridation is

and factors for its safety and benefits for communities. I knew very little about

fluoride prior to this research. I feel like I learned the content better than if I had

read it and then was tested on it in a traditional learning situation, because I

actually needed to know the background information before we began running

the tests and assisting with the report.

2. Seeing Relevance

My research has helped me realize that I need to keep informed about what is

going on in the world and what new things are being done to help our society. I

didn’t even know that our water would be fluoridated until I started the project. I

believe that keeping my students informed about what’s going on in the science

world and performing relevant experiments will boost their interest in what

really goes on around them.

3. Experiencing the Culture of Science

I enjoyed working in the laboratory and in the field. Laboratory

work is tedious and time consuming but beneficial because the

hands-on experiments and tests, along with my research on the

topic, made everything applicable and interesting. From this

experience, I was able to better understand what is meant by the

“culture of science.” The culture of science is very interesting. In

contrast, the culture of science in the classroom, as I have experienced, is mostly textbook oriented and not really hands-on. I think

the lack of ideas, time, equipment, and desire to make learning science

fun and useful inhibit teachers.

Working with people who love what they are doing made me want to bring

that feeling back into the classroom. Research, discovery, focus, and love of

science make the culture of science exciting. Again, in my experience, the

traditional culture of science in the classroom lacks excitement and interest.

As a student, I was not motivated to seek answers to questions and research

interesting topics.

4. Motivating Students to Make Science Fun

I want to make science fun and interesting. I do not want my students to just

read chapter after chapter and answer questions. I want them to develop their

own questions and then research the answers. I want them to share with their

classmates what they discovered and why that information is important to them.

I hope to make students aware of how much fun science can be and that everyone can be a scientist.

5. Developing Classroom Applications

A prospective science teacher should be required to perform research and tests

in a laboratory setting before graduating. The information and experiences

gained can easily be brought into the classroom to make learning rewarding

and interesting. Why major in science education and go into the classroom just

to teach out of a textbook that most students have trouble comprehending? A

science teacher can give all types of learners a chance to understand and appreciate science because the possibilities are endless in a science classroom.

My students collaborate on

a class project.
102

My research experience will be beneficial to my students. Lesson plans can be

developed to help students understand pH, the scientific method, strengths of

different solutions, and what the terminology “parts per million” means. Students can bring in water samples from their homes to test the pH, color, smell,

and taste. Science and mathematics are better understood through hands-on

activities, inquiries, experiments, problem solving, scientific method, and trialand-error. I will implement as many hands-on science learning activities as

possible to help my students better understand what they are learning and how

it applies to their world and surroundings.

1

 Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: [www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov:80/

pgallery/pgflorida/habitats/habitats_6.html]. 2

 Lepo, J. E., & Snyder, R. A. (2000). Impact of Fluoridation of the Municipal Drinking Water Supply: Review of the Literature. Unpublished report, University of

West Florida at Pensacola. 3 American Dental Association Statement on Water Fluoridation Efficacy and Safety.

1999 [www.ada.org/prac/position/fluoride2.html]. 4

 Doyle, R. (1996, February). Fluoridation. Scientific American, 274, 20. 5

 Public Health Focus: Fluoridation of Community Water Systems. 1992. CDCMMWR [www.cdc.gov/epo/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00016840.htm]. 6

 Richmond, V. L. (1985). Thirty years of fluoridation: A review. American Journal

of Clinical Nutrition, 41, 129-138. 7 Engineering and Administrative Recommendations for Water Fluoridation, 1995.

1995. CDC-MMWR. [www.cdc.gov/epo/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

00039178.htm]. 8

 Marshall, E. (1990). The fluoride debate: One more time. Science, 247, 276-277.

Endnotes
103

Experiential Learning for Pre-service Science and Mathematics Teachers:

Applications to Secondary Classrooms

Christy Tarter teaching

in her classroom
Jan Macauley collecting samples

from Pensacola Bay
105

Trading Cultures: A Scientist–Teacher Partnership

Janet A. Macauley

I am the manager of a small state-certified environmental water-testing laboratory at the University of West Florida. In the summer of 1999, I was asked to be a

part of the CO-LEARNERS Program. Lori Livingston Hahn, a doctoral student at

Florida State University, was coordinating the project as part of her dissertation

research. CO-LEARNERS is an acronym for Collaborative Opportunities—Learning Experientially And Research uNiting Educators and Researchers of Science.

The project was funded by the National Science Foundation as part of the Florida

Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (FCETP). Lori was looking for

scientists to mentor in-service and pre-service middle school teachers.

The scientists were to involve the teachers in a research project so that they

could get experience in “real science.” I volunteered to work with a middle

school science teacher, Margo King, and a pre-service mathematics teacher,

Ron Wark. At the time, my laboratory did primarily environmental water and

soil testing for local city, state, and federal agencies. We did this testing in

support of permits or monitoring projects (i.e., multiple, long-term measurements of water quality criteria, such as pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity,

and nutrient concentrations, to assess the environmental health of an area).

The work I chose for them was a monitoring project. A local development group

was required to get a permit from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) to expand its marina. The group contracted with the Wetlands

Research Laboratory (WRL) to do four years of monitoring, that is, taking samples

at defined intervals and testing them for certain water quality indicators to show

that the marina expansion has had no adverse effect on the quality of the surrounding water. The project involved many techniques, such as taking samples of

the water at different depths, ensuring that the samples were representative of the

area sampled, carrying them to the laboratory, and analyzing them in a timely

manner so that the results would be accurate and acceptable to the DEP.

My Science Career

When I started working at the WRL in 1997, I had recently left a large contract

environmental testing laboratory. There I had used my science education occasionally, but most of my day was spent running an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, a scientific instrument used to analyze water and soil samples to

determine the concentration of metals such as lead in the samples. I began

searching for a new position that would allow me to do more with my B.S. in

biology than run an analytical instrument all day and produce data for a project

I knew nothing about. Acquaintances, who worked at the University of West

Florida, told me about a job where I’d be doing work similar to what I had left,

analyzing water samples for nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus on an

instrument called an autoanalyzer. However, the job held more interest for me

since I was able to see a whole project from start to finish, even if I wasn’t

involved in the other aspects, like sampling and data management. It made all

the difference to me to understand the larger purpose of the work I was doing.

As grants and student employees came and went, I learned more and more of

the operation of the laboratory. Eventually, I moved up to laboratory manager.

I became well acquainted with the technical support employees at a dozen

companies as I learned all the analytical instruments and techniques that the

A Science

Perspective

Listening to their

stories about

methods of

teaching and

sharing science

with kids instead

of feeding it to

them inspired me

to look into

teaching as a new

career path.
106

laboratory had available. A state auditor taught me about the rules of quality

control that govern the certified laboratory. The state auditor is the person

who is responsible for the certification of environmental water-testing laboratories. Our laboratory is a mixture of science and business, and the rules are

stricter than in an average research laboratory. Our data have to stand up to

public—and sometimes legal—scrutiny. I learned to document every number,

every process, and every discrepancy. As the auditor told me, “If you don’t

document it, you don’t do it.” I learned what it took to make a laboratory

effective and efficient.

Two Kinds of Science

What made my work worthwhile was that I found myself in the midst of real

science: researchers pushing back the borders or frontiers of knowledge. One of

these researchers, a professor of biology with a Ph.D. in molecular biology, is the

director of the WRL. He has graduate students cataloging DNA from dozens of

different species of bacteria. Although no area of science stands still,

breakthroughs in genetics and molecular biology are moving at the

speed of light. New discoveries are literally happening every day,

and some of them are happening right around me. Being involved

in that kind of discovery is exciting and makes me realize that

science is a part of an ever-changing tapestry. As new threads of

discovery are woven into the fabric of human knowledge, new

connections form, changing the whole picture we have of our

universe. It is empowering and humbling.

There are really two kinds of science. There is the applied science

and the science of research. Applied science utilizes Standard

Operating Procedures and accepted protocols that require ten years

for methods to move from approval by an expert scientific body (such as

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) to acceptance by a state bureaucracy. The science of research, however, follows the simpler rules of judgment

and common sense, using the latest journal articles and collaboration with

others in the same or related field to add new knowledge to the ever-expanding

frontier. It is bureaucracy versus discovery.

Partnering with Pre- and In-Service Teachers

Margo was partnered with Ron to work with me on a research project and

create lesson plans based on their experiences in the laboratory. My laboratory

did little real research at that time, and I chose a monitoring project that had

both a field sampling and laboratory-testing component, the monitoring of a

local marina. I wanted them to see the whole process of taking the samples,

bringing them into the laboratory to analyze, producing results, and reporting

those results to the client, who was required to do this monitoring by a permit

from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. During the course of

the summer, we took the boat out to the marina and obtained our monthly

samples. With the help of the microbiology technicians, who are UWF students

from the WRL, I showed Margo and Ron how to process the samples to discover

the number of fecal coliform bacteria in them.

Fecal coliforms are bacteria found in the human digestive tract, as well as that

of other warm-blooded animals. The presence of this group of bacteria in a

drinking water supply or an environmental body of water can indicate contamination by fecal material. The multiple tube fermentation test for fecal coliforms

is a fairly simple test in which a water sample from a body of water (i.e., a local

bathing beach) is added to a special broth in a test tube. The broth is designed to

Involvement

with Science

Educators

Here I am with a student

while analyzing a sample.
107

help the fecal coliforms grow and to suppress the growth of other bacteria that

might be present in the sample. Submerged in the broth is a smaller, inverted tube.

The sample/broth mix is placed in an incubator at 44.5°C for 24 hours, the ideal

growing temperature for fecal coliforms but too warm for most other bacteria found

in the environment. After 24 hours, the inverted tubes are examined for the presence of a gas bubble. Fecal coliforms produce carbon dioxide or sometimes hydrogen gas during metabolism. All tubes showing gas production are positive for fecal

coliforms. This test can be used with a single tube to detect the presence of any

fecal coliforms (common in drinking water testing) or can be used in multiples with

a series of dilutions to statistically estimate the number of fecal coliforms present

(used in testing environmental waters). Fecal coliform counts have long been a

standard test for the health of a body of water or a drinking water supply. The U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency publishes recommended maximum counts of

fecal coliforms. If a body of water used in recreation (e.g., bathing beaches)

exceeds the maximum count, it is considered to be a potential health

hazard to humans because the presence of fecal coliforms can indicate the presence of fecal material in the water, which may carry

disease-causing pathogens.

Margo and Ron worked side-by-side with the microbiologists,

processing the samples we took from the marina. They inoculated the samples into the broth tubes using the appropriate

dilution series (based on previous knowledge of the sample).

They incubated the tubes overnight and counted the number of

tubes that turned positive. They recorded all the counting data on

the record sheet used for documenting the analysis. Then they used a

table in Standard Methods: a book of published water-testing methods, to

convert the count into a statistical estimate of the number of bacteria present.1

Ron, the pre-service mathematics teacher, was particularly interested in the

procedure for producing the statistical estimate. He planned to use it in his

student teaching as a real-world example for his students. Both Ron and Margo

were excited about applying the information they learned to their teaching and

were looking forward to bringing these examples into the classroom.

Margo worked on another bacteriological test for Enterococcus bacteria. Enterococcus is also found in the human digestive tract, as well as in other warm-blooded

animals. The practical difference between Enterococcus and fecal coliforms is that

Enterococcus, being salt-tolerant, survives better in marine waters. In areas with

large bodies of salt water, Enterococcus counts can provide a better picture of the

contamination of environmental waters by fecal material. However, this test is

considerably more labor intensive than the fecal coliform test, as Margo discovered first-hand. It involves multiple-tube inoculation like fecal coliforms. After

incubation, growth from any positive tubes (tubes showing turbidity) is transferred

onto agar plates. Those plates must be incubated and checked for growth (black

colonies with brown circles) at 24 hours and 48 hours after inoculation. Any

growth on the agar plates must be transferred to another broth tube. Growth in

this final tube indicates a positive test for Enterococcus. The entire test takes five

days. Any given sample may have 15 to 45 separate inoculations. I am sure Margo

would have appreciated the fact that in the next year, the laboratory changed to a

new method for Enterococcus that only involves one to three plates and 24 hours.

During the time Margo and Ron worked with me, they experienced a range of

techniques used to determine the quality of water. They came to understand the

importance that attention to detail plays in science. Margo was able to spend a

lot of time in the laboratory and became very proficient in the inoculating and

counting methods we used. I know they took away a good picture of what we

do and why we do it. I hope it has some positive impact on their students.

Here I am collecting

water samples at a

marina with Margo,

the practicing teacher.
108

Sharing Cultures with Two In-Service Teachers

In the summer of 2001, I met Dr. Carol Briscoe, an education professor at the

University of West Florida. She was coordinating an extension of the CO-LEARNERS

Program, but without the pre-service teachers as in the original project designed

by Lori. That summer I worked with two high school science teachers who would

change my perspective on science as much as I changed theirs.

Tildon Chavers, a chemistry teacher, and Jo Ann Parsons, a biology teacher,

were both from local high schools. They were already involved in hands-on

science in their classrooms, using the principle that students learn more by

doing and seeking their own answers than by being lectured to. I still had the

marina project from two years before, but this time, I arranged it so the

teachers could work on it from start to finish. It gave a good overview

of what the WRL does and would enable them to see the whole

scope of the project.

Tildon was able to start the first week when we took the samples.

We went out on our 20-foot Jon boat and anchored outside the

marina. The weather was unpleasant that day, and the wind and

waves made sampling difficult and wet, at least until we entered

the shelter of the marina itself. We were required to take samples

at four different sites, one at least 100 yards outside the marina to

show a background comparison (away from the impact of the

marina), one at the marina entrance, one in the middle of the marina,

and one in the far corner. We got some interesting looks while we were

cruising around among the yachts in our little workboat.

At each site, we took samples at three depths: at the surface, one foot from the

bottom, and at mid-depth. To do this, we used a water sampler, a hollow plastic

tube with caps at each end attached by an elastic cord. The samples were taken

by hooking the end caps to a trigger so the tube is open, then dropping the

sampler into the water to the desired depth, measured by markings made at

one-foot intervals on the support rope. When the sampler was at the correct

depth, a weight was dropped down the support rope, which released the end

caps and sealed the tube. The water from that depth was brought to the surface

and poured through a valve near the bottom of the sampler into pre-cleaned

sample bottles, one bottle per type of analysis. Some were preserved with acid

or other chemicals. The purpose of chemical or cold preservation is to keep

bacterial or chemical processes from changing the levels of the analytes in the

sample. We took samples at each site and depth for total phosphorus, lead, fecal

coliform bacteria, and detergents. The surface at each site was sampled additionally for oil and grease. The samples were stored on ice at 4°C.2

 The boat

captain and I were on one team taking the samples. Meanwhile, on the other

team, Tildon lowered a Hydrolab datasonde (i.e., a multi-probe water quality

monitor) to the same depths that we used for sampling. He recorded the dissolved oxygen, temperature, salinity, and pH of the water on the field data sheet,

as well as the times of the Hydrolab and samples readings.

Once all 12 samples were taken, we made sure they were well packed with ice

in the cooler, and we headed back to the boat launch. The trip back was not

nearly as bumpy, but we arrived at the boat ramp drenched anyway. We hauled

all the equipment back to the laboratory and unpacked. Tildon teamed with a

college student at the laboratory to count all the samples to be sure we hadn’t

missed anything. We logged the samples into the laboratory data management

system (i.e., a commercially produced database management software package)

and labeled them with laboratory identification numbers. All samples, except for

I am working with a student

while setting up an assay.
109

fecal coliforms, were stored in the refrigerator at 4°C. The microbiology technicians analyzed the fecal coliform samples by another Standard Method, SM9221E.1

Tildon observed, but did not participate in, the fecal coliform testing, because the

fecal coliform samples must be analyzed within six hours of sampling, and the

microbiology technicians have developed a system to handle them efficiently. All

samples in the laboratory must be analyzed with accompanying quality control

(QC) checks that must give accurate results. Any improper handling can result in

inaccurate QC, which invalidates all the associated samples.

The next day, Tildon and I performed the analysis for detergents, called Methylene Blue Active Substances (MBAS) by method SM5540C.1

 One-hundred mL of a

sample collected in the field is adjusted to a particular pH, and an indicator dye

called methylene blue is added. The indicator dye binds to the detergent molecules, forming a complex that can be extracted from the water with chloroform. The chloroform with its blue complex is read on a spectrophotometer and

compared with standards of known detergent concentration. The intensity of

the blue color is directly proportional to the amount of detergent in the sample.

So, if anyone were washing one’s boat and dumping the detergent into the

water, we would find out!

The next week, Jo Ann Parsons, the other in-service teacher, joined us. Over the

next four weeks, with the help of other laboratory personnel, we analyzed the

marina water samples for the following:

 Oil and grease by EPA Method 1664—acidification and extraction with

hexane, removal of hexane, then subsequent weighing of material

remaining3

 Total phosphorus by EPA Method 365.4—heat and acid preparation of the

sample, then subsequent analysis by adding a coloring agent and adjusting the pH to form a blue-green colored complex that is read on a spectrophotometer2

 Lead by EPA Method 239.2—special chelation extraction to remove salt

from the water and then heat and acid preparation, followed by

analysis on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer designed to analyze for metals2

During this time, I arranged for Tildon and Jo to attend some research meetings

on other projects. Jo, with her greater interest in biology, also spent some time

with the graduate students in molecular biology, learning about their research

efforts. They were doing the bench work in support of research to use DNA

fingerprinting to track the source of certain types of pollution in water bodies.

DNA taken from bacteria in water samples is compared to an ever-increasing

library of DNA from bacteria taken from the feces of animals and humans. If it

can be shown that the groups of bacteria in the feces of a particular animal

species are common to all individuals of that species (providing a DNA fingerprint), then water from a polluted waterway can be analyzed for bacterial DNA

and compared to a library of known DNA fingerprints from local species. In

other words, you could tell if the bacteria in your local bayou are from humans

(from sewage or septic tank contamination), raccoons, pet dogs or cats,

seagulls, or other sources, and act to limit or prevent the pollution.

Lesson Plans

As part of their involvement in the CO-LEARNERS Program, the teachers had to

create lesson plans based on what they had experienced in the laboratory. I had

a chance to see the first draft of one plan. It was an ambitious undertaking, an

all-inclusive lesson on water quality. The plan incorporated the following parts:

Being involved in

that kind of

discovery is

exciting and makes

me realize that

science is a part of

an ever-changing

tapestry.
110

 Group discussions and brainstorming ideas for research (research

meetings)

 Background research of local waterways, discussion of issues (the

interrelationship of science and society)

 Presentations and sharing of research topics (collaboration)

 Discussion of tools and water quality parameters (project planning)

 A field trip to compare water quality parameters in two areas (testing)

In addition to the planning and execution of a field survey of water quality, the

plan was to design and implement their own individual experiments on water

quality in the laboratory/classroom and present their findings and conclusions

to the class. Parents will be invited to an open house to see the project posters,

and advisors from UWF will attend to discuss the projects with the students.

This project could be the beginning of a science fair entry if the student wishes

to pursue it. The whole lesson parallels the kind of work the WRL does to a

remarkable degree. I look forward to attending the open house.

I did not get a chance to see the other lesson plans, but I offered copies of

several chemical methods that were safe enough to be used in the classroom

and had enough “gee-whiz” power to get the students’ interest. A test for residual chlorine in different types of waters has a direct application to issues like

drinking water safety, has calculations that high school students can handle,

and has some beautiful color changes, from hot pink to colorless and from

colorless to apple green to purple. One teacher told me that he has always

prepared all the materials for his students so they can concentrate on the chemistry. Now he realizes that the preparation is half the battle. A student should

understand the relationship between the care he uses preparing the materials

and the success of the experiment.

What I Taught the Teachers

 While working with the teachers both summers, I tried to emphasize

certain basic elements of “real science.”

 Research science is a process of trial and error. If you prove one thing to

be wrong, you know more than you did beforehand, and you start

with a new hypothesis and move forward. Usually, you do not find

exactly what you set out to find, but with each new hypothesis, you

add one discovery to the human database, a discovery that someone

else may use to build in another direction.

 The resources you have available to you—materials, time, money, and

information—limit real science.

 Success is in the details. Good science is completely dependent on

technique. You must take great care in what you do and document

everything so if it works once and does not work again, you can go

back and find the reasons. Sloppy science is bad science and leads to

confusion and inaccurate results.

 Science is about observation. Whether your question is about how

something works or how clean the water is, careful observation and

measurement is the key to finding answers.

What the Teachers Taught Me

Showing Is Better Than Telling

While working and playing with my own son, I have discovered that showing is

better than telling when it comes to learning. We discover things together, and I am

constantly amazed at the connections he makes. I had teachers who taught me this

What We

Learned from

Each Other

As new threads of

discovery are

woven into the

fabric of human

knowledge, new

connections form,

changing the whole

picture we have of

our universe.
111

way when I was in school, although they were the exception. I still remember the

high points in my learning and the consequential changes in my perspective. According to Terrie Kielborn, a practicing teacher who wrote about her experiences in

scientific research, this is called the constructivist approach. The approach enables

the learner to use prior knowledge for building new knowledge. The combination of

new and prior knowledge develops a high level of understanding.4

I have always been interested in the idea of teaching, but was intimidated by it as

well. My mother taught high school English, which I think is a special challenge. I

saw teachers through the eyes of a teacher’s daughter—the effort, the love, the

homework. I thought teaching must be a wonderful calling, but I never really saw

myself as a teacher. I have always loved science, not just the naming systems

and the functions and the relationships, but the scientific perspective.

Scientists see the universe as a coherent, functional organism, with

rules and connections that govern its behavior. A scientist believes

that there is an explanation for everything, and accepts that any

action she performs has an effect somewhere, at some level. A

scientist looks at a problem as something to be solved and has the

means to take the problem apart in order to seek the solution.

Everyone can benefit from this kind of perspective. It is a valuable

life tool and produces more broad-minded adults.

All the while I was teaching the teachers about science, they

taught me about teaching. They have found practical ways to bring

this constructivist philosophy into the classroom. Listening to their

stories about methods of teaching and sharing science with kids instead of

feeding it to them inspired me to look into teaching as a new career path.

Given that science is one of the critical areas in teaching, there are many

ways to get into the classroom more quickly, and I am told the schools are

coming to appreciate the value of a deeper science background in a teacher.

The CO-LEARNERS Program and others like it are evidence of this.

Encouraging Students as Scientists

My job as laboratory manager involves teaching of a sort. I always walk a new

employee through a method or a technique before having them read the published method. We work side-by-side, and I explain the reasons and potential

pitfalls in what we are doing. After they have experienced the technique handson, I give them the written procedure to study. I find that they remember all of it

better having done it first.

I believe children learn best the same way. My son’s pre-school experiences have

taught me terms like “manipulatives,” which is a technique of learning by working

with hands and materials. Children learn mathematics skills and patterns by counting and sorting blocks or pebbles. They learn to compare objects for similarities and

differences by using picture cards or toys. The use of touch, as well as sight and

hearing, bolsters a child’s understanding of a concept. Lori refers to this as “experiential learning,” and it is beneficial to both the child student and the adult student.

According to Lori, who began the CO-LEARNERS Program at UWF and has herself

been both teacher and researcher, teachers should show some empathy when

giving students “busy seat work.” It is indeed boring. Immersing oneself in an

experience—mentally and physically—is far more conducive to true learning.5

I have been told by some of the teachers with whom I worked that it is impossible to teach everything “hands-on,” and that the sheer resources and preparation involved are major obstacles. But mixing liberal doses of hands-on examples and personal experiences with standard textbook-based learning would

help put the subject into context and provide more interest. One of the teachers

I am supervising a

student while collecting

samples from a centrifuge.
112

Endnotes

suggested that with middle and high school students, the “grosser” example is

better for getting their attention.

I know a college professor who is well known for peppering his lectures with

unexpected examples or descriptions, such as calling a particular type of gelatinous blue-green algal growth “sea snot.” That is what sticks with the students.

In middle school, I had a biology teacher who brought in an actual cow’s head

for students to dissect if they finished with their traditional pig’s eyeball early.

The students were amazed (and disgusted, which was a bonus)! This kind of

creativity results in more class involvement and more effective learning.

In addition to supporting curriculum with hands-on work and interesting examples, a good way to impart knowledge is by asking leading questions. Lecturing and memorizing convey facts—facts that mostly pass through the ear canals

without adhering to the brain. Instead, turn the students into investigators. Ask

the questions, and let the students make the connections. They will find the

answers themselves and learn not only that one answer, but also the questioning process that will help them approach any problem as a scientist. I hope I

have given the teachers I partnered with something valuable to take into the

classroom. I know they have inspired me to learn about teaching and given me

many insights into the joys, traumas, and practicalities of being a teacher.

Trading cultures made us all richer for the experience.

Thinking About My Own Future Classroom

Middle school and even late elementary school is the time when students get

their first taste of science in school. Like any other subject, when taught effectively, it can interest every child to some extent. When taught poorly, it can ruin

a child’s chance of ever loving science and may cripple their future aptitude.

And while one can live life without science, no one should. My own son already

has a general grasp of ecology, the importance of water quality, and genetic

inheritance. He wants to be an artist when he grows up, and I know he will be a

great one, but he will carry the science perspective with him always.

In the hopes of putting these ideas into practice, I have applied for admission to a

teacher education program for middle-grades science. I will call on the teachers I

have met during the CO-LEARNERS Program to help me reach my goals, as I hope

they will call on me. Someday I hope to stand in front of a group of bored sixthgraders and ask them questions that will light the spark of inquiry in their eyes.

1 Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (1995). 19th edition,

Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

2 Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes, EPA/600/4-79/020, March 1983.

Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research

and Development.

3 Method 1664: N-hexane extractable material (HEM) and silica gel treated n-hexane

extractable material (SGT-HEM) by extraction and gravimetry (oil and grease and

total petroleum hydrocarbons). Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Science and Technology.

4 Kielborn, T. L. (1999). Blossoming of science involvement through algae research. In T.

L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry + teaching

science (pp. 67-77). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

5 Hahn, L. L. (1999). Investigating fish mortality: A science teacher’s learning experience.

In T. L. Kielborn & P. J. Gilmer (Eds.), Meaningful science: Teachers doing inquiry +

teaching science (pp. 47-55). Tallahassee, FL: SERVE.

All the while I was

teaching the

teachers about

science, they

taught me about

teaching.
113

Jan is checking her sample

in the autoanalyzer.
114

Index
115

Keyword

A

D

E

12-step methodology 12

Accelerated Solvent Extraction 33, 35

Alliance for Minority Participation 33, 38, 59

alligator embryos 58

analysis 14, 18, 23, 28, 35, 36, 41, 50, 55, 74, 76, 97, 107-109, 112

analytical chemistry 21, 33

androgenic 58, 60

applied science 27, 30, 106

authentic experience 55, 58

authenticity, tactical 27

bacteria 59, 98, 106-109

bioassessment 50, 53

bioindicators 50, 58

biological sampling 49

careers in science 55, 77, 105

catalyst for teacher change 77

catalytic experience 78

child development 38

chromatograph 33, 35, 36, 37, 39

classroom culture 49

clone 93, 94

CO-LEARNERS Program 1, 4, 7, 9-12, 14-17, 21, 23, 24, 27-29, 33, 34, 69,

71-74, 76, 80, 105, 108, 109, 111, 112

co-learning 3, 69

cognitive position 12

cogongrass 22

coliform bacteria 106, 108

collaboration 4, 16-18, 20, 24, 28, 69, 70-72, 76, 79, 80

community involvement 18, 20

community of learners 13, 15

computer laboratory 34, 35

connections to science 69

constructivism 4, 12-14, 27, 31, 73

constructivism, social 12, 13, 14

contamination 14, 50, 86, 97, 106, 107, 109

contextual learning 29

creativity 112

cryogenics 63

culture 4, 5, 9, 11, 29, 49, 65, 70-76, 81, 93, 94, 100, 101

culture of classroom science 4, 65, 75

Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) 14, 16, 49, 50, 56, 57, 63, 64, 66, 74,

76, 79, 82, 93, 105, 106

discourse of science 13, 29, 49

discovery learning 37

ecosystem 19, 20, 37, 45, 49-51, 53

Enterococcus 86-88, 107

environmental science 7, 28, 51, 96

Escambia County Utilities Authority (ECUA) 93, 97

B

C
116

L

M

Keyword

F

G

H

I

N

O

K

fecal coliforms 86, 87, 89, 106, 107, 109

Fenholloway River 60

field trips 24, 33, 37, 51, 52, 56-58, 64, 88, 89, 97, 110

fingerprint laboratory 35

first-hand experience 3, 8, 22, 89, 91

Florida Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation (FCETP) 9-12, 30, 33, 34, 46, 59,

69, 70, 82, 105

Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) 51

Florida Department of Law Enforcement Crime Laboratory 33, 34

Florida Geological Survey (FGS) 14, 16, 62, 63, 64, 66

fluoride research 93, 96-102

Fourth Generation Evaluation 30, 73, 82

fuel-efficient vehicles 42

gas chromatography 33

genetics, gene sequencing 55, 106

genomics 55

geology 51

gifted students 51

global warming 26, 42

greenhouse gases 41, 42, 43

Ground Positioning System (GPS) 89

habitats 19, 20, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 64

hair sheep 22, 34, 37, 38

hands-on (activities) 33, 36, 37, 51, 63, 65, 76, 102

hands-on (experience) 18, 46, 49, 58, 64, 80

hands-on (learning) 43, 78, 85, 87, 97, 102

hands-on (projects) 94

hands-on (research) 75

hands-on (science) 97, 102, 108

hermeneutic dialectic circle 13

Hurricane Project 90

immersion 72, 76

incubation 86-88, 107

inquiry-based 3, 9, 75

Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Citation Databases 56, 60

interdisciplinary 28, 85, 89, 91

internships 10, 17, 26, 30, 41, 45, 46, 51, 64, 65, 71, 82

kudzu 22, 34, 37, 38

laboratory, research 7, 14, 32, 33, 37, 80, 86, 88, 89, 93, 97, 105, 106, 117

laboratory skills 33, 37

language of science 14

learner, reflective 21

learning, experiential 4, 7, 20, 47, 49, 52, 53, 61, 74, 77, 79, 81, 83, 103, 111, 119

learning strategies 77

lesson plans 16, 19, 45, 51, 63, 65, 70, 76, 95-97, 99, 102, 106, 109, 110

Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation (LS-AMP) 38, 55

macroinvertebrates 49, 50, 53, 56, 57

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 56

manatee 14, 23, 24, 54, 57-60, 94

manipulatives 111

matrices 36, 39

matrix 36, 39

mentoring 15, 25, 27, 29, 77

methodological perspective 12

mob grazing 38

molecular biology 106, 109

mosquitofish 57, 58, 60

Most Probable Number (MPN) 87, 88, 91

National Science Foundation 9, 11, 24, 31, 41, 46, 59, 85, 105

nature of science 33, 70-72

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2, 9, 14, 41, 46, 82

Odyssey Science Center 33
117

Keyword

O

S

T

W

P

open-ended laboratory 9

organisms 12, 48, 50, 53, 56, 59, 87, 88, 94

oxygen, dissolved 50, 56, 105, 108

paper mill 58, 60

Penobscott River 58

pesticide laboratory 35, 37

pesticide residue 33, 35-37

pollutants 14, 23, 56-58

pollution 19, 41, 42, 45, 50, 56, 57, 75, 109

population 50, 57, 58, 60

Port St. Joe 63

Pre-service Teachers Program 9, 46

productive habitats 50

psychology 22, 38

purchasing reality 43

qualitative methodology 12, 13, 73

real-life problems 33, 35, 38, 39

real-world application 45

runoff 50, 52, 56

salary 11, 55, 70, 79, 80

sample collection 50

science and mathematics 11, 15, 23, 31, 34, 55, 69, 70, 89, 91, 102

science classroom 3, 7, 11, 20, 24, 30, 33, 37, 38, 56, 63, 64, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 101

science connections 23

science content 13, 16, 18, 28, 29, 70, 72, 73, 79, 80, 81, 101

science culture 3, 4, 5, 9, 29, 49, 65, 70-76, 81, 93, 94, 100, 101

science fair 52, 77, 110

science, kinds of 106

science knowledge 4, 33, 37, 73, 74

science policy 25, 28

science, real 1, 4, 11, 24, 33, 49, 59, 105, 106, 110

science teachers, practicing 69, 73, 77, 78

science teachers, prospective 30, 49, 63, 82

scientific method 4, 33, 50, 59, 102

scientific research 7-10, 13, 18, 21, 24, 30, 31, 34, 44, 49, 55, 56, 71, 72, 77, 79, 81, 82,

86, 89, 91, 111

Scientific Work Experience Programs for Teachers (SWEPT) 8, 31, 69, 72

sea grass 71, 93, 94, 97

Sea World 34, 55, 61

Secchi disc 56

Sediment-Elevation Table (SET) 16, 63, 66, 74

self-confidence 16, 18

sharing cultures 108

solvent 28, 33, 35, 36, 39

St. Marks River 57

statistics 49, 73, 88

sterile environment 93

stream pollution 50

student learning 33, 85, 89

student teaching 51, 63, 65, 107

student-centered 49

summer internship 41

teacher, reflective 21, 22

teamwork 4, 7, 88, 99

technology 9, 10, 15-18, 22, 26, 28, 41, 44, 55, 56, 64, 65, 70, 80, 85

Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 74, 79, 82, 85, 91

turbidity 50, 52, 53, 56, 64, 105, 107

Wakulla River 57

water analysis 50

water quality 19, 20, 23, 24, 49, 50, 53, 56-58, 75, 105, 108-110, 112

watershed 19, 58

Web of Science 56

Wetlands Project 86

Wetlands Research Laboratory (WRL) 14, 80, 86, 88, 89, 93, 97, 105, 106, 108, 110

Q

R
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