Larry Wentz 

Center for Technology and National Security Policy 

National Defense University 

July 2006 

An ICT Primer

Information and Communication

Technologies for Civil-Military Coordination

in Disaster Relief and

StabilizationandReconstruction
ii

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official 

policy or position of The National Defense University, the Department of Defense, or the 

U.S. Government. All information and sources for this paper were drawn from 

unclassified materials. 

Larry Wentz is Mr. Larry Wentz is a Senior Research Fellow at the Center for 

Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, where he 

consults on Command and Control (C2) issues. He is an experienced manager, strategic 

planner, and C4ISR systems engineer with extensive experience in the areas of Nuclear 

C2, Continuity of Government C2, multinational military C2 and C3I systems 

interoperability, civil-military operations and information operations support to peace 

operations and numerous other military C4ISR activities. He is the author of Lessons 

from Bosnia: The IFOR Experience and Lessons from Kosovo: The KFOR Experience. 

Mr. Wentz has extensive experience in business process reengineering, strategic planning 

and commercial telecommunications and information systems and their use in support of 

military C2. Prior to joining CTNSP, Mr. Wentz was a research scientist at the George 

Mason University Center of Excellence in C3I. Before his assignment at GMU, he 

completed an ASD C3I Command and Control Research Program (CCRP) sponsored 

lessons from Kosovo study. Mr. Wentz conducted a similar CCRP sponsored study of 

lessons from Bosnia in 1996-1998 when he was at ASD C3I as the Deputy Director of the 

Command and Control Research Program. Prior to the Kosovo assignment, he served as 

Vice President of Advanced Communication Systems, Washington and before that spent 

thirty years with the MITRE Corporation, a not-for-profit Federally Funded Research and 

Development Center—two-thirds of his MITRE career were spent in Europe supporting 

US/NATO C4ISR interoperability and the remainder as Technical Director of the Joint 

and Defense-wide Systems division of the MITRE Washington operation. Prior to joining 

MITRE, he spent 10 years with Bell Telephone Laboratories as a telecommunications 

systems engineer. 

 

This paper is intended to be a living document. Please email comments, corrections, and 

clarifications to wentzl@ndu.edu. Updated versions of this paper will be available at 

http://www.ndu.edu/ctnsp/Defense_Tech_Papers.htm. 

Defense & Technology Papers are published by the National Defense University Center for Technology and 

National Security Policy, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, DC. CTNSP publications are available online at 

http://www.ndu.edu/ctnsp/publications.html.
iii

Acknowledgements

This publication grew out of a study initiated by the Center for Technology and National 

Security Policy (CTNSP) at the National Defense University (NDU), in partnership with 

the Contingency Support and Migration Planning (CSMP) Directorate of the Office of the 

Assistant Secretary of Defense, Networks and Information Integration (OASD NII). The 

study was also supported by the Department of State’s Office of the Coordinator of 

Reconstruction and Stabilization Operations (S/CRS) and Humanitarian Information Unit 

(HIU) and benefited from cooperation with Joint Forces Command (JFCOM) J9. 

Additionally, other organizations actively participated in and/or provided important 

insights and information. They included US government military and civilian elements, 

International Organizations (IO), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO), UK civilians, 

“think tanks,” academia and industry. Experts from these organizations lent their time, 

energy, wisdom and humor and provided invaluable insights from operational field 

experience, assessments of lessons learned, best practices, and other information products 

that helped make this primer possible. 

In addition to the organizations already noted, other U.S. DOD military and civilian 

participants included the Joint Staff, National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA), 

CENTCOM, SOCOM, Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), US Army Civil 

Affairs and Psychological Command (USCAPOC), US Army TRADOC and 350th Civil 

Affairs Command, US Navy SPAWAR and NAVAIR, Pacific Disaster Center (PDC), 

and OUSD Stability Operations and Policy. Additional Non-DOD contributors included 

other State Department elements and the U.S. Agency for International Development 

(USAID). IOs such as the United Nations (UN) Department of Peacekeeping Operations 

(DPKO), the UN Office of the Coordinator for Humanitarian Assistance (OCHA), the 

World Food Program (WFP) and its Joint Logistics Center (UNJLC), the UN 

Development Program (UNDP), and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 

also participated in providing information. NGOs provided assistance, including Search 

for Common Ground (SFCG), Mercy Corps, Save the Children, DRASTIC/PACTEC, 

NetHope, Humaninet and Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation (VVAF). Civilian 

experts from the UK and the UK Post Conflict Reconstruction Unit (PCRU) also 

provided critical information, as did “think tanks” such as the Institute for Defense 

Analysis (IDA), US Institute of Peace (USIP) and Center for Strategic and International 

Studies (CSIS). 

Numerous academic institutions also contributed their knowledge to this publication. 

These included the military Service schools and DOD institutions such as the Naval Post 

Graduate School (NPS), the NDU Institute for National Strategic Studies (INSS) 

including its Interagency, Transformation, Education and After Action Review (ITEA) 

Program, the NDU Industrial College of the Armed Forces, and the Army War College 

Department of Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute (PKSOI). Universities 

such as George Mason University, George Washington University and Eastern 

Mennonite University contributed as well. Finally, a variety of information and 

communications support to humanitarian assistance operations private industry players 

participated, including Groove, Global Relief Technologies (GRT), Morgan Franklin, 

Thoughtlink, and SAIC. 
iv
Contents

Foreword....................................................................................................................................... vii 

Introduction......................................................................................................................................1 

 The Universe of Crisis Response.........................................................................................1 

 The Case for Greater Cooperation, Collaboration, and Information Sharing......................2 

 ICTs as Enablers ..................................................................................................................2 

 The Need for Civil-Military Coordination...........................................................................5 

 The Role of DOD.................................................................................................................6 

Part One: The Nature of Challenge 

Participants in Civil-Military Coordination...................................................................................10 

 Taxonomy of Participation ................................................................................................11 

 Levels of Internal Support .................................................................................................18 

Information Needs .........................................................................................................................19 

 Performing a Needs Assessment........................................................................................19 

 Reliability Issues................................................................................................................20 

 What do Organizations Need to Know? ............................................................................21 

 Where Can Information Be Obtained? ..............................................................................23 

 Military Information Sources.............................................................................................24 

Civil-Military Cultures and Challenges.........................................................................................25 

 Military Organizational Culture.........................................................................................25 

 Establishing Humanitarian Space ......................................................................................28 

 The Civilian Information Environment .............................................................................29 

 The Military Information Environment .............................................................................31 

 Complex Operational Environments..................................................................................32 

 Building toward Civil-Military Coordination....................................................................33 

 ICT Support Challenges.....................................................................................................34 

 Commercial ICT Support Solutions...................................................................................38 

 

Guiding Principles .........................................................................................................................40 

 USAID’s Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development........................................40 

 Principles for Developing an Information Strategy...........................................................42 

 Information Management Principles..................................................................................43 

 Civil-Military Coordination and Cooperation Principles ..................................................44 

 Principles for Creating a Deployable Capability ...............................................................44 

 The Tampere Convention ..................................................................................................45 

 

Part Two: Tool Kits and Best Practices 

ICT Tool Kits.................................................................................................................................48 

 Telecommunications Networks .........................................................................................48 
vi

 Creating a Collaborative Civil-Military Information Environment...................................51 ICT

 Toward a Time-Phased Business Process Model ..............................................................56 

Data and Information Management ...............................................................................................61 

 Data Management ..............................................................................................................61 

 Information Management...................................................................................................63 

Best Practices.................................................................................................................................66 

 Best Practices of Civil-Military Information Exchange ....................................................66 

 Establishing a CIE..............................................................................................................71 

 Collecting Data, Managing Information, and Seeking Knowledge...................................72 

 Preparing for a Deployment...............................................................................................74 

 Considerations for Selecting VSAT Systems and Services...............................................80 

 VoIP Considerations ..........................................................................................................89 

 Considerations in Purchasing a VSAT System..................................................................91 

 Best Practices for Conducting Operations .........................................................................92 

 Employing a Website.........................................................................................................98

 Planning and Building Wireless Networks........................................................................99 

Trends in the Use of Commercial ICT.........................................................................................101

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................107 

 

Appendix A: Glossary..................................................................................................................108 

Appendix B: Internet Web Sites ..................................................................................................123 

Appendix C: Acronyms ...............................................................................................................132 

Appendix D: Civil-Military Interaction Advice from Strong Angel ...........................................136 

Appendix E: DOD/Military Documents, Field Manuals, and Joint Publications........................145 
vii

Foreword 

The field of civil-military coordination in humanitarian disasters and post-conflict 

stabilization environments is characterized by rapid change and a pragmatic orientation 

toward real-life events—which occur much faster than the life-cycle of any publication. 

The temptation is to worry that any published attempt to provide a primer for 

professionals in this field may be overtaken by events as soon as the document goes to 

press. For that reason, this primer does not claim to be the last word on improving 

information and communications technologies (ICTs) for civil-military coordination. In 

fact, it does not even claim to be the last word of this project. 

Much of this material was developed and refined through a series of workshops 

cosponsored by the National Defense University (NDU) and the Office of the Secretary 

of Defense, Networks and Information Integration (OSD NII). These workshops, held at 

NDU during 2005, drew participation and expertise from a wide variety of sources, 

within and beyond the U.S. government. The sponsors of this primer see no reason why 

this iterative process should stop, and every reason why it should continue. 

For that reason, this primer should be considered Version 1.0. It is likely to generate 

further discussions, which will then be integrated with lessons learned and best practices 

from additional humanitarian disasters, stabilization and reconstruction (S&R) efforts, 

and complex emergencies. This is all to the good. As the universe of experience with 

civil-military coordination expands, further editions are likely. 

The material generated for this publication should have a home beyond the written page. 

To allow full interaction with the text, and a fully transparent approach to its further 

development, an online version of the primer should be implemented, allowing additional 

postings and refinements by experts in the field. This electronic “living document”—

available through a portal or hub website—would serve as the embodiment of the kind of 

information management best practices that it discusses. We have no doubt that this 

interactive approach is both necessary and highly desirable. 
viii
Introduction 

The initial years of the 21st century have witnessed numerous large-scale crises, from the 

Indian Ocean tsunami and the Kashmir earthquake to longer-term, multi-faceted 

emergencies, such as those in Sudan. The United States has been involved as part of 

multinational coalitions in S&R missions in the Balkan states, Afghanistan, and Iraq. It 

has also provided humanitarian assistance in response to devastating natural disasters 

around the world. Increasingly, the scale and scope of such events involve both civilian 

and military components, as resources are stretched thin to support multiple ongoing 

crises. 

Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are key elements of the global 

response to crises, whether natural or man-made disasters or post-conflict S&R scenarios. 

ICTs are vital enablers of the coordination mechanisms that civilian and military 

organizations need to assist local populations and host governments. ICT capabilities and 

requirements need to be better understood, so that relief and reconstruction efforts can be 

better constructed and coordinated by all parties working in the interest of the affected 

population. 

This primer presents current knowledge and best practices in creating a collaborative, 

civil-military, information environment to support data collection, communications, 

collaboration, and information-sharing needs in disaster situations and complex 

emergencies. It consists of two parts. Part one defines and discusses the role of ICTs, the 

growing recognition of a need for improved collaboration, coordination, and information 

sharing, and the institutional and cultural characteristics of the various civilian and 

military participants in relief and reconstruction efforts. Part two draws real-world 

conclusions, provides best-practice recommendations, and offers practical checklists for 

maximizing use of communications and information management systems and processes. 

The Universe of Crisis Response 

As a threshold matter, it is important to address definitional issues involving different 

types of crises and the responses to those situations: 

• Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations generally follow 

rapid-onset natural or man-made disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, or 

large-scale industrial accidents. 

• Stabilization and reconstruction efforts often work in tandem with peacekeeping 

operations and are designed to stabilize and regenerate political and economic 

development in the aftermath of a conflict. 

• Complex emergencies are often broadly scoped humanitarian crises that develop 

from the progressive and mutually reinforcing impacts of political and military 

conflicts;,economic collapses, natural disasters, such as famine or drought, and 

systemic problems, such as high rates of pre-existing poverty. 
2

Clearly, these types of crises can differ in their causes and impacts, but the ICT support 

necessary for civil-military coordination in all of them has significant and numerous 

similarities, particularly in the earliest operational stages. These similarities stem from 

common occurrences in all kinds of natural and man-made disasters: significant (and 

perhaps wholesale) destruction of basic infrastructure and a breakdown in the societal 

mechanisms for individuals to obtain security, shelter, and other fundamental needs. 

Telecommunications systems are generally among the most vulnerable elements of 

infrastructure in any disaster or conflict, and their destruction or impairment can collapse 

a society’s entire nervous system, threatening governance, economic activity, and basic 

security. 

This primer is designed to be adaptable enough to assist ICT support professionals who 

are preparing or participating in future operations that might fit any one of the above 

definitions or, indeed (as many scenarios do) some combination of them. 

The Case for Greater Cooperation, Collaboration, and Information Sharing 

The purpose of this primer rests solidly on the premise that the growing complexity of 

crisis response efforts—and their increasing frequency and scale—call for a concerted 

effort to maximize the efficiency of communications and information management 

functions. Although many different groups and authorities can (and should) work in 

parallel, the pursuit of a common humanitarian purpose will be advanced through 

building what can be termed a collaborative information environment (CIE). 

Constructing a CIE is not primarily a technology issue—effective, low-cost network 

equipment and data management systems exist today, and more are being developed. 

Rather, the challenges are largely social, institutional, cultural, and organizational. These 

impediments can limit and shape the willingness of civilian and military personnel and 

organizations to openly cooperate and share information and capabilities. 

The recent spate of global disasters has sharpened the focus of attention on these sociocultural issues and institutional disconnects. Many specialists in the humanitarian relief 

and reconstruction community are now striving to break through the organizational 

Gordian knot that often replicates itself in every new disaster, complex emergency, and 

post-conflict environment. Much work remains in developing an information-rich, 

reliable, replicable, and easily accessible humanitarian information space. This primer 

tries to distill the lessons that have been learned and provide tools to continue this work. 

ICTs as Enablers 

ICTs are increasingly recognized as enablers of greater coordination in crisis response 

operations and national capacity building. ICTs provide the means to link the constituent 

parts of an integrated response and the subsequent development and capacity-building 

efforts. Figure 1 illustrates how ICTs enable capacity-building initiatives in multiple 

sectors related to security, justice, governance, and economic and social wellbeing. For 
3

optimum effectiveness ICTs have to be given higher priority in planning and 

decisionmaking in terms of both investment and implementation. 

Lines of Operation for 

Recovering, Reconstructing, Developing and 

Sustaining Affected Nation ICT

Public Telecommmunications (PSTN, Cellular, Data Networks, Tx)

Kiosks (Call Centers, Internet Café)

Military and Border Security 

Government and Private Sector ICT

Ministry ICT

Government Leaders

Emergency Services (Police, Fire, Rescue) 

Judicial and Penal System

(Surge capacity + Recovery + Reconstruction + Development)

Mass Public Communications (Face-to-Face + Speakers + Radio/TV + Print )

Figure 1 

Several specialized non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and companies have 

recognized as a business opportunity the importance of rapidly installing ICTs in disaster 

response operations. Many now offer ICT packages that include commercial satellite 

communications capabilities, “Internet-in-a-box” products, turnkey and managed 

information services, and long-term, host-nation capacity building to support egovernance and other communication and information needs. 

Part of the success of any effort to use ICTs to boost recovery efforts is what goes on 

before a disaster strikes or a complex emergency arises. Host governments, aid agencies, 

international organizations (IOs), and NGOs should be active in pre-planning and prepositioning supplies and equipment, particularly in areas prone to natural disasters. 

Civilian and military responders alike need to take into consideration the need for 

coordination in their response plans. Because ICTs are critical enablers of relief and 

development efforts, there is a real need to understand and share information on the ICT 

infrastructure in any given country that could potentially suffer from a natural disaster or 

complex emergency. This baseline knowledge can then inform pre-planning for how to 

replace or augment vital ICT capabilities when a disaster does occur. Moreover, in the 
4

vital early days of a disaster response, an accurate baseline picture will aid in making a 

thorough assessment of where damage actually has occurred and will help identify and 

shape early ICT surge, recovery, and reconstruction initiatives. 

Moreover, all stakeholders should keep in mind the long-range need to help host 

governments rebuild their ICT infrastructure. This means that, whenever possible, ICT 

actions taken in initial recovery stages should be done with a view toward leaving 

capabilities behind to jump-start the affected nation’s ICT development and capacity 

building. Hence, near-term recovery and mid-term reconstruction improvements need to 

be consistent and synchronized with the long-term development objectives for hostnation ICT capacity building. 

Kiosks (Call Centers, Internet Café)

Affected Nation Information 

and ICT Capacity Building

Multinational Responders (Mil, Civ Gov’t, IO, NGO)

Nation ICT (Surge capacity, Recovery, Reconstruction, Development, Sustain)

Mass Public Communications (Face-to-Face + Speakers + Radio/TV + Print )

Kiosks (Call Centers, Internet Café)

Recovery

Reconstruction

Development

Sustainment

Responder ICT

Affected Nation ICT Capacity Building

(Military, Civilian Gov’t, IO, NGO, Industry)

Public Communications

Surge Capacity

Figure 2 

Figure 2 illustrates the need to incorporate public communications strategies into the 

planning and implementation of disaster responses. Disaster relief responders must be 

able to communicate with the affected nation’s leadership and population. They can do 

this through phone kiosks, “tele-centers,” and Internet cafes, but also through mass media 

such as radio, TV, and print. These capabilities need to be an integral part of the 

responders’ ICT capability packages.
5

The Need for Civil-Military Coordination 

 

Civil-military coordination is of critical importance in both the planning and execution of 

the recovery process, whether the risk stems from a hurricane or a failed state. To a large 

extent, there can be no development without security, nor can there be any real security 

without development—particularly over the long term, in areas where devastation has 

degraded socio-economic conditions. 

Critical areas for civil-military coordination are: security, including rule of law; essential 

services, such as food, water, power, sanitation, medical, and shelter; logistics; 

communications; transportation; and information. The need for ICT capability is 

universal across these areas, and the way in which this need is met in the early stages of a 

disaster or complex emergency will be a key enabler in the host nation’s ongoing 

capacity building. It is, therefore, important to give early attention and priority to ICT 

deployment. 

The components of civil-military coordination consist of information and task sharing 

and joint planning—all of which depend on communications and management of data 

and information. The following issues, however, often complicate effective civilianmilitary coordination:

• A lack of understanding about the information culture of the affected nation; 

• Suspicions regarding the balance between information sharing and intelligence 

gathering; 

• Tensions between military needs for classification (secrecy) of data, versus the 

civilian need for transparency; 

• Differences in the command and control style of military operations versus 

civilian activities; and 

• The compatibility and interoperability of planning tools, processes, and civilmilitary organization cultures. 

The sharing of information is particularly critical because no single responding entity—

whether it is an NGO, IO, assisting country government or host government—can be the 

source of all of the required data and information. Making critical information widely 

available to multiple responding civilian and military elements not only reduces 

duplication of effort, but also enhances coordination and provides a common knowledge 

base so that critical information can be pooled, analyzed, compared, contrasted, validated, 

and reconciled. Civil-military collaboration networks need to be designed to dismantle 

traditional institutional stovepipes and facilitate the sharing of information among civilian 

and military organizations. 

Experiences and lessons from real-world relief efforts and post-conflict recovery 

operations suggest the need to create a common culture of trust in information networks 

and communications between civilian governments, military organizations, IOs, and 

NGOs. Communications must flow in all directions, all the time. Information structures 

need to be flexible (but not ad hoc). Finally, lessons learned need to be understood after 
6

each events, and the required improvements must be institutionalized. All of this must 

happen in the context of multiple levels of interaction: 

• Within organizations (including reach-back to home offices); 

• Between organizations (bilaterally); 

• Among organizations (multilaterally, as in a networked community); 

• With local leaders and decisionmakers; 

• With the media; 

• Among the parties in any ongoing conflict; and, perhaps most importantly, 

• With the local population.1

 

The global revolution in commercial ICT markets has contributed many valuable tools 

and removed many barriers to technical interoperability. But technology is only an 

enabler, trust is what sustains coalitions. Most of the remaining challenges involve 

reducing institutional, cultural, and social barriers that impede the building of trust and 

erode effective and timely collaboration. 

The Role of DOD 

Over the last several years, the Department of Defense (DOD) has become increasingly 

interested in the challenges associated with the transition from open conflict to postconflict environments—to stabilization and reconstruction. DOD focus on S&R 

operations reflects the Nation’s experiences in recent decades in responding to the 

complex suite of interrelated military, civil, economic, and political circumstances that 

arise in host nations and often influence the success of DOD missions in those areas of 

operation. 

In addition, the U.S. military has been increasingly active in providing support services in 

global humanitarian responses to major disasters, including the 2004 Indian Ocean 

tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in 2005. There is a growing recognition that military 

forces have significant assets—including ICT capabilities—that can be brought to bear 

rapidly to assist civil disaster response, recovery, and early reconstruction efforts. 

To assist in preparing ICT strategies for future S&R and HADR operations, DOD created 

the Contingency Support and Migration Planning (CSMP) Directorate within the Office 

of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Networks and Information Integration (OASD 

NII). In conjunction with CSMP, the Center for Technology and National Security Policy 

(CTNSP) at NDU initiated a cooperative study of ICT support for S&R operations that 

became the basis for this primer. 

DOD operates in tandem with, and often in support of, the civilian responder elements of 

the U.S. government, such as the Department of State (DOS) and the U.S. Agency for 

International Development (USAID), as well as IOs, such as the various United Nations 

 

1

 Sheryl Brown, United States Institute for Peace (USIP) Virtual Diplomacy Series, “Creating a Common 

Communications Culture: Interoperability in Crisis Management,” August 2005. 
7

(UN) agencies and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 

(IFRC), and NGOs, such as Mercy Corps, OXFAM, and Doctors without Borders. 

Moreover, in any given deployment, DOD must work with and support the affected hostnation government and civil society. 

A number of efforts are ongoing to strengthen U.S. government defense, diplomacy, and 

development initiatives to better link and coordinate responses to HADR and S&R 

operations. DOS has established the Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and 

Stabilization (S/CRS) to lead, coordinate, and institutionalize civilian government 

capacities to prevent or prepare for post-conflict situations and to help stabilize and 

reconstruct societies in transition from conflict or civil strife. U.S. military and USAID 

staff members have been detailed to S/CRS, which in turn participates in the exercises 

and other activities of the military’s combatant commands (COCOMs). S/CRS is also 

reaching out to other governments, IOs, and NGOs.

Meanwhile, USAID has created an Office of Military Affairs (OMA), which serves as the 

day-to-day operational link with DOD and is responsible for the development of longterm strategic relationships. USAID is also strengthening its relationship with DOS, 

which works with USAID in dealing with other governments and IOs. 

DOD has pioneered several initiatives, including the Afghan Reachback Office, which 

facilitates collaboration and coordination among DOD, DOS, and USAID for 

Afghanistan reconstruction activities. The COCOMs and other military elements, such as 

Civil Affairs (CA) units, are developing improved linkages with DOS and USAID. NDU 

and the military service schools and colleges are focusing on S&R operational training 

and education, including interagency coordination and outreach to the IO and NGO 

communities. The military educational institutions involved in such efforts include the 

Naval Post Graduate School Center for S&R Studies and the Army War College 

Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute. 

In keeping with this ongoing process of developing and reinforcing interagency 

cooperation, this primer is an attempt to: 

• Improve the ICT capacity of all players through appropriate civil-military 

collaboration, cooperation, and information sharing; 

• Allow the U.S. government’s ICT capacities—including those of DOD—to work 

more effectively with other players; 

• Work with other nations’ military and civilian government agencies—and with 

NGOs, IOs, and host countries—to facilitate civil-military support activities and 

enable the restoration, reconstruction, and development of host-nation ICT 

capacity; 

• Develop a more informed understanding of roles, capabilities, and information 

needs among civilian and military elements of S&R and HADR operations; and 

• Offer conceptual “toolkits” and best-practice recommendations for the use of 

ICTs in S&R operations, HADR relief efforts, and complex emergencies. 
8

It should be noted that this primer, in its published form, is only one potential vehicle for 

discussion and dissemination of best practices, lessons, and suggestions from all parties 

in the field of ICT support for military-civilian coordination. Future efforts may well 

include the building of an online, interactive version of this document—a “living 

primer”—that will integrate the lessons gleaned from ongoing events as they occur. The 

goal is to provide a focal point for the sharing of knowledge and the airing of views, 

building a common body of knowledge and setting a foundation for mutual reinforcement 

of best practices—all in the interest of helping those individuals and societies, as yet 

unknown, affected by future disasters, conflicts, and complex emergencies. 
9

PART ONE – THE NATURE OF 

THE CHALLENGE 
10

Participants in Civil-Military Coordination2

The HADR and S&R operational landscape includes numerous and diverse participants, 

all with good intentions. Typically, as noted by Humaninet,3 the participants “on the 

ground” consist of organizations and teams representing the following:

• Military forces of different nations; 

• Developed-country government aid agencies; 

• UN specialized agencies; 

• Non-UN IOs; 

• International and local NGOs; 

• Host-nation governments (national, regional, and local); 

• Volunteer, university, and faith-based teams and individuals; 

• Corporate and business sector teams and assets; and 

• Service providers and contractors. 

The diversity of the responding organizations and teams is, in many ways, a real asset. It 

allows different organizations to bring to the table complementary capabilities, resources, 

and expertise. But the various groups also bring with them different agendas, operating 

principles, sensitivities, expectations, accountability mechanisms, and lines of authority. 

Often, military and civilian authorities have little control over many of the participants. 

The information needed by each organization and team differs according to its mission, 

the situation on the ground, the needs of the population in the afflicted zone, the decisions 

of the host-nation government, and the phase of the response. It is a highly dynamic 

information environment. Informational needs can change by the hour and sometimes by 

the minute. Collaboration does happen, but often in an unplanned, unrehearsed way. 

HADR and S&R operations are necessarily messy and ad hoc, but the result is often a 

general lack of mutual understanding of roles, relationships, and capabilities. Not 

surprisingly, this contributes to a problematic lack of communication and information 

sharing among the civil and military elements of groups operating side by side. 

Absence of trust is a fundamental source of tension among the civilian and military 

participants, as well as the local population and elites. Therefore, the key to success and 

relationship-building among individuals and organizations lies in understanding the roles, 

relationships, capabilities, motivations, and information-sharing needs in this complex 

environment. It is also vital to manage expectations and ensure that all actions support 

these expectations. Early introduction of ICTs to facilitate collaboration, cooperation, and 

information sharing among the civilian and military elements is important not only to the 

success of security aspects but also to the successful capacity building needed to restore 

 

2

 Material in this section was derived from the Worldwide Humanitarian Assistance Logistics System 

Handbook provided by IDA for DOD, April 2004. 

3

 HumaniNet, www.humaninet.org, a nonprofit organization that supports humanitarian relief teams with 

practical assistance in global ICT.
11

the host nation’s governance and infrastructure and to begin the economic and social 

reconstruction process. 

Potential Global Partners 

During S&R Ops

Governmental

Non-Governmental

IGOs

NGOs

CJTF

Private Milit ar y

Corpor ation s

IOs

Aid Ag en cies Milit ar y F or ces

Affected

Nation

DPK O

MCD U

UN

Business

Community

Civilian M ilitary

M ultinational

Inter ag en cy Player s

OSCE

IFRC ICRC

EU

AU

OA S

AS EAN

Contractors

(1) Partners have

different responsibilities,

authorities, and capabilities

and expectations and agendas

(2) Roles of Pa rtners va ry

– Based on cause and 

urgency of operation

– Over time as conditions

So u rce: Ma rtin Lid y , IDA change

DoS

Figure 3 

The Taxonomy of Participation 

Figure 3 highlights the varied and evolving universe of agencies, institutions, and groups 

that provide different aspects of direct and indirect support. Still it is possible to define 

certain categories. Beginning with the U.S. government, as an example, the agencies 

likely to participate in domestic or international HADR and S&R operations include (but 

are not limited to) the: 

• National Security Council, 

• Secretary of Defense, 

• Various DOD agencies, 

• DOS (Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization, Humanitarian 

Information Unit, and Regional Bureaus), 

• USAID (the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, Office of Transition 

Initiatives, Field Missions, and Regional Bureaus), 

• Department of Homeland Security (Federal Emergency Management Agency), 

• Department of Transportation, 

• U.S. Coast Guard, 

• Department of Agriculture, 
12

• Department of Justice, 

• Public Health Service, and 

• Immigration and Naturalization Service. 

Other national governments have similar military and government agencies, such as in 

the United Kingdom the Department for International Development (DFID) and the PostConflict Reconstruction Unit (PCRU). Recognizing a gap in S&R response capabilities, 

Denmark recently has launched an initiative, the Concerted Planning and Action (CPA) 

of Civil and Military Activities, a cross-government committee to coordinate national 

responses to post-conflict operations. 

Sovereign nations often provide significant humanitarian assistance to other nations, 

bilaterally or multilaterally, to help with development or to mitigate and manage complex 

emergencies and disasters. Most donor nations have created governmental departments or 

agencies to implement this assistance in accordance with their national foreign policy 

strategies and objectives. Typically, these governmental entities are responsible for longterm sustainable development in various countries throughout the world, and for 

providing rapid assistance when a disaster or emergency occurs. 

To respond more effectively when time is critical, many of these agencies have formed 

organizations dedicated to disaster response. Some of these organizations provide teams, 

expert personnel, equipment, and supplies for humanitarian relief, whereas others 

contract significant portions of support to other government organizations or NGOs. 

Contributions may include in-kind or financial support, or a combination of both. In some 

cases, governmental bodies, such as civil defense organizations and aid agencies, may 

provide rapid response from standby personnel in response to appeals from affected 

nations’ governments or humanitarian agencies like those of the UN. Typically, these 

agencies divide the globe into geographic regions and assign areas of responsibility 

(AORs) to functional and regional bureaus. 

As representatives of their governments, overseas offices of aid agencies are often 

located at, or very near, their nation’s foreign embassies or consulates, and the assistance 

they provide is typically offered without expectation of reimbursement from the affected 

nation. Aside from USAID and DFID, which already have been mentioned, examples of 

donor agencies include the Australian Agency for International Development (AUSAID), 

the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), and the Canadian 

International Development Agency (CIDA). 

IOs such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the IFRC, and the Red 

Cross and Red Crescent National Societies are neutral intermediaries that play a 

significant role in supporting HADR and S&R operations. The ICRC is a private Swiss 

institution that acts as the “guardian” of the Geneva Conventions and intervenes during 

armed conflicts to protect and assist victims and visit prisoners of war and civilian 

detainees. It also participates in relief programs for displaced persons. The IFRC, on the 

other hand, is a coalition of national societies that intervenes to coordinate relief efforts 

for victims of natural disasters. In the event of armed conflict, it provides humanitarian 
13

assistance to displaced individuals, in coordination with the ICRC and the national 

societies. 

More than 180 nations have established their own national societies to offer humanitarian 

assistance and relief after armed conflicts and natural disasters. In most countries, these 

societies are known as the “Red Cross,” but in many Muslim countries they are known as 

the “Red Crescent.” In Israel, the national society is called the Magen David Adom. 

These Red Cross/Crescent organizations are guided by seven principles: concern for 

humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary service, unity, and 

universality. Humanity, impartiality, and neutrality also serve as the underlying principles 

of international humanitarian law and the Geneva Conventions. 

Inter-governmental organizations (IGOs) also cooperate on specific issues, such as 

economics, security, culture, politics, or common geographic concerns. IGOs promote 

common policies and preventive diplomacy, and they seek to implement international 

agreements, resolve disputes, and foster collective security. Some organizations, such as 

the UN, are globally focused and draw their membership from more than one region, 

culture, or language. IGOs such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM) 

are functionally based and include a wide range of member states and partners focusing 

on a particular issue. 

The UN system is a complex group of organizations, at the center of which is the UN 

Organization itself, which is composed of member states around the world. The member 

states make up the General Assembly and serve on the Security Council and various 

committees, all of which are supported by the UN Secretariat working out of New York. 

In terms of peacekeeping operations, the UN Department of Peace Keeping Operations 

(DPKO) takes the lead in putting together and managing UN peace operations. In such 

operations, the UN will appoint a Special Representative of the Secretary General 

(SRSG) to represent the UN on the ground and to manage military and civilian political 

operations. 4

In terms of humanitarian response, the UN coordinates the efforts of its various agencies 

through its Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). In countries 

affected by humanitarian emergencies, the UN will normally appoint a Humanitarian 

Coordinator to take the lead. The vast majority of UN humanitarian activity, however, is 

undertaken by the separate UN agencies, which include the: 

• World Food Programme (WFP); 

• UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); 

• UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF); 

• World Health Organisation (WHO); and 

• UN Development Programme (UNDP). 

 

4

 Based on writings of Paul Currion, a consultant on Information Management for Humanitarian 

Operations. See http://www.currion.net/imno.htm. 
14

These UN agencies are autonomous from the UN central organization and maintain their 

own management and administrative structures. Each UN agency undertakes a wide 

range of activities, including food distribution, infrastructure rehabilitation, health 

provision, water and sanitation, education, and protection of populations. In many 

humanitarian operations, one particular UN agency will be named the “lead agency” for 

coordinating a particular sector, and UN agencies will frequently sub-contract with NGOs 

to carry out specific tasks. 

Other IGOs retain a regional focus in dealing with a multitude of issues. For example, the 

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a political/military organization focused 

on the security and defense of Europe, North America, and the Atlantic Ocean basin. 

Since the end of the Cold War, NATO has also assumed an extensive role in UN Security 

Council-authorized regional peace support operations. The Organization for Security and 

Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional organization that fosters security and 

economic cooperation through the implementation of human rights, fundamental 

freedoms, democracy, and the rule of law. It brings together all the countries of Europe, 

Canada, and the United States as well as certain countries in Central Asia. 

NGOs are of many different types and sizes, ranging from major global organizations 

such as CARE and World Vision, to small charities. NGOs are established for many 

purposes and include political parties, labor unions, religious and social groups, 

community interest groups, research institutes, churches, professional associations, and 

lobbying groups. In humanitarian operations, international and national NGOs are 

important actors, channelling large amounts of private and public funding. NGOs carry 

out a wide range of activities in a variety of ways. Many of them have a sectoral focus, 

such as water and sanitation; a thematic focus, such as children or refugees; or a regional 

focus, such as Africa. Some NGOs are operational and carry out physical activities in the 

field while others focus more on policy or advocacy, for example, Amnesty International. 

It is impossible to list the complete range of activities that NGOs undertake—one 

organization known as Clowns Without Borders provides educational entertainment to 

children affected by disasters. But in general, NGOs work to eliminate the causes of 

humanitarian emergencies and mitigate their effects on human populations. Some of the 

larger, more experienced NGOs that respond to disasters also conduct long-term 

development projects. 

NGOs do not have the same legal sovereignty that IOs enjoy because most are not 

formed under international law. They are subject to the laws of the affected nations in 

which they work. They can support governmental entities through contracts or grants, but 

otherwise they typically have no formal authority and tend to act independently.5

 NGOs 

are, however, responsible to their boards of directors, accountable to their private 

contributors, and responsive to the particular governments that chartered them as 

nonprofit entities. Although they may take money from one or more government sources, 

NGOs are not instruments of their governments and do not usually take policy direction 

from institutional donors. Additionally, the UN has no mandate to direct the work of 

NGOs, nor do representatives of any governmental or intergovernmental organization. 

 

5

 NGO is the equivalent of the term private voluntary organization (PVO), sometimes used by U.S. groups. 
15

However, the UN does have a role to play in coordinating overall humanitarian 

operations, which may include NGOs within the “lead agency” system. 

The following list represents a sampling of the non-government community of 

participants: the IOs, IGOs, and NGOs. While it is by no means all-inclusive, it provides 

some sense of the staggering array of groups that may show up during a world crisis: 

• IOs 

o ICRC 

o IFRC 

o National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, for example the American 

Red Cross 

o SMOM (Sovereign Military Order of Malta) 

• Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGO) 

o UN agencies and offices 

 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) 

 Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UNDPKO) 

 UNHCR 

 WFP 

 UNICEF 

 Food and Agriculture Office (FAO) 

 WHO 

 UNDP 

o World Bank Group 

o International Monetary Fund (IMF) 

o NATO—Formally Linked to UN 

 Civil Emergency Planning 

• Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Center 

(EADRCC) 

• Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Unit (EADRU) 

• NATO Air Traffic Management Committee (NATMC) 

 Strategic Commands 

• Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) 

o Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF), such as IFOR, 

SFOR, KFOR, ISAF 

o Civil-Military Coordination (CIMIC) 

• Allied Command Transformation (ACT) 

 Partnership for Peace (PfP) Nations 

• IGO—Functional/Regional Focus 

o International Organization for Migration (IOM) 

o European Union (EU) 

o European Community Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO) 

o OSCE 

o Caribbean Community and Common Market (CRICOM) 
16

o Organization of American States (OAS) 

o Coordination Center for the Prevention of Natural Disaster in Central 

America (CEPREDENAC) 

o African Union (AU) 

o Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 

o Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 

• NGO 

o Cooperative Assistance for Relief Everywhere (CARE) 

o World Vision 

o Doctors Without Borders ( Médecins Sans Frontières-MSF) 

o OXFAM 

o Church World Services (CWS) 

o United Methodist Committee on Relief (UMCOR) 

o Mercy Corps International (MCI) 

o International Rescue Committee (IRC) 

o Catholic Relief Service (CRS) 

o International Medical Corps (IMC) 

o Danish Relief Council (DRC) 

o Norwegian Relief Council (NRC) 

o Save the Children 

o Alliances of NGOs: 

 InterAction (U.S.-Based NGOs) 

 International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA) 

Many of these organizations, such as the UN, CARE, Mercy Corps, and MSF often are 

already operating in a crisis area when the military components arrive, and they continue 

to do so, adapting their services to the contingencies that arise in a crisis. Figure 4 

compares selected characteristics of the potential participants. 
17

Characteristics of Potential 

S&R Ops Global Participants

Characteristics

Formed for a specific purpose

Consultative body of National Governments

Formed under International Humanitarian Law or 

Custom and Recognized as a sovereign entity

Directed by representatives of National Governments

Directed by private citizens

Funded by National Governments

Funded by private institutions or individuals

Not for profit entity

For profit entity

IO IGO NGO Business

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Research documented in IDA Document D-2349 “Potential Global Partners in Complex Contingencies,” currently in working draft.

Figure 4 

The international business community is also a key participant in HADR and S&R 

operations. Corporations have extensive capabilities to generate employment, investment, 

and economic growth in much of the world, and they maintain significant resources that 

are useful in foreign humanitarian relief and development operations. Many different 

types of businesses become involved in emergency operations, and for very different 

reasons. When a disaster or emergency occurs, companies are in a position to provide 

technical expertise, donate their products, or contribute financially to humanitarian 

response organizations. In potentially volatile areas, multinational corporations with a 

stake in a country or region have a vested interest in promoting stability and preventing 

conflict situations that could disrupt their business. Multinational corporations are often 

very knowledgeable about the host nations in which they operate. They establish working 

relationships with local and national authorities, employ local personnel, and have an 

understanding of the local dynamics and available resources. Moreover, they have fully 

developed supply chains. 

Additionally, the use of private military companies (PMCs) has emerged as a growing 

and controversial addition to the increasingly complex operations landscape, particularly 

in S&R or complex emergency scenarios. These companies provide services that until 

recently were considered the exclusive domain of national armed forces. Their customers 

include emerging national governments and military establishments, multi-national 

corporations and—increasingly—civilian and humanitarian relief organizations. Their 

presence is not universally understood, appreciated, or accepted; they are often referred to 

as “mercenaries.” Just as often, misunderstandings within the PMC industry itself give 

credence to this charge and do little to increase understanding. A legitimate PMC is not a 
18

mercenary organization. The PMC trend presents significant opportunities and economies 

to governments and humanitarian and civilian agencies alike. On the other hand, it can 

present serious risks to mission success for these same customers. It is absolutely 

essential for leaders within the military and civilian communities to understand both the 

risks and opportunities PMCs represent. A sample of companies falling into this category 

would include MPRI, DYNCORP, KBR, CACI, and BAH. 

Levels of Internal Support 

The U.S. military deploys with a comparatively high standard of internal logistical and 

material support, and in fact, the number of personnel, support packages, and overall 

“baggage” may seem excessive to others. But this support is designed to make the 

military as self-sustaining and self-reliant as possible. The practical value of this support 

apparatus is that it can be used to assist displaced civilians. However, the military 

standard of support is based on national government policy determinations and may differ 

from humanitarian relief agency standards. In addition, the military will constantly try to 

avoid “mission creep,” which occurs when armed forces take on broader or additional 

missions than those for which they initially planned or trained. 

Meanwhile, the mandate for internal force protection overrides nearly every other 

concern for the military. The term force protection refers to security procedures and 

arrangements to protect soldiers, civilian employees, facilities, and equipment that are 

part of the military organization. How force protection is implemented may have an 

effect on how, where, and when the military will become involved in relief activities. 

Each military operation will have rules of engagement (ROEs), which delineate the 

circumstances and limitations under which the military will initiate or continue combat. 

The ROEs also have significant impacts on disaster relief operations, affecting freedom 

of movement, security, logistics, and the perception of neutrality of the relief community 

in the eyes of competing factions. The military’s purpose generally is to create a safe and 

secure environment to enable the civilian government, IOs, and NGOs to conduct their 

humanitarian assistance, reconstruction, and development missions. Secondarily, force 

protection also is designed to protect those military elements directly involved in 

transport or other support activities. 
19

Information Needs6

Having understood the breadth of participation in HADR and S&R operations by 

multiple civilian and military actors, we now turn to the question of what particular 

information these entities need to fulfill their missions. The informational needs of 

military and humanitarian actors are different, even when they involve the same subject 

or topic. This stems from differences in for what purpose the data will be used and what 

implications the data may have for humanitarian operations. As a threshold matter, 

several principles should be kept in mind when discussing these information needs: 

• Common terms used by the military and civilians often have different meanings. 

For example, to a military organization the term sector means a geographic area 

of responsibility, but to humanitarian organizations it denotes a functional area, 

such as water/sanitation, food, or shelter. 

• The urgency of the need for humanitarian data may not always be readily evident 

to the military. When a data request is passed to the military, it may not always be 

treated with the highest priority, due to other informational needs deemed to be 

more pressing. It is best to avoid depending on the military for data that is timesensitive and has not been shared before. 

• When requesting data or information from the military, it is better to state the 

need in terms of the decision that must be made instead of the raw data that is 

being used to make that decision. For example, imagery of mountain passes is 

useful to humanitarians in determining when those passes might close to 

transportation. Instead of asking directly for imagery, it may be better to ask for a 

forecast of when the passes will close. 

Performing a Needs Assessment 

Organizations should perform a “needs assessment”7

 as part of their planning for what 

kinds of information services and products they will need, both before and during 

deployment. A needs assessment examines what kinds of information organizations and 

individuals will need to make effective decisions, and how they will receive (or not 

receive) that information. The aim of the assessment should be to get a clear picture of 

what is known as the information environment—the sources and markets for information, 

the flows that connect those sources and markets, and the institutions that mediate those 

flows. The basic questions that an information needs assessment should answer are:8

 

6

 Material in this section was derived from a presentation by Dennis King, U.S. DOS Humanitarian 

Information Unit, entitled “Humanitarian Knowledge Management,” given at the second international 

ISCRAM conference, Brussels, Belgium, April 2005. 

7

 Currion. 

8

 UN OCHA Civil Military Coordinator Course training material distributed at Santo Domingo, Dominican 

Republic, May 15-20, 2005. 
20

• What information is needed? Information needs cannot be determined in isolation 

from the rest of the disaster response. It is important to establish what activities 

the humanitarian community is planning and to broadly identify what sort of 

information will be needed to support these plans. Although there is a large body 

of core data needed in any emergency, differences in emphasis affect the 

collection and dissemination processes. Establishing information needs should be 

done in consultation with heads of agencies and any coordination bodies to ensure 

that the entire humanitarian community feels some ownership of the process and 

content.

• Who is going to use this information, and for what? The target audience and 

planned purpose of the information are both factors that will affect what methods 

should be used to collect, process, and present it. Be aware that the needs of NGO 

staff members who are implementing projects in the field are very different from 

the needs of heads of agencies. 

• What information sources already exist? Before embarking on a costly 

information-gathering exercise, one should make every effort to verify that this 

information does not already exist. It may help to contact other organizations, 

both in the field and outside the country, which might already have relevant 

information and be prepared to share it. 

• What resources exist for managing this information? Who is prepared to take on 

the costs of information management? If one can identify which organizations are 

going to be gathering information as a normal part of their activities, it is easier to 

support and improve their efforts. Information gathering in any response 

operation has five broad stages: collection, processing, analysis, dissemination, 

and incorporation of the new information into the decisionmaking process. 

• What constraints are there on successful information management? Security 

concerns can sometimes limit the collection of data, particularly where access to 

specific areas or groups is dangerous. Similarly, sharing information contained in 

a report might be politically sensitive. Competition for funding also jeopardizes 

information sharing when organizations feel that others may use or misuse 

information they have collected. All of these concerns must be addressed. 

Reliability Issues 

Identifying information exchange needs is not easy. Natural disasters, humanitarian 

emergencies, and S&R operations are, by their very nature, complex and dynamic 

situations. They are multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary, incorporating both the physical 

and social sciences. Information comes from a multitude of different sources and is 

constantly changing. It is often incomplete or contradictory. In some cases, there is an 

overload of information, and in other cases, there are complete gaps in what is known. 

Collecting information is often difficult, if not impossible, because of inaccessibility to 

the affected areas due to natural hazards, lack of a safe and secure environment, or 
21

government restrictions. Furthermore, much of the “available” data are actually 

estimations based on selective sampling or extrapolations of dated statistics, such as 

census information, projected growth rates, and proxy indicators. 

Also, a certain amount of misinformation and disinformation can be generated during 

S&R, HADR, and complex emergency situations. Governments and aid organizations 

may publish inflated or distorted estimates or data to appeal for higher amounts of 

international donor assistance. Any participating civil or military element may purposely 

conceal information it deems sensitive. The end result is that decisions about providing 

assistance or support often must be based on the best available information, however 

incomplete and insufficient. 

Another challenge is the inconsistent use of standardized meta-data when collecting and 

providing information. All incoming and outgoing data and information should include a 

type of provenance: the source and the date or time-stamp, so that other users can 

determine the credibility and currency of the content. It is also important to clearly define 

any ambiguous terminology and explain methodologies and indicators used to collect the 

data. Finally, data and information should be geo-referenced to include the 

latitude/longitude, geo-code, gazetteer place name, administrative unit and other 

identifiers. This allows the data to be entered into a geographic information system (GIS) 

and mapped. If these standards are followed, data and information provided by many 

different civilian and military organizations can be effectively pooled, compared, 

contrasted, validated, and used for analysis, mapping, and operational activities. 

What Do Organizations Need to Know? 

In any deployment, both civilian and military response organizations want answers to 

certain questions. For example, all organizations need background and situational 

information. But other types of needed information are more organization or specialist 

specific. Strategic-level policymakers, for example, want “big picture snapshot” analyses 

to understand the issues, make decisions on providing assistance, and identify problems 

and obstacles. Field personnel and project and desk officers, on the other hand, need 

more detailed operational and programmatic information to plan and implement 

humanitarian assistance and reconstruction programs. Most information needs can be 

divided into the following basic categories: 

Background/baseline information: Relief agencies and organizations need information 

about the country’s unique history, geography, population, political and economic 

structure, and culture. Beyond these general characteristics, they need more specific, 

baseline data reflecting the “normal” (that is, pre-disaster) conditions prevailing in 

various relevant sectors, such as, medical, transportation, communications, and food 

supply. Baseline data are also necessary so that relief organizations can compare the 

actual conditions they find during a complex emergency or following a natural disaster or 

conflict with prior conditions. Background and baseline information tells them the: 
22

• Country’s pre-crisis population (national, province/state, city/town) and its 

demographic composition (ethnicity, religion, age cohorts, urban/rural, political); 

• Pre-disaster geography(especially relevant following earthquakes, flooding or 

volcanic eruptions); 

• Recovery record from past disasters and natural hazards; 

• Most recent annual baseline health indicators for the population (crude mortality 

rate, infant/child mortality rates, HIV adult prevalence, and malnutrition); 

• Recent annual economic indicators, such as gross domestic product (GDP), gross 

national product (GNP), agricultural/food production, and staple food prices). 

Situational awareness information: Once the crisis has developed, organizations need to 

know the latest about the situation on the ground and information about the conditions, 

needs, and locations of affected populations. Some examples of situational awareness 

questions are: 

• What is the latest or most current humanitarian and reconstruction situation in the 

country? 

• What are the most recent severity indicators (death tolls, mortality rates, 

malnutrition rates, economic impact, and infrastructure damage)? 

• Who are the affected populations (refugees, children and other vulnerable groups, 

and resident populations), how many are there, and where are they located? 

• What is the assessment of damage to infrastructure (transportation, buildings, 

housing, and communications)? 

• What is the latest or most current security situation in the affected areas of the 

country? 

Operational/programmatic information: Organizations need information to plan and 

implement humanitarian assistance and reconstruction programs. Questions that program 

planners may ask include: 

• Where are (and what are the conditions of) the logistical access routes for 

delivering humanitarian and reconstruction assistance? 

• What assistance organizations are working in the country, what are their programs 

and capacities, and where are they working? 

• How is the host-country government responding and can it provide more 

assistance itself? 

• What are the programmatic/financial needs of the responding organizations? 

• What (and how much) funding is being provided to the response organizations 

and who are the donors? 

Analysis information: Data must be compiled and put in context to become useful as 

information. Information, in turn, needs to be interpreted and analyzed in relation to other 

thematic information. Analysis can include evaluations of issues and responses, 

projections about the future, and recommendations for policy decisions and operational 

deployments. Analysts can be expected to ask: 
23

• What were the causes and contributing factors of the emergency? 

• Have any constraints arisen in providing humanitarian and reconstruction 

assistance in the crisis, such as insecurity, inaccessibility, government 

interference, or other problems? 

• How effective are ongoing humanitarian and reconstruction assistance programs 

and responses? 

• What are the short-, medium- and long-term impacts of the emergency? 

• How are evolving political and economic conditions likely to affect assistance 

efforts in the future? 

• What are the options and recommendations for action? 

Where Can Information Be Obtained? 

The emergence of the Internet in the last 15 years has revolutionized the availability and 

dissemination of humanitarian and S&R-related information. Email has greatly facilitated 

the transmission of information between the headquarters of the humanitarian and S&R 

response organizations and the personnel, teams, and programs located in the field. The 

World Wide Web provides a vast virtual library of information to users with Internet 

access. 

At the same time, the Internet has added to the overload of information and the increasing 

difficulty in locating, extracting, and verifying the answers to critical questions. In fact, 

the Internet can complicate the tasks of information and knowledge management. 

Information assurance is just one of the many challenges—trust and self-policing are the 

norm for information sources on the Internet. No one organization is responsible for 

assuring the quality and integrity of information, and no set standards are in place for 

collecting and populating the various web sites with that information. All of this adds to 

the challenges of sharing information. 

Situational awareness information often comes in a seemingly common-sense form: news 

reports. But better sources are often found in the situation reports and field assessments 

produced by the response organizations working in the affected countries. These 

organizations also draft and issue appeals, proposals, and project monitoring documents 

that provide operational and programmatic information. Useful background/baseline 

information can be found in country profiles, maps, databases, and chronologies. 

Analysis is derived also from evaluations, lessons learned, research studies, and policy 

recommendations. 

Not everything that S&R and HADR organizations need to know, however, can be found 

in databases, documents, and visual products. Tacit knowledge is usually not 

documented, but rather derives from expertise, collaboration, and field experience. This 

knowledge is often imparted in briefings, discussions, and first-hand observations. 

“Seeing it for yourself” adds a great deal to one’s knowledge and understanding of any 

humanitarian emergency. 
24

Military Information Sources 

A large number of sophisticated intelligence collection systems are available to military 

participants. Most are designed for collection of information relevant to military 

operations. Consequently, many of these systems are extremely classified, and the 

information collected by these sources is carefully controlled by the military. Most 

information relevant and available to humanitarian responders will be collected on the 

ground.

The military is more likely to be effective in gathering data about tangible, measurable 

things, such as the length of an airfield and the number of structures in a village with 

intact roofs. It seldom has the skills to make more than broad observations about issues 

such as food security, access for ethnic minorities, or other broad-scope, demographic 

measurements.

For many militaries deployed outside of their own countries, direct interaction with the 

population is limited by policy, regulation, or tactics. Effective interaction, when it is 

permitted, may be further limited by language, culture, or distrust. Lower-ranking 

soldiers often collect much of the information, and they may lack cross-cultural or 

language skills relevant to the host population. In some militaries, however, dedicated, 

trained personnel interact with the population and conduct CA patrols to collect or verify 

data. It is important to know how the data was collected and whether or not it has been 

verified before taking action. 
25

Civil-Military Cultures and Challenges 

Most organizations have a distinct organizational culture—an often-unwritten set of 

rules, regulations, viewpoints, perspectives, and operating procedures. This culture is 

based on the unique history, mission, structure, and leadership of the organization. This 

section explores how differences between military and non-military organizational 

cultures affect crisis response operations and military-civilian coordination.9

Military Organizational Culture 

The military’s distinct organizational culture, which makes the military very effective in 

combat, may frustrate civilian relief organization personnel, who may find the military 

inflexible and inscrutable. For example, military organizations generally are: 

• Highly structured, hierarchical, and oriented toward “stove-piped” chains of 

command; 

• Authoritarian and command-oriented; 

• Focused on attaining mission goals (both explicit and implied); 

• Bound by extensive rules and regulations; 

• Characterized by elaborate process and scheduling regimes (the “daily battle 

rhythm”); 

• Driven by a “work hard, play hard” ethic; 

• Highly competitive; 

• Respectful of internal traditions; 

• Respectful of physical and mental toughness; 

• Respectful of age, experience, and seniority; 

• Trained toward an ideal of combat readiness; 

• Trained for battle skills, physical fitness, and equipment maintenance; 

• Trained to place a high priority on their own battlefield survival; 

• Trained to be secretive for operational security; 

• Led by officers who are taught to be assertive, decisive, tenacious, and confident, 

and to “make a decision and make it now!” 

• Apt to avoid or discount values of cooperation, collaboration, and nonconformity. 

By contrast, civilian relief organizations often have radically different organizational 

cultures and structures. They tend to be less formal, less authoritarian, and less focused 

on internal traditions or security concerns. NGOs, for example, have a much “flatter” 

structure than the military. Normally, an NGO is headed by an executive officer (no 

standard naming convention exists, but the top official may be called a Country Director, 

Head of Mission, Chief of Party, or Program Manager). Underneath the executive 

officers, commonly will be a senior staff, which may include project managers, 

administrative officers, and security officers, among others. The next layer of 

management may be the project staff—water and sanitation engineers, medical staff, 

 

9

The following discussion draws heavily on the UN OCHA Civil Military Coordination Course. 
26

media officers, and others. Often a mix of international and national staff members work 

side by side within NGOs, particularly at the project level. Because of this flatter 

structure, most NGO staffs have a greater level of flexibility and autonomy than their 

military counterparts. 

Some NGOs are reluctant to collaborate with military entities and some are not. It 

depends on the NGO, the individual staff members representing that NGO in the field, 

and the situation in the country. If the military units are part of a UN peace operation, 

then NGOs are more likely to be receptive to cooperation. However, if the military units 

are belligerents in a conflict, NGOs are unlikely to want any working relationship with 

them. The reason for this is fairly simple. To maintain their neutrality and impartiality, 

NGOs cannot be seen as favoring or supporting a specific side in a conflict. Even if the 

NGOs’ principles are not being compromised through cooperation with belligerents, they 

must be sensitive to the perceptions of the local communities and authorities they seek to 

help. This is also the reason that many NGOs, traditionally, do not use armed guards for 

their staff or premises, as this might undermine their acceptance with the community. 

Moreover, most NGOs simply do not have much experience in working with the military. 

The UN and NGO communities are in the process of developing clearer policies on civilmilitary relations. But while these are developed and implemented, all sides must 

continue to work with each other in the field—often overcoming an acute lack of mutual 

understanding of each other’s goals, priorities, or processes.

Both military and civilian organizations are diversified on a functional basis with 

differing organizational structures. On the military side, the administrative, intelligence, 

operations, logistics, and CA elements report directly to the commander. In civilian 

organizations, the functions of the administrative, public information, program, supply, 

transport, and protection units are more autonomous. In field operations, this difference 

can prove frustrating for both the military and the civilians. Heads of humanitarian 

offices are not commanders in the military sense. They may lack the single point of 

contact the military seek. This means, for example, that a military commander may have 

to deal with a logistics manager on operational matters and a different manager on legal 

matters. Without knowledge of particular civilian organizations’ functional divisions, this 

can be confusing to the military. 

Another common area of difficulty is the differences in logistical support networks. 

Civilian and humanitarian organizations often lack rear support. NGO operations are 

almost entirely donor-driven and subject to "pipeline" delays. Much of their 

decisionmaking authority devolves to staff members in the field. Moreover, civilian 

“command and control” (C2) does not always emanate from a single central point. 

Counterparts to military officers—and especially NGO counterparts to military officers—

tend to receive decisionmaking authority at a younger age than do military 

decisionmakers. This generation gap has been known to exacerbate the cultural difference 

between civilians and the military. 
27

Civilian organizations commonly seek to achieve maximum efficiency in the use of 

limited resources. They stretch material and human resources as far as possible and tend 

to be less geared toward end states or goals. Accountability may be less rigorous than in 

the military. Civilian organizations tend to pride themselves on being light-footed and 

flexible in emergency situations, yet may lack a facility for long-range planning. Hence, 

civilian flexibility and military precision may conflict in joint operations. Civilians may 

be inclined to judge military achievements solely by their end results without paying due 

regard to the careful training, preparation, and planning upon which military success is 

founded. Hence, outsiders may perceive military units as well-resourced in human and 

material terms and then form unrealistic expectations of what those units will do. 

Conversely, military personnel often expect field meetings to be highly structured and 

efficiently managed. A military leader is expected to listen to succinct briefings (usually 

accompanied by PowerPoint slides) and make clear decisions without hesitation. Military 

representatives will come to meetings expecting everyone to leave with their “marching 

orders.” As a result, they may view civilian meetings that wind their way slowly toward a 

consensus as direction-less, inefficient, and lacking in leadership. Sensing what they 

perceive as a “vacuum” in direction, military officers may attempt to assert their own 

leadership—intending to help. Other military personnel may simply become frustrated, 

lose interest, and not participate further. 

The military is highly concerned about operational security, which results in a reluctance 

to share information about planned military activities. This does not keep the military, 

however, from wanting in-depth information about civilian activities. The military will 

respond well to clearly stated missions, efficient processes, organization, responsibility, 

and competence. It will judge harshly any operation weak in these areas and may show 

insensitivity when expressing that judgment. 

Some military leaders may be concerned that humanitarian operations degrade combat 

readiness. Sensitivity to suffering is not always viewed as a virtue on the battlefield. This 

can result in a desire to minimize participation in some operations. Although 

humanitarian operations may be viewed with mixed feelings organizationally, the 

military is excellent at dutifully executing national direction. If that direction is clearly to 

support humanitarian operations, the response can be delivered effectively with a singleminded purpose. 

A common perception among NGOs is that “the military is not a humanitarian actor.” 

They believe that when military forces provide assistance to a civilian population during 

a conflict, it is often to further the policies of their national governments, provide force 

protection, and meet their international legal obligations. Yet under exceptional 

circumstances, such as when civilian aid providers are unable to operate for security 

reasons, many civilian leaders acknowledge that military assistance is appropriate. 

However, many NGOs still weigh the risks associated with cooperating with military 

elements against what appears to be meager benefits and often opt to go it alone. They 

deem it to be more important to retain their image of independence and impartiality by 

avoiding association with the military. 
28

There are, however, two key roles that humanitarian organizations often want the military 

to play,10 whether it is a UN peacekeeping force, a national armed force or, in the absence 

of both, local militia: 

• Maintenance of a secure environment in which aid can be delivered on a neutral 

and impartial basis. What this means in practice needs to be developed on the 

ground. For instance, it does not normally mean providing armed convoys, 

because the need for armed convoys demonstrates that the environment is not 

secure. 

• Protection of civilians as required by international humanitarian law and, where 

applicable, human rights law. This is increasingly a concern for many NGOs, 

particularly those who adopt a rights-based approach. It requires the military to 

take a more active approach to ensuring the rights of communities where they are 

deployed. 

Where appropriate, the UN and NGOs may request military support, particularly from a 

peacekeeping force. This may be necessary for logistical reasons: transport of personnel 

to inaccessible areas, transport of material supplies for humanitarian relief, or 

rehabilitation of roads, bridges, and culverts.

When the operational focus shifts from humanitarian assistance to reconstruction, civilian 

and military roles may become blurred, and interference with each other’s efforts can be 

a problem. The military often lacks a long-term development focus and will sacrifice 

sustainability for speedy results. Moreover, the military generally has little or no training 

or expertise in international development. It is often criticized for conducting redundant 

assessments and inadequately coordinating with civilian elements, leading to duplication 

of effort. The military also may discount the long-term capacity of the local population to 

sustain development projects. Civilian groups perceive that military reconstruction 

projects would be more effective if they fully leveraged the military’s unique engineering 

capabilities to repair basic infrastructure such as roads, bridges, power stations, and water 

supply systems. This would allow civilian agencies to do their own work more effectively 

and contribute to a sense of good will among the local populace by facilitating the restart 

of commercial activity and employment. 

Establishing Humanitarian Space 

Having identified differences between military and civilian operating cultures is not the 

same as saying cooperation and sharing of information are impossible or inadvisable. 

Military objectives are driven by political objectives, and humanitarian actions are driven 

by concern for the affected population. Where these objectives and concerns coincide, 

effective civil-military cooperation can be established. In fact, it is neither uncommon nor 

unlikely for militaries to be given the task of carrying out a political objective, such as the 

creation of a stable political environment with full respect for human rights, which 

dovetails with humanitarian objectives. 

 

10 Currion. 
29

When the affected national population is a military target, however, cooperation is 

virtually impossible for humanitarian actors. As a result, a key factor in the deployment 

of civilian organizations is establishing and maintaining a conducive humanitarian 

operating environment. This is sometimes referred to as "humanitarian space" and is 

defined as the independence, flexibility, and freedom of action necessary to gain access 

and provide assistance to beneficiaries in a humanitarian emergency. 

To effectively promote the respective missions of the military and the civilian 

organizations, each must have their own spheres of operation or "spaces" and information 

integrity. They need to coordinate work toward the common goal of protecting and 

helping the local population and leaders when their needs and objectives overlap. The 

civilian and military elements must share suitable, protected mechanisms for exchanging 

information. Effective coordination is essential to establish and protect the “humanitarian 

space” and to meet the collective capacity-building objectives of the affected nation. 

The Civilian Information Environment 

Humanity, Neutrality, Impartiality 

To achieve the goal of alleviating suffering wherever it is found, all parties must perceive 

that aid workers and organizations are adhering to the key operating principles of 

humanity, neutrality, and impartiality. Consequently, maintaining a clear distinction 

between the roles of humanitarian actors and military actors is often the determining 

factor in creating an operating environment in which humnitarian organizations can 

discharge their responsibilities effectively and safely. Sustained humanitarian access to 

the affected population is ensured when the receipt of humanitarian assistance is not 

conditioned on any profession of allegiance to a party in a conflict. Humanitarian 

assistance should be perceived as a right independent of military and political allegiance. 

UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 offers the following specific definitions of 

humanity, neutrality, and impartiality: 

Humanity: Human suffering must be addressed wherever it is found, with 

particular attention to the most vulnerable in the population, such as children, 

women, and the elderly. The dignity and rights of all victims must be respected 

and protected.

Neutrality: Humanitarian assistance must be provided without engaging in 

hostilities or taking sides in controversies of a political, religious, or ideological 

nature. 

Impartiality: Humanitarian assistance must be provided without discriminating as 

to ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political opinions, race, or religion. Relief of 

suffering must be guided solely by needs, and priority must be given to the most 

urgent cases of distress. 
30

In addition to these three humanitarian principles, the UN seeks to provide humanitarian 

assistance with full respect for the sovereignty of states. As also stated in General 

Assembly Resolution 46/182: 

The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of States must be fully 

respected in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. In this context, 

humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of the affected 

country and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the affected country. 

Information Sharing among Civilian Groups 

Information sharing is often less restrictive among civilian aid workers and organizations 

than between civilian and military groups. Civilian groups use Internet web sites and 

portals extensively to share information. But their implementation of ICT capabilities is 

usually ad hoc, and information management and control are less structured than in the 

military. NGOs will frequently form their own formal or informal coordination bodies 

and monitor each other’s activities, since bad practices by one NGO make the entire 

NGO community look bad. Members of an NGO community frequently decide on joint 

positions on key issues, and then use peer pressure to ensure that the entire NGO 

community adopts those positions. 

The most active coordination mechanisms are normally sectoral (functional area) groups 

that focus on a particular topic, such as refugee camp management. In these groups, very 

strong coordination is frequently in place. It is at the broader, policy level that 

coordination tends to be weaker, although the UN normally takes the lead at this level. It 

is worth remembering that large variations can occur between different NGOs. Some 

NGOs are large, professional organizations with a long history in humanitarian work. 

Some are very small and not as well organized. NGOs have no obligation to coordinate 

with each other, and the different character of each NGO gives it a different approach to 

coordination.

 

Meanwhile, there continues to be a reluctance to share information with the military, due 

to the civilian groups’ desire to remain independent and neutral. Private aid groups do not 

want to be perceived by the population and affected nation’s leadership as an 

intelligence-gathering arm of the military. Additionally, when information is provided to 

the military, it is frequently absorbed into the classified system, making it unavailable to 

civilians—even to the group that originally provided it. 

Yet, it is clear that HADR and S&R operations could benefit immensely if both military 

and civilian responders contributed and shared information needed in the humanitarian 

space. What is required is a protocol for providing information that does not compromise 

the goals of the overall humanitarian effort. 
31

The Military Information Environment 

In modern military forces, communications and information management are components 

of a broader concept referred to by some forces as command, control, communications, 

computers, and intelligence (C4I). Military communications and information technology 

(IT) systems are designed to ensure that the chain of command, essential control 

functions, and the intelligence process extend throughout the military force. These 

dedicated internal systems are among the most vital in any military operation. If an 

adversary can disrupt, damage, or destroy these systems, the ability of the force to 

function and even survive is at risk. 

To protect the integrity of these systems, access to military communications and 

information management systems is carefully controlled. Levels of access to both 

communications channels and the actual information in the system are limited. Access to 

information is managed through a system of “classification” that determines whether 

information is sensitive or not. All military personnel have security clearances that 

determine the level of information to which they have access. Within a level, their access 

is further restricted by their “need to know.” In other words, they are only given access to 

the sensitive information they need to know to perform their jobs. 

Military personnel are consistently reminded to maintain “information security” and 

“operational security.” The latter refers to protection of the intentions, plans, and 

capabilities of the forces. Thus, information is linked to the security of the force and 

denying potential adversaries knowledge about the force. As a result, military personnel, 

as a matter of policy and training, are hesitant to share information. Access to facilities 

where this information is collated, shared, or disseminated is strictly controlled. 

Military commanders, even at the highest level, have limited authority to share classified 

information with personnel who have not been vetted. Information received from 

intelligence agencies is often classified and controlled by the intelligence agencies. 

Commanders in the field normally have no authority to share this information beyond 

approved addressees, even within their own organizations. 

Among the most important of controlled facilities is the “operations center” in a 

headquarters or the “command post” at the lower tactical level. These locations are 

critical nodes in the C4I system. Access to these locations is always restricted and, in 

combat operations, military forces will attempt to keep these locations secret. Unescorted 

access to these areas is rare, even for personnel with the appropriate level of security 

clearance. 

In situations where the military recognizes the need to share unclassified (non-sensitive) 

information with humanitarian and other civilian actors, this information will normally be 

shared via a civil-military operations center (CMOC) or, in NATO parlance, a civilmilitary cooperation center (CIMIC). Other information-sharing avenues may include the 

dispatching of military liaison officers to meetings, electronic bulletin boards, Internet 

web sites/portals, or even simple exchanges of e-mails. 
32

Complex Operational Environments 

The decision to intervene in a conflict is political and the military mission in support of 

the intervention reflects the political process. In a post-conflict or disaster response mode, 

however, the primary mission of the military is to create a safe and secure environment so 

that civilian government agencies, IOs, and NGOs, can conduct humanitarian assistance 

and assume appropriate responsibilities for civil policing, justice, governance, economic 

reconstruction, and nation-building activities. The military is not there to do the jobs of 

the civilian agencies and organizations. 

However, when security is not established, the military may find itself obligated both to 

impose security and, temporarily, engage in crucial humanitarian assistance, governance, 

restoration of essential services, and other reconstruction assistance until the security 

environment allows civilians to take over these tasks. The civil-military mission is, in this 

circumstance, to enable the host country’s leadership to establish the necessary capacity 

to manage governance, rule of law, reconstruction, and economic recovery. 

These types of scenarios can be termed complex environments. In these environments, 

information expectations between the military and the civilian elements must be carefully 

managed. The military has been repeatedly told that the humanitarians have superior 

knowledge of the humanitarian situation, culture, language, and the population in general. 

Humanitarians have grown to believe that the vast intelligence capabilities of modern 

states and militaries are available to all military units. Inordinate mutual expectations can 

lead to the belief that information is intentionally being withheld and that erroneous 

information has been intended as disinformation. Achieving a shared civil-military 

vision, managing shared expectations, and facilitating collaboration, coordination, and 

information sharing is crucial to achieving unity of effort in complex emergencies. 

Some progress has been made in establishing multinational collaborative information 

environments for coalition military operations. For example, the U.S. Government’s 

secure multinational military information network—the Coalition Enterprise Regional 

Information Exchange System (CENTRIXS) has been employed to create multilevel 

secure virtual private networks (VPNs). Although the U.S. military controls the release of 

information and network access privileges to this network, it does create a facility for 

collaboration and information sharing among the U.S. military and other militaries. 

Currently, no similar formal arrangement is in place for sharing information among civilmilitary elements responding to a complex emergency, HADR, or S&R situation. The 

Internet does offer a medium for such sharing, and it has been used to create some limited 

collaborative arrangements to share civil-military information. 
33

The Post-Conflict S&R Ops Challenge

Information Sharing Capability Gap

Civilian Agencies

Manage Expectations Coalition

Military Civilian Agencies

IO/IGO/NGO

Indigenous

Organizations

Military

Planning

Clarity of Mission

Goals/Expectations

Roles/Relationships

Unity of Effort

Intelligence/Information Operations

Collaboration/Information Sharing

Security 

Humanitarian

Justice

Social/Economic

Governance

Conflict

Heavy to Light Maneuver Force

MPs, CIVPOL, Constabulary,..

Stability

Reconstruction

CA, PSYOP, ENG, MED,...

Nation Building

Political, Military, and Civil International Involvement

Humanitarian

Assistance

Humanitarian Assistance

Figure 5 

Building toward Civil-Military Coordination 

During the transition from combat to S&R operations, it is necessary to adjust military 

force structure and capabilities. In today’s high-tech operational environment, however, 

demarcation of distinct phases is highly unlikely. Figure 5 highlights the blurring of the 

phases, with lingering combat operations still being conducted, even as civilian and 

military S&R operations proceed—as in Afghanistan and Iraq. A heavy combat force 

may be redeployed or configured to a smaller forcer, better able to operate in urban areas. 

Force augmentation or adjustments need to address coexisting civilian security, counterinsurgency, counter-terrorism, and organized crime security and law enforcement needs. 

Additionally, S&R activities must be addressed, including: humanitarian assistance, such 

as food, clothing, and shelter for internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees; 

restoration of emergency services, such as fire and rescue, hospital, ambulance; 

infrastructure repair (power, water, transportation, communications, sewage); 

governance; health care services; education; and employment. 

If one considers the entire operational spectrum depicted in figure 5, both military and 

civilian resources are employed across the full spectrum. Both the military and civilian 

agencies have their own core competencies. Trying to sub-divide the spectrum 

accomplishes little and instead reinforces the view that easily discernable and distinct 

thresholds separate civilian and military operations. 
34

It should also be recognized that the civilians are likely to be present before the military 

is called in and will remain long after the military has departed. A number of transitions 

will occur over time, and ultimately, the intent is to hand off complete and self-sustaining 

peace to the affected nation. What really occurs in today’s operational environment is a 

coalition of coalitions that are active in the affected nation. Civilian authorities operate 

where they can while combat is ongoing, and when it terminates, they assume 

responsibility for helping build the capacity of the affected nation. 

Often, these civilian-military coalitions are formed in peacetime, or before a disaster 

strikes. Security organizations like, NATO or ASEAN may work together with 

development organizations, such as the World Bank or WHO, as part of “standard 

operating procedure” in a given country. Then, when a crisis or disaster occurs, these 

coalitions shift their focus—either toward post-conflict S&R (if armed conflict has 

occurred) or post-disaster humanitarian assistance and relief work. Not all crises 

necessarily require military force to resolve. For example, the very real economic crisis in 

the Pacific Rim countries during the late 1990s was resolved in most countries by civilian 

agencies. 

The key point is that these civil and military coalitions will vary as tasks change and 

resources are adjusted to accommodate circumstances. All partners should be involved 

with the planning and execution of operations throughout the full spectrum of activities. 

To try and separate these interactions and ignore the need for coordination seems 

counterproductive. Moreover, the desired end state is a “political-military” solution, not 

merely a military solution. 

ICT Support Challenges 

Connectivity into a crisis area has two aspects: the technical capacity to build the ICT 

infrastructure and the organizational and inter-organizational structures to make sure the 

ICT capability is used effectively and appropriately. Both rely on establishing standards 

and policies that create a common platform for connectivity. Additionally, a collective 

agreement on the approach to be taken should be made prior to deployment, not during 

the deployment, as is often the case. 

Such agreements need to cover a range of issues, including the question of who owns and 

controls the ICT infrastructure. This is particularly important for relations with affected 

host-nation governments. For example, national military and civilian agencies and UN 

organizations deploy by invitation of the host government, or under an international 

mandate that allows them to set up and operate their ICT capabilities. But regulations and 

requirements in the affected nation can make it extremely difficult for NGOs or other 

civilian organizations not operating under such a mandate to import, rapidly deploy, and 

use their ICT equipment without prior consent of the local authorities. 

Civilian and military communications and information systems supporting emergency or 

S&R operations tend to have limited coverage and capacity. Moreover, networks 

commonly are not interconnected with each other. So the commercial cellular and 
35

satellite phone networks and Internet usually become the de facto communications and 

information networks linking civilian and military units. The potential effects of relying 

on these networks (where they are available) should be closely monitored, however, to 

make sure that over-reliance on any one network does not jeopardize the overall effort. 

For example, use of the Internet exclusively may exclude from coordination all parties 

who cannot receive email. Also, the surge of disaster responders using local cellular 

networks can collapse the capacity of those networks, to the detriment of all. Although 

commercial ICT services offer a means to create a civil-military collaborative 

information environment (CIE), policymakers on both sides of the civilian-military 

divide need to evaluate the necessities and realities they face in the field and work toward 

ways to balance the need for information security with the need to collaborate, 

coordinate, and share information.

Civil-military coordination challenges span differences in culture, language, organization, 

training and education, doctrine, planning and analysis, and communications and 

information systems. Unfortunately, old business models and restrictive policies continue 

to be applied to support what have become highly dynamic, collaborative needs and 

requirements in complex operations. Informal and unofficial personal relationships 

usually play an important role in cutting through this organizational “noise” to achieve 

information sharing. But the informal nature of this process makes it difficult to serve a 

wider audience or to institutionalize any standard procedures. As a result, “sneaker nets” 

(that is, hand-carried messages) and face-to-face meetings often become the only 

effective means to collaborate, coordinate, and share information in complex 

environments and post-disaster situations. 

In spite of multiple “lessons learned” reports from past experiences, many of the same 

issues continue to plague the civil-military response community in each deployment: 

• Little or no “shared informational awareness” to enable a common 

understanding of what data and information are available, what has been or 

needs to be done to it, who needs it, or even who has it; 

• Multiple organizations producing the same information products; 

• Organizational use of deprecated (i.e. old) data; 

• Stove-piped and incompatible ICT systems that do not allow sharing of 

information with others, either because of format incompatibility or 

bandwidth and connectivity inadequacies; 

• Large amounts of data being pushed to multiple locations, at multiple times, 

clogging up network bandwidth; 

• Inadequate bandwidth access for many end users, who cannot support 

downloading large data files such as maps and imaging files; and 

• Lack of tools, indexes, and metadata markers that would allow those in the 

field to find needed information or even be aware of what information might 

be available to them. 

Effectively collecting, compiling, analyzing, and disseminating timely and relevant 

information is one of the primary challenges for S&R and HADR response operations. 
36

Better information and knowledge management can improve the effectiveness of 

assistance. The faster civil-military response organizations can identify, collect, analyze, 

and disseminate critical information, the more effective the response becomes. 

When HADR, S&R, or complex emergency deployments call for a military element, the 

military responds by implementing both classified and unclassified networks to support 

its C4I, logistics and other information exchange needs. Military access to the Internet is 

provided and websites related to the emergency appear on both the classified and 

unclassified networks. 

For their part, the civilian elements are increasingly more capable of bringing with them 

the necessary ICTs to support their mission needs. The larger civilian organizations can 

deploy significant commercial ICT capabilities to crisis response areas. For example, 

USAID Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) teams employ flyaway ICT 

capability packages and establish in-country Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) 

networks to satisfy both initial-response and longer-term needs. 

UN agencies such as UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, and UNDP manage their own fixed 

global information networks and can employ either their own flyaway ICT packages or, 

on a case-by-case basis, can employ the WFP Dubai-based Fast IT and 

Telecommunications Emergency and Support Team (FITTEST) to extend and manage 

secure ICT services for UN operations in crisis areas. UNDPKO manages its own secure 

global ICT network and suite of flyaway packages tailored to support the needs of 

peacekeeping operations on the ground (and for coordination with UN headquarters). The 

civilian government and UN agencies also create websites to share information, maps, 

and Geographic Information System (GIS) products. Although other civilian 

organizations may deploy with lesser ICT capabilities, they, too, can often access the 

Internet and create websites to share information. 

Figure 6 provides an example of how much of the information flow is now unofficial and 

decentralized. Bloggers populate the Internet with information on each humanitarian 

crisis. Additionally, “virtual” information and operations centers are emerging through 

the use of multifunction portals that provide metadata registries and catalogs, links to 

relevant web sites, and shared workspaces, providing “one stop shopping” for 

information and data. 
37

US Military

NIPRNET

US Military

NIPRNET

Civil-Military S&R ICT Responses

Internet

International

Organizations

and NGO

Portals

Military

Unclassified

Portals

Military

Unclassified

Portals

Civilian Gov’t

and other Civil

Organizations 

Portals

NGOs

IOs

US Civil Gov’t

Agencies

US Military

Classified

Classified

Networks

MILSATCOM COMSAT

Military

Classified

Portals

Military

Classified

Portals

Bloggers

DMZ

Internet is the “de facto” civil-military collaborative information network

UN

Figure 6 

The proliferation of complex operations-related information websites and portals has 

helped policymakers at higher levels of government and civilian organizations. But it has 

become a major challenge—and even impediment—for responders on the ground. In 

many instances, the plethora of portals merely complicates the task of finding and 

obtaining useful information. Many websites seem more oriented towards informing the 

broader population by gathering, assessing, and summarizing information from many 

sources rather than analyzing and packaging information to more effectively respond to 

needs in the field. 

Populating Internet web sites with data is useful in the field only if users can quickly find 

the data, understand its content and value to their operation, and then download it—

usually over a low-quality, narrow-bandwidth communications link. Responders on the 

ground have neither the staff nor the time to spend hours surfing the Web. What they 

need is to receive specific information, quickly, from a trusted source. 

Field workers also have problems when data are not adequately packaged, summarized, 

and tagged to allow quick assessment of their utility. Better tagging of data and better 

tools are needed to enable more effective and targeted searching for useful information. 

Guidelines in developing the content stored on websites, including the geo-referencing of 

data, where appropriate, are also required. 
38

Simple approaches would also fill a void, such as an analysis cell that evaluates, 

packages, and tags information of use to the responders. Additionally, the creation of a 

“one-stop shopping” portal to provide a trusted information source would be helpful. 

Such a portal would store data and information, provide links to other relevant websites, 

offer shared working spaces and chat rooms, and give field workers the ability to easily 

find relevant information and data. 

Commercial ICT Support Solutions 

Commercial ICT capabilities are becoming more pervasive with each new S&R and 

HADR operation. Civilian and military elements deploy with laptops, cell phones, and, 

often, satellite phones. They use “personal digital assistants” (PDAs), handheld line-ofsight radios, and HF, VHF, and UHF radios to communicate. Ground-to-air radios are 

used to coordinate helicopter operations. Land mobile radios are used for emergency 

service communications. To the extent possible, participants also use the public switched 

telephone network (PSTN) and cellular networks to communicate and access the Internet 

through local Internet service providers (ISPs)—if they exist. 

These communications systems, however, are often limited by a lack of surge capacity 

and inadequate coverage—particularly after infrastructure has been damaged in conflict 

or a natural disaster. Modular, packaged systems are often flown in to replace the 

damaged or destroyed commercial networks. In some cases, commercial “cellular on 

wheels” (COWs) networks, transportable transmission systems and WiFi “hot spots” are 

deployed, providing additional capacity and coverage. Commercial satellite systems are 

used for voice communications and remote access to the Internet. Systems such as 

Inmarsat, Iridium, Thuraya, and Globalstar provide voice and limited data service from 

small, often handheld, terminals. For larger data flows, VSAT links and networks are set 

up to support temporary fixed-installation needs, such as information and coordination 

centers. Inmarsat Mini-M, BGAN, and RBGAN satellite terminals are used to establish 

remote satellite access to telephone and Internet service. 

Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers are used not only for location identification 

and navigation but to geo-reference data collected in the field. GIS and mapping tools are 

used for assessments and visualization of situation awareness. 

Collaboration software tools such as NetMeeting, Groove, SharePoint, and 

InformationWorkSpace are used to create shared workspaces online, linked by wireless 

or wired LANs, which are then linked to the Internet via commercial satellite access. 

Along with other tools and Internet access, collaboration tools can help enable responders 

to make the most productive use of email, Web surfing, limited data exchange, and video 

conferencing. VoIP applications such as Skype are used for voice communication via the 

Internet and other Internet Protocol (IP) networks. 

Several NGOs and businesses now specialize in providing information and 

telecommunications packages for field deployments. These packages can encompass ICT 

capabilities ranging from deployable commercial satellite communications and 
39

information capability packages to “Internet-in-a-box” or turn-key information services 

that are compatible with host-nation ICT projects such as e-government services. 

The real challenge is not finding the components of an ICT deployment in HADR, S&R, 

and complex emergency scenarios, but rather in finding a rational management solution 

to linking, coordinating, and making the best use of the systems that are set up by 

multiple responders, civilian and military. No one organization is responsible for all IT 

configuration and network management, information management, information 

assurance, and system controls. Ad hoc methods—often little more than a stack of 

scribbled notes held together by a paper clip—are used to create telephone directories, 

email address listings, and lists of what systems are being deployed in what locations. 

Without any control or coordination, problems can arise, such as when two WiFi 

networks are deployed on the same frequencies, requiring de-confliction. 

No mutually agreed, global concept of operations (CONOPS) or system architecture for 

ICT support to S&R or HADR operations is available. Furthermore, no person or entity 

in the civil-military community has stepped up and claimed responsibility for pulling 

together the disparate capabilities and creating and managing a federated ICT network 

and a distributed information and knowledge environment. Every deployment is largely 

an ad hoc event that employs “old boy” networks and personal contacts to create a 

workable mode of operations. 

The result is a loss of efficiency that often threatens to become a loss of effectiveness—a 

disturbing prospect in the context of operations that directly lead either to saving or 

losing lives. There would thus seem to be real imperatives to set standards for 

collaboration, coordination, and information sharing and to identify the technological 

means to achieve them using ICTs. 
40

Guiding Principles 

Perhaps the place to start attacking the issue of contingency ICT support is to identify, 

based on previous experiences, several basic principles regarding planning and executing 

complex, multinational civil-military operations in man-made and natural crises. In 

general: 

• Currently, disconnected operations are the rule, rather than the exception. 

• Agility is more valuable than planning, but planning is essential. 

• Effectiveness depends on fully incorporating non-military organizations. 

• Trust grows better when collaboration occurs on neutral ground. 

• On neutral ground, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) solutions protect the data—

not the network. 

• Vague and overlapping boundaries exist between war and peace. 

• Humanitarian organizations’ support must begin as soon as the smoke clears. 

• In civil-military information sharing: 

• culture and social change are challenges, 

o policy and funding arrangements need updating, and 

o technology is an enabler. 

• The Internet is the de facto medium for a civil-military CIE. 

• Civilian and military ICT capabilities share commonalities stemming from 

deployment of commercial ICT products. 

• The large number of new commercial products constantly emerging offers 

opportunities to make smarter use of deployed communications and IT 

capabilities. 

• Perhaps the greatest challenge is creating a culture of information sharing that: 

o promotes the free flow of data, information, and ideas; 

o facilitates informed decisionmaking; and 

o builds trust and commitment among stakeholders. 

• Information management is not a set of discrete tasks but rather a process that: 

o requires strong leadership, vision, and investment; 

o underpins all aspects of civil-military response; 

o requires long-term institutional support and ample, sustained investment. 

• Technology needs to be adapted to the changing dynamics within and between the 

groups that use the technology. 

• Beyond these general principles, more specific principles can be sketched out, 

addressing particular aspects of ICT support. 

USAID’s Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development11

The U.S. Government has made development work a national security priority; the 

September 2002 National Security Strategy underscores development as one of three 

 

11 Andrew S. Natsios, “The Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development,” Parameters, (Autumn 

2005), vol XXXV, no. 3. 
41

strategic areas of emphasis (along with diplomacy and defense), and clearly states that 

“including all of the world’s poor in an expanding circle of development—and 

opportunity—is a moral imperative and one of the top priorities of U.S. international 

policy.”12

This new development climate has led USAID to determine that it requires a more 

uniform and consistent set of guiding principles, and that these principles must accurately 

reflect how USAID approaches development from all levels—from day-to-day project 

operations to high-level policy decisions. USAID has completed a series of recent policy 

strategy documents, including “U.S. Foreign Aid: Meeting the Challenges of the Twentyfirst Century and the Fragile States Strategy.”13 Based partly on these documents, USAID 

has developed the following “Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development” to 

guide its efforts: 

Principle 1: Ownership. Build on the leadership, participation, and commitment 

of a country and its people. 

Principle 2: Capacity Building. Strengthen local institutions, transfer technical skills, 

and promote appropriate policies. 

Principle 3: Sustainability. Design programs to ensure that their impact endures. 

Principle 4: Selectivity Allocate resources based on need, local commitment, 

and foreign policy interests. 

Principle 5: Assessment. Conduct careful research, adapt best practices, 

and design for local conditions. 

Principle 6: Results. Direct resources to achieve clearly defined, measurable, 

and strategically focused objectives. 

Principle 7: Partnership. Collaborate closely with governments, communities, donors, 

non-profit organizations, the private sector, IOs, and universities. 

Principle 8: Flexibility. Adjust to changing conditions, take advantage of opportunities, 

and maximize efficiency. 

Principle 9: Accountability. Design accountability and transparency into systems and 

build effective checks and balances to guard against corruption. 

The Nine Principles are a formalization of customary USAID operating procedures. They 

reflect key institutional principles that most seasoned aid agencies incorporate in all their 

work, from ensuring local ownership and sustainability of a health clinic to flexibly 

adjusting a rural development program to counteract poppy cultivation. (One exception 

may be the selectivity principle, which for USAID takes into account U.S. foreign policy 

objectives; such objectives are not always built into aid agencies’ priorities.) 

The Nine Principles significantly overlap with military doctrinal principles. The 

continued development of the military S&R operations platform and the increasing 

 

12 The National Security Strategy of the United States of America (Washington: The White House, 

September 2002), 21, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf. 

13 USAID, “White Paper: U.S. Foreign Aid, Meeting the Challenges of the Twenty-first Century,” January 

2004, http://www.usaid.gov/policy/pdabz3221.pdf (hereinafter, “White Paper”); USAID, “Fragile States 

Strategy,” January 2005, http://www.usaid.gov/policy/2005_fragile_states_strategy.pdf. 
42

frequency of civil-military collaborations mean this convergence is here to stay. 

Additionally, effective reconstruction and development work cannot afford to overlook 

the Nine Principles. Quite simply, reconstruction is not effective when the local 

population does not feel a sense of ownership toward donor programs. Likewise, if 

donors ignore the accountability principle, not only does this set a poor example for the 

local population, but the legitimacy of the donor’s overall involvement is brought into 

question. 

Principles for Developing an Information Strategy14

A strategy is not a physical document. It should be a set of guiding principles and 

practices that the various actors voluntarily choose to incorporate into their work. The 

following points should be kept in mind. An information strategy: 

• Must be related to functional area strategies (this provides it with the 

framework for implementation, as information management involves 

financial, human, and IT resources); 

• Must have clear and realistic objectives that relate very clearly to the needs 

that have been identified by functional area working groups; 

• Requires the support of senior management; 

• Should clearly identify different types of information and the different 

purposes that this information is used for (security updates, baseline data 

collection, and situation reports); and 

• Should recognize that different types of information have different uses for 

different actors and seek to maximize multi-purpose information. 

A strategy document can be a useful guide to the strategy, but it should not be mistaken 

for the strategy itself. Such a document might include the following text elements: 

Introduction: This should explain the strategy as well as the rationale behind it and 

articulate the goals.

Background: a brief explanation of the context in which the strategy is being 

implemented, including an outline of the opportunities and problems addressed. 

Information Needs: Identifies the key players’ information requirements and how the 

strategy will meet them. There should be a discussion of what needs are included and 

which ones are not, within the scope of the strategy. This also should include an audit of 

existing information resources and a list of requirements based on that.

Roles and Responsibilities: Identifies the organizations and individuals directly 

responsible for creating, analyzing, disseminating, or using information. Their roles must 

be clearly described and accepted by the actors. 

Implementation: A prioritization of implementation steps, identification of a team 

responsible for ensuring that those steps take place, and clear management plans for 

individual projects. 

 

14 Currion. 
43

Review Process: The articulation of a process for monitoring and regularly reviewing the 

implementation of the strategy. 

Information Management Principles15 16

In the broadest sense, information management covers a wide range of issues, including 

data collection. Several core principles guide information management. The first 

principle involves accessibility. Humanitarian information and data should be made 

accessible to all humanitarian actors through easy-to-use formats and by translating 

information into common or local languages. Information and data for humanitarian 

purposes should be made widely available through a variety of online and offline 

distribution channels, including the media. 

Another core principle of information management is inclusiveness. Multiple 

stakeholders—especially those representing the affected population—should base 

information management and exchange procedures on a system of collaboration, 

partnership, and sharing, with a high degree of participation and ownership. Interoperability means that all sharable data and information should be made available 

through networks, systems, and formats that can be easily accessed and linked by 

humanitarian organizations. 

Information must be more than just accessible. Users must be able to trust that 

information and base decisions on it. This calls for accountability. Users must be able to 

evaluate the reliability and credibility of data and information by knowing its source. 

Information providers should be responsible to their partners and stakeholders for the 

content they publish and disseminate. This goes hand-in-hand with verifiability. 

Information should be accurate, consistent, and based on sound methodologies, validated 

by external sources and analyzed within the proper contextual framework. Other 

information management principles include: 

• Relevance: Information should be practical, flexible, responsive, and driven 

by operational and decisionmaking needs throughout all phases of a crisis. 

• Objectivity: Information managers should consult a variety of sources when 

collecting and analyzing information so as to provide varied and balanced 

perspectives for addressing problems and recommending solutions. 

• Humanity: Information should never be presented or used to distort, mislead, 

or cause harm to affected or at-risk populations, and information use should 

respect the dignity of victims. 

 

15 UN OCHA, Symposium on Best Practices in Humanitarian Information Exchange, Final Report, Palais 

des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, 5-8 February 2002 

16 Currion. 
44

• Timeliness: Information should be gathered, analyzed, and made available 

while it still matters; out-of-date information can be worse than useless—it 

can lead to misinformed decisions that endanger the lives of affected 

populations and relief workers.

• Sustainability: In HADR and S&R operations, information and data should be 

preserved, catalogued, and archived so that it can be retrieved for future use, 

such as for preparedness, analysis, lessons learned, and evaluation.

Civil-Military Coordination and Cooperation Principles 

Coordination and cooperation amongst civil organizations and military units in HADR 

and S&R operations is, understandably, an immensely difficult and complex task. 

Practitioners must accept that any operation will involve countless logistical problems 

involving interoperability issues and redundancies. To mitigate such problems, however, 

planners must accept and understand the complexities involved and plan accordingly. 

A first step in collaboration is identifying points of agreement and disagreement that can 

be compromised. Military and civil organizations often differ greatly in management 

style and culture, but common ground can be found. These points should drive the 

selection of objectives for the operation. In terms of implementation, agreed-upon 

objectives must coalesce into a common purpose among all civil and military groups 

involved. 

Each group’s mission should reinforce and complement the missions of the others. 

“Lessons learned” reports often warn about “re-inventing the wheel” in each new 

deployment or situation. Not only is it important to understand what procedures and tools 

have been created in the past, but also to avoid tasking two units with developing similar 

procedures and tools, or in other words, “inventing the wheel simultaneously.” Planners 

should seek to eliminate such redundancies amongst groups, addressing in particular the 

strengths and capabilities of each. 

Resource management is also critically important to successful operations. Since 

resources are always limited, planners must allocate funds and other assets efficiently, 

again, keeping complementary missions in mind and avoiding redundancy. Finally, 

planning for collaborations in HADR and S&R operations should look forward to 

disengagement. Complementary action should not foster inter-dependency among groups. 

Principles for Creating a Deployable Capability 

The civil-military ICT responses to a crisis will need to address capabilities to support 

communications and information exchange needs of the initial responders that arrive on 

the ground. If ICT capacity exists and is sufficiently functional and usable in the affected 

nation, it still may be necessary to install some surge capability to accommodate the 

increased demand for service created by the responders. It most likely will also be 
45

necessary to do some early recovery of ICT capacity to enable sector activities bolstering 

civil security (policing), governance, economic, and social well-being. 

Early assessments of the state of the affected nation’s ICT capacity will need to be 

conducted to determine what recovery and reconstruction actions need to be funded and 

implemented in the near-to-mid term. Longer term, ICT capacity-building will need 

investments to develop new capabilities such as e-government, e-education, and ecommerce. Even ICT capacity-building actions taken in the initial and middle phases, 

however, should be done with the objective to leave them behind for use as a means to 

jump-start the affected nation’s ICT sector growth. Hence, these actions and investments 

should enable the evolution to a long-term vision for the host nation’s communications 

and computing capabilities.

In addition, USAID, DOS, and DOD should champion a COTS “collaboration zone” 

architecture that accommodates the restrictions and requirements of major collaboration 

tools, including the lowest common denominator: web portal, Groove, IWS, Share Point, 

and others. A metadata repository (registry, catalog, shared space) needs to be created to 

provide a one-stop-shopping capability to facilitate collaboration, cooperation, 

assessment, packaging, and sharing of information. This registry should be located within 

a “.org” or “.gov.xx” network domain to maintain autonomy from military and U.S. 

government elements. This is a necessary foundation to build a trusted information zone 

that can be freely and openly used by both civilian and military entities. 

The Tampere Convention17

Regulatory barriers that make it extremely difficult to import and rapidly deploy 

equipment without prior consent of the local authorities have often impeded the transborder use of telecommunication equipment by humanitarian organizations. Victims of 

disasters soon should be able to benefit from faster and more effective rescue operations, 

thanks to the Tampere Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for 

Disaster Mitigation and Relief Operations. The treaty simplifies the use of life-saving 

telecommunication equipment. 

The Tampere Convention calls on signatories to facilitate the provision of prompt 

telecommunication assistance to mitigate the impact of a disaster. It covers both the 

installation and operation of reliable, flexible telecommunication services. Regulatory 

barriers that impede the use of telecommunication resources for disasters are to be 

waived in disaster scenarios. These barriers include licensing requirements to use 

allocated radio frequencies, restrictions on the importation of telecommunication 

equipment, as well as limitations on the movement of humanitarian teams. 

The Convention describes the procedures for requesting and providing 

telecommunication assistance, recognizing the rights of countries to direct, control, and 

coordinate assistance within their territories. It defines specific elements and aspects of 

 

17 International Telecommunication Union publication, “Telecommunications Saves Lives,” available at: 

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/emergencytelecoms/doc/brochure2.pdf. 
46

telecommunication assistance, such as when that assistance should terminate. It requires 

governments to make an inventory of the resources—both human and material—

available for disaster mitigation and relief, and to develop a telecommunication action 

plan that identifies the steps necessary to deploy those resources. 

The Convention entered into force January 8, 2005. A complete status report is available 

by referring to the publication Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the SecretaryGeneral in the UN Treaty Collection.18

 

18 This report is on the Internet at http://untreaty.un.org/English/treaty.asp. 
47

Part Two: TOOLKITS AND BEST 

PRACTICES 
48

ICT Toolkits 

As a result of ICT technology developments and expanding commercial offerings, a

variety of flexible, scalable, and rapidly deployable civil-military ICT packages can and 

are being created, using off-the-shelf terrestrial wireless and commercial satellite 

products and services. Internet portals and metadata repositories also are being created to 

build distributed networks, to satisfy the needs of the civilian and military responders. 

Telecommunications Networks 

One of the major components of any ICT capability, of course, is the telecommunications 

network infrastructure that serves as the backbone and distribution system for voice and 

data transmissions. In disaster or post-conflict environments, demand for reliable 

telecommunications links does not decrease. To the contrary, relief and reconstruction 

efforts place additional demands on telecommunications capacity, at a critical time in the 

redevelopment of the sector. 

 

Telecommunications Needs in S&R and HADR Operations

It is a reasonable assumption that the telecommunications infrastructure of the country in 

which an S&R or HADR operation takes place has been damaged. It may no longer have 

(if, indeed, it ever did have) sufficient capacity, bandwidth, or coverage to support the 

operational needs of all participants in a relief or reconstruction effort. Assisting 

militaries, civilian agencies, IGOs, IOs, and NGOs often bring their own capabilities to 

augment those of the remaining local telecommunications networks and to access 

commercial satellite communications services and the Internet. 

 

Long haul, high-capacity systems using commercial satellite links (and fiber links where 

appropriate and available) will be employed to extend coverage and bolster data 

bandwidth. These will support the forward-deployed military C2, intelligence, and 

logistics requirements, as well as civilian humanitarian and reconstruction assistance 

needs. For example, USAID DART teams and the UN FITTEST flyaway ICT capability 

packages use commercial satellite links extensively to connect headquarters organizations 

with field elements. NGOs are now employing small ICT packages that rely on portable 

and mobile satellite terminals to access the Internet and global telecommunications 

services. Many of the civilian and military participants are using VSAT networks. 

Terrestrial radio systems (HF/VHF/UHF) and cellular phones are also used for field 

communications.

Sometimes, these capabilities can have unintended consequences when used by IOs and 

NGOs. In today’s more hostile environment, Inmarsat phones and radio antennas on 

vehicles can make them a target for criminal and terror attacks. Reliance on cellular and 

satellite phones also can contribute to eroding the use of traditional secure radio networks 

that are still employed and used for emergency response communications. 
49

Commercial ICT capabilities are becoming pervasive as part of both military and nonmilitary inventories of deployable capabilities. Although commercial satellite capabilities 

provide wide-area, spot, and global access, coverage and capacity in any particular 

location can sometimes be limited, especially in remote areas. Responders should 

therefore not expect wideband services when they begin operations. Low bandwidth, 

intermittent coverage, and overloaded civil telecommunications and satellite 

infrastructures—which are not designed to absorb the surge in demand from 

responders—can significantly degrade end-user performance. These limitations need to 

be anticipated and planned for before deploying into a crisis area.

Satellite Communications 

Perhaps the best place to begin discussing network architecture is with satellite 

connectivity—the field worker’s window to the outside world. Commercial satellites 

today can provide cost-effective connectivity to virtually any place on Earth. As a result, 

they have become a key enabler for extending ICT services to remote, devastated, or 

disadvantaged areas in support of HADR and S&R operations. Portable, mobile, and 

fixed terminals communicate with land earth stations (referred to as “hubs” and 

“teleports”) that interface with the public network for access to voice and Internet 

services, including email, Web surfing, and the use of Web portals. 

Satellite phones and terminals include a range of options, from high mobility/low datarate devices all the way up to fixed installations with higher bandwidth. The terminals 

include: 

• Highly portable, low bit-rate (2.4 kilobits per second (kbps) to 9.6 kbps) 

handheld devices (satellite phones); 

• Portable, low-to-medium bit-rate (2.4 kbps to 144 kbps) terminals from the 

Inmarsat family of satellite terminals also known as Mini-Ms; and 

• Broadband (up to 8 megabits per second) mobile and fixed installations 

referred to as VSAT dishes. 

Mobile satellite phones are similar in appearance and function to terrestrial cellular 

phones. They need direct, line-of sight access to the satellite, but because they use omnidirectional antennas, they do not need to be aligned perfectly. Several satellite systems 

provide service for these types of phones: 

• Thuraya – A single, geostationary satellite that provides limited coverage for 

about 100 countries (the coverage area includes Europe; North, Central, and 

parts of southern Africa; the Middle East; Central and South Asia, plus oceans 

in these regions); 

• Iridium – A constellation of 66 low-earth-orbiting (LEO) satellites that 

provides global coverage; 

• Globalstar – A constellation of 48 LEO satellites that provides nearly global 

coverage (but, due to the lack of gateway stations, does not work in Africa). 
50

Moving up the bandwidth scale, a key provider of mobile, low-to-medium bit-rate global 

coverage is Inmarsat, a recently privatized consortium that operates four geostationary 

satellites covering the entire surface of the earth, except for the Polar Regions. Inmarsat, 

which began life as an IGO formed to facilitate maritime communications, provides a 

range of portable terminals, some of them “suitcase”-sized. Inmarsat’s terminals must be 

operated in outdoor locations, within the line-of-sight of an Inmarsat satellite. 

At the top end of the scale, several commercial satellite communications providers, such 

as Intelsat, PanAmSat, and New Skies, own and operate their own fleets of satellites and 

offer global broadband satellite coverage supporting VSAT connectivity. The medium-tobroadband VSAT antennas are installed in fixed outdoor locations, also within line-ofsight, and must be more accurately aligned to achieve high bandwidth connectivity. 

VSAT-based networks are typically arranged in a star-based topology, where each remote 

user is supported by a VSAT, which is linked to a hub or teleport that acts as the central 

node and employs a large-sized dish antenna with a high quality transceiver. The teleport 

is the gateway that provides connections to the public switched telephone network and to 

ISPs. VSAT networks are ideal for centralized, hub-and-spoke networks with a central 

host and a number of geographically dispersed terminals. 

Deployable ICT Architecture 

Internet (Email, VoIP, GIS, Collaboration Tools, VTC, Video, Imagery, ...)

Military

S&R ICT Civilian Gov’t

S&R ICT

ISP

SATPHONE

GSM/PSTN

IO, IGO, NGO

S&R ICT

Web Sites

IT

Comms

ISP

SATPHONE

GSM/PSTN

ISP

SATPHONE

GSM/PSTN

Teleport

VSAT

Teleport

VSAT

Teleport

VSAT

VSAT, GSM, SATPHONES, PSTN, AM/FM, HF, VHF, UHF, TV Networks

Services

Voice, Fax, Data 

Email, Internet

VTC, Video, Imagery

System Control

Net Mgt & Admin

Frequency Mgt

Portals, Hubs, & Virtual Workspaces

Host Country Details

Situation Awareness

Who’s doing what, where, $

:

Maps, Assessments, Web portals

Phonebook/Email address books

Radio Nets (Security, 1st Responders,..)

CMOC IMC

CIMIC HIC/HAC

Kiosks: Call Centers

Internet Café

HIC

Metadata Registry 

and Catalog and 

Shared Workspace

Enable 

Capacity

Building

ISP

GSM

PSTN

Radio

TV

Host

Nation

Information/Knowledge Mgt

Information Assurance

Figure 7 

These satellite technologies can be used, in combination with terrestrial networks, to 

serve as the medium for civil-military coordination. Figure 7 illustrates what could be a 

“default” civil-military ICT architecture based on common practice today. 
51

Creating A Collaborative Civil-Military Information Environment 

Creating a common communications culture—increasing trust and setting a foundation 

for collaboration and information sharing—must be done without undermining either the 

neutrality of civilian IOs, IGOs, and NGOs or the need for the military to safeguard 

operational security information. A list that details who is doing what, where, is useful 

for resource allocation and management in relief and reconstruction. But in the wrong 

hands, it also can be a target list for groups and individuals that want to use violence for 

political ends. The creation of a collaborative information environment (CIE), such as 

that shown in figure 8, therefore, requires a balance between openness and security. It can 

be achieved only if everyone is sensitive to one another’s concerns. 

Perhaps the first step in building a CIE is to cultivate a willingness among the civilmilitary participants to create a common communications culture and to minimize 

barriers to participation, once it is established. Mechanisms to collaborate and share 

information can be created by: 

• Using a common ICT response architecture (a federated network) employing the 

Internet, commercial ICT products and services, web portals, and metadata 

repositories; 

• Creating a suite of interoperable ICT “toolkits”; 

• Extending ICT capabilities to a crisis area to be shared as appropriate; 

• Facilitating and promoting collaboration and information sharing among 

participants; 

• Supporting the building of host-nation ICT surge capacity and infrastructure 

recovery and reconstruction as needed; 

• Forming civilian chief information officer (CIO) and military G6/C6 or equivalent 

collaboration arrangements, with needs assessment and requirements, planning 

and implementation, and federated network management and operation. 
52

Example of Field Coordination 

Mechanisms: Organization Means

IO

IGO

NGO

UN

NATO

DoD

RCC/SJFHQ

JTF

USAID

DCHA

OFDA (AT, 

DART, RMT)

OTI

Region Bureaus

DoS

PRM

S/CRS (HSRT

and ACT)

HIU

MultiNational

Military

CIMIC

CMOC

Collaborative

Information

Environment

HIC

OSOCC

CIMIC

IMU

HACC

HIC

HAC

Multinational

Interagency

Host

Nation

Internet

Cafe

IC

IC

DART

Country

Team IC

Kiosk

Figure 8 

The ability to provide a ubiquitous ICT network, with the agility and adaptability for 

authorized participants to “plug and play” with their own equipment, means the CIE 

needs to respond effectively to event-driven, high-tempo, short time-scale, uncertain, 

diverse, and dynamically-varying operations. The CIE needs to be able to mediate 

flexible and timely interaction between “come-as-you-are” heterogeneous systems and 

information databases. It needs to support agile C2, shared situation awareness, and 

improved interoperability and collaboration. 

The technical means used today to facilitate coordination within classified and 

unclassified information environments are illustrated in figure 9. The U.S. military 

classified and unclassified networks are largely based on employing secure guard 

gateways and strict information assurance processes to carefully manage and control 

access and use privileges. In contrast, the world’s largest unclassified network, the 

Internet, operates in a highly trust-oriented operational environment with little, if any, 

information assurance measures. 

Military and other agencies that produce classified products need mechanisms that allow 

them to more easily partition information, so that some of it can be routinely released to 

coalition military partners (at lower classification levels) and non-military parties, such as

IOs and NGOs (fully declassified). There is also a need to more effectively deal with 

multiple levels of classification and the protection of dissemination within those multiple 

levels. The CIE, therefore, should be able to accommodate the management of access 

privileges, security, and performance. This has both collection and dissemination aspects 

in terms of access to, and use of, the CIE. 
53

Field Coordination Mechanisms: 

Technical Means

SIPRNET (CIE-IWS like)

CENTRIXS

Internet

NIPRNET (CIE-IWS like)

Deployable ICT Toolkit

(IWS, SharePoint, Groove,..)

Metadata

S&R Portal

G/W

Multinational

Military and

Civilian Government

DOS, USAID, Other USG, Multinational, IO (UN), NGO, Host Nation

Classified

Unclassified

F/W Non-USG 

Portals F/W F/W USG

Portals

DOS

USAID

Other USG

DOD

COEs

DOD Academia

JTF

DOS

USAID

Other USG

Figure 9 

Language differences continue to challenge operational cooperation. Machine-translation 

tools are needed to help fill the translation gap. As noted, interoperability means not only 

technical and political compatibility, but also the will and the means to communicate, 

cooperate, and collaborate—in short, sharing a common culture of communication. When 

systems are not politically, organizationally, or technically interoperable, information 

becomes "stove-piped" within a single organization, and systems cannot easily 

collaborate. 

The CIE needs to be able to accommodate a diversity of users, along with the diversity of 

organizational cultures, equipment, systems, and databases they bring with them. Data 

collection, decisionmaking tools, analysis capabilities, and visualization aids all must be 

improved to better meet the needs of S&R and HADR requirements. Included in this is 

the need for data and information management strategies that can be used to guide 

collection management, analysis, and database capabilities. Tools to support predictive 

assessment and course-of-action planning for S&R operations are needed as well, 

including measures of effectiveness (MOEs) and measures of performance (MOPs) for 

measuring progress and the success of actions. 

The CIE needs to be scalable in terms of number and diversity of the civil and military 

users. Moreover, it must be easily and rapidly deployable into the area of operations and 

able to accommodate that environment. This may call for stand-alone capabilities 

including a power supply and operations and maintenance (O&M) support. 
54

ICT Packages and Solutions

The creation of a collaborative military and civilian computing and communications 

environment is achievable with today’s technology. An approach to creating a civilmilitary CIE is illustrated in figure 10. 

Commercial ICT Capability Packages and 

Collaboration and Information Sharing 

Arrangement

Telephone Telephone Telephone

Laptop computer Laptop computer Laptop computer

Mobile Comm Box

AP

Bridge

MAR

Internet / Designated Intranet

Satellite

Satellite dish

Laptop

Laptop

Laptop

Military

Unclassified 

Portals

Metadata

Repository

Internet

Other

Military

Elements

Internet in a Box

Commercial

Civilian 

Agency 

Portals

Distributed Information Network

International 

Organizations 

NGO Portals

Shared 

Workspace

Shared 

Workspace

COEs

Academia

Industry

Data Repositories

Inmarsat

Phone (2.4 to 

4.8 kb/s)

Radios Cell Phone

Registry

Catalog

Shared space

Telephone

PABX

PSTN/ISP

RBGAN to VSAT

(144Kb/s to Mb/s)

WiFi

Antenna

ICT Capability Package

WiFi

COW

LOS Tx

Radio/TV

ICT Capabilities”Toolbox”

Wired and Wireless LAN 

Internet Access (VoIP, Email, Data, Video, Imagery, Browsers, Portals, Metadata Repository)

Collaboration, Assessment, Visualization Maps/Mapping Tools, GIS, GPS

Distributed Information Environment (One stop shopping)

Laptops, desktops, M/S office, Adobe

Cellular and Public Phones

HF,VHF, UHF Radios

Satellite phones, VSAT

VHF G/A Radios

WiFi

Cell on Wheels

Portable PABX

LOS Tx

Radio/TV

Print

Figure 10 

This approach is based on the following assumptions:

• The Internet, satellite links, and cellular phones will be the preferred media for 

communicating and sharing information among the civil-military participants. 

• Commercial satellite service likely will be a primary means of gaining access 

from remote areas and to the Internet. 

• A common suite of ICT capabilities, such as a “toolbox” containing cell phones, 

radios, satellite phones, VSATs, PDAs, laptops, workstations, WiFi networks, 

collaboration tools, GPS receivers, and GIS products, can be selectively packaged 

and tailored to meet the anticipated ICT operational support needs. 

In some cases, the civilian and military responders will do the satellite access systems 

engineering, acquisition, and integration themselves. That is, they will determine what 

they need and then purchase or lease VSAT terminals, satellite phones, hubs, teleports 

and satellite access, as well as make the necessary Internet access arrangements and set 

up their own networks. Or, they will engage a satellite service provider and/or a systems 

integrator to do all this for them as illustrated in figure 11. Responders can take 
55

advantage of emerging NGOs and private companies that are now offering turnkey or 

managed satellite and Internet access services. Some packages may include the set-up 

and management of an information center in the operations area. 

Commercial Satellite Service

Internet

International

Organizations

and NGO

Portals

Military

Unclassified

Portals

Civilian

Agency

Portals

S&R

Metadata

Registry, Catalog,

Shared Space

NGOs

IOs

US Civilian

(S&R Kit)

US Military

S&R Kit

Distributed Information Environment

Commercial

Satellites

Teleport

Lease Satellite Space Segment

Lease/Purchase VSAT Terminals

Contract Service Provider

•Satellite Operator

•Systems Integrator

Lease Satellite Space Segment

Lease/Purchase VSAT Terminals

Contract Service Provider

•Satellite Operator

•Systems Integrator

ISP

WiFi, VSAT, satellite phones, cellular, radios, ...

PSTN

Cellular Net

Hub

Figure 11 

Adequate consideration must be given to local regulations governing the use of 

equipment and frequency assignments for wireless networks. Proper cellular phone, 

radio, WiFi, and satellite access configurations are vital. It is important to have local 

government approval for their usage, along with service agreements with satellite, 

telephone, Internet access, and teleport service providers before deploying ICT 

capabilities forward. 

Common practice for many civilian and military entities today is to create Internet portals 

and metadata repositories in an effort to provide a “one-stop-shopping” capability for 

access to information about the crisis situation. Collaboration tool bridges will likely be 

needed to facilitate exchanges among different collaboration tool suites, such as 

InfoWorkSpace and Groove. 

Presumably, the responder community will employ smart systems engineering to create 

appropriate local radio (HF, VHF, UHF) and cellular networks, facilitating 

communications among responders on the ground. Plus, agreements will be made for data 

standards and smart management of the information that will populate the various Web 

portals created to support the response operation, including the creation of a metadata 

repository to facilitate information discovery. 
56

Information assurance will need to be more than “trust” and self-discipline by the user 

community. Appropriate security measures are required to protect and restrict 

unauthorized access to unclassified but operationally sensitive information. The 

community will need to have agreed mechanisms in place to insure the quality and 

integrity of information populating the web sites and to coordinate management of the 

resulting federated information network. Finally, appropriate network security and 

information assurance protection must be implemented to protect against intrusions, 

viruses, malicious code, and misuse of the network information. 

Toward a Time-Phased Business Process Model 

A jointly prepared civil-military ICT strategy should guide planning, not only for the 

initial deployment of ICT into a crisis area but also for the desired “end state”—the goals 

and objectives for ICT capacity-building and development—in any given nation. Early 

actions to build ICT surge capacity and reconstruct affected ICT infrastructures should 

include leave-behind technologies consistent with long-term capacity-building objectives. 

Figure 12 illustrates a notional business process model that could be used to guide the 

pre-planning, incident response planning (surge, recovery, and reconstruction), and 

planning for the “to be” ICT capacity of the affected nation. 

Business Process Model for Planning,

Recovering, Reconstructing and Developing 

Affected Nation ICT

Sustainment

ICT Policy, Regulations and Laws

Military C3

Emergency Services

•Police, Fire, Rescue

Public Voice and Data Services

•Coverage

•Local, Regional 

•International Access

•Functional Capabilities

•PSTN

•ISP/Internet

•Cellular/Wireless Data

•Transmission

•Microwave/Fiber/Cable

•Satellite

•Radio/TV/Print

•Business practices

Government Nets

•Communications

•Cellular and Voice Switched

•HF, VHF, UHF, Satellite

•Information Systems

•e-Government/Ministries

•e-Education/Health

•e-Commerce

Affected Nation ICT Pre-incident Planning

Military or

Civilian Lead

Civilian Lead

ICT “As IS”

Assessment and 

Surge/Recovery

ICT Reconstruction

Security (Military C3 and

Emergency Services ICT) and

Governance

Public, Civil 

Gov’t, and

Emergency 

Services ICT

Incident (Natural Disaster 

or Conflict) Response

Info and ICT Services

CMOC/CIMIC Ctr

Cell on Wheels

WiFi Hot Spots

Kiosks

•Call centers

•Internet cafés

LMR, HF, VHF, UHF

Satellite phones

AM/FM Radio/Print

Distribute free

•Cell phones

•Laptops

•AM/FM radios

Info and ICT Services

HIC/IMC

Cellular,Wireless Data

Internet/ISPs,PSTN,Tx

VSAT Nets, Satellite phones

Kiosks

•Call centers, Internet cafés

LMR, VHF, UHF

AM/FM Radio/TV/Print

Transition to

Nation and

Private ICT 

Industry 

Investments ICT Recovery Plan

ICT Reconstruction and Development Plan

ICT Strategic Plan

(the “To Be”)

Information culture

ICT Policy/Legal

Vision

Strategy

Architecture

Plan

Funding 

Implementation

---------------------

Baseline ICT

(the “As Is”)

Population information

culture and habits

ICT Policy and Legal

Infrastructure

Coverage/Capacity

Functionality

A/O/M and Net/Sys Mgt

Business practices

Mgt/Technical skills

Suppliers and logistics

Civil-Military

ICT Development

Figure 12 

The pre-incident planning focuses on developing a baseline understanding of the ICT 

infrastructure capabilities and limitations of the host nation, including other ICT-related 

factors, such as existing regulations, policies, legal considerations, technical and 

management skills, economic considerations, and business practices. The vision for the 
57

“to be” ICT capabilities of the host nation needs to be based on the information culture of 

the nation and the government’s views and desires for moving into an appropriate phase 

of the information age, whether that involves creating e-governance, e-commerce, eeducation, e-economic, and/or other information capabilities. 

Knowing the “as is” and the “to be,” it is possible to develop an ICT strategic plan to 

guide investments, acquisitions, and other needed improvements, including regulation 

and legal changes and education and training needs. The incident response-planning 

phase needs to do an immediate quick look assessment of the ICT infrastructure to 

determine what works and does not following a natural or manmade disaster. This helps 

to determine what adjustments are needed to the ICT capability packages that will be 

deployed. It also can identify additional actions that may need to be taken to provide 

surge capacity and recovery of key ICT infrastructure, support the responder elements, 

and establish communications with the affected nation’s leadership and population. In 

regard to the latter, kiosks with call centers and Internet cafes can be used, but it is also 

important to restore and use other means to conduct mass communications, such as radio, 

TV, and the print media. 

Depending on the state of the affected nation’s ICT infrastructure (pre-incident and postincident), it may be necessary to develop both reconstruction and development plans to 

guide the ICT capacity building. If the infrastructure really never existed to start with or 

was totally destroyed, it may be more appropriate to go directly to planning for, and 

investing in, ICT development. Figure 13 illustrates a time-phased model of potential ICT 

development. The intent should be to enable the transition of the ICT capacity-building as 

soon as possible to the affected nation and, as appropriate and desired by the affected 

nation, to private industry. 

Time Phased Situation

Natural or

Manmade Disaster

Affected Nation

Before Incident 

“Baseline ICT”

Affected Nation

“Developed ICT”

Affected Nation

After Incident

“As Is ICT”

“Responder, Surge 

and Recovery” ICT

Capacity Building

ICT 

Capacity Building

“Reconstruction”

Figure 13 
58

Short-Term Surge and Recovery 

In the short- to mid-term, several different options are possible for deploying ICT 

capabilities and establishing CIEs. Responder organizations can establish ICT networks 

and services to support crisis area operations using: 

 

• Commercial satellite service from satellite operators and systems integrators; 

• Leased connectivity, services, and capabilities; 

• Acquired ICT response kits from donors and/or NGOs; 

• Kits assembled from purchased commercial products and access services; 

• Self-provided networks; or 

• A combination of the above. 

Military and civilian elements can use Internet portals and metadata repositories to create 

a distributed information environment and, in the process of doing so, should use open 

system standards to the extent possible. In austere situations, amateur radio can even be 

used, where applicable, for communications. 

Other short- to mid-term ICT deployment capability options include: 

• Laptops, workstations, PDAs, faxes, printers, copiers, or mass printing; 

• M/S Office, Adobe, Collaboration tools, GIS, GPS, mapping, VTC, and analysis 

and visualization tools, WiFi, language translators, VoIP; 

• LANs, routers, servers, wireless coms, digital cameras, GPS receivers; 

• power sources (generators, batteries, solar); 

• Cell phones, satellite phones, VSAT, WiFi tower, and COWs; 

• Prearranged satellite access, ISPs, and Teleport use; 

• HF, VHF (including ground to air), and UHF radios and AM/FM transmitters; 

• Land Mobile Radio Service (LMRS) for emergency services (police, fire, and 

rescue); 

• Transmission and switching capabilities to support voice and data surge capacity 

needs; 

• Kiosks with call centers and Internet cafes.

Mid-Term Reconstruction 

Mid- to longer-term reconstruction options should include “leave-behind” infrastructure 

for local partners, whether they be private, governmental, or nongovernmental agencies. 

Depending on local regulations and capability constraints, leave-behind infrastructure can 

be used to jump-start host-nation ICT infrastructure recovery and reconstruction and 

provide commercial opportunities to seed economic revitalization through ICT 

infrastructure development. To make a leave-behind strategy effective, a host-nation ICT 

strategy and action plan should be developed. Considerations to take into account 

include: 
59

• Understanding the affected nation’s information culture and market, for example, 

how do individuals obtain and use information?; 

• Understanding ICT policies, regulations, and laws; 

• Articulating a vision, such as developing a “knowledge society” or “regional 

software development hub”; 

• Composing a strategy to achieve the vision; 

• Building national capacity in the areas of infrastructure, regulations, laws, 

management, and resources; 

• Developing electronic commerce and e-government; 

• Education and training; 

• Financing; and 

• Fostering development of an ICT industry. 

With those considerations kept in mind, planners can review their “toolkit” options for a 

graduated, mid-term ICT deployment capability, which may include: 

• Expanded LMRS for emergency services; 

• COWs plus fixed sites and WiFi and WiMax hot spots; 

• VHF and UHF repeaters and relays; 

• VSAT networks; 

• AM/FM radio and TV transmitters; 

• Mobile switches to interface with PSTN (PABX-like); and 

• Kiosks, call centers, and Internet cafes. 

Long-Term Leave-Behind Support 

Long-term, leave-behind support should contribute toward the growth of functioning 

telecommunications and computing sectors, empowering a stable host government to 

identify goals for communications and IT development. Among the types of 

infrastructure that governments likely will seek to build are: 

• Wireless networks 

o Mobile voice 

o Mobile data 

• Broadcasting networks 

o Local, regional, national voice/data 

o AM/FM radio 

o Television 

• Internet backbone and access networks 

• Public switched telephone network (PSTN) reconstruction and modernization 

o Local, regional, national, international 

• Terrestrial broadband transmission networks 

o Cable, fiber, line-of-sight wireless 

• Satellite networks 

o VSAT, earth stations, teleports, hubs 
60

The following guidelines address the issues involved in setting up ICT systems and 

capabilities, operating those networks and systems, and then departing, leaving behind 

the seeds of redevelopment: 

• Get in very fast when an emergency develops; 

• Offer high-quality, open, and multi-model communications; 

• Facilitate improved cooperation among emergency responders, the host nation, 

and global experts; 

• Serve as a model of flexibility, accessibility, interoperability, and ease of use; 

• Ensure the presence of cultural insight through both training and guidance; 

• Bring in the best automated translation tools and human translators that can be 

found; 

• Cost nothing to the affected area; 

• Spend a little for the local economy; 

• Transfer and leave behind whatever appropriate infrastructure host nations wish to 

receive; 

• Train the local technicians and experts who will continue to support that 

infrastructure; 

• Maintain long-term support links; and 

• Depart as soon as it is appropriate, advisable, and feasible to do so. 
61

Data and Information Management

In S&R and HADR operations, the participants deal with data that are by nature multisectoral, multi-dimensional, contextual (historical, cultural, and ethical), multi-source, 

and non-standardized. In addition, they must confront the challenges of data overload 

while simultaneously redressing data gaps. Consequently, one of the major problems is 

synthesizing this mass of heterogeneous data into a form that can readily be digested by 

decisionmakers. 

Timely and accurate information is integral to civil-military actions in natural disasters, 

post-conflict stabilization environments, and complex emergencies. The international 

civil-military community's ability to collect, analyze, disseminate, and act on key 

information is fundamental to an effective response. Better information, leading to 

improved responses, directly benefits affected populations. Over time, improved 

assessment of impacts and responses through better data collection and management 

contributes to a more complete global database on disaster impacts, leading to better risk 

assessment and prevention and preparedness activities. 

Data Management 

Given the current operational challenges facing the participants in real-world operations, 

it is clear that data management is increasingly an issue. During the early 2000s, 

numerous workshops were held on the subject of data for S&R and humanitarian 

operations. Table 1 is a partial list of the exceedingly challenging data issues identified 

during recent workshops. 

Table 1. Selected Data Issues 

Data sharing Data acquisition 

Data conversion Data reuse 

Lack of good data dictionaries Data bloat 

Lack of knowledge of original purpose Data protection 

Data subrogation Data naming conventions 

Data purity Data maintenance 

Metadata policy (e.g., standardization) Data shelf life 

Ontological development for intelligent searches Data reconciliation 

 

It is widely recognized that many barriers impede the effective reuse of data. These 

include: 

• A lack of knowledge about the existence of legacy data; 

• Security or proprietary ownership restrictions; 

• The quality of metadata (that is, the failure to document conditions of collection); 

• Variance in definitions, language, and measurement instruments; 

• The form of accessible data; 
62

• Rapid changes of technical data, requiring frequent updates; and 

• The fear that data could be misused, misunderstood, or lead to adverse 

consequences. 

The goals of the S&R and HADR communities in regard to data can be broadly divided 

into two macro-objectives. First, it is critical that the data be available to the user. It must 

be visible, accessible, and rapidly accessible. Second, the data must be usable by the 

recipient. This implies that it must be understandable, trusted, interoperable, in the 

appropriate format, and responsive to user needs. 

As a foundation for trying to improve the situation, it is necessary to develop the broad 

data needs and information exchange requirements for the S&R/HADR Community of 

Interest (COI). Second, it is appropriate to formulate an architecture to guide the activity. 

This would include a characterization of the “as is” situation, the desired “to be” 

situation, and the path to evolve from the baseline. Third, it is vital to rapidly develop a 

core capability to satisfy immediate needs. Finally, it is important to commit to 

incremental development that reflects feedback from the users, provides additional 

capabilities and functionalities, and incorporates emerging information technologies. 

To improve the current situation, several steps must be taken. First, to ensure that data are 

visible, available, and usable when needed, they should be “tagged” with metadata 

indicators to enable discovery by users. All data can then be posted to shared spaces to 

provide access to all users—except when limited by security, policy, or regulations. 

Instead of defining interoperability through point-to-point interfaces, the community will 

then progress to enabling the “many-to-many” exchanges typical of a “network-centric” 

data environment. 

 

Planners can formulate a data vision that is predicated on three key elements: 

1. COIs to address organization and maintenance of data. 

2. Metadata, which provides a way to describe data assets and the use of registries, 

catalogs, and shared spaces, which are mechanisms to store data and information 

about data. 

3. CIE Services that enable data tagging, sharing, searching, and retrieving. 

To institutionalize data management, the COI must govern data processes with sustained 

leadership. It must actively incorporate data approaches into COI processes and practices. 

The COI also must advocate, train, and educate personnel in data practices and adopt 

metrics and incentives. Meanwhile, data must be understandable. This can be 

accomplished by defining appropriate ontologies and metadata. The latter should 

subsume both content- and format-related metadata. For data to be trusted, it is necessary 

to associate data pedigrees and security metadata, and to identify authoritative data 

sources. 

In supporting data interoperability, one should register metadata, associate format-related 

metadata, identify key interfaces between systems, and comply with agreed open-system 
63

interface standards. Being responsive to user needs implies involving users in COIs and 

establishing a process to enable user feedback. 

To make additional substantive improvements in data support to S&R and HADR 

operations, it is vital that the civilian and military communities take several challenging 

steps. The most of important of these steps is an initiative to transform the culture of data 

from one of hoarding to one of sharing. 

To do so, efforts must be made to dispel the fears that permeate both the S&R and HADR 

communities regarding the potential misuse or misunderstanding of data, and of the 

adverse consequences that could result. This initiative must be undertaken and sustained 

at the highest levels of leadership among the civilian and military participants. 

Establishing adequate metadata organization is the key technical issue. This is a 

challenging problem, and the S&R and HADR communities should begin to address it 

seriously and immediately. 

Information Management19

Information management, which addresses how data are compiled, organized, and 

utilized faces its own ongoing challenges. Interested practitioners in the field met 

February 5-8, 2002, in Geneva to take stock of achievements in the humanitarian 

information management field, identify future challenges, and agree on next steps. Based 

on their collective experience, the participants in this international meeting identified a 

number of principles for humanitarian information management and exchange that apply 

not only to humanitarian activities but also to civil-military information management in 

general. In complex emergencies and natural disasters, the civil-military community 

should: 

Define user needs and emphasize data sets and formats that directly support 

decisionmaking at the field level. Identify user groups, conduct user requirement 

analyses, inventory information resources, and define core information products based on 

user input. Develop and implement information products on operationally relevant 

themes, such as the location and condition of the affected population, as well as factors 

affecting access to affected populations. Use templates, such as the Rapid Village 

Assessment (RVA) tool to speed data collection. Create maps to effectively communicate 

information to decisionmakers. 

Collect and analyze base data and information before and throughout an emergency. 

Gather, organize, and archive data and information on operationally relevant themes for 

high-risk areas in preparation for emergencies. Maintain and enhance data sets during 

emergency responses. Document and archive data so that it is easily accessible for future 

use. 

Maintain and promote data and information standards. Follow generally accepted 

standards for information exchange, such as the Structured Humanitarian Assistance 

 

19 UN OCHA Symposium. 
64

Reporting (SHARE) standard to promote data sourcing, dating, and geo-referencing. The 

SHARE standard facilitates integration of data from multiple sources and enhances 

verifiability, assessment, analysis, and accountability. Geo-referencing data during 

collection allows cartographic presentation and GIS analysis. Create metadata catalogs as 

part of a standard documentation process with hand-over procedures. 

Maximize resources by expanding partnerships. Recognize that data and information are 

collected and managed by a variety of actors, including national governments, UN 

agencies, NGOs, the private sector and research institutions, and that the contributions of 

these providers are crucial. Pre-establish inter-agency agreements and relationships at the 

national and local levels. Establish an ongoing process of personal interaction to create 

partnerships for information management and exchange. Use distributed networks and 

neutral portal repositories to assist with information sharing and to promote linkages to 

avoid duplication of effort. 

Engage local and national actors in information projects. Develop networks of local 

communities and national NGOs, civil society groups, and the private sector and address 

the issue of local participation as part of overall emergency planning, monitoring, and 

evaluation. Build and strengthen the national/local capacity in information management 

and exchange and promote the transfer and use of local knowledge.

Maintain preparedness "toolboxes" for online and offline distribution. These toolboxes 

provide guidelines and reference tools for the rapid deployment of information exchange 

facilities, for example Humanitarian Information Centers (HICs) or CMOCs, or the 

establishment of Web sites and databases under a variety of field conditions. Toolboxes 

should include data standards, operating procedures, training materials, database 

templates, and manuals. 

 

Define an exit strategy. Develop a clear phase-out strategy, including transitioning to 

development activities and creating archiving systems to maintain access by current and 

future stakeholders after the project is closed. 

Preserve institutional operational memory. Define and adhere to sound data and 

information management policies and techniques for handling large volumes of 

information. Document datasets with metadata. Maintain quality control and 

organizational learning to avoid the need to start from scratch with each emergency and 

to maintain the quality of information services during emergencies. 

Establish field-based HICs. Design HICs as open-access physical locations, incorporate 

existing capacities, systems, and information management activities according to 

identified operational and decisionmaking demands.. HICs should serve as neutral 

brokers of humanitarian information, providing value-added products and beneficial 

services to the field-based humanitarian community. Encourage broad participation from 

local, national, and international actors to facilitate and support humanitarian response 

activities. Form partnerships with specialized agencies and sector experts to conduct 

sectoral surveys and analyses. 
65

Use appropriate technology. Ensure that field information systems reach the broadest 

possible audience. Be aware of the limitations of technology, both inherent and as related 

to availability. For example, keep in mind that the Internet, while powerful, is not a 

panacea and can be ineffective as a distribution channel to and from remote areas. 

Consider making data products, particularly databases, available via e-mail, CD-ROM, 

and for local downloads. Recognize that local staff’s ability to work with the technology 

is an important determinant of success. Technology should be easy to use and be 

accompanied by training for local staff. 

Use open data formats and interoperable technologies. Use COTS technology and create 

all information products using open data formats and interoperable technologies. 

Promote awareness and training. Conduct technology training sessions for non-technical 

humanitarian staff, particularly national staff members. Educate senior decisionmakers in 

humanitarian organizations about the purpose, strengths, and weaknesses of information 

management and exchange. Broaden participation in information projects among affected 

and at-risk populations. 

Involve the private sector. Consider the efficiencies of contracting out information 

management and exchange functions to the private sector, especially local private 

interests, when cost-effective and appropriate. Encourage a constructive role for the 

private sector by incorporating private-sector expertise into preparedness and planning 

activities. 

Mobilize adequate resources. Include funding for field-level information management 

and exchange systems and projects in the overall resourcing of assistance programs. 
66

Best Practices 

The attempt to assemble “best practices” is, at its heart, an effort to distill clear guidelines 

from the real-world experiences of professionals who have, in effect, already faced the 

inevitable challenges and overcome them. In short, best practice statements are the record 

of how those challenges were minimized and resolved. They can then be published and 

disseminated as trail markers to make sure those who follow in their footsteps do not 

have to traverse the same terrain through trial and error. Before embarking on more 

detailed lists and descriptions of best practices, which are found in the following sections, 

it may be useful to establish the following rules: 

Ten Simple Rules for Civilian-Military Coordination: 

1. Understand the other participants. 

2. Respect their legitimate limitations. 

3. Pay special attention to geographic and sectoral boundaries. 

4. Leverage the shared interests of participants. 

5. Build and carefully use networks. 

6. Take the initiative in information sharing. 

7. Have multiple, simple, reliable means of sharing information. 

8. Encourage training and preparation for task sharing. 

9. Provide the tools to facilitate joint planning. 

10. Avoid public criticism of any participants. 

The best practices in this chapter are derived from multiple sources, such as the UN, 

DOS, DOD, USAID, industry, professional workshops, and other subject-matter expert 

sources. The best practices are arranged in sub-sections according to subject matter. 

 

Best Practices for Civil-Military Information Exchange 

Organizational Issues 

• Ensure that all reports compiled by responders have clear time and date stamps.

Reports about conditions on the ground are time-sensitive. To address this, the military 

uses standardized date-time groups to log reports, allowing military units to sort out 

multiple observations of the same event over time and to determine the most recent 

report. The absence of such procedures in the humanitarian community can result in 

misinterpretation of reports. This can lead to erroneous tactical decisions on where to 

route relief supplies, if, for example, a report arrives late and reflects out-of-date 

conditions and data. 

• Be sure to confirm which metrics are being used and try to establish uniformity among 

responders. 

Almost all reports provide measurements of some kind, whether of volume or distance. 

The military within a given nation will use standard measurements for each type of 

situation, and it may not explain or detail those metrics in each document. Moreover, 
67

different agencies employ different measurement scales, for example, many U.S. civilian 

groups measures distance in miles, but the U.S. Army employs kilometers. 

• Establish the variations in meaning for terms used by providers and, wherever possible, 

be conscious of different usages. 

Terminology differs among various organizations; common terms used by the military 

and civilians, alike, often have different meanings. For example, the term sector means a 

geographic AOR for a military organization, while it denotes a functional area, such as 

water/sanitation, food or shelter, to most civilian humanitarian groups. 

• Try to avoid depending on the military for data that is time-sensitive and has not been 

previously shared. State the information need in terms of the decision that must be made 

rather than the raw data being used to make the decision.

The urgent need of humanitarian groups for certain data may not be readily evident to the 

military, which often has its own set of priorities and information needs. Also, the 

military often responds better when it receives a clear reason why outside groups want 

information. Instead of asking ambiguously for satellite imagery, ask for a forecast of 

which local mountain passes are likely to become impassable due to impending weather. 

• It is important to know how data was collected, and by whom, to judge whether it may 

be valuable or verifiable as a basis for action.

Information-gathering capabilities of participants differ. For instance, the military is more 

likely to be effective in gathering data about tangible, measurable things, such as the 

length of an airfield or the number of structures in a village with intact roofs. Military 

units seldom have the skills to make more than broad observations about issues, such as 

food security, access for ethnic minorities, or potential political conflicts. 

• Pay attention to the effects of institutional cultures, as well as the informational and

ethnic cultures of the host countries.

Cultural aspects can point up shortcomings in capability. In many militaries deployed 

outside of their own countries, direct interaction with the population is limited either by 

policy, regulation, or tactics. Effective interaction, when it is permitted, may be further 

limited by language, culture, or distrust. Junior soldiers will collect much of the 

information collected by the military from or about the population. Moreover, they often 

do their collections while on patrol, a mode that may not lead to casual revelations of 

information by the populace. Some militaries do have dedicated, trained personnel to 

interact with the population and conduct CA and CIMIC patrols to collect or verify data. 

The Intelligence and CA/CIMIC sections of military forces are unlikely to have nativelanguage speakers or personnel with direct experience in humanitarian assistance. In the 

case of the CA/CIMIC/CMO section there maybe a number of officers or soldiers who 

have had little or no formal training in this function. They will often defer to the 

humanitarian community on analytical issues. 

If a CA/CIMIC channel for information exists between lower and higher levels of 

command this will be the primary channel for reporting information, addressing issues, 
68

and dissemination. There is a natural tendency not to place bad news into command 

channels. Furthermore, the amount of analysis done on humanitarian issues—and the 

amount of attention given to information requests by humanitarian groups—will often 

depend on the individual commander’s interest in humanitarian matters. 

• Try to leverage the logistical, transportation, and other capabilities and assets of 

military units to enhance humanitarian data collection.

The military may be well positioned to collect data on the population and humanitarian 

conditions in remote or inaccessible areas. For example, military medical personnel often 

conduct clinics in areas that humanitarians may not be able to reach. With some training, 

military medics could collect data on indicators of malnutrition among the patients they 

see. 

Dissemination of information within multinational commands poses its own special kind 

of problems. Language and culture are obvious problems. However, differences in 

communications equipment and in national restrictions on the sharing of intelligence and 

information may also cause difficulties. The fact that information has been shared with 

the headquarters or one contingent of a multinational force is no guarantee that this 

information will reach all contingents. 

• Military public affairs and media specialists can be used to reinforce advocacy issues 

and common themes not necessarily associated with either the military or the 

humanitarian community.

For example, public health, driving safety, respect for human rights, weather reports, and 

warnings can normally be broadcast over a number of channels without being associated 

with a particular source. On occasion, joint press conferences or media briefings may be 

appropriate. This may be the case when attempting to manage disinformation or 

particularly damaging rumors. On rare occasions, joint press releases might be issued. 

However, it is more likely that separate press releases properly timed will have better 

impact. 

• Know how to get in contact with the right people in the most expeditious and 

appropriate manner to facilitate resolution of civil-military issues. 

When possible, contact lists should include alternate points of contact and addresses 

where personnel can be reached during non-duty hours. The military operations center 

should be able to locate key military personnel in an emergency, and the radio operator in 

the UN mission and other IO/NGO operations should be able to do the same. But there is 

no substitute for direct access. 

• Establish a formal process for the civilian humanitarian community to request 

information from military forces.

If a CMOC is set-up, or a humanitarian liaison officer has been assigned to the military 

headquarters, this officer may be the appropriate person to manage this process. An 

important element is the screening of the request, which is needed to ensure that the 

military forces understand what is being asked for and why. Blanket requests for data, 
69

such as overhead imagery of the country, will probably not be granted. In addition, the 

system must be able to audit and track requests, to gauge responsiveness and timeliness. 

• Remember that when the military reacts to an emergency, one of the first things they 

will do is restrict access to their critical facilities, such as the operations center. The 

civilian elements must know how to gain access in emergencies and must make these 

arrangements before the emergency.

Emergency communications and liaison procedures are normally maintained by the 

security officers and may be included in disaster contingency plans. However, both 

civilian and military organizations will maintain alternative internal communications 

plans. Knowing the back-up systems and how they work in an emergency allows the 

civilian element to assist in the reestablishment of communications and coordination 

when systems are disrupted. 

• A civilian-military coordination arrangement must be prepared to quickly translate 

between military and civilian mapping systems. 

Logistically, standard map sheets, coordinate system, and location names differ between 

civilian and military elements. The military will work from a standard map or map series 

and a common coordinate system. The same is not true of the humanitarian community, 

especially the NGOs. Most military organizations use the Universal Transverse Mercator 

(UTM) grid system and maps in common scales, such as 1:25,000, 1:50,000, and 

1:250,000. Most commercial GPS receivers, however, work in longitude and latitude 

coordinates. 

In some cases, sophisticated GIS systems will handle translation, but the most reliable 

means is to have a transparent overlay with the alternative grid systems for the military 

map and the most common humanitarian maps. In addition, a consolidated list of place 

names, with alternative versions in the native languages and variants in spelling, must be 

maintained because most incident information received from local sources will reference 

neither the military or civil grid system. 

• Know something about the specific history between military and civilian individuals 

and groups/units. 

Recent experiences between people and groups will often influence the quality of 

relations between them more definitively than doctrine or policy. The same is often true 

regarding military experiences and relations with civilian populations and elites. It is 

worthwhile to research these informal histories to more effectively communicate and 

anticipate the reactions to both information and situations. 

• Minimize or eliminate any scenario in which rumors or misinformation about 

humanitarian or military participants can be originated or spread. 

The environment of an emergency is very conducive to rumors and misinformation. 

Rumors about the military will circulate within the civilian humanitarian community and 

vice-versa. Erroneous information can have a very damaging impact on civil-military 

relations and the mutual perceptions of both military and civilian actors. Systematically 

monitoring this phenomenon is normally the responsibility of public affairs officers in 
70

both the military and humanitarian organizations. Someone in the civil-military 

community must be prepared to assist in this effort by providing ready access to correct 

information and countering damaging false or distorted information. 

Technical Issues 

• Before sharing facilities, weigh cost savings and expedience against the possibility that 

services will be disrupted if someone decides to target military communications 

infrastructure.

Some infrastructure, such as VHF repeater towers, is expensive and ideal locations are 

limited. It may be possible for civilian and military elements to share such infrastructure. 

• If military forces have the technical capability and are willing to evaluate or repair 

communications or computer systems, this may be an area of low-visibility, indirect 

assistance that could benefit the humanitarian community.

Furthermore, repair and maintenance of communications systems often requires technical 

skills that may be limited in the local economy and costly to import. If such arrangements 

are made, be careful not to advertise them too broadly and try to limit them to emergency 

repairs. 

• At a minimum, a memorandum of understanding (MOU) should be negotiated to ensure 

equitable access to radio frequencies and satellite resources.

Control of the use of the electro-magnetic spectrum is the responsibility of the hostnation government. Specific frequencies are reserved for specific activities. Important 

frequencies for international communication, such as air traffic control, are established by 

international treaty. Other frequencies, such as those used for commercial radio 

transmission, are controlled by the government and licensed. In the absence of an 

effective governmental agency to deal with the monitoring and enforcement of these 

matters, the international military and civilian communications specialists must come to 

an agreement on these matters or communications can be severely disrupted, especially in 

emergencies where radio discipline may be weak. 

Developing and Maintaining Partnerships 

• Participants in S&R and HADR operations can maximize resources by establishing 

partnerships.

No one organization can collect all of the data and information needed during S&R and 

HADR operations. Partnerships encourage trust and commitment among stakeholders and 

allow information systems to remain objective, accountable, and focused on common 

rather than narrow interests. An ongoing process of personal interaction can create 

partnerships for information management and exchange. Recognize that data and 

information are collected and managed by a variety of actors, including national 

governments, UN agencies, NGOs, the private sector, and research institutions. The 

contributions of these providers are crucial. 
71

• To decrease dependency, engage local and national actors in information projects and 

develop networks of local communities and national NGOs, civil society groups, and the 

private sector.

It is important to address the issue of local participation as part of overall emergency 

planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Build and strengthen the national/local capacity in 

information management and exchange and promote the transfer and use of local 

knowledge. 

• Promote trust and transparency through IT linkages.

Use distributed networks and neutral portal repositories to assist with information 

sharing, and promote linkages to avoid duplication of effort. 

• Partnering with the media can be an effective way of communicating information to the 

affected population.

Use local and international media outlets to inform the local population about 

humanitarian relief operations.

Establishing a CIE 

Commercial ICT solutions exist to rapidly extend communications connectivity and 

capacity and information services into S&R and HADR areas of operation. The Internet 

has become the de facto civil-military collaboration environment, and both civilian and 

military elements employ Internet portals to facilitate information sharing. Data and 

information management in this ad hoc environment remains a challenge. 

• Conducting an assessment of information needs and existing knowledge resources in 

advance is a first step in building a CIE.

This allows participants to identify the gaps in data, information, and knowledge. A 

standardized meta-data (source, date, geo-reference, definitions) approach can 

complement all collected and shared information, so that it can be pooled, compared, 

verified, mapped, and used for analysis. 

• Establish and use collaboration networks to create communities of interest among 

individuals in multiple organizations. 

Collaboration networks are a means to capture and share knowledge and dismantle 

organizational stovepipes. It is important to create an environment of willingness to share 

data and information. Civilian and military actors in S&R and HADR fields should work 

for an agreed strategy, CONOPS, systems architecture, and standards for ICT support.

• Develop an ICT technology roadmap for the near-, mid-, and long-term future. 

Plans should address ICT capabilities (cellular, satellite phones, VSAT, wireless 

networks, PDAs), and plan to fill gaps and build capacity. Collaboration and information 

sharing (peer-to-peer, web pages, portals, GIS) should be accounted for and promoted. It 

is extremely important to create a metadata repository (registry, catalog, shared 

workspace). 
72

The goal is to reach an agreement on organizational arrangements for creating and 

maintaining a civil-military CIE—and the “system of systems” supporting this 

environment. One result should be development and acquisition of ICT “fly away” 

packages for use by civilian government and military participants. These packages of 

equipment will facilitate collaboration and information sharing with IOs and NGOs. 

Moreover, they can be used as leave-behind ICT starter packages for building host-nation 

capacity.

Collecting Data, Managing Information, and Seeking Knowledge 

Data, information, and knowledge are all different. In S&R and HADR responses and 

complex emergencies, information overload usually occurs in the form of reporting, but 

the systematic collection of standardized data that can be stored in retrievable databases 

is lacking. Documentation about the application of lessons learned and best practices in 

decisionmaking also falls short. 

• Humanitarian organizations need to establish strategies and systems for the 

management of data, information, and knowledge.

These functions need to be planned for, resourced, and set up prior to—or in the early 

phases of—a crisis response effort, rather than being an afterthought. Training in these 

functions and systems should be held for humanitarian organizations’ staffs in the field 

and at the headquarters level. 

 While some information needs concerning complex emergencies are common, other 

needs are more specific to different personnel within organizations throughout the 

humanitarian community. For example, U.S. government decisionmakers need “big 

picture snapshot” information to consult with other decisionmakers, negotiate with 

partners or adversaries, and inform Congress, the media, and the public about the 

emergency. They need to understand the issues, be aware of the assistance being 

provided, and be alerted to potential problems. 

• Establish procedures to supply and disseminate a common operational picture or 

situational awareness concerning a humanitarian emergency. 

Complex emergencies, S&R deployments, and HADR responses are characterized by 

conflicting and contradictory information and confusion of facts, terminology, and 

perceptions. A coherent situational picture needs to be presented so that the humanitarian 

issues and needs can be understood and addressed. 

• Information should be collected, organized, and disseminated in a manner that will 

benefit the population and polity of the affected country, not that of the outside 

responders.

External humanitarian organizations need to recognize that they do not have all of the 

information and should not automatically assume they know what is best for the 

population of the country. The external organizations need to incorporate and use the 

information that comes from the affected populations, the indigenous groups, civil 

society, and the responsible government agencies. Information and training need to be 

provided to the local and national staff and entities to enable them to serve the needs of 

the affected population, prepare for a transition, and support long-term development 

goals. 
73

 The HICs established by the UN in the field have made progress in sharing operational 

data and information for the benefit of humanitarian aid workers and the local population. 

These neutral information centers provide products, services, and tools specifically for 

national and international aid workers. These products, services, and tools include GIS 

maps, contact and tracking databases, and standardized assessment forms. 

• New technologies, such as PDAs, GPS, GIS, and virtual collaboration tools, require 

advance training to be used effectively. 

Organizations and their senior management should encourage their personnel to use these 

new technologies and tools as part of their work, but their value must be demonstrated 

through the quality and timeliness of output. Advance training and organizational 

commitment are necessary for these data-collection tools to add maximum value. 

• Short, simple, standardized templates facilitate the collection of rapid assessment and 

programmatic data so that it can easily be transferred into databases for GIS and analysis 

applications.

Create and disseminate templates for sectoral assessments and analyses, such as the RVA 

tool or the Microsoft/Save the Children assessment tool for PDA, to speed data 

collection. Create maps and graphic presentations to effectively communicate 

information to decisionmakers. 

• Valuable information needs to be disseminated, whenever possible, on unclassified and 

open-source platforms and channels. 

Within the U.S. government, almost all of the data and information about S&R, HADR, 

and complex emergency responses comes from open-source or unclassified sources. All 

too often, defense and intelligence agencies disseminate their information using classified 

platforms and channels because it is their usual means of reporting, even though the data 

and information does not need to be classified. 

Satellite imagery that used to be automatically classified is increasingly being 

declassified and released for public use. Also, commercial satellite-imagery-derived 

products are increasingly being made available for use by humanitarian organizations. 

The National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) in the United States has established 

licensing agreements with commercial venders to release high-resolution imagery to 

external humanitarian organizations working with the U.S. government in emergency 

relief situations. 

• Define user needs and utilize data sets and formats that directly support decisionmaking 

at the field and headquarters levels. 

Identify user groups, conduct user requirement analyses, inventory information resources, 

and define core information products based on user input. 

• Develop and implement information products on operationally and strategically 

relevant themes. 

Focus on the location and condition of the affected population and the assessments of 

needs. 
74

• Consult data providers as well as affected populations when designing information 

products.

Without direct feedback to and from the data providers and affected populations, 

community information collection strategies will fail. The humanitarian community, 

governments, and beneficiaries must be thought of as customers as well as data providers. 

• Follow generally accepted standards for information exchange.

Use guides such as the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance Field Operations 

Guide and the Structured Humanitarian Assistance Reporting (SHARE) standard to 

promote data sourcing, dating, and geo-referencing to allow cartographic presentation 

and GIS analysis. 

• Coordinate methodologies for surveys and needs assessments.

These should be coordinated and designed to avoid bias, and should include training and 

documentation. Assessment methodologies and criteria should be explicitly stated. 

• Use metadata.

Develop metadata documentation for each new product. Create metadata dictionaries and 

handover procedures as part of a standard, transparent documentation process. 

Preparing For a Deployment 

Organizations need to establish strategies and systems for the management of data, 

information, and knowledge. These functions need to be planned for, resourced, and set 

up prior to any deployment. Prior training for these functions and systems is required, and 

whenever possible, ICT capability packages should be setup and tested before 

deployment into the crisis area.

Information flow during a crisis can be crippled by lack of time, scant resources, isolated 

decisionmaking, limited information sources, and disrupted communications among 

participants, making it difficult to gather and process accurate data in a timely way. 

Moreover, information gathered during an emergency tends to be reactive and behind the 

curve. Hence, one of the most important aspects of information management and 

exchange is preparation. 

The following two sections address some general factors to be considered when preparing 

to deploy into a crisis area and to select satellite phones or terminals. 

An ICT Deployment Checklist 

When preparing for participation in a crisis response operation, several factors need to be 

considered to improve situational awareness and identify ICT and other needs to support 

deployment. The following checklist represents some best-practice recommendations:
75

• Maintain preparedness "toolboxes" for online and offline distribution. 

o Toolboxes provide guidelines and reference tools for the rapid-deployment 

of ICT packages and/or the establishment of Web sites, intranets, and 

databases under a variety of field conditions. 

o Toolboxes should include data standards, operating procedures, training 

materials, database templates, and manuals. 

• Develop surge capacities for rapid deployment. 

o Maintain rosters of experienced ICT professionals. 

o Formulate equipment caches. 

o Establish training and exercise programs. 

• Preserve institutional operational memory. 

o Define and adhere to sound data and information management policies and 

techniques for handling large volumes of information. 

o Document datasets with metadata. 

o Maintain quality control and preserve organizational learning to avoid 

starting from scratch with each new emergency. 

• Define an exit strategy. 

o Develop a clear, phase-out strategy, including transitioning to 

development activities and creating archiving systems to maintain access 

by current and future stakeholders after the project is closed. 

• Involve the private sector and academia. 

o Consider the efficiencies of contracting technical functions to the private 

sector, especially local private interests, when cost-effective and 

appropriate. 

o Encourage a constructive role for the private sector and academia by 

incorporating their expertise into preparedness and planning activities. 

• Mobilize adequate resources. 

o Include funding for field-level information management and exchange 

systems and projects in the overall resourcing of assistance programs. 

• Promote awareness and training. 

o Conduct technology-training sessions for non-technical humanitarian staff, 

particularly national staff. 

o Educate senior decisionmakers in humanitarian organizations about the 

purpose, strengths, and weaknesses of information management and 

exchange. 

o Broaden participation in information projects among affected and at-risk 

populations. 
76

• Develop contact lists 

o Lists should feature key humanitarian responders and local personnel, with 

phone numbers and email addresses. 

• Review host-nation legal, regulatory, and institutional considerations: 

o Identify customs and border crossing requirements 

 Personal (passports, visa, medical) 

 Equipment/software (taxes/duties) 

o Review licensing policies regarding use of WiFi, radios, cellular, satellite 

phones, and satellite terminal landing rights (VSATs) 

 Spectrum usage constraints and local licensing 

 Language restrictions, for example Sudan local law only allows 

use of Arabic and English on open channels 

o Availability of a Status of Forces Agreement on treatment of foreign 

militaries 

o Implementation of Oslo Guidelines for the use of military assets in 

humanitarian operations 

o Host-nation capacity to respond including appropriate coordination 

structures and mechanisms 

o Status of infrastructure. 

• Where possible, obtain host government permission to import and operate 

communication equipment within and across borders. 

o Normally, a radio spectrum license is granted by the ministry of 

telecommunications or, increasingly, from the independent telecom 

regulatory authority or agency. Obtain several frequencies for redundancy 

and expansion. 

o Clarify allocations and availability of frequency assignments. 

• From the outset, keep the host government informed of requirements and work 

with them to ensure that frequencies and radio licenses are allocated to all the 

various participants. 

• Identify ICT capabilities needed and available, such as: 

o HF, VHF, and UHF radios and radio rooms 

o Voice (VoIP, PBX, telephone, cellular—GSM and/or CDMA, satellite 

phones) 

o Printer, copier, fax, text messaging, data, video, digital camera, VTC, 

maps, and imagery 

o Internet (dial-up, teleport, networked), email, web sites, metadata 

repository, “cyber-café” connections 

o Computers (workstations, ruggedized laptops, PDAs), WiFi, fixed LANs, 

routers, large format monitor (incident mapping) 

o Word processing, mapping, and collaboration tools, GIS 

o Mobile cellular services and applications—SMS, picture, video 

o Satellite systems (Inmarsat and VSAT, satellite coverage footprints, GPS) 
77

o A limited number of links to provide connectivity to some peripheral 

offices 

o Power sources (car batteries, batteries, solar, multi-fuel combustion). 

• Contact agencies that may already be there to: 

o Determine the type of communication equipment they are using (common 

frequencies can save a lot of time and effort). 

o Obtain equipment that is compatible with implementing partners. 

o Obtain the information and specifications needed to order radios. If 

possible, try to borrow radios for the duration of the emergency. 

• Check if your organization has a blanket agreement for communications with the 

government. 

o Frequencies may already be available for use, obviating the need for 

further government approval. 

o Inform the government of your intention to join the radio network and 

advise officials what type of equipment you will be using. 

• Make one person responsible (if no communications officer is available) for 

acquiring, installing, and operating the radio devices. 

o This person should inform everyone of the available frequencies, voice 

procedures, radio etiquette, calling schedules, and where channels are 

available. 

• An important factor to consider for effective communication is the power supply. 

Is it reliable, sporadic, or non-existent? Consider using solar panels or a generator. 

The staff member assigned to communications set-up should determine a costeffective and realistic scenario. 

• Develop cultural awareness and civil-military situation awareness. 

• Use a rapid response ICT assessment team (2-4 persons) in advance of full 

deployment to establish needs and conditions on the ground. 

• Determine communications requirements: 

o Use a common approach wherever possible 

o Encourage all participants to involve themselves. 

 If other agencies have communication technicians, ask for their 

advice on implementing a universal system for all aspects of 

communication. 

• Show them the information gathered in your initial 

assessment of communication resources. 

• Determine, with the technicians, the best-case scenario and 

disseminate to all participants. 

o If security is an issue, each staff in the field should have a handheld radio 

o When deciding on your requirements, 
78

 Plan for future staffing levels; don't allow activities to come to a 

halt because staff cannot be deployed due to lack of radios. 

• Radio batteries are critical to the operation of your radios. 

o Modern radios use rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. 

 These batteries operate best and last longer when they are used 

(fully discharged) and then recharged. 

 Keeping the radio and battery in the charger and using the radio 

infrequently reduces battery effectiveness, especially for oldermodel radios. 

Considerations for Selecting Satellite Phones or Terminals 

Before investing in satellite phones or terminals, it is important to review operational 

needs and considerations, such as the desired geographic coverage area (global versus 

regional), as well as weight and mobility needs, whether the deployment calls for use of 

the phones in remote and rural areas, and whether usage calls for mobile or fixed 

installations. Finally, consider what performance is required, in terms of cost, quality of 

service, and reliability. It is also necessary to make an initial assessment of the 

operational area’s local telephone and mobile service, as well as local Internet access, to 

determine whether these local assets can satisfy identified operational needs. 

Current commercial satellite access capabilities range from low to medium bit-rate 

portable terminals such as Iridium (2.4 kilobits per second), Mini-M (2.4 kbps), Thuraya 

(9.6 kbps), Globalstar (9.6 kbps), M4 (9.6 to 64 kbps), and BGAN/RBGAN (64 to 144 

kbps) to broadband mobile and fixed installation VSAT satellite terminals that can 

operate in the range of 512 kbps up to 8 megabits per second and more, depending on 

satellite dish size and other system design factors. 

The following are some simple considerations to help determine whether a portable, 

mobile or fixed installation satellite terminal option is the appropriate arrangement to 

consider for meeting operational needs. 

Portable Terminal Considerations 

If portable, worldwide coverage is needed, the Iridium satellite phone is an option to 

consider. The Iridium phone is used primarily for voice communications, but it also 

works well for email. Iridium can be used in remote and rural areas within a region and, 

because of the satellites’ Earth coverage, can also be used if to travel to different regions 

of the world is necessary. 

In the Middle East and much of Asia and Africa, the Thuraya handheld satellite phone 

service has a proven performance history for voice communications. The Globalstar 

service may also be suitable in areas other than Africa. In the area of interest, GSM cell 

phone service (up to 9.6 kbps) may be used, as well, but be aware that cellular coverage 

in most parts of the world is reliable only in cities. Remember, also, that the Iridium, 
79

Thuraya, Globalstar, and Mini-M satellite phones, and GSM phones can be used to send 

and receive emails. 

If the requirement is primarily email, with occasional activity on the Web, the Regional 

Broadband Global Area Network (RBGAN) terminal (up to 144 kbps) is the preferred 

solution. In some cases, it may be necessary to install an external antenna for the 

RBGAN, with at least a 12-meter cable, to get the desired performance. Since it can be 

easily carried to the field, the RBGAN is well suited for travelers who must send and 

receive email regularly—not just on occasional visits to an office or Internet café. The 

M4 terminal (up to 64 kbps) is also highly portable and can be used for rapid setup of 

Internet access. 

A wide range of phones and terminals are available to choose from. Selection of any of 

these options is usually driven by cost and intended usage. 

Mobile and Fixed Solutions Considerations 

If it is necessary to access Web sites regularly or send and receive large amounts of data, 

a broadband VSAT solution is needed. VSAT is a satellite communications technology 

that uses a small earth antenna, usually 1-2 meters in diameter, for portable and mobile 

configurations. The smaller terminals tend to support medium bit rates up to 512 kbps, 

but a number of rapidly deployable 1-meter-dish, auto-acquire, flyaway VSAT packages 

are now available, offering up to 1.5 mbps data rates and Internet access. The largerantenna fixed installations offer up to 8 mbps or more of broadband data service. Satellite 

service providers offer even higher capacity system options. 

Acquiring a VSAT system is not the same as purchasing DSL or cable services—nor is 

the performance comparable in many cases. It will, therefore, be important to carefully 

identify user functionality and performance needs, the physical and operational 

environment considerations, and cost constraints. A cost versus performance trade-off 

should be conducted to select the desired arrangement to meet operational performance 

within cost restrictions. 

VSAT terminals, networks, and services can be acquired and set up by the responder or 

leased from a VSAT service provider—a company or organization, such as an NGO, 

providing the data service over a commercial, satellite-based network. The service 

provider can be either a satellite operator directly, or a system integrator. A satellite 

operator usually owns the satellites in its network, as well as the ground stations 

(teleports). A system integrator is a company that does not own its own satellites, but 

makes use of satellites and teleports owned by many different satellite operators. This can 

be advantageous because integrators can select from different companies’ capabilities and 

coverage options rather than be locked into one operator’s satellite fleet. The service 

provider also provides the needed physical and information service capabilities within the 

operational area (VSAT terminals, LANs, WiFi, tents, tables, chairs, computers, routers, 

and other needed parts), and associated network administration support arrangements. 
80

The VSAT solution can provide e-mail transmission and synchronization, Web access for 

surfing the Internet, and telephone access—either directly or over the Internet using VoIP 

applications. The VSAT terminal in the operational area is typically connected to a fixed 

and/or wireless LAN that serves a number of subscribers. Within a region, more complex 

arrangements can be found, such as multiple VSAT terminals interconnected to form a 

network serving multiple users in different geographic areas. 

Considerations for Selecting VSAT Systems and Services20

A number of factors need to be considered when selecting a VSAT system or service. 

These factors are both operational—relating to how the companies do business and 

provide the products, service, and support—and technical, involving how the network 

and systems are designed and operated. Other factors include user needs, for example, 

what combination of voice, data, or Internet access is required, and geographical and 

environmental considerations. These typically involve whether the satellite to be used is 

too low on the horizon or obscured by mountains, tall buildings, or trees—or whether the 

VSAT is to be installed in areas of high rainfall, which can attenuate the signal. It is also 

important to ensure that the provider is using the hardware platform in a manner 

consistent with good reliable performance. The service provided will only be as good as 

the platform, and vice versa. 

Operational, Technical, and Other Considerations 

In purchasing a satellite system or service to meet operational performance needs, it is 

important to understand end user needs and how the network will be used, the operational 

environment, service and system provider capabilities, and system cost versus 

performance trade-offs. Some factors to be considered include, but are not limited to, the 

following: 

Operational Issues 

1) Coverage area. Does the service provider offer coverage of the area you want to work 

in? If you wish to provide connectivity to multiple offices in a region or worldwide, does 

the provider have coverage in all the areas, or will you need several providers to meet the 

needs of all your sites? 

2) Large satellite fleet for coverage options. Several satellite operators have large enough 

fleets to provide good worldwide coverage. Another very valid option would be to use a 

service integrator that may provide service on different satellite networks, depending on 

coverage and footprints. This is more of a consideration for an organization that plans to 

support multiple, geographically diverse locations and wants the benefits of working with 

a single service provider. Another related factor is satellite failure. If a satellite fails, the 

company with more resources can move service or sometimes even maneuver an in-orbit 

spare satellite into position to provide ongoing service. 

 

20 DRASTIC, Global Satellite Broadband Data Service: Considerations for selection of a VSAT service and 

hardware platform, www.drasticom.net, accessed July 11, 2005. 
81

3) Number of service providers required. Economies of scale on costs and quality of 

service and support can be obtained through network size. To that end, it may be better to 

select a service provider that can service all your sites in as large a region as possible. 

Having to interface with a single company also reduces staff workload at your 

headquarters office. 

4) Network size economies of scale. Is the network you are buying service on optimized 

for the best economies of scale that can be passed on to the customer? Many integrators 

buy bandwidth and equipment in bulk but do not pass the savings on to the end customer 

buying in single-lot quantities. Another benefit of using a larger service provider or 

integrator is that the economies of scale extend to supply, support, and training, to name 

just a few factors. 

5) Satellite operator vs. service integrator. Many integrators also provide equipment, and 

in some cases, their prices on equipment and monthly service may be cheaper than 

buying directly from the satellite companies and manufactures. The greater savings 

comes from their buying in great volume and passing the prices on to clients. 

6) Data security at hub and hub countries. The satellite signals from a geographic region 

are all connected to the Internet through hub equipment, which is located at a teleport, or 

earth station. A single teleport can feed whatever satellites are in view. The hub is 

connected to a Network Operation Center (NOC), possibly located halfway around the 

world, and then on to the Internet. Some providers may use teleports or a NOC in 

countries where the security of the data flowing through those hubs may not be very high. 

One should examine the political and economic factors in the hub locations and possibly 

rule out certain high-risk countries. 

7) Physical security at NOCs and teleport. Similarly, physical security at the NOC and 

the teleport should be a consideration. All facilities should be fenced. Access to the 

networking operational and management areas should be through keyed entry areas, 

accessible only to authorized personnel. 

8) Company size and longevity. How large is the service provider company? Size is no 

guarantee of stability, but longevity is important in what is a moderately volatile industry. 

On the other hand, a company that is very large and established can become arrogant and 

unresponsive to individual customer needs. 

9) Company financial solidity. Examine the history and financial viability of the service 

provider. The satellite industry is quite volatile. In an effort to provide low-cost services, 

some providers have priced themselves into bankruptcy. The chosen service provider 

should have a varied and large portfolio of products. 

10) Installations. The installation of high performance VSAT systems is complex. The 

better companies recognize this, and require that installers be certified to industry 

standards. This helps ensure that installations will be accomplished in a manner that 

prevents the VSAT system from suffering interference, or from causing interference to 

other satellite users. Most service providers charge high prices for remote overseas 

installations: typically $7,000-$11,000 per site. Does the provider have certified staff in 

the country or region where the system will be installed, or do they have to send installers 

a long distance, at high expense? 

11) Regional support. Similarly, does the service provider have local or regional support 

staff? In the unlikely event of equipment failure, the cost of having to fly a technician in 

from an overseas office could be expensive. 
82

12) Support hours of operation. The service provider should have one point of contact for 

customer service and support, available around the clock. Anyone calling the help desk 

for support must be treated professionally and quickly. Some providers do not staff their 

support systems over the weekends or at night, and they can take several days to respond 

to a problem. 

13) Proactive support and monitoring. The performance levels on some services and 

hardware platforms can be monitored continually by automatic software at the NOC. This 

is not monitoring of the content of data transferred, but rather keeping an eye on the 

remote site hardware to make sure it is performing properly. If the monitoring software 

notes a failure or even a downward trend over time, it flags that site for attention. In most 

cases, the NOC can dispatch a technician to investigate locally and even fix the problem 

before a part fails completely. This capability is commonly found on professional grade 

equipment and service, and seldom noted on consumer grade services. 

14) Levels of support. The service provider needs to have a documented support 

escalation process and procedures with defined timelines. The process needs to allow for 

the provider to have direct access to the satellite operator and the hardware 

manufacturer’s technical support staff on a 24/7 basis. 

15) Responsiveness. The service provider must be very responsive to phone calls or 

emails. Staffs need to return calls or emails within several hours, or alternate contact 

people should be available. 

16) Landing Rights. The service provider must be willing to assist in cases where a 

government has not yet granted landing rights for the satellite in question. Landing rights 

are permission from a government to a satellite operator granting them approval to 

provide service within that country. 

Technical Considerations 

1) Frequency band of service. Satellite service is provided on two frequency bands: Cband and Ku-band. Ku-band requires a smaller dish and is less expensive to install. The 

signal only illuminates a small region and is commonly used in situations where a large 

number of satellite users are concentrated. C-band service can cover whole continents 

and is available pretty much everywhere. It also works much better in high-rainfall areas. 

a) Ku spot beams for high demand/population regions. Ku band is preferred, 

where practical, due to smaller dish size. Smaller 1.2 meter dishes are cheaper to 

ship and install. They are less visible in the community (sometimes a good idea 

for security reasons). However, in some areas, a 1.8m dish is still required 

because of weak satellite signal strength. Ku-band also suffers from rain-fade in 

high rainfall areas where rain attenuates the signals. 

b) C-band global and hemispherical beams for lower population density and 

tropical areas. Ku-band service is not as universally available as C-band on a 

global basis. C-band service does cover all regions, including low population 

density regions. C-band is also much less affected by rain fade, making it much 

more usable in high rainfall areas, especially the tropics. The downside is that Cband usually requires a 1.8 or 2.4m dish, and the equipment costs more to 

purchase, ship, and install. 
83

2) Proxy caching at the hub. Proxy caching at the hub can speed up web access for 

clients. This becomes less of a requirement if the connection to the Internet at the hub is 

very fast. 

3) Web content filtering at the hub. Many users are concerned about the material readily 

available on the Internet. They are concerned about immorality, violence, and hate 

content negatively impacting the morals of their users. This is an especially strong factor 

to the governments in the Middle East. In addition, much of the malware such as adware, 

spyware, and viruses that infect computers come from these web sites. Even inadvertently 

opening one of these web sites for a couple of seconds can be long enough for a “driveby” installation of unwanted software. Once infected, the compromised computer can 

very quickly generate enough traffic to cripple the satellite connection from the remote 

site and, in severe cases, seriously affect other remote sites on the satellite network. In 

those cases, the satellite operations center will sometimes shut down the offending site to 

protect the throughput of all the other network remote sites. A Web content filter at the 

satellite hub provides the best solution. This greatly reduces the risk of computers 

becoming infected from websites and reduces the requirement for active filtering to be 

done at each remote site. 

4) Quality of Service control. Internet traffic can be either “bursty” in nature, such as 

Web surfing or file transfers, or it can be streaming, as with telephone voice calls and 

audio and video feeds. “Bursty” modes can tolerate several seconds of delay when a 

satellite channel is very busy. Non-bursty, real-time data, such as voice transmissions 

cannot tolerate such delays without resulting in choppy or garbled audio. Quality of 

Service (QoS) priority can be assigned to certain protocols, such as VoIP, giving timecritical voice traffic priority over File Transfer Protocol (FTP) downloads. Multiple levels 

of priority can be assigned to each protocol, depending on its importance for the site. 

5) Committed Information Rate (CIR). In addition, some networks allow for a portion of 

the assigned bandwidth to be committed to each site. This is called CIR service. The most 

critical traffic, such as VoIP phone calls, are assigned with top QoS priority and placed in 

the CIR bandwidth. 

6) Redundant high-speed connections to Internet backbones. The satellite hub sites 

should have a minimum of two redundant high-speed (DS3) connections to Internet 

backbone facilities. Links from the primary to the backup must be invisible to remote 

client sites. 

7) Backup Power at the NOC and teleports. Every site that processes the data between the 

Internet and the remote site should have backup power sufficient to operate for at least 

three days if commercial power fails. This is typically met by using a large 

uninterruptible power supply (UPS) and an auto start generator. The NOC and teleport 

operators must maintain an adequate fuel supply on site. 

8) VoIP support. The service provider must, at minimum, pass VoIP traffic to the 

Internet. Individual customers can use either their own gateways or a public gateway. The 

service provider may make a VoIP gateway service available. If so, it should offer 

various billing models, including prepaid scratch-cards or the equivalent. 

9) Ability to rapidly change bandwidth allocation. The service provider should be able to 

increase bandwidth allocation quickly and readily without charging a fee for changes. 

10) Integrated webcasting IP delivery capability for distance education. The service 

provider should be able to provide webcasting (delivery of data to many sites) for 
84

distance education and conferencing. This could be live web casting or a service where 

data is pushed out to remote sites and cached locally for later use. 

11) Mail relay. The service provider needs to provide a mail relay server for POP3/SMTP 

users to send mail. Mail servers increasingly do not permit mail to be sent from sites they 

cannot verify, which is frequently the case with VSAT systems. 

Bandwidth Issues 

1) Single Carrier Per Channel (SCPC) vs. Shared. A satellite in geo-stationary orbit 

relays data between the teleport and the remote site. Each satellite has many 

transponders, which are repeaters capable of relaying a tremendous amount of 

bandwidth, typically on the order of 25-50 mbps. That is far more than an average 

remote site will need. Leasing an entire transponder can cost $100,000-$150,000 per 

month. Consequently, service providers divide up the transponder’s capacity among 

many different carriers, with a variety of bandwidths available. 

a) SCPC. Even the bandwidth for a relatively small channel can cost $3,000-

$5,000 per month because the channel must be paid for whether you are 

transferring data or not. The higher cost is validated if the remote site needs to 

always have all of its bandwidth available and ready to use at any time. 

b) Shared bandwidth. Most operations, however, do not need the full amount of 

bandwidth at all times. A very cost-effective way to reduce the bandwidth 

requirement is to share slices of time on the transponder. This is a Time 

Division Multiple Access (TDMA), or shared, service. If 10 remote sites share 

a carrier, then the over-subscription ratio is 10:1, and each site pays 

approximately 1/10 the cost of the equivalent SCPC circuit. 

2) Over-subscription ratio. How well a TDMA shared service works depends a great 

deal on how many remote sites are on a given carrier. Top-level corporate or Internet 

café users should have no less than a 4:1 over-subscription. Medium offices do very 

well at 10:1, and small offices are fine at 20:1 service. Home users with just a single 

PC might do fine at 30:1. But beware of unscrupulous service providers with very 

low-cost service aimed at consumer services that run at 50:1 or even 80:1 oversubscription. This level of service will very often be so slow as to be unusable for 

Internet service, especially VoIP calls. The situation is even worse if the remote sites, 

instead of having a single PC, have 10, 20, or more computers in an Internet Café at 

the site. 

3) Burstable CIR service. A shared TDMA carrier works well for bursty Internet web 

browsing activity, but it does not do well with VoIP phone and other real-time voice 

traffic. These require some guaranteed bandwidth, like SCPC, to work well and 

deliver reliable voice call capability. An SCPC channel is all CIR. A portion of the 

shared bandwidth should be committed to each site through CIR service. Most sites 

just need a small portion, which can be provided. This type of service is a shared 

burstable CIR service, and it reflects the best value and performance for most users. 

4) Jitter. This is a measure of how even the latency is over the satellite and how long the 

signal takes to get from one side to the other. It is imperative that the latency remain 

fairly constant if the VoIP voice quality is to be any good at all. Networks with wildly 

varying latencies, typically encountered on lower-grade, best-effort systems, can all 
85

but kill VoIP voice traffic. This is very commonly encountered on excessively oversubscribed services. 

5) Best-effort or guaranteed performance. Most of the low-priced services available are 

“best effort” services. Throughput or performance are not guaranteed. At the end of 

the day, even if the channel becomes so congested as to be unusable for hours every 

day, the service provider can simply say “that is the best the network can do.” Often, 

the advertised data rates are theoretical maximums, not typical throughput. One 

differentiator between consumer-grade, best-effort systems and professional-grade 

services and equipment is that the latter operate under a “service level agreement” 

that guarantees performance and reliability. 

6) Service Level Agreement (SLA). An SLA defines a minimum performance level and 

guarantees of network availability, latency, and packet loss. Typical SLA features 

include: 

a) The network will be available to the customer an average of 99.7 percent of 

the time per calendar month, except for standard service events, and for events 

outside the carrier’s control or at the remote site. 

b) Packet loss will not exceed 2 percent during a calendar month. 

c) Latency shall not exceed 750 mSec for a single satellite hop. 

d) Jitter must be below 10 percent to maintain good VOIP connections. 

e) CIR speeds shall be met at all times. 

7) Data rate definition. Different service providers define the bandwidth of their services 

in different ways. When comparing one service to another, be sure to convert values 

to the same parameters. Information Rate and Transmission Rate are the most 

frequently quoted to represent the maximum theoretical throughput of the channel. 

They do not address typical throughput. Request in writing what typical throughput 

will be. The best way to measure and have bandwidth quoted is by IP throughput. 

This is a much more realistic measurement of the performance of a channel. 

8) Non-pre-emptable service. The service bandwidth can be either pre-emptable or nonpre-emptable. This becomes a factor if the satellite transponders all become full, or 

inoperative. In these cases, a satellite operator or service provider may have to move 

some or all the users to a new satellite. Priority is given to customers with non-preemptable service. In case of a partial failure, non-pre-emptable customers will often 

be allowed to stay on the existing satellite service. 

Equipment Non-technical Considerations 

1) Manufacturer size and longevity. The equipment manufacturers should be 

moderately large and well-established, with a sufficient history to offer some 

expectation of future longevity. This is true for manufacturers of modems, 

outdoor units, and antennas. 

2) Company financial solidity. The chosen equipment suppliers should be financially 

stable and not undergoing financial reorganization or bankruptcy. One should be 

reasonably assured of future longevity. 

3) Equipment customer support. The modem manufacturer’s support staff should be 

available 24 hours a day, every day of the year. Ask if the manufacturer has a 

published technical support escalation process. End users or field installers and 
86

technicians will seldom need to contact the manufacturer directly, but it is 

important that the service provider have direct access to the manufacturer’s tech 

support staff as the last level of escalation on technical issues. 

4) Age of equipment design. The platform chosen needs to be relatively recent in 

design, and not an earlier design approaching the end of its useful and competitive 

life. 

5) Upgradability. The hardware platform needs to be upgradeable in the future as 

new firmware is released. Firmware updates should be automatically uploaded to 

remote terminals. 

Equipment Technical Considerations 

1) Bandwidth efficiency. The most expensive component of a VSAT system is the 

recurring monthly satellite bandwidth cost. The modem platform should be 

selected on the basis of optimizing the use of the available bandwidth. TCP/IP 

throughput should be at least 1 kbps per MHz of transponder bandwidth. Different 

modem technologies can vary by more than 30 percent, so this is a very 

significant factor. 

2) Carrier Spacing. Guard bands also affect bandwidth efficiency on the satellite 

transponder. Each signal on the satellite tends to bleed over to the adjacent 

channel. To avoid interference, satellite operators leave a “guard band” in 

between adjacent channels. Some modems and modulation methods generate 

signals with steeper drop-offs on the edge of the signal than others. The more 

contained the actual signal is, the steeper the drop off on each side. This results in 

a smaller required guard band. This directly translates into less actual spectrum 

used on the satellite, and therefore a reduced cost. Most modems require a guard 

band of 20 percent of the channel width on each side. Ultimately, the user pays 

for the extra 40 percent of bandwidth. Some modems require as little as a 10 

percent guard band on each side, a savings of 20 percent overall on the bandwidth 

and thus the cost of service. 

3) Non-contiguous bandwidth. Traditional satellite modems require a contiguous 

section of the satellite transponder spectrum. As multiple carriers come and go 

over time, the satellite transponder spectrum can become fragmented. Some 

modems can use small, leftover slivers of bandwidth cumulatively. These small 

“leftovers” of bandwidth are often available at fire-sale prices to the service 

provider, who can pass the savings on to customers. 

4) Forward Error Correction (FEC). All VSAT modems use FEC for transmitting 

data. FEC is a means of improving the Bit-Error Rate (BER) on both directions of 

the satellite link. Older modems and the current Direct Video Broadcast-Return 

Channel by Satellite (DVB-RCS) standard use the older Reed Solomon Viterbi 

(RSV) form of FEC. This method is very inefficient when compared to modem 

Turbo Codes (TC) or Turbo Product Codes (TPC). This inefficiency results in 

higher bandwidth and power required for the same BER as TC or TPC. 

5) Shared service with CIR foundation. Some modem hardware platforms and 

service models are designed around shared service, but with a guaranteed 

minimum committed information rate. This is the best mode of operation in that it 
87

ensures that no one site gets all the bandwidth, but that all sites get their minimum 

paid for bandwidth, and excess capacity not being used by other sites is available 

for “bursting” to the maximum carrier speed. 

6) Bandwidth on demand - Rapid Allocation. The modem platform needs to 

reallocate burstable bandwidth very rapidly. Some hardware platforms assign 

burstable bandwidth to a requesting site for 10 or 20 seconds, even though they 

may just need it for a few seconds. Other remotes that request some bandwidth 

they are entitled to cannot get access to the previously allocated bandwidth until 

the other remote releases it. The more rapidly a system assesses and reallocates 

bandwidth, the more efficient the network is and the better the user experience. 

Some hardware platforms can reallocate at up to eight times per second. 

7) Application QoS for VOIP and other protocols. The modem should be able to 

assign QoS priority to time sensitive applications such as VoIP and email. This 

will ensure high quality voice calls and data throughput and reliable email 

transport. 

8) Queue determined bandwidth allocation. QoS should also prioritize bandwidth 

allocation based on the queue of data at remote sites. The site that has more data 

queued should be able to receive a greater portion of the shared bandwidth to 

reduce its queue more quickly. 

9) TCP Acceleration (Pure IP over Air) in both directions. This is extremely 

important for effective web browsing. The verification process within the TCP/IP 

protocol works poorly over the high latency of satellite connections. The problem 

is specifically with the TCP protocol. TCP satellite acceleration involves 

removing the TCP data from the TCP/IP frame, replacing it with a protocol 

designed for satellite latency path. The TCP header is added at the other side of 

the satellite link. This process drastically increases data throughput over a satellite 

link. This can be accomplished with TCP accelerators at both ends of the link to 

obtain speed enhancements at both ends. These products typically cost $20,000 at 

the hub and $4,500 or more per remote terminal. A lower cost option is to use 

one-way acceleration of only the outbound data, but this approach requires the use 

of TCP acceleration software on every client PC at the remote site. The ideal 

modem should incorporate bi-directional TCP acceleration within the modem. 

10) TCP Session Initiation Acceleration. When a new web page is opened, each and 

every element opens in a new session. TCP sessions use slow start up for each 

session. This is especially troublesome when opening a web page that has 

multiple links for content or many elements. Each one of these items has to do a 

connection/acknowledgement process sequentially. A modem platform that can 

bypass the need for end-to-end acknowledgements over the satellite link can 

greatly speed up this process. 

11) Virtual Private Network (VPN) support. The modem platform and service 

provider need to pass all VPN traffic. Some VPN protocols work better than 

others over high-latency paths as found on satellite links. TCP packets embedded 

inside VPN data cannot be compressed because the VPN TCP headers are hidden 

inside the VPN frame. This will make VPN traffic run at uncompressed speeds. 

The solution is to use VPN accelerators specifically designed for VSAT 

applications. Some modem manufactures offer products specifically optimized to 
88

work on a satellite path using their modem technology, allowing the benefit of the 

TCP compression to be regained even over VPN circuits. It is highly 

recommended that the modem/accelerator package be considered if a significant 

amount of VPN traffic is anticipated. 

12) Web compressions. Web traffic can be very slow if a lot of detailed graphics are 

sent over the VSAT link. One solution is to use Web compression to compress the 

images and other compressible data through lossy compression prior to 

transmission to the remote sites. Some modem platforms include this capability, 

resulting in a further level of speed increase for Web browsing. The 

uncompressed images are available by clicking on the transmitted image. 

13) Integrated webcasting IP delivery capability. The hub and remote platform should 

be able to support multicasting, the broadcasting of IP data from the hub to many 

sites. This is useful for distance education and conferencing. 

14) Built in Router/NAT/DHCP/DNS caching. Care must be taken with this option. 

The VSAT system is just one link in the connectivity chain. Additional functions 

are needed at the remote site to build an efficient and workable communications 

tool. The VSAT system provides basic connectivity to the Internet. The local 

connection is output on an Ethernet connector. To provide service to a LAN, 

further networking functionality is needed locally. This includes a Router 

providing NAT, DHCP, and network security from the satellite WAN. Further 

functionality should include DNS caching and TCP acceleration. Combined, these 

items can easily cost more than $6,000. Some modems provide all this 

functionality within the modem, reducing system complexity, size, and power 

requirements. 

15) Built-in Web Caching. To reduce the volume of traffic on the satellite link, a local 

web cache at the remote VSAT site can be used to cache frequently requested 

information. Although an external PC can provide this, some modems incorporate 

this function as an optional hard drive directly in the modem. This reduces 

complexity, cost, power, and maintenance requirements. 

16) Built-in 3DES satellite link encryption. The satellite link is much more stable than 

a wired or wireless LAN. Remote sites may want improved data security, and the 

modem platform should be able to encrypt the satellite data path. This encryption 

should be industry standard, preferably 3DES, and add less than one percent 

overhead to the data. 

17) Automatic uplink Power Control. Rainfall affects satellite performance on both 

the downlink and uplink of the satellite path. Uplink power is set quite tightly to 

be just enough to get a reliable signal to the satellite without overloading it. 

Rainfall will attenuate the signal, and in the case of a heavy rainstorm, the uplink 

signal may drop below the receiver threshold on the satellite, breaking the 

connection. The hub in some hardware platforms continuously monitors the signal 

strength received from remote sites. When a drop is sensed from rain fade, the 

hub remotely commands the remote site to increase transmit power to maintain 

the connection. More advanced modems go even further by varying the FEC 

coding under extreme signal degradation. This means that the satellite link will 

stay at full speed as long as possible under degrading conditions, such as a 

building rainstorm. When the rain gets extreme, rather than just dropping the link 
89

completely, the coding is changed and the link gets progressively slower but does 

not stop completely. 

18) Remote Modem Disabling. Should the satellite equipment be stolen, or a site 

evacuated, it may be desirable to disable the VSAT modem temporarily by 

stunning or permanently killing it. Only the network operator or factory can 

reactivate a system so disabled. This prevents the system being used by 

unauthorized or undesirable users and is an option in some modems. 

19) Possible equipment choices. Remote modem equipment falls into several levels 

largely determined by the target market. The delineations are not solid, with 

crossovers of some products into adjacent markets. 

a) The consumer market is aimed at IP connectivity to users with one or two 

personal computers (PCs) on the LAN. Their connectivity is seldom 

mission-critical and they can accept slowdowns and stoppages on the 

network. To deliver a very low monthly cost, service providers massively 

oversubscribe the space segment, to as high as 80:1. Terminal cost is also 

very low. They are classed as “best effort” systems and have no SLA 

guarantees. Typical platforms include Hughes DirecWay, Gilat 360E, and 

ViaSat Surfbeam. 

b) The small office home office (SOHO) market requires more reliable 

connectivity with less slowdown and no stoppage of data. These networks 

typically support 2-10 PCs on the LAN, and also rely largely on a shared 

bandwidth model. These systems may support a single VOIP phone line as 

well, with minimal packet loss or jitter. Over-subscription is much lower, 

typically in the 10:1 to 30:1 range. They may or may not be a true best 

effort system, and many of the lower cost services have no SLA. CIR 

service is sometimes an option, but is outside the normal network. 

Common platforms include the ViaSat Linkstar and Gilat Skyedge. 

c) The Small-Medium Enterprise (SME) market is for commercial users with 

larger networks (10-100 PCs) on the LAN, or who require faster 

throughput, or both. They also can support 1-8 VOIP lines based on 

satellite bandwidth with very high call quality. These networks almost 

always have an SLA in place with remedies enforced for under 

performance. The industry standard over-subscription for shared SME 

service is 8:1. The network also can incorporate sites with CIR and SCPC. 

Typical hardware is the iDirect iNFINITI Series 3000 and 5000 modems.

d) The large corporate user market relies heavily on high-bandwidth SCPC 

CIR services. They can support 50-500 PCs and 20-100 VOIP calls. 

Remote terminals include the Gilat commercial series, Comtech/EFData 

products, ND Satcom, and the iDirect Series 7000 modems. 

VoIP Considerations 

VoIP capability is increasingly in demand. The satellite hardware platform chosen should 

be able to support from one to four simultaneous calls, depending on the need at the 

remote sites. 
90

1) Minimize latency. Choose a network and equipment that adds minimum delay. 

The latency of the satellite link adds fixed delay of typically 560 mSec. 

Additional fixed (but typically minimal) delay is added by the satellite 

transponder. The VSAT hub and client remote equipment causes more delay. The 

satellite network topology and equipment should be chosen to add minimal 

additional latency to the end path. 

2) Avoid jitter. VoIP relies on a constant stream of data being transmitted 

sequentially. Packets transmitted at equal intervals may arrive at the destination 

with irregular delay and out of sequence. This is called jitter, and it must be 

managed and controlled to ensure good VoIP voice quality. This can be 

accomplished by sending the data in short transport frames and distributing them 

evenly in the overall data stream, by dynamically allocating bandwidth several 

times per second, by fragmentation so that large data packets don’t get in front of 

small voice packets, and by managing the queue depth. Choose a modem platform 

and service that transfers VoIP calls under CIR dedicated bandwidth. 

3) Minimize packet loss. VoIP traffic (UDP/IP) is not retransmitted like TCP/IP 

traffic, so it is lost if an error occurs. Very low Bit Error Rates (BERs) are 

required for high-quality voice calls. 

4) Seek bi-directional QoS and traffic prioritization. Satellite networks are subject to 

congestion, especially those using shared bandwidth. This can lead to delayed, 

dropped, or out-of-sequence packets. Bi-directional QoS ensures delivery of 

VOIP traffic on congested networks. 

5) Choose adequate compression. The dominant industry standard for VoIP calls is 

the G.729 CODEC, requiring a minimum of 8 kbps of bandwidth. When 

IP/UDP/RTP headers are added, the actual bandwidth required is 16-18 kbps. 

Modems that compress the RTP drop the bandwidth requirement to 10 kbps. 

6) Have enough bandwidth for VOIP calls. G-729 CODECs require 16-18 kbps per 

call uncompressed, and 12 kbps if compressed. G.723 will require about 10-12 

kbps once compressed. Incidentally, video-conferencing at 30 frames per second 

requires about 384 kbps of CIR, in both directions, for excellent quality. 

7) Internal corporate networks. Corporate users may prefer to run the VoIP link 

directly to their main offices. A gateway at that location will tie the remote site 

into the PBX at the main office. The remote-site telephones will function as 

extensions on the main office PBX. This can be accomplished through either a 

small PBX at the remote site, or with direct single-line phones. Calls into and out 

of the internal network and the PSTN are handled like any other calls on the 

phone system. 

8) Using a public gateway. VoIP calls can be routed to a public service for 

interfacing to the PSTN. The gateway services can be run by private companies or 

may be part of a service offered by the satellite service provider. Calls can be 

made into and out of the PSTN and satellite remote sites. 

9) Billing options. If an external service provider is used for VoIP, it should offer a 

number of options for billing, including post-paid billing, pre-paid accounts, and 

pre-paid scratch cards.
91

Considerations in Purchasing a VSAT System 

Purchasing a VSAT system is not the same as buying a DSL or cable modem connection 

at home. Nor is the performance comparable. A 512 kbps VSAT connection should not 

be compared with a 512 kbps DSL or cable modem connection. To purchase a satellite 

system that will perform cost-effectively, it is important to understand user needs, the 

operational environment, and the cost-performance trade-offs. Some factors to be 

considered are outlined below. 

Geographic Area of Operation 

The geographic location of the operation will determine the performance and services 

that are available from the commercial satellites that cover each part of the world. The 

available performance and services will in turn determine: 

• Viability: If the satellite to be used is too low on the horizon—or obscured by 

mountains, tall buildings, or trees—it may be necessary to use an alternative. 

• Suitability: In areas of high rainfall, such as the tropics, C-band systems will 

provide more consistent service than Ku-band systems during rainfall. But C-band 

service typically requires a bigger, more expensive dish. The signal strength 

provided by different satellites at any location may also point toward one option 

more than others. The power rating of the electronics that are fitted to the satellite 

dish should be modified to match the available signal. 

Satellite Connection and Use Considerations 

The characteristics of Internet traffic created by different applications are different, and 

they give rise to differing performance specifications for the connection to be purchased. 

For example, VoIP (and particularly, video conferencing) is a demanding application. It 

calls for properly specified connections to work well. Even Web surfing and email 

become painfully slow unless the connection performance is adequate. 

The number of people that will typically use the connection simultaneously needs to be 

determined. For example, if there is a 512 kbps connection at 50:1 contention, each user 

might get as little as 10 kbps at peak times. If each of these subscribers has 10 users on its 

network, each user might then get as little as 1 kbps of bandwidth. Another performance 

factor is upload speeds, which are usually lower than the download speeds. For example, 

if the upload speed is nominally 128 kbps, each user might get as little as 0.1 kbps in 

upload capacity. Sending a 400 kilobit file under these circumstances would be 

operationally unacceptable. 

Toleration of Performance Variability 

If dedicated bandwidth is purchased, with a guaranteed throughput that is CIR service, 

the full performance will most likely be available when it is needed, but it will be very 

expensive. It can be much more affordable to purchase a highly contended link with a 
92

“best effort” contract, but users will probably be very frustrated with the lack of 

performance. The challenge is to balance the cost against the system’s ability to meet 

performance requirements. 

Another major consideration is quality of service. QoS management enables different 

applications to be given different priorities for capacity utilization. With applications like 

VoIP, it is critical that data be received promptly and in the right order. Otherwise, 

conversation will be unintelligible. With other applications such as email, the need for 

impeccable reception of packets is less critical. QoS management would give VoIP data 

priority over email data, increasing the usability of the VSAT link. Other factors can 

provide unanticipated interruptions to service: 

• “Rain fade” – Rain can interrupt Ku-band service (especially in the tropics), while 

C-band transmission is unaffected. 

• Duration of service – Interruptions due to equipment failures can require on-site 

technical support, which will depend on contractual terms for logistics support 

and supplier response. 

Some satellite terminal equipment is pretty basic, and it may be necessary to buy 

equipment in addition to the satellite modem to make the connection work adequately. 

Other manufacturers may have a range of additional functionalities built in, saving 

money. So be sure to compare like capabilities when making selection decisions. 

Select a system configuration that balances performance expectations and cost 

constraints. Considerable economies of scale can be realized by purchasing in large 

volumes and by committing to long-term contracts. Be careful not to lock yourself into 

high rates, however, because bandwidth costs are on a downward trend. Limit the 

bandwidth passing through the connection by the use of features such as: 

• Proxy caching; 

• Spam and content filtering at the hub (before it goes over the satellite link); 

• Web compression; 

• Bandwidth efficiency/throughput enhancement technologies built into some 

equipment. 

Best Practices for Conducting Operations 

This section provides best practices and guidance for the period during which a 

deployment takes place. There is an overall need for a common operational picture and 

enhanced situational awareness. This calls for the creation of a common, relevant, 

releasable operational picture that can be used by all responders to an HADR or S&R 

scenario. Accordingly, information should be collected, organized, and disseminated in a 

manner that will benefit the population and polity of the affected host country, within the 

operational goals. 
93

ICT Infrastructure Assessments 

• Assessments of ICT infrastructure damage should be placed in context and related to 

pre-existing or baseline data to determine the actual extent of destruction from the 

conflict or disaster event.

Assessments of baseline ICT capabilities before a conflict or disaster should consider 

several aspects, including: 

 

o Telecommunication policies, regulations, and laws; 

o Telecommunication procurement rules and business practices; 

o Infrastructure standards, capabilities, coverage, connectivity, 

manufacturers, and supply lines; 

o Telecommunications business practices; 

o The technical and management skill base; and 

o The information culture of the host nation, including how information is 

gathered, shared, and used. 

Assessments of the state of ICT infrastructure after the conflict or disaster must consider: 

o What are the rule-of-law, government, and population communications 

needs that must be met? 

o What are the communications media that are currently available, 

functioning, or in need of repair? 

o Can the host nation ICT infrastructure be updated to employ modernized 

technology? 

o What communications assets and actions can the military provide to 

stabilize and reconstruct the infrastructure? 

o Are telephone systems configured to modern standards? 

o How many main telephone lines are in use? 

o Are mobile and satellite communications operational? 

o Does the population have access to Internet capabilities and providers? 

o What is the ability of the ICT infrastructure to accommodate responders’ 

surge demands? 

• Assessments that are strictly qualitative (narrative) tend to lose value over time and are 

difficult to integrate with other forms of data. 

Consider, for example, the following statement: 

“The assessment team reports a need to prioritize reconstruction of the two 

destroyed bridges that connect agricultural producers with the local market. A 

third destroyed bridge prevents access to the nearest port.” 

To provide added value, assessments should include location information in the form of 

coordinates. The previous statement, with coordinates added, would look like this: 

“The assessment team reports a need to prioritize reconstruction of the two 
94

destroyed bridges (2.5700399, 96.0752737), (2.5838459, 96.0315965) that 

connect agricultural producers with the local market. A third destroyed bridge 

(2.5625190, 96.0862688) prevents access to the nearest port.” 

Then, a database entry, similar to table 2, can be developed, using the coordinates to 

include additional reconstruction information: 

Table 2, Sample Database Entry 

 

In addition, a map like the one shown in figure 14 can be produced from the database 

coordinates: 

Figure 14 

Geo-referenced (location) data is collected using a GPS unit. GPS units are now easier to 

use than ever before. Some require only the pushing of a button to capture location 

coordinates. These coordinates can be downloaded directly from the GPS unit into a 

computer and used to produce maps and spreadsheets or databases. 

Collecting location data increases both the immediate and long-term value of the 

assessment. Having the location information reduces the need for multiple visits to the 

same area to determine exact locations. In addition, with location information as a 

common reference, additional data sets (agriculture, roads, and markets) can be added to 
95

the map. Geo-referenced information then becomes useful to many actors in all stages of 

a complex humanitarian emergency. 

Field Coordination 

Planners should encourage broad ICT development and participation from local, national, 

and international civilian and military actors to facilitate and support S&R and HADR 

response activities. 

• All parties should foster partnerships with specialized agencies and sector experts to 

conduct sectoral surveys and analyses before events occur. 

Information-related efforts that are incrementally resourced and initiated only as 

emergency situations unfold tend to remain behind the curve and reactive. This leads to a 

failure to provide timely information that is accurate and contextual. 

• Preparedness measures, such as base data preparation for high-risk areas, national-level 

capacity building, and the formation of institutional relationships should take place prior 

to deployment.

This will enable information management and exchange systems to effectively support 

assistance efforts once an emergency begins. Preparation also includes planning for 

sustainability and/or exit strategies. 

• Planners from all participants should pre-establish agreements for data-sharing.

Participants must collect and maintain their own baseline data, but they should agree 

upon a central repository for all collected information. Participants can employ, where 

possible, standardized formats. A common metadata catalogue, providing standards for, 

and documentation of, metadata (who collected what information where, and when), 

should be established. Facilitation of data management should be geared to add value to 

existing information, rather than replacing or duplicating it. 

• Information repositories should be configured so that all organizations have equal 

access to the information, which can be facilitated by using standard formats. 

Such repositories can be viewed as conceptual toolboxes that collect tools, principles, and 

best practices. Moreover, it is essential to define public domain information at the outset, 

clearly differentiating public and private information. Archives and archiving procedures 

will serve better if they are established early, eliminating confusion. Information 

management systems should meet the clearly defined needs of operational users and 

decisionmakers and aim to reduce the effects of information overload. Data and 

information must be relevant, accurate, and timely. 

• Ensuring a quality product requires the development of, and adherence to, standards for 

information collection, exchange, security, attribution, and use. 

It is vital to maintain a strong sense of professional ethics at every stage of information 

system design and implementation, including such elements as independence and 

impartiality, in pursuit of humanitarian action. Multiple information systems, including 

Web sites and databases, operating at global, regional, and local levels, create the 
96

potential for an unprecedented degree of cooperation between organizations and people at 

the field level, between the field and headquarters, and between the international and 

local communities. Partnering with the media can be an effective way of communicating 

information to the affected population. 

A Field Data Collection Hierarchy 

This subsection offers a default standard or format for data collection. The order of data 

collection is important. For example, data in items 1 and 2 of table 3 are imperative for 

use in GIS analysis and mapping. Additional items are essential for the validity and 

relevance of the data; and for enabling it to be shared. Table 3 lists several of the standard 

items: 

1) Where: Location information and how it was collected 

a. Latitude 

b. Longitude 

c. Feature 

d. Location 

e. Collection Accuracy 

2) When: When the data was collected 

a. Date 

b. Time 

3) What: Details of what was happening at that particular location 

a. Sector 

b. Project Name/Title 

c. Comments 

4) Who: Who collected the data 

a. Agency/Organization 

b. Collector (individual) 

Data Table Items: (individual definitions provided below table)

Latitude Horizontal Position (x-axis) 

Longitude Vertical Position (y-axis) 

Feature Short description of item being assessed 

Location Most precise name possible 

Collection Accuracy How the location is determined 

Date Day/Month/Year 

Sector Select from pre-defined list 

Project Name/Title Project is referred to as 

Comments Supplemental information 

Agency/Organization Funding Source 

Collector Person or Team collecting data 

Table 3 
97

The following explanations and best practices are provided, regarding each of the data 

fields in table 3: 

Latitude and Longitude: Data collected for latitude and longitude provide geo-spatial 

coordinates for a specific point. An example is collecting a point to represent the location 

of a hospital. This data is used to create a Point GIS layer. A Start point and End point 

location is collected for linear projects so that a Line GIS layer can be created. For 

projects that encompass a region, the center point (centroid) of that region should be 

entered in latitude and longitude, and the description of the region should be added into 

the Feature field. Latitude and longitude are collected using decimal degrees in a WGS 

84 projection, and they can readily be collected using a GPS device. These devices can be 

purchased for approximately $150. They include software tutorials for learning how to 

use them. 

• It is strongly recommended that all data collectors purchase and learn how to use a GPS 

device.

Feature: A description of what the latitude and longitude refers to. Examples include: 

Health Center, Food Distribution Site, Village, School, Hospital, Bridge, Port, Highway, 

and other such designations. 

Location: To facilitate mapping, use the most precise name possible in order of 

preference: town/village, city, district, administrative region, state. 

Collection Accuracy: This describes how the positional information was gathered. Items 

in this field include details of accuracy levels and sources of the positional location. 

Examples: GPS – 30m accuracy, USGS topographic 1:50000, Military Grid Conversion. 

Date: This is the date the data was collected. The date field should be in the format: day, 

month, year. 

Sector: This refers to functional field classification of projects into defined categories: 

health, transportation, education, justice, and others. Definitions are supplied by the 

survey agency to meet their reporting requirements. Data collectors should be provided 

with a pre-defined list of sectors to use before filling out data. 

Project Name/Title: Official title or name of the project. 

Comments: Additional information as needed. Example: “This school building is used in 

three shifts for three different schools. Therefore the same Latitude & Longitude refers to 

Salem School for Girls, Boys Secondary Training, and Bangle Nursing School.” This 

field is not to be used in lieu of filling out the required fields. 

Agency: This refers to the agency or organization funding the project, for example 

USAID, UNHCR, or others as applicable. 
98

Collector: Name of the agency, unit, organization, or contractor responsible for collecting 

the data entered in this table. This is important for verification and clarification. 

Employing a Website 

Responders (both military and non-military) often start a website or add a page to their 

existing website to spotlight their activities in a crisis area of operations. Organizations 

find at least two reasons to do this. First, a website provides a virtual location to exchange 

information and post data so that it is accessible to parties both in the crisis area and at 

the organization’s headquarters. Second, the website may provide highly sought public 

exposure to the organization’s humanitarian aid work, resulting in greater political clout 

and fundraising ability. The following general best practices are offered with regard to a 

website outreach strategy: 

• Serve the needs of the target audience, including international and local 

organizations; 

• Remain focused and simple; 

• Link to existing systems to avoid duplication of effort; 

• Indicate the source of the information and include disclaimers to guard against 

inaccuracies in data collected by other parties; 

• Keep up with technology, but never give technology priority over content; 

• Preserve institutional memory (update, retool, archive); 

• Facilitate humanitarian coordination; 

• Improve operations; 

• Inform decisionmaking; 

• Adhere to principles of humanity, impartiality, neutrality, and independence; 

• Base the content on needs of practitioners and decisionmakers and include 

website elements such as: 

o A “resource center” that includes a document library, GIS map center, 

imagery library, pictures, white papers, field reports, and database; 

o A “community area,” including a notice board, contact lists for all 

organizations involved; 

o A site map; 

o A section listing vacancies for operational positions; 

o A list of relief guidelines, emergency procedures, local regulations and 

procedures that may affect operations; 

o A listing of support services and contacts; 

o Weather and situational awareness (security and status of infrastructure) 

information; 

o News (local and international) relevant to crisis response actions; and 

o Links to relevant and credible news outlets, blogs, other websites, urgent 

appeals, aid offers, announcements, and other information sources. 

• Avoid using heavy graphics, including embedded pictures, in files to be 

downloaded; 

• File sizes should be indicated so that users can decide whether or not to take the 

time needed to download information; 
99

• Summarize the content of files and provide user comments on the usefulness of 

the information; 

• Provide an ability to assess, filter, and tag most useful information; 

• Follow a pre-established set of standards that guide: 

o Procedures, including information collection methodologies and language; 

o Technology, including the use of hardware and software packages to 

ensure maximum interoperability and development and maintenance by 

local staff; 

o Data, including standards for ensuring data formats, content, and quality; 

o Metadata, including pre-established and common standards for identifying 

and documenting data. 

• Involve partners and stakeholders in the early conceptualization and development 

of the website; 

• Promote the website and “sell” the benefits of its products and services on a 

regular bases once the site has been established; 

• Education and training enhances buy-in; and 

• Key institutions and partners should develop common policies governing the 

establishment and maintenance of websites. 

Planning and Building Wireless Networks 

The publication Wireless Networking in the Developing World: A practical guide to 

planning and building low-cost telecommunications networks is a best practice on how to 

build an ICT infrastructure using commercial technology to serve as the backbone for 

wide area wireless networking. By applying commercially available ICT in areas that are 

badly in need of critical communications infrastructure, more people can be brought 

online than ever before, in less time, and for very little cost to support voice 

communications, Internet access and email and other data exchange. The book illustrates 

how to make such networks work, and provides information and tools needed. 

Wireless Networking in the Developing World can be freely downloaded as PDF files as a 

whole (9.4 MB) or in single chapters (ranging from 72 KB to 976 KB) from the web site 

(http://wndw.net/). The book table of contents shows these sections: 

About this Book 

Where to Begin 

A Practical Introduction to Radio Physics 

Network Design 

Antennas & Transmission Lines 

Networking Hardware 

Security 

Building an Outdoor Node 

Troubleshooting 

Case Studies 

Appendices 

The book and PDF file are published under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 

2.5 license. This allows anyone to make copies, and even sell them for a profit, as long as 
100

proper attribution is given to the authors and any derivative works are made available 

under the same terms. Any copies or derivative works must include a prominent link to 

their website, (http://wndw.net/). 

See (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/) for more information about these 

terms. Printed copies may be ordered from Lulu.com, a print-on-demand service. Consult 

the website (http://wndw.net/) for details on ordering a printed copy. The PDF will be 

updated periodically, and ordering from the print-on-demand service ensures that you 

will always receive the latest revision.
101

Trends in the Use of Commercial ICT 

In spite of nearly global coverage of commercial ICT networks depicted in figure 15, 

commercial ICT capacity specifically dedicated to serving the needs of many of the civilmilitary responders to disasters and recovery efforts has been operating mostly in a 

vacuum. Additionally, the military has been reluctant to rely on commercial ICT capacity 

for C2, although commercial ICT has been used for combat support missions such as 

administration, logistics, and medical tasks. The operational environment is changing, 

however, and commercial ICT capacity is becoming more important, not only for civilian 

responders but also for the military. Civilian and military elements are both relying on 

commercial ICT flyaway packages to support forward-deployed responder elements. 

Commercial products also play an important role in supporting ICT capacity for longterm military operations and civil-military reconstruction and development of the affected 

nation’s ICT infrastructure. 

Commercial ICT Near Global Coverage

Commercial

Commercial Services

Commercial 

Services

readily available Commercial 

Fiber

Fixed 

Locations

Commercial & Military 

Satcom

Deployed 

Military Forces,

Civilian Orgs,

IOs and NGOs

Military

(DSCS)

(CSCI)

Commercial

(CSCI)

Commercial ICT Fly Away Packages 

Used By Deployed Military Forces, 

Civilian Orgs, IOs and NGOs

World Wide INTERNET

Figure 15 

Traditionally, the military employ “ruggedized,” purpose-built tactical systems to support 

C2 and to extend ICTs forward into a crisis area. A dedicated fixed and mobile ICT 

military infrastructure was used to create a secure CIE to support combat operations, 

early interventions in HADR operations, and related support missions. But these systems 

have not been designed to fully support long-duration operations related to affected 

nation recovery, reconstruction, and development or to provide services to non-military 
102

elements involved in the disaster response effort. Unclassified military networks are 

connected to the Internet, and these links can be used to informally exchange information 

with non-military participants in a crisis without connecting these participants directly to 

the military networks. The military can maintain a secured firewall interface with 

Internet. 

Use of .mil email addresses and website URLs does, however, create a problem for many 

NGOs that are reluctant, especially in hostile operational environments, to be seen as 

directly exchanging information with the military. It would be better for the military to 

use a neutral surrogate means, such as hotmail or yahoo email accounts and third-party 

impartial web sites such as UN OCHA ReliefWeb or some other neutral (non-military) 

web site to post and exchange humanitarian information. 

The military has started to employ some commercial mobile ICT capability packages to 

support limited remote access to the Internet, for example, the Joint Task Force (JTF) 

Commander Executive C2 package illustrated in figure 16. To accommodate a more 

neutral means of exchanging information with NGOs, the military may need to consider 

alternative means, for example, a separate and independent network for interfacing with 

non-military participants. For longer duration operations, the U.S. military does 

commercialize its deployed fixed-base ICT support arrangements to replace the tactical 

military systems so that the tactical systems can be made available for future military 

operations. Here too, it may be necessary to consider alternative means for 

communicating and sharing information with non-military elements. 

RBGAN

INMARSAT

NIPRNET

CLIENT

SIPRNET

CLIENT

KG-235

JTF NIPRNET DOMAIN RBGAN Terminal

VPN

Fly Away ICT S&R 

Capability Package

(expand functionality)

Mobile 

Router

•Microsoft Outlook

•Web Browsing

•Access to Shared Drives & Files

•InfoWorkSpace (less VTC)

•Microsoft Outlook

•Web Browsing

•Access to Shared Drives & Files

•InfoWorkSpace (less VTC)

Distributed Information

Network (expand functionality)

INTERNET

JTF SIPRNET DOMAIN

Objective: Support the remote JTF Commander with the capability

to reach back via the Internet into Unclassified and Classified 

networks while deployed

JTF CDR Executive C2 Package

S&R

Portals

Figure 16 
103

The non-military actors—civilian government agencies, IOs and NGOs—rely largely on 

commercial ICT products and services to extend communications and information 

services to a crisis area. Some have their own limited ability to establish ICT connectivity 

forward. These are mainly packages consisting of a mix of commercial HF/VHF/UHF 

radios, GSM cell phones, satellite phones and laptops, sometimes with WiFi capabilities. 

Organizations such as the UN manage their own global IP networks to support 

headquarters organizations, and the deployed UN agencies use commercial ICT packages 

to connect to these networks from crisis areas. The forward deployed ICT capabilities can 

be provided by the UN FITTEST for agencies like WHO and UNJLC or, as is the case 

for UNDPKO, they can be provided as part of the organization’s indigenous ICT 

capabilities as shown in figure 17. 

UNDPKO ICT and Reachback

N

S

W E

UNSDS 384/256 K V/D

AIRPORT 192/128 K V/D

UNLB

9.3 Meter Fixed

Antenna

SDS Satellite connectivity D + 5

192/128 K

128/128 K

UNSDS HQ

AIRPORT

384/256 K

UNSDS HUB

2 X E1

CIS CO Y S S T EM S C is co 25 00SERI

SDS

CIS CO Y S S T EM S C is co 2 50 0SERI

SDS

UN INTRANET

 INTERNET

UNLB-3660

IP ADDRESS

F/0/0 10.X.X.X

UNSDS

INT S1/0.1 VOICE (DLCI 166)

10 DSO @ 62.4 Kbps

INT S1/0.2 DATA (DLCI 266)

321.6Kbps/193.6Kbps (ASYMMETRICAL)

 ip address 10.X.X.X/30

AIRPORT

INT S1/1.1 VOICE (DLCI 366)

10 DSO @ 62.4 Kbps

INT S1/1.2 DATA (DLCI 466)

129.6Kbps/65.6Kbps (ASYMMETRICAL)

 ip address 10.X.X.X/30

UNSDS

IP ADDRESS

E0 10.X.X.X/23

UNSD-UNLB

INT S0.1 VOICE (DLCI 166)

10 DSO @ 62.4 Kbps

INT S0.2 DATA (DLCI 266)

321.6Kbps/193.6Kbps

(ASYMMETRICAL)

UNSDS-UNHQ

INT S1.1 VOICE (DLCI 166)

20 DSO @ 128 Kbps

 ip address 10./30

AIRPORT-UNLB

IP ADDRESS

E0 10.X.X.X/24

INT S0.1 VOICE (DLCI 166)

10 DSO @ 62.4 Kbps

INT S1/1.2 DATA (DLCI

466)

129.6Kbps/65.6Kbps

(ASYMMETRICAL)

 ip address 10.X.X.X/30

E1

E1

UNHQ

SD

Ci sc o 2 5 00 CI SCO Y S ST E MS S ER IES

E1 E1

MD110

BC-11

128/128 K

11 Meter Fixed

Antenna

UNSDSUNHQ

INT S1.1

VOICE

(DLCI 166)

20 DSO @

128 Kbps

 ip address

10./30

3.7 Meter Trailer

mounted antenna

3.7 Meter Trailer

mounted antenna

Figure 17 

Other non-military participants purchase or lease portable and fixed ICT capabilities and 

employ them to access the Internet via commercial satellite services and to support local 

wired and wireless access arrangements. These capabilities also are used to set up 

Internet cafes that provide service to other responders, as well as to the local population 

and leaders. Companies, such as I-Linx (www.i-linx.net), ProActive 

(http://204.200.201.151/) DRASTIC (www.drasticom.org), and others can provide a wide 

range of portable and fixed installation arrangements. Such arrangements can provide: 

satellite access, for example on an RBGAN or VSAT terminal; WiFi routers; portable 

solar panels for power; laptops; PDAs; Internet access; and other field needs such as 

tents, tables, chairs, and technical support. Longer-term fixed networks to support ecommerce, e-government, and other IT services can be provided as turnkey or managed 

services. 
104

Non-profit organizations such as HumaniNet (www.humaninet.org) and Network Startup 

Resource Center (www.nsrc.org/) offer humanitarian relief and development field teams 

that give NGOs practical assistance and advice on ICT implementation and operations. 

The Global Disaster Infrastructure Networks (www.gdin.org) is a non-profit web site 

used to share disaster information with interested participants with an aim to providing 

the right information, in the right format, to the right people, in time to make the right 

decisions. 

The Internet and related portals are used to create a distributed information environment 

that can support coordination, assessments, and information sharing. Some portals, such 

as those managed by the UN, provide information on global disasters and relief activities. 

Some examples of these portals are the UN OCHA Integrated Regional Information 

Networks (www.irinnews.org) and its ReliefWeb (www.reliefweb.int); the joint UN 

OCHA and European Commission Joint Research Center (http://www.jrc.cec.eu.int/)and 

Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (www.gdacs.org); and the UN WFP 

(www.wfp.org). The U.S. Pacific Disaster Center (www.pdc.org/iweb/index.jsp) and U.S. 

Geodetic Survey (http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/) are national examples of a similar kind of 

portal. 

Other portals are developed to respond to specific disaster situations, for example the UN 

HIC (www.humanitarianinfo.org), the DOS eRoom (http://hiu.state.gov), and the UN 

Afghanistan Information Management System (www.aims.org.af). 

Portals are also being used as “virtual operations centers.” These include the UN OCHA 

Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Center (http://ocha.unog.ch/ 

virtualosocc/) and the U.S. Pacific Command Virtual CMOC and Groove-based Virtual 

Emergency Operations Center set up in response to the Tsunami. 

NGOs are also developing portals. The Vietnam Veterans of America Foundation 

(http://www.vvaf.org/) has a prototype portal being used in Iraq to share security situation 

awareness information with civil-military participants. It is being developed for future 

use in other crisis operations as well. Bloggers also have surfaced as a cottage industry 

providing observations, information, and assessments on global disasters. 

Both synchronous and asynchronous collaboration tools are emerging. The U.S. military 

is using InfoWorkSpace, a synchronous collaboration tool, and Groove, an asynchronous 

collaboration tool that is also used by some civilian organizations. Other software tools, 

such as NetMeeting, WebEx, and POPG, are also used. None of the current tool suites is 

tailored to meet the aggregate needs of the civil-military participants, and the current tool 

suites are not interoperable. The challenge is to develop an interoperable tool suite that 

will accommodate both synchronous and asynchronous modes of operation. 

VoIP is fast becoming a popular means for providing voice services in austere 

environments, both for communicating with other responders and with headquarters 

operations. Skype is one such capability. VoIP also can be used to set up local 

communications where wireless data networks are deployed. Such communications can 
105

be used to serve local populations, as well, through the use of call centers or by providing 

local users direct access. 

Language is a major challenge in the operational environment. Several tools are emerging 

to address automated language translation. Examples of such software tools are Virage 

(www.virage.com/home/), developed by Virage Inc., Babylon, Translation Information 

Detection Extraction Summarization (TIDES), developed by DARPA. 

Recent natural and manmade disasters have given industry and NGOs greater awareness 

of business opportunities in the field of providing mobile and fixed ICT capacity for 

deployed responders. The same is true for supporting post-disaster reconstruction and 

development of the affected nation’s long-term ICT capacity. IT and 

telecommunications-oriented NGOs and private businesses are now offering lightweight, 

rapidly deployable ICT packages for victims and aid workers. These packages often are 

available to anyone in the crisis area: military personnel, governmental agencies, IOs, 

NGOs, and local citizens and community leaders. Other companies and NGOs are 

addressing the market for longer-term ICT support of reconstruction and redevelopment. 

These quick-reaction and redevelopment support packages increasingly can be acquired 

through separate equipment purchases or as a service from an ICT service provider or 

system integrator. Figure 18 illustrates some examples of the range of capabilities being 

offered: 

Technical ICT Partners

Internet

UN portals

VVFA

(security 

awareness)

GRT 

Fusion Center

Bloggers

TSF, VITA

DRASTIC

GRT

United Nations

FITTEST

Commercial

Satellites

Teleport

WiFi, VSAT, Satellite Phones, Cellular, Radios, 

VoIP, Collaboration Tools, VTC, Video, GIS Tools, ...

NetHope

NetRelief Kit

I-LINX

TCS

SwiftLink

ISP

Hub

PSTN

ProActive

Inveneo

Figure 18 

NGOs such as NetHope (http://www.nethope.dreamhosters.com/index.html)and their 

“Net Relief Kit” provide a type of Internet-in-a-box capability that is easy to set up and 
106

operate as a communications hub for disaster management. These products can support 

voice service, Internet access via a commercial satellite connection, and local wired and 

wireless access. Other NGOs, such as Télécoms Sans Frontières (TSF), offer 

telecommunications facilities anywhere terrestrial infrastructure is destroyed, insufficient, 

or non-existent. The organization Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) provides 

low-cost communications and information services through a commercial satellite 

connection. 

TeleCommunication Systems’ “Swiftlink” (www.telecomsys.com) is an example of a 

rapidly deployable communications package that provides a secure reach-back capability 

to the U.S. military SIRPNET and NIPRNET networks through a commercial satellite 

connection. The product also can be used by non-military elements for communications 

and Internet access. 

Inveneo (http://www.inveneo.org/) offers a solar-powered wireless network capability 

(referred to as a “solar village”) that supports voice and data services for NGOs and local 

populations in severely limited ICT environments, such as those without local power 

sources. 

Other industry providers, such as Global Relief Technologies (GRT) 

(www.globalrelieftech.com), have targeted a particular niche area like remote data 

collection, fusion, and information dissemination. GRT provides a field data collection 

and situational awareness service that employs PDAs with preformatted templates that 

can be used to collect data in internationally agreed formats with geo-referencing (and 

free text and digital pictures). The data is then up-linked through a commercial satellite 

connection to a “fusion center” in the United States, where it is aggregated, assessed, and 

displayed on maps. The information stored at the fusion center is Web-accessible, so 

authorized people in the field and elsewhere can gain situational awareness information 

via the Internet. The fusion center operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week. 

The examples cited in this section are by no means all-inclusive; they represent a small 

sampling of the NGO and industry offerings of ICT products and services. Other 

companies and NGOs can provide similar ranges of services—indeed, this is an ICT 

industry market growth opportunity area, and new companies and service and product 

offerings continue to proliferate. 
107

Conclusion 

The consensus is nearly universal that ICTs are necessary enablers for the smooth, 

effective operation of humanitarian relief and S&R missions. Moreover, a growing 

number of participants in these operations, from military units to the smallest NGOs, are 

bringing at least some elements of their ICT capabilities with them when they deploy. 

Yet the watershed events of recent years—the Indian Ocean tsunami, the rash of 

Caribbean hurricanes, and the devastating earthquakes in Iran and Pakistan—show that 

there is no default or standardized suite of equipment, databases, or operational protocols 

to follow when diverse organizations attempt to work together for humanitarian purposes. 

This primer has explored the increasing amount of commercial ICT technology now 

available to relief and reconstruction workers. Telecommunications and information 

management systems can be engineered to be complementary and interoperable. But this 

primer also has explored the organizational and institutional gaps that persist, particularly 

across the civilian-military boundary. No easy answers will be found to the operational 

problems that can result from disconnects among the various military and civilian actors. 

But common ground can be reached, built around the precept of unity of effort in 

humanitarian disasters, post-conflict S&R scenarios, and complex emergencies. 

In other words, technology has a human element beyond the wiring and software 

packages that are commonly regarded as comprising it. The very nature of natural and 

man-made disasters means that many individuals and organizations will have a stake in 

responding to them and ameliorating their effects. No single, unified command structure 

is likely to fit every situation. An interlocking set of command structures, representing 

multiple groups, nationalities, and interests will remain. Establishing a CIE in such 

scenarios is a challenge to the very core of what information and communications 

technologies are supposed to be in the 21st century: distributed, decentralized, flexible, 

and interoperable. From the perspective of the military, establishing a CIE in HADR and 

S&R operations is a key test of the entire concept of net-centricity—pushing power and 

intelligence to the edge of networks. For the NGOs and IGOs, the use of ICTs offers what 

they often desperately need: a multiplier effect from the application of expertise and 

limited resources. 

This primer has been born in the spirit of matching the twin drives of net-centricity and 

the enabling of humanitarian aid workers in the interest of improving the efficiency and 

effectiveness of HADR, S&R, and complex emergency operations. To the extent that 

responders will always need to coordinate, this primer does not come to an end. In truth, 

this work is only a beginning. 
108

Appendix A: Glossary 

Buffer zone: 

DOD - A defined area controlled by a peace operations force from which disputing or 

belligerent forces have been excluded. A buffer zone is formed to create an area of 

separation between disputing or belligerent forces and reduce the risk of renewed 

conflict. Also called area of separation in some UN operations. 

NATO - A designated area between the positions of the parties in conflict, agreed upon 

by the states concerned. The buffer zone is restricted exclusively to individuals, agencies, 

forces, and bodies specially authorized by the organizers of the zone. 

UK - The neutral space between ceasefire lines. 

UN - Also known as area of separation; neutral space created by withdrawal of both 

hostile parties; a demilitarized zone where the parties have agreed not to deploy military 

forces; the cease-fire lines, marked and often fenced or wired on either side of the buffer 

zone, indicate the agreed forward limits of the contending forces; the cease-fire lines are 

observed, patrolled and perhaps occupied by the peace-keeping force; the buffer zone 

itself may be placed under the control of a PKO. 

Civil affairs (CA): 

DOD - 1. The activities of a commander that establish, maintain, influence, or exploit 

relations between military forces and civil authorities, both governmental and nongovernmental, and the civilian population in a friendly, neutral, or hostile area of 

operations in order to facilitate military operations and consolidate operational objectives. 

Civil affairs may include performance by military forces of activities and functions 

normally the responsibility of local government. These activities may occur prior to, 

during, or subsequent to other military actions. They may also occur, if directed, in the 

absence of military operations.

 

DOD - 2. Designated Active and Reserve component forces and units organized, trained, 

and equipped specifically to conduct CA activities and to support CMO. 

Civil-military operations center (CMOC): 

DOD - An ad hoc organization, normally established by the geographic combatant 

commander or subordinate joint force commander, to assist in the coordination of 

activities of engaged military forces, and other USG agencies, NGOs, and regional and 

international organizations. There is no established structure, and its size and composition 

are situation dependent. See also civil affairs activities; civil-military operations; 

operation. 

UN - In a PKO which contains substantial civilian elements, a civilian-military structure 

of integrated support services may be established to perform liaison and coordination 

between the military support structure, NGOs, PVOs, and local authorities; for example 
109

the CMOC was opened by U.S. JTF Support Hope in Entebbe (Uganda) and Kigali 

(Rwanda); in Haiti, UNMIH has an integrated civilian/military headquarters. 

Civil-military cooperation: 

DOD - All actions and measures undertaken between NATO commanders and national 

authorities, military or civil, in peace or war, which concern the relationship between 

allied armed forces and the government, civil population, or agencies in the area where 

such forces are stationed, supported, or employed. 

NATO - The resources and arrangements which support the relationship between 

commanders and the national authorities, civil and military, and civil populations in an 

area where military forces are or plan to be employed. Such arrangements include 

cooperation with non-governmental or international agencies, organizations, and 

authorities. 

Civil-military operations (CMO): 

DOD - 1. The activities of a commander that establish, maintain, influence, or exploit 

relations between military forces, governmental and nongovernmental civilian 

organizations and authorities, and the civilian populace in a friendly, neutral, or hostile 

operational area in order to facilitate military operations and to consolidate and achieve 

operational U.S. objectives. CMO may include performance by military forces of 

activities and functions normally the responsibility of the local, regional, or national 

government. These activities may occur prior to, during, or subsequent to other military 

actions. They may also occur, if directed, in the absence of other military operations. 

CMO may be performed by designated CA, by other military forces, or by a combination 

of CA and other forces. 

DOD - 2. Groups of planned activities in support of military operations that enhance the 

relationship between the military force and civilian authorities and population and which 

promote the development of favorable emotions, attitudes, and behavior in neutral, 

friendly, or hostile groups. 

USAID - Activities in support of operations including the participation of both the 

military forces and civilian authorities. 

Combined joint task force (CJTF):

NATO - A multinational and multi-service force, task-organized and formed for 

contingency operations, which requires multinational and multi-service command and 

control. Designed to make NATO’s joint military assets available for wider operations by 

NATO nations or by the Western European Union (WEU), the concept of CJTF was 

introduced at the 1994 Brussels Summit. Detailed work continues in coordination with 

the WEU on the implementation of the concept, with a view to providing separable but 

not separate military capabilities that could be employed by NATO or in operations with 

nations outside the Alliance. 
110

UN - Concept approved by NATO leaders in January 1994, under which U.S. materiel 

and forces designated for NATO operations can now be made available for non-NATO 

activities in out-of-(NATO) area operations, such as those humanitarian relief or 

peacekeeping operations initiated by WEU to deal with regional instabilities and ethnic 

conflicts. 

Combined joint special operations task force: 

DOD - A task force composed of special operations units from one or more foreign 

countries and more than one U.S. Military Department formed to carry out a specific 

special operation or prosecute special operations in support of a theater campaign or other 

operations. The combined joint special operations task force may have conventional nonspecial operations units assigned or attached to support the conduct of specific missions. 

Communications and information system: 

NATO - Assembly of equipment, methods, and procedures, and if necessary personnel, 

organized so as to accomplish specific information conveyance and processing functions. 

Communications network: 

DOD - An organization of stations capable of intercommunications, but not necessarily 

on the same channel.

Communications zone: 

DOD - Rear part of a theater of war or theater of operations (behind but contiguous to the 

combat zone) which contains the lines of communications, establishments for supply and 

evacuation, and other agencies required for the immediate support and maintenance of 

the field forces. 

NATO - The area of a theatre of operations immediately to the rear of the area of combat 

operations, that contains lines of communication, rear command and control 

organizations, logistic units and agencies, army group and theatre headquarters reserves. 

Complex emergency:

UN, NATO, USAID - As defined by the UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 

this is “a humanitarian crisis in a country, region, or society where there is total or 

considerable breakdown of authority resulting from internal or external conflict, and 

which requires an international response that goes beyond the mandate or capacity of any 

single and/or ongoing UN country program.” 

USAID - 2. Natural or man-made disaster with economic, social, and political 

dimensions. A profound social crisis in which a large number of people die and suffer 

from war, disease, hunger, and displacement owing to man-made and natural disasters, 

while some others may benefit from it. Four factors can be measured: the fatalities from 

violence; the mortality of children under five years of age; the percentage of underweight 

children under five; and the number of external refugees and IDPs. 
111

Conflict mitigation: 

USAID - 1. Efforts to contain and reduce the amount of violence used by parties in 

violent conflict and engage them in a process to settle the dispute and terminate the 

violence. 

USAID - 2. The reduction or minimization of violent acts normally targeted toward a 

specific group to compel restraint and restore calm. 

Conflict prevention: 

NATO - 1. The timely recognition and elimination of possible causes of conflict, 

implying the use of a range of political, diplomatic, military and other methods at early 

stages in its development. 

NATO - 2. Activities ranging from diplomatic initiatives to preventive deployment of 

troops, intended to prevent disputes from escalating into armed conflicts or from 

spreading. They can include fact-finding missions, consultation, warnings, 

inspections, and monitoring. 

Contingency: 

DOD - An emergency involving military forces caused by natural disasters, terrorists, 

subversives, or by required military operations. Due to the uncertainty of the situation, 

contingencies require plans, rapid response, and special procedures to ensure the safety 

and readiness of personnel, installations, and equipment. 

Contingency plan(ning): 

UN - It involves preparing likely courses of action dealing with a range of potential 

scenarios and extends into preparatory activities (preparation of maps, identification of 

sources of equipment and supplies, pre-positioning of communications and identification 

of possible troop contributing states). 

Crisis management: 

DOD - Measure to resolve a hostile situation and investigate and prepare a criminal case 

for prosecution under federal law. Crisis management will include a response to an 

incident involving a weapon of mass destruction (WMD), special improvised explosive 

device (IED), or a hostage crisis that is beyond the capability of the lead federal agency. 

NATO - The coordinated actions taken to defuse crises, prevent their escalation into an 

armed conflict and contain hostilities if they should result. 

USAID - Efforts to keep situations of high tension and confrontation from breaking into 

armed violence, usually involving threats of force. 

Crisis response operation (CRO): 

NATO - Any NATO military operation undertaken for purposes of crisis management. 
112

Demilitarization: 

NATO - Demilitarization means that military personnel and equipment are withdrawn 

from their military function. 

 

Demilitarized zone: 

DOD, NATO - A defined area in which the stationing, or concentrating of military 

forces, or the retention or establishment of military installations of any description, is 

prohibited. 

Demobilization: 

DOD - The process of transitioning a conflict or wartime military establishment and 

defense based civilian economy to a peacetime configuration while maintaining national 

security and economic vitality. 

NATO - Demobilization consists of those activities that are undertaken by a Peace 

Support Force to reduce the number of factions’ forces and their equipment in the area of 

operations to the levels as agreed in the peace settlement.

Development: 

USAID - 1. Long-term development efforts aimed at bringing improvements in 

economic, political, and social status and the quality of life of all segments of the 

population as well as environmental sustainability. 

USAID - 2. Broad-based sustainable development has four components. The first is a 

healthy, growing economy that constantly transforms itself to maintain and enhance the 

standard of living. Second, the benefits of economic growth are equitably shared; women, 

minorities, immigrants, the poor, and the handicapped get a fair deal from economic 

growth. The third component includes respect for human rights, good governance, a 

vibrant civil society of NGOs, and an increasingly democratic society. The fourth is 

sustainability, which means that in the process of economic growth, we do not destroy the 

environment, enabling our descendants to enjoy the same or higher standard of living. 

(Weaver et. al 1997: 2-3) 

Developmental assistance: 

DOD - USAID function chartered under chapter one of the Foreign Assistance Act of 

1961, primarily designed to promote economic growth and the equitable distribution of 

its benefits. 

Direct assistance: 

DOD - Face-to-face distribution of goods and services. 

Disarmament: 

NATO - A sub-process of demilitarization. It means the (controlled process) of taking 

weapons away from military forces. Demilitarization and disarmament usually take place 

within the framework of demobilization operations. 
113

Disaster control: 

DOD - Measures taken before, during, or after hostile action or natural or manmade 

disasters to reduce the probability of damage, minimize its effects, and initiate recovery. 

Disaster relief: 

NATO - Assistance and/or intervention during or after disaster to meet the life 

preservation and basic subsistence needs. It can be of emergency or protracted duration. 

Disaster response: 

NATO - A sum of decisions and actions taken during and after disaster, including 

immediate relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. 

Emergency relief operation: 

NATO - Emergency rescue and other urgent work in response to an emergency, aimed at 

preserving life and health, reducing environmental damage and material losses, and at 

containing the emergency. 

End state: 

DOD - The set of required conditions that defines achievement of the commander’s 

objectives. 

NATO - The political and/or military situation to be attained at the end of an operation, 

which indicates that the objective has been achieved. 

Foreign emergency support team: 

U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) - In consequence management (CM) scenarios involving 

intentional/malevolent use of WMD or CBRN material contamination, the DOS Office of 

Counter Terrorism deploys a Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST) that gives the 

Ambassador robust communication and other capabilities and a 24-hour Command 

Center is staffed by the departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Energy, 

Justice, and State, and by the FBI. The team has scientific assets that help preserve 

evidence. 

Foreign humanitarian assistance: 

USMC - Operations conducted to relieve or reduce the results of disaster brought on by 

either natural (flood, drought, fire, hurricane) or manmade (civil violence, nuclear, 

biological or chemical accident) causes, or other endemic conditions such as human pain, 

disease, hunger or privation in countries or regions outside the United States. It is 

generally limited in scope and duration; it is intended to supplement or complement 

efforts of the host nation civil authorities or agencies with primary responsibility for 

providing assistance. 

Human development: 

UN - The process of expanding people’s choices. 

 
114

Humanitarian action: 

NATO - The work of IGOs and NGOs to ensure the survival or relief of civilians affected 

by military action in various types of conflict. 

Humanitarian aid: 

NATO - Measures taken to relieve civilian hardship, especially when local authorities are 

unable to provide the population with staple supplies or make no effort to do so. These 

measures may be part of a peace support operation or an independent program. 

Humanitarian assistance: 

NATO - Missions conducted to relieve human suffering, especially in circumstances 

where responsible authorities in the area are unable, or possibly unwilling, to provide 

adequate service support to the population. Humanitarian aid missions may be conducted 

in the context of a peace support operation, or as a completely independent task. 

UK DFID Assistance comprises disaster relief, food aid, refugee relief, and disaster 

preparedness. It generally involves the provision of material aid including food, medical 

care, and personnel and finance and advice to save and preserve lives during emergency 

situations and in the immediate post- emergency rehabilitation phase; and to cope with 

short and longer term population displacements arising out of emergencies 

USMC - Programs conducted to relieve or reduce the results of natural or manmade 

disasters or other endemic conditions such as human pain, disease, hunger, or privation 

that might present a serious a serious threat to life or that can result in great damage to or 

loss of property. Humanitarian assistance provided by U.S. forces is limited in scope and 

duration. The assistance provided is designed to supplement or complement the efforts of 

the host nation civil authorities or agencies that may have the primary responsibility for 

providing humanitarian assistance. 

Humanitarian assistance contingency: 

DOD - A contingency resulting from natural or manmade disasters or other endemic 

conditions such as human pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present a serious 

threat to life or that can result in great damage to or loss of property. 

Humanitarian assistance coordination center (HACC): 

DOD - A temporary center established by a geographic combatant commander to assist 

with interagency coordination and planning. A HACC operates during the early planning 

and coordination stages of foreign humanitarian assistance operations by providing the 

link between the geographic combatant commander and other USG agencies, NGOs, and 

international and regional organizations at the strategic level. 

Humanitarian and civic assistance (HCA): 

DOD - Assistance to the local populace provided by predominantly U.S. forces in 

conjunction with military operations and exercises. This assistance is specifically 

authorized by title 10, United States Code, section 401, and funded under separate 

authorities. Assistance provided under these provisions is limited to medical, dental, and 
115

veterinary care provided in rural areas of a country; construction of rudimentary surface 

transportation systems; well drilling and construction of basic sanitation facilities; and 

rudimentary construction and repair of public facilities. Assistance must fulfill unit 

training requirements that incidentally create humanitarian benefit to the local populace. 

Humanitarian assistance operation: 

DOD - Military operations providing a secure environment to allow humanitarian relief 

efforts to progress and includes: Disaster Relief, Refugee Assistance, and Humanitarian 

and Civic Assistance and Civil Support. 

Humanitarian interventions: 

USAID - Reliance on force for the justifiable purpose of protecting the inhabitants of 

another state from treatment that is arbitrary and persistently abusive. 

Humanitarian information center: 

DOD - An interagency policymaking body that coordinates the overall relief strategy and 

unity of effort among all participants in a large foreign humanitarian assistance operation. 

It normally is established under the direction of the government of the affected country or 

the UN, or a USG agency during a U.S. unilateral operation. The humanitarian operations 

center should consist of representatives from the affected country, the U.S. Embassy or 

Consulate, the joint force, the UN, NGOs, IOs, and other major players in the operation. 

Humanitarian emergency: 

USAID - 1. Situations in which large numbers of people are dependent on humanitarian 

assistance from sources external to their own society and/or are in need of physical 

protection to have access to subsistence or external assistance. 

USAID - 2. A profound social crisis in which a large number of people die and suffer 

from war, disease, hunger. and displacement owing to man-made and natural disasters, 

while some others may benefit from it. 

Humanitarian operations: 

NATO - An operation, usually conducted under the aegis of an IO, to prevent a 

humanitarian disaster and to provide humanitarian aid to the civilian population in an 

area of armed conflict. 

Humanitarian operations center (HOC): 

DOD - An interagency policymaking body that coordinates the overall relief strategy and 

unity of effort among all participants in a large foreign humanitarian assistance operation. 

It normally is established under the direction of the government of the affected country or 

the UN, or a USG agency during a U.S. unilateral operation. The humanitarian operations 

center should consist of representatives from the affected country, the U.S. Embassy or 

Consulate, the joint force, the UN, NGOs, IOs, and other major players in the operation.
116

Indirect assistance: 

DOD - Assistance that is at least one step removed from direct contact with the affected 

population, often involving such activities as transporting relief goods or relief personnel 

to an affected area of operation. 

Information management : 

DOD - Efficient mechanisms for the collection, analysis, storage, and accessibility of 

information to achieve the optimal use of that information. This is a key component of 

civil-military coordination. 

Information support: 

NATO - The activities of specialized information-processing and analysis centers 

providing information for officials, agencies, and bodies responsible for planning and 

carrying out a peacekeeping operation and keeping the public informed on progress and 

results. 

Infrastructure support: 

DOD - Provision of general services, such as road repair, airspace management and 

power generation that facilitate relief, but are not necessarily visible to, or solely for, the 

benefit of the affected population. 

Interagency community: 

DOD - The broad interagency community can include U.S. Government departments; 

federal, state, or local agencies; foreign governments singularly or as an alliance or 

coalition; global and regional international or U.S. and foreign NGOs. 

Interagency operations: 

DOD - Any military or civilian activity, across the full spectrum of operations, in which 

government or non-governmental agencies communicate, coordinate, cooperate, 

collaborate, and/or integrate to achieve unity of effort.

Internally displaced person (IDP): 

DOD - Any person who has left their residence by reason of real or imagined danger but 

has not left the territory of their own country. 

NATO - A person who, as part of a mass movement, has been forced to flee his or her 

home or place of habitual residence suddenly or unexpectedly as a result of armed 

conflict, internal strife, systematic violation of human rights, fear of such violation, or 

natural or man-made disasters, and who has not crossed an internationally recognized 

state border. 

UN - A person forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual 

residence, in particular or as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of . . . violations of 

human rights. . . and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border. 
117

USAID - Individuals who have been forced to flee their homes for the same reasons as 

refugees but have not crossed an internationally recognized border. 

Internal armed conflict: 

NATO - A conflict within a state in which armed force is used. It may have its origin in 

the activities of extremist, nationalist, religious, separatist, or terrorist movements and 

groupings. Also called intra-state armed conflict. 

Inter-governmental organizations (IGOs): 

DOD - Bodies formed by national governments to establish cooperation on issues relating 

to economics, security, culture, politics, or common geographic concerns. IGOs are based 

on charters and treaties, governed by representatives of member governments, and 

receive funding support from their member nations. Examples include the UN, NATO, 

and the OSCE. 

International organization (IO): 

DOD - An organization with an international or global mandate, generally funded by 

contributions from national governments. Examples include the ICRC, the International 

Organization for Migration, and UN agencies. 

Knowledge management: 

DOD - The systematic process and strategy for finding, capturing, organizing, distilling, 

and presenting data, information, and knowledge for a specific purpose and to serve a 

specific organization or community. Knowledge management addresses the problem of 

accumulating an overload of data and information without systematic organization and 

synthesizing to allow presentation and sharing among collaborative partners. 

Large-scale wars: 

NATO - A war involving a substantial number of states from various regions in the world 

aimed at achieving fundamental politico-military objectives. 

Limited military action: 

NATO - The use by a state of military force limited in aims, area, and time against other 

countries or illegal armed formations. It is resorted to by the political and military leaders 

of a country when the ends pursued do not call for large-scale use of the armed forces, or 

when this is impossible or undesirable. 

Limited war: 

DOD - Armed conflict short of general war, exclusive of incidents, involving the overt 

engagement of the military forces of two or more nations. 

Low intensity conflict: 

DOD, USAID - Political-military confrontation between contending states or groups 

below conventional war and above the routine, peaceful competition among states. It 

frequently involves protracted struggles of competing principles and ideologies. Low 

intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of armed force. It is waged by a 
118

combination of means employing political, economic, informational, and military 

instruments. Low intensity conflicts are often localized, generally in the Third World, but 

contain regional and global security implications. 

USAID - 2. Conflict involving armed combat or acts of terrorism on a protracted but 

sporadic basis. 

Military operations other than war (MOOTW): 

DOD, UN - Operations that encompass the use of military capabilities across the range of 

military operations short of war. These military actions can be applied to complement any 

combination of the other instruments of national power and occur before, during, and 

after war. 

USAID - The range of military actions required by the President, except those associated 

with major combat operations conducted pursuant to a declaration of war or authorized 

by the War Powers Limitation Act or a joint resolution of Congress in support of national 

security interests and objectives. These military actions can be applied to complement 

any combination of the other instruments of national power. 

Minor armed conflict: 

USAID - Violent conflict in which the total number of battle-related deaths during the 

course of the conflict is below 1,000. 

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): 

DOD - Private-sector organizations established for many purposes and often specializing 

in narrowly defined tasks for specific religious, social, charitable, or political purposes. 

They generally are formed under the laws of a specific nation, are directed by private 

citizens, and do not generate profits from their activities. Examples include CARE, 

Oxfam, and World Vision. 

Peace operations (PO): 

DOD - A broad term that encompasses peacekeeping operations and peace 

enforcement operations conducted in support of diplomatic efforts to establish and 

maintain peace. 

UN - peace support operations, includes: preventive deployments; peacekeeping and 

peace-enforcement operations; diplomatic activities, such as preventive diplomacy, 

peacemaking, and peace building; as well as humanitarian assistance, good offices, factfinding, and electoral assistance. 

USAID - The umbrella term which encompasses three types of activities: activities with 

predominately diplomatic orientation, (preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peace 

building); and two complementary, predominately military activities, namely 

peacekeeping and peace enforcement. 
119

Peace support operations: 

NATO - Any NATO military operation undertaken in support of peacekeeping. A peace 

support operation falls under the category of crisis response operations, just as 

peacekeeping is one aspect of crisis management.

Peacekeeping: 

DOD - Military operations undertaken with the consent of all major parties to a dispute, 

designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of an agreement (ceasefire, truce, or 

other such agreement) and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political 

settlement. 

NATO - The containment, moderation and/or termination of hostilities between or within 

states, through the medium of an impartial third party intervention, organized and 

directed internationally; using military forces, and civilians to complement the political 

process of conflict resolution and to restore and maintain peace. 

UN - PK Hybrid politico-military activity aimed at conflict control, which involves a UN 

presence in the field (usually military and civilian personnel), with the consent of the 

parties, to implement or monitor the implementation of arrangements relating to the 

control of conflicts (cease-fires and separation of forces), and their resolution (partial or 

comprehensive settlements) and/or to protect the delivery of humanitarian relief. 

USAID - Neutral military or paramilitary operations undertaken with the consent of all 

major belligerents, designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of existing truces 

and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement. 

Peacekeeping operations: 

UN - PKO Non-combat military operations undertaken by outside forces with the consent 

of all major belligerent parties and designed to monitor and facilitate the implementation 

of an existing truce agreement in support of diplomatic efforts to reach a political 

settlement; 'PKOs' covers: peace-keeping forces, observer missions and mixed 

operations. 

USAID - A common term used for various types of activities, such as to resolve conflict; 

prevent conflict escalation; halt or prevent military actions; to uphold law and order in a 

conflict zone; conduct humanitarian actions; restore social and political institutions 

whose functioning has been disrupted by the conflict; and restore basic conditions for 

daily living. The distinctive feature of peacekeeping operations is that they are conducted 

under a mandate from the UN or regional organizations whose functions include peace 

support and international security. 

Peace-making: 

DOD - The process of diplomacy, mediation, negotiation, or other forms of peaceful 

settlements that arranges an end to a dispute and resolves issues that led to it.
120

NATO - Diplomatic actions conducted after the commencement of conflict, with the aim 

of establishing a peaceful settlement. They can include the provision of good offices, 

mediation, conciliation, and such actions as diplomatic isolation and sanctions. 

UN - Diplomatic process of brokering an end to conflict, principally through mediation 

and negotiation, as foreseen under Chapter VI of the UN Charter; military activities 

contributing to peacemaking include military-to-military contacts, security assistance, 

shows of force and preventive deployments. 

USAID - A process of diplomacy, mediation, negotiation, or other forms of achieving 

peaceful settlements that arrange ends to disputes. 

Peace building: 

DOD - Post-conflict actions, predominately diplomatic and economic, that strengthen and 

rebuild governmental infrastructure and institutions in order to avoid a relapse into 

conflict. 

NATO - Post-conflict action to identify and support structures which will tend to 

strengthen and consolidate a political settlement in order to avoid a return to conflict. It 

includes mechanisms to identify and support structures which will tend to consolidate 

peace, advance a sense of confidence and wellbeing and support economic 

reconstruction, and may require military as well as civilian involvement. 

UN - In the aftermath of conflict; it means identifying and supporting measures and 

structures which will solidify peace and build trust and interaction among former 

enemies, in order to avoid a relapse into conflict; often involves elections organized, 

supervised or conducted by the UN, the rebuilding of civil physical infrastructures and 

institutions such as schools and hospitals, and economic reconstruction. 

USAID - 1. The employment of measures to consolidate peaceful relations and create an 

environment that deters the emergence or escalation of tensions which may lead to 

conflict. 

USAID - 2. The effort to promote human security in societies marked by conflict. The 

overarching goal of peace building is to strengthen the capacity of societies to manage 

conflict without violence, as a means to achieve sustainable human security. 

Peace enforcement: 

DOD - Application of military force, or the threat of its use, normally pursuant to 

international authorization, to compel compliance with resolutions or sanctions designed 

to maintain or restore peace and order. 

USAID - 1. The application of military force or threat of its use, normally pursuant to 

international authorization, to compel compliance with generally accepted resolutions or 

sanctions to maintain or restore peace and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term 
121

political settlement. The primary purpose of peace enforcement is the restoration of peace 

under conditions broadly defined by the international community. 

USAID - 2. The use or threat of armed force as provided for in Chapter VII of the UN 

Charter aimed at restoring peace by military means such as in Korea (1950-1953) or Iraq 

(1991). It can take place without the agreement and support of one or all of the warring 

parties. It can refer to both an inter-state or an intrastate conflict, to [serve] the mitigation 

of a humanitarian emergency or in situations where the organs of state have ceased to 

function. Peace enforcement actions include carrying out international sanctions against 

the opposing sides, or against the side that represents the driving force in the armed 

conflict; isolating the conflict and preventing arms deliveries to the area, as well as 

preventing its penetration by armed formations; delivering air or missile strikes on 

positions of the side that refuses to halt its military actions; and rapid deployment of 

peace forces to the combat zones in numbers sufficient to carry out the assigned missions, 

including the localizing of the conflict and the disarming or eradicating of any armed 

formations that refuse to cease fighting. 

Reconstruction: 

USAID - 1. The permanent reconstruction or replacement of severely damaged physical 

structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the 

revitalization of the economy. 

USAID - 2. Economic, political and social rebuilding of post-conflict state and society, 

including de-mining, disarmament, reintegration of combatants, return of refugees, 

resettlement of internally displaced persons, reviving political processes, restoring 

physical infrastructures, re-starting economic life, conversion to civilian production, reestablishing civilian authority, and conducting new (supervised) elections. 

Refugee: 

DOD - A person who, by reason of real or imagined danger, has left their home country 

or country of their nationality and is unwilling or unable to return. 

NATO - Any person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons 

of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, 

is outside the country of his nationality and is unable, or owing to such fear is unwilling, 

to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and 

being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is 

unable, or owing to such fear is unwilling, to return to it. 

USAID - 1. A person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons 

of race, religion, nationality, or membership of a particular social group or political 

opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is 

unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country. 

USAID - 2. Every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign 

domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his 
122

country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in 

order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality. 

Sector: 

DOD, NATO - An area designated by boundaries within which a unit operates, and for 

which it is responsible. 

UN - A functional area, such as water/sanitation, food, or shelter. 

Small war: 

NATO - A range of ancillary, often improvised actions designed to inflict losses on an 

enemy wherever possible and by all available means in order to obtain decisive results on 

the main fronts in an armed struggle. 

Stability operations: 

DOD - Military and civilian activities conducted both in peacetime and across the full 

spectrum of conflict to establish order in failed or failing states and regions. 

Sustainable development: 

USAID - Continued economic and social progress that rests on four key principles: 

improved quality of life for both current and future generations; responsible stewardship 

of the natural resource base; broad-based participation in political and economic life; and 

effective institutions which are transparent, accountable, responsive, and capable of 

managing change without relying on continued external support. The ultimate measure of 

success of sustainable development programs is to reach a point where improvements in 

the quality of life and environment are such that external assistance is no longer 

necessary and can be replaced with new forms of diplomacy, cooperation, and commerce. 

U.S. government interagency process: 

DOD - A national strategic mechanism designed to ensure information and options are 

developed and passed up to the national leadership, so decisions and guidance can be 

passed down to the appropriate level staffs, which can write the orders and oversee their 

execution.

Wider peacekeeping: 

UK - The wider aspects of peacekeeping operations carried out with the consent of the 

belligerent parties but in an environment that may be highly volatile. 
123

Appendix B: Internet Web Sites 

Adventist Development and Relief Agency International http://www.adra.org

Afghanistan Information Management Service (AIMS) http://www.aims.org.af 

African Center for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes http://www.accord.org.za 

AidMatrix http://www.aidmatrix.org

Aid Workers Network http://www.aidworkers.net/

Aid World http://www.aidworld.org

Alertnet http://www.alertnet.org

American Council for Voluntary International Action (InterAction) http://www.interaction.org/ 

American Red Cross http://www.redcross.org/

American Jewish World Service http://www.ajws.org/

Amnesty International http://www.amnesty.org/ 

Army Corps of Engineers http://www.usace.army.mil

Baptist World Alliance http://www.bwanet.org 

CACI International Inc. http://www.caci.com/

Camber Corporation http://www.camber.com/about.asp?l=b

Canadian Center for Emergency Preparedness http://www.ccep.ca 

CARE http://www.care.org/ 

Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency http://www.cdera.org

Catholic Relief Services http://www.catholicrelief.org/ 

Center for Humanitarian Cooperation http://www.cooperationcenter.org 

Center for International Development and Conflict Management http://www.cidcm.umd.edu

Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters http://www.cred.be 
124

Center for Stabilization and Reconstruction Studies, Naval Post-Graduate School 

http://www.nps.edu/csrs

Center for Strategic and International Studies http://www.csis.org/

National Defense University, Center for Technology & National Security Policy 

http://www.ndu.edu/ctnsp/S&R_IT_workshop.htm

Center of Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance 

http://coe-dmha.org 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/ 

Church World Service http://www.churchworldservice.org/index.html 

CISCO Systems, Inc. http://www.cisco.com/

Civil Military and Coordination Section http://ochaonline.un.org/mcdu 

Civil Protection within the European Countries http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/ 

Civilian and Military Cooperation in Complex Humanitarian Operations, by Sarah E. Archer 

http://www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume1/june_2003/6_03_2.html 

Collaborative Learning Projects and the Collaborative for Development Action, Inc. 

http://www.cdainc.com 

Cranfield Disaster Management Center http://www.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk/dmc/ddmsa/dmc 

Crisis Management Initiative http://www.cmi.fi/?content=itcm_project

Current Peacekeeping/Building Missions 

http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/cu_mission/body.htm 

Defense Information Systems Agency http://www.disa.mil

DFI International http://www.dfi-intl.com/

Direct Relief International http://www.directrelief.org/ 

Disaster Management Center, University of Wisconsin/Madison http://dmc.engr.wisc.edu/about/ 

Disaster Management Institute of South Africa http://www.disaster.co.za/index.php 

DisasterRelief http://www.disasterrelief.org/ 

Disaster Research Center http://www.udel.edu/DRC/ 
125

Disaster Relief And Strategic Telecommunications Infrastructure Company 

http://www.drasticom.org 

E-Centre http://www.the-ecentre.net/ 

Emergency Preparedness Information Exchange http://epix.hazard.net 

Ericsson Response Program http://www.ericsson.com

European Community Humanitarian Office http://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/en/index_en.htm 

Federal Emergency Management Agency http://www.fema.gov 

International Alert http://www.international-alert.org/ 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States http://www.fao.org 

Foundation Hirondelle http://www.hirondelle.org

Fritz Institute http://www.fritzinstitute.org

FSI International http://www.fsi-intl.com/

Geographic Information Support Team http://www.gist.itos.uga.edu

Geneva Center for Security Policy (GCSP) http://www.gcsp.ch/e/index.htm 

Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) http://www.dcaf.ch 

Global Hand http://www.globalhand.org

Global Impact http://www.charity.org/ 

Global Internally Displaced Persons Project http://www.idpproject.org 

Global Map Aid http://www.globalmapaid.rdvp.org

GlobalsSecurity.org http://www.globalsecurity.org/ 

Global Relief Technologies http://www.globalrelieftech.com/

Global Strategies Group http://www.gsghq.com/

Grassroots International http://www.grassrootsonline.org/ 

Groove Networks virtual office http://www.groove.net/home/index.cfm

Gurtong Peace Project http://www.gurtong.org
126

Habitat for Humanity International http://www.habitat.org/ 

Headquarters, Department of the Army http://www.hqda.army.mil/hqda/main/home.asp

HumaniNet http://www.humaninet.org 

Humanitarian Information Centers and Partners http://www.humanitarianinfo.org 

Humanitarian Information Unit http://hiu.state.gov/

Humanitarian Early Warning Service http://www.hewsweb.org

Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research http://www.hpcr.org

Human Rights Watch http://www.hrw.org/ 

I-LINX http://www.i-linx.net

Information Management for Humanitarian Operations http://www.currion.net/imho.htm 

Information Technology and Crisis Management http://www.itcm.org/

InfoShare http://www.info-share.org

Institute for Defense Analysis http://www.ida.org/

Integrated Regional Information Network http://www.irinnews.org 

Interagency Transformation, Education & After Action Review http://www.ndu.edu/itea

International Aid http://www.internationalaid.org 

International Institute for Disaster Risk Management http://www.idrmhome.org 

International Committee of the Red Cross and Red Crescent http://www.icrc.org

International Council of Voluntary Agencies http://www.icva.ch/ 

International Crisis Group http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm 

International Humanitarian Law and Research Initiative http://www.ihlresearch.org/iraq/ 

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance http://www.idea.int/index.cfm 

International Institute for Disaster Risk Management http://www.idrmhome.org 

International Justice Mission http://www.ijm.org 
127

International Organization for Migration http://www.iom.int 

International Orthodox Christian Charities http://www.iocc.org 

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group http://www.reliefweb.int/insarag/ 

International Rescue Committee http://www.theIRC.org 

International Relief and Development, inc. http://www.ird-dc.org/

International Telecommunication Union http://www.itu.int

Inter-Agency Standing Committee http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/ 

Inveneo http://www.inveneo.org/

Islamic Relief http://www.islamic-relief.com/ 

Journal of Humanitarian Assistance http://www.jha.ac/ 

Luise Druke http://www.luisedruke.com

Lutheran Relief Services http://www.lwr.org/ 

Map Action http://www.mapaction.org

MapRelief http://www.maprelief.org

Martus Technology Non-Profit http://www.martus .org

Médecins Sans Frontières http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/ 

Mennonite Central Committee http://www.mcc.org/ 

Mercy Corps International http://www.mercycorps.org 

MorganFranklin Corporation http://www.morgan-franklin.com/

National Defense University, Institute for National Strategic Studies http://www.ndu.edu/inss/

National Democratic Institute for International Affairs http://www.ndi.org

National Geospatial Intelligence Agency http://www.nga.mil

National Strategic Gaming Center http://www.ndu.edu/inss/nsgc

NATO/Military Acronyms http://www.nato.int/ifor/general/acronyms.htm 
128

Naval Air Systems Command http://www.navair.navy.mil/

Navy Construction Forces http://www.seabee.navy.mil

Naval Postgraduate School, Center for Stabilization and Reconstruction Studies 

http://www.nps.edu/CSRS/ 

Naval War College http://www.nwc.navy.mil/defaultf.htm

NetHope http://www.nethope.org/

Network Startup Research Center http://www.nsrc.org/

Nonprofit Technology Enterprise Network http://www.nten.org/ 

Object Management Group http://www.omg.org/

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict 

http://www.defenselink.mil/policy/solic

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and Information Integration 

http://www.defenselink.mil/nii

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs http://www.reliefweb.int/symposium/

OneWorld.net http://www.OneWorld.net 

Organization Economic Co-operation and Development http://www.oecd.org/ 

Overseas Development Institute http://www.odi.org.uk/about.html 

OXFAM International http://www.oxfam.org/ 

Pacific Disaster Center http://www.pdc.org 

Pan American Health Organization http://www.paho.org 

Partnership for Peace Information Management System http://www.pims.org 

Partners in Technology http://www.pactec.org

Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute (PKSOI), US Army War College 

http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usacsl/divisions/pksoi/default.htm

Prevention Consortium http://www.proventionconsortium.org 

Proactive Communications Inc. http://204.200.201.151/ 
129

Refugees International http://www.refugeesinternational.org/

Relief Guide http://www.reliefguide.org

Reliefweb http://www.reliefweb.int 

RESPOND http://www.respond-int.org 

Responsibility to Protect, “Report of the International Commission on Intervention and 

State Sovereignty” http://www.iciss.ca/report-en.asp 

SAIC http://www.saic.com/

Sandia National Laboratories http://www.sandia.gov/

Save the Children http://www.savethechildren.org/ 

Search for Common Ground http://www.sfcg.org/ 

Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transition 

http://www.smartindicators.org 

Status of Forces Agreement http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/sofa.htm 

Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) http://www.sipri.org 

Swiss Peace http://www.swisspeace.org

Swiss Seismological Service http://www.seismo.ethz.ch 

Tele Communication Systems http://www1.telecomsys.com/index.html

Télécoms Sans Frontières http://www.tsfi.org/

Thought Link http://www.thoughtlink.com/

Training Transformation http://www.t2net.org/

UK Post Conflict Reconstruction Unit http://www.postconflict.gov.uk/ 

UK Department for International Development http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ 

UN System http://www.unsystem.org 

United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (NGLS) http://www.un-ngls.org/ 
130

UN Disaster Management Training Program http://www.undmtp.org 

UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination http://www.reliefweb.int/undac/ 

UNICEF Humanitarian Principles Training, On-line session http://coedmha.org/Unicef/UNICEF2FS.htm 

United Nations Children Fund http://www.unicef.org 

United Nations Development Program http://www.undp.org.in/ 

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees http://www.unhcr.ch 

United Nations Home Page http://www.un.org 

United Nations Joint Logistics Center http://www.unjlc.org 

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs http://ochaonline.un.org 

UN Satellite Imagery Organization http://www.unosat.org

US Agency for International Development http://www.usaid.gov 

US Air Force www.airforce.com/

US Army Peacekeeping & Stability Operations Institute 

http://www.carlisle.army.mil/usacsl/divisions/pksoi/Welcome/welcomebody.htm 

US Army Civil Affairs and PsyOps Command http://www.usacapoc.army.mil

US Army War College http://www.carlisle.army.mil/

US Institute of Peace www.usip.org

US Department of State http://www.state.gov 

US Department of State Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization 

http://www.state.gov/s/crs/ 

US Geological Survey http://www.usgs.gov 

US Marine Corps www.usmc.mil/

US Navy http://www.navy.mil/

US Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance http://www.usaid.gov/hum_response/ofda 
131

US Joint Forces Command http://www.jfcom.mil

US Northern Command http://www.northcom.mil

US Southern Command http://www.southcom.mil

US European Command http://www.eucom.mil

US Central Command http://www.centcom.mil

US Pacific Command http://www.pacom.mil

US Special Operations Command http://www.socom.mil

Virtual Operations On-Site Coordination Center http://ocha.unog.ch/virtualosocc/ 

War-Torn Societies Project http://www.wsp-international.org

World Food Program http://www.wfp.org 

World Health Organization http://www.who.int 

World Relief http://www.wr.org/ 

World Vision http://www.worldvision.org 

 
132

Appendix C: Acronyms 

AOR Areas of Responsibility 

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

AU African Union 

AUS AID Australian Agency for International Development 

CARE Cooperative Assistance for Relief Everywhere 

CCP Classified Connectivity Program

CENTRIXS Coalition Enterprise Regional Information Exchange System 

CEPREDENAC Coordination Center for the Prevention of Natural Disaster in 

Central America 

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency 

CIE Collaborative Information Environment 

CIMIC Civil-Military Coordination

CIO Chief Information Officer 

CIP Critical Infrastructure Protection 

CJTF Combined Joint Task Force

CMIC Civil-Military Cooperation Center 

COI Community of Interest 

CONOPS Concept of Operations 

CIR Committed Information Rate 

CITEL Inter-American Telecommunications Commission 

CMO Civil-Military Operation

CMOC Civil-Military Operations Center 

COW Cellular on Wheels 

CRICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market

CRO Crisis Response Operation

CRS Catholic Relief Service 

CSD United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development 

CSMP Contingency Support and Migration Planning 

CTNSP Center for Technology and National Security Policy 

CWS Church World Services 

DA Development Assistance 

DART Disaster Assistance Response Team

DFID UK Department for International Development 

DIA Defense Intelligence Agency 

DOD U.S. Department of Defense 

DRC Danish Relief Council 

EADRCC Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Center 

EADRU Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Unit 

ECHO European Community Humanitarian Aid Office 

ECOWAS Economic Community Of West African States 

EIPC Enhanced International Peacekeeping Capabilities 

ERMA Emergency Refugee & Migration Assistance 

ESDI European Security and Defense Initiative 

ESDP European Security and Defense Program 
133

EU European Union 

FCC Federal Communications Commission 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FEST Foreign Emergency Support Team 

FISMA Federal Information Security Management Act 

FPC Foreign Press Center 

GDIN Global Disaster Information Network 

GDP Gross Domestic Product 

GIS Geographic Information System 

GNP Gross National Product 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GRT Global Relief Technologies 

HADR Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief 

HIC Humanitarian Information Center 

HMA Humanitarian Mine Action 

IC Intelligence Community 

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross 

ICT Information and Communications Technology 

ICVA International Council of Voluntary Agencies 

IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 

ILMS Integrated Logistics Management System 

IGO Inter-Governmental Organization 

IMF International Monetary Fund 

INS Immigration and Naturalization Service 

IO International Organization 

IOC Initial Operating Capability 

IOM International Organization for Migration 

IMC International Medical Corps 

IMF International Monetary Fund 

IP Internet Protocol 

IRC International Rescue Committee 

IT Information Technology 

ITU International Telecommunication Union 

KM Knowledge Management 

LIC Low Intensity Conflict 

LISH Logistics Information Security and Health 

LOC Lines of Control 

LROBP Long-Range Overseas Buildings Plan 

MCI Mercy Corps International 

MOOTW Military Operations Other Than War

MSF Doctors without Borders 

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

NATMC NATO Air Traffic Management Committee

NGO Non-Governmental Organization 

NCA National Command Authorities 

NDU National Defense University 
134

NGA National Geospatial Intelligence Agency 

NIACAP National Information Assurance Certification and Accreditation 

Program 

NISTCAP National Institute of Standards and Technology Certification and 

Accreditation Program 

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NRC Norwegian Relief Council 

NSA National Security Agency 

NSC National Security Council 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSTISSI National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems 

Security Instruction 

NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

OAS Organization of American States 

OASD NII Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense Networks and 

Information Integration 

OOTW Operations Other Than War 

OSAC Overseas Security Advisory Councils 

OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

OSIS Open Sources Information System 

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy 

OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief 

PCRU Post-Conflict Reconstruction Unit 

PDA Personal Digital Assistant

PHS Public Health Services 

PKI Public Key Infrastructure 

PKO Peacekeeping Operations 

PMC Private Military Company 

PrepCom Preparation Communications 

PSMC Peace Support Missions Concluded 

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network 

QoS Quality of Service 

ROE Rules of Engagement 

S&R Stability and Reconstruction 

S&T Science and Technology 

SCI Secure Compartmentalized Information 

SENTRI Secure Electronic Network for Travelers' Rapid Inspection 

SHAPE Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe

SIPRNET Secret Internet Protocol Router Network 

SMART State Messaging and Archive Retrieval Toolset 

SMOM Sovereign Military Order of Malta 

SNAP Spouse Networking Assistance Program 

SOP Standard Operating Procedures 

SSPP Systems Security Program Plan 

TC IAEA Technical Cooperation Programs 

TSF Télécoms Sans Frontières 
135

TSU Technical Security Upgrade 

TSWG Technical Support Working Group 

TWG Technical Working Group 

UMCOR United Methodist Committee on Relief 

UNDP UN Development Program 

UNDPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution 

USAID United States Agency for International Development 

USCG United States Coast Guard 

USINFO United States Information 

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator 

VITA Volunteers in Technical Assistance 

VPN Virtual Private Network 

VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal 

WB World Bank 

WFP World Food Program 

WHO World Health Organization 
136

Appendix D 

Civil-Military Interaction Advice from Strong Angel 

Eric Rasmussen, MD, FACP 

Fleet Surgeon, Third Fleet 

27 June 2000 Rim of the Pacific 2000 

The summary thoughts below have been very liberally borrowed from smart people. 

Some are previously published, some are original statements from Strong Angel 

participants, and some are just our discussed and considered opinion of a productive way 

to do things. Few are likely to be innovative. It has been found though interviews that 

lessons learned the hard way tend to repeat themselves with no prompting. 

For reference purposes, there are three general categories of civil-military interaction: 

• Conflict management (both intervention and post-conflict rebuilding) 

• Natural disaster response 

• Complex emergency support 

 

Ten Commandments 

 

1) The military should generally not be in overall charge. The JTF Commander should be 

clearly subordinate to civilian authorities whenever possible. This: 

• Sets a democratic process in place that's reassuring to the population served 

• Sets expectations for the levels of responsibility 

• Keeps the military footprint to an absolute minimum 

o With a transition requirement apparent daily 

• Allows some mission drift (a desirable flexibility) while minimizing mission 

creep 

• Maintains a coordinated Host Nation Support mandate 

o Establish the scope of that mandate early and often 

2) Technology cannot substitute for personal interaction: 

• Use all available modes of communication 

o Decide in common when and how to use technology 

o Don’t assume face-to-face is ideal, but it’s a good default 

• Agree early on common definitions of important terms 

• Do not assume that each understands the other. Cultural differences can be subtle, 

but profound 

• Get out and talk with counterparts frequently. Share food and drink, equipment 

and resources. It’s proven to save lives. 

3) Personalities are more important than processes: 

• Don't throw away the book; thoughtful and experienced people wrote it, but be 

able to flex. You're the one on the scene. Value your own leadership in context. 
137

4) Know the cultures and issues that surround you: 

• Avoid imposing your standards and beliefs, but remember that there are 

international declarations defining fundamental human rights and we've 

subscribed to them. 

• Avoidable misunderstandings can cause distracting escalations. 

• Strive for impartiality to the sides within the conflict. 

• Breadth of understanding fosters a better recognition of the scope of your real 

task. Educate your people. 

5) Work on building communications networks as you begin to plan: 

• Key people need to communicate early across organizations. Make sure the Civ 

can talk to the Mil, the Mil to the Civ, and that both need to frequently. 

• Provide power where it's needed. 

• Get a multi-pathway phone book out and keep it updated. 

• If you can't communicate, you can't coordinate. 

6) Centralize planning and de-centralize execution: 

• Trust your people, but be thoughtful about whom you empower. 

7) Coordinate everything with everybody to the greatest possible extent: 

• Few issues will doom a civil-military mission more quickly than the perception of 

arrogance on either side. Both sides employ professionals. Both sides have 

agendas. Good work is still possible. 

• The troops need to know their role in the larger picture. Again, educate your 

people. 

8) Remember that the UN agencies are distinct, anarchic, and highly effective: 

• UN agencies agree through collaboration and consensus. Don't try to impose 

force. 

• UN agency technical communications structure has often been the best in the 

area. 

• The UN is no monolith. It is more than 50 agencies with various management 

structures, but a common theme is that the management is often very flat; 

occasionally directly from highest headquarters to a local representative in the 

field. 

• UN agencies consider their mandate to be externally focused while we often look 

at "self" and "other," with an internal focus. Not necessarily wrong either way, but 

very different. This is worth remembering. 

• UN agencies were there before, are there now, and will be there afterwards. They 

know a lot about the neighborhood and they understand the situation. They know 

we're going to leave as soon as we can and that affects our interaction. 

• UN agencies look to the military to provide four areas of support: “LISH” 

o Logistics support (particularly heavy lift) 

o Information (particularly local conditions) 
138

o Security (of UN and other non-governmental staff) 

o Health (primary care for the UN staff) 

• The key to success will be coordinating and cooperating 

9) Senior Commanders and Staffs need education and training for non-traditional roles: 

• Troops need awareness and understanding. Push the situational awareness out as 

far as you can. Educate your people. 

10) Even in a seemingly simple operation there WILL BE more media and more politics 

than anticipated. Be fair and be consistent. 

Twenty Recommendations 

 

1) Under-promise. Over-perform: 

• Repeat your intentions over and over, doing everything possible to prevent false 

expectations. 

• Make sure you complete the task you promised. 

• Build sustainable solutions that can be effectively transitioned to national agency 

management. 

• Make sure it's legal to make the promises you choose to make: 

o Standards of Conduct and Rules of Engagement can be exceptionally 

complicated for all concerned; 

o Keep the lawyers within your inner circle. 

2) The humanitarian intent should remain primary even against odds. Let it drive the 

operation. 

3) Ensure all planning is Joint: 

• Use your sister Services. Play to everyone's strengths. 

4) Synergy between the civilian and military arenas can be found through an awareness 

of mutual advantage within the continuum of effort: 

• Help each party see the valuable reasons for working together. 

• Ensure they have those reasons. 

5) A Civil-Military Operations Center, in function if not in physical space, will be 

indispensable: 

• Break down the razor-wire barriers. Invite partners in. Choose neutral territory 

whenever possible. Avoid owning the space. 

o Co-location improves the cohesiveness of effort 

o Problems can be solved in a common forum 

o Issues discussed elsewhere can be voted upon collectively 

6) Women in uniform can be a reassuring presence to an affected population: 
139

• Remember that 85 percent of recent affected populations have been women and 

children. 

• May distinguish the image of our new military presence over the local traditional 

military presence, increasing acceptance and improving rapport quickly. 

7) Avoid compartmentalized planning 

• Communication is hard enough. Don't compound the problem. 

8) The two components likely to fail most frequently are communications and lift: 

• Expect it. Plan in parallel layers. 

• Keep a bedrock communications layer as a lowest common denominator across 

all boundaries and use it daily. Make it routine for everyone. 

9) Readiness should not be confused with sustainability: 

• Be ready for high-end force projection going in, with secure logistics to follow 

quickly. The sustainment force composition is very different, is rarely on tap, and 

must be accounted early. 

10) The psychological costs of sustainment are disproportionately placed on the 

shoulders of the best talent. Protect them. 

11) An afloat CMOC offers security, hygiene, and rest. While imperfect, it's a proven 

asset for some situations: 

• Naval assets in a coastal region provide presence, poise, and protection. Bringing 

meetings aboard can be a welcome respite for all players, but it's not neutral and 

may be dangerous for those who must avoid misperceptions. 

• In some circumstances, early, formative discussions between new partners (a 

Humanitarian Planning Team) can take place afloat, then move ashore when 

ready. 

12) Critical Incident Stress Response within the care providers can prove disabling. 

• Ensure resources are available for support. Most people have never seen what 

your personnel will have to endure daily. 

13) Establish liaisons with stakeholders at every possible level, inserting full-time live 

bodies from coordinating agencies, such as the UN, USAID, senior NGOs, wherever it 

seems valuable and where you can: 

• Within the Host Nation infrastructure 

• Within the local population groups 

• Within the coalition partners 

14) Establish pre-conditions for deployment wherever you can within: 

• Host nation agreements (through the Embassy, a Country Team, or a UN agency) 

• International participants in the Theater 

• UN agencies 
140

• Donor nations and agencies 

15) Establish a secure environment for the conduct of your mandate: 

• Establish freedom of movement 

• Neutralize the effectiveness of the belligerents in a fair and equitable manner 

across factions when possible 

• Establish and maintain working relationships with the Host Nation, most 

frequently through the Embassy with a coordinating UN agency 

• Be prepared to support humanitarian operations. They are often the core of the 

solution 

• Be able to monitor, verify, and report on (and to) your major stakeholders 

16) Information Operations can improve safety and security during transitions to 

sustainment: 

• Conversely, in a digital age, communication dependent upon data links is 

inherently fragile and temptingly vulnerable. Expect failures. Plan multiple 

redundancies for critical paths. 

• Use your PSYOPS and Civil Affairs teams early. May save lives. 

17) Situational awareness will be problematic: 

• Maps should be held in common and briefed in common. They are a critical 

resource and an opportunity for early rapport. 

• Declassify information early and often to the greatest possible extent 

• Daily briefs across topic areas should be held with all major stakeholders 

o Safety and Protection 

o Food 

o Logistics transport 

o Social services 

o Domestic needs 

o Health and nutrition 

o Water and sanitation 

o Education 

o Shelter 

o Income generation 

o Environmental protection 

o Agency operational support 

o Public Information 

o Budgets 

o Exit Strategy 

18) Information that needs to be tracked constantly: 

• Deployment of Armed Forces 

• Stock at a glance 

• Stock position, location 

• Market price of food grains 
141

• Maps: storing places and ports 

• Shipping Schedules 

• Position of Ships 

• Unloading details 

• Food movement programs 

• Internal Procurement 

• Maps: Situation Maps of affected areas (e.g. landmines...) 

• Relief Activities 

• Cash Allocated 

• Damage Reports 

• Foreign Relief arrivals 

19) Key initial decisions to make: 

i) Weapons status: When civilian and military are working together, consider 

reducing the personal weapons load out to the absolute minimum level required. 

ii) Host Nation ability to provide an appropriate and adequate level of security 

 (1) Try to augment and build. Not replace and take over. 

iii) Medical support and social sensitivities 

iv) Whether Civil Affairs teams are to do humanitarian assessments using tools 

held in common with UN relief agencies and NGOs 

v) Means of communication coordination: Chose lowest common denominator. 

Include all possible parties. 

vi) Imaging is necessary. Get the products to the people who really need it. 

 (1) Again, declassify quickly 

vii) Determine how to get information to the people who need the most support. 

Remember those 19 year olds in desert cammies on a street corner, implementing 

foreign policy with no strategic or operational view. Keep their educational needs 

paramount. 

20) Know the environment 

a) Weather, dust, mud, insects, diseases, and the impact each has on equipment 

and personnel 

 

Thirty Advisories 

 

1) Decide on the image you want to portray and stick to it. 

2) Start and restart key institutions early 

 a) Medicine, education, water, telephone services, electrical power, churches 

 b) Begin the restoration of normalcy in areas that can transition early 

 c) Stay involved enough to ensure the re-start is sustainable 

3) Don't make enemies but, if you do, don't treat them gently. 
142

4) Encourage innovation and non-traditional approaches. Then listen when you get them. 

5) Plan early and include everyone. This can't be stressed enough. 

6) Determine the commander's intent, the centers of gravity, a mission analysis from the 

intent and those centers, an end state, measures of effectiveness toward that end state, and 

a phased exit strategy toward a transition to normalcy 

7) Remain aware of other operational commitments elsewhere that may tax your 

resources and replenishment options. There have been unwelcome historical surprises. 

8) Initial and replenishment manning will fall short in medical, dental, construction, port 

operations, and other specialist areas. Few services are deep in skilled personnel 

anywhere in this new millennium. 

9) Avoid becoming the carrier of the United States checkbook. That can create a falsely 

inflated economy that is very hard on the rest of the local population. 

10) Medical facilities have historically been looted and destroyed early. 

11) Other skilled local staffs are often gone by the time we get there. Construction, 

electrical, plumbing, teachers, doctors, nurses, midwives, and so forth can be hard to find 

when you need them. 

12) Be aware of the local anti-intervention PSYOPS campaign that may be waged against 

you. 

13) Decide whether you need better maps and charts early and get the surveys started. 

 a) Don't forget to share. 

14) Recognize that fear of the military will be a constant impediment for many people at 

some level. It will be essential for you to understand the conflict issues, parties, and 

history. 

15) Identify your budget and financial sponsors early, and recognize that all players 

present have both. 

16) Also note that all participants have media requirements to one degree or another. 

Don't fight a tidal wave. Assist each other in the common goal of ensuring each is (and 

looks) useful to the sponsoring agencies. 

17) Recognize that military priorities for early self-sustainment may not be shared by all 

parties present. Offload and airlift schedules will be controversial if transport logistics are 

difficult and controlled by the military. 
143

18) Investigations of events that may later be evidence of war crimes will be an early 

requirement, often within the first 48 hours within the area. Be prepared to interview in 

the native language, photograph sites and subjects, and then archive the developing 

documentation. This has historically gone poorly and the guilty have gone free. 

19) Be prepared to offer religious services to affected populations. In many areas of the 

world such services are an overriding concern. Hosting appropriate religious services can 

sometimes defuse significant tension. 

20) There is never enough scalable amphibious lift in a coastal operation. 

21) Make early arrangements for a mobile public address system and loan it to your 

partners when they need it. 

22) Form an early RF communications link between the military, USAID, and the UN 

agencies. 

23) There should be an area available for informal discussions with coffee, tea, and a few 

chairs. Much gets accomplished in an informal context, one-on-one, face-to-face. 

24) The UN agencies need a separate area to work together apart from the military. Don't 

resent it; their safety is dependent upon impartiality, and they have no weapons. In 

addition, they will be there far longer than most military staff and may well stay in better, 

long-term billeting. Avoid jealousy. Avoid mocking. They know they'll be there long 

after we've gone. 

25) Early formation of a Combined Logistics Cell that incorporates everyone saves a lot 

of time, money, and frustration. WFP is especially talented at logistics and is a useful 

resource. 

26) Power fails. Have backup manual methods for anything important that requires 

electricity. There are many painful lessons on record. 

27) Have a central area for posting decisions, messages, and schedules. 

28) Remember that more than half of our recent populations have been under age 15. We 

need preparation to handle children in large numbers. Use UNICEF. They are prepared to 

manage many "vulnerable population" issues, including child soldiers. 

29) The UN agencies are very reluctant to depend on the military for core services 

support. Our military priorities are altered on short notice from authority outside of our 

control, potentially affecting UN agency provisioning to an affected population with little 

warning and with no recourse. They won't rest easily if we're the sole source for 

something important. 
144

30) Ensure all of your personnel understand their Standards of Conduct and Rules of 

Engagement. The carrying of small laminated cards has proved useful. 
145
146

APPENDIX E 

DOD/Military Documents, Field Manuals, Joint Publications 

1. “Transforming for Stabilization and Reconstruction Operations,” Hans Binnendijk 

and Stuart Johnson, National Defense University, 2004. 

2. “DoD Net-Centric Data Strategy,” ASD NII, May 9, 2003 

3. DoD Instruction 8110.1, Multinational Information Sharing Networks 

Implementation, 6 February 2004 

4. FM 100-23 Peace Operations 

5. FM 100-6 Information Operations 

6. FM 3-07 Stability Operations and Support Operations 

7. FM 3-07.31 Peace Operations: Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for 

Conducting Peace Ops 

8. FM 27-5, Manual of Military Government and Civil Affairs, 1940 

9. Joint Publication 3-0, “Doctrine For Joint Operations” 

10. Joint Publication 3-07, “Joint Doctrine for Military Operations Other Than War” 

11. Joint Publication 3-07.3, “JTTP For Peace Operations” 

12. Joint Publication 3-07.6, “JTTP for Humanitarian Assistance” 

13. Joint Publication 3-08, “Interagency Coordination During Joint Operations” 

14. Joint Publication 3-57, “Joint Doctrine for Civil-Military Operations” 

15. Joint Publication 3-57.1, “Joint Doctrine for Civil Affairs” 

16. Interagency Management of Complex Crisis Operations (Handbook), NDU, January 

2003 

17. Defense and Technology Paper: “Transforming the Reserve Component,” NDU 

Center for Technology and national Security Policy 

18. GTA 41-01-003, Civil Affairs Foreign Humanitarian Assistance Planning Guide, JQ 

department of the Army 

19. Defense Science Board, “Report of the Defense Science Board 2004 Summer Study 

on Transition to and From Hostilities.” (December 2004) 

Other Agency Handbooks, Guidelines, & Strategies: 

1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Handbook for Emergencies

2. United Nations Civil-Military Coordination handbook 

3. United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination Field Handbook 

4. World Health Organization booklet New Emergency Health Kit

5. United Nations Children’s Fund handbook entitled Assisting in Emergencies 

6. U.S. State Department’s Bureau for Population, Refugees, and Migration 

7. Assessment Manual for Refugee Emergencies

8. U.S. Public Health Service Handbook of Environmental Health 

9. World Food Programme Contingency Planning Guidelines 

10. Field Operations Guide (FOG) for Disaster Assessment and Response Version 3.0, 

the U.S. Agency for International Development/Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance 

(OFDA) 
147

11. Worldwide Humanitarian Assistance Logistics System (WHALS) Handbook, IDA 

12. Handbook on Emergency Telecommunications, 2005, ITU 

13. Guide to IGOs, NGOs and the Military in Peace and Relief Operations, Aall et.al., 

USIP 

14. NGO Coordination at Field Level: A Handbook, John Bennett, ICVA 

15. US Agency for International Development (USAID), Fragile States Strategy. 

(January 2005). 

16. UN OCHA Civil-Military Coordination training material, 2005 

17. Guidelines On The Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets To Support United 

Nations Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies, March 2003 

U.S. Government Agency, Multinational Organization, and Research Center Studies 

and Working Papers: 

1. “Creating a Common Communications Culture”, USIP, Virtual Diplomacy Initiative, 

2004 

2. “Winning the Peace: An American Strategy for Post-Conflict Reconstruction’, edited 

by Robert C. Orr, The CSIS Press, Washington, D. C., 2004 

3. “Multilateral Interoperability Programme: The C2 Information Exchange Data 

Model”, Greding, Germany, October 1, 2004. 

4. Miscellaneous S&R related briefing material, Martin Lidy, IDA, 2005 

5. “Humanitarian Knowledge Management”, Dennis King, U.S. Department of State, 

Humanitarian Information Unit, ISCRAM Conference, April 2005. 

6. “Pre- and Post-Conflict Stability Operations,” Joint DARPA and CSIS Workshop, 

June 2004 

7. Hamre, John, “Civilian Post-Conflict Reconstruction Capabilities,” CSIS Document, 

March 2003 

8. Thie, Harry, et. al, “Framing a Strategy for Joint Officer Management: Preparing 

Officers for Interagency and Multinational Service,” RAND Publication. 

9. “Towards Interoperability in Crisis Management,” USIP, September 2003 

10. Amb. Pascual, Carlos (S/CRS), “Unifying Our Approach to Conflict 

Transformation,” Remarks Assoc. of the US Army Conference, October 2005 

11. “Building Civilian Conflict-Response Capabilities,” S/CRS Document, May 2005 

12. Hayes and Sands, “Doing Windows: Non-Traditional Military Responses to Complex 

Emergencies,” DODCCRP Publication. 

13. Robert M. Perito, Where is the Lone Ranger When You Need Him?, United States 

Institute of Peace, Washington, D.C., 2004 

14. Hans Binnendijk and Stuart Johnson (eds.), “Transforming for Stabilization and 

Reconstruction Operations,” Center for Technology and National Security Policy, 

National Defense University, Washington, D.C., 15 December 2003 

15. William Flavin, Civil-Military Operations: Afghanistan, U.S. Army Peacekeeping 

and Stability Operations Institute, Carlisle, PA, Draft 3.2, 8 June 2004 

16. Anthony H. Cordesman, The “Post-Conflict” Lessons of Iraq and Afghanistan, 

Center for Strategic and International Studies, 19 May 2004 
148

17. Ray S. Jennings, The Road Ahead: Lesson in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, 

and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq, U.S. Institute of Peace Peaceworks No. 49, 

Washington, D.C., April 2003 

18. Lessons from Bosnia: The IFOR Experience, 1998, Lessons from Kosovo: The KFOR 

Experience, 2002, Larry Wentz (ed.), DoD Command and Control Research Program, 

Washington, D.C. 

19. “America’s Role in Nation-Building From Germany to Iraq,” James Dobbins, RAND, 

2003. 

20. “Lessons from the Past: The American Record on Nation Building,” Minxin Pei and 

Sara Kasper Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003. 

21. “Burden of Victory,” James T. Quinlivan, RAND Review, Summer 2003 

22. “Iraq’s Post-Conflict Reconstruction: A Field Review and Recommendations,” Dr 

John Hamre, CSIS, 2003 

23. Playing to Win and A Wiser Peace: An Action Strategy for A Post-Conflict Iraq, CISI 

Report, January 2003 

24. Post-Conflict Reconstruction Task Framework, CISI Report, 2002 

25. “Winning the Peace: An American Strategy for Post-Conflict Reconstruction’, edited 

by Robert C. Orr, The CSIS Press, Washington, D. C., 2004 

26. “Engineering the Peace: The Military Role in Post-Conflict Reconstruction,” Col 

Garland Williams, USIP 

27. The Sphere Project: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster 

Response, First final edition 2000, Oxfam Publishing ISBN 0-85598-445-7 

28. Report on Integrated Missions: Practical Perspectives and Recommendations 

Independent Study for the Expanded UN ECHA Core Group, May 2005 

29. UN OCHA, Civil-Military Relationship in Complex Emergencies- An IASC 

Reference Paper -28 June 2004 

30. UN OCHA, Use Of Military Or Armed Escorts For Humanitarian Convoys, 2001 

31. AJP-9: NATO Civil-Military Co-Operation (CIMIC) Doctrine, 2001 

32. Post-Conflict Reconstruction ESSENTIAL TASKS, Office of the Coordinator for 

Reconstruction and Stabilization Department of State, April 2005 

33. “A Bridge Too Far: Aid Agencies and the Military in Humanitarian Response,” 

Barry, J. and Jefferys, A., Humanitarian Practices Network, January 2002 

34. “Respect for Humanitarian Mandates in Conflict Situations,” IASC Document, 1996 

35. On the Brink: Weak States and US National Security, Center for Global Development 

Commission on Weak States and US National Security, June 2004 

36. Building Capacity for US Stability Operations: The Rule of Law Component, USIP 

Special Report 118, April 2004 

37. “Humanitarian Coordination: Lessons from Recent Field Experience,” A study 

commissioned by the UN OCHA, June 2001 

38. Gompert, David, et al, “Stretching the Network: Using Transformed Forces in 

Demanding Contingencies Other Than War,” RAND Publication, 2004 
149

Other Publications: 

1. Barnett, Thomas, The Pentagon’s New Map: War and Peace in the 21st Century, 

(New York : G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 2004). 

2. Francis Fukuyama, “Nation Building 101,” The Atlantic Monthly, 

January/February 2004, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/ 

200401/fukuyama. 

3. Fallows, James, “The Hollow Army,” The Atlantic Monthly, March 2004, 

available at http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200403/fallows. 

4. Traub, James, “Making Sense of the Mission,” New York Times Magazine, April 

11, 2004. 

5. Latham, Robert, editor, Bombs and Bandwidth, (New York: The New Press, 

2003). 

6. Phillips, David L., Losing Iraq: Inside the Postwar Reconstruction Fiasco, 

(Boulder: Westview Press, 2005). 

7. Schultheis, B, Waging Peace: A Special Operations Team’s Battle to Rebuild 

Iraq, (New York: Gotham Books, 2005). 

8. Pascual, Carlos, and Krasner, Stephen. “Addressing State Failure,” Foreign 

Affairs, vol. 84. no.4, 153. July/August 2005, 153-164 

9. Covey, Jock, Dziedzic, Michael J., and Hawley, Leonard R., eds. The Quest for 

Viable Peace: International Intervention and Strategies for Conflict 

Transformation. U.S. Institute of Peace/Association of the U.S. Army, 

(Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2005). 

10. Collier, Paul, “Development and Conflict,” Center for the Study of African 

Economies, Department of Economics, Oxford University, October 1, 2004