Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan i

This report is being disseminated by the Department of Energy. As such, the document was 

prepared in compliance with Section 515 of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations 

Act for Fiscal Year 2001 (Public Law 106-554) and information quality guidelines issued by the 

Department of Energy. Though this report does not constitute “influential” information, as that 

term is defined in DOE’s information quality guidelines or the Office of Management and Budget's 

Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review (Bulletin), the study was reviewed internally prior to 

publication.

NOTICE

Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes 

any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, 

completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or 

represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific 

commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise 

does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the 

United States government or any agency thereof.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan ii

To Our Stakeholders

The U.S. economy is becoming more agile and innovative in response to continuing economic and environmental 

challenges and to the regional demands for clean electricity, fuels, and other products. At the same time, the past 

decade has demonstrated the need for an all-of-the-above strategy to support the U.S. economy and energy

security, and to protect the environment.

Hydrogen is a versatile fuel that offers a path to sustainable long-term economic growth. It can add value to 

multiple sectors in the economy and support America’s ongoing manufacturing renaissance. It can serve as a 

sustainable fuel for transportation and as input to produce electricity and heat for homes. And, carbon-free 

hydrogen could even be exported to markets that are looking for carbon-free energy. 

But realizing the true potential for hydrogen requires a commitment to continued research and development as 

well as ramping up demonstrations and deployments with the private sector to achieve scale. Unlike other fuels, 

hydrogen requires more integration of the fossil, nuclear, and renewable energy systems, and it will take an 

integrated approach from all energy sectors to realize the full potential and benefits of hydrogen.

To meet this challenge, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has developed a Hydrogen Program Plan. This Plan

provides a strategic framework that incorporates the research, development, and demonstration efforts of the 

Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Fossil Energy, Nuclear Energy, Electricity, Science, and

ARPA-E to advance the production, transport, storage, and use of hydrogen across different sectors of the 

economy. 

This comprehensive document represents DOE’s commitment to develop the technologies that can enable a 

hydrogen transition in the United States. It also underscores the importance of collaboration both within DOE and 

with our stakeholders in industry, academia, and the states to achieve that goal.

We hope you will find the Hydrogen Program Plan valuable and constructive, and we look forward to working 

with you to unlock and expand the remarkable potential and benefits of hydrogen.

Mark W. Menezes

Deputy Secretary of Energy

Daniel R Simmons

Assistant Secretary, Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy

Steven Winberg

Assistant Secretary, Fossil Energy

Rita Baranwal 

Assistant Secretary, Nuclear Energy

Patricia Hoffman

Acting Assistant Secretary, 

Office of Electricity

Chris Fall

Director, Office of Science

S. Lane Genatowski

Director, Advanced Research 

Projects Agency–Energy
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

To Our Stakeholders.........................................................................................................................................................ii

Preface – About this Document....................................................................................................................................... 1

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Hydrogen Overview—Benefits and Uses........................................................................................................................................................4

Progress and Needs .......................................................................................................................................................................................5

2 DOE Hydrogen Program ............................................................................................................................................... 8

Program Mission ............................................................................................................................................................................................8

Hydrogen at Scale—A Guiding Framework.................................................................................................................................................... 8

Program Strategy..........................................................................................................................................................................................14

3 Technology Focus Areas & RD&D Thrusts ....................................................................................................................... 15

Hydrogen Production....................................................................................................................................................................................15

Fossil Resources ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Biomass and Waste-Stream Resources................................................................................................................................................... 16

Water-Splitting Technologies ................................................................................................................................................................... 17

Hydrogen Delivery.........................................................................................................................................................................................18

Tube Trailers............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18

Pipelines ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Liquid Hydrogen........................................................................................................................................................................................ 19

Chemical Hydrogen Carriers .................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Hydrogen Dispensing and Fueling............................................................................................................................................................ 20

Hydrogen Storage.........................................................................................................................................................................................21

Physical-based Storage............................................................................................................................................................................ 21

Material-based Storage ............................................................................................................................................................................ 22

Conversion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................24

Combustion .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25

Applications ..................................................................................................................................................................................................28

Transportation.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Chemical and Industrial Processes.......................................................................................................................................................... 29

Stationary and Power Generation Applications ....................................................................................................................................... 30

Integrated Hybrid Energy Systems........................................................................................................................................................... 30

Crosscutting Challenges and Opportunities ............................................................................................................................................ 32

4 Program Execution & Collaboration ........................................................................................................................... 35

Program Execution .......................................................................................................................................................................................35

Stakeholder Input...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Program Funding...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Measures to Ensure Effectiveness........................................................................................................................................................... 35

Internal & External Coordination and Collaboration....................................................................................................................................36

Internal Organization ................................................................................................................................................................................ 36

Federal and State Coordination................................................................................................................................................................ 41

Private Sector and Other Non-Governmental Partnerships ..................................................................................................................... 42

International Coordination and Collaboration.......................................................................................................................................... 42

Appendix A: Domestic energy resources required to produce 10 million metric tonnes (MMT) of hydrogen.................. 45

Appendix B: Glossary of Acronyms................................................................................................................................ 47

Appendix C: Contacts & Links........................................................................................................................................ 49

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................................... 51
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 1

Preface – About this Document

The Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen 

Program Plan (the Program Plan or Plan) outlines 

the strategic high-level focus areas of DOE’s 

Hydrogen Program (the Program). The term 

Hydrogen Program refers not to any single office 

within DOE, but rather to the cohesive and 

coordinated effort of multiple offices that conduct 

research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) 

activities on hydrogen technologies. This 

terminology and the coordinated efforts on 

hydrogen among relevant DOE offices have been in place since 2004, and provide an inclusive and strategic view 

of how the Department coordinates activities on hydrogen across applications and sectors.

This version of the Plan updates and expands upon previous versions including the Hydrogen Posture Plan1 and 

the DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan,

2 and provides a coordinated high-level summary of hydrogen 

related activities across DOE. The 2006 Hydrogen Posture Plan fulfilled the requirement in the Energy Policy Act of 

2005 (EPACT 2005)3

(see box) that the Energy Secretary transmit to Congress a coordinated plan for DOE’s 

hydrogen and fuel cell activities. For historical context, the original Posture Plan, issued in 2004, outlined a 

coordinated plan for DOE and the U.S. Department of Transportation to meet the goals of the Hydrogen Fuel 

Initiative (HFI) and implement the 2002 National Hydrogen Energy Technology Roadmap.

4 The HFI was launched 

in 2004 to accelerate research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies for 

use in transportation, electricity generation, and portable power applications. The Roadmap provided a blueprint 

for the public and private efforts required to fulfill a long-term national vision for hydrogen energy, as outlined in 

A National Vision of America’s Transition to a Hydrogen Economy—to 2030 and Beyond.

5 Both the Roadmap and 

the Vision were developed out of meetings involving DOE, industry, academia, non-profit organizations, and other 

stakeholders. The Roadmap, the Vision, the Posture Plans, the 2011 Program Plan, and the results of key 

stakeholder workshops continue to form the underlying basis for this current edition of the Program Plan. 

This edition of the Program Plan reflects the Department’s focus on conducting coordinated RD&D activities to 

enable the adoption of hydrogen technologies across multiple applications and sectors. It includes content from 

the various plans and documents developed by individual offices within DOE working on hydrogen-related 

activities, including: the Office of Fossil Energy's Hydrogen Strategy: Enabling a Low Carbon Economy,

6 the Office 

of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Multi-year RD&D Plan,

7

the Office of Nuclear Energy’s Integrated Energy Systems 2020 Roadmap,

8 and the Office of Science’s Basic 

1 U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Department of Transportation. December 2006. “Hydrogen Posture Plan. An Integrated Research, Development and Demonstration Plan.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen_posture_plan_dec06.pdf

2 U.S. Department of Energy. September 2011. “The Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan. An Integrated Strategic Plan for the Research, Development, 

and Demonstration of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies.” https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/program_plan2011.pdf. 3 U.S. Congress. August 2005. “Energy Policy Act of 2005, P.L. 109-58, U.S. Code (42 U.S. Code § 161534).” https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW109publ58/pdf/PLAW-109publ58.pdf. 4 U.S. Department of Energy. November 2002. “National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap: Production, Delivery, Storage, Conversion, Applications, Public Education and Outreach.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/national_h2_roadmap.pdf. 5 U.S. Department of Energy. February 2002. “A National Vision of America’s Transition to a Hydrogen Economy – To 2030 and Beyond.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/vision_doc.pdf. 6 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy. 2020. “Hydrogen Strategy: Enabling a Low-Carbon Economy.” 

https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2020/07/f76/USDOE_FE_Hydrogen_Strategy_July2020.pdf 7 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office. “Multi-Year Research, Development and 

Demonstration Plan.” Accessed online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/downloads/fuel-cell-technologies-office-multi-year-research-development-and-22. 8 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy. September 2020. Idaho National Laboratory: Shannon Bragg-Sitton, C. Rabiti, J. E. O'Brien, T. J. Morton, R. Boardman, 

S. Yoon, J.S. Yoo, K. L. Frick, M. S. Greenwood, and R. Vilim. “Integrated Energy Systems: 2020 Roadmap.” https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1670434/.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 2

Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy.

9 Many of these documents are also in the process of updates and 

revisions and will be posted online. 

Through this overarching document, the reader will gain information on the key RD&D needs to enable the largescale use of hydrogen and related technologies—such as fuel cells and turbines—in the economy, and how the 

Department’s various offices are addressing those needs. The Program will continue to periodically revise the 

Plan, along with all program office RD&D plans, to reflect technological progress, programmatic changes, policy 

decisions, and updates based on stakeholder input and reviews.

9 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. 2004. “Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/nhe_rpt.pdf. 
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 3

1 Introduction

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen Program Plan (the Plan) communicates DOE’s overarching, crossoffice strategic plan to accelerate research, development, and deployment (RD&D) of hydrogen and related 

technologies in the United States. The Plan provides an overview of core technology areas, challenges, and 

research and development (R&D) thrusts that DOE is pursuing to address these challenges through an integrated 

DOE Hydrogen Program (the Program). The Program includes activities across multiple DOE offices—including 

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Fossil Energy (FE), Nuclear Energy (NE), Electricity (OE), and 

Science (SC), and coordinates with the Advanced Research Program Agency – Energy (ARPA-E). While each office 

has its own planning documents, including program plans and multiyear RD&D plans, this overarching document 

provides a high-level framework summarizing activities relevant to all offices. This Plan updates the previous 

version, which built upon preceding strategic and planning documents including the DOE Hydrogen Posture 

Plan10 and the National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap.

11 Based on extensive stakeholder input and progress over the 

last two decades, the Plan serves as a guiding summary of focus areas and the path forward across all relevant 

DOE offices. In addition to this overarching DOE-wide plan, each office within DOE has its own detailed technical 

plans and strategies relevant to their mission areas.12

This Plan builds upon aspects in the individual DOE office plans and documents, including FE’s Hydrogen 

Strategy: Enabling a Low-Carbon Economy,

13 EERE’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Multi-Year RD&D Plan,14

NE’s hydrogen related plans, and SC’s Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy.

15 Many of these 

documents are also in the process of updates and revisions and will be posted online and incorporated into future 

versions of this Plan.

Hydrogen is part of a comprehensive energy portfolio that can enable energy security and resiliency and provide

economic value and environmental benefits for diverse applications across multiple sectors. Hydrogen can be 

derived from a variety of domestically available primary sources, including renewables; fossil fuels with carbon 

capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS); and nuclear power. Diverse, sustainable, and abundant domestic resources 

are essential for the nation to: 1) provide for a variety of end uses and a range of energy needs, 2) reduce 

dependency on single or limited resources, 3) retain energy independence and expand opportunities for net 

exports, and 4) be prepared for future scenarios where resources, end-use needs, and constraints may change 

significantly. Flexibility is a key asset and hydrogen provides that opportunity.

The United States has been at the forefront of hydrogen and related technology R&D, from its inception in the 

space program, to enabling technology commercialization in transportation, stationary power, and portable-power 

applications. The origins of DOE’s program in hydrogen technologies date back to the establishment of DOE itself 

10 U.S. Department of Energy, December 2006, op cit. 11 U.S. Department of Energy, February 2002, op cit. 12 U.S. Department of Energy. 2020. DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program, “Program Areas.” Accessed online: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/program_areas.html. 13 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, 2020, op.cit. 14 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, op. cit. 15 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, 2004, op.cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 4

in the mid-1970s when energy security and dependence on foreign oil were a major concern. Over the years, DOE 

established robust R&D activities on hydrogen and related technology aligned with a number of statutory 

authorities, including the Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 199016

and the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT).

17

Hydrogen Overview—Benefits and Uses

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe; however, it is rarely found in its elemental form on Earth. 

It must be produced from a hydrogen-containing feedstock (e.g., water, biomass, fossil fuels, or waste materials)

using an energy source. Once hydrogen is produced, it can be used to store, move, and deliver low- or no-carbon 

energy to where it is needed. Hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, gas, or chemical compound, and is converted to 

energy via traditional combustion methods (in engines, furnaces, or gas turbines), through electrochemical 

processes (in fuel cells), and through hybrid approaches such as integrated combined cycle gasification and fuel 

cell systems. It is also used as a feedstock or fuel in a number of industries, including petroleum refining, 

ammonia production, food and pharmaceutical 

production, and metals manufacturing. Hydrogen 

can be produced in large centralized production 

facilities or in smaller distributed production 

facilities, and can be transported via truck, 

pipeline, tanker, or other means.

Hydrogen, as a versatile energy carrier and 

chemical feedstock, offers advantages that unite 

all of our nation’s energy resources—renewables, 

nuclear, and fossil fuels—and enables innovations 

in energy production and end uses that can help 

decarbonize three of the most energy intensive 

sectors of our economy: transportation, electricity 

generation, and manufacturing.

As shown in Figure 1, there are a wide range of 

applications where the use of hydrogen is either 

growing or has the potential for significant future 

demand. These diverse applications highlight the scale of the technical potential for hydrogen and related 

technologies. And this potential is being recognized worldwide, with investments by government and industry

ramping up in many countries. Industry has projected a potential $2.5 trillion global market for hydrogen 

technologies by 2050,18 and annual shipments of fuel cells have increased 15-fold since 2015, now at over 1 

gigawatt (1 GW).19 For the first time, a coalition of major industries teamed together to develop an industry-led 

roadmap on the potential for hydrogen in the United States. The roadmap report concludes that by 2050, the U.S. 

hydrogen economy could lead to an estimated $750 billion per year in revenue and a cumulative 3.4 million jobs.20

Industry is starting to invest in large-scale hydrogen projects in multiple regions. Examples include hydrogen 

production, storage, and end use in turbines through the $1 billion Advanced Clean Energy Storage project in Utah; 

16 U.S. Congress. “Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990, P.L.101-566”, November 1990. Accessed online: 

https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/senate-bill/639. 17 U.S. Congress, August 2005, op cit. 18 Hydrogen Council. November 2017. “Hydrogen Scaling Up. A Sustainable Pathway for the Global Energy Transition.” https://hydrogencouncil.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf.. 19 E4 tech. December 2019. “The Fuel Cell Industry Review 2019.” 20 UShydrogenstudy.org. 2019. “Roadmap to a US Hydrogen Economy.” www.ushydrogenstudy.org.

Key Benefits of Hydrogen

• Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic resources 

for use in multiple sectors, or for export.

• Hydrogen has the highest energy content by weight of all 

known fuels—3X higher than gasoline—and is a critical 

feedstock for the entire chemicals industry, including for liquid 

fuels.

• Hydrogen, along with fuel cells or combustion-based 

technologies, can enable zero or near-zero emissions in 

transportation, stationary or remote power, and portable power 

applications.

• Hydrogen can be used for gigawatt-hours of energy storage 

and as a “responsive load” on the grid to enable grid stability, 

increasing the utilization of power generators, including 

nuclear, coal, natural gas, and renewables.

• Hydrogen can be used in a variety of domestic industries, such 

as the manufacturing of steel, cement, ammonia, and other 

chemicals.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 5

a 5 MW electrolyzer project planned in Washington State; first-of-a-kind nuclear-to-hydrogen projects in multiple

states; and a 20 MW electrolyzer plant to produce hydrogen from solar power in Florida.

Figure 1. Existing and emerging demands for hydrogen

Progress and Needs

Over the past 40 years, hydrogen and related technologies, such as fuel cells and turbines, have transitioned from 

highly specialized applications to commercially available products. Thousands of fuel cells are already in use in 

passenger and commercial vehicles, forklifts, and stationary and backup power units throughout the United 

States. The number of retail hydrogen fueling stations has grown to approximately 45 over the past few years and 

over 145 when including infrastructure for niche markets in material handling. In power generation, advances 

have led to commercialization of large-frame turbines that can fire hydrogen/natural gas blends. Much of this 

transition has been enabled by R&D advances from DOE. Over the past 20 years, DOE has invested more than $4

billion in a number of hydrogen and related areas, including hydrogen production from diverse domestic sources, 

hydrogen delivery and storage, and conversion technologies including fuel cells and turbines. These research 

efforts, in collaboration with industry, have resulted in a number of successes such as advanced production 

systems capable of producing carbon-free hydrogen for less than $2 per kg with carbon capture and storage. DOE 

funded R&D has also reduced the cost of transportation fuel cells by 60% and quadrupled durability, and has 

resulted in over 1,100 U.S. patents issued and over 30 commercial technologies in the market.21

The key technical challenges for hydrogen and related technologies are cost, durability, reliability, and 

performance, as well as the lack of hydrogen infrastructure. To achieve widespread commercialization, hydrogen 

utilization technologies must enter larger markets and be able to compete with incumbent technologies in terms 

of life-cycle cost, performance, durability, and environmental impact. Non-technical barriers also need to be 

addressed, such as developing and harmonizing codes and standards, fostering best practices for safety, and 

developing a robust supply chain and workforce. 

21 (Patents and technologies resulting from RD&D funded by the EERE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office.) Steele, Lindsay. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 

September 2020. "2019 Patent Analysis for the U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office." PNNL-SA-156721. 

https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2020/10/f79/hfto-2019-patent-analysis.pdf.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 6

The DOE Hydrogen Program is working to meet the needs and overcome the challenges in each of the core 

technical and institutional areas, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The hydrogen energy system, its needs and challenges

Key Aspects of the Hydrogen Energy System Needs and Challenges

PRODUCTION: Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic 

resources—including fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewables 

(wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and waste, including plastics).

The primary pathways for producing hydrogen are through 

thermochemical processes such as reforming, gasification, 

pyrolysis and through electrolysis via water splitting. Hydrogen also 

offers the options of large-scale centralized production or 

distributed production at small facilities, close to or at the point of 

use.

• Lower-cost, more-efficient, and more-durable 

electrolyzers

• Advanced designs for reforming, gasification, and 

pyrolysis

• Advanced and innovative hydrogen production 

techniques from renewable, fossil, and nuclear 

energy resources, including hybrid and fuel-flexible 

approaches

• Lower-cost and more-efficient technologies for 

producing hydrogen from water, fossil fuels, 

biomass, and waste 

• Low-cost and environmentally sound carbon 

capture, utilization, and storage technologies

DELIVERY: Hydrogen can be transported and dispensed as either 

pure hydrogen or as part of a chemical carrier via several different

pathways: distributed in pipelines, transported in high-pressure 

tanks, or carried as a liquid via tanker truck. Large volumes of 

hydrogen can also be transported by rail or ships. End-use 

applications will have varying needs for flow rates, purity, and cost, 

imposing different requirements on the refueling infrastructure.

• Lower-cost and more-reliable systems for 

distributing and dispensing hydrogen

• Advanced technologies and concepts for hydrogen 

distribution including liquefaction and materialbased chemical carriers

• Rights-of-way, permitting, and reduced investment 

risk of deploying delivery infrastructure

STORAGE: Hydrogen may need to be stored prior to use—either in 

bulk, at the site of production, during the delivery process, or at the 

point of use, and this can be accomplished via: (i) physical storage, 

which includes high-pressure tanks and liquid hydrogen; or (ii) and 

material-based processes that incorporate hydrogen in chemical 

compounds, with the potential for higher capacities at ambient 

temperature and pressure. Additional approaches—such as 

geologic storage—may be needed for large-scale, long-term 

hydrogen storage.

• Lower-cost hydrogen storage systems

• Higher storage capacity, with reduced weight and 

volume

• Large-scale storage, including onsite bulk 

emergency supply and in geologic formations

• Optimized storage strategies for co-locating stored 

hydrogen with end-use applications to meet 

throughput and dynamic response requirements 

and reduce investment cost

CONVERSION: To be useful, the energy carried by hydrogen must 

be converted into a different form, such as electricity or heat, and 

this can be accomplished through electrochemical conversion 

using fuel cells, or via combustion using turbines or reciprocating 

engines. Hybrid systems, such as natural gas/other fuel combined 

cycle fuel cell systems offer high efficiencies and reduced 

emissions compared with conventional technologies.

• Lower-cost, more-durable, and more-reliable fuel 

cells that can be mass-produced

• Turbines that can operate on high concentrations 

of hydrogen or pure hydrogen

• Development and demonstration of large-scale 

hybrid systems

END-USE APPLICATIONS AND INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS:

Hydrogen can be used in diverse applications across multiple 

sectors. It can provide value directly to end-use applications (heavyduty transportation, stationary power, industrial and chemical 

applications, etc.) and as an enabler of integrated energy systems, 

where it can improve the economics and performance of existing 

and emerging electric power generators.

• Systems integration, testing, and validation to 

identify and address the challenges unique to each 

application

• Demonstration of end-use applications, including 

steel manufacturing, ammonia production, and 

techniques for producing synthetic fuels from 

hydrogen and carbon dioxide

• Demonstration of grid-integration to validate 

hydrogen energy storage and grid services

MANUFACTURING AND SUPPLY CHAIN: Advanced manufacturing 

processes and a robust supply chain for hydrogen, fuel cell, and 

• Standardized manufacturing processes, quality 

control, and optimized design-for-manufacturing
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 7

Key Aspects of the Hydrogen Energy System Needs and Challenges

hydrogen turbine technologies can enable cost reductions and 

commercial-scale production.

• Additive and automated manufacturing processes

• Design for recyclability and waste reduction 

SAFETY, CODES AND STANDARDS: Technically sound codes and 

standards will provide an essential basis for the safe and 

consistent deployment and commercialization of hydrogen and 

related technologies. Along with widely shared safety information 

and best practices, they will also improve confidence in the 

commercial viability of the technologies among all stakeholders, 

which can further accelerate adoption and encourage investment.

• Appropriate, uniform codes and standards to 

address all end-use applications, including for 

combustion applications (such as in turbines) as 

well as for fuel cells (such as in high-throughput 

fueling for heavy-duty applications, including 

trucks, marine, and rail)

• Improved safety information and sharing of best 

practices and lessons learned 

EDUCATION AND WORKFORCE: A highly skilled workforce can 

effectively respond to growth in hydrogen-related industries, and 

can support and sustain a national competitive advantage in this 

advanced energy technology field. Broader understanding of 

hydrogen and related technologies can build confidence in the safe 

use of hydrogen as an energy carrier among key constituencies, 

including investors, policy-makers, and the general public.

• Educational resources and training programs for 

diverse stakeholders including first responders, 

code officials, and technicians (e.g., on operations, 

maintenance, and handling of hydrogen and related 

technologies)

• Access to accurate, objective information about 

hydrogen and related technologies

Over the years, a number of technology options have been discovered and developed to meet key needs in each 

technical area, and substantial progress has been made in many of them. As shown in Figure 2, these options span 

the full spectrum of near- to longer-term large-scale market adoption. The expected timeframe for adoption is 

based both on technology maturity and expected demand. Some technologies may be technologically mature but 

have not yet developed sufficient demand for widespread adoption.

Figure 2. Key hydrogen technology options
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 8

2 DOE Hydrogen Program

Program Mission

The mission of the DOE Hydrogen Program is to research, 

develop, and validate transformational hydrogen and related 

technologies including fuel cells and turbines, and to address 

institutional and market barriers, to ultimately enable 

adoption across multiple applications and sectors. 

Development of hydrogen energy from diverse domestic 

resources will ensure that the United States has an abundant, 

reliable, and affordable supply of clean energy to maintain the 

nation’s prosperity throughout the 21st century and beyond.

To accomplish this mission, the Program works in partnership with industry, academia, national laboratories, 

federal and international agencies, and other stakeholders to:

• Overcome technical barriers through basic and applied research and development 

• Integrate, demonstrate, and validate “first-of-a-kind” hydrogen and related technologies

• Accelerate the transition of innovations and technologies to the private sector 

• Address institutional issues including safety concerns, education and workforce development, and the 

development of codes and standards

• Identify, implement, and refine appropriate strategies for Federal programs to catalyze a sustainable 

market and concomitant benefits to the economy, the environment, and energy security

In addition to participation from EERE, FE, NE, OE, and SC, the Program also coordinates with other relevant DOE 

efforts, including those in the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E); the Office of Cybersecurity, 

Energy Security, and Emergency Response; and crosscutting DOE initiatives such as the Energy Storage Grand 

Challenge, Advanced Manufacturing, Grid Modernization, Integrated Energy Systems, Water Security Grand 

Challenge, and Artificial Intelligence. Each of these offices and initiatives manage hydrogen technology activities 

related to their missions. EERE, FE, and NE focus their RD&D activities on their respective energy sources, 

feedstocks, and target applications. All of these activities are coordinated to achieve a cohesive and strategically 

managed effort. More information on Program execution and collaboration is provided in Chapter 4.

Hydrogen at Scale—A Guiding Framework

H2@Scale22 is a DOE initiative that provides an overarching vision for how hydrogen can enable energy pathways 

across applications and sectors in an increasingly interconnected energy system. The H2@Scale concept, shown 

in Figure 3, is based on hydrogen’s potential to meet existing and emerging market demands across multiple 

sectors. It envisions how innovations to produce, store, transport, and utilize hydrogen can help realize that 

potential and achieve scale to drive revenue opportunities and reduce costs.

22 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office. 2020. “H2@Scale,” 

https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2-scale.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 9

Figure 3. Conceptual H2@Scale energy system23

Today, the primary demand for hydrogen is as a chemical feedstock in petroleum refining and ammonia 

production, with smaller amounts being used in other industrial applications such as methanol production. 

Approximately 10 million metric tons (MMT) of hydrogen are currently produced in the United States each year 

for these end uses, mostly from natural gas. In the H2@Scale vision, hydrogen’s versatility as a both a chemical 

feedstock and an energy carrier will be harnessed to serve expanded end-uses. Emerging market-opportunities 

include the use of hydrogen for multiple transportation applications (e.g., in fuel cell electric vehicles—particularly 

heavy duty applications—as a feedstock for synthetic fuels and to upgrade petroleum and bio-fuels); as a feedstock 

for industry (e.g., in steel and cement manufacturing); for heat in industrial systems and buildings; for power 

generation (for large-scale power, off-grid distributed power and back-up or emergency power); and for energy 

storage. Hybrid energy systems, which integrate energy generation, storage, and/or conversion technologies to 

optimize the overall value of the energy generated, are another promising market opportunity, as discussed in the 

Applications section of Chapter 3 of this Plan. For example, the integration of hydrogen production technologies 

with utility-scale power generation plants is a concept receiving increased interest, due to its potential to improve 

profitability of these plants while supporting grid resiliency.24

The ultimate goal of H2@Scale is for hydrogen to be affordably produced and delivered utilizing several 

feedstocks, processing methods, and delivery options at a variety of scales ranging from large central production 

to small local production, depending on what is most practical from an economic and logistical

23 Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 2020, op. cit.: Schematic developed over three years of stakeholder engagement with national labs and industry; an illustrative example depicting key 

applications and how hydrogen may be put on par with today’s electric and natural gas ‘grids.’

24 A relevant example is a wind farm or nuclear power plant that produces hydrogen from surplus electricity (via electrolysis) and then either sells or uses the hydrogen for other 

purposes, or reconverts it to electricity (via a fuel cell or turbine) at times of higher demand.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 10

perspective for a given location and level of market demand. To better understand and develop the potential for 

hydrogen production, demand, and utilization in the United States, the Program conducts coordinated, 

comprehensive modeling and analysis efforts, which examine the options available, current and potential costs, 

energy efficiencies, and environmental effects of these options, and tradeoffs between them. Results from these 

analyses are used to help guide R&D priorities and set program goals, including potential regional focus areas for 

hydrogen production and utilization, as well as the most viable end-use applications.

Recent H2@Scale modeling and analysis efforts conducted by DOE’s 

national labs have characterized U.S. hydrogen production and demand 

potential over the next 30 years. Table 2 shows today’s hydrogen demand 

of 10 million metric tonnes (MMT)/year, and the economic potential for

hydrogen in specific sectors at a total of 41 MMT/year assuming R&D 

success in key areas such as developing low cost electrolyzers. 

National labs have assessed various scenarios 

that show a range from 22 to 41 MMT/year as 

the economic potential for hydrogen demand—

two to four times the current demand.

27 As new 

markets emerge (such as off-road transportation 

like marine applications or data centers), this 

economic potential may increase and will be 

assessed periodically through updated analyses.

In addition to DOE analysis, a group of over 20 

industry partners projected a two-fold increase 

in hydrogen demand, to 20 MMT, by 2050 as a 

base case scenario, and a six-fold increase in an 

ambitious scenario.28 Given uncertainties across 

sectors, markets, and technologies, these results 

are fairly consistent. Based on these two 

scenarios (“base” and “ambitious”), hydrogen 

could account for between 1% and 14% of total 

energy demand in the United States.

The Program has also determined the availability of domestic resources for hydrogen production across the 

country. Figures 4 through 14 depict the locations and quantities of fossil and renewable energy feedstocks 

throughout the United States, along with the locations of nuclear power plants and locations where hydrogen may 

be produced as a by-product in the near future. The nation’s energy resources are geographically widespread, and 

fossil, nuclear, and renewable feedstocks are each independently sufficient to support at least a doubling of 

domestic hydrogen consumption.29

25 Ruth, Mark F., P. Jadun, N. Gilroy, E. Connelly, R. Boardman, A.J. Simon, A. Elgowainy, and J. Zuboy. 2020. “The Technical and Economic Potential of the H2@Scale 

Hydrogen Concept within the United States.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-6A20-77610. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77610.pdf. 26 The R&D Success scenario assumes fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) penetration of 18% to 26% in the light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicle sectors. 27 Ruth, et.al, 2020, op. cit. 28 UShydrogenstudy.org, 2019, op.cit. 29 Connelly, Eliabeth, M. Penev, A. Milbrandt, B. Roberts, N. Gilroy, and M. Melaina. 2020. “Resource Assessment for Hydrogen Production.” National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-77198. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/77198.pdf.

Table 2. Current consumption and future economic

consumption potential of hydrogen in the United States

(MMT/year)25

26
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 11

Today, many states across the country have hydrogen 

production facilities, as shown in Figure 4. Most of these are 

steam methane reforming facilities, but a relatively small 

amount of hydrogen is also produced via water electrolysis or as 

a byproduct in chemical processing facilities such as chlor-alkali

production and ethylene cracking.

The widespread availability of shale gas throughout the United 

States (as shown in Figure 5), along with additional natural gas 

reserves, offer more opportunities to produce hydrogen from 

natural gas in many regions. Coal is also widely available 

throughout the United States, as shown in Figure 6. Both natural 

gas and coal can be used with carbon capture to produce 

hydrogen today with no carbon dioxide emissions.

Figure 5: Shale gas plays within the United States31 Figure 6: Domestic coal productive capacity32

Byproduct hydrogen from cracking natural gas liquids 

also offers opportunities for readily available, low-cost 

hydrogen, with locations shown in Figure 7. The 

production capacity of this by-product hydrogen is 

currently about 2 MMT/year, with roughly an 

additional 1.5 MMT/year expected from planned steam 

cracking plants in the next several years. If harnessed, 

this resource alone could provide 35% of today’s 

hydrogen consumption and offers opportunities to 

harness regional availability and co-locate relevant 

end-use applications.

30 Map created by NREL (2020). Data source: IHS Markit, 2018 Chemical Economics Handbook: Hydrogen, London: IHS Markit 2020. 31 U.S. Energy Information Administration based on data from various sources, June 2016, https://www.eia.gov/maps/maps.htm. Shale plays are shale formations containing 

significant accumulations of natural gas and which share similar geologic and geographic properties. 32 U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2018. “Coal Data Browser – Productive Capacity 2018”. Accessed online: 

https://www.eia.gov/coal/data/browser/#/topic/30?agg=0,1&mntp=g&geo=g0000000000003vu&linechart=COAL.PRODUCTIVE_CAP.TOTUS.A&columnchart=COAL.PRODUCTIVE_CAP.TOT-US.A&map=COAL.PRODUCTIVE_CAP.TOTUS.A&freq=A&start=2001&end=2018&ctype=map<ype=pin&rtype=b&maptype=0&rse=0&pin=

33 Lee, Dong-Yeon and A. Elgowainy. 2018. “By-product hydrogen from steam cracking of natural gas liquids (NGLs): Potential for large-scale hydrogen fuel production, lifecycle air emissions reduction, and economic benefit.”

Figure 4. Gaseous hydrogen production 

units in the United States.30

Figure 7. Hydrogen production capacity from current and 

planned steam crackers in the United States33
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 12

In addition to well established processes like 

steam methane reforming, water-splitting 

processes—including electrolysis and other 

emerging approaches—can produce hydrogen 

using renewable and nuclear power, and other 

chemical processes can be used to produce 

hydrogen directly from biomass and wastestream resources. For example, large-scale 

centralized hydrogen production could be colocated with current nuclear facilities, which 

are shown in Figure 8. Hydrogen production 

from wind power and solar photovoltaics, as 

shown in Figures 9 and 10, offers a wide 

geographical range of options for both central and distributed production, with significant potential in almost 

every region of the country. And while most of the resource potential for concentrated solar power is in the 

southwestern region of the country (see Figure 11), the resource potential for solid biomass is predominantly in the 

central and eastern regions (see Figure 12).

Figure 9. Hydrogen production potential 

from onshore wind resources, by county land area35

Figure 10. Hydrogen production potential 

from utility-scale PV, by county land area36

Figure 11. Hydrogen production potential from 

concentrated solar power, by county land area37

Figure 12. Hydrogen production potential from solid 

biomass resources, by county land area38

34 Map created by NREL (July 2020). Data sources: Nuclear power plant operating capacity from U.S. NRC Information Digest (NUREG-1350, Vol 34). Plant status based on EIA 

Annual Energy Outlook 2018 https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/AEO2018.pdf and media reports. 35 Connelly, et al, 2020, op. cit. 36 Connelly, et al, 2020, op. cit. 37 Connelly, et al, 2020, op. cit. 38 Connelly, et al, 2020, op. cit.

Figure 8. The locations of nuclear power 

plants in the United States34
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 13

In addition to hydrogen production resources, the United 

States has over 1,600 miles of hydrogen pipelines and 

three caverns that can store thousands of tonnes of 

hydrogen. There are also eight liquefaction plants 

nationwide, with a cumulative capacity of more than 

200 metric tonnes/day.

40 Three additional plants have 

been announced by industry in the last two years. 

There is also growing interest in using hydrogen for the 

production of synthetic fuels, through reaction with 

carbon dioxide. Accordingly, the idea of co-locating 

hydrogen production facilities with CCUS facilities is 

being considered, to help reduce costs and foster 

regional market opportunities. A snapshot of current 

carbon storage locations is shown in Figure 13.

In summary, as shown through the maps in this section, there are extensive opportunities to produce hydrogen 

from diverse domestic resources, and the Program has identified opportunities for using that hydrogen across 

multiple applications and sectors. Potential consumption by location is shown below in Figure 14, as analyzed 

with input from industry stakeholders. Subsequent chapters of this document will outline the Program’s strategy 

and R&D thrusts for each key focus area.

Figure 14. Serviceable consumption potential for hydrogen in the industrial

and transportation sectors, natural gas, and storage41

39 Szulczewski, Michael L., C. MacMinn, H. J. Herzog, and R. Juanes. "Lifetime of carbon capture and storage as a climate-change mitigation technology." Proceedings of the 

National Academy of Sciences April 3, 2012 109 (14) 5185-5189. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas. 1115347109 40 IHS Markit. 2020. “Chemical Economics Handbook: Hydrogen.” The total of eight plants includes one additional liquefaction plant in Charleston, Tennessee, which came on 

line in 2019 and is producing ~5,400 kg/day.

41 Ruth, et al, 2020, op. cit. (Based on analysis conducted by national labs with industry input over the last two years. Includes ammonia, metals, biofuels, natural gas, synthetic 

hydrocarbons, refineries, grid storage, and light- medium, and heavy-duty FCEVs).

Figure 13. CCS Facilities in the United States39
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 14

Program Strategy

DOE is funding RD&D efforts that will provide the basis 

for the near-, mid-, and long-term production, delivery, 

storage, and use of hydrogen derived from diverse 

domestic energy sources. In order to capture the full 

range of benefits that hydrogen offers, the Program 

aims to advance hydrogen and related technologies for 

a wide variety of applications, with varying timeframes 

for commercial adoption. 

The Program has defined targets for hydrogen and 

related technologies based on the technical advances 

that are needed to be competitive in the marketplace 

with incumbent and other emerging technologies. 

Examples of the Program’s overarching technical 

targets are shown in Figure 15. More-detailed, 

technology- and application-specific targets and 

milestones are included in each office’s multi-year 

planning documents. These targets have been 

identified through discussions with technology 

developers, the research community, and other 

relevant stakeholders. 

The Program is addressing key challenges to achieving the H2@Scale vision by conducting activities to: 

• Reduce costs and improve the performance and durability of hydrogen production, delivery, storage, and 

conversion systems 

• Address technological, regulatory, and market barriers that both limit the integration of hydrogen with 

conventional energy systems and reduce opportunities for exporting hydrogen

• Explore opportunities for achieving large-scale adoption and use by aggregating disparate sources of 

hydrogen supply and demand

• Develop and validate integrated energy systems utilizing hydrogen

• Demonstrate the value proposition for new and innovative uses of hydrogen 

The following chapter in the Plan provides additional details on the current status and needs in the key areas of 

RD&D that the Program is pursuing, namely Hydrogen Production, Delivery, Storage, Conversion, and Applications.

Figure 15. Examples of key DOE Hydrogen Program targets
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 15

3 Technology Focus Areas & RD&D Thrusts

Hydrogen Production

The United States has diverse and 

abundant natural resources to enable 

secure, clean, sustainable, large-scale, 

and affordable carbon-neutral 

hydrogen production. Global demand 

for hydrogen across sectors is 

increasing, with a current worldwide 

consumption at approximately 70 

million metric tonnes (MMT) per year.42 Of this, the United States currently produces and consumes almost 10 

MMT annually, equivalent to just over 1 quadrillion BTUs per year (1% of U.S. energy consumption).43 

To meet this growing demand, a broad portfolio of hydrogen production pathway technologies are being explored 

and developed. As shown in Figure 16, these include technologies for: tapping into fossil resources with CCUS; 

extracting hydrogen from biomass and waste-stream resources; and splitting water.44 This wide range of options 

opens regional opportunities to expand the hydrogen supply base across the country, offering carbon-neutral 

hydrogen production capacities from a few hundred to hundreds of thousands of kilograms per day.

Figure 16: Diverse hydrogen production technologies45 

(SMR= steam methane reforming; CCUS= carbon capture, utilization, and storage; ADG= anaerobic digester gas; STCH= 

solar thermochemical hydrogen; PEC= photo-electrochemical water splitting)

42 U.S. Department of Energy. October 2019. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record 19002. “Current Hydrogen Market Size: Domestic and Global.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19002-hydrogen-market-domestic-global.pdf. 43 U.S. Department of Energy, October 2019, op. cit. 44 U.S. Department of Energy. 2015. “Quadrennial Technology Review 2015. Chapter 7: Advancing Systems and Technologies to Produce Cleaner Fuels, Hydrogen Production 

and Delivery.” https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/11/f27/QTR2015-7D-Hydrogen-Production-and-Delivery.pdf. 45 Randolph, Katie. “HydroGEN: Accelerating Advanced Water Splitting Materials Discovery & Development,” 231st Electrochemical Society Meeting, New Orleans, LA. May 

28 – June 1, 2017.

Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic 

resources—renewable, nuclear, and fossil—in large, 

centralized plants or smaller facilities close to the point of use.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 16

Fossil Resources

Fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal are the source of most of the hydrogen currently produced in the world. 

Today, approximately 95% of the hydrogen in the United States is produced by catalytic steam-methane-reforming 

(SMR) in large central plants fed by the existing natural gas infrastructure. Partial oxidation of natural gas (or 

other hydrocarbons), autothermal reforming (converting natural gas, steam, and oxygen to syngas), and 

gasification of coal (or coal/biomass/waste-plastic blends)—all with CCUS—are other options leveraging domestic 

resources. Combining fossil-based processes with CCUS offers a promising near-term option for carbon-neutral 

hydrogen production, and using CCUS when co-firing fossil-based feedstocks with biomass offers the potential for 

carbon-negative hydrogen as an additional environmental benefit. Other emerging approaches include the direct 

pyrolysis of methane into hydrogen and solid carbon co-products. Advanced production systems have been 

developed that are capable of producing carbon free hydrogen for less than $2/kg with CCUS. For example,

industry has demonstrated a fully integrated hydrogen production facility at the Port Arthur CCUS project at the 

Valero Refinery. While SMR and gasification with CCUS are mature industrial technologies that can produce 

hydrogen for a cost of less than $2/kg today, ongoing RD&D in the areas of catalysis, separations, controls, 

polygeneration, capital cost reductions, process intensification, and modularization with advanced design 

methods (e.g., parametric design), including through the use of artificial intelligence, can further reduce the cost of 

fossil-based hydrogen production. Research advances in gasification and reforming technologies with CCUS, 

including reductions in capital and operating costs, target carbon-neutral hydrogen production at less than $1/kg.

Biomass and Waste-Stream Resources

Domestic biomass and waste-stream resources, with the potential for over a billion dry tons of feedstock 

annually,46 can be leveraged for sustainable hydrogen production. Applicable categories of feedstocks include 

primary biomass energy sources such as poplar, willow, and switchgrass, as well as biogas produced from 

anaerobic digestion of organic residues from sources such as landfill, agricultural waste, and municipal solid 

waste.47 Primary biomass can be gasified using well-established technologies, or even co-fed with coal or waste 

plastics in the gasification process. It can also be processed into bio-derived liquids for subsequent reforming into 

hydrogen and, when coupled with CCUS, could potentially produce carbon-negative hydrogen. Biogas, with 

additional cleanup requirements, can be reformed to produce hydrogen using a process similar to SMR. Certain 

waste-stream feedstocks can be used to produce hydrogen through biological-based processes such as 

fermentation and microbial assisted electrolysis, or through novel thermal and non-thermal plasma-based 

processes. The cleaning up of waste streams that occurs in these processes is an additional benefit. Depending on 

feedstock availability and cost, some approaches—including gasification and steam reforming of biomass and 

waste-streams—may be economically competitive in the near term. To enable broader adoption, RD&D is needed to 

address challenges for both near- and longer-term technologies, including improvements in conversion efficiency 

(e.g., through advanced catalysis and separations, as well as process intensification) and reductions in the costs of 

pre-treating and transporting feedstocks.

46 U.S. Department of Energy. 2016. “2016 Billion-Ton Report: Advancing Domestic Resources for a Thriving Bioeconomy, Volume 1: Economic Availability of Feedstocks.”

M.H. Langholtz, B.J. Stokes, and L.M. Eaton (Leads). ORNL/TM-2016/160. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. 448p. doi: 10.2172/1271651. 

https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/12/f34/2016_billion_ton_report_12.2.16_0.pdf. 47 National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering. 2004. “The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs.” (Washington, DC: 

National Academies Press), http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309091632.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 17

Water-Splitting Technologies

There are a number of processes that split water into hydrogen and oxygen using electric, thermal, or photonic 

(light) energy from diverse, sustainable domestic sources (such as solar, wind, nuclear, and others). Lowtemperature electrolyzers (including liquid-alkaline and membrane-based electroyzers) that use electricity to split 

water offer near-term commercial viability, with units available today at the multi-megawatt (MW) scale. 

These electrolyzers can be coupled to the electric grid, or integrated 

directly with distributed-generation assets to produce hydrogen for 

various end uses. The cost of hydrogen produced from lowtemperature electrolysis depends strongly on the electricity cost: it 

currently ranges from $5–$6/kg-H2 for electricity pricing in the 

$0.05–$0.07/kWh range.48 The availability of lower-cost electricity—

for example, in the $0.02–$0.03/kWh range from emerging wind and 

solar assets—coupled with ongoing advancements in electrolyzer 

technologies offers a pathway to cost-competitive hydrogen, at less than $2/kg.49 However, more work is needed 

to achieve consistent, widely available low-cost and low-carbon electricity, and RD&D is still required to reduce the 

cost and improve the efficiency and durability of electrolyzers. High-temperature electrolyzers can leverage both 

electricity and heat from generation sources such as nuclear, fossil with CCUS, or concentrated solar power plants 

to improve conversion efficiencies, further reducing cost. Reversible fuel cells, currently under development, 

combine the functionality of electroyzers and fuel cells, either using electricity to split water into hydrogen and 

oxygen, or using hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity and water. Longer-term pathways for direct watersplitting, without the need for electricity, include thermally driven chemical looping processes including solar 

thermochemical systems, as well as light-driven photoelectrochemical processes. Ongoing RD&D—at the 

materials, component, and system levels—will be needed to address efficiency, durability, and cost challenges in 

all water-splitting processes.

Common RD&D Thrusts for Hydrogen Production

• New catalysts and electrocatalysts with reduced platinum group metals

• Modular gasification and electrolysis systems for distributed and bulk power systems

• Low-cost and durable membranes and separations materials

• Novel, durable, and low-cost thermochemical and photoelectrochemical materials

• Accelerated stress tests and understanding of degradation mechanisms to improve durability

• Reduced capital costs for reforming technologies, including autothermal reforming (ATR)

• Improved balance-of-plant components and subsystems, such as power electronics, purification, and warm-gas cleanup

• Component design and materials integration for scale-up and manufacturability at high volumes

• Reversible fuel cell systems including for polygeneration of electricity and hydrogen

• System design, hybridization, and optimization, including process intensification

48 U.S. Department of Energy. September 2020. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record 20004. “Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production with Existing Technology.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20004-cost-electrolytic-hydrogen-production.pdf. 49 U.S. Department of Energy. February 2020. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record 19009. “Hydrogen Production Cost From PEM Electrolysis -2019.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdfy.

Hydrogen Production Target

Affordable hydrogen from diverse domestic 

resources:

• <$2/kg for transportation end uses

• <$1/kg for industrial and bulk 

power/polygeneration applications
18 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

Hydrogen Delivery

To support a wide range of 

applications, delivery infrastructure 

for hydrogen may incorporate 

multiple technology pathways 

capable of transporting hydrogen in 

various forms, including as a gas in 

pipelines and high-pressure tube 

trailers, as a liquid via tanker trucks, 

and using chemical hydrogen carriers. Different technologies for dispensing hydrogen may also be needed 

depending on how the hydrogen is transported, stored, and utilized. The technologies required to support these 

delivery pathways are at various stages of development, but they must ultimately be both affordable and meet or 

exceed the level of safety, convenience, reliability, and energy efficiency expected from existing infrastructure for 

other fuels.

Figure 17. The four main methods of hydrogen delivery: gaseous tube trailers, 

liquid tankers, pipelines, and chemical hydrogen carriers

As shown in Figure 17, there are four main hydrogen methods of hydrogen delivery at scale: gaseous tube trailers, 

liquid tankers, pipelines (for gaseous hydrogen), and chemical hydrogen carriers. Each of these pathways is 

described below.

Tube Trailers

Hydrogen is typically transported under high pressure in tube trailers when the quantity of hydrogen delivery is 

small (< 1 tonne/day). Tube trailers are likely to remain an essential technology to supply growing markets that 

use relatively small amounts of hydrogen or do not yet have predictable demand. Today, tube trailers are usually 

filled using liquid hydrogen—the liquid hydrogen is pressurized and then vaporized into gaseous form. As markets 

of small-scale hydrogen consumers expand, this approach will be less efficient than filling tube trailers directly at 

a gaseous hydrogen production facility. Such co-located gaseous tube trailer terminals are now under 

development. RD&D efforts will be needed to enhance the lifetime of pressure vessels onboard tube trailers, reduce 

the cost of high-pressure composite tube trailers, and increase the capacity of compressors used at tube trailer 

terminals. 

Hydrogen can be transported in gaseous form,

in liquid form, or in chemical carriers. Various technology options are needed for 

distributing and dispensing hydrogen for different end uses.
19 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

Pipelines

Hydrogen pipelines are often used in regions where 

there is significant demand (thousands of tonnes/day) 

and that demand is expected to remain stable for a long 

duration (15–30 years). Hydrogen pipelines are capital 

intensive, but when the quantity of hydrogen demand is 

high, they have a lower levelized cost over time. Today, 

more than 2,575 kilometers (1,600 miles) of dedicated 

hydrogen transmission pipelines serve the United 

States, and these are mostly concentrated on the Gulf 

Coast due to the substantial hydrogen demand at 

petroleum refineries. While pipelines are the most 

energy-efficient approach to transporting hydrogen, 

their deployment is challenged by their high capital 

costs. RD&D efforts needed to enable lower-cost pipelines include: development of high-throughput compressors to 

enable use of larger pipelines; assessment of novel low-cost materials for use in pipelines (e.g., to assess 

compatibility of higher-strength steels with hydrogen); and first-of-a-kind demonstrations of novel pipeline 

technologies (e.g., fiber reinforced polymer piping). Blending of hydrogen into existing pipelines co-mingled with 

natural gas, “city gas,” or other products, is also possible as the economy builds demand. Some applications can 

use blends of hydrogen, while other applications may require separation of hydrogen and natural gas at the end 

use, as described further in the Applications section of this chapter. 

Liquid Hydrogen

Liquid tankers are used to transport hydrogen for applications where there is significant and stable hydrogen 

demand, but in areas where overall regional hydrogen demand is not large enough to warrant pipelines. Liquid 

tanks onboard marine vessels are also being explored for international shipping of low-carbon hydrogen for

export markets. Liquid tankers commonly store more than five times as much hydrogen per load than gaseous 

tube trailers. In some cases, liquid hydrogen is also used because it is extremely pure and offers lower risk of 

contamination when compared with hydrogen supplied by gaseous pathways. Existing liquefaction plants in 

North America vary in production size from six to 30 tonnes/day.50 The current process and technologies for 

hydrogen liquefaction are relatively mature. The process involves cooling gaseous hydrogen using liquid nitrogen 

and then compressing and expanding the pre-cooled gas until it condenses into a liquid at -253 °C (-425 °F). This 

process is both capital- and energy-intensive. The energy consumed in conventional liquefaction is equal to about 

35% of the energy content of the liquefied hydrogen. To address this challenge, RD&D is needed to enable novel 

non-mechanical approaches to liquefaction, such as the use of magnetocaloric materials and processes that have 

potential to enable hydrogen liquefaction at twice the efficiency of conventional approaches. 

Chemical Hydrogen Carriers

Another emerging method to transport large amounts of hydrogen is the use of chemical hydrogen carriers, which 

offer the potential to carry more hydrogen than tube trailers, and at lower cost. Chemical hydrogen carriers are 

liquid- or solid-phase materials that can chemically bond with hydrogen to “carry” it at low-pressure and nearambient temperatures, but can then release the hydrogen on demand. They may be ideally suited for applications 

where hydrogen demand is substantial, but not stable enough to warrant pipeline construction. They also offer the 

potential for significantly higher energy density compared with gaseous or even liquid hydrogen transport, 

thereby reducing hydrogen delivery cost. Chemical hydrogen carriers can be broadly classified as one-way or two50 IHS Markit, 2020, op. cit.
20 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

way carriers. One-way carriers are materials that do not release a by-product for re-use or disposal after the 

hydrogen is released (such as ammonia). Two-way carriers are those whose by-products are typically returned for 

processing for reuse or disposal after the hydrogen is released (such as methylcyclohexane/toluene). The use of 

chemical hydrogen carriers is in the early stages of commercialization and RD&D efforts are needed to increase 

the hydrogen-carrying capacity of these materials and improve the charge-and-discharge rates, reversibility, and 

overall round-trip efficiency. Some carriers, like ammonia, can also be used for direct power generation without 

intermediate hydrogen release such as in turbines, internal combustion engines, and direct fuel cells, but more 

R&D is needed to achieve commercial viability.

Hydrogen Dispensing and Fueling

Once hydrogen is transported to the site of use, it may need to be 

conditioned by pressurizing, cooling, and/or purification, and it is 

commonly stored on-site in bulk. These processes can involve a 

number of different systems—for example, hydrogen fueling stations 

for vehicles (light-, medium-, and heavy-duty) typically have highpressure compressors, storage vessels, and dispensers. These systems 

are designed to enable hydrogen fueling per standard protocols. For 

light-duty refueling, these protocols are well-established—e.g., the 

fueling pressure is typically 700 bar (approximately 10,000 psi or 70 MPa)—and the technologies are commercially 

deployed in more than 45 retail hydrogen fueling stations for light-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in the 

United States. For medium- and heavy-duty FCEVs, fueling standards are still under development and those will 

inform the equipment requirements for future high-throughput stations. 

RD&D efforts are needed to reduce the cost, improve the reliability, and increase the throughput of hydrogen 

dispensing systems and other related systems at the fueling station or point of use. These activities will aim to 

enhance the reliability of materials used in dispensing hoses and seals (e.g., in compressors); improve the life of 

dispensing hoses through novel designs; develop novel designs for compressors, cryogenic transfer pumps, and 

dispensers to ensure they have sufficient throughput for the medium/heavy-duty market; and conduct materials 

research to increase the life and capacity of high-pressure storage vessels. Additional application-specific 

challenges are discussed in the Applications section of this chapter.

Common RD&D Thrusts for Hydrogen Delivery

• Materials compatibility with hydrogen at high pressures and/or low temperatures

• Innovations in hydrogen liquefaction

• Carrier materials and catalysts for hydrogen storage, transport, and release

• Innovative components for low-cost distribution and dispensing (e.g., compressors, storage vessels, dispensers, nozzles)

Example: Hydrogen Delivery Targets

Large-scale hydrogen delivery, distribution, 

and dispensing at:

• <$5/kg for transportation end uses in 

early markets

• <$2/kg for ultimate market expansion for 

high value products
21 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen has nearly three times the 

energy content of gasoline per unit of 

mass,51 but the volumetric energy 

density of gaseous hydrogen is low, 

making it difficult to store in 

compact containers. To overcome 

this challenge, hydrogen is usually 

stored using physical processes, as a 

gas or cryogenic liquid; it can also be stored using material-based processes that incorporate hydrogen in 

chemical compounds. The current portfolio of hydrogen storage options is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Current portfolio of hydrogen storage options 

Includes physical-based gaseous and liquid storage in tanks, and reversible and non-reversible materials-based 

storage.52 Approaches for very large-scale bulk storage (such as geological storage) are also under investigation.

Physical-based Storage

For a range of transportation and other stationary and power generation applications, gaseous hydrogen is usually 

stored in pressurized tanks, which are typically constructed of all-metal or composite-overwrapped pressure 

vessels. Examples include carbon fiber composite–overwrapped tanks with metal or polymer liners for onboard 

storage of hydrogen at 350 bar and 700 bar53 in commercial material-handling equipment and fuel cell electric 

vehicles, respectively. Larger all-metal or composite-overwrapped pressure tanks are used for bulk gaseous

hydrogen storage at hydrogen refueling stations, and in various chemical and stationary power applications. 

Large-scale geologic storage within salt caverns, saline aquifers, depleted natural gas or oil reservoirs, and 

engineered hard rock reservoirs offers opportunities for long-duration energy storage applications.

51 The energy content of hydrogen is 33 kWh/kg, while gasoline’s is 12 kWh/kg, based on lower heating value. 52 Reversible materials are able to release or uptake hydrogen directly through changes in temperature or pressure, whereas non-reversible materials require additional chemical or 

physical processing to effect reuptake of hydrogen (also referred to as ‘regenerable’ materials).

53 350 bar and 700 bar correspond to 5,076 pounds per square inch (psi) and 10,153 psi, respectively.

Hydrogen may need to be stored in bulk prior to being delivered, during the delivery 

process, or at the point of use. A variety of technology solutions for hydrogen storage will 

be needed to meet different application-specific requirements.
22 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

One example is the industrial-scale hydrogenstorage salt cavern located in Beaumont, Texas, 

which currently serves as a buffer in the Gulf 

Coast hydrogen pipeline system.

Additional RD&D efforts are needed to reduce the 

cost and ensure the safety of gaseous hydrogen 

storage. For example, efforts are currently 

underway to develop low-cost carbon fiber and 

thereby address the major cost contributor in 

high-pressure composite-overwrapped tanks. 

For larger tanks for bulk storage of hundreds of 

tons of hydrogen, novel designs, materials, and controls to accommodate fuel supply requirements are being 

investigated. Broader safety-related research efforts are also addressing materials-compatibility issues and

fatigue, as well as mitigation of safety issues related to setback distances and underground storage.

While compressed hydrogen is typically stored at ambient temperatures, reducing the temperature to cold or 

cryogenic temperatures can significantly increase hydrogen’s density. For instance, at 15°C and 700 bar, hydrogen 

has a density of 40 g/L; at -150°C and 700 bar, its density is 67 g/L; and at -253°C and 1 bar (at which point it is a 

liquid right at boiling point), it has a density of 71 g/L.54 In liquid form, hydrogen is stored at extremely low 

cryogenic temperature in highly insulated double-walled tanks—these tanks are commercially available and used 

today for industrial-scale storage and transport.55 The energy densities in both liquid and cryo-compressed

hydrogen storage systems offer important advantages for a number of applications that require extended 

operating ranges and high-throughput fueling, including medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, marine applications, 

and trains. However, the need for insulation as well as the boil-off and venting that occur from extended 

dormancy present added cost and challenges to system performance. Material, component, and system-level 

RD&D is needed to address these challenges.

Material-based Storage

As an alternative to gaseous or liquid storage, hydrogen can also 

be densely stored at low pressures in certain material compounds. 

Different categories of material-based storage include metal 

hydrides, adsorbents, and chemical hydrogen storage. Metal 

hydrides store hydrogen atoms by chemically bonding them to 

atoms in the compound structure. Examples include complex 

hydrides such as magnesium borohydride. Adsorbents, such as 

micro-porous super activated carbons or metal-organic 

frameworks (MOFs), utilize weak bonding between molecular 

hydrogen and adsorbent surfaces, and typically require lower storage temperatures. Hydrogen storage via metal 

hydrides and adsorbents is considered reversible, since hydrogen uptake and release can be controlled by 

changing the temperature and/or the pressure. Many chemical hydrogen carriers, including materials such as 

methylcyclohexane, have the potential to store large quantities of hydrogen by mass and volume. With these 

materials, however, thermal or catalytic chemical reactions are needed both to bind and release the hydrogen, and 

these processes can result in significant round-trip energy losses. Liquid chemical hydrogen carriers compatible 

with large-scale storage and transport include common compounds such as ammonia and methanol. Currently no 

material-based storage approaches are commercially mature, and foundational material and system-level RD&D 

54 For reference the energy density of liquid hydrogen (71 g/l) is equivalent to 2. 4 kWh/l. 55 The scale of liquid hydrogen storage vessels for different industrial end uses ranges from hundreds of gallons up to more than a million gallons. 56 Target based on small-scale onboard storage tanks (5.6 kg-H2); the cost of carbon fiber becomes less crucial for larger systems as they require less carbon fiber per kg H2.

Example: Hydrogen Storage Targets

• Onboard hydrogen storage systems for 

transportation: $8/kWh stored at 2.2 kWh/kg 

and 1.7 kWh/L

• Rechargeable portable power systems: 

$0.5/kWh stored at 1.0 kWh/kg and 1.3 kWh/L

• High-volume cost of high-strength carbon 

fiber for tanks: $13/kg56
23 Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan

are needed for the discovery and optimization of viable hydrogen storage materials capable of achieving the cost, 

energy density, and hydrogen uptake and release required for commercialization.

The most suitable type of storage will depend on a number of factors such as the end-use application, the amount 

of hydrogen needed, geographical and geological constraints, and the required flow rates. For instance, a 500-MW 

turbine operating on hydrogen will require approximately 500–600 tons of hydrogen per day, over 1,000 tons for 

two days of storage, or an equivalent amount of energy stored as a chemical. A 30-MW data center would require 

about 45 tons per day (or about 90 tons onsite for two days of back-up power). Today’s long-haul fuel cell truck 

manufacturers are targeting stations with a few tons per day of hydrogen. On-board storage can range from a few 

grams for small-scale drones, a hundred kilograms for fuel cell trucks, and over a ton for certain marine and rail 

applications. Examples of key targets and RD&D thrusts to address key hydrogen storage challenges are shown 

here.

Common RD&D Thrusts for Hydrogen Storage

• Reduced costs, at the material-based, component-, and system-level

• Low-cost, high-strength carbon-fiber for high-pressure tanks

• Materials compatible with hydrogen for durability and safety

• Cryogenic RD&D for liquid hydrogen and cold/cryo-compressed storage

• Discovery and optimization of hydrogen storage materials to meet weight, volume, kinetics, and other performance 

requirements

• Optimization for round-trip efficiency using chemical hydrogen carriers

• Storage of hydrogen in the form of a chemical energy carrier that can be used in hydrogen turbines

• Identification, assessment, and demonstration of geologic storage of hydrogen

• Systems analysis for the export of hydrogen and hydrogen carriers

• Analysis to refine targets for a broad range of storage options and end uses

• Sensors and other technologies needed to ensure storage of hydrogen is safe, efficient, and secure
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 24

Conversion

As discussed in previous sections, 

hydrogen is an energy carrier that is 

produced using energy and 

feedstocks such as water, biomass, 

natural gas, coal, oil, and wastes such 

as wastewater and plastics. To be 

useful, the energy carried by 

hydrogen must be converted into a different form, such as electricity or heat. This conversion can be 

accomplished through combustion using turbines or reciprocating engines, or through an electrochemical process 

using a fuel cell. There are a number of opportunities to design hybrid energy systems, for example using high- or 

low-temperature stationary fuel cells integrated with gas turbines in large-scale combined-cycle hybrid systems, 

which use both conventional and fuel cell energy conversion technologies. Other hybrid systems are also being 

considered, as discussed in the Applications section. 

Combustion

Hydrogen can be combusted in the same manner as natural gas, synthetic gas, diesel, gasoline, and other common 

fuels. The benefit of using hydrogen is that no carbon dioxide is produced and water is the only major byproduct. 

The use of hydrogen in engines was successfully demonstrated decades ago by both the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, which has used hydrogen in the space shuttle’s main engines, and by the Department of 

Defense, which has used hydrogen in unmanned rocket engines.

The advantages of power generation using 

hydrogen combustion include: fuel flexibility,

through the ability to burn hydrogen and 

blends of fossil fuels; fuel security through 

integration with hydrogen storage; the ability 

to meet large demands for electricity; and the 

flexibility to follow loads from variable 

generation. 

Recently, major players in the worldwide

power-generation industry have been

focusing more attention on hydrogen turbines, 

particularly for large-scale generation.

Industry has developed materials and 

systems to increase the concentration of 

hydrogen that can be combusted, and these 

advances have allowed hydrogen to be fired at 

concentrations over 90% in simple-cycle 

turbines or aero-derivative machines, and at 

concentrations of up to 50% in large-frame combined-cycle turbines.57 Large-frame turbines capable of firing 

hydrogen/natural gas blends of up to 30% hydrogen and aeroderivative turbines capable of firing over 90% 

hydrogen are commercially available today. 

57 J. Goldmeer. 2019. “Power to Gas: Hydrogen for Power Generation. Fuel Flexible Gas Turbines as Enablers for a Low or Reduced Carbon Energy Ecosystem.” 

https://www.ge.com/content/dam/gepower/global/en_US/documents/fuel-flexibility/GEA33861%20Power%20to%20Gas%20-

%20Hydrogen%20for%20Power%20Generation.pdf.

After hydrogen is produced, delivered, and stored, it is then

converted into useful energy using combustion or fuel cells.

Common RD&D Thrusts for Hydrogen Combustion

• Enable wider range of acceptable hydrogen concentrations (up to 

100%) in simple and combined cycles

• Improve understanding of combustion behavior and optimization of 

component designs for low NOx combustion

• Apply and develop advanced computational fluid dynamics with 

reacting flows

• Develop advanced manufacturing techniques for combustors

• Develop new materials, coatings, and cooling schemes

• Optimize conversion efficiency

• Improve durability and lifetime and lower costs, including for 

operations and maintenance

• Develop system-level optimization and control schemes

• Assess and mitigate moisture content effects on heat transfer and 

ceramic recession

• Develop and test hydrogen combustion retrofit packages

• Enable combustion of carbon neutral fuels (i.e., NH3, ethanol vapor)
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 25

Though significant progress has been made, 

additional RD&D is needed to address issues such as 

auto-ignition, flashback, thermo-acoustics, mixing 

requirements, aerothermal heat transfer, materials 

issues, turndown/combustion dynamics, NOx

emissions, and other combustion-related 

phenomena. In addition, when hydrogen 

concentration exceeds 75%, there is a significant 

change in combustion behavior, requiring new 

combustor designs, different sensor locations, and 

new control schemes. These enhancements will 

allow for limiting NOx emissions to single digit (ppm) 

levels, improved flame detection, and monitoring for 

flashback and thermo-acoustic instabilities. NOx

emissions control while firing hydrogen requires micromixer combustor technology, which is a refinement of 

today’s pre-mixed dilution technologies for low NOx natural gas firing. Higher flame temperatures and increased 

water content could also reduce the lifetime of metal and ceramic parts exposed to hot gases, thereby increasing 

the need for new materials and thermal barrier coatings as well as improved cooling schemes.

Fuel Cells

A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of fuels such as natural or synthetic gas and hydrogen to produce electricity 

and thermal energy. If fuel cells use hydrogen fuel directly, water is the only byproduct emitted—there is no 

carbon dioxide and no pollutants such as NOx. Fuel cells can be more efficient than internal combustion engines, 

because the electrochemical reactions in a fuel cell generate electricity directly—while combustion has to convert 

the energy in the fuel first into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy. Fuel cell efficiencies of over 

60% have been demonstrated,58 and over 80% efficiency59 is possible when fuel cells are used in combined heat and 

power applications.

Fuel cells are similar to batteries in that they are composed of 

positive and negative electrodes separated by an electrolyte or 

membrane, and both are highly efficient. Fuel cells, however, do 

not need to be recharged the way batteries do, so they may run 

for extended periods as long as fuel and air are provided. In fuel 

cells, power and energy are decoupled and can be tuned independently—i.e., for a fixed fuel cell stack, more 

hydrogen allows higher energy capacity without changing the fuel cell size or power. Like batteries, fuel cells 

have advantages over combustion engines: they have no moving parts, are quiet, and require no oil changes and 

minimal maintenance. Fuel cells are also easily scalable, as individual cells can be stacked together to provide a 

wide range of power. They can range in size from less than a watt for portable power, to many megawatts for 

large-scale stationary power.

58 H. Lohse-Busch, M. Duoba, K. Stutenberg, S. Iliev, M. Kern, B. Richards, M. Christenson and A. Loiselle-Lapointe. 2018. “Technology Assessment of a Fuel Cell Vehicle: 

2017 Toyota Mirai.” Argonne National Laboratory. ANL/ESD-18/12 https://publications.anl.gov/anlpubs/2018/06/144774.pdf. 59 U.S. Department of Energy. September 2011. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record 11014. “Medium-scale CHP Fuel Cell Systems Targets.” 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/11014_medium_scale_chp_target.pdf; and Doosan. 2018. “PureCell Model 400.” 

http://www.doosanfuelcellamerica.com/download/pdf/catalog/pafc-400kw_us_en.pdf.

Example: PEMFC Target for Long-Haul Trucks

• $80/kW fuel fell system cost

• 25,000-hour durability
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 26

Common RD&D Thrusts for PEMFCs

• Reduce platinum group metal catalyst loading, through materials R&D

• High-temperature tolerant, low-cost, and durable membranes

• Improved component-design and materials integration to optimize manufacturable and scalable electrode structures for 

membrane electrode assemblies

• Internal reforming of carbon neutral fuels for directly fed fuel cells

• Accelerated stress tests, improved understanding of degradation mechanisms, and mitigation approaches

• Improved balance-of-plant (BOP) components, including compressors and power electronics

• Standardized, modular stacks and systems for multiple heavy-duty applications

• Improved hybridization and optimized system design

There are a number of types of fuel cells, all of which have particular advantages that make them well-suited for 

various applications. The key features that distinguish the different types of fuel cells include type of electrolyte,

operating temperature, and the level of hydrogen purity required.

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) typically operate at about 80°C and can respond quickly to 

changing loads, making them suitable for transportation applications as well as stationary, backup, or portable 

power applications that require fast start-up times or must react to variable loads. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) 

operate at much higher temperatures (typically 800°C to 

1,000°C) and are more suitable for use in modular and 

utility-scale stationary power systems, since the high 

temperatures make rapid start-up challenging. There 

are also intermediate temperature fuel cells such as 

molten carbonate (600-700°C) and phosphoric acid fuel cells including polymer-phosphoric acid-based systems

(150-200°C), as well as other low temperature fuel cells like alkaline fuel cells and emerging alkaline exchange 

membrane fuel cells (≤80°C). Application-specific targets are developed by each DOE office to guide activities and 

ensure that PEMFC and SOFC technologies are on the pathway to competitiveness in terms of cost, performance, 

durability, and reliability. Two examples of application-specific targets and common RD&D thrusts for DOE’s 

efforts in PEMFCs and SOFCs are provided in this section; additional targets for various fuel cell applications can 

be found in the RD&D plans of the individual program offices.

As illustrated in Figure 19, fuel cells can use a wide range of fuels and feedstocks, and can provide power for a 

number of applications across multiple sectors. In addition to these applications, DOE is exploring the use of fuel 

cells for tri-generation, which can use fuels such as coal syngas, biogas, or natural gas to co-produce power, heat, 

and hydrogen. Efforts are also focused on low- and high-temperature reversible fuel cells that can operate in two 

modes, to produce either hydrogen or electricity (as noted in the Hydrogen Production section of this chapter, in 

electrolysis mode, a reversible fuel cell uses electricity and water to produce hydrogen; and in fuel-cell mode, they 

use hydrogen to produce electricity and water). Reversible fuel cell systems would offer the ability to provide 

Example: SOFC Target for Stationary Power Generation

• $900/kW fuel cell system cost

• 40,000 hour durability

Common RD&D Thrusts for SOFCs

• Materials R&D to reduce cost and address issues related to high-temperature operation

• Management of heat and gas flow across the stack

• Addressing stack and BOP systems integration, controls, and optimization for load following and modular applications

• Improved BOP components, including compressors and power electronics

• Standardized, modular stacks

• Improved understanding of impacts of impurities on materials and performance

• System design, hybridization and optimization, including for reversible fuel cells
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 27

easily dispatchable power in a single unit, using only water as a feedstock. For example, a coal gasification facility 

can generate hydrogen for use in a SOFC to produce electricity, while during periods of low electricity demand the 

SOFC can operate reversibly to produce hydrogen for storage and/or chemical production. Alternatively, reversible 

fuel cells can be integrated with intermittent renewables to generate hydrogen from electricity that would 

otherwise be curtailed during periods of low demand. That hydrogen can subsequently be utilized to generate 

electricity during times of high power demand when the renewable energy source (e.g., wind, solar) is not 

available.

Figure 19. Versatility of fuel cells

For all these applications, there is a common need to reduce cost and improve durability, while maintaining 

efficiency. Depending on the type of fuel cell, a key contributor to cost is the catalyst, typically based on platinum 

group metals, which rely on foreign imports. Other key components needing RD&D improvements to meet cost 

and durability targets are: membranes or electrolytes; bipolar plates, which serve multiple functions including 

water removal and the collection of the electric current produced; and other components such as gas diffusion 

layers. Reliable and low cost balance-of-plant components such as compressors, blowers, and power electronics 

are also required.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 28

Applications

Hydrogen has the potential for use in 

diverse applications across multiple 

sectors, where it can provide 

substantial environmental and 

economic benefits, as well as 

improved energy security and 

resiliency. Large amounts of 

hydrogen can be used in the transportation, power generation, and industrial and manufacturing sectors, which 

can enable economies of scale and support a robust domestic supply chain. Integrated energy systems, which can 

span sectors, offer additional opportunities by using hydrogen as an energy carrier to improve the economics of 

existing and emerging electric power generation systems. 

Transportation

Transportation accounts for more than a third of U.S carbon 

dioxide emissions60 and can be a key contributor to localized air 

pollution. Hydrogen and fuel cells are an important part of a 

portfolio of options to reduce transportation-related emissions, 

because they can be used in specific applications that are hard 

to decarbonize such as long-haul heavy-duty trucks. Additional 

examples include other medium- and heavy-duty vehicles that 

require longer driving ranges, involve heavy loads, or demand 

faster refueling times than may be available with battery 

electric vehicles alone. With increased urgency to reduce 

emissions and energy-related expenses, significant 

opportunities exist, as the medium- and heavy-duty sector accounts for 25% of annual vehicle fuel use even 

though it is only 4% of the vehicle fleet.61

In addition to its use in fuel cells, hydrogen can also be combined with carbon dioxide to produce synthetic fuels, 

offering even more ways to meet the needs of various transportation applications. These synthetic fuels could 

allow certain applications or regions to continue using internal combustion engines and the vast existing liquidfuel infrastructure for hard-to-decarbonize end uses such as long distance commercial aircraft. Similar to these 

pathways that utilize hydrogen and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen can be used to produce ammonia for 

use in multiple applications.

The forklift and material-handling industry is an example of an early market successes for hydrogen fuel cells in 

transportation, where DOE’s early investment over a decade ago has now led to over 35,000 systems 

commercialized by the private sector (as of 2020) without any further DOE funding. Hydrogen is also already being 

used in more than 8,800 passenger and commercial vehicles, with a growing infrastructure of approximately 45 

hydrogen fueling stations in the United States.62,63 With over 25,000 fuel cell vehicles and more than 470 fueling 

stations worldwide,64 the United States is already a major player in this emerging market.

60 U.S. Energy Information Administration. “Today in Energy.” March 19, 2019. Accessed online: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=38773.

61 Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2017. “Transportation Energy Data Book 36.” Tables 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, and 5.2. https://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/Files/Pub104063.pdf. 62 California Fuel Cell Partnership, 2020, Hydrogen Stations List. Development Status of Hydrogen Stations in California. Accessed online: 

https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/h2_station_list.pdf. 63 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. 2020. Alternative Fuels Data Center, “Hydrogen Fueling Station Locations.” Accessed online: 

https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/hydrogen_locations.html#/find/nearest?fuel=HY. 64 International Energy Agency. 2020. “Hydrogen”. Accessed online: https://www.iea.org/reports/hydrogen.

Hydrogen can be used in many applications across multiple sectors, including 

transportation, power generation, and industrial and manufacturing processes.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 29

Besides on-road vehicles, opportunities for hydrogen and hydrogen carriers are also emerging across the 

transportation sector, including in marine applications. New emissions regulations by the International Maritime 

Organization (IMO) limit the sulfur content in fuel oil used on ships (or “bunker fuel”) from 3.5% to 0.5%, starting in 

2020.65 These limits are further reduced to 0.1% for ships operating in Emissions Control Areas, including certain 

coastal regions of the United States and the European Union.

66 Given such increasingly stringent requirements, 

hydrogen and hydrogen carriers may offer an attractive alternative to bunker fuel. Furthermore, the use of 

hydrogen in various marine vessels and at ports for drayage trucks, shore power (electricity for ships while 

docked), and cargo equipment all offer the potential to reduce both carbon dioxide and other emissions and to 

develop infrastructure in targeted regions.67 Other emerging opportunities for hydrogen include: rail, particularly 

where the build-out of catenary lines for electrified trains is either impossible or too costly; certain aviation 

applications where the weight, range, and fueling times of hydrogen systems offer advantages over alternate 

options like batteries; and off-road transport, such as mining or other applications where hydrogen can allow 

vehicles to operate with zero emissions in enclosed spaces. 

Transportation applications face all of the same general challenges outlined in previous sections—related to fuel 

cell cost and durability, and hydrogen storage, delivery, and dispensing. The type of infrastructure, and associated 

challenges, will be dictated by how hydrogen is stored on the vehicle (or aircraft, or vessel)—either as a highpressure gas, a liquid, or in a liquid or solid carrier. Additional challenges include the establishment of necessary 

supply chains for storage and dispensing components and systems, as well as developing widely accepted 

refueling protocols covering the full range of transportation options.

Chemical and Industrial Processes

Several industrial and manufacturing 

processes typically require large volumes of 

hydrogen, including oil refining and ammonia 

production.68 These processes, along with 

other emerging industrial and chemical uses, 

are driving economies of scale in the upstream 

hydrogen supply and associated infrastructure. 

Steelmaking, in particular, is receiving 

increasing attention as a source of demand for hydrogen. Steel is the most commonly used metal product 

worldwide, and the conventional way to produce it involves using coal in blast furnaces to reduce iron ore to iron. 

Between 7% and 9% of global greenhouse gas emissions are due to steel manufacturing,

69 and by using hydrogen 

as the primary reducing agent, those emissions can be dramatically reduced. A number of demonstrations of the 

use of hydrogen in steelmaking are currently underway, including operational facilities in Austria and Sweden.

Additional emerging industrial and chemical uses of hydrogen include: cement production, which is an energyintensive process responsible for about 8% of global carbon dioxide emissions,

70 where the use of hydrogen in 

place of coal could reduce both carbon dioxide and NOx emissions; synfuel (or “e-fuel”) production, which involves 

reacting carbon dioxide with clean hydrogen, offering an option for versatile net-zero-carbon fuels such as 

65 The Maritime Executive. 2018. “IMO Answers Questions on the 2020 SOx Regulation. Accessed online: https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/imo-answers-questionson-the-2020-sox-regulation. 66 Merk, O.. 2014. “Shipping Emissions in Ports,” p. 15. International Transport Forum. Accessed online: https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/dp201420.pdf. 67 International Energy Agency. “The Future of Hydrogen. Seizing Today’s Opportunities,” June, 2019. Accessed online: https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen. The 

report provides as one of its main recommendations for governments and industry to “Make industrial ports the nerve centres for scaling up the use of clean hydrogen. 68 According to the International Energy Agency, 2019, op. cit., oil refining and ammonia production use ~69MMT of hydrogen annually, accounting for a significant percentage 

of the global consumption.

69 World Steel Association. 2020. “Steel;s Contribution to a Low Carbin Future and Climate Resilient Societies.”Accessed online: 

https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:7ec64bc1-c51c-439b-84b8-94496686b8c6/Position_paper_climate_2020_vfinal.pdf. 70 J. Lehne and F. Preston. 2018. “Making Concrete Change. Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete.” Chatham House Report. Accessed online: 

https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/2018-06-13-making-concrete-change-cement-lehne-preston-final.pdf.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 30

methanol or renewable natural gas; as well as other industrial processes that use hydrogen as a reducing agent, 

such as glass manufacturing, or as a hydrogenating agent, such as industrial food processes.

In all these cases, application-specific hydrogen requirements can strongly affect commercial viability. For 

instance, in steel production, while blast-furnace processes are the current industry standard, the promising 

alternatives using high concentrations of hydrogen in the reducing agent, such as DRI (direct reduction of iron), 

rely on sufficiently low-cost hydrogen for cost-competitiveness. Across different industrial end uses, the hydrogen 

cost contribution will depend on process-specific requirements for hydrogen purity, pressure, and other factors 

that affect production, delivery, and storage costs. Commercial viability will require continued cost reductions in 

all these areas.

Stationary and Power Generation Applications

Hydrogen can be used in a broad range of stationary power-generation applications—including large scale power 

generation, distributed power, combined heat and power (CHP), and backup power. As noted in the previous 

chapter, hydrogen can provide power through electrochemical conversion using fuel cells or through combustion 

of hydrogen using turbines in simple- or combined-cycle generation.

Fuel cells can efficiently convert hydrogen into power with low emissions, and the inherent modularity of fuel cell 

systems makes them ideally suited for a broad range of stationary-power applications ranging from less than a 

kilowatt up to the multi-megawatt scale. Today, fuel cells are commercially deployed worldwide, providing 

primary and backup power for industrial facilities, businesses, homes, telecommunications towers, data centers, 

and more. For example, more than 300,000 residential fuel cells are operating in Japan71 to provide reliable power 

and hot water in homes, and more than 8,000 PEM fuel cells have been deployed for backup power in the United 

States,72 primarily for telecommunications towers. In 2018, over 220 MW of stationary fuel cell systems were sold 

worldwide.73 Data centers are a notable example of an end use more recently turning to hydrogen-based options. 

While most data centers today are powered by electricity from the grid (for primary power) and diesel generators 

(for backup power), major data center operators are exploring the use of hydrogen and fuel cells for reliable and 

resilient primary and backup power, attracted to benefits such as high efficiency and quiet, emissions-free 

operation.

Combustion in simple- or combined-cycle power generation is also a viable approach for using hydrogen or 

hydrogen-rich blends (e.g., blended with natural gas) in a number of stationary applications. As an example, 

combustion turbines can generate electric power while also providing heat for residential, commercial, and 

industrial applications. While combustion blends including renewable hydrogen offer the benefits of reduced 

carbon dioxide emissions, their use in existing distribution infrastructure and combustion equipment poses a 

number of challenges related to materials compatibility and combustion characteristics. Progress has been made 

in the modification of natural gas burners in commercially available combustion turbines to accommodate highhydrogen blends (up to 100% H2), but continued RD&D is needed for qualification in utility-scale power generation. 

Additional RD&D is also needed to assess the compatibility of hydrogen blends with equipment designed for using 

natural gas (e.g., building appliances), and to develop separation technologies that can recover high-purity 

hydrogen from blends for use in applications where pure hydrogen has a higher value.

Integrated Hybrid Energy Systems

Hydrogen also offers a number of opportunities to provide value to the electric power sector through its integration 

into hybrid energy systems. Broadly defined, a hybrid energy system (HES) combines electricity generation, 

71 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy. March 2020. “Summary Country Update March 2020: Japan.” https://www.iphe.net/japan. 72 Open Access Government. December 6, 2019. “Fuel cells: Delivering reliable power when needed for emergency response efforts.” 

https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/fuel-cells-reliable-power-emergencyresponse/79014/#:~:text=Currently%2C%20there%20are%20more%20than%208%2C500%20fuel%20cell,simple%20infrastructure%20like%20traffic%20lights%20has%20real

%20ramifications. 73 E4Tech, 2019, op. cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 31

energy storage, and/or energy conversion technologies that are integrated together through an overarching 

control framework to achieve enhanced capabilities, value, and/or cost savings compared to the standalone 

alternatives, as shown in the example in Figure 20. Hydrogen technologies integrated in an HES offer unique 

benefits in both on-grid and off-grid electric-power applications. Examples include: mid- to longduration/seasonal energy storage;74 grid leveling and stabilization services that leverage the fast-acting dynamic 

response of electrolyzers;75 and the ability to co-produce (along with electricity) hydrogen or other hydrogen-based 

fuels, chemicals, or products for use in diverse markets, potentially at higher value than electricity.76 Multiple 

hybrid scenarios are being explored that could optimally leverage the benefits of integrated energy systems; some 

key examples are described below.

Figure 20. Example hybrid hydrogen energy system77

Grid Integration & Renewable Hybrid Systems

As the electric grid evolves with higher penetrations of variable renewable energy sources, grid-integrated 

electrolyzers can provide energy storage and other grid services to improve reliability and resiliency. Hydrogen 

produced via electrolysis can be used as a means of bi-directional energy storage, where it is converted ondemand back to electricity through low-emissions power generation technologies such as fuel cells or combustion 

turbines. It can also be used in one-way chemical energy applications, for example through injection into the 

natural gas pipeline infrastructure, or through onsite co-production of value-added commodities such as ammonia 

or methanol. Ancillary grid services including voltage and frequency stabilization are enabled by the rapid (subsecond) dynamic response times of electrolyzers, which have been validated through National Laboratory projects 

that simulate responses to grid fluctuations.78 Techno-economic analysis is being conducted, in collaboration with 

electric utilities, to identify optimal configurations for integrating electrolyzers with renewables in grid, microgrid, and off-grid applications.79

74 Hunter, Chad, E. Reznicek, M. Penev, J. Eichman, S. Baldwin. May 2020. “Energy Storage Analysis.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review20/sa173_hunter_2020_o.pdf. 75 Kurtz, Jennifer, K. Harrison, R. Hovsapian, M. Mohanpurkar. 2017. “Dynamic Modeling and Validation of Electrolyzers in Real Time Grid Simulation – TV031.” Accessed 

online: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review17/tv031_hovsapian_2017_o.pdf. 76 Ruth, et al., 2020, op. cit. 77 Applied Energy Tri-Lab Consortium (Idaho National Laboratory, National Energy Technology Laboratory, and National Renewable Energy Laboratory). Internal DOE 

presentation, 2019.

78 Hovsapian, Robert, J. Kurtz, M. Panwar, A. Medam and C. Hanson. 2019. “Dynamic Modeling and Validation of Electrolyzers in Real Time Grid Simulation – TA015.” 

Accessed online: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review19/ta015_hovsapian_2019_o.pdf. 79 Eichman, Joshua, O.J. Guerra, M. Koleva and B. McLaughlin. 2019. “PG&E H2@Scale CRADA: Optimizing an Integrated Solar-Electrolysis System.” National renewable 

Energy Laboratory. Accessed online: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/htac_nov19_06_eichman.pdf.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 32

Fossil-Energy Hybrid Systems

Hybrid energy systems integrating natural gas or coal conversion with hydrogen technologies can provide 

significant value for industrial applications. Pilot-scale plants have been deployed that integrate systems for 

steam methane reforming of natural gas with vacuum-swing adsorption to co-produce hydrogen for petroleum 

refining along with concentratedcarbon dioxide for use in enhanced oil recovery. Large-scale gasification 

facilities that co-fire coal, biomass, and waste plastics can be integrated with thermal storage, hydrogen 

production and utilization technologies, and carbon capture to achieve low-emissions power generation; the use of 

optimized CCUS along with the co-firing of biomass in these facilities offers a potential pathway to carbonnegative power generation. Also under development are poly-generation systems that use high-temperature fuel 

cell technologies to efficiently convert natural gas or gasified coal/biomass/waste into electricity, heat, and 

hydrogen with low emissions. Ongoing RD&D in fossil-based hybrid systems is needed to improve integration 

optimization and enable scalability, affordability, and energy security.

Nuclear Hybrid Systems

There is growing interest in integrating hydrogen 

production at nuclear power plants as a means to 

enhance load following capabilities, utlize unused 

energy, and provide an additional revenue stream. For 

context, as one example, a 1-GW nuclear power plant 

can produce about 41,000 tonnes of hydrogen in a year, 

assuming the plant produces electricity for 70% of the 

time and hydrogen for 26% of the time (with 4% 

downtime for maintenance).80 Leveraging nucleargenerated electricity and heat, hydrogen can be 

efficiently produced using low- or high-temperature 

electrolyzer technologies, and utilized onsite to service hydrogen needs of the nuclear plant (e.g., in turbine 

generator cooling), or exported/monetized for other end uses. While nuclear hybrid systems are not yet ready for 

full-scale commercial deployment, pilot projects currently underway at existing nuclear plants are expected to 

rapidly resolve many remaining uncertainties, accelerating their availability for full-scale implementation. In 

addition, techno-economic analysis—including market assessments for a number of specific nuclear power 

plants—has identified the potential economic benefits of producing hydrogen through different onsite electrolyzer 

options, including those currently being pursued via pilot projects and other technologies. Ongoing materials-, 

component-, and system-level RD&D are also continuing in support of various nuclear/hydrogen approaches. 

Along with the continued development of both low- and high-temperature electrolyzers, design optimization of 

fully integrated nuclear hybrid systems will help to addresses performance, durability, and cost, as well as safety 

and risk issues. There are also ongoing projects that support system validation in simulated and real-world 

operations.

Crosscutting Challenges and Opportunities

Affordable hydrogen at industrial scales is essential to many diverse applications and end uses, both current and 

emerging. While cost challenges are being addressed through ongoing RD&D across hydrogen production, delivery, 

storage, and conversion technologies, additional efforts to address important crosscutting issues related to 

technology scale-up, manufacturing and supply chains, cybersecurity, as well as hydrogen safety, codes and 

standards, are also key for achieving the economies of scale and widespread adoption envisioned in H2@Scale.

80 Assumes an electrolyzer electrical conversion efficiency of 55kWh/kg, consistent with the state-of-the-art in PEM electrolysis, as documented in DOE Hydrogen Program 

Record #19009, “Hydrogen Production Cost From PEM Electrolysis – 2019,” February 2020, 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdf. Calculation: (1,000,000 kW x 8760 hours/yr *26%) / 55 kWh/kg = 41,141,090 

kg/yr = ~41,411 tonnes/yr.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 33

Manufacturing 

For hydrogen to transition from niche applications to mass markets, it will be essential to develop industrial-scale 

techniques, processes, and facilities for manufacturing hydrogen-related technology components and systems at 

large volumes. A robust domestic supply chain will also ensure the United States stays at the forefront of this 

emerging global industry. While the bulk of the investment needed to build manufacturing capacity will fall to 

industry—as incentivized by growing market demands—RD&D efforts will be needed to overcome technical 

challenges and accelerate progress.

By developing processes and technologies specifically tailored to high-volume manufacturing, RD&D efforts can 

help achieve economies-of-scale in manufacturing. These efforts can also lead to additional technology and 

systems-integration improvements, resulting in even greater cost reductions. Key opportunities for crosscutting 

advances include development of:

• High-speed manufacturing techniques for 

processes such as forming, stamping, molding, 

sealing, joining, coating, and roll-to-roll 

processing

• Best practices for material and component 

handling

• Additive and automated 

manufacturing/assembly processes

• Technologies for in-line diagnostics and 

quality control/quality assurance

• Sensors and other technologies to reduce 

manufacturing defects in high-throughput production

• Manufacturing processes and technology designs that enable efficient recycling/upcycling, especially of 

critical materials 

Standardized designs for systems and components are also needed to unify specifications among system and 

component providers, which simplifies technology development and lowers supplier costs.

Safety, Codes and Standards

Technically sound codes and standards, effective safety- and quality-related technologies and processes, and 

widely disseminated safety information will play a key role in realizing the H2@Scale vision. They are essential 

for deploying hydrogen-related technologies; ensuring quality, consistency, and interoperability; and providing 

regulatory bodies, manufacturers, system operators, and end users with the tools they need to ensure that 

emerging technologies are at least as reliable, safe, and high-performing as the incumbents. They also improve 

confidence in the commercial viability of the technologies among all stakeholders, which can further accelerate 

adoption and encourage investment.

The continued development and revision of codes and standards will require ongoing research and data to 

improve understanding of the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen. Close coordination and collaboration 

with code and standard development organizations will continue to be essential to ensure research efforts are 
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 34

properly aligned with the needs of stakeholders. And in order to ensure a robust and competitive global supply 

chain for hydrogen and related technologies, key codes and standards—such as refueling protocols—will need to 

be internationally harmonized.

RD&D efforts will be needed to improve hydrogen sensing and contaminant detection, and development of 

quantitative risk assessment tools and streamlined permitting processes will help with siting hydrogen 

infrastructure and further reduce barriers to deployment. Risk mitigation strategies, best safety practices, and 

lessons-learned must be identified and evaluated, and ongoing support will be needed to develop and sustain 

collaborative institutional processes for disseminating safety information.

Hydrogen codes and standards are in use today and are critical in current industrial-scale hydrogen technologies 

(such as reforming, coal gasification, refineries, etc.), as are safety-technologies such as sensors for monitoring 

and control at industrial plants and refineries. As new applications emerge—such as marine, rail, and heavy-duty 

vehicles—additional efforts in all aspects of safety, codes and standards may be required to address needs specific 

to each application.

Common RD&D Thrusts for Hydrogen and Related Technology Applications

• Development of rigorous application-specific targets for hydrogen utilization

• Materials compatibility issues in diverse end uses

• Reduced cost and improved durability and efficiency in industrial-scale electrolyzers, fuel cell systems, combustion 

turbines and engines, as well as in hybrid systems

• Component- and system-level integration and optimization, including balance of plant components and systems

• Optimized controls of integrated systems, including cybersecurity

• Manufacturing and scale-up, including process intensification

• Harmonized codes and standards, including refueling protocols

• Capacity expansion models to identify value propositions for use of hydrogen in new applications
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 35

4 Program Execution & Collaboration

Program Execution

Stakeholder Input

To maintain alignment with the priorities of key 

stakeholders—including industry, end-users, academia, 

the investment community, and other government 

agencies—the Program actively solicits input to 

incorporate in the planning of its activities. Among the 

primary channels for this input are requests for 

information (RFIs) and workshops conducted by DOE to 

help establish high-level program direction and to develop 

and update technology-specific RD&D plans. The Program 

also regularly conducts workshops for specific technology 

areas, to identify and update RD&D priorities, develop plans, and identify technical targets and milestones. These 

workshops involve a wide range of stakeholders and provide an open forum for discussion of the status of the 

technologies and the challenges facing their development and deployment. Results from these activities feed into 

the development of DOE strategies and funding plans.

Program Funding

The Program’s activities are funded using various competitive mechanisms, including funding opportunity 

announcements (FOAs), through which industry, university, national laboratory, and other private-sector projects 

are selected. Several offices also issue separate lab calls to make selections for national laboratory projects. The 

Program uses cooperative research and development agreements (CRADAs) to encourage partnerships between 

the private sector and national labs for joint development and strategic partnership projects (SPPs)81 through 

which industry can contract company-specific tasks to be conducted at national labs. 

DOE has invested more than $4 billion over the last 20 years in various areas such as advanced water splitting to 

produce hydrogen from renewable and nuclear sources, advanced gasification and turbines to produce and use 

hydrogen from fossil fuels, and diverse fuel cell technologies for multiple applications. Through these and ongoing 

programs, all DOE offices use competitive FOA and related processes to engage a diverse set of stakeholders across 

industry, academia, and national labs, through rigorous, merit-based review processes.

Measures to Ensure Effectiveness

The Program employs a number of program management processes to ensure the effective use of taxpayer funds, 

including: 

• Developing targets and milestones for all R&D pathways in close consultation with experts in industry, end 

users and customers, and the scientific research community

• A rigorous competitive-selection process, which ensures projects are selected based on technical 

feasibility, high-impact potential, innovation, and the likelihood of making progress toward DOE’s 

milestones and targets 

• External review and evaluation processes, which include program reviews by the National Academies, 

reviews of DOE’s RD&D progress under the partnership with U.S. DRIVE (see more in “Private Sector and 

81 Formerly known as Work for Others (WFOs) throughout DOE.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 36

Other Non-Governmental Partnerships” below); input and advice from the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell 

Technical Advisory Committee,82 other government agencies, congressionally requested reviews,83,84 and 

comprehensive project reviews by more than 200 technical experts at the Program’s Annual Merit Review 

and Peer Evaluation Meeting85 

• Down-selection and go/no-go decisions, which entail a systematic process for discontinuing certain 

research pathways, via “go/no-go” decision points defined by performance-based milestones and 

quantitative metrics at the sub-program, task area, and project level. For example, the program has 

discontinued R&D of on-board vehicular fuel processing, sodium borohydride hydrolysis, and carbon 

nanotubes for onboard vehicular hydrogen storage.

Internal & External Coordination and Collaboration

Internal Organization

While DOE’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO) within EERE has had the lead role in 

coordinating hydrogen-related activities across DOE for over two decades, multiple offices are engaged either 

directly or indirectly in hydrogen-related activities. Figure 21 shows the key offices involved: EERE, FE, NE, OE, SC, 

and ARPA-E. The Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Coordination Group coordinates Program activities among the DOE 

offices and meets monthly at a technical level to: evaluate the progress of activities with regard to milestones and 

performance goals; strengthen information exchange on programmatic and technical developments; provide 

recommendations for improving management practices and technical performance; and collaborate on systems 

analysis activities to gain understanding of the impacts of alternative technology pathways from environmental, 

energy, and economic standpoints.

The participating offices manage their respective FOA processes and project execution both through their field 

offices and procurement functions and, in some instances, through direct projects at national laboratories. The 

offices coordinate on FOA topics, merit reviews, and project reviews to avoid duplication and ensure an optimal 

and cohesive strategy to tackle the challenges in enabling the successful commercial viability of hydrogen and 

related technologies. Examples of key activities and core mission space within each of these offices is shown in 

Table 3.

The Program also coordinates with crosscutting offices including the Office of Technology Transitions (OTT) and 

the Loan Program Office (LPO).

• OTT, which was established in 2015, focuses on enabling technology transfer and expanding the 

commercial impact of DOE’s RD&D portfolio to advance the economic, energy, and national security 

interests of the nation. The office develops the Department’s vision for expanding the commercial impact 

of its research investments and streamlines information and access to DOE’s national labs to foster 

partnerships that will move innovations from the labs into the marketplace. OTT also coordinates DOE’s 

Technology Commercialization Fund which leverages funding from the applied energy programs to 

mature promising energy technologies with the potential for high impact.

82 U.S. Department of Energy. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program. “Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technical Advisory Committee.” Accessed online: 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/advisory_htac.html. 83 U.S. Department of Energy. August 2019. “Report on the Status of the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Program. Report to Congress.” 

https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/09/f66/EXEC-2019-002655_Signed%20Report%201.pdf. 84 U.S. Department of Energy. 2020. DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program, “DOE Biennial Reports to Congress.” Accessed online: 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/htac_reports.html. 85 U.S. Department of Energy. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program. “Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation.” Accessed online: 

https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/annual_review.html.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 37

Figure 21. DOE Hydrogen Program organizational structure

• The LPO has a mission to provide access to debt capital to U.S. energy infrastructure projects. LPO’s 

Innovative Energy Loan Guarantee Program currently has over $20 billion in lending capacity for 

innovative energy projects in the U.S. that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A wide range of projects 

could be eligible in the energy efficiency, renewable, advanced fossil and nuclear sectors. LPO financing 

may be appropriate for projects that are at first commercialization stage or entail first-of-a-kind 

technology. The objective is to render innovative projects/technology replicable and bankable for future 

commercial financing. LPO extends loans that are typically structured as limited recourse project 

financings, and serves as a valuable partner to applicants throughout the entire lifetime of a project. LPO 

can provide flexible financing that is customized to the specific needs of each project. 

In addition, the Hydrogen Program coordinates with crosscutting initiatives and efforts that span multiple 

offices across DOE, including the Energy Storage Grand Challenge (ESGC), which provides an over-arching 

strategy for energy storage. The vision for the ESGC is to create and sustain global leadership in energy storage 

utilization and exports, with a secure domestic manufacturing and supply chain that is independent of foreign 

sources of critical materials, by 2030.86 Hydrogen technologies can play a key role and the Program has been 

actively involved in workshops and analyses through the ESGC.

86 U.S. Department of Energy. “About the Energy Storage Grand Challenge.” Accessed online: https://www.energy.gov/energy-storage-grand-challenge/about-energy-storagegrand-challenge.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 38

Table 3. Offices engaged in the DOE Hydrogen Program: key activities and focus areas

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE) Office of Fossil Energy (FE)

The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)

leads a comprehensive strategy focusing on RD&D and 

innovations across a broad portfolio of renewable energy 

technologies (solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, water power, and 

renewable hydrogen), energy efficiency in buildings and the 

industrial sector, transportation technologies across applications 

(vehicles, trucks, marine, rail, air), advanced manufacturing, and 

crosscutting activities (the Federal Energy Management, 

Weatherization, and Intergovernmental Programs). Examples of 

hydrogen and fuel cell related RD&D include:

• The Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO),

leading DOE's Hydrogen Program including H2@Scale, 

supports RD&D and innovation to advance diverse 

technologies and infrastructure for hydrogen production, 

delivery, storage, and utilization. HFTO conducts RD&D at the 

materials-, component- and system-levels, to address the 

cost, performance, durability, and safety requirements for 

widespread adoption of hydrogen across the transportation, 

industrial, and stationary power sectors. RD&D focus areas 

include: electrolyzers and other advanced water-splitting 

approaches; advanced liquefaction and carriers for hydrogen 

delivery; advanced high-pressure tanks, liquid hydrogen 

storage, and material-based storage systems; and low- and 

medium-temperature fuel cells. HFTO coordinates with FE on 

various topics including reversible solid oxide fuel cells; with 

NE and OE, particularly on integrating renewables into the 

grid using hydrogen as an energy storage medium; and with 

SC and ARPA-E on basic science and next generation 

technologies.

• The Advanced Manufacturing Office (AMO) supports 

manufacturing innovations—such as roll-to-roll manufacturing, 

3D-printing, and carbon fiber production—to reduce cost and 

enable a competitive domestic supply chain for technologies 

like electrolyzers, hydrogen storage tanks, and fuel cells. AMO 

also supports technical assistance activities enabling the use 

of fuel cells in combined heat and power systems for industrial 

and building applications.

• The Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) supports a wide 

range of RD&D, including technologies that can utilize 

hydrogen for production of biofuels and bioproducts. BETO's 

efforts also enable hydrogen production from biomass or biowaste streams, through various approaches, including the use 

of advanced electrochemical and microbial processes.

• The Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) supports a broad 

portfolio of next-generation technologies to improve batteryelectric and other alternative-fuel vehicles, as well as advanced 

combustion engines. VTO’s efforts include overall vehicle 

efficiency improvements (e.g., light-weighting) as well as 

onboard storage of compressed gaseous fuels. VTO also 

manages the Energy Efficient Mobility Systems (EEMS) 

Program, which examines the systemic energy impacts of 

connected and automated vehicles, where hydrogen and fuel

cells can play a potential role in the future, particularly for 

freight.

• The Renewable Power Offices, which include the Wind, Solar, 

Water, and Geothermal Offices, conduct RD&D to enable the 

integration of renewable power sources with technologies for 

hydrogen production and utilization, such as integrated 

wind/electrolysis systems and solar thermochemical systems.

The Office of Fossil Energy (FE) seeks to advance transformative 

science and innovative technologies that enable the reliable, 

efficient, affordable, and environmentally sound use of fossil 

fuels. The office conducts diverse RD&D efforts, including 

advanced power generation; power plant efficiency; water 

management; carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) 

technologies; executing natural gas regulatory responsibilities; 

and technological solutions for the prudent and sustainable 

development of unconventional oil and gas domestic resources. 

Two major FE programs are currently conducting fossil energybased hydrogen RD&D:

• The Office of Clean Coal and Carbon Management (CC&CM) is 

focused on advancing technologies for producing hydrogen 

from coal with CCUS, including through modular systems and 

co-gasification with biomass and waste plastics. Key priorities 

are hydrogen-combustion turbines and reversible solid-oxide 

fuel cell systems for large scale power generation as well as 

integration with gasification islands for large chemical coproduction (e.g., ammonia and polygeneration). Reversible 

solid oxide fuel cell R&D is conducted in coordination with 

EERE's HFTO to ensure there is no duplication of efforts. FE 

will also coordinate with EERE, NE, and other offices on hybrid 

energy systems where reversible SOFCs can be integrated. 

RD&D emphasis includes combustion and fuel science, 

catalysis, gasification, separations, as well as CCUS to enable 

the utilization of carbon-neutral (or even carbon-negative when 

co-firing biomass) hydrogen at scale. In addition, the office will 

evaluate the use of hydrogen in energy storage systems and 

technologies for storing large volumes (>100 tons) on site. 

Such volumes could be used for emergency supply (when 

there are fuel supply disruptions at gas turbine facilities such 

as seen during extreme weather events or other emergencies). 

Finally, carbon dioxide-utilization programs will require 

hydrogen for the manufacture of polymers, chemicals, and 

other products that will support both manufacturing and 

reduction of carbon dioxide emissions.

• The Office of Oil and Natural Gas (ONG) works to increase the 

energy and economic security of oil and natural gas supplies 

and typically focuses on early-stage research in natural gas 

infrastructure and gas hydrates. ONG leverages insight and 

expertise in oil and natural gas production, transport, storage, 

and distribution to support RD&D to enable the use of natural 

gas supply and storage infrastructure and the large-scale 

delivery and storage (e.g., geological storage) of hydrogen. 

Focus areas include RD&D to enable the transmission and 

storage of hydrogen and hydrogen blends in the existing 

national network of natural gas pipelines and underground 

reservoirs. Other RD&D areas include: hydrogen-based 

approaches for mitigating mid-stream emissions from natural 

gas infrastructure; technologies to convert flared or vented gas 

to hydrogen products; and technologies to convert natural gas 

to solid carbon products, hydrogen, and other value-added 

products. 

• FE also leads DOE's CCUS efforts and collaborates with EERE 

on opportunities to co-locate hydrogen production with CCUS 

sites and large-scale hydrogen storage sites to enable the use 

of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to produce synthetic 

chemicals and fuels.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 39

Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) Office of Electricity (OE)

The Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) works to advance nuclear 

power to meet the nation's energy supply, environmental, and 

national security needs. RD&D objectives include enhancing the 

long-term viability and competitiveness of the existing U.S. 

reactor fleet and developing advanced nuclear reactor concepts. 

As part of these efforts, NE is working with partners in EERE and 

industry to conduct RD&D to enable commercial-scale hydrogen 

production using heat and electricity from nuclear energy 

systems. In addition to emissions-free electricity, nuclear 

reactors produce large amounts of heat, which can be used to 

improve the economics of hydrogen production. NE's efforts 

related to hydrogen production include: 

• Demonstration of both high-temperature and lowtemperature electrolysis systems at operating light water 

reactors that can provide the low-cost heat necessary for 

these processes to produce hydrogen economically. NE, in 

coordination with industry, utilities, and vendors, is also 

developing the necessary control systems to readily 

apportion energy and electricity based on market demands. 

• Modeling, simulation, and experimentation to develop and 

advance concepts and technologies needed to integrate 

hydrogen production methods with existing and future 

reactors in ways that optimize the system-level economic, 

environmental, and safety performance as they operate in 

concert with other generation sources and end-use 

technologies.

• Development of advanced reactors that will operate at very 

high temperatures, making them well suited for promising 

new thermally driven hydrogen production processes. These 

advanced reactors are now being developed by NE through 

directed laboratory R&D, university programs, and 

partnerships with domestic nuclear industry vendors. 

• NE and EERE have collaboratively initiated hydrogen 

production pilot projects to demonstrate the initial feasibility 

of such systems at currently operating U. S. nuclear power 

plants.

The Office of Electricity (OE) works with public and private 

partners to lead DOE's efforts to ensure the nation's most 

critical energy infrastructure is secure and able to recover 

rapidly from disruptions. A secure and resilient power grid is 

vital to national security, economic security, and the services 

Americans rely upon. OE focuses on four priorities: 

1. The North American Energy Resiliency Model (NAERM) to 

enable planning and contingency analysis to address 

vulnerabilities in the North American energy system.

2. Megawatt Scale Grid Storage, working with labs and other 

DOE offices to integrate new technologies for advancing 

megawatt scale storage with added resiliency and control 

capabilities. Focus areas have included flow batteries using 

aqueous soluble organics, rechargeable Zn-MnO2 batteries, 

and sodium-based batteries. 

3. Revolutionize Sensing Technology Utilization, through 

development and integration of high-fidelity, low-cost 

sensing technology for predictive and correlation modeling 

for electricity. 

4. Transmission, addressing electricity-related policy issues by 

carrying out statutory and executive requirements, while 

also providing policy design and analysis expertise to 

states, regions, and tribes.

OE collaborates with the Program on hydrogen-related RD&D for 

power-to-gas applications and long duration energy storage. 

Other relevant areas of interest include power electronics to 

enable cost reductions for a range of technologies such as 

electrolyzers and techno-economic analysis of power-to-gas, 

which assesses the impacts of RD&D progress, varying grid 

markets, and regional markets for hydrogen.

Office of Science (SC)

The mission of DOE's Office of Science (SC) is to deliver scientific discoveries and major scientific tools to transform our 

understanding of nature and advance the energy, economic, and national security of the United States. The Office of Basic Energy 

Sciences (BES) within the Office of Science supports fundamental research addressing critical challenges related to hydrogen 

storage, production, utilization, and conversion. These efforts, which include work conducted by the Solar Fuels Hub program and 

the Energy Frontier Research Centers, complement the technology-specific RD&D supported by other DOE offices and provides 

foundational knowledge that can bring advances to many areas of technology development. 

Recent advances offer exciting new research opportunities for addressing both short-term and long-term challenges for hydrogen 

and related technologies. These include advances in: synthesis, catalysis, modeling, artificial intelligence/machine learning, 

analytical instrumentation at user facilities, high-performance computing, and bio-inspired approaches. Key basic research focus 

areas include:

• Novel materials for hydrogen storage

• Membranes for separation

• Purification

• Ion transport

• Design of catalysts at the nanoscale

• Bio-inspired materials and processes

• Solar hydrogen production
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 40

Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E)

The Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) catalyzes transformational energy technologies to enhance the economic 

and energy security of the United States. ARPA-E funds high-potential, high-impact projects that are too early for private sector 

investment but could disruptively advance the ways energy is generated, stored, distributed, and used. Some programs at ARPA-E 

have sought to develop technologies involving renewable energy and natural gas, with applications in the transportation, 

commercial, and industrial power sectors; in these areas, there are a number of efforts related to hydrogen. Focused R&D programs 

relevant to hydrogen or related technologies have included:

• Range Extenders for Electric Aviation with Low Carbon and High Efficiency (REEACH) 

• Duration Addition to electricitY Storage (DAYS)

• Methane Pyrolysis Cohort

• Innovative Natural-Gas Technologies for Efficiency Gain in Reliable and Affordable Thermochemical Electricity-Generation 

(INTEGRATE)

• Integration and Optimization of Novel Ion-Conducting Solids (IONICS)

• Renewable Energy to Fuels through Utilization of Energy-dense Liquids (REFUEL) 

• Reliable Electricity Based on ELectrochemical Systems (REBELS)

As shown in Figures 22 and 23, there is specific inter-office collaboration on a number of technical areas, showing 

clearly delineated focus areas as well as areas leveraging coordination.

Figure 22. Collaboration on hydrogen production—key focus areas and technologies
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 41

FE and NE are primarily focused on 

large-scale power generation using 

fossil fuels or nuclear resources, while 

EERE focuses on renewables as well as 

end uses for hydrogen and fuel cells in 

multiple applications in the 

transportation sector, for stationary 

distributed power in buildings, and in

industrial applications (through efforts 

in HFTO as well as AMO). Chemical 

and fuel production using hydrogen is 

an area of coordination between EERE 

and FE, with FE focusing on largescale co-gasification and 

polygeneration and EERE focusing on 

smaller scale production such as 

synfuels for the transportation sector 

or trigeneration for hydrogen fueling 

stations.

Federal and State Coordination

The Program actively pursues opportunities for coordination and collaboration with other federal agencies. By 

exchanging information on RD&D projects and collaborating on deployment activities, agencies can leverage each 

other’s resources to achieve the maximum benefit from their efforts. For example, the Program collaborates 

extensively with the Department of Defense (DoD) on early market deployment activities. DoD and DOE have held 

joint workshops to identify opportunities, challenges, and other areas of common interest. 

DOE leads the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Interagency Working Group (IWG),87 which provides a forum for sharing 

research results, technical expertise, and lessons learned about hydrogen program implementation and 

technology deployment, as well as coordinating related projects. Currently, agencies participating in the IWG 

include the Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, DoD, DOE, Department of Homeland Security, 

Department of State, Department of Transportation (USDOT), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Science Foundation, Office of Science and Technology Policy, and 

the U.S. Postal Service. DOE, DOT, the EPA, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Department of 

Commerce) also coordinate their activities involving safety, codes and standards, and regulations. For a detailed 

description of hydrogen-related activities at other federal agencies, see hydrogen.gov, a portal maintained by DOE 

that provides access to federal efforts related to hydrogen and related technologies.

88 In addition to engagement 

through the IWG, the Program coordinates directly with the USDOT in a number of areas, including strategic 

planning and peer reviews with the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, as well as coordination on 

issues related to safety, codes and standards with the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration

and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

The Program coordinates closely with several state governments to help ensure that activities are well integrated 

at the federal, state, and local levels. Coordinating with state-level activities is also essential for implementing the 

Program’s overall strategy for real-world demonstrations, public outreach and education, and early-market 

deployments.

87 HFTO has led this group for well over a decade, consistent with section 806 of EPACT (2005), 2 U.S.C. §16155, which directs DOE to lead a Hydrogen and Fuel Cell 

Interagency Task Force (ITF). 88 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Interagency Working Group. https://www.hydrogen.gov/.

Figure 23. Collaboration on hydrogen applications—key focus areas
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 42

Private Sector and Other Non-Governmental Partnerships

Stakeholder input is vital to Program planning as well as to sustaining the Program’s effectiveness and the value 

of its efforts. The Program’s engagement with private-sector and non-profit stakeholders through key 

partnerships helps to ensure that the RD&D efforts of government, academia, and industry are well coordinated, 

their diverse capabilities are well integrated, and their resources are effectively utilized.

One of these partnerships, known as U.S. DRIVE (Driving Research and Innovation for Vehicle efficiency and 

Energy sustainability), focuses on pre-competitive, high-risk research needed to improve the energy efficiency of 

the nation’s personal transportation system. A major goal of the partnership is to identify and develop the 

technologies required for the high-volume production of affordable light-duty vehicles, including electric, hybridelectric, advanced combustion, and hydrogen vehicles—along with the national infrastructure necessary to 

support them. In 2019, the Program expanded transportation related collaboration to the 21st Century Truck 

Partnership with VTO, specifically focused on advancing next generation medium- and heavy-duty trucks, 

including the use of hydrogen fuel cells.89 The Program also benefits from continual interaction with stakeholders 

through its involvement with a number of other organizations, including the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy 

Association (FCHEA), which represents a broad range of stakeholders, including: manufacturers of fuel cell 

components, systems, and materials; hydrogen producers and fuel distributors; universities; government 

laboratories; and others.

Several other private sector based associations and coalitions coordinate either formally or informally with the 

Program including: the California Fuel Cell Partnership, the California Hydrogen Business Council, the California 

Stationary Fuel Cell Collaborative, the Green Hydrogen Coalition, the Colorado Hydrogen Association, the New 

Jersey Hydrogen Coalition, the Massachusetts Hydrogen Coalition, the Ohio Fuel Cell Coalition, the Renewable 

Hydrogen Coalition, and the growing number of state-related organizations involved in hydrogen.

International Coordination and Collaboration

The Program engages in multiple international activities and partnerships to share technology lessons learned,

foster collaboration, and advance mutual RD&D areas of interest at a global scale. Key examples include the Clean 

Energy and Hydrogen Energy Ministerials, the International Energy Agency, the International Partnership for 

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE), Mission Innovation, the Partnership for Transatlantic Energy 

Cooperation, and various bilateral arrangements with countries involved in hydrogen and fuel cell activities.

Key examples spanning two decades of coordination and collaboration include:

• International Energy Agency (IEA). The Program has been active in IEA Technology Collaboration 

Programs (TCPs), and served as vice chair of the Advanced Fuel Cell (ACF) and Hydrogen TCPs. Created in 

1990, the AFC TCP focuses on multiple fuel cell technologies across applications and currently has 16 

member countries: Austria, Canada, China, Croatia, Denmark, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, 

Mexico, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.90 The Hydrogen TCP was established in 1977 as 

a hub for international collaboration on hydrogen RD&D and analysis, and currently includes 24 member 

countries, the European Commission (EC), and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization 

(UNIDO). The individual member countries include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, 

Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Netherlands, New Zealand, 

Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.91

• International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE). Established in 2003, IPHE is 

an international inter-governmental partnership currently consisting of 20 member-countries and the EC. 

89 U.S. Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. “21st Century Truck Partnership.” Accessed online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/21stcentury-truck-partnership. 90 Advanced Fuel Cells. “Who we are.” Accessed online: https://www.ieafuelcell.com/index.php?id=8. 91 International Energy Agency, 2020, op. cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 43

Its objective is to accelerate progress in hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, and it provides a forum for 

sharing information on member-country initiatives, policies, and technology status, as well as on safety, 

regulations, codes, standards, and outreach. IPHE includes working groups on Regulations, Codes, 

Standards, and Safety and on Education and Outreach, as well as task forces such as the Hydrogen 

Production and Analysis (H2PA) task force to enable international trade of hydrogen. The Program, 

through representation from HFTO, is serving as the elected Chair (from mid-2018 through the end of 2020) 

of IPHE. IPHE serves as one of the primary international mechanisms through which the Program 

coordinates and collaborates with other new and emerging partnerships such as the Ministerials.

Through incorporating input from international and domestic stakeholders as well as through the in-depth 

expertise within the Program, strategies are developed to address the challenges in each of the key areas of 

hydrogen production, delivery, storage, and utilization as discussed in earlier chapters. For example, U.S. DOE 

efforts support the recommendations outlined in the IEA Future of Hydrogen92 report released at the 2019 G20 

Summit:

1. “Establish a role for hydrogen in long-term energy strategies.” Key sectors include refining, chemicals, iron 

and steel, freight and long-distance transport, buildings, and power generation and storage.

2. “Stimulate commercial demand for clean hydrogen.” This includes scaling up both “blue” hydrogen (from 

fossil fuels with CCUS) and “green” hydrogen (using renewables) as well as water electrolysis using 

nuclear resources.

3. “Address investment risks of first-movers.” New applications for hydrogen, as well as clean hydrogen 

supply and infrastructure projects can be supported through tools such as loan guarantees to reduce risk.

4. “Support R&D to bring down costs.”Alongside cost reductions from economies of scale, R&D is crucial to 

lower costs and improve performance.

5. “Eliminate unnecessary regulatory barriers and harmonize standards.” Project developers face hurdles 

where regulations and permit requirements are unclear. Addressing safety, codes and standards is 

necessary for a harmonized global supply chain.

6. “Engage internationally and track progress.” Enhanced international co-operation is essential and 

supported by a number or partnerships.

7. “Focus on four key opportunities to further increase momentum over the next decade.” These include 

enabling industrial ports as hubs for hydrogen at scale; using existing gas infrastructure to spur new clean 

hydrogen supplies; supporting transportation fleets, freight, and corridor; and enabling hydrogen shipping 

to jumpstart international hydrogen trade.

U.S. DOE activities as outlined in this document are also aligned with the Global Action Agenda93 as developed 

through the Hydrogen Energy Ministerial in September 2019. Key pillars include:

1. “Collaboration on technologies and coordination on the harmonization of regulation, codes and standards”

2. “Promotion of information sharing [and] international joint research and development emphasizing 

hydrogen safety and infrastructure supply chains”

3. “Study and evaluation of hydrogen’s potential across sectors including its potential for reducing both 

carbon dioxide emissions and other pollutants”

4. “Communication, Education and Outreach”94

Figure 24 summarizes the high level strategies and enabling activities by DOE’s programs in conjunction with key 

roles and responsibilities entailing increased private sector engagement. These activities also reflect input from 

92 International Energy Agency, 2019, op. cit. 93 Global Action Agenda. 2019. “Chair’s Summary of 2nd Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting – Global Action Agenda of Tokyo Statement.” Accessed online: 

https://www.meti.go.jp/press/2019/09/20190927003/20190927003-5.pdf. 94 Global Action Agenda.,2019, op. cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 44

the international recommendations cited above as well as the Roadmap to a U.S. Hydrogen Economy, a document 

published in 2020 with analysis developed by roughly 20 leading industry stakeholders committed to developing a 

hydrogen economy in the United States.95

Figure 24. DOE Hydrogen Program strategies and enabling activities

In summary, through the cohesive and coordinated efforts by the U.S. Department of Energy’s various offices 

involved in hydrogen and related technology activities, and through extensive stakeholder input and 

collaboration, implementation of this plan will contribute to achieving the Program’s vision: A prosperous future 

for the nation, in which clean hydrogen energy technologies are affordable, widely available and reliable, and are 

an integral part of multiple sectors of the economy across the country.

95 UShydrogenstudy.org, 2019, op. cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 45

Appendix A: Domestic energy resources required to produce 

10 million metric tonnes (MMT) of hydrogen

A key aspect of the Department’s hydrogen strategy is to enable hydrogen production from a diverse array of lowcarbon domestic energy resources, including renewable resources (such as biomass, wind, and solar energy), 

nuclear energy, and fossil fuels (with CCUS). Figure A-1 offers insights into the ability of these domestic resources 

to meet the potential demand for hydrogen. Rather than select a specific market penetration assumption to 

determine the demand for hydrogen, the quantity of 10 MMT was selected as an example, as it represents current 

annual domestic hydrogen production. The figure shows the amount of each energy resource (e.g., natural gas, 

coal, wind, solar, etc.) that would be required if all 10 MMT of today’s hydrogen production volume were to be 

produced by that single resource alone. That amount is then compared with both the current use of that resource 

and its projected use in 2040. 

In the future, growth in hydrogen production is likely to be met through a combination of these resources, rather 

than any single resource alone. It is also important to note that what is shown here does not represent all the 

potential production pathways—there are a number of other promising pathways under development, including 

direct conversion of solar energy through photoelectrochemical means, waste to hydrogen, biological approaches, 

and high-temperature thermochemical systems. The results shown in Figure A-1 are based on the National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory’s update to a 2013 analysis, and they incorporate input from peer-reviews by 

multiple DOE offices as well as input from external stakeholders.96

96 Connelly, et al., 2020, op. cit.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 46

Figure A-1. The amount of each energy resource that would be required to produce 10 MMT/yr hydrogen (using each 

resource on its own), relative to current (2017) and projected (2040) energy consumption in the Annual Energy 

Outlook’s Reference Case (top) and Low Oil and Gas Case (bottom). 

The light blue bars indicate current (2017) consumption of each resource, the medium blue bars represent projected 

(2040) consumption, and the dark blue bars depict the amount of additional resource that would be necessary to 

produce 10 MMT/yr H2 in 2040. The percentages in parentheses under the x-axis labels denote the increase in 2040 

projected resource consumption needed to meet the 10 MMT hydrogen demand.
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 47

Appendix B: Glossary of Acronyms

ADG anaerobic digester gas

AMO Advanced Manufacturing Office

ARPA-E Advanced Research Program Agency-Energy

ATR autothermal reforming

BES Office of Basic Energy Sciences

BETO Bioenergy Technologies Office

BOP Balance-of-plant

BTU British thermal unit

CC&CM Office of Clean Coal and Carbon Management

CCUS carbon capture, utilization, and storage

CHP combined heat and power

CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement

DAYS Duration Addition to Electricity Storage

DoD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DRI direct reduction of iron

EC European Commission

EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPACT Energy Policy Act of 2005

ESGC Energy Storage Grand Challenge 

FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle

FCHEA Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association

FE Office of Fossil Energy

FOA funding opportunity announcement

g/l grams per liter

GW gigawatt

H2 hydrogen

H2PA Hydrogen Production and Analysis

HDV heavy-duty vehicle

HES hybrid energy system

HFI Hydrogen Fuel Initiative

HFTO Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office 

IEA International Energy Agency

INTEGRATE Innovative Natural-Gas Technologies for Efficiency Gain in Reliable and Affordable Thermochemical 

Electricity-Generation

IONICS Integration and Optimization of Novel Ion-Conducting Solids

IMO International Maritime Organization

IPHE International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy

ITF Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Interagency Task Force

IWG Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Interagency Working Group
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 48

Kg kilogram

kWh/l kilowatt hour per liter

LDV light-duty vehicle

LPO Loan Program Office

MDV medium-duty vehicle 

MMT million metric tonnes

MOF metal-organic framework

MT metric tonne (1,000 kg)

MW megawatt

NAERM North American Energy Resiliency Model

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NE Office of Nuclear Energy

NGLs natural gas liquids

NH3 ammonia

OE Office of Electricity

ONG Office of Oil and Natural Gas

OTT Office of Technology Transitions

PEC photo-electrochemical water splitting

PEMFC polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

PPM parts per million

PSI pounds per square inch

REBELS Reliable Electricity Based on Electrochemical Systems

REEACH Range Extenders for Electric Aviation with Low Carbon and High Efficiency

REFUEL Renewable Energy to Fuels through Utilization of Energy-dense Liquids

R&D research and development

RD&D research, development, and demonstration

RFI Request for Information

SC Office of Science

SMR steam methane reforming

SOFC solid oxide fuel cell 

SPP Strategic Partnership Project

STCH solar thermochemical hydrogen

TCP Technology Collaboration Program

U.S. DRIVE Driving Research and Innovation for Vehicle efficiency and Energy sustainability

USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

VTO Vehicle Technologies Office

WFO work for others
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 49

Appendix C: Contacts & Links

DOE Hydrogen Program Contacts

Sunita Satyapal

Director, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office 

(HFTO) and DOE Hydrogen Program Coordinator

DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 

(EERE)

Sunita.Satyapal@ee.doe.gov

Eric Miller

Senior Advisor, HFTO

DOE EERE

Eric.Miller@ee.doe.gov

Ned Stetson

Hydrogen Technologies Program Manager, HFTO

DOE EERE

Ned.Stetson@ee.doe.gov

Dimitrios Papageorgopoulos

Fuel Cell Technologies Program Manager, HFTO

DOE EERE

Dimitrios.Papageorgopoulos@ee.doe.gov

Neha Rustagi

Technology Manager, Systems Analysis, HFTO 

DOE EERE

Neha.Rustagi@ee.doe.gov

Shawna McQueen

Designated Federal Officer for the Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 

Technical Advisory Committee, HFTO

DOE EERE

Shawna.McQueen@ee.doe.gov

Scott Litzelman

Program Director

Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E)

scott.litzelman@hq.doe.gov

Grigorii Soloveichik

Program Director

ARPA-E

Grigorii.Soloveichik@hq.doe.gov

David Tew

Program Director

ARPA-E

David.Tew@hq.doe.gov

Angelos Kokkinos

Associate Deputy Assistant Secretary for Clean Coal and 

Carbon Management

DOE Office of Fossil Energy (FE)

Angelos.Kokkinos@hq.doe.gov

Regis Conrad

Director, Division of Advanced Energy Systems

Office of Clean Coal and Carbon Management

DOE FE

Regis.Conrad@hq.doe.gov

Robert Schrecengost

Hydrogen Program Manager

DOE FE

Robert.Schrecengost @hq.doe.gov

Timothy Reinhardt

Director, Division of Supply and Delivery

Office of Oil and Natural Gas

DOE FE

Timothy.Reinhardt@hq.doe.gov

Evan Frye

Hydrogen Technology Manager

DOE FE

Evan.Frye@hq.doe.gov

Alison Hahn

Program Manager, Office of Nuclear Reactor Development 

DOE Office of Nuclear Energy (NE)

Alison.Hahn@nuclear.energy.gov

Rebecca Onuschak

Program Manager, Office of Nuclear Energy Technologies

DOE NE

Rebecca.Onuschak@nuclear.energy.gov

Eric Hsieh

Director, Grid Systems and Components

DOE Office of Electricity (OE)

Eric.Hsieh@hq.doe.gov

John Vetrano

Program Manager, Division of Materials Sciences and 

Engineering

Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES)

DOE Office of Science (SC)

John.Vetrano@science.doe.gov
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 50

Links to Relevant Organizations

DOE Hydrogen Program: www.hydrogen.energy.gov

DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: https://www.energy.gov/eere/office-energy-efficiencyrenewable-energy

• Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-and-fuelcell-technologies-office

DOE Office of Fossil Energy: https://www.energy.gov/fe/office-fossil-energy

• Office of Clean Coal and Carbon Management: https://www.energy.gov/fe/science-innovation/officeclean-coal-and-carbon-management

• Office of Oil and Natural Gas: https://www.energy.gov/fe/science-innovation/oil-gas-research

• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Program: https://www.energy.gov/fe/science-innovation/clean-coal-research/solidoxide-fuel-cells

DOE Office of Nuclear Energy: https://www.energy.gov/ne/office-nuclear-energy

DOE Office of Science: https://www.energy.gov/science/office-science

• DOE Office of Basic Energy Sciences: https://www.energy.gov/science/bes/basic-energy-sciences

• Energy Frontier Research Centers https://science.osti.gov/bes/efrc

• Energy Innovation Hubs https://science.osti.gov/bes/Research/DOE-Energy-Innovation-Hubs

DOE Office of Electricity: https://www.energy.gov/oe/office-electricity

Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E): https://arpa-e.energy.gov/

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Interagency Working Group: https://hydrogen.gov/
Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan 51

Acknowledgements

The U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program acknowledges the dedication and contributions of the 

following in preparation of this document: Shawna McQueen, Joseph Stanford, Sunita Satyapal, Eric Miller, Ned 

Stetson, Dimitrios Papageorgopoulos, Neha Rustagi, Vanessa Arjona, Jesse Adams, Katie Randolph, David 

Peterson, Laura Hill, Mariya Koleva, Tim Reinhardt, Evan Frye, Robert Schrecengost, Angelos Kokkinos, John 

Litynski, Regis Conrad, Grigorii Soloveichik, Dave Tew, Scott Litzelman, John Vetrano, Rebecca Onuschak, Alison 

Hahn, Eric Hsieh, and Ryan Costa, and appreciates the support of numerous stakeholders engaged in hydrogen 

and related technologies.