NASA/TM—2009-215665

Synthetic and Biomass Alternate Fueling in Aviation

R. C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

D.M. Bushnell

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia

October 2009
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NASA/TM—2009-215665

Synthetic and Biomass Alternate Fueling in Aviation

R. C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

D.M. Bushnell

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

October 2009
This work was sponsored by the Fundamental Aeronautics Program

at the NASA Glenn Research Center.

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Synthetic and Biomass Alternate Fueling in Aviation

R.C. Hendricks

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

D.M. Bushnell

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Langley Research Center

Hampton, Virginia 23681

Summary

Worldwide, aviation alone uses 85 to 95 billion gallons of nonrenewable fossil fuel per year (2006).

General transportation fueling can accommodate several different fuels; however, aviation fuels have very

specific requirements. Biofuels have been flight demonstrated, are considered renewable, have the

capacity to become “drop-in” replacements for Jet-A fuel, and solve the CO2 climate change problem.

The major issue is cost; current biomass biofuels are not economically competitive. Biofuel feedstock

sources being researched are halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, weeds-to-crops, wastes with contingent

restraints on use of crop land, freshwater, and climate change. There are five major renewable energy

sources: solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, drilled geothermal and biomass, each of which have an

order of magnitude greater capacity to meet all energy needs. All five address aspects of climate change;

biomass has massive potential as an energy fuel feedstock.

Introduction

While transportation fueling can accommodate a broad range of alternate fuels, aviation fueling needs

are specific, such as the fuel not freezing at altitude or becoming too viscous to flow properly or being of

low bulk energy density that shortens range. The fuel must also be compatible with legacy aircraft, some

of which are more than 50 years old, while satisfying aviation environmental constraints.

Worldwide, the aviation industry, with 4 percent annual growth, in 2006 alone used some 85 to

95 billion gallons of hydrocarbon-based “fossil” fuel, which is about 9 percent of that used by the

transportation industry. United States civil aviation alone consumes nearly 14 billion gallons. The

enormity of the problem becomes overwhelming, and the aviation industry is taking alternate fueling

issues very seriously. Our research is directed toward the alleviation of these issues.

Fundamental Problems

Biofuels—if sourced from halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, “weeds-to-crops” 1

 and wastes that use

wastelands, wastewater, and seawater—have the capacity to be drop-in fuel replacement for petroleum

fuels. As such, biojet fuel from such sources SOLVES the aviation CO 2 emissions issue without the

downsides of “conventional” biofuels, such as competing with food and freshwater resources. Most of the

existing fuels infrastructures are applicable. Processed alternate fuels, also termed “synthetic paraffinic

kerosene” (SPK) or “hydrotreated renewable jet”(HRJ) depending on feedstock sources, have thus far

proven to be equivalent in performance to jet fuel (Jet-A) in actual flight experiments, such as the Virgin

Atlantic flight from London to Amsterdam, with no discernable problems. For this flight demonstration,

1 Developing crops (which are planted and cultivated, with uniform maturity and productivity trends) from weeds,

which grow wild, are sporadic in these trends, and are often invasive.

NASA/TM—2009-215665
one of the four 747–400 engines was fueled on a biojet blend of 80 percent Jet-A and 20 percent

processed coconut oils. At present, processed-biofuel operational feasibility is essentially proven, or soon

will be.

Of the many current fundamental problems, the major biofuel problem is cost. There has not yet been

significant investment in the halophyte, algae, cyanobacteria, and “weeds-to-crops” crop residue and

wastes biofuel arenas. Algae is still a “boutique” crop. Halophyte costs are on the order of those for

conventional agriculture, with much reduced land and water costs; therefore, the halophyte cost picture is

currently more favorable than algae. Algae bioreactors are currently very costly, and previous studies

indicate that open-ponding algae cultivation is preferred from a cost standpoint. However, even open

ponding is not yet financially feasible. Research and development as well as creative engineering are

required to reduce these biofuels costs for fuels production. The capacity and operability are there, but

cost is the issue. Research is also ongoing in several areas of improvement including refining, processing,

and biologics with greater disease resistance, greater bio-oil productivity, reduced water and/or nutrient

requirements, and so forth.

Research and Development Approaches

Our current research is intended to aid both the industrial and aviation industries end-to-end in

biology, growth, capacity, processing, and refining activities. NASA in collaboration with industry and

other Government agencies are working the cost reduction issues from a systems standpoint, including

looking into powerplant and wastewater treatment plant synergisms and scaffolds at sea or in open waters

using continent-sized nutrient streams, such as the Gulf of Mexico below the Mississippi River outflow.

We are considering different modeling approaches, growth media, and refining approaches; different

biological feedstocks; methods of sequestering carbon in the process(es); fuel certification for aviation

use; and overall, ensuring that biofuels are feasible from all aspects—operability, capacity, carbon cycle,

and financial. We are providing common discussion grounds and opportunities for the various parties,

disciplines, and concerned organizations involved to share both issues and potential ways for moving

forward, and overall, we are trying to educate those concerned with the innate limitations of

“conventional” biofuels (lack of freshwater and arable land, essentially a lack of capacity) and the

solutions provided by nontraditional feedstocks such as halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, and “weeds-tocrops” (e.g., jathropha, castor, and camelina ) that use wastelands, wastewater, or saline water and have

an immense capacity potential.

Global Energy Perspective

There are five major renewable energy approaches, each of which has an order of magnitude greater

capacity than that required to replace all of the “fossil” fuels. These are wind, drilled geothermal, solar

photovoltaic, solar thermal, and biomass sourced from halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, or “weeds” on

wastelands using wastewater or saltwater. All of these are either now or soon to be at a lower cost than

coal with byproduct sequestration to make it as environmentally friendly. Biomass biofuels are unique in

providing transportation fuels. Electric vehicles, even if widely deployed, would nominally apply to only

about 28 percent of the petroleum consumed. 2 Remaining will be aviation, heavy rigs, and petrochemical

feedstock, for example, that will still require these fuels. Biomass, once the oils are extracted, can provide

both food stocks (feed) and 24/7/365 base electrical load via burnt biomass. Biofuels are nearly “carbon

neutral.” In the carbon cycle, plants take up the atmospheric CO2 during photosynthesis and sequester

2The 2006 transportation sector used 14 million barrels (Mbbl) of petroleum per day (out of 20.6 Mbbl/day),

which was 67.9 percent of total petroleum usage, with 15.5 percent for buildings, 7.5 percent for industry, and

1.8 percent for utilities (Ref. 1). Personal vehicles used 42.5 percent of the highway transportation fuel (Ref. 2,

Table 4.5). Electric vehicles at the present time would only supplant about (40 percent) x (70 percent) of the

petroleum; we would still need massive amounts of petroleum replacement(s).

NASA/TM—2009-215665
some of the carbon in their roots; the rest of the CO 2 is recycled back into the atmosphere when the fuel is

burned. It should be noted that current proposals to feed algae CO2 extracted from fossil fuel plant stacks

would increase the net energy produced by a given amount of fossil CO 2, but the generated fossil CO2 is

still largely released into the atmosphere. It is important to ensure that biofuels utilize, recycle, and

sequester existing and exhausted atmospheric CO2, if they are to be truly “green” and useful in combating

climate change to the extent possible. The other energy aspect of biofuels is a combination of financial

and capacity. Most projections for peak oil are in the near future accompanied by large demand increases,

leading to greatly increased prices and potential shortages. In addition to the climate aspects, this makes

biofuels a win-win approach, proffering as they do—at least the ones we are studying—massive capacity,

climate neutral-to-some sequestration, and ultimately, reasonable costs.

Concluding Remarks

Aviation fuels have unique requirements not imposed on other transportation fuels. The industry,

which consumes 85 to 95 billion gallons of “fossil” fuel (2006), growing 4 percent per year worldwide, is

actively seeking alternate fuel replacements.

1.Biofuels—if sourced from halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, and “weeds” (e.g., jathropha, castor,

and camelina) that use wastelands, wastewater, and seawater—have the capacity to be drop-in fuel

replacement for petroleum fuels.

2. Biojet fuel from such sources SOLVES the aviation CO 2 emissions issue without the downsides of

“conventional” biofuels, such as competing with food and freshwater resources.

3. Most of the existing fuels infrastructures are applicable.

4. Biojet fuel blends with Jet-A have been flight tested with no discernable problems.

5. Traditional biofuels rely on freshwater and arable land and essentially lack the capacity and

solutions provided by nontraditional feedstocks such as halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, and “weeds”

that use wastelands, wastewater, or saline water and have an immense capacity potential.

6. The major issue is COST.

7. Biomass fuels must utilize, recycle, and sequester existing and exhausted atmospheric CO 2 , if they

are to be truly “green” and useful in combating climate change to the extent possible.

8. Renewable energy approaches that can replace all of the “fossil” fuels are drilled geothermal, solar

photovoltaic, solar thermal, and biomass sourced from halophytes, algae, cyanobacteria, or “weeds” on

wastelands using wastewater or saltwater.

9. Biofuels represent a win-win approach, proffering as they do—at least the ones we are studying—

massive capacity, climate neutral-to-some sequestration, and ultimately, reasonable costs.

References

1. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S.

Department of Transportation.

http://www.bts.gov/publications/transportation_statistics_annual_report/2007/html/chapter_02/table_f

_03.html Accessed July 23, 2009.

2. National Transportation Statistics. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Transportation.

http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/2007/pdf/entire.pdf

Accessed July 23, 2009.

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14. ABSTRACT

Worldwide, aviation alone uses 85 to 95 billion gallons of nonrenewable fossil fuel per year (2008). General transportation fueling can

accommodate several different fuels; however, aviation fuels have very specific requirements. Biofuels have been flight demonstrated, are

considered renewable, have the capacity to become “drop-in” replacements for Jet-A fuel, and solve the CO 2 climate change problem. The

major issue is cost; current biomass biofuels are not economically competitive. Biofuel feedstock sources being researched are halophytes,

algae, cyanobacteria, weeds-to-crops, wastes with contingent restraints on use of crop land, freshwater, and climate change. There are five

major renewable energy sources: solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, drilled geothermal and biomass, each of which have an order of

magnitude greater capacity to meet all energy needs. All five address aspects of climate change; biomass has massive potential as an energy

fuel feedstock.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Alternate fuels; Biomass; Aviation; Emissions

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