Metallurgical Investigations into 

Corrosion Damage in Homes 

Constructed with Problem Drywall

R. E. Ricker

D. J. Pitchure 

M. E. Williams

S. A. Claggett

Report prepared for the

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

Directorate for Engineering Sciences

Bethesda, MD 20814

NISTIR 7809

This report was prepared for the US Consumer Product Safety Commission pursuant 

to Interagency Agreement CPSC-I-11-0009. It has not been reviewed or approved by 

the Commission and may not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.
NISTIR 7809

Metallurgical Investigations into 

Corrosion Damage in Homes 

Constructed with Problem Drywall

R. E. Ricker

D. J. Pitchure 

M. E. Williams

S. A. Claggett

Metallurgy Division

Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory

August 2011

U.S. Department of Commerce

Rebecca M. Blank, Acting Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Patrick D. Gallagher, Director
Metallurgical Investigations into Corrosion Damage

in Homes Constructed with Problem Drywall†

R. E. Ricker, D. J. Pitchure, M. E. Williams, and S. A. Claggett

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has received thousands of consumer 

reports of a particular type of drywall causing problems in homes in the United States. Many of 

these consumer reports blamed the presence of this malodorous “problem drywall” on corrosion 

failures in their heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systems, appliances, consumer 

electronics, and lighting fixtures. In response, the CPSC, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), 

and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) collaborated to investigate how 

corrosion accelerated by the presence of problem drywall could influence the reliability and 

functionality of fire safety systems in these homes. This report covers the metallurgical 

examinations associated with this investigation conducted by the Metallurgy Division of NIST. 

The investigations covered in this report focused on three critical issues: 

(1) the integrity of metallic structures used to contain natural gas, 

(2) the reliable function of smoke detectors alarms, and 

(3) the reliable function of heat sensing sprinklers. 

These investigations consisted of five phases: 

(1) the examination of samples removed from homes with “problem drywall” by CPSC staff 

and delivered to NIST for examination, 

(2) the in-situ examination of metallic components in two homes constructed with problem 

drywall by NIST and CPSC staff, 

(3) the examination at NIST of components selected during the in-situ examination of the 

homes with problem drywall,

(4) a collaboration between NIST, CPSC, and SNL to design, conduct, and analyze the 

results of accelerated corrosion tests on coupons selected to represent critical alloys and 

components in an environment designed to simulate approximately 40 years of exposure 

to polluted industrial atmospheres of the type found in homes with problem drywall, and

(5) the examination at NIST of smoke alarms and fire sprinklers that exhibited a change in 

performance following exposure to the accelerated corrosion testing environment at SNL. 

These studies found:

(1) dark-grey and black corrosion products on the surface of alloys containing copper and 

silver (this includes silvered mirrors and chrome-plated brass fixtures);

(2) deposits that were identified by X-ray diffraction to be sulfides of copper and silver;

 † The identification of any commercial product or trade name does not imply endorsement or 

recommendation by the authors or NIST. This report examines commercial products, but assumes that 

these represent typical products representative of those made by any manufacturer and that all 

observations are generic to all manufacturers.
(3) very little evidence of attack on steel or stainless steel components;

(4) dark and opaque corrosion deposits, such that a thin film can dramatically alter

appearance;

(5) a relatively small amount of attack compared to that required to compromise the 

structural integrity of the components examined;

(6) a relatively small amount of corrosion damage to coupons exposed to accelerated 

corrosion conditions designed to represent 40 years of exposure at SNL compared to that 

required to compromise the strength of materials in structural applications such as 

materials used to contain fuel gases;

(7) a failure in a microwave oven to operate due to formation and growth of silver sulfide 

between low-voltage control circuit contacts;

(8) similar silver sulfide deposits in the contacts for the alarm buzzer of a smoke detector that 

failed to produce a proper alarm in NIST function tests after accelerated aging at SNL;

and

(9) no clear cause for the failure of a heat-sensing sprinkler in NIST function tests after 

accelerated aging at SNL.

Based on these results, it is concluded that: 

(1) the corrosion damage and products found on components removed from these homes are 

consistent with exposure to a reduced sulfur compound such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S);

(2) the results indicate that this corrosion damage will not compromise the strength of 

materials in critical structural applications such as the containment of fuel gases;

(3) the corrosion damage to coupons exposed to accelerated corrosion conditions designed to 

represent 40 years of exposure at SNL was small compared to that required to 

compromise the strength of materials in structural applications;

(4) no evidence was found of a localized form of corrosive attack on any of the components 

or coupons examined;

(5) there are a number of applications where a small amount of corrosion at a critical location 

may inhibit function such as low-voltage electrical contacts, switches, valves, seals, and 

this include appearance for fixtures and furnishings; and 

(6) this form of attack has demonstrated an ability to get into systems where air can circulate 

and cause problems between contacting surfaces of the susceptible metals.
Metallurgical Investigations into Corrosion Damage

in Homes Constructed with Problem Drywall 

August 2011

R. E. Ricker, D. J. Pitchure, M. E. Williams, and S. A. Claggett

Materials Performance Group

Metallurgy Division

Material Measurement Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8553

ABSTRACT

A number of critical and noncritical life safety systems in residences are fabricated using

metallic materials that are subject to corrosion. Virtually all of the metallic materials used in 

residential construction are subject to corrosive attack by the normal residential atmosphere, as 

well as the other environments they may encounter. However, under normal conditions, the 

corrosion of these metals progresses slowly enough that degradation does not significantly 

influence the function of these systems before they are replaced for other reasons. A change in 

the chemical composition of the atmosphere found in a residence may alter this situation, and 

corrosion rates could be accelerated to the point that occupant safety is compromised. The U.S. 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has received thousands of consumer reports of 

“problem drywall” installed in homes in the United States. Many of these consumer reports 

blamed the presence of this malodorous “problem drywall” on corrosion failures in their heating, 

ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systems, appliances, consumer electronics, and lighting 

fixtures. In response, the CPSC, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), and the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology (NIST) collaborated to investigate how corrosion accelerated by 

the presence of problem drywall could influence the reliability and functionality of fire safety 

systems in these homes. This report covers the metallurgical examinations associated with this 

investigation conducted by the Metallurgy Division of NIST. 

The investigation focused on three critical issues: (1) the integrity of metallic structures used 

to contain natural gas, (2) the reliable function of smoke detectors and alarms, and (3) the 

reliable function of heat activated fire sprinklers. Essentially, the investigation consisted of five 

phases: (1) the examination at NIST of samples removed by CPSC staff from homes with 

problem drywall, (2) the in-situ examination of metallic components in two homes constructed 

with problem drywall, (3) the examination at NIST of components selected during the in-situ

examination of the homes with problem drywall, (4) collaboration with the CPSC and SNL to 

design, conduct, and analyze the results of accelerated corrosion tests on coupons selected to 

represent critical alloys and components in an environment simulated to represent approximately 

40 years of exposure to polluted industrial atmospheres of the type found in homes with problem 

drywall, and (5) the examination at NIST of smoke alarms and fire sprinklers that exhibited a 
change in performance following exposure to the accelerated corrosion testing environment at 

SNL. 

The results of the examinations of components removed from problem drywall homes 

indicate that a chemical compound that contains reduced sulfur, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 

is present in these homes at concentrations significantly higher than normally found in homes in 

the United States. Reduced sulfur species of this type accelerate corrosion, and the alloys most 

affected by these species are those that contain copper and silver. Copper and copper alloys are 

used in homes for plumbing, fuel gas pipes, brass fittings, HVAC systems, and electrical circuits. 

Silver and silver alloys are used in the electrical circuits of some consumer electronics, as well as 

in mirrors, jewelry, fixtures, tableware, and flatware.

While all types of metals were examined in the homes with problem drywall, only metals and 

alloys containing copper and silver showed evidence of accelerated attack. These metals and 

their alloys all showed a dramatic decrease in their luster, and in most cases, were covered with a 

dark opaque layer of corrosion products. In all cases where measurements were made, this layer 

was thin compared to the thickness of critical structural materials (i.e., fuel gas pipes and 

fittings). Of critical concern to the long-term reliable function of systems is the possibility of 

localized corrosive attack. Localized forms of corrosion, such as pitting, crevice corrosion, and 

stress corrosion cracking, enable corrosion to penetrate faster and deeper into a critical member 

than a uniform general attack. In addition, localized forms of attack complicate the prediction of 

service lifetimes or failure rates. No evidence of any localized forms of attack has been found on 

any of the collected samples examined or components examined after testing, to date. All results 

are consistent with a general attack form of atmospheric corrosion that should progress in a 

uniform and relatively predictable manner. 

At the Facility for Atmospheric Corrosion Testing (FACT II) at SNL, the long-term effects 

of exposure to atmospheric conditions of this type were evaluated via accelerated exposure tests. 

New corrosion coupons, smoke alarms, and fire sprinklers were exposed to an accelerated 

corrosion environment that the literature and the experience of SNL staff at FACT II indicated 

was the most representative accelerated corrosion environment for this type of atmosphere. The 

results of the examinations of components exposed to this corrosive environment showed no 

evidence of a localized corrosion form of attack on any of these samples. The NIST Fire 

Research Division conducted functional tests on the smoke alarms and fire sprinklers, and the 

results of these tests are reported separately. Smoke alarms and fire sprinklers that exhibited 

degradation in performance in functional testing after exposure were transferred to the 

Metallurgy Division for analysis. The results of these analyses and the analysis of the corrosion 

coupons mass changes are presented in this report.
1

Metallurgical Investigations into Corrosion Damage

in Homes Constructed with Problem Drywall†

August 2011

R. E. Ricker, D. J. Pitchure, M. E. Williams, and S. A. Claggett

Materials Performance Group

Metallurgy Division

Material Measurement Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8553

I. INTRODUCTION

Metallic materials used in home construction are subject to corrosive attack by the normal 

internal atmosphere of homes, as well as other environments they may encounter. The corrosion 

resistance of the metals in these environments is a major factor in determining the normal 

deterioration of the performance of household systems, appliances, and consumer goods. This 

includes the systems responsible for safely providing the home with utilities, such as electricity

and natural gas, in addition to systems that protect occupant safety, such as smoke alarms and 

fire sprinklers. Whenever any household system deteriorates more rapidly than normal, there is a 

high probability that accelerated corrosion is responsible. Also, whenever there is evidence of 

accelerated corrosion to noncritical systems in a home, there is good cause for concern about the 

reliable function of the life safety critical systems throughout the home constructed with similar 

metals and alloys. 

Of immediate concern is the significant number of reports of accelerated deterioration due to 

corrosion in homes constructed with a certain type of drywall. This “problem drywall”

generated many complaints from homeowners about accelerated corrosion that the U.S. 

Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) became concerned that this problem drywall 

contains chemical species that make the internal atmosphere of homes more corrosive. The 

CPSC also became concerned that this could accelerate the deterioration of systems that perform 

critical life safety functions to the point that they would fail to perform their functions 

satisfactorily in the future. As a result, the CPSC instituted a multitasked investigation to look at 

problem drywall and how it influences the performance of critical household systems. As part of 

this investigation, the Material Measurements Laboratory (MML) of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST) became involved, through an interagency agreement, to

examine metallic samples removed from service in homes constructed using problem drywall. 

 † The identification of any commercial product or trade name does not imply endorsement or 

recommendation by the authors or NIST. This report examines commercial products, but assumes that 

these represent typical products representative of those made by any manufacturer and that all 

observations are generic to similar products by all manufacturers.
2

The objective of these examinations is to identify potential corrosion-related failure modes, 

corrosion product chemistry, and potential chemical reactions. 

As a result, the CPSC, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), and the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST) collaborated in an investigation to understand how corrosion 

accelerated by the presence of this problem drywall could influence the reliability and 

functionality of fire safety systems, as well as gas components in these homes. This report 

covers the metallurgical examinations associated with this investigation that were conducted by 

the Metallurgy Division of NIST. 

This investigation focused on three critical issues: (1) the integrity of metallic structures used 

to contain natural gas, (2) the reliable function of smoke alarms, and (3) the reliable function of 

heat activated fire sprinklers. This investigation consisted of essentially five phases: (1) the 

examination at NIST of samples removed by CPSC staff from homes with problem drywall, (2) 

the in-situ examination of metallic components in two homes constructed with problem drywall, 

(3) the examination at NIST of components selected during the examination of the in-situ homes 

with problem drywall, (4) collaboration with the CPSC and SNL to design, conduct, and analyze 

the results of accelerated corrosion tests on coupons selected to represent critical alloys and 

components in an atmosphere designed to simulate 40 years of exposure to polluted industrial

atmospheres of the type found in homes with problem drywall, and (5) the examination at NIST 

of smoke alarms and fire sprinklers that exhibited a change in performance following exposure to 

the accelerated corrosion testing environment at SNL. 

II. LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS OF SAMPLES FROM HOMES

A. Sample Selection and Delivery

Representative samples of components with corrosion damage from homes constructed with 

problem drywall were collected, transported, and delivered to NIST by CPSC staff. These 

samples were received on September 28, 2009, and immediately cataloged. The samples 

received consisted of a number of lengths of copper tubing used as natural gas supply lines and 

two air conditioner heat exchanger coils. 

B. Visual Examination and Photography

The lengths of copper tubing were discolored to varying degrees. This discoloration, which 

is illustrated in Figure 1, was found to be due to the presence of a thin, adherent layer of a black 

substance. This is clearly illustrated in Figure 2, where the sample number has been scribed into 

the sample exposing fresh bare copper. While this black film adhered to the surface, physical 

contact would result in the transfer of a small quantity of a fine black powder from the film. In 

some cases, the discoloration was found to be very uniform, but in other cases it was irregular. 

The extent of discoloration varied with the thickness of the layer.
3

Figure 1 – Photographs of two representative samples of Cu fuel gas distribution tubing.

Figure!2!– Scribe!marks!illustrating!the!contrast!between!the!color!of!bare!copper!and!a!

sample!of!copper!natural!gas!line!tubing.

The air conditioner evaporator coils were also examined, Figure 3. From the two coils in this 

figure, all exposed copper surfaces appear to have turned dark. These coils are constructed out of 

parallel lines of copper tubing placed through thin sheets of aluminum (Al) that serve as the heat 

transfer fins. The copper tubing is linked by soldered U-bends to the ends of adjacent lengths of 

copper tubing. The end plates that hold this assembly in place are made out of galvanized steel. 

Copper manifolds and valves complete the assembly. Figure 4 is a close-up of the end plates and 

the U-bend region. In this figure, brown and orange corrosion products can be seen on the 

galvanized end plates, while black and green corrosion products can be seen on the copper 

tubing. The normal patina that forms on copper in the cyclically wet and dry environment of an

air conditioner evaporator coil would be expected to contain copper (I) or copper (II) ions in 

oxides (black to brownish-red), carbonates (green to blue), sulfates (bright blue), and chlorides 

(greenish white to blue-green).

1, 2 Again, the black color was found to be due to the presence of 

a thin layer of black powder.
4

Figure!3!– Photograph!of!the!two!air!conditioner!evaporator!coils!showing!the!black!

discoloration!of!the!copper!U?bends!and!corrosion!of!the!end!plate.

Figure 4 – Close-up photograph of the U-bends and end plate of an air conditioner evaporator 

coil showing that there appears to be five colors associated with the corrosion products: white, 

brown, orange, green, and black.
5

C. Identification of the Black Corrosion Product by X-Ray Diffraction

The black substance observed on the surfaces of the copper components was identified by Xray diffraction. This was accomplished by scraping the black substance from the surface of one 

of the samples of copper natural gas line tubing using a razor blade. The powder removed in this 

manner was placed on double stick tape and attached to a glass slide, as shown in Figure 5. A 

powder diffraction pattern was then obtained from this sample of scrapings using a Siemens

D500 X-ray diffractometer with a Cu Kα radiation source operated at 40 kV (kilovolts) and 30 

mA (milliamperes) using a step size of 0.03 degrees, and a dwell time of 5 seconds (s).

Figure!5!– Photographs!of!the!scraped copper!natural!gas!supply!line (a) and!the!slide!

holding!the!sample!for!X?ray!diffraction (b).

Figure 6 shows the results of these measurements in red along with the peak locations in 

black for copper metal (Figure 6a), copper (I) oxide (Figure 6b) and copper (I) sulfide (Figure 

6c) as listed in the International Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) for the phase of copper 

sulfide known as digenite (Cu1.80S or Cu9S5). This figure shows that peaks corresponding to all 

three of these phases are present in the sample of scrapings from the surface of the copper natural 

gas supply line. Given that the sample was collected by scraping the surface of copper metal 

with a sharp razor blade, the peaks for copper and copper oxide were expected because copper is 

a soft metal compared to the steel of the razor blade, and it will normally form copper oxide 

when exposed to air. The third phase, copper sulfide (Cu2S), is not a typical atmospheric 

corrosion product because the concentration of the reduced sulfur species, such as H2S, required 

to form this product, is usually very low under normal indoor atmospheric conditions.

1, 3-5

 Figure 

7 is a summary of the XRD results showing that all but two small peaks, indicated by question 

marks, are accounted for by these three phases.
6

Figure 6 – Measured X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the sample of corrosion products 

scraped off a Cu natural gas supply line in red compared with simulated patterns for specific 

structures in black (simulated peaks do not contain background noise): (a) Cu metal, (b) copper 

(I) oxide (ICSD #38233), and (c) the copper (I) sulfide phase digenite (Cu9S5) (ICSD #95395).
7

Figure 7 – Summary of peaks found in the corrosion product sample and their identification for 

showing that only two small peaks were unidentified by the three phases.

D. Air Conditioner Evaporator Coil Leak Testing

Leak testing was performed on the air conditioner heat exchange coils by attaching airtight 

fittings to the ends of the copper lines and connecting these to a helium gas detector. The inside 

of the coil was evacuated, and helium gas passed over different regions of the coils. No leaks 

were found by this method. Then the coils were pressurized with helium, and a solution of soapy 

water was squirted onto different regions of the coils. This method also failed to find any leaks in 

these coils. These coil samples had not been reported to be leaking refrigerant when installed in 

the house.

E. Air Conditioner Evaporator Coil Sectioning

To evaluate the possibility of corrosion damage occurring between the aluminum heat 

transfer fins and the copper tubing inside them, the heat exchanger unit was sliced with a band 

saw, as shown in Figure 8, to expose these internal surfaces for examination of the copper. No 

evidence of localized attack was found, and visual inspection did not detect a black corrosion 

product layer between the aluminum fins and the copper tubes of the evaporator coil. 
8

Figure 8 – Air conditioner evaporator coil after slicing to allow for examination for corrosion 

damage between the aluminum sheets and the copper tubing.

F. Measurement of Corrosion Product Layer Thickness

The thickness of the black corrosion product on a fuel gas supply tube was measured 

using optical microscopy of samples prepared in cross section. For this analysis, samples of 

natural gas supply lines were cut, mounted in epoxy, and polished, using standard metallurgical 

practice, exercising care to maintain the edge of the sample with the corrosion products in place. 

Figure 9 shows optical micrographs of this sample, where the corrosion product layer varied 

from (5 to 10 ± 0.5) μm thick.

Figure 9 – Optical micrographs of the wall of a copper natural gas supply line and the corrosion 

product layer at two magnifications.
9

III. EXAMINATIONS OF HOMES AND SELECTED SAMPLES

A. Sample Selection and Delivery

Two members of the NIST Metallurgy Division staff accompanied CPSC staff to Florida for 

the identification and selection of the second group of representative samples of corrosion 

damage in homes constructed with problem drywall that were in the process of undergoing 

remediation by the homebuilder. The team visited two homes that were at different stages of the 

remediation process. In one case, all of the drywall had been removed, and all of the appliances 

had been uninstalled and were in the garage awaiting removal from the premises. In the other 

case, the appliances and drywall were in the process of being uninstalled. The objective of this 

sample selection process was not just to identify and select the best samples, but also to learn as 

much as possible about the exposure conditions, corrosion damage, and the impact of the 

corrosion damage on the function of household systems from the in-situ examinations and 

through discussions with the home builder and remediation contractor staff present. Sample 

selection emphasized systems with metallic structures or components that have the potential for 

corrosion damage to compromise occupant safety. However, non-safety-related systems were 

also included in the sample collection process because understanding failure mechanisms in 

these systems that are installed in the same indoor atmospheric environment will enable 

understanding of how corrosion might, or might not, cause failure in the systems that influence 

occupant safety.

B. Home Inspections

Because the emphasis was on safety-related systems, the natural gas supply systems and 

appliances were examined first. Figure 10 shows the natural gas meter and inlet on the outside 

of one of the homes. No evidence of any corrosion damage beyond that normally expected for 

exposure to the outdoor atmosphere in Florida can be seen in Figure 10. Figure 11 shows the 

stainless steel flex tube used to connect the water heater to the gas distribution pipe. The Figure 

shows very little evidence of corrosion, while the outside of the brass fitting on the end is 

covered with a dark corrosion product. The brass visible on the inside of this fitting indicates the 

original color of this fitting. Figure 12 shows one of the wall electrical receptacles. As is typical

in homes made with problem drywall, the bare copper ground wire is covered with a thin 

uniform black film of corrosion products that is so uniform that it almost appears as if the wire 

were painted black or is covered with a thin layer of electrical insulation. Figure 13 shows the 

HVAC evaporator coil in a garage after removal of the side cover, and Figure 14 shows the 

corrosion damage in the attic unit from the same home. Both units show considerable 

discoloration of the copper tubes, indicative of the reaction of copper with a reduced sulfur 

species similar to that shown in Figures 6 and 7.
10

Figure 10 – Gas meter on the outside of a problem drywall home.

Figure 11 – Stainless steel fuel gas supply tube for the water heater. Note the contrast in the 

color between the inside and the outside of the brass fitting on the end. 
11

Figure 12 – Electrical wall receptacle in a home with problem drywall showing the characteristic 

black deposits on the bare copper ground wire.

C. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems

The homebuilder told NIST staff that both homes had experienced trouble repeatedly with 

the HVAC systems, which HVAC service providers attributed to loss of coolant pressure due to 

corrosion of the evaporator coil (A-coil). It was also reported that total replacement of the 

evaporator coil frequently was employed as a remedy and that both of the homes examined had 

their evaporator coils replaced at least once. However, these reports and the operational history 

of these units could not be documented, and the actual working status of the systems at the time 

of the NIST inspection could not be determined unequivocally. The evaporator coil shown in 

Figure 13, suspected to have failed in service, was tagged and shipped to NIST for laboratory 

examination. At NIST, the coil was pressurized and leak-tested, as shown in Figure 15. No

evidence of leaking was detected, and no loss of pressure was observed. Therefore, it is 

concluded that either: (i) this unit was not leaking in service, or (ii) the leak was not in the 

evaporator coil but in a connection or section of the pressure boundary not included in this 

sample. Therefore, no further examinations were conducted on this unit.
12

Figure 13 – HVAC unit in the garage of a problem drywall home.

Figure 14 – HVAC unit in the attic of a home with problem drywall.
13

Figure 15 – The garage HVAC unit shown in Figure 13 undergoing leak testing in the 

metallurgy laboratory at NIST.

D. Microwave Oven

During the visit, NIST staff was told that the occupants of these homes reported numerous 

cases of consumer electronics failing to operate properly. These reports seemed to indicate that 

systems whose function relied primarily on printed circuit boards (PCBs) and pushbutton 

controls were more susceptible to these premature failures than systems that used point-to-point 

wiring, such as furnaces, stoves, ovens, and cook tops. Microwave ovens fit this profile and are 

one of the appliances reported to be susceptible to premature failures. In response to questions 

about the nature of these failures, NIST staff was told that a microwave oven would appear 

functional but would not respond to commands entered on the front panel control module. It was

also reported that the failure of other consumer electronics occurred in a similar manner. 

Because microwaves are constructed largely with PCBs, use pushbutton controls, frequently are 

placed against drywall, and operate with cooling fans that draw potentially corrosive air by the 

electronics, it is not surprising that these systems would be among the most susceptible if there is 

a PCB or flat panel pushbutton-related failure mode induced by problem drywall emissions. The 

possibility that the same failure mechanism may operate in fire safety-related systems that use 

PCBs and low-voltage control circuits was deemed sufficient to warrant the acquisition and 

examination of a representative sample. As a result, a wall-mounted microwave oven that was 
14

reported to have failed to operate properly in one of the Florida homes was tagged and shipped to 

NIST for examination in the metallurgy laboratories.

Figure 16 – Removal of the control module of the microwave oven.

Figure 17 – Pushbutton controls with cover removed.
15

After arrival at NIST, the microwave oven was plugged into an electrical outlet, and it went 

through its self-checks in a perfectly normal fashion. However, when NIST staff attempted to 

operate the microwave oven, it failed to respond to any user pushbutton commands. The team

concluded that the power supply and related power systems were functioning normally and that 

the failure was in the low-voltage control circuits or the user pushbuttons. Because pushbuttons 

rely on making surface contact between metallic conductors, and because corrosion products are 

usually poor conductors of electricity, corrosion of the pushbutton contacts was the first failure 

mode hypothesis. As a result, the flat, front panel display and pushbuttons were removed (Figure 

16) and examined (Figure 17). There was no immediately obvious evidence of corrosion 

damage to the buttons that was sufficient to cause these systems to fail, as shown in Figure 17. 

However, corrosion was found on the silver contacts of the flat flexible cable (FFC) contacts that 

are inserted into the low-insertion force connector between the flat panel pushbuttons and the 

microwave oven.

The FFC plug was cut from the pushbutton unit and examined macro- and microscopically. 

Figure 18 shows a macroscopic photograph of this connector, indicating that almost the entire 

contact area of each silver FFC contact is covered with a layer of dark corrosion products, and 

only a small spot in the middle of each contact appears to be free of these deposits. Figure 19 is 

an optical micrograph that shows the black deposits on the silver connector of the flat flexible 

cable at the connector contact area and the scratches generated when the cable was unplugged. 

The team hypothesized that corrosion between the contacts of the low-insertion force FFC plug

and the copper contacts of the receptacle could be responsible for the failure of the unit to 

respond to any pushbutton commands. To determine which hypothesis was correct, the 

pushbuttons were connected to a resistance meter and operated. All of the pushbuttons 

immediately closed the circuit when pushed in a normal manner. All pushbuttons were operated 

numerous times, and not a single indication of any difficulty in achieving closed-circuit 

conditions was observed. Since the push buttons are encased between layers of polymeric film, 

it is not surprising that they should experience less corrosion damage than the freely exposed 

silver contacts of the FFC plug. However, the propagation of the corrosion between the contacts 

in the FFC low-insertion force connector is less obvious. As a result, the low extraction force 

FFC connector was reassembled, mounted in clear epoxy, and cross-sectioned for optical 

microscopy. Figure 20 shows the FFC low-extraction force connector in cross section. In this 

figure, the thin layers of corrosion products are just barely visible on the connecting faces of the 

contacts. The corrosion product will initially grow on the copper and silver surfaces openly 

exposed to air with the atmospheric contaminant produced by the drywall. The corrosion 

product that forms will be porous and will require more volume than the metal it replaces.6 

When this product grows at the point where the contacts come together, the volume expansion 

will push against the contacts opening up the gap allowing air to get deeper into the contact 

region. This process will repeat until a thin layer of corrosion product covers the entire contact 

region as shown in Figure 21.
16

Figure 18 – Flat, flexible cable plug for low-insertion force connector.

Figure 19 – Black deposits on silver connector for flat flexible cable, connector contact area, 

and scratches from unplugging the cable.
17

Figure 20 – Flat, flexible cable plug in low-insertion force connector mounted in clear epoxy, 

cross sectioned, and polished for microscopic examination.

Figure 21(a) – Optical micrograph of the contact area of the flat, flexible cable plug in 

between the spring contacts of the female receptacle in cross section.
18

Figure 21(b) – Higher magnification view of flat, flexible cable contact area.

IV. EXAMINATION OF COMPONENTS AFTER LABORATORY EXPOSURE TESTS

A. Laboratory Exposure Testing

Coupons of metallic alloys and samples of smoke detectors and fire sprinklers were exposed 

to controlled corrosive atmospheric conditions to enable estimation of the effects of long-term 

exposure to the problem drywall home atmosphere on these alloys and components. These 

exposures were conducted at the Facility for Atmospheric Corrosion Testing (FACT II) at Sandia 

National Laboratory (SNL). Considerable research can be required to identify environments for 

accurate emulation of long-term field exposures in relatively short laboratory experiments. 

Fortunately, Abbott7, 8 investigated accelerated testing environments for emulation of the effects 

of low-level pollutants, including H2S, on atmospheric corrosion of electronic components. In 

addition, the FACT II facility at SNL is specially designed for conducting tests in mixed flowing 

gas environments of the type that Abbott7, 8 found to produce the best emulation of field 

exposures of this type. Based upon the results of the indoor air quality study of residences with 

problem drywall, 9 the environments in these homes were classified as Class IV corrosive 

environments 8; the testing environment selected to represent this environment in accelerated 

testing is given in Table I. One week in this environment is believed to be equivalent to roughly 

5 years of exposure in a Class IV environment. The metal coupons were exposed to this 

environment for 60 days (8.6 weeks).

7, 8

 So, the corrosion damage on these samples should be 
19

roughly equivalent to that expected for 40 years of exposure in problem drywall homes. The 

uncertainty in this acceleration ratio is essentially unquantifiable because it assumes that all 

corrosion modes, kinetic factors, and incubation times are accelerated uniformly for all alloys, 

sample geometries, and components; and there is not 40 years of data for evaluation of these 

assumptions. This estimate also assumes a constant H2S level for the entire 40 years of 

exposure; however, because the drywall in a home has a finite volume of material, these levels 

will almost certainly decline over time. Accelerated corrosion tests of this type have been used 

successfully throughout industry and government for critical decision-making for nearly a 

century. In addition, the best state-of-the-art techniques and research were used in the design of 

these tests and the selection of the testing environment.

7, 8, 10 

TABLE I

The mixed flowing gas environment used to represent Class IV atmospheric corrosion 

environments in accelerated exposure tests at the FACT II facility at Sandia National 

Laboratories. These values represent the controlled input quantities of the gases. The gasses 

were supplied using permeation tubes and mass flow controllers. The chamber volume was 300 

L; the total flow rate was 12 L/m; the temperature 50 °C; and the pressure in the chamber was 

101 kPa.

Gas Volume per L in Air

H2S 200 nL

NO2 200 nL

Cl2 50 nL

H2O 75% Relative Humidity

B. Corrosion Coupons

(1) Sample Design and Alloy Selection. There were two objectives in exposing metals

and alloys to the accelerated test environment: (i) to enable estimation of failure times of life 

safety critical components, and (ii) to evaluate the potential for localized forms of attack, such as 

stress corrosion cracking, pitting, and crevice corrosion, which is especially hazardous for gas 

service piping components. These were identified as the objectives of these experiments in a 

meeting between staff from CPSC, SNL, and NIST. Because these were the objectives—and not 

functional tests of components—representative coupons, and not actual components, were used 

for these exposures. This decision was influenced by the measurements of corrosion product 

film thickness presented above in Section II.F (also Figure 9), where it was determined that 

functional failure of tubing or fittings should not occur in these tests, and simple pass/fail tests

would not produce any additional data. Therefore, it was decided to use flat, rectangular 

coupons that would produce the most accurate corrosion rate measurements. Stressed U-bend 

coupons of stainless steel and welded stainless steel were included to enable evaluation of the 

possibility of localized or stress-related corrosion attack. The geometry of both types of coupons 

followed ASTM guidelines,

11, 12 as shown in Figure 22. The samples were prepared, cleaned, 

and analyzed following ASTM procedures.

11-14
20

Figure 22 – Corrosion coupons designs selected for the accelerated corrosion tests.

Four alloys were selected for the flat corrosion rate coupons: (1) commercial purity copper 

(CDA 122), (2) Brass (CDA 360), (3) commercial purity silver, and (4) AISI 304 Stainless Steel. 

Four types of U-bend coupons were also used: (1) commercial purity copper (CDA 122), (2) 

brass (CDA 360), (3) AISI 304 stainless steel, and (4) welded AISI 304 stainless steel (with the 

weld at the apex of the bend). The stainless steel alloy was selected to represent corrugated flex 

tubing. The copper and brass alloys were selected to represent copper fuel gas tubing and brass 

fittings. Silver was included in this matrix, due to the observation of the failure in the FFC 

connector in the microwave oven. Silver was not included in the U-bends because it is not used 

under stress, and the welded 304 U-bend coupons were included to insure coverage of the special 

metallurgical variations in the heat-affected zones in stainless steels. Black iron and carbon steel 

were not included in the matrix because the home inspections did not indicate any serious 

acceleration of corrosion in these alloys. Five samples of each type and alloy, for a total of 40 

samples, were exposed in the FACT II chamber at SNL for 60 d. This exposure is expected to 

produce the corrosion damage anticipated after 40 y in service.

A commercial vendor, with experience in the fabrication of corrosion coupons that meet 

ASTM specifications, fabricated the samples. The samples were stamped with the alloy and 

sequentially numbered. The samples were then shipped to NIST, where they were weighed and 

shipped to SNL. At SNL, the samples were cleaned with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution 

(10%) to remove any corrosion inhibitors adsorbed during shipping and reweighed. The samples 

were then exposed for 60 d to the Class IV accelerated corrosion environment in the FACT II 

facility at Sandia and reweighed. The samples were then shipped to NIST, where they were 

weighed again and examined. 

 (2) Optical Examination Results. Figure 23 shows photographs of the five flat coupon 

samples of each alloy after exposure to the accelerated test environment at SNL. Figure 24 

shows a photograph of a representative sample of each alloy, after exposure, next to a sample 

that was not exposed to the accelerated test environment. By comparing these photographs, it 

can be seen that the alloys that contain copper formed very dark deposits that appear to be thick 

due to the dark opaque color of these deposits. The silver samples are also significantly altered 
21

by this exposure, although the change seems to be more of a case of loss of luster rather than the 

development of a corrosion product. No evidence of general or localized attack was observed on 

any of the stainless steel coupons. Similar deposits were found on the U-bend coupons, but no 

evidence of any form of localized corrosion, pitting, or stress corrosion cracking was found on 

any of the samples.

Figure 23 – Flat coupons after exposure to the simulated Class IV accelerated corrosion 

environment at SNL.

Figure 24 – Unexposed samples (left side) compared to samples of the same alloy after 60 

days of exposure to the accelerated testing environment at SNL (right side). The unexposed 

silver sample appears dark because its mirror-like surface is highly reflective.
22

(3) X-ray Diffraction Results. The corrosion product scales on the accelerated test coupons

were analyzed by X-ray diffraction for comparison to the scales found on samples removed from 

homes with problem drywall. This also enabled the use of corrosion product stoichiometry in the 

analysis of the coupon mass change measurements. A commercial diffractometer with a Cu Kalpha radiation source and a gas-filled 2D area detector at a 15 cm sample-to-detector distance 

with a field of view of 35 degrees was used. The X-ray beam spot size was 0.5 mm x 1.5 mm in 

lateral dimensions. Three consecutive scans were performed over the 2-theta range from 20 

degrees to 100 degrees. Table II shows the results of this analysis, and Figure 25 shows powder 

diffraction scans, one each obtained from a sample of copper (CDA122), brass (CDA360) and 

silver. It should be noted that the X-ray diffraction results show that the accelerated testing 

environment with its greater concentrations of reactants, including H2S, altered the corrosion 

product on the surface of copper and brass from the digenite phase (Cu9S5) found on samples 

removed from homes with problem wallboard to the covelite phase (CuS). The deposit on the 

silver sample was found by X-ray diffraction to be acanthite (Ag2S). A similar analysis was not 

performed on samples from problem drywall homes, but silver has only one sulfide phase that is 

stable at ambient temperatures.

Figure 25 – X-ray powder diffraction scans from samples of three alloys after exposure to the

accelerated testing atmosphere for 60 days. Table II summarizes the findings.
23

(4) Mass Change Measurement Results. Table III shows the mass of the flat coupon samples 

measured at NIST and SNL in Tables III(a) and III(b), respectively, with the standard deviations 

calculated for multiple measurements. Three of the flat coupons of each alloy were descaled 

following ASTM procedures (ASTM G01-0313) and then weighed (5 repeat measurements) after 

removal of the scale. The results of these measurements are provided in Table III(c). The 

remaining two coupons were used for X-ray diffraction and metallographic sectioning. In the 

case of calculated quantities, the uncertainty (Unc.) is an estimate of the expected standard 

deviation calculated from the standard deviations in the measured quantities.

TABLE II

Phases identified in the X-ray powder diffraction patterns from the corrosion coupons by 

matching peaks to known patterns in the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD).

Coupon material Ag CDA 122 CDA 360

Base metal 4-783, Ag (FCC 

metal)

4-836, Cu (FCC 

metal)

4-836, Cu (FCC 

metal)

Oxide None found 77-199, Cu2O

(Cuprite)

None found

Chloride None found None found None found

Sulfide 14-072, Ag2S

(Acanthite)

6-464, CuS

(Covellite)

6-464, CuS

(Covellite)

Other --- --- 50-1333, Cu-Zn

(alpha-brass)

TABLE III(a)

Mass change measurements for the flat corrosion rate coupons, as determined

from 5 repeat measurements performed at NIST. 

Alloy Sample 

#

NIST Before Shipping to 

SNL

NIST After receipt from 

SNL Mass Change

Mean, g Std Dev, g Mean, g Std Dev, g ∆M, g Mean, g Std Dev, g

CDA122

1 17.85110 0.000010 17.87266 0.000011 0.02156

0.02312 0.00127

2 17.84835 0.000010 17.87130 0.000007 0.02295

3 17.85590 0.000018 17.87946 0.000026 0.02355

4 17.85484 0.000005 17.87738 0.000006 0.02254

5 17.79816 0.000006 17.82314 0.000005 0.02498

CDA360

1 19.24950 0.000013 19.27859 0.000016 0.02908

0.02858 0.00047

2 19.19115 0.000024 19.21900 0.000017 0.02785

3 18.93715 0.000021 18.96579 0.000007 0.02865

4 19.45920 0.000010 19.48765 0.000020 0.02845

5 19.29652 0.000009 19.32539 0.000012 0.02887

Ag

1 8.70521 0.000005 8.70591 0.000013 0.00070

0.00073 0.00017

2 8.65373 0.000007 8.65418 0.000010 0.00045

3 8.68679 0.000007 8.68769 0.000020 0.00090

4 8.85010 0.000006 8.85090 0.000007 0.00080

5 8.80671 0.000013 8.80753 0.000007 0.00082
24

AISI304

1 14.32531 0.000013 14.32544 0.000005 0.00012

0.00012 0.00004

2 14.39346 0.000006 14.39362 0.000008 0.00016

3 14.36511 0.000011 14.36520 0.000018 0.00009

4 14.34643 0.000007 14.34650 0.000025 0.00007

5 14.39947 0.000004 14.39963 0.000020 0.00016

TABLE III(b)

Mass change measurements for the flat corrosion rate coupons, as determined from 

measurements conducted at SNL. Because the samples were pickled in HCl at SNL to remove 

surface films that may have been adsorbed during shipping, these masses should differ from 

those determined from the mass measurements conducted at NIST.

Alloy Sample 

#

SNL after Pickling SNL after Exposure Mass Change

Mean, g 

(3 Meas) Std Dev, g Mass, g (1 Meas) Std Dev, g ∆M, g Mean, g Std Dev, g

CDA122

1 17.85073 0.000002 17.87308 - 0.02234

0.02400 0.00118

2 17.84801 0.000002 17.87180 - 0.02380

3 17.85571 0.000001 17.88021 - 0.02449

4 17.85449 0.000002 17.87828 - 0.02379

5 17.79774 0.000002 17.82333 - 0.02559

CDA360

1 19.24840 0.000002 19.27833 - 0.02993

0.02932 0.00038

2 19.18970 0.000001 19.21864 - 0.02894

3 18.93654 0.000002 18.96562 - 0.02909

4 19.45843 0.000001 19.48765 - 0.02922

5 19.29593 0.000001 19.32533 - 0.02940

Ag

1 14.32616 0.000001 14.32626 - 0.00011

0.00011 0.00002

2 14.39440 0.000003 14.39452 - 0.00012

3 14.36604 0.000001 14.36618 - 0.00014

4 14.34731 0.000002 14.34742 - 0.00011

5 14.40038 0.000002 14.40046 - 0.00009

AISI304

1 8.70569 0.000002 8.70738 - 0.00169

0.00166 0.00007

2 8.65417 0.000001 8.65578 - 0.00160

3 8.68725 0.000001 8.68885 - 0.00160

4 8.85060 0.000002 8.85223 - 0.00164

5 8.80721 0.000001 8.80898 - 0.00177

TABLE III(c)

Mass change measurements for the flat corrosion rate coupons when descaled at NIST in a 

deaerated HCl solution.

Alloy Sample 

#

Before Descalling After Descaling Mass 

Chg. Scale Mass Estimates

Mean, g Std Dev, 

g Mean, g Std Dev, g

∆M 

(NIST) g

Est

Scale 

Mass

Mean Std Dev, 

g

CDA122 1 17.87266 0.000011 17.78143 0.000005 0.09123 0.08257

CDA122 2 17.87131 0.000005 17.77272 0.000000 0.09859 0.08992 0.08739 0.000038

CDA122 3 17.87947 0.000019 17.78112 0.000009 0.09835 0.08968
25

CDA360 1 19.27858 0.000007 19.18383 0.000015 0.09475 0.08608

CDA360 2 19.21899 0.000013 19.12886 0.000010 0.09013 0.08146 0.08295 0.000038

CDA360 3 18.96579 0.000008 18.87582 0.000004 0.08997 0.08130

Ag 1 8.70591 0.000012 8.69492 0.000007 0.01099 0.00233

Ag 2 8.65418 0.000004 8.64250 0.000004 0.01168 0.00302 0.00271 0.000042

Ag 3 8.68769 0.000025 8.67625 0.000009 0.01144 0.00278

CDA122

control 

samples

17.85760 0.000012 17.84893 0.000012 0.00867 - - -

CDA360 18.44150 0.000008 18.43598 0.000008 0.00552 - - -

Ag 8.79930 0.000016 8.79736 0.000016 0.00194 - - -

TABLE IV(a)

Analysis of the mass change measurements based on the mass measurements at NIST.

Material Alloy

Mass Change (∆M) ∆M/Unit Area Observed Corrosion 

Rate (d=60)

Estimated

Average

Penetration

Mean, g Std Dev, 

g

Mean, 

g/m2

Unc, 

g/m2

Mean, 

g/(m2

·d)

Unc,

g/(m2

·d)

Mean, 

μm

Unc, 

μm

Copper CDA122 0.02312 0.001270 8.0758 0.4438 0.1346 0.0074 1.79 0.10

Brass CDA360 0.02858 0.000474 9.9846 0.1655 0.1664 0.0028 2.33 0.01

Silver Commercial 

Purity 0.00073 0.000174 0.2754 0.0610 0.0046 0.0010 0.18 0.01

Stainless 

Steel AISI 304 0.00012 0.000038 0.0421 0.0134 0.0007 0.0002 NA NA

TABLE IV(b)

Analysis of the mass change measurements based on the mass measurements at SNL.

Material Alloy

Mass Change (∆M) ∆M/Unit Area Observed Corrosion 

Rate (d=60)

Estimated 

Average 

Penetration

Mean, g Std Dev, 

g

Mean, 

g/m2

Unc.,

g/m2

Mean, 

g/(m2

·d)

Unc, 

g/(m2

·d)

Mean, 

μm

Unc, 

μm

Copper CDA122 0.02400 0.001183 8.4747 0.4537 0.1412 0.0076 1.85 0.09

Brass CDA360 0.02932 0.000381 10.2319 0.2506 0.1705 0.0042 2.39 0.03

Silver Commercial 

Purity 0.00011 0.000018 0.0416 0.0068 0.0007 0.0001 0.03 0.00

Stainless 

Steel AISI 304 0.00166 0.000071 0.5934 0.0281 0.0099 0.0005 NA NA

(5) Estimation of Mass Change Rates. If one assumes a coupon composed of a pure metal, 

A, reacts with an environment species, B, to form a single stoichiometric compound of the form 

AxBy in manner such that all of the product formed is retained on the surface, then one can 

estimate the amount of A consumed in the reaction (QA) and estimate the average depth of 

penetration (<P>) from the mass increase of the coupon (∆M) using the stoichiometric 

coefficients of the product phase (x,y). In this case, all of the mass gain corresponds to the 

amount of B added to the surface to form the product and the average penetration is estimated 

from the density of the metal in the coupon (ρA) and the surface area of the coupon (SA). The 

quantity of A consumed by this reaction is then
26

(1),

where WB is the molar mass of B and the average depth of the penetration of corrosion into the 

sample is 

(2).

The results of estimating the average penetration depth in this manner are included in Table IV 

with the uncertainty (Unc) being an estimate of the standard deviation calculated from the 

standard deviations of the mass change measurements (σ∆M) into eq. (2) for the mass change and 

assuming the uncertainties in the other factors are insignificant compared to this factor.

Three coupons each of the copper alloy (CDA 122) and the free machining brass alloy (CDA 

360) were descaled following the procedure recommended for these alloys in ASTM G01-03.

13 

This procedure consisted of dipping the alloys into a deaerated solution of hydrochloric acid 

(HCl) until the scale was removed. Nearly all of the scale was removed immediately from the 

copper alloy, but the scale could not be completely removed from the brass alloy. The coupons 

were reweighed after this procedure, and Table V shows the results of these measurements.

The U-bend samples were examined to determine if there was any evidence of stress 

corrosion cracking, pitting, or crevice corrosion. These samples were examined by eye, 

macroscopically, and microscopically with a metallurgical microscope. No evidence of any of 

these forms of attack was found on any of these samples. Figure 26 and 27 are macro 

photographs of the apex of the bend section of all 20 of the U-bend samples exposed to the 

accelerated testing environment at SNL. Figure 26 shows the stressed face across the entire 

width of the bend while Figure 27 shows the edge and corner of the bend in each sample. In 

these figures, the thin layer of uniform corrosion product can be seen on the copper and brass 

samples, while there is no visual evidence of any attack on the stainless steel or the welded 

stainless steel samples.

QA = x

y

!

"

# $

%

&

'M

WB

P = x

y

!

"

# $

%

& 'MWA

WB! ASA
27

Figure 26 – Macro photographs of the bend apex in all 20 of the U-bend samples exposed to 

the accelerated testing environment at SNL.
28

Figure 27 – The edge of all 20 of the U-bend samples tested in the accelerated testing 

environment at SNL

C. Smoke Detector Alarms

(1) Smoke Detector Alarm Exposures and Functional Tests: Thirty-six (36) smoke alarms 

were subjected to accelerated aging in the Class IV environment (Table I) for 2 weeks. There are 

two different sensor technologies used to detect smoke in these alarms (photoelectric and 

ionization), and three designs of each type were exposed to the accelerated corrosion 

environment at the FACT II facility at SNL for 2 weeks. Research indicates that this exposure is 

approximately equivalent to 10 years of exposure in a light industrial environment containing 

some of the pollutants of the type found in homes with problem drywall.

7, 8

 Functional tests 

were conducted in the NIST Fire Safety Research Division and are reported separately.

15 In 

these tests, 9 smoke alarms exhibited differences in functionality, but only one failed to trigger 

an alarm when exposed to smoke. Five smoke alarm samples exhibited a weak or discontinuous 

alarm, four smoke alarms samples failed to signal alarm to the interconnect connection, and two 

samples lost connection to the AC power but functioned normally with power from the battery. 

All of the smoke alarm units that did not function normally were ionization-type alarms that use 

radioactive Americium as a source of ionizing radiation. One of the smoke detector alarms that 

failed to function was examined by NIST Metallurgy Division staff in the laboratory. 
29

(2) Results of Metallurgical Examinations: The smoke alarm examined was one that failed to 

produce a strong and steady alarm. Figure 28 is a photograph of this unit with the cover 

removed. In this figure, the circuit board, with the cell containing the electrodes and the 

Americium source and connections for the 9-volt battery are immediately obvious. Less obvious 

are the connections to the piezoelectric bending disc used for the alarm-sounding device. These 

connections are of the lever spring-type, and they are located on the upper left side of the circuit 

board in the figure. The piezoelectric alarm-sounding device is attached to the cover and makes 

electrical contact with these connections by pressing against them when the cover is put into 

place. Figure 29 is a photograph of two piezoelectric bending discs used for the alarm-sounding 

device in smoke alarms. The one on the left is from the alarm that failed to present a normal 

signal when it triggered the alarm, and the one on the right is from an alarm of the same type that 

had been used for smoke testing, but had not been exposed to the accelerated corrosion 

environment at SNL. The difference in the appearance between these piezoelectric discs is 

remarkable, and the one of the left appears to be covered with a black corrosion product that has 

spalled off, at several locations, at the point of contact with the spring connections, probably due 

to repeated disassembly and reassembly of the unit. To determine the composition of this black 

film, this sample was placed into the X-ray diffractometer and examined in the same manner as 

the corrosion coupons above. This analysis, Figure 30, found peaks for silver metal and silver 

sulfide (Ag2S). The silver sulfide phase was identified as the same phase found on the corrosion 

coupons listed in Table II (acanthite). Therefore, it is concluded that, as in the microwave 

connection, the growth and creep of Ag2S into the interface between the lever-type spring 

connections and the silver-coated piezoelectric of the alarm sounding device is responsible for 

the failure of this unit to make a normal alarm sound.

Figure 28– Open smoke detector alarm after exposure to the accelerated corrosion-testing 

environment at SNL.
30

Figure 29 – Comparison of the piezoelectric alarm tone-producing disks from a smoke 

detector after exposure to the accelerated corrosion-testing environment at Sandia National 

Laboratory (on left) to one from a detector not exposed to this environment (on right). These 

photographs were taken after smoke response testing where the one on the left failed to produce 

a normal tone while the one on the right functioned normally.

Figure 30 – X-ray powder diffraction scan showing peaks for silver and silver sulfide 

obtained from the surface of the piezoelectric buzzer disc shown on the left in Figure 29.

 

D. Fire Sprinklers

(1) Samples and Exposures: Fire sprinklers were exposed to the accelerated aging test

environment (Table I) at the FACT II facility at SNL for 4 weeks, and this exposure should be 

roughly equivalent to 20 years of exposure in homes with problem drywall. The function of 
31

these fire sprinklers was evaluated by the NIST Fire Research Division in their sensitivity test 

oven (plunge test apparatus), according to the oven heat test section of Underwriter Laboratories 

(UL) UL 199/UL 1626.

16 There are two main types of sprinkler activation elements. One type 

uses a glass bulb filled with a liquid that expands when heated causing the bulb to burst 

activating the sprinkler. The other type uses a low melting point eutectic alloy that melts when 

heated to activate the sprinkler. Only one of the sprinklers tested failed to operate properly after 

exposure to the accelerated testing environment. It was a fusible-link type sprinkler. The 

sprinkler that failed to operate was examined.

(2) Fire Sprinkler Results: Figure 31 shows the sprinkler that failed to activate in the NIST

plunge test on the left and a sprinkler of the same design that has not been exposed to the 

accelerated corrosion test environment on the right. From this figure, it can be seen that 

exposure to the accelerated corrosion testing environment turned all of the copper and brass parts 

of the sprinkler a dark black color. The thin black plate slightly inclined to the viewing angle 

near the middle of both units is the fusible link. It is actually two plates fused together with a 

low melting point alloy. The copper strip in the middle is the lever that is held in place by the 

fusible link. When a heat source melts the fusible alloy, the two plates separate, allowing the 

lever to move, which releases the strut behind the lever holding the valve cap in place. Figure 32 

is a close-up of the fusible links in the same units, and this figure shows how the fusible link 

holds the lever and the strut together, allowing the strut to keep the valve cap, shown above it, in 

place. The two plates fused together are similar in shape, except that opposite sides of the plates

have their corners turned up in a “dog eared” fashion. As a result, this view also allows a view 

of the fusion zone between the two plates; however, examination of this figure indicates that a 

black coating of some type has been applied by the manufacturer to limit access of the external 

environment to the plates of the fusible link or to the low melting point alloy. Figure 33 shows 

two views of a fusible plate from a sprinkler that successfully activated in the plunge test at 

NIST. The surface that mated the plate of the opposite side and the remains of the low melting 

point alloy can be seen on the surface of this plate. In addition, the lip left by the fracture of the 

coating when the plates separated can be seen in the plane view; the oblique angle of the second 

photo makes it clear that this substance came over and covered the fusible alloy. Chemical 

analysis of this coating and the fusible alloy is beyond the scope of the present work. 

Because corrosion could alter the contact of the pivot and lever mechanism, the force 

applied to the fusible link by the lever of the unit that failed to activate was measured by 

suspending weights from the lever and determining the mass that freed the fusible plate from the 

lever. The force the lever placed on the fusible link of the unit that failed to activate was 

estimated at 3.03 kg ± 0.05 kg and this compares to 4.84 kg ± 0.06 kg for a similar unexposed 

unit. While this is a large enough difference for one to detect by hand, 3 kg of force should still 

be enough force to separate the plates if the low melting point alloy between the plates melted 

and the plates were free to move. 
32

Figure 31 – A comparison between a lever-type, fusible-link fire sprinkler head after exposure to 

the accelerated corrosion test environment at SNL (left) and another one from the same batch 

that has not been exposed to this environment.

Figure 32 – Close-up of the fusible link of the units shown in Figure 31, demonstrating the 

gap between the two plates of the link where they are fused together. It should be noted that the 

black coating is on the fusible link of both the unexposed and exposed units.
33

Figure 33 – Two macro photographs of the plate from a fusible link plate from a sprinkler 

that activated in the plunge test at NIST. The remains of the fusible alloy are the silver-colored 

substances in the fusion region of the plate, and the remains of the black coating can be seen to 

form a lip on the edge of the fusion zone.

V. DISCUSSION

Figure 34 is a diagram of the stable phases of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide, at different 

partial pressures, on the surface of copper (concentration or activities). This diagram was created 

from the assembled list of postulated chemical reactions in Appendix A. The free energy change 

was calculated using the data of Wagman et al.,17 and the equilibrium line determined for the 

reaction with respect to variable oxygen and hydrogen sulfide partial pressures. For these 

calculations, it was assumed that the total gas pressure was 1 barr (approximately atmospheric 

pressure) and the relative humidity was assumed constant at 31.6 percent (where Log10[H2O] = -

0.5). By examining this figure, it can be seen that copper sulfide and copper oxide are stable-tovery low concentrations of these gasses in an atmosphere. The relative position of the Cu2S and 

the CuS phase fields in this diagram indicates that increasing the hydrogen sulfide concentration 

(as measured by partial pressure in the diagram), causes the stoichiometry of the stable phase to 

shift to a lower Cu/S ratio. Wagman et al.17 provide thermodynamic data for only two of the 

copper sulfide phase that can form. Fourteen different phases have been identified in the 

Copper-sulfide system,18-20 but the composition of these lie between these two extremes. Copper 

sulfides are non-stoichiometric compounds that will exchange ions with the atmosphere to 

equilibrate at intermediate concentrations of hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, it is not too surprising 

that a different phase of copper sulfide was found on the laboratory samples, as compared to that 

found in the homes with problem drywall. The greater concentration of hydrogen sulfide used in 

this environment to accelerate the test just moved the stoichiometry of the corrosion product to 

one of the lower Cu/S ratio sulfides.
34

Figure 34 – Diagram of the stable phases on copper metal as a function of the oxygen and 

hydrogen sulfide partial pressures (concentrations). This diagram assumes that the activity of 

water vapor in this atmosphere is constant at 31.6 percent relative humidity. 

It is interesting to note that both of the failures of electrical circuits observed in this study 

were at silver contacts in circuits that use relatively low voltages. Copper wire and contacts were 

present in the same systems, and yet the initial failure was with contacts that used silver. 

Copper and silver sulfides have a wide range of electrical conductivities,21 and the failure of 

silver contacts in industrial environments contaminated with hydrogen sulfide is a long-studied 

and well-recognized problem.22 

While hydrogen sulfide is an unusual contaminant in residential atmospheres in the United 

States, it is not an uncommon component at low levels in a number of industrial environments 

and industrial gases. Hydrogen sulfide is a common contaminant present in fuel gasses,

including natural gas. The corrosion of copper pipes for fuel gas distribution has been a concern 

in this industry and home construction for a number of years. Studies have been conducted to 

determine if it is safe to use copper tubing for fuel gasses that will be contaminated with 

hydrogen sulfide.

23 The Copper Development Association (CDA) and the International 

Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials have published documents on the use of 

copper for natural gas and other fuel gasses.24

The reason why the fire sprinkler failed to function in the plunge test has not been 

determined, and it may be difficult to ascertain unequivocally why this unit failed to operate 

properly in this test. The force applied by the lever to the fusible link was measured and found to 

be less than that of a unit not exposed to the corrosive atmosphere at SNL; however, there was 

still significant force on the link to pull it apart if the low melting point alloy melted at the 

correct temperature. This failure to operate could be due to a manufacturing defect, some change 
35

in the system caused by the corrosion, or a combination of these. However, there is no obvious 

visual evidence that the fusible link is damaged or assembled incorrectly. It appears identical to 

new sprinklers and those that worked properly. The melting point of the fusible alloy could be 

higher than normal, due to an error in manufacturing, or due to the selective corrosion of one of 

the alloy constituents from the edge of the fusible link leaving behind an alloy of the unattacked 

constituents, but one with a higher melting point. Dealloying, as this phenomenon is known, is 

common in alloys composed of active and noble elements. However, close examination of the 

crevice—where the plates of the fusible link mate and the low melting point alloy should 

reside—did not disclose any evidence of corrosion products that would indicate a problem of this 

sort. Additional studies on this unit, including metallurgical sectioning and chemical analysis of 

the alloy between the plates in the fusible link, should confirm or eliminate this hypothesis. 

VI. CONCLUSIONS

All of the corrosion damage observed to date is consistent with a general attack form of 

atmospheric corrosion that will progress in a relatively uniform and predictable manner. No 

evidence of any form of localized corrosion was found on any of the samples examined, to date. 

This includes samples removed from homes with problem drywall and the samples exposed to 

the accelerated testing environment at SNL. The sulfides produced by this attack are dark,

opaque substances, such that a thin film dramatically alters the appearance of susceptible metals,

such as copper, silver, and alloys of these metals. However, the rate and depth of attack are

relatively small compared to the safety factors typically used in design and materials selection 

for structural applications, where maintaining mechanical strength is critical to preventing 

failure. Therefore, it is concluded that this attack should not be expected to cause structural 

failures within the 40 years the corrosion tests were intended to represent, and this includes the 

copper pipes and brass fittings used to supply fuel gas to the homes.

Applications where appearance or some other surface-related property is important will be 

another matter. Applications that rely on reflectivity (e.g., silver mirrors), surface contact (valve 

seats), electrical conductivity of mechanical contacts, or sliding contact may find the growth of a 

dark semiconducting (or semi-insulating) layer disruptive to their normal function. Evidence of 

this was found in the microwave failure and the smoke alarm that was examined. Therefore, it is 

concluded that applications where a small quantity of critically placed corrosion can have an 

impact on function will be susceptible to failures by this form of attack. Atmospheric gases can 

permeate into systems and components that do not normally see corrosive substances and where 

corrosion resistance is not a large consideration in their design. 

VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A number of people contributed to this work at different stages of this investigation. While 

we cannot acknowledge everyone who assisted in this investigation, those who were particularly 

helpful include R. Khanna of CPSC, R. Sorenson and S. Luceron of SNL, and J. Averil, E. 

Hnetkovsky, and A. Putorti, and of NIST Finally, the support of the U.S. Consumer Product 

Safety Commission is greatly appreciated.
36

VIII. REFERENCES

1. N. de Zoubov, C. Vanleugenhaghe and M. Pourbaix, in Atlas of Electrochemical 

Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, edited by M. Pourbaix (NACE International, Houston, 

TX, 1974), pp. 384-392.

2. G. Valensi, J. VanMuylder and M. Pourbaix, in Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in 

Aqueous Solutions, edited by M. Pourbaix (NACE International, Houston, TX, 1974), pp. 

545-553.

3. K. Barton, Protection Against Atmospheric Corrosion - Theories and Methods. (J. Wiley 

& Sons, New York, 1976).

4. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, P. B. P. Phipps and P. Peterson, in Atmospheric Corrosion, 

edited by W. H. Ailor (J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982), pp. 651-666.

5. D. W. Rice, R. J. Cappell, W. Kinsolving and J. J. Laskowski, Journal of the 

Electrochemical Society 127 (4), 891-901 (1980).

6. S. J. Glass, C. D. Mowry and N. R. Sorensen, 2009.

7. W. H. Abbott, IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing 

Technology 11 (1), 22-35 (1988).

8. W. H. Abbott, Materials Performance (6), 55-58 (1991).

9. Anon., 2010.

10. J. Guthrie, B. Battat and C. Grethlein, The AMPTIAC Quarterly 6 (3), 11-15 (2002).

11. ASTM G30-97, in Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM Intl., West Conshohocken, 

PA, 2009), Vol. 03.01.

12. ASTM G58-85, in Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM Intl., West Conshohocken, 

PA, 2011), Vol. 03.01.

13. ASTM G01-03, in Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM Intl., West Conshohocken, 

PA, 2003), Vol. 03.01.

14. ASTM G46-94, in Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM Intl., West Conshohocken, 

PA, 2005), Vol. 03.01.

15. J. D. Averill, R. G. Gann, D. C. Murphy and W. F. Guthrie, 2011.

16. A. D. Putorti, J. D. Averill, R. G. Gann and W. F. Guthrie, 2011.

17. D. D. Wagman, W. H. Evans, V. B. Parker, R. H. Shumm, I. Halow, S. M. Bailey, K. L. 

Churney and R. L. Nuttall, Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 11 (Suppl. 

No. 2), 1-392 (1982).

18. M. E. Fleet, in Sulfide Mineralolgy and Geochemistry, edited by D. J. Vaughan (2006), 

Vol. 61, pp. 365-419.

19. E. Makovicky, Review in Mineralogy & Geochemistry 61, 7-125 (2006).

20. N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements. (Pergamon Press, NY, 

1984).

21. M. H. Hebb, J. Chem. Phys. 20 (1), 185-190 (1952).

22. G. Russ, IEEE Transactions on Parts, Materials, and Packaging 6 (4), 129-137 (1970).

23. F. F. Lyle, Final Rpt. Cont. No. 5088-271-1703, 1993.

24. P. Campbell, in IAPMO Official (Intl. Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, 

2004), pp. 12-18.
37

Appendix A

List of Reactions Between Atmospheric Air Contaminated with H2S

and the Surface of Copper Metal and Copper Bearing Alloys

I. Reactions between copper metal (Cu) and:

(1) oxygen to form cuprous oxide,

(A1)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A2)

(2) oxygen to form cupric oxide,

(A3)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A4)

 

(3) hydrogen sulfide to form cuprous sulfide,

(A5)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A6)

(4) hydrogen sulfide to form cupric sulfide,

(A7)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A8)

II. Reactions between cuprous oxide (Cu2O) and:

(5) oxygen to form cupric oxide,

4Cu +O2 !2Cu2O

2Cu + H2O!Cu2O+ H2

2Cu +O2 !2CuO

Cu + H2O!CuO+ H2

2Cu + H2S!Cu2S+ H2

4Cu + 2H2S+O2 !2Cu2S+ 2H2O

Cu + H2S!CuS+ H2

2Cu + 2H2S+O2 !2CuS+ 2H2O
38

(A9)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A10)

(6) hydrogen sulfide to form cuprous sulfide and water vapor,

(A11)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A12)

(7) hydrogen sulfide and oxygen to form cupric sulfide,

(A13)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A14)

III. Reactions between cupric oxide (CuO) and:

(8) hydrogen sulfide to form cuprous sulfide, 

(A15)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A16)

(9) hydrogen sulfide to form cupric sulfide,

(A17)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A18)

(10) hydrogen sulfide to form cuprous sulfide and water,

2Cu2O+O2 ! 4CuO

Cu2O+ H2O!2CuO+ H2

Cu2O+ H2S!Cu2S+ H2O

2Cu2O+ 2H2S!2Cu2S+O2 + 2H2

2Cu2O+ 4H2S+O2 ! 4CuS+ 4H2O

Cu2O+ 2H2S!2CuS+ H2O + H2

2CuO+ H2S!Cu2S+ H2 +O2

4CuO+ 2H2S!2Cu2S+ 2H2O+O2

CuO+ H2S!CuS+ H2O

2CuO+ 2H2S!2CuS+ 2H2 +O2
39

(A19)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A20)

IV. Reactions with cuprous sulfide (Cu2S) and:

(11) hydrogen sulfide to form cupric sulfide

(A21)

and this is related through the dissociation of water to the reaction,

(A22)

2CuO+ 2H2S+ H2 !Cu2S+ 2H2O

2CuO+ 2H2S!Cu2S+O2 + 2H2

Cu2S+ H2S!2CuS+ H2

2Cu2S+ 2H2S+O2 ! 4CuS+ 2H2O