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Third Annual Conference on

Fire Research

lleana M. Martinez, Editor

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

October 1 979

Final Report

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79-1916

1979

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

1
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Bureau of FEB 5 1980

J\otFlC.CTHIRD ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON

FIRE RESEARCH

NBSIR 79-1916

Ileana M. Martinez, Editor

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

October 1979

Final Report

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Luther H. Hodges, Jr., Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

FOREWORD

When we began the Annual Conference on Fire Research two years

ago, we did so in the belief that we were filling a need. It

seemed that an effective research program requires some amount

of direct interaction among its participants. Fire researchers

are widely scattered and spring from many disciplines, so natural

interaction is really not enough; for the moment it has to be

fostered.

The 1979 Conference begins the second cycle of an approach which

stresses fundamentals and the applied aspects of fire research in

alternate years. This will be the first opportunity to build upon

earlier conferences. We can check our progress as well as plot

the future.

The Center staff believe it will be time well-spent. We hope the

other Conference participants will share that view when the

Conference is over. The real payoff, however, will be in the

new ideas and shared perceptions that all of us take home.

August 22, 1979 Frederic B. Clarke

Director

Center for Fire Research
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD ill

ABSTRACT 1

CONFERENCE PROGRAM 3

LIST OF ATTENDEES 7

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH PROGRAMS 15

Hazard Analysis and Fire Information 17

Fire Chemistry Research 20

Fire Physics Research 24

Fire Toxicology Research 28

Product Flammability Research 31

Furnishings Flammability Research 33

Construction Fire Research 37

Fire Protection Systems Research 42

Design Concepts Research 47

Ad Hoc Working Group on Mathematical Fire Modeling .... 52

Arson Control Project 53

Large Scale Fire Research Facilities 54

CONTRACTS AND GRANTS 57

Brown University

Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels. ... 59

Brunswick Corporation

Experimental Studies on Pyrolytic Aerosols and

Fire Detectors 62

California Institute of Technology

Experimental Study of Environment and Heat Transfer

in a Room Fire 66

Clemson University

Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen-Polymer Substrate

Interactions in the Solid Phase 69

V
Page

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Determination of Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling .... 71

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

The Home Fire Project 73

Georgia Institute of Technology

Investigation of Smoke Formation by Polymeric Matertials:

Smoke Reduction Methods and Chemical Characterization. . . 77

Harvard University

The Home Fire Project 81

IIT Research Institute

Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity

Analysis and Development of a Submodel for Burning

Furniture Items 87

The Johns Hopkins University

Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products 89

The Johns Hopkins University

Fire Casualties Study 95

The Johns Hopkins University

Fire Problems Research and Synthesis, Combustion Research . 97

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room

Fire Test 102

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Fire Modeling 105

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry 108

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke 110

Loyola University of Chicago

Behavioral Analysis of the Life Safety Code 113

National Electrical Manufacturers Association

NEMA Fluid Filled Transformer Flammability Study 114

National Fire Protection Association

Investigation and Analysis of Major Fires 115

vi
Page

North Carolina State University

Occupant Responses Variability in Escape from

Residential Fires 122

Pennsylvania State University

An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Ceiling 123

Princeton University

An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over

Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions 126

Princeton University

Smoldering Combustion Studies 129

SRI International

The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat Release Rate

of Building Materials 132

SRI International

Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire

Hazard Analysis 134

SRI International

Polymer Degradation During Combustion 136

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

Measurement of Air Flow Around Doors Under Standardized

Fire Test Conditions 137

University of Arizona

Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several

Polymeric Materials 140

University of California (San Diego)

Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppression 147

University of Florida

Network Models of Building Evacuation 151

University of Maryland

The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations, Project People II 153

University of Massachusetts

Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors 158

vii
Page

University of Massachusetts

Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke and Fire Alert

Detector Devices 164

University of Montana

Ignition and Fire Spread of Celluloslc Materials 168

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

The Psychology of Arson: Theoretical Analyses with

Suggestions for Application 173

University of Notre Dame

Fire and Smoke Spread 175

University of Pittsburgh

Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products 177

University of Utah

Indepth Considerations of the Toxicological Effects of

Combustion Products 182

viii
THIRD ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

August 22-24, 1979

Ileana M. Martinez, Editor

Abstract

This report contains extended abstracts of

grants and contracts for fire research sponsored

by the Center for Fire Research, National Bureau

of Standards, as well as descriptions of the

internal programs of the Center for Fire Research.

Key words: Chemistry of fire; combustion products:

fire hazards; fire modeling; fire research; human

behavior in fires; physics of fire; toxicity of

combustion products.

Note: The Annual Conference on Fire Research held

August 22-24, 1979 marked the third time the Center

for Fire Research sponsored such an event. This

year, the Conference stressed the more fundamental

aspects of fire research, in particular the chemistry

and physics of fire. Topics discussed included

smoldering combustion, smoke and radiation, ignition

and inhibition, enclosure modeling and fire spread.

These basic aspects of fire research are only a part of all grants sponsored by the Center for

Fire Research. The Conference is devoted in alternate years to the basic and applied aspects of fire

research. For the sake of completeness however, this

publication includes abstracts of all our Internal

and extramural activities in an attempt to give an overview of our work.

1

CONFERENCE PROGRAM

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

August 22, 23, 24, 1979

Tuesday, August 21

7:00 p.m. Registration and Informal Reception

Sheraton Potomac Inn, Rockville, Maryland

Wednesday, August 22

8:15 a.m. Registration, Green Auditorium Lobby

9:00 a.m. Opening Session, Green Auditorium

Dr. C. Huggett - Deputy Director, Center for Fire Research

9:15 a.m. Smoldering Combustion - Dr. F. Rogers, Princeton University,

Session Leader

Expository Talk: Smoldering Combustion - Dr. R. Gann, CFR/NBS

Effect of Some Additives on Smolder Characteristics of

Loose-Fill Cellulosic Insulation - Dr, T. Ohlemiller,

Princeton University

10:30 a.m. Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

11:00 a.m. Smoldering Combustion (cont’d)

Survey of Smolder and Flame Inhibition by Inorganic

Powders-Mechanisms of Inhibition by Sulfur - Dr. R, McCarter, CFR/NBS

Smoldering Combustion of Cellulosic Materials - Professor F. Shafizadeh, University of Montana

An Investigation of the Mechanism of Smolder Resistance

in Cellulose by Molecular Sulfur - Dr. W. Earl, CFR/NBS

12:00 noon Future Directions of Fire Research - Dr. F, Clarke - Director, Center for Fire Research

12:30 p.m. Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

3
Wednesday, August 21 (cont'd)

1:30

3:20

3:50

6:30 p

.m. Smoke/Radiation - Dr. G. Mulholland, CFR/NBS,

Session Leader

Expository Talk: Optical Techniques for Studying the

Formation and Growth of Soot Particles - Professor A, D'Alesslo, University of Naples

The Role of Ions in Soot Formation - Dr. K. Smyth, CFR/NBS

Fire Modeling - Professor P. Pagnl, University of

California (Berkeley)

Soot Absorption and Scattering - Professor C. Tien,

University of California (Berkeley)

p.m. Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

p.m. Smoke/Radiation (cont'd)

Study of Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers - Dr. A. Modak, Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Radiation from Pool Fires - Dr. A. Modak, Factory Mutual

Research Corporation

Investigation of Smoke Formation of Polymeric Materials - Professor B. Zinn and Professor R. Browner, Georgia

Institute of Technology

Experimental Studies on Pyrolytic Aerosols and Fire

Detectors - Dr. R. Chuan, Brunswick Corporation

Generation and Characterization of Carbonaceous Aerosols - Dr. G. Mulholland, CFR/NBS

.m. Wine and Cheese Party

4
Thursday, August 23

9:15 -a.m. Ignition/ Inhibition - Professor M. Drews, Clemson University,

Session Leader

Flame Structure Measurement of Polymer Diffusion Flames -

W. Pitz, University of California (Berkeley)

Ignition and Low Pressure Flame Propagation of Polymers -

Dr. W. Berl, Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics

Laboratory

Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen-Polymer Substrate Interactions

in the Solid Phase - Professor M. Drews, Clemson University

Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling - Dr. A. Tewarson,

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

10:40 a.m. Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

11:10 a.m. Ignition/Inhibition (cont’d)

Effect of Sample Orientation on Radiative Ignition - Dr. T. Kashiwagi, CFR/NBS

Spontaneous Ignition of Coal - Dr. G. Mallard, CFR/NBS

Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppression - Professor A, Gordon, University of California

(San Diego)

12:30 p.m. Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 p.m. Enclosure Modeling/ Flame Spread - Dr. J. de Ris,

Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Session Leader

Expository Talk: Enclosure Fire Modeling - Some

Fundamentals and Some Applications - Dr. J. Quintiere,

CFR/NBS

Flame Spread in Opposed Flow: Thermal and Kinetic

Considerations - Dr. A. C. Fernandez-Pello , Princeton

University

Burning Rates and Extinction Limits: Measurements and

Calculations - Professor M. Sibulkin, Brown University

Burning of Pool Fires in Vitiated Air - Dr. J. de Ris,

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

3:20 p.m. Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

5
Thursday, August 23 (cont'd)

3:50 p.m. Enclosure Modeling/Fl^e Spread (cont'd)

Field Equation Modeling of Nonlinear Convection in

Room Fires - Dr. R, Rehm, Center for Applied Math,

NBS

Modeling of Smoke Dynamics - Dr, G, Mulholland, CFR/NBS

The Theory of Boundary Layer Burning with Radiation - Jana Backovsky, Harvard University

Data for Fire Modeling, Professor H. Emmons - Harvard

University

6:00 p.m. Volley Ball Game - Modelers vs Measurers followed by

Barbecue at Smokey Glen Fairm

Friday, August 24

9:00 a.m. Continuation of Enclosure Modeling/Flame Spread - Dr. J. de Ris,

Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Session Leader

An Investigation of Fire Impingement on A Horizontal

Ceiling - Professor G. Faeth, Penn State University

Experimental Study of the Environment and Heat Transfer

in a Room Fire - Professor T. Kubota, California

Institute of Technology

Some Correlations for Room Fire - Dr, B. McCaffrey, CFR/NBS

Fire Induced Flows through Enclosure Openings - K. Steckel,

Armstrong Cork/CFR

Modeling of Available Egress Time from Buildings - Dr. L. Cooper,

CFR/NBS

10:40 a.m. Coffee Break, Employee Lounge

11:10 a.m. Enclosure Modeling/Flame Spread (cont'd)

Development of a Burning Furniture Model - Dr, R. Pape,

IIT Research Institute

Fire and Smoke Spread - Professor K. Yang, University of

Notre Dame

12:00 noon Summary of Meeting - Dr, C. Huggett, CFR/NBS

12:30 p.m. Lunch, NBS Cafeteria

1:30 p.m. Visit NBS

6
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

Center for Fire Reseach

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

August 22, 23, 24, 1979

LIST OF ATTENDEES

ADORJAN, Alex, Pullman Kellogg, Three Greenway Plaza East, Houston, TX

77046

AFFENS , Dr. Wilbur A., Naval Research Laboratory, Code 6180, Washington,

D.C. 20375

ALVARES, Norman J., Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, P.O. Box 5505, Livermore, CA 94550

ALTENKIRCH, Robert A., University of Kentucky, Dept of Mechanical Engineering,

Lexington, KY 40506

AMBROSE, Jim, Virginia State Fire Marshal's Office, Bldg. 13, Suite 143, Koger

Exec. Center, Norfolk, VA 23502

ANDERSEN, Donald, E. I. duPont de Nemours, Experimental Station, Wilmington, DE 19898

ANDERSON, Robert W., Diversified Insulation, Inc., P.O. Box 188, Hamel, MN 55340

BACKOVSKY, Jana, Harvard University, Engineering Sciences Lab, 40 Oxford St.,

Cambridge, MA 02138

BANKSTON, C. Perry, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., M.S. 67-201,

Pasadena, CA 91103

BELLAN, Dr. J., Jet Propulsion Lab - Boeing, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Mail Code 67-201,

Pasadena, CA 91103

BENJAMIN, Irwin, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BERL, W. G., APL, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, MD 20810

BIRKY, Merritt, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BLAIR, John A., DuPont Company, PP&R - TSL, Chestnut Run, Wilmington, DE 19898

BOGNER, Chuck, DOT, Cambridge, MA 02142

BRIGHT, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BROWNER, Richard F., Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Chemistry,

Atlanta, GA 30332

7
BRYAN, Dr. John L. , Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park,

MD 20742

BUCHBINDER, Ben, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BUDNICK, Edward, Center for Fire Research, NBS

BURGESS, Bruce A., E.I. duPont de Nemours Co., Haskell Laboratory, Elkton Road,

Newark, DE 19711

CAMMER, Daniel, Brick Institute of America, 1750 Old Meadow Road, McLean, VA 22102

CHEN, Houston D., Brunswick Defense Division, Advanced Programs, 3333 Harbor Blvd.,

Costa Mesa, CA 92626

CHIPPETT, Simon, Union Carbide Corp, P.O. Box 8361, So. Charleston, WV 25303

CHRISTIAN, Wm. J., Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL 60062

CHUAN, Raymond L., Brunswick Corp, 3333 Harbor Blvd., Costa Mesa, CA 92626

CLARKE, Frederic, Center for Fire Research, NBS

COOPER, Leonard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

D'ALESSIO, Antonio, Laboratorio Ricerche Combustione, C.N.R. , Universita di

Napoli, 80125 Napoli, Italy

DANIHER, Dr. Frank A., Velsicol Chemical Corp, 1975 Green Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105

DARR, William, Mobay Chemical Corp, Penn-Lincoln Parkway West, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

DATTA, A., U.S. Coast Guard R&D Center, Avery Point, Groton, CT 06340

DAVIS, Sanford, Center for Fire Research, NBS

DE RIS, Dr. John, Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 1151 Boston-Providence

Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062

DREWS, Dr. Michael J., Textile Dept, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29631

DUNLAP, Bill, Dow Chemical, P.O. Box 515, Granville, OH 43023

DYER, Dr. John H., The Ansul Company, One Stanton Street, Marinette, WI 54143

EARL, William, Center for Fire Research, NBS

EDELSON, Dr. David, Bell Laboratories, 600 Mountain Ave., Murray Hill, NJ 07974

EDWARDS, John C., U.S. Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213

EICHER, W.J., Mobay Chemical Corp, Penn-Lincoln Parkway West, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

8
j EKLUND, Thor I., DOT/FAA/NAFEC, Tilton Rd., Atlantic City, NJ 08405

ELWING, David R. , Veterans Administration, 810 Vermont Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20420

EMMONS, Howard W., Harvard University, Pierce Hall, Cambridge, MA 02138

ESCH, Victor H., M.D., Chief Surgeon, D.C. Fire Dept, c/o Police & Fire Clinic,

#1 D.C. Village Lane, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20032

il EVANS, Dave, Center for Fire Research, NBS

FAETH, G.M., Pennsylvania State University, 214 M.E. Bldg., University Park, PA 16802

FERNANDEZ-PELLO , A. Carlos, Princeton University, M.A.E. Dept, Engineering Quad.,

Princeton, NJ 08540

FISH, Doug, DuPont Company, 1007 Market St., Wilmington, DE 19898

FITCH, Wm. E., Owens Corning Fiberglas, Toledo, OH 43659

FRIEDMAN, Raymond, Factory Mutual Research, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike,

Norwood, MA 02062

FU, Tim T., Navy, CEL/NCBC, Port Hueneme, CA 93043

FULMER, Glen, W.R. Grace & Co., 7379 Rte. 32, Columbia, MD 21044

FUTRELL, Jean H. , Flammability Research Center, 391 S. Chipeta Way, Suite E,

University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112

GALLOWAY, John R. , DuPont Company, 1007 Market St., Wilmington, DE 19898

GANN, Richard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

GLASSMAN, Irvin, Princeton University, Dept of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engr,

Princeton, NJ 08540

GLOWINSKI, Robert W., National Forest Products, 1619 Mass Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

GOONAN, Thomas E., G.S.A., 18th & F St., N.W.

#1014, Washington, D.C. 20405

GORDON, Alvin S., Professor, AMES Dept, UCSD, AMES, B-OlO, University of California

San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093

GRIMADO, P.B. (Phil), Bell Laboratories, North Road, Chester, NJ 07930

HANUSA, L. H., Mobay Chemical Corp , Penn-Lincoln Parkway West, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

9
HARTZELL, Dr. Gordon E., Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd., P.O.

Drawer 28510, San Antonio, TX 78284

HATHAWAY, William T., U.S. Dept of Transportation, Kendall Sq., Cambridge, MA 02142

HERTZBERG, Martin, Dept of Interior, Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Ave.

,

Pittsburgh, PA 15332

HESKESTAD, Gunnar, Factory Mutual Research, 1151 Boston-Providence Hwy,

Norwood, MA 02062

HILLSTROM, Dr. W., U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving

Ground, MD 21005

HOKE, Charles, Uniroyal, Inc., 312 N. Hill St., Mishawaka, IN 46544

HUGGETT, Clayton, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ISSEN, Lionel, Center for Fire Research, NBS

JACISIN, J. M. , Bell Laboratories, North Road, Chester, NJ 07930

JARVIS, Dr. Chris, Clemson University, Dept of Textiles, Clemson, SC 29631

JONES, Everett B., US Navy, Naval Safety Center, NAS, Norfolk, VA 23511

KANAKIA, Mike, Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Rd, San Antonio, TX 78284

KASHIWAGI, Takashi, Center for Fire Research, NBS

KEHR, Clif, W. R. Grace & Co . , 7379 Rt 32, Columbia, MD 21044

KENNEDY, Thomas E., Defense Nuclear Agency, Washington, D.C. 20305

KENT, Ronald, Boise Cascade, Insulite Div., International Falls, MN

KERR, James W. , FEMA, P.O. Box 4073, Falls Church, VA 22044

KRACKLAUER, Jack, Arapahoe Chemicals, Inc., 2075 N. 55th St., Boulder, CO 80301

KRAFTHEFER, Brian, Honeywell, Honeywell Plaza, Minneapolis, MN 55408

KUBOTA, Dr. Toshi, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125

LABES, Willis G. , Professor Emeritus, Illinois Institute of Technology, RFD #3,

Box 464, Charlottesville, VA 22901

10
Land, Richard, Harvard University, Engineering Sciences Laboratory, 40 Oxford St.

Cambridge, MA 02138

LEE, James, Factory Mutual Research Corp, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike,

Norwood, MA 02062

LEVIN, Bernard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LEVINE, Robert, Center for Fire Research, NBS

LIE, T. T., National Research Council Canada, Montreal Rd. , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

LIPSKA, Anne, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, P.O. Box 5505, Livermore, CA 94550

LLOYD, John R. , University of Notre Dame, Aerospace & Mechanical Engr., Notre Dame,

IN 46556

MAC DOUGALL, Ed, B.N.L., Bldg. 130, Upton, L.I., NY 11973

MC CAFFREY, Bernard, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MC CARTER, Robert, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MAGNUSSON, Sven E., Lund Institute of Technology, Division of Structural Mechanics,

Fack 725, 220 07 Lund 7, Sweden

MALLARD, Gary, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MARGEDANT, DuPont Company, 1007 Market St., Wilmington, DE 19898

MARTIN, Stan, SRI, 333 Ravenswood Ave. , Menlo Park, CA 94025

MARTINEZ, Ileana, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MERTENS, John M. , Illinois Institute of Technology, 10 W. 32nd St., Chicago, IL 60616

MILKE, Jim, University of Maryland, Dept of Fire Protection Engineering, College

Park, MD 20742

MITLER, Henri E., Harvard University, Engineering Sciences Laboratory, 40 Oxford St.,

Cambridge, MA 02138

MODAK, Ashok, Factory Mutual Research Corp., Norwood, MA 02062

MULHOLLAND, George, Center for Fire Research, NBS

MURCH, Robert, W.R. Grace & Co., 7379 Rte 32, Columbia, MD 21044

NELSON, Harold (Bud) , Center for Fire Research, NBS

OHLEMILLER, T.J., Princeton University, Guggenheim Lab, Forrestal, Princeton, NJ 08544

11
OLSON, D.B., AeroChem Research Lab, P.O. Box 12, Princeton, NJ 08540

PAGNI, Prof. Patrick J., Mechanical Engineering Dept, University of California,

Berkeley, CA 94720

PAPE, Ronald, IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th St., Chicago, IL 60616

PARKAN, Dr. C., The University of Calgary, Canada, Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada

PARKER, William, Center for Fire Research, NBS

PENKAVA, T.R. , Mobay Chemical Corp, Penn-Lincoln Parkway West, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

PERKINS, Lowell R. , E.I. duPont de Nemours, Inc., Dupont Experimental Station,

Bldg. 353/202, Wilmington, DE 19898

PITZ, Bill, University of California, Berkeley, 65 Hesse Ct. Yd., Berkeley, CA 94720

PUNDERSON, Dr. John 0., DuPont, P.O. Box 1217, Parkersburg, WV 26101

QUINTIERE, James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

REHM, Ronald G., Center for Applied Math, NBS

REUTHER, Prof. James J., Fuel Science Section, The Pennsylvania State University,

320 Steidle Bldg., University Park, PA 16802

ROBERTSON, Alex, Center for Fire Research, NBS

ROBINS, Robert F., Hardwood Plywood Mfgrs Assoc, 1825 Michael Faraday Drive,

Reston, VA 22090

ROGERS, Frank, Princeton University, Guggenheim Labs, Princeton, NJ 08544

SCHEFFEY, Joe, Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc., 5803 Rolling Rd, Springfield, VA 22124

SCHWARCZ, Dr. Joseph M. , N.L. Chemicals, P.O. Box 700, Hightstown, NJ 08520

SHAFIZADEH, Dr. Fred, University of Montana, Wood Chemistry Laboratory, University

of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812

SIBULKIN, Merwin, Brown University, Division of Engineering, Providence, RI 02912

SIMONELLI, Richard A., General Electric Plastics Div., 1 Plastics Ave, Pittsfield,

MA 01201

SINGER, Joseph M. , Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 4800 Forbes Avenue,

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

SMYTH, Kermit, Center for Fire Research, NBS

12
SPARKES, Charles J., Arapahoe Chemicals, Inc., 2075 N. 55th St., Boulder, CO 80301

STECKLER, Kenneth D., Armstrong Cork, Center for Fire Research, NBS

STROBRIDGE, Thomas R. , National Bureau of Standards, Thermophysical Properties

Division 736.1, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303

TEWARSON, Archibald, Factory Mutual Research Corp, 1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike

Norwood, MA 02062

TIEN, Chang-Lin, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720

TOVEY, U. S. Fire Administration, P.O. Box 19518, Washington, D.C. 20036

TROHA, Charles C., Fire Safety Consultant, 7100 Saunders Ct., Bethesda, MD 20034

TUFTS, Richard B., Maryland Casualty Co, P.O. Box 1228, Baltimore, MD 21203

ULLRICH, George W., Defense Nuclear Agency, Washington, D.C. 20305

VANPEE, Marcel, University of Massachusetts, Chemical Engineering Dept, Amherst,

MA 01003

VICKERY, Gordon, U. S. Fire Administration, P.O. Box 19518, Washington, D.C. 20036

WALKER, Joseph, US Air Force Fire Protection Research & Development, Hq AFESC/RDCF,

Tyndall AFB, FL 32403

WASZECIAK, Paul, The Upjohn Company, 410 Sackett Point Road, North Haven, CT 06473

WATERMAN, Thomas E., IIT Research Institute, 10 W. 35th St., Chicago, IL 60616

WEAVER, Betsy, International Association of Fire Chiefs, 1329 18th St., NW Washington,

D.C. 20036

WIDENOR, W. M. , Naval Ship R&D Center, Code 2843, NSRDC, Annapolis, MD 21402

WILKINS, Dr. Mark A., Attache (Technology) British Embassy, 3100 Massachusetts

Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20008

WINGER, James, Center for Fire Research, NBS

WRIGHT, G. Todd, Owens-Corning Fiberglas, Granville Technical Center, B76,

Granville, OH 43023

YANG, K.T., University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556

YEH, Kwan, University of Maryland, 3107 Turner Lab, College Park, MD 20742

ZINN, Ben T., Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA 30332

13
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CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

15

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND FIRE INFORMATION

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Benjamin Buchbinder, Head

Alan Gomberg, Fire Prevention Engineer

Susan Helzer, Mathematician

Nora Jason, Technical Information Specialist

Stefan Leigh, Operations Research Analyst

James Slater, Mathematician

Program Objectives

The work carried on in this program is based on two major objectives.

The first is to characterize fire hazards by analytical means and to

evaluate strategies for reducing fire losses on a cost/benefit basis,

both to help establish research priorities and to guide the development

of test methods for codes and standards. The second objective is to

expand and maintain a technical fire literature collection, to provide

technical information services for the Center for Fire Research (CFR)

and for the fire community at large, and to provide access to fire loss

data for CFR.

Project Areas

1. Decision Analysis

Decisions on the choice between strategic alternatives for reducing

fire losses should be based on a systematic consideration of all

benefits, risks and costs. However, because of the complexity of

safety problems and the uncertainties inherent in the evaluation of

strategies for reducing accidental losses, the choice among strategies

is difficult. We have developed analytical techniques for assessing

the risks and avoided damages associated with different fire safety

alternatives, and the economic costs of these alternatives.

Decision analysis provides the analytical framework for the com- bination of these loss and cost assessments in choosing the most

cost effective strategy for addressing a particular fire problem.

The initial decision analysis study of alternatives for the re- duction of upholstered furniture fire losses served to establish

the utility of this approach for fire hazard applications. A major

decision analysis study is underway on the residential fire problem.

Decision analysis is also being applied in other fire safety areas including transformer fluids and rail transportation.

17
2. Special Studies

The growth of the National Fire Data Center at the U.S. Fire

Administration has provided more and better data for fire hazard

analysis. Using these data as a basis, we perform special studies

related to the characterization of specific fire hazards. Current

special study topics include the following:

-Identification of factors associated with high fire death rates

in rural areas and certain geographical areas.

-Feasibility of linkage of fire incident report files with

demographic data bases, to permit future analysis of fire

incident data as a function of population characteristics.

-Improvement of fire incident data through quality control in

editing and data processing.

3. Plastics Hazard Analysis

Because of the proliferation of plastic products in the market

place, the absence of detailed fire incident data for evaluating

the flammability hazards of these products, and the relative

inadequacy of existing test methods, a study was conducted to

attempt to identify and characterize the role of plastics in

real fire incidents. We collected case history reports based on

a detailed questionnaire form and performed laboratory testing of

samples retrieved at the fire scene. The study is restricted to

accidental residential fires in which an identifiable plastic

product was significantly involved, and for which the sequence

of events is partially reconstructible . To evaluate the role of

the products in the context of the actual fire, information was collected on the building environment and the people involved as well as general information regarding extinguishment, fire growth,

property damage, etc. Laboratory characterization of the materials

included generic composition. Ignition temperature, melting point,

density, and smoke production. More than 135 data elements are coded and entered on a computer file for each fire incident;

information on a total of 175 cases has been collected. This

data base is being used in conjunction with other data for

special studies to extend our knowledge of the role of plastics

in residential fires.

4. Fire Research Information Services (FRIS)

CFR has one of the world's foremost collections of fire research

documents, collected to serve the broad information needs of the

Center and the fire community. In addition to continued augmentation and maintenance of the collection, FRIS provides a full

18
range of technical information services to the Center staff.

These services include bibliographic searches, inter-library loan

and book purchases, and maintenance of a periodical reference

collection of 120 United States and foreign journals on fire

research and related fields. We are currently studying the

feasibility of developing an automated storage and retrieval system

for bibliographic references to our own document collection. The

long range plan is to link this system with other major fire re- lated information systems, such as those at U.S. Fire Administration

and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

.

Associated Contract

SRI International, Fred L. Offensed - "Continuation of Decision Analysis

Studies in Fire Hazard Analysis"

19
FIRE CHEMISTRY RESEARCH

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Richard G. Gann, Head

Dusan Bakos, Guest Worker

William H. Earl, Postdoctoral Research Associate

W. Gary Mallard, Research Chemist

Gerald D. Mitchell, Research Chemist

Michael J. Manka, Chemist

John W. Rowen, Physical Scientist

Kermit C. Smyth, Research Chemist

Ivan Spilda, Guest Worker

Affiliated

John W. Hastie, Center for Materials Science, NBS

Program Objectives

The objectives in Fire Chemistry Research are:

(.1) to provide understanding of the chemical processes which are important in the development and control of unwanted fires; kinetics and

thermodynamics of combustion, fuel structure and additive effects on flammability, ignition, flame spread and structure, generation of soot

and combustion products, and fire retardance and extinction;

(2) to transmit that knowledge to other fire research groups and

to the technical community at large for use in developing fire resistant

materials, standard test methods and building design codes.

Project Areas

1. Spontaneous Ignition of Coal

In many Instances fires begin or propagate when materials are

heated, smolder for a while, and then burst into flame or ignite some other substance. A similar problem exists with the ignition of

low-grade coals long before they reach their eventual destination.

Hence, studies on the self-heating of materials have a dual potential

to reduce both fire loss and energy waste. It is our intent to develop

a scientifically based susceptibility index for materials prone to

spontaneous ignition and to demonstrate the validity of this index as

a basis for ranking these materials for fire hazard.

20
We are currently using a third generation adiabatic furnace in

conjunction with simultaneous TGA/DSC determinations. Our current data

on two coals suggests that as the coal is heated from ambient temperature, dehydration begins and is soon joined by a single surface oxidation

sequence. As the temperature continues to rise, the water is expended

and the endothermic volatilization reaction slows as the exothermic

oxidation increases in rate. We are now testing this model, developing

a mathematical formalism to relate it to actual self-heating, studying

the kinetics and investigating the use of faster, more reliable, easier

to perform tests for characterizing a coal’s self heating tendency.

2. Flammability of Dielectric Fluids

In a recent action, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned

the use of polychlorinated biphenyls, thus eliminating the existing

"non-flammable" insulating fluids for transformers and capacitors. We

are conducting a study to comprehensively delineate the fluid’s properties which determine its fire potential in these uses. The work has

included establishing patterns in device failures, determination of the

similarity of the (gray body) nature of flame emissions from silicone and

hydrocarbon fluids, construction of a model for the ignition of nearby

fuels by flaming airborne droplets, evaluation of safety alternatives on

a cost-plus-loss basis (with the Decision Analysis staff) , evaluation of

the effect of corona degradation on a fluid's fire point, and working

with the consensus and industry standards groups to evolve technically

sound fire safety criteria and test methods. A final report is in

preparation.

3. NMR Studies of Combustion of Solids

Jointly with the NBS Center for Materials Science, we are developing

a capability in magic angle spinning, high resolution nuclear magnetic

resonance CNMR) of solids. Our intent is to follow the degradation of

natural and synthetic polymers using the nuclide. Studies of both

polyethylene and cellulose have shown that conformational differences

can be observed between chemically similar samples. Preliminary spectra

of wood and the difference crystalline forms of pure cellulose have been

obtained as a prelude to detailed studies on wood decomposition and

smoldering combustion.

4. Sulfur Smoldering Retardance Mechanisms

According to current statistics, at least one-fourth of all fire

deaths result from scenarios which include a non-flaming step. As a result, test methods are being developed to evaluate the smoldering

performance of materials, and the need for smoldering inhibitors has

been accentuated. Experiments in Fire Physics Research have shown

that elemental sulfur is an effective smoldering inhibitor, and we

are now studying the modes in which it works. Experiments to date

21
have shown that sulfur in cotton batting eases ignitability under

radiant flux and decreases the smoldering propagation rate and the

smoldering front temperature. In addition sulfur dramatically reduces

the free radical density in the solid. We have established that H^S

and SO

2 (and by analogy mercaptans and organosulfates) are not responsible. Rather, it appears that the sulfur itself vaporizes and

attaches to the radical sites, thus preventing further carbon chain

oxidation. Confirming experiments are in progress.

5. Mechanism of Fire Retardancy of Polypropylene

This project involved our two Slovak Guest Workers and represented

continuation of work began in Bratislava. The first effort involved

isotastic polypropylene (IPP) treated with different levels of each of

four halogenated fire retardants. Samples were slowly pyrolyzed in a thermogravimetric apparatus, rapidly pyrolyzed into a flame ionization

detector, and burned in an oxygen index apparatus in both N

2 O and air.

A draft report has been written, interpreting the results in light of

the different retardant structures. In the second effort, the weight

loss of pure and fire-retarded IPP samples were determined during pool

combustion in a modified oxygen index apparatus. A report is due in the

fall.

6. Opto-Galvanic Spectroscopy of Flames

A joint effort within NBS has devised this laser-excitation technique in which atomic and molecular absorptions are detected by changes

in flame conductivity rather than by changes in light intensity. The

current objective is to explore its application to flame and combustion

product analyses. We now understand the opto-galvanlc mechanism reasonably well and flame species temperature measurements are becoming

feasible. A first-principles model for the temperature measurements has

been drafted. Simultaneous and stepwise two-photon processes have been

studied, advancing the earlier single-photon work.

7. Mechanisms of Soot Formation

We are beginning a long-term study of the basic chemistry that

determines the formation and character of soot. This effort will be

carried out jointly with the NBS Center for Mechanical Engineering and

Process Technology. Fundamental issues to be considered are the relative

importance of free radical and ionic mechanisms, the dependence on fuel

chemistry, and the nature of soot precursors. Present experiments are concerned with two aspects. In the first, metal atoms are being added

sooting flames. A fraction of these are ionized in situ using the

opto-galvanic effect, and the resulting changes in the soot formed are observed. The result will be an assessment of the discrete role of

metal ions in soot chemistry. The second study involves a laser-induced

fluorescence observed in a variety of flames. The excitation spectra

are independent of the fuel for a number of gaseous and solid fuels as

22
well as whether the flame is premixed or diffusion controlled. The

broad, structureless emission suggests a large fused ring structure

or mixture of structures or large poly-enes. While the fluorescence

correlates with whether the flame is sooting or near-sooting, it is

not clear that the species is (are) a soot precursor. Further work

is planned to clarify this relationship and better identify the species.

Associated Grants and Contracts

1. Clemson University, Michael J. Drews - "Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen

Polymer Substrate Interactions in the Solid Phase"

2. University of California (Berkeley), Robert F. Sawyer and Nancy J.

Brown - "Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry"

3. University of Montana, Fred Shafizadeh - "Ignition and Fire Spread

of Cellulosic Materials"

4. Univeristy of Massachusetts, James Chien and Marcel Vanpee - "Flame

Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors"

5. Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Lab, Robert Fristrom and

Lawrence Hunter - "Polymer Flammability and Flame Inhibition"

6. SRI International, Fred Offensend - "Decision Analysis Studies:

Transformer Fire Hazard Analysis"

7. Georgia Institute of Technology, Ben T. Zinn and Richard F. Browner

"Investigation of Smoke Formation by Polymeric Materials: Smoke

Reduction Methods and Chemical Characterization of Particulates"

8. SRI International, Sharon K. Brauman - "Polymer Degradation During

Combustion"

9. National Electrical Manufacturers Association, John H. Motherway - "NEMA Fluid Filled Transformer Flammability Study"

23
FIRE PHYSICS RESEARCH

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

John A. Rockett, Head

Howard R. Baum, Research Physicist

Daniel Corley, Physicist

Margaret Harkleroad, Physicist

Taksahi Kashiwagi, Material Engineer

Thomas G. K. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

Bernard J. McCaffrey, Mechanical Engineer

Robert J. McCarter, Chemical Engineer

George W. Mulholland, Research Chemist

James G. Quintiere, Mechanical Engineer

Ronald Rehm, Mathematician (Center for Applied Mathematics, NBS)

Keneth Steckler, Research Associate

Program Objectives

1. Growth and Spread of Room Fires: To predict the growth and spread

of fire in a room or a set of simply interconnected rooms.

2. Mathematical Models: Develop advanced mathematical models for

various flow phenomena in fires.

3. Ignition: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

flaming ignition of solid and liquid fuels.

4. Smoke Characterization: To study smoke formation and to develop

techniques for producing well characterized and reproducible

aerosols

5. Smoldering: To identify and quantify the phenomenon related to

smoldering combustion of (porous) solid fuels and to devise means

of quantifying the smolder tendency of materials.

Project Areas .

1. Growth and Spread of Fire

The objective of this project is to improve predictions of fire

behavior in a room. A quasi steady state model which relates the

potential for flashover in a room to its combustible contents and thermal

and ventilation characteristics has been developed and compared to

experimental data. Predictions are qualitatively good; quantitative

predictions range from fair to quite good. Data obtained for wood and

high density polyurethane foam cribs has been compared with the model

24
after inclusions of the effect of radiation from the crib to its

surroundings, of flow entrainment by the crib, and of the effect of the

hot vitiated layer sinking below the top of the crib.

Experimental work begun by McCaffrey and Cox at the Fire Research

Station, Borehamwood, England, on the near field entrainment of diffusion

flame is being continued. Results show significant differences between

the measured plume quantities near the base of the plume where combustion

is occuring and predictions based on current (far field) models. Above

the flame zone, far field models give good agreement with our data.

Full scale experiments carried out during the past year provide more

detail for model evaluation especially a check on the overall flow prediction and secondary flows around the door. Very good mass balances

for the room have been obtained but only after repositioning the flow

measuring probes to a door location where the streamlines were truly

horizontal

.

2. Mathematical Models

The objective of this project is to improve the capability and

accuracy of fire models through the application of the most efficient

mathematical techniques.

Three relatively separate activities have been pursued.

a. In most fire situations the Reynolds (or Grashof) number is large.

This suggests that, as is true in other areas of high Reynolds

number fluid flow analysis, an inviscid flow approximation should

prove useful. Since for strongly buoyant flows the equations are quite non-linear, numerical methods are called for. A careful

examination of several numerical schemes has been pursued with

numerous cross comparisons with analytic solution of test problems

to determine the accuracy and stability of the techniques as applied

to this set of equations. A satisfactory solution algorithm has

been developed. The ability of the inviscid analysis to represent

practical fire problems will now be studied.

b. Containership operations only allow below-deck storage of containers

carrying no hazardous cargo. However, scheduling economics are strongly affected by the definition of hazardous. It has been

proposed to the International Maritime Consulting Organization (IMCO)

that the present limitations on below-deck storage could be relaxed

if forced hold ventilation were provided.

To examine this, a procedure for calculating the in-hold flows and

combustible vapor concentrations for various ventilation schemes

and accident scenarios has been developed. Experimental data from

a 1/12 scale model confirmed the qualitative features of the analysis.

At sea ship hold measurements confirm the assumptions of the anlysis

throughout most of a typical Gulf Coast to Europe run.

25
c. Jointly with the smoke characterization project aerosol calculations

have been developed. These follow changes in aerosol size and number

distributions as smoke is transported from a fire to a detector.

Extensions of this work will be incorporated in the inviscid room flow calculations.

3. Ignition

The purpose of this project is to identify and document the important

phenomenon related to Ignition. Work to date has concentrated on radiation assisted ignition - to flaming combustion - of solid and liquid

fuels. Additional data on energy absorption by evolved gases in the

convective plume above the igniton target has been obtained. The

simplyfing concept of a material dependent characteristic surface

temperature for ignition has been found to be satisfactory for PMMA

(about 400° C) but quite poor for red oak (variable from about 400 to

600° C) . Current work has concentrated on other important parameters

such as surface orientation, size, type and location. High speed motion

pictures have shown complex surface motions of liquid fuels between the

beginning of irradiation and ignition.

An associated program has been started to study turbulent combustion.

4. Smoke Characterization

The objective of this project is to improve the accuracy and

capability of smoke characterizing instruments and apply this to improving

fire detection and fire analysis.

Techniques developed for generation of controlled, reproducible

aerosols of known size distribution have been applied to smoke detector

standardization and testing. A prototype portable tester suitable for

evaluation of installed smoke detectors has been built and is being field

tested. Aerosol generators have been designed and built for several

other special applications related to environmental control.

An analytical model of smoke aging in the buoyant plume above a fire has been developed. This will form a part of a larger study of

detector siting and sensitivity now in progress.

Future work will focus more strongly on the mechanisms of smoke

formation and the role of aerosol and particulates in flame radiation.

5. Smoldering

The objective of this project is to identify and quantify the

phenomena related to smoldering combustion of (porous) solid fuels and

to devise means of quantifying the smolder tendency of materials. Much

of the recent effort has been directed at applied problems.

26
During the past year the emphasis of this program has shifted from

upholstery materials to blown cellulose insulation. It was demonstrated

that some flame retarded insulation would smolder readily and, in the

presence of a slight draft, could ignite the timbers of a residential

attic. A smoldering test for insulation was developed. It was found

that the amount of inhibitor needed to pass the proposed smoldering and

flaming tests was quite sensitive to the particular cellulose fiber and

method of blending the inhibitor with the fiber. This process

variability suggests the need for an inexpensive quality control test.

A search for satisfactory smolder inhibitors for cellulosics has

turned up about 100 candidate slats. About two dozen of these combine

four desirable characteristics: effectiveness as smolder inhibitors,

flame inhibition or no interference with common flame inhibitors, low

corrosion tendency for exposed metals, and low cost.

Associated Grants & Contracts

Pennsylvania State University, G. M. Faeth - "An Investigation of Fire

Impingement on a Horizontal Ceiling".

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, C. Tien - "Thermal Radiation of

Luminous Flames and Smoke"

.

Georgia Institute of Technology, B. T. Zinn - "Investigation of Smoke

Formation by Polymeric Materials: Smoke Reduction Methods and Chemical

Characterization"

.

Brunswick Corporation, R. Chaun - "Experimental Studies on Pyrolysis

Aerosols and Fire Detectors".

Princeton Univeristy, F. Dryer and R. Santoro - "An Experimental

Investigation of Flame Spread Over Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase

Interactions"

.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, P. Pagni - "Fire Modeling".

California Institute of Technology, E. E. Zukoski - "Experimental Study

of Environmental and Heat Transfer in a Room Fire".

University of California (San Diego), F. J. Williams - "Studies of Flame

Extinction in Relationship to Fire Suppression".

Harvard University/Factory Mutual Research Corporation, H.W. Emmons and

R. Friedman - "The Home Fire Project".

Princeton University, I. Classman - "Smoldering Combustion Studies".

Brown University, M. Sibulkin - "Flame Propagation and Extinction for

Solid Fuels".

University of Notre Dame, K. T. Yang - "Fire and Smoke Spread".

27
FIRE TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Staff

Merritt M. Birky, Head

Maya Paabo, Research Chemist

Barbara C. Levin, Research Biologist

James E. Brown, Research Chemist

Susan E. Womble, Chemist

Dolores Malek, Guest Worker/JHU

Greg Smith, SPI Research Associate

Alan Stolte, Student

Program Objective

The objective of research in fire toxicology is to reduce human fire

losses from inhalation of toxic combustion products by providing test

methods and recommended practices for predicting and reducing the hazard.

Project Areas

1. The development of a toxicity test method.

2. The correlation of small scale toxicity test system

with large scale fire experiments.

3. The identification of specific toxic products in thermal

degradation products.

4. The development of a gas generator to calibrate portable

"sniffers" to be used for arson investigations (Arson).

1. Development of Toxicity Test Method

An i nterl aboratory evaluation (ILE) has been initiated to evaluate the

adequacy of a proposed toxicity test protocol. The ILE involves nine

laboratories in which 12 materials will be evaluated. Each laboratory

will test Douglas fir (the reference material) and 4 other materials.

The nine laboratories are represented in an Ad-hoc committee established

to critique the proposed combustion toxicity test method.

The test method is designed to identify those materials that produce

"unusually" toxic and/or supertoxic combustion products. It is generally

agreed within the ad-hoc toxicity group that a material that produces an

28
atmosphere that is 100 times more toxic than Douglas fir should be

classified as supertoxic. A definition of unusually toxic has not been

agreed to at this time. Similarly, the use of incapacitation in the

test method is still under discussion.

Plans are to finish the experimental work on the ILE in mid-July, 1980.

Preliminary analytical and toxicological data from various laboratories

are encouraging and suggest that the July milestone is reasonable although

unforeseen difficulties could delay this.

Considerable amount of planning is going into relating the toxicity data

obtained from the test method to a hazard assessment. That is, the

potential hazard associated with the use of a given material is not

limited or determined by the toxicity of the combustion products from

this material. The hazard must take into account not only toxicity but

such parameters as ignitabil ity, flame spread, heat release, smoke, etc.

Incorporation of these parameters into a hazard index is the desired

goal

.

2. Correlation of Small Scale Toxicity Test System with Large

Scale Fire Experiments

A project has been initiated to carry out large scale (room size)

experiments to determine if the products generated in the toxicity test

system are representative of large scale fires. For this project, the

principal scenarios that lead to loss of life have been selected for the

initial experiments. Thus, self-smoldering of cotton and flexible

polyurethane will be studied. Initially, this study will involve a chemical analysis of products from the self-smoldering of these materials

in a large room. These results will be compared to the results from the

small scale protocol system in which the samples are thermally degraded

in a furnace. Later experiments will involve flaming combustion.

Validation of the analytical results will be made with animal exposures.

3. Identification of Specific Toxic Products

I

; The toxicity of thermal degradation products from materials containing

j chlorine in the structure, such as poly(vinylchloride) (PVC) is frequently attributed to compounds such as phosgene. For example,

individuals in the fire services report unique toxicological problems

that have been attributed to fires involving vinyls. As a result of

1 these factors, a study was undertaken to determine if phosgene is produced

during the thermal degradation of PVC.

I Three types of experiments were performed to approximate scenarios in

' which PVC is involved. They are:

!

I 29
1. thermal degradation of PVC in a furnace,

2. electrical over-loading of wire insulated

with PVC, and

3. electrical arcing between wires coated with PVC.

Minor concentrations (less than 10 ppm) of phosgene were identified in

the first two scenarios. In the third scenario, concentrations in the

order of 50 ppm have been identified.

4.

Development of Gas Generator (Arson)

Combustible gas detectors, frequently referred to as "sniffers" are often used in on-the-scene fire investigations as the first step to

ascertain the presence of accelerants in cases where arson is suspected.

At the present time, a standard technique does not exist for the calibration of such detectors. As a result, a gas generator is being

developed to be used for the calibration of combustible gas detectors.

The accelerant gas generator will be used to establish a performance

standard for the evaluation of the sensitivity and selectivity of

detectors

.

Four organic compounds have been chosen as calibration gases. They

are; hexane, isooctane, toluene and o-xylene. These four compounds

were initially chosen as a result of their prevalence as components in

gasoline and other accelerants. Vapor pressure was also an important

consideration since the more volatile compounds are not likely to be

present after a fire has occurred. Preliminary measurements are in

progress using these four compounds, although the generation system

can be used for other compounds as desired.

Associated Grants

Johns Hopkins University - APL, W. Berl & B. Halpin"Fire Casualty Study"

University of Utah, J. Futrell & D. Farrar-"Toxicological Evaluation of

Material Combustion Products"

Johns Hopkins University, Z. Annau-"Eval uation of Toxicity of Combustion

Products

University of Pittsburgh, Y. A1 arie-"Toxici ty of Plastic Combustion

Products"

University of Arizona, W. Clayton-"Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several Polymeric Materials"

30
PRODUCT FLAMMABILITY RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

James H. Winger, Head

Emil Braun, Physicist

John F, Krasny, Textile Technologist

Joseph J. Loftus, Research Chemist

David J. Mitchell, Mechanical Engineer

Richard D. Peacock, Chemical Engineer

Lee R. Smith, Physicist

Rita M. Perkins, Research Associate

Program Objectives

The program objective is to develop and apply technology to reduce fire

losses associated with the use of products by working through regulatory

agencies and voluntary standards and codes.

Project Areas

1 . Mine Fire Safety

The objective is to develop effective test methods, standards, and

operating procedures to reduce fire losses in underground coal mines.

The accident data have been reviewed and analyzed and fire scenarios

developed for several products and systems. The existing fire tests

for hydraulic fluids and conveyor belts have been reviewed, and appro

priate tests are under development. Review of fire tests for explosion containment, fluid-filled electrical devices, and brattice cloth

have started. Future items to be reviewed include hoses, intrinsic

safety, electrical cables, etc. A recommended procedure and supporting doc\imentation will be prepared for each product area and submitted to the Mine Safety and Health Administration.

2 . Fuelwood Fire Safety

The objective is to develop methods and procedures to assure adequate

fire safety when wood is used as a fuel in residences and small Indus

tries. The literature, model codes, and tests for the fire safety of

wood-burning appliances have been reviewed, and a report has been pub

lished. An experimental program based on the review has been started

Recommended code changes and test procedures will be provided to the

Department of Energy and the model code organizations.

31
3. Textiles

The objective is to reduce fire losses due to the ignition and burning of textile products. A standard for cigarette ignition of upholstered fiarniture has been recommended to the Consumer Product Safety

Commission (CPSC) . Technical support is being provided to the CPSC

staff as documentation is prepared to support a decision by the CPSC

Commissioners

A new standard for the flammability of general apparel has been recom- mended to the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Technical support

is being provided to the CPSC staff.

A standard for the flammability of flight crew uniforms has been recom- mended to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) . Technical support

is being provided to the FAA as they prepare a proposed rule.

The capabilities for apparel fabrics to provide some protection from

an existing fire is under investigation. Various test concepts and

procedures are under evaluation as well as the performance of various

fabrics in these procedures.

32
FURNISHINGS FLAMMABILITY RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Sanford Davis, Head

Vytenis Babrauskas, Fire Protection Engineer

David D. Evans, Mechanical Engineer

Program Objectives

The primary goals of the Furnishings Flammability Research are to assess

the hazards of furnishings and building contents involved in fires and

to provide the methodology for predicting these hazards based on smallscale laboratory tests and analytical models. A number of projects are

in progress relating to interior furnishing products and their impact on the environment during a fire. (As a consequence of the floor covering

work over the past years, a similar approach has been used for attic

floor insulation, primarily used for retrofit applications. The people

movers project relates to past transportation vehicle programs and their

kinship to the room fire problems.)

Project Areas

1. Institutional Mattress Fire Hazard Test Development

Results of full-scale mattress burns were reported two years ago. Since

then, a number of bench-scale tests were conducted to develop a procedure for predicting full-scale performance. A tentative test procedure

has been developed containing two parts: a rate of heat release test

using the new NBS calorimeter and a smoke specific extinction area test,

based on measurements in the NBS smoke density chamber. For commercial

laboratory usage, studies are under way to determine if an oxygen

depletion measurement ±\ the Ohio State University calorimeter could be

related to the NBS calorimeter values. It should be noted that the

development addresses solely the problem of flaming mattress ignition

in institutional environments; current Federal regulations for resistance to ignition from smolcering cigarettes are judged sufficient for

residential applications.

2. Burn Room Sensitivity Study

Analysis of room burn test data and subsequent design use are often

hampered by the lack of closed-form, approximate expressions for the

effects of different variables. This problem is especially evident

for the time-to-f lashover , a most important hazard indicator, which

currently cannot be estimated. A set of approximate functional

relationships are needed that would enable time-to-f lashover and other

fire variables to be predicted, knowing fuel, room, and geometric

33
conditions. To this end, a series of test burns and numerical simulations are being conducted using a simulated pool fire, which represents

the simplest quantifiable fuel arrangement.

3. Furniture Combustion Studies

A number of related activities fall into the general area of characterizing the details of furniture combustion. A series of various pieces

of furniture were burned in an ignition modeling configuration. This

consists of two parts: (1) Burning of full-sized furniture in the

open to provide a radiant flux map and burning rate data, and (2) tests

of small specimens in a modified ISO ignition apparatus. Taken

together, these data will permit analytical estimates of whether nearby

furniture items will be ignited from the first burning item.

On a more detailed level, work has been resumed on developing a horizontal, uniform flux, linear flame spread test apparatus. Also, flame

spread measurements are being set up to be measured in idealized

sectional mockups of upholstered furniture.

4. Parsons Table Fire Hazard Evaluation

The data from a series of eighteen room fires, each involving a single

plastic Parsons table as the only combustible item of furniture, were

studied in an effort to assess the hazards of these products and to

find correlations between the results from small laboratory and large

room fire tests for the different table materials tested. Very good

predictions of the total amount of smoke produced by the burning tables

and rate of smoke production were made using the table weight loss

data from the room fire tests and laboratory smoke chamber measurements

of the mass optical density (MOD) for the table materials. The predictions of full-scale smoke generation using MOD smoke numbers with

examples from the Parsons tables tests are Included in the report "A

Discussion of Smoke Chamber Data Reduction" currently under MBS review.

5. Television Receivers

A study to characterize ignition sources within a television receiver was recently completed. Four late model television receivers were

studied. Selected locations within the circuitry were stressed by

introducing full or partial short circuits to simulate the failure of

electronic components. The temperature and increased power dissipation

generated by short-circuited components were recorded. Although com- ponent temperatures greater than 500°C were achieved, no flaming

ignition sources were generated.

For comparative purposes the energy release rate of the ignition source specified in the UL 1410 test procedure was measured. Supplemental

measurements on the operating temperatures of chassis components under

varying ventilation conditions were also made.

34
A final report, Tech Note 1109, "Characterization of Electrical Ignition

Sources Within Television Receivers" will be issued soon.

6. Automated Fixed Guideway Vehicles

The fire safety aspects of mass transportation vehicles used in fixed

guideway systems had not been vigorously studied. The purpose of this

project is to explore and formulate the fire safety guidelines to be

required for automated vehicles used for the movement of people in

congested urban areas. The results of this effort are needed to set

reasonable requirements on the systems to be deployed in several cities

under the Urban Mass Transportation Administration's "Downtown People

Mover" (DPM) program. By reviewing existing systems similar to those

that are expected to be used in the DPM program, scenarios have been

formulated in order to establish the minimum levels of fire safety of

the vehicles for several types of DPM systems. In addition to the

materials and methods of construction, the interior finish materials,

the means of fire detection and suppression, size of vehicles, accessibility, and operational environment have been considered for preparing

these fire safety guidelines.

7. Cellulosic Loose-Fill Insulation

Activity related to fire performance testing of cellulosic insulation

has been primarily for technical support for the Consumer Product

Safety Commission (CPSC) interim standard for this product. Two

interlaboratory programs have been completed. One program established

that the reproducibility of the Attic Floor Radiant Panel Test (AFRPT)

proposed for use by CPSC in the standard is 20.5 percent. The other

program to evaluate the ASTM E 84 Tunnel test found the reproducibility

of the tunnel test for cellulosic insulation is 35.2 percent.

Large-scale attic mock-up b^rns were performed to determine if materials

rated at or above 0.12 W/cm critical radiant flux in the AFRPT would

resist flame spread under simulated summer attic conditions.

8.

Thermally Insulated Wiring Systems

The steady-state operating temperatures for the jacket of electric

cables was calculated for the simplified case of a cable buried axially

in a cylinder of thermal insulation. These calculations show that

thermally insulated electric cables carrying the rated current can exceed the 60°C or 75°C operating temperature limit for the cable jacket

material.

35
Associated Grants

1. IITRI, R. Pape and T. Waterman - "Pre-Flashover Room Fire Model

Parameter Sensitivity Analysis and Development of a Sub-model for

Burning Items".

2. FMRC, A. Tewarson - "Determination of Fuel Parameters for Fire

Modeling"

36
CONSTRUCTION FIRE RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

William J. Parker, Head

Billy T. Lee, Fire Protection Engineer

Lionel A. Issen, General Engineer

Jin B. Fang, Chemical Engineer

William D. Walton, Fire Protection Engineer

David P. Klein, Fire Protection Engineer

James R. Lawson, General Physical Scientist

David L. Chamberlain, Research Associate

David C. Jeanes, Research Associate

James R. Beyreis, Presidential Interchange Executive

Olivier J. Carret, Guest Worker

Program Objectives

The objective of the Construction Fire Research Proaram is to reduce

the probability of the growth and spread of a -Pire and its combustion

products in a building by developing fire test methods and acceptance

criteria for construction materials and assemblies.

Project Areas

1. Fire Test Standards

The objective of this project is to develop laboratory '^ire test

methods for evaluating the potential fire hazards of construction

materials. The fire properties of concern are ignitability , heat

release rate, flame spread, and smoke. The approach is to develop

appropriate fire test methods, to perform interlaboratory evaluations

of such tests, to make recommendations for performance standards and

test criteria, fire performance and to participate actively in standards

committee work of ASTM, NFPA, ISO, GIB, and government wide aroups

Studies of the heat release rates of construction materials are being

conducted with the NBS research calorimeter. This instriament is

capable of measuring the simultaneous heat and mass loss rates of

vertical specimens 12 x 12 inches and horizontal specimens 6 x 12 inches

at radiant fluxes up to 8 W/cm In addition , a new type of calorimeter

is being developed whereby the measurement of heat release rate is based

on the rate of oxygen consumed by the burning material. The heat release

rate of combustible construction is also being measured in a -^urnace

conforming to the ASTM E 119 standard, using the oxygen depletion technique. A new flame spread test is being developed for studying lateral

flame spread on a vertical surface as a function of the material '

surface temperature and of the velocity, temperature and oxygen content

37
of the air flowing across the material surface. Material testing is

continuing with the NBS ease of ignition test by flame impingement.

This latter test has been submitted for consideration as a standard test

for ignitability of interior finish materials. The proiect leader is

W. J. Parker and the other CFR investigator is J. R. Lawson. The

professional personnel include D. L. Chamberlain, research associate ^rom

National Forest Products Association, and O. J. Garret, guest worker

from France.

2. Fire Spread and Growth

The objective of this project is to evaluate the potential for fire

spread and growth in various occupancies in terms of the materials of

construction, the combustible contents, the building design and the

probable ignition sources. The approach consists of (a) developing

analytical models of fire growth based on heat and mass balance

considerations which take into account the spread of flame over the

combustible interior finish materials and their heat release rates,

(b) running full-scale fire tests for validation of these models, and

(c) conducting reduced scale fire tests, which permit verification of

the model for many more combinations of parameters at considerable

savings in time and money. The project leader is W. D. Walton. The

other professional investigator is J. R. Beyreis, Presidential Interchange Executive from Underwriters Laboratories.

3. Prison Cell Room Fire Study

The objective of this project is to determine the rate of heat production of a prison cell with a representative fire loading under different

ventilation conditions. The approach is to determine the total rate

of heat produced by the fire from the measurement of the oxygen

content and volume flow rate of the exhaust gases. A series of five room fire tests are planned to investigate the burning behavior of the

combustible contents as a function of ignition location and three

different size doorway openings. The individual fuel items will be

burned on a weight loss platform positioned directly under the exhaust

collector hood in order to provide the input data on the rate of heat

release to an analytical model which will be used to predict the total

rate of heat production in the cell. The project leader is B. T. Lee.

4. Structural Fire Endurance

The objective of this project is to predict the fire endurance of

structural building components under typical fire exposure conditions

using thermal and structural analysis and to verify it with full-scale

tests. The basic analytical approach is to combine thermal analysis

and structural analysis programs which include elasto-plastic material

properties. A literature review is underway to determine the stateof-the-art capability of available analytical methods used for predicting the performance of steel structures exposed to fire and to identify

the deficient areas where analytical work and/or experimental verification

38
are needed. Much of this project has been carried out through the

Center for Building Technology at NBS , the Portland Cement Association

and the University of California at Berkeley. The project leader is

L. A. Issen. The other professional investigator is D. C. Jeanes,

Research Associate from the American Iron and Steel Institute.

5. Fire Endurance of Floor Constructions

The objective of this project is to develop a test procedure for

evaluating the fire endurance of floor assemblies in residences and to

recommend rational performance criteria for protected and unprotected

load-bearing components. The approach is to conduct Full-scale fire

tests in a simulated basement recreation room using modern furniture

with a typical fire load for that type of room. A series of 16 tests

with varying room size, interior finish, and ventilation conditions

has been completed. The fire was started with a newspaper on a couch

with polyurethane cushions. The temperatures, heat fluxes and pressures recorded during those tests will provide the basis for the

specification of a new fire endurance test. The time-temperature curve

and the pressures will be duplicated in a gas-fired ASTM E 119 type

furnace and several types of floor constructions will be tested and the

failure times will be compared with those obtained by the present ASTM

E 119 test. An analytical prediction capability for fire growth is

being developed along with the experimental testing. The project leader

is J. B. Fang.

6. Fire Safety in Mobile Homes

The objective of this project is to document the effect of interior

finish materials on fire growth and spread and on the attainment of

untenable conditions in mobile homes in order to provide a rational

basis for regulating these materials. The approach is to conduct

full-scale fire tests on single-wide mobile homes using upholstered

chairs and 14 lb wood cribs as ignition sources in various areas of

the mobile home. The chair is a realistic source of ignition which

will not lead to full involvement of the mobile home in the absence of

combustible interior finish while the wood crib provides a relatively

reproducible ignition source of smaller size. Temperatures, heat

fluxes, smoke densities, and gas concentrations are monitored throughout the mobile home. The interior finish materials are characterized by

their ASTM E 84 tunnel rating, heat release rate, time to icnition in

the ease of ignition test, and the smoke density in the NBS Smoke Density

Chamber.

Work is now in progress in duplicating the essential features of the

full-scale test results using reduced scale modeling and in attempting

to deduce the results by analytical prediction techniques. The

project leader is D. P. Klein.

39
7. Shipboard Fire Research

The objective of this project is to evaluate the potential fire hazard

of shipboard and submarine hull insulations and to improve the application of laboratory fire tests for screening compartment lining

materials. The approach is to subject the variety of shipboard and

submarine hull insulations, some of which are protected with fire

resistant materials, to laboratory fire tests on ignitability , flame

spread, rate of heat release, and potential heat. The performance of

these insulations are then examined in quarter and full-scale compartment

fires. By comparing the time to flashover or the maximum temperature

reached in the full size compartment with the results of the laboratory

fire test methods improved acceptance criteria for materials can be

derived. By comparing the performance of the material between the

full and reduced scale fire tests, the usefulness of the auarter-scale

model as a screening tool can be evaluated. At the same time analytical

and experimental studies are being carried out to improve the ability

of the quarter-scale model to predict full-scale fire behavior. The

project leader is B. T. Lee.

8. Fire Tests of Marine Construction

The objective of this project is to develop a surface flammability

test for bulkhead and deck finish materials in order to determine

their suitability for use in marine construction. The test provides

information on the ignitability, flame spread and heat release rate

properties of the materials. The effects of the incident radiant flux

distribution, the orientation of the specimen, and the details of the

piloting on the measured flammability properties are being investigated.

Data are being gathered on a wide range of materials as background for

the running of an interlaboratory evaluation and the preparation of a test standard. The project leader is A. F. Robertson*.

9. Fire Hazards of Insulation in Residential Occupancies

The objectives of this project are: 1) to identify and determine the

magnitude of the various fire risks associated with the use of particular

types of insulation, 2) to recommend, and develop where necessary, the

laboratory fire tests needed to control the use, 3) to determine the

reproducibility of the fire tests between laboratories, 4) to provide

data on the fire properties for generic types of insulation considered

for use in the basements, wall cavities and attics of buildings, and

5) to recommend acceptance criteria suitable for adoption in the building

codes. The project leader is L. A. Issen. The other CFR investigator

is J. R. Lawson.

* S enior Scientist attached to CFR Center office.

40
Associated Grants

University of California (Berkeley) , Robert Brady Williamson - "Fire

Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire Test"

SRI International, Stanley B. Martin - "Effect of Retardants on the

Heat Release Rate of Building Materials"

Portland Cement Association, Melvin S. Abrams - "Short Term Creep

Tests at Elevated Temperatures"

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Robert Berhinig - "Measurement of Air

Flow Around Doors Under Standardized Fire Test Conditions"

41
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Edward K. Budnick, Head

Richard G. Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Richard W. Bukowski, Research Engineer

Warren D. Hayes, Fire Prevention Engineer

John G. O'Neill, Fire Prevention Engineer

John H. Klote , Mechanical Engineer

Program Objectives

In the event of a fire, certain fire protection systems are relied upon

to: 1) alert the occupants prior to the attainment of conditions adverse

to human safety, and 2) to actively prohibit or reduce the growth and

spread of the fire and combustion products. The overall objective of

this program is to provide research and engineering technology for such

systems. To this end the program is divided into three areas of con- centration: automatic fire detection, automatic fire suppression, and

smoke control

.

Specific aspects such as engineering design, installation, performance

and reliability requirements are being studied for these fire protection

systems in pursuit of overall design technology and appropriate test

methods upon which to judge system capabilities. In addition, the

development of design criteria and installation guidelines leading to

subsequent reductions in costs plays a key role in the development of

this technology.

Project Areas

1. Automatic Fire Detection: Considerable research is ongoing in

this program to identify the key parameters and conditions which

must be considered when measuring the performance of detection

devices. Extensive full-scale and laboratory testing is being

utilized as the basis for the identification process and will be

extended to support program efforts to develop standard tests for

measuring detector performance. Current activities also include

studies on the arousal potential of state-of-the-art detector

alarms and the reliability of detector components and systems.

Much of the technology developed in this program is inputed directly

to U.S. and international standards groups for automatic detection.

2. Fire Detection in Health Care Facilities: This project is designed

to provide data and ultimately guidance on means of optimizing

detection system performance in health care facilities. Fullscale tests are being conducted in a simulated health care environment to pj_ovide data on performance of detectors under actual fire

42
conditions. A technical report, NBSIR 79-1739, Tests on the

Performance of Automatic Fire Detectors in Health Care Occupancies

- A Preliminary Report, has been published based on the results of

Phase I testing. Phase II is now ongoing. Field data is being

collected and analyzed to assess the performance of detection

systems currently being used in typical health care facilities. A

significant output from this project has been the development of a portable aerosol generator for use as a field tester for installed

detectors. A report, NBSIR 78-1480, "An Instrument to Evaluate

Installed Smoke Detectors", has been published. Instruments,

based on this design, are commercially available.

3. Smoke Detector Performance in Mobile Homes: An initial phase of

this work, including full-scale detector siting tests in an actual

single-wide mobile home, has been completed. A report, NBSIR 76-

1016, "Mobile Home Smoke Detector Siting Study" has been published.

The results of this initial work provided the basis for further

experimental work in this area. Additional full-scale testing is

now being conducted to examine the effects of key environmental

conditions including air movement from both the heating and air

conditoning systems and the outside ambient conditions during

winter and summer periods.

4. Fire Detector Test Method Development: The development of a uniform and comparative test method for all types of automatic

fire detectors is ongoing. The project is separated into two areas of interest: 1) the development of environmental stress

tests, and 2) the development of a full-scale test protocol. The

first area is planned for future investigation while the bulk of

the emphasis to date and in the near future will be the development

of a full-scale fire test protocol. Current test methods have

been evaluated and a determination has been made of the most

suitable approach to be used in developing the test. A full-scale

test facility, based on this approach which is similar to the

proposed International Standards Organization (ISO) full-scale

test protocol, has been constructed. An initial experimental plan

is under development.

5. Fire Safety Technology for Rail Transport of Class A Explosives:

A stud^ is being conducted to provide technical design information

on the application of state-of-the-art fire detection and suppression equipment for protection of rail cars carrying Class A

explosives. Output from this project will include equipment

design specifications such as types and location of fire detectors,

sensitivity levels and discrimination logic, design specifications

for a low-pressure water fog nozzle, piping networks, and water

supply/pressurization systems and the evaluation of passive structural protection such as flammability inhibiting fire retardant

coatings

43
6 . Automatic Fire Suppression: A great demand exists for technology

advancement for automatic fire suppression systems. Efforts in

this area have been directed toward full-scale performance testing

under varying conditions and exposure fires. Initial work included

an experimental study to develop design criteria for the use of

automatic sprinklers for the protection of corridors from fires

beginning in adjacent rooms with open doorways for multi-family and

care-type facilities. Work has also been done to develop water

distribution mapping techniques, factors affecting the geometric

distribution of water from sprinklers, statistical parameters of

water droplet populations from sprinklers as a function of pressure

and deflector design, and the use of sprinklers in health care facilities

.

In addition to this long range work, continuous efforts are made to

assist in the development of U.S. and international standards for

automatic sprinkler systems and components. This work has included

analysis of water distribution patterns, K-factor (coefficient

related to orifice pressure and flow rate) measurement techniques,

and mechanical safety factors applied to sprinkler devices.

7. Fire Tests of Patient Rooms with Automatic Sprinklers: The objective

of this study is to provide engineering design information on health care facilities incorporating automatic sprinklers. The

effectiveness of sprinklers is being measured in terms of overall

fire control, time available for evacuation, and the maintenance of

tenable conditions for patients who cannot be evacuated. Current

nationally used fire safety design criteria for health care facilities are being specifically examined from the viewpoints of

life safety of the occupants and cost efficiency of system designs.

Phase I tests were conducted between August and November 1977 and a report of these tests, NBSIR 79-1749, Full-Scale FjLre Tests with

Automatic Sprinklers in a Patient Room, has been published. This

phase of the test series developed important information on the

movement and concentration of selected combustion gases throughout

the test space.

Phase II tests, scheduled for completion in 1979, will examine

variations in water flow rates and nozzle pressures of sprinklers.

Improved techniques will be utilized to measure smoke movement and

concentration in a corridor adjacent to the room of fire origin.

8. Sprinkler Protection of Open Stairways: The objective of this

study is to develop engineering design information for alternative

methods of protecting open stairways using sprinkler and spray

nozzle systems. This work is designed to refine and update test

results dating back to the 1940 's which serve as the basis for

methods currently used in the National Fire Protection Association

44
(NFPA) sprinkler and life safety codes. A propane burner serves

as the energy source and currently is operated at two heat release

rates, 5.5 and 13. 6M Btu/hr (- 1500 and 4000 KW) . Performance

curves will be developed for these systems to indicate their

capacity to inhibit passage of combustion gases into the stairway

resulting from the convective heat flow from the burner. In

addition, design information for these systems will be developed.

Experimental full-scale testing was conducted in a specifically

constructed four story facility.

In support of this work a report entitled NBSIR 78-1571, SprinklerVent and Spray Nozzle Systems for Fire Protection of Openings in

Fire Resistive Walls and Ceilings - The State-of-the-Art and a Plan for Future Research Work, has been published. A technical

report will be published, upon completion of the analysis of the

full-scale experimental work.

9. Smoke Control Systems: The smoke control project has been in

operation for a number of years. During that time the work has

developed along two parallel and now converging directions.

Initially work was done with simple computer modeling of smoke

movement in buildings. This effort builds upon the work of the

National Research Council of Canada and others. At the same time

field tests were conducted in actual office, apartment and hospital

buildings using sulfur-hexafluoride tracer gas to study the movement of simulated smoke under a variety of mechanical systems and

climatic conditions. Included in the field work were several

studies of buildings equipped with smoke control systems. In each

case the building was evaluated both with and without the smoke

control system in operation. This allowed for comparison of the

relative effectiveness of the systems compared to a building

without any smoke control. More recently, the output from the

field survey program has been combined with a sophisticated com- puter program designed to predict the movement of air in a building

as influenced by an air handling system. The result has been the

generation of a computer-based design methodology for smoke control.

Work has also been done to compare the results of sulfur-hexafluoride

smoke movement studies to actual movement of smoke in dwellings.

This work demonstrated a qualitative correlation between the

simulated smoke and real smoke. Future work will involve the

development of smoke control methodologies for residential application.

The primary output mechanisms for the results of this research is

through additions or changes to various voluntary standards including NFPA and the American Society of Heating, Regrigerating and

Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards.

45
10. Field Investigations of Smoke Control Designs: Field tests have

been conducted using the sulfur-hexafluoride (SF 0 ) tracer gas

technique to determine smoke flow patterns in various types of

occupancies, including office, apartment and health care facilities.

One recent investigation was conducted in the NIH Clinical Center

in Bethesda, MD, in which both winter and summer conditions were

tested. The objective of these tests was to gain understanding of

smoke flow in buildings under normal operations, and under operation

of the smoke control systems. A draft report is in NBS review.

11. Field Studies of Stairwell Pressurization Systems: The use of

stairwell pressurization systems has grown in the U.S. over recent

years. Field tests, including sulfur-hexafluoride (SF 0 ) tracer

gas tests, pressure-velocity tests, and smoke candle tests have

been conducted in buildings in Nashville, Tennessee which incorporate multiple injection systems. The results of the field tests

have been analyzed and a draft report is in NBS review.

As an adjunct to this project a computer based model is being

developed to simulate smoke migration in stairwells having pressurization systems. It is anticipated that this model will provide

a useful tool for the design of stairwell pressurization systems

in multistory buildings. A progress report of this effort is

anticipated in early 1980.

12. Smoke Movement in Merchant Ships: This project will extend the use of the SF 0 technique to study the smoke flow patterns aboard a merchant marine ship in order to provide recommended guidelines

for smoke control in such vessels. The project is currently in

the planning stage.

13. Computer Modeling of Smoke: Two computer programs designed to

model smoke movement in buildings have been developed under contract

to Integrated Systems Inc. (ISI) . One of the programs, designed

to evaluate steady-state conditions, has been verified by field

test results. Verification of the unsteady- state model is currently

being pursued. These programs will serve as a basis upon which to

develop a methodology for analysis of building designs in order to

optimize the design of the smoke control systems.

Associated Grants

University of Massachusetts (Amherst) , E. H. Nober - "Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke and Fire Detection Devices".

46
DESIGN CONCEPTS RESEARCH

FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Harold Nelson, Head

Bernard M. Levin, Research Psychologist

A. Jeffrey Shibe, Operations Research Analyst

Leonard Y. Cooper, Research Fire Protection Engineer

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Program are to synthesize and integrate research

and technology to develop technically based rational approaches towards

providing safety from fire in buildings of various types of usage; and

to provide operating mechanisms for using these approaches in setting

fire safety requirements in these facilities.

Project Areas

1. HEW-NBS Life/Fire Safety Program (Health Care Facilities)

The objectives of the HEW-NBS Life/Fire Safety Program are to develop

technically based rational approaches towards providing safety from fire

in health care facilities; and to develop an operating mechanism for

using this approach in establishing rational and feasible fire safety

features in these facilities. The mechanisms are to be usable by those

expected to apply them, acceptable to both the federal and nonfederal

authorities, and creditable in terms of applied engineering science and

techni ques

.

The program is targeted towards the needs of HEW, voluntary standards

organizations, state and local regulatory authorities, and practicing

architects/engineers, facility operators and health care providers. The

program outputs are directed at providing management tools for setting

approved fire safety requirements, technical design data and guides for

architects, fire protection engineers and others involved in the process

of design of cost effective means of fulfilling safety objectives.

Specific proposals and recommendations for the revision or improvement

of fire safety codes, regulation, standards and advances in the stateof-the-art of applied fire protection engineering and fire technology

are also provided.

The current phase of the program is of 5 years duration. Over 4 years

of this period have been completed. Some significant accomplishments

under the auspices of this program include:

A. The development of a fire safety evaluation system for grading the

equivalency of alternative approaches to fire safety and health

care facilities.

47
B. The development of a 16 millimeter sound film entitled, "FLASHOVERPoint of No Return," directed at training nursing staffs in optimum

fire safety actions to protect patients in case of fire.

C. The extensive collection of information and data and related investigations on the behavior of staff and residents/patients at time

of fire emergency.

D. The development of a cost comparison model for determining cost

effective alternative approaches to fire safety in health care facilities .

E. The development of a simulation model of emergency movement by oc- cupants of buildings during fire exposure.

F. The extensive studies on the capabilities and limitations of speccialized fire protection equipment such as smoke detectors and

automatic sprinklers relevant to their use in health care facilities.

G. The participation in and the support of significant test and re- search activities in detection, extinguishment, and the development

of smoke control models and design tools.

A number of intermediate research programs are still underway in this

program. In addition to summarizing the data produced, an attempt will

be made to assemble the material and information as an overall, logical

guide for those involved in making fire safety, regulatory, or related

design decisions. Future work in this area will emphasize the resolution of design problems related to the individual subsystem and elements

of health care facilities.

2. HEW/NBS Life/Fire Safety Program (Group Homes for the Developmentally Disabled)

A recent development in the care of the mentally retarded (and other

developmental ly disabled persons) is to provide for their custodial care in small home-like facilities in the community rather than in large

remote institutions. Life/fire safety requirements have not been specifically developed for these types of facilities so the responsible

authorities are using regulations designed for other purposes including

the NFPA Life Safety Code standards for private homes, boarding houses

and hospitals. The objective of this project is to develop life/fire

safety performance criteria specifically geared for these group homes.

This 39-month project started in July 1977. During the familiarization

phase of the project, over 50 group homes were visited; detailed information about the facilities and the residents was obtained for 9 of

them. A report has been published on the "Behavioral and Physical

Characteristics of Developmental ly Disabled Individuals." (NBS-GCR-79-

167).

48
The approach is to develop a variation and modification of the Fire

Safety Evaluation System. This system will permit flexibility in the

selection of fire safety features and the fire protection requirements

will depend, in part, on the level of capabilities of the residents. The

criteria will be developed with the advice of experts throughout the

country

.

A preliminary version of the evaluation system is now under development.

Review and testing of the system will start later in 1979 and the system

will be modified as needed based on the field tests and the comments of

the reviewers.

3. OSHA/NBS Means of Egress Study

The objective of this project is to investigate the state-of-the-art; to

conduct experiments to establish an improved data base, providing a basis for hazard assessment approaches; and to determine specific engineering solutions relevant to yielding emergency escape criteria for means of egress arrangements. The effort includes: 1) an assessment of

the state-of-the-art literature on the human factors relating to emer- gency egress in buildings; 2) a review and analysis of the current state

of technology theories and test data involved in the growth of fire,

controlling factors, and the speed and distribution of effects that

interfere with or terminate the ability to escape from fire; 3) physical

experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of water spray and/or draft

arrangements to protect open stairwells and similar open floor penetrations; and 4) investigations towards the development of procedures to

determine the smoke restricting capability of various qualities of

stairwell doors.

The program, initially intended for two years, has been extended an additional year. The literature analysis of emergency egress has been

completed and a report entitled "A Critical Assessment of the Technical

Literature on Emergency Egress From Buildings" has been authored by

Mr. Fred Stahl of the NBS Center for Building Technology. Tests have

been conducted on a full size open stairwell test facility at NBS and,

in cooperation with Underwriters Laboratories, tests have been initiated

to evaluate a shroud method (ISO approach) for using the standard door

furnace in a positive mode to determine leakage rate through fire doors

during the course of fire exposure.

A p ractical technique for estimating safe available egress times for

workspaces subsequent to the detection of fires is being developed.

This will be done by applying the best current knowledge of fire growth

and smoke spread phenomenology, and by taking account of detector and

alarm capabilities, as well as human tolerances to products of combustion (smoke).

4. Multi-Family Housing Life/Fire Safety Evaluation System

The objective of this project is the development of a fire safety evaluation system applicable to existing multi-family housing. The system

will be designed to evaluate equivalency of alternative fire safety ap49
proaches as compared to the normal requirements of the Department of

Housing and Urban Development Minimum Property Standards.

The 18-month project was initiated in FY 1979. The evaluation system

will be based on the relevance of the various elements of building

design to the performance objectives of fire safety (e.g. prevention of

ignition, litigation of fire development capability, confinement of

fire, detection and extinguishment, and escape and rescue). A working

tool that may be used as an alternative to the existing explicit re- guirements will be developed.

5. Life/Fire Safety Evaluation Manual -Inmate Housing and Confinement

Facilities In Penal Occupancies

The purpose of this project is to develop a fire safety evaluation

system and supporting manuals to determine the relative level of safety

in inmate housing facilities in prisons and similar penal institutions.

The approach will be modeled after the other types of fire safety evaluation systems prepared or underway by the program. The project scheduled for 1 1/2 years duration, was initiated in mid 1979. The project

has been extended to include full scale test of the rate-of-energy

release of fully involved prison cells.

6. Extra-CFR Activities

A major portion of the activities of Design Concepts Research are con- ducted outside of Center for Fire Research. These include:

Center for Building Technology, NBS.

1. "Simulation of Human Behavior in Fires: a Computer Model",

Fred I . Stahl .

2. "Fire Safety in High Rise Buildings: The Rule of Communications", Arthur Rubin and Robert Glass.

3. "System for Cost Comparison of Fire Safety Alternatives",

Robert Chapman.

4. "The Evacuation of Nonambulatory Patients From Hospital and

Nursing Home Fires", John Archea.

5. "Time-based Provisions for Emergency Escape in Public Occupancy

Buildings", Fred I. Stahl.

Center for Consumer Product Technology, NBS .

1. "Arousal From Sleep By Emergency Alarms", V. Pezoldt and H. VanCott

.

2. "Safe Environments for the Developmental ly Disabled", Ann

Ramey- Smith and John Fechter.

50
Associated Grants

1. Loyola University of Chicago, Leonard Bickman - "Behavioral Analysis

of the Life Safety Code".

2. University of Maryland, John Bryan - "The Determination of Behavior

Response Patterns in Fire Situations- Project People II"

3. "Life Cycle Cost Benefit Workbook", W. J. Griffith.

4. North Carolina State University, Richard Pearson - "Occupant

Response Variability in Escape from Residential Fires".

5. University of Florida, Richard L. Francis - "Network Models of

Building Evacuation".

51
AD HOC WORKING GROUP ON MATHEMATICAL FIRE MODELING

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Robert S. Levine, Chairman of Steering Committee

John A. Rockett, Chairman of Computer Committee

Irwin A. Benjamin, Chairman of Users Needs Subcommittee

James G. Quintiere, Chairman of Models Subcommittee

Note: The Modeling Committee is chaired by Professor Howard Emmons of

Harvard University, and the Subprogram Committee by John DeRis

of Factory Mutual.

A number of CFR personnel are members of the technical committees.

Program Objectives

The objectives of this committee are to facilitate the development and use of mathematical models of fire and to coordinate and facilitate

research needed to improve the models. The steering committee includes

members from other Government agencies who have influence on their

agencies’ R and D in this field. The coordination, of course, is

voluntary

Project Areas

Each applicable area is included in another Program abstract. The major

portion of the CFR effort is in the Fire Physics Research Program.

Associated Grants

1. Harvard University/Factory Mutual Research Corporation,

Howard Emmons and John DeRis - "Home Fire Project"

2. Several others as listed elsewhere

52
ARSON PROGRAM

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

Professional Personnel

Nora Jason, Technical Information Specialist

James Brown, Research Chemist

Robert Levine, Division Chief

Richard Bright, Senior Research Engineer

Bernard Levin, Research Psychologist

Program Objectives

The objectives of the Arson Program are to carry out certain specific

tasks in the U.S. anti-arson program. The overall program is coordinated by the U.S. Fire Administration in FEMA, and the Law Enforcement

Assistance Administration in the Department of Justice.

Project Areas

The CFR tasks include:

1. Preparation of a handbook for Fire Investigators (Jason and Bright)

2. A device to calibrate "Sniffers" (used by fire investigators to

detect accelerants) (Brown)

3. A consensus standard for the laboratory analysis for accelerants

(Brown, FY 1980)

4. Psychology of Arson (Levin)

Associate Grants

1. University of North Carolina> Vreeland - "Psychology of Arson"

53
Large Scale Fire Research Facilities

Center for Fire Research

Professional Staff

Daniel Gross

William H. Bailey

James S. Steel

Supervisor

Supervisory Engineering Technician

Physicist (Instrumentation)

The following large-scale testing facilities are available at the

Gaithersburg site for use by CFR programs as needed:

Building 205

This is a 60 ft. by 120 ft. test building with controlled environmental

conditions; a large smoke collection hood serves the individual experimental facilities and is connected to a large stack with afterburner.

The following facilities are contained within the building:

A room burn and smoke test facility . This is a two-story

structure, 20 ft. by 20 ft. in plan view, which may be used

for fire growth studies and for examining fire and smoke

spread through ducts, dampers, doors, etc.

A corridor test facility . This is a 12 ft. wide, 30 ft. long

corridor with several burn rooms attached which can be used

for a variety of studies, including the contribution of furnishings and interior finish as well as sprinkler performance.

A research fire resistance furnace . This furnace is designed

to meet the essential requirements of ASTM E 119 as well as to

provide for more rapid heating of walls (10 ft. by 8 ft.),

floor- ceilings (10 ft. by 8 ft.) and columns (8 ft. high).

Structural loads up to 30 tons may be applied and furnace

pressure may be adjusted from -0.05 in. to +0.15 in. water

gage. The furnace may be used to test components, innovative

constructions, and the effects of joints in wall-floor

assemblies

.

Building 205 also houses rooms for specialized calorimeters, small

furnaces, and model enclosures. Laboratories are available for keeping

and testing rats for toxicology studies in conjunction with large-scale

fire experiments. Shops, instrument rooms, and service areas are also

located in the building.

Mobile homes specially instrumented and outfitted to permit repetitive

tests of fire growth and smoke movement and detection are adjacent to

Building 205.

54
NBS Annex

This is a former DOD facility adjacent to the NBS site which is available

for special tests. It has a 3-story stair tower which can be used for

smoke spread and sprinkler studies; a dormitory building containing a

60 ft. long loaded corridor with lobbies at each end; and a large laboratory designed for smoke detector testing.

Instrumentation and Staff

Each of the facilities is equipped with automatic data recording systems

to collect a wide variety of information from the large-scale tests. A

staff of 6 technicians and an instrumentation specialist are available

to support CFR research programs. An instrumented van is available for

field testing at distant sites.

55
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CONTRACTS AND GRANTS

57

ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Brown University

Grant No : NBS Grant G7-9009

Grant Title : Flame Propagation and Extinction for Solid Fuels

Principal Investigator : Professor M. Sibulkin

Division of Engineering

Brown University

Providence, RI 02912

Other Professional Personnel : A. Kulkarni, Graduate Assistant

S. Malary, Graduate Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer: J. Rockett

Technical Abstract

The objectives of this program are to advance our understanding of

flame propagation and extinction for fuels involved in urban fires. An

understanding of the theoretical basis of flame propagation which leads

to quantitative predictions of flame spread rates is of importance in

several areas of the fire problem. A knowledge of rate of flame spread

on isolated components is necessary input information for the calculation of more complex room fire scenarios, and may be the determining

factor in the time for fire build up to hazardous conditions. A more

fundamental understanding of extinction mechanisms should enable improved methods of fire suppression to be developed more rapidly than by

wholly empirical testing. In spite of the deficiencies of small scale

tests, they continue to be essential for the materials development com- munity. Our work aims to relate the results of such tests to the test

geometry and the material properties. In the past we have examined the

effects of gas phase extinguishing agents on propagation and extinction

by a combination of experiment and mathematical analysis. Recent work

is concentrating on the extinction of burning vertical surfaces. Different hypotheses as to the controlling physical mechanisms are tested

by comparing the predicted conditions for extinction with the measured

ones. Future work will attempt to extend these efforts to other materials and to solid phase extinquishing agents.

59
Measurements on small, vertical samples of polymethyl methacrylate

(PMMA) burning in variable oxygen/nitrogen atmospheres have shown that

extinction occurs at Yq ^

= 0.18 (which is considerably below the

"Limiting Oxygen Index")’. The mass burning rate at extinction, however,

is about 70% of the burning rate at atmospheric conditions. Furthermore this decrease in burning rate can be predicted reasonably well by

simple mass-transfer theory, but such a theory gives no indication of

extinction. To investigate this situation, a mathematical analysis of

burning on a vertical wall was made. Emphasis was placed on determining the effects of heat loss by radiation from the burning surface and

of incomplete combustion on the extinction limit.

Using "local similarity" variables the laminar boundary layer

equations are transformed to a set of ordinary differential equations.

The thin flame model and Schvab-Zeldovich formulation are used; unity

Lewis number, variable density but constant Cp and py, uniform mo- lecular weight and ideal gas assumptions are made. The analysis differs

from previous work because of the inclusion of surface radiation. The

equations are solved numerically using a finite difference scheme. Results are obtained for the fuel concentration at the surface, the burning rate and the heat flux to the wall from the flame. Velocity and

temperature profiles in the boundary layer were calculated and hence

the velocity peak position and the flame standoff distance are obtained. The nondimensional surface radiation R* is treated as a parameter which can be varied from zero to any desired value.

In the adiabatic case (i.e., without the inclusion of surface ra- diation) extinction does not occur as Yq ^ is reduced although the

heat transfer to the wall and burning rate decrease as expected. When a wall radiation parameter R* = 0.23 (corresponding to a PMMA surface

temperature of 390°C) is used, extinction is predicted at Yq ^

= 0.12

for complete combustion to CO2 and H 2 O (as compared to a measured value

of Yq ^

= 0.18). When incomplete combustion to CO and H2 O is assumed,

extinction is predicted at Yq ^

= 0.18. From another viewpoint, ex- tinction is predicted to occur’at the experimentally observed value,

Yq 00 = 0.18, when the radiation parameter R* is increased to a value

corresponding to a surface temperature of 470°C with complete combustion

.

Thus it has been shown that extinction does not occur due to a lack of convective heat transfer to the burning surface. Radiative

heat loss by the surface plays an important role in promoting extinction. If combustion is incomplete, this would also significantly affect the extinction limit. Future work will extend this analysis to include the effects of finite rate chemistry on burning and extinction.

Reports and Papers :

"Ignition and flame spread tests of cellular plastics," by K Annamalai

and M. Sibulkin, J. Fire ^ Flammability 445 (1978) . Also, 1979 International Symposium on Flammability and Fire Retardants, Nashville,

TN, May 3-4, 1979.

60
"Flame spread over combustible surfaces for laminar flow systems. I. Excess fuel and heat flux," by K. Annamalai and M. Sibulkin, Comb. Sci

and Tech. 1^, 167 (1979).

"Flame spread over combustible surfaces for laminar flow systems. II.

Flame heights and fire spread rates," by K. Annamalai and M. Sibulkin,

Comb. Sci. and Tech. 19 , 185 (1979).

"Effects of N 2 and CF 3 Br on extinction of propagating and fully burning

fires," by M. Sibulkin, M. W. Little, and A. Kulkarni, J. Fire ^ Flammability 10, (1979)

61
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division

Contract No : EO-AOl-78-00-3577

Title : Experimental Studies on P3rrolytic Aerosols and Fire Detectors

Principal Investigator : Dr. Ra37mond L. Chuan

Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division

3333 Harbor Boulevard

Costa Mesa, California 92626

Other Professional Personnel : Houston D. Chen

NBS Scientific Officer : Tom Lee

Technical Abstract

The aerosols released in the course of the controlled p3rrolysis of

a standard material, a -cellulose, are studied experimentally, in terms

of their mass concentration and size distribution, in real-time, as the

pyrolysis progresses. At the same time, the responses of two types of

fire detectors - optical and ionization - are observed in relation to the

aerosol characteristics. It is found that response characteristics of

these two types of instruments are significantly different from each

other at different stages of the p3rrolysis . The optical instrument appears to respond best in an early stage of the developing fire vdien the

aerosol particles are large and are optically absorbing, ^diile the ionization detector shows better response at a later stage vdien the aerosols are smaller and are optically non-absorbing

Sane of the data from a typical test run are shown, as they were

recorded during the test, in Figure 1. These include the sample mass,

opacity (one with an NBS instrument and the other with a commercial

instrument) and the output of the MIC ionization detector. The aerosol

characteristics acquired at several points during the run are tabulated

in the figure. From the mass concentration and size distribution, the

mass median diameter and the geometric standard deviation are obtained

graphically. In all the tests, it is noted that the optical opacity

response reaches a maximum before that of the ionization detector, and

the miaxiinum is followed by a significant dip, ^ile the ionization detector continues towards a fairly broad peak. The decay in the relative

response of the ionization detector is less rapid than that of the opacity instrument.

62
63

Figure

1.

Typical

Test

Data
Attenpts have been initiated to explain these differences in instrument response characteristics, with seme success. It is noted that

semewhere during the passage frem a pre-cembustion to a transition regime, the mass median diameter goes through a fairly rapid decrease, and

the gecmetric standard deviation undergoes a correspondingly rapid in- crease. These changes are underlined in Table 1, ^Ahere it is seen that

dj^ goes from about 1 /im to 0.5>»m; and fij from about 1.5 to 2. An exam- ination of the extinction properties of aerosols will show that the

specific extinction coefficient of a white aerosol goes through a maximum at a mass median diameter of about 1 >tm; and the magnitude of the

maximum decreases with increasing cj. Thus the observed decrease in

size, coupled with the increase in <5 both tend to cause a rapid decrease

in the specific extenction. The optical onacity has been calculated,

using experimentally determined aerosol nroperties, resulting in two

values, one for a white aerosol and the other for black aerosol.

These are listed in Table 1.

In the three cases listed, it is seen that the maximum in white aerosol

opacity occurs earlier than for the black aerosol; and the calculated

v^te opacity matches better the observed opacity. There is some limited evidence from some of the tests that the aerosol acts as a black

smoke into the early part of the transition regime (which in time is

quite short) , but then changes to a white smoke

Scheidweiler* assumes that the response of an ionization detector

depends on Zd^. There are physical reasons to suggest that a better

correlation would be with Zd^2, Accordingly, both values are listed in

Table 1, again calculated from measured aerosol data. It is seen in

the table that the correlation of the MIC instrument is definitely with

Zd and not whth Zd^. This also explains the delayed maximum in the

MIC response cempared to the opacity.

As the mass median size decreases and the geometric standard deviation increases, the specific area of the aerosol increases, thus leading

to a corresponding increase in the ionization detector.

During next year's work, we plan to improve the experimental setijp

to acquire more accurate and better correlated data. It is also planned

to investigate materials other than a -cellulose.

9cScheidweiler , "The Ionization Chamber as Smoke Dependent Resistance",

Fire Technology, pp. 113 - 123, May, 1976.

64
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65

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volt
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution: California Institute of Technology

Grant No; NBS Grant G8-9014

Grant Title ; Experimental Study of the Environment and Heat

Transfer in a Room Fire

Principal Investigator : Professor Edward E. Zukoski 301-46

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, CA 91125

Other Professional Personnel; Professor Toshi Kubota

William Sargent, Ph. D. Candidate

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, CA 91125

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. John Rockett

Technical Abstract

We are investigating a number of fluid dynamic problems

associated with the pre-flashover fires in a multi-room structure.

These investigations include studies of convective heat transfer to

ceilings and wails of the fire room, and studies of the entrainment

rates of fire plumes and door jets. This work has been guided in

part by our attempt to develop a model from which fire spread

phenomena can be predicted with at least modest accuracy. We

hope to be able to use the computer model to investigate the effects

on fire spread of changes in the material properties and geometric

configuration of room furnishings including the wall, ceiling and

floor coverings, and the features of the architectural design of

buildings which directly affect the fire spread process. Our current research work is outlined in the following paragraphs.

Computer Model. We are continuing to develop a computer

model which incorporates the results of experimental work when it

becomes available. Our present efforts are directed toward the

incorporation of the convective and radiative heat transfer models

and the door mixing model as subroutines in our present computer

program. In addition, we are trying to extend the model to include a larger number of rooms and include the possibility that the

66
temperature of the cool or floor layer (of our two layer model)

can have a temperature higher than the ambient temperature. A

report covering the present revision of the program (the Third

Revision)''' will be available in August.

Experimental Program. One experimental program concerns

measurement of convective heat transfer to room ceilings early in

the fire when convective effects can be important. In order to

correlate and predict the magnitudes of these effects we must be

able to describe the velocity and temperature fields produced by a fire inside the room. The effects of fire size and location and the

geometry of a single opening on convective heat transfer have been

studied and a simple correlation has been developed. The conditions within the room have also been studied and we have found

that the simple plume models presently available do not predict

ceiling layer temperature and thickness with good accuracy.

The method used to correlate convective , heat transfer rates

is based on that described in earlier reports.' In addition, we

assume that radial symmetry exists about the plume impingement

point on the ceiling despite the rectangular shape of the room.

Despite the low wall and gas temperatures present in the early

stages of the fire, the influences of radiative transfer between solid

surfaces is relatively large and must be taken into account. For

most of our test conditions radiation from the gas phase can be

ignored.

The influence of fire location has been found to be small when

the fire is at least one diameter away from a wall, and when it is

not in the direct path of a door jet and within a few door widths

of the door. We are currently examining the effects of placing the

fire in direct contact with a wall or in the path of a strong door

jet.

One of the problems we encountered during our attempts to

model the environment produced within a room by a small fire is

that we cannot accurately describe the entrainment rate of the fire

plume. A good knowledge of this rate is required if we are to be

able to describe the environment and time scales for the preflashover fire and the convective heat transfer rates produced by the

fire.

We are making measurements of entrainment rates based on

the concept shown in the accompanying sketch. The basic idea is

that the fire plume is caught in a hood and gas is removed from

See: Reports and Papers.

Zukoski, E. E. , Kubota, T. and Veldman, C. C. "An Experimental Study of Environment and Heat Transfer in a Room Fire",

California Institute of Technology, October 1975.

67
the hood through an instrumented vent line. Under many conditions

of interest, the entrainment of cool air at the horizontal interface

(between the hood gas and the air) has been shown to be negligible.

Then a simple continuity argument shows that the plume mass flow

at the interface height Z must equal the mass flow through the

vent line. Experiments based on this approach are being carried

out now in a hood with a cross area of about 6 square meters and

a depth of 2 meters. Values of Z will vary from 0. 5 meters to

2 meters. Natural gas, diffusion flames of 0. 2 to 0.1 meter

diameter and heat release rates from 10 to 200 kw are being

studied. Flames will be characterized by their geometry, heat

release rate, and gross radiative properties. The shadowgraph

technique will be used to investigate the plume and to relate the

plume to the visible flame geometry.

Preliminary results have been obtained for natural gas diffusion flames with values of Z of about 2 meters, a fire diameter

of .20 meters, a fire heat input rate between 15 and 150 kw, and

fire heights from 1 to 2 meters. The measured entrainment rates

of the fire plumes, measured with the technique described above,

were roughly twice the value deduced from plume entrainment

models based on a point source of heat and the Boussinesq approximation.

Reports and Papers

Zukoski, E. E. '‘Development of a Stratified Ceiling Layer in the

Early Stages of a Closed-room Fire", Fire and Materials, Vol. 2,

No. 2, 1978, pp. 54-62.

Kubota, T. and Zukoski, E. E. "A Computer Model for Fluid

Dynamic Aspects of a Transient Fire in a Multi-Room Structure

(Third Edition)", California Institute of Technology, August, 1979.

68
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1 979

Insti tution : Clemson University

Grant No : NBS Grant NB79NADA0011

Grant Title : Antimony Oxide-Organohalogen-Polymer Substrate Interactiors

in the Solid Phase

Principal Investigator : Dr. M. J. Drews

Department of Textiles

Clemson University

Clemson, South Carolina, 29631

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. C. W. Jarvis

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. R. Gann

Technical Abstract

The objective of this research is to elucidate the role of the

polymer substrate in the generation of volatile antimony halides and

oxyhalides, by characterizing the antimony oxide-organohal ogen-polymer

substrate solid phase interactions. These results will then be used

to assess the relative importance of the observed solid state (as com- pared to gas phase) reactions in the flame retardant efficiency of

antimony oxide/organohalogen additives and finishes.

The solid state interactions will be studied by characterizing the

pyrolysis and oxidative pyrolysis products of model organohalogen com- pounds, model compounds in the presence of antimony oxide and organohalogen-antimony oxide- polymer mixtures. Pyrolysis experiments will be

carried out using a thermo-gravimetric analyzer, single zone tube fur- nace and in the direct insertion probe of a mass spectrometer.

The effluent gas stream from the thermogravimetric analyzer or the

tube furnace will be passed through a series of impingers and cold traps

in order to collect the volatile decomposition products for subsequent

analysis while soluble bromine will be continuously monitored. The

principal volatilized organohalogens will be characterized by mass spectrometry after separation by high performance liquid chromatography.

The pyrolysis residues will be analyzed for antimony, bromine, and

carbon/hydrogen by elemental analysis. While direct pyrolysis in the mass spectrometer makes it possible to identify highly reactive radical

decomposition products, the combination of mass spectrometry with the

trapping techniques will offer dual confirmation of the more stable

molecular decomposition products.

69
The research has been divided into two phases. In the first phase,

the interactions of model organobromine compounds with antimony oxides

(empirically Sb20q and Sb205) are being studied in order to establish

a data base for the polymer substrate studies included in the second

phase. Organobromine rather than organochl ori ne flame retardants are being used in this study because of their higher molar efficiency in

many applications. In addition, several reactions postulated as important in proposed retardant mechanisms for organohalogens would be more thermo-dynamical ly favored for brominated compounds. Three different

organobromine structures will be investigated. These will include an aliphatic molecule which can release hydrogen bromide (HBr) by beta

elimination, an aromatic bromine molecule containing no hydrogen and

either an aliphatic bromine which cannot readily eliminate HBr or an aromatic one which can. Several commercial flame retardants have been

screened by thermal analysis for use as the model organobromine structures. On the basis of these results hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) has

been chosen as the model aliphatic bromine which can release hydrogen

halide and decabromodi phenyl ene oxide as the totally brominated aro- matic model. Several candidates are still being considered for inclusions as the third model compound.

Also during this phase of the research, the antimony oxidation

state, particle size and antimony bromine mole ratio will be varied.

The effect of the model organobromine' s volatility and thermal stability

on the antimony-bromine interaction will be studied by varying the

heating rate and mode of pyrolysis.

The second phase of the study will consist of a similar series of

experiments carried out in the presence of a polymer substrate. The

polymers to be added in this phase include poly(ethyl ene terephthalate)

,

poly (propylene), and poly(methylmethacrylate) . These particular com- mercially important polymers have been chosen because they differ greatly

in chemical structure, thermo-oxidative stability, and mode of decomposition. The results of the second phase will be used in an attempt

to correlate any observed changes in the rates of antimony and/or

bromine volatilization, the temperature profile of antimony and bromine

release, and relative concentrations of the volatilized active species

with polymer substrate structure and decomposition mode.

It is anticipated that once the solid phase ternary reactions bet- ween polymer substrate-organohalogen-antimony oxide are characterized

with respect to organohalogen and polymer functionality, these results

will lead to a better understanding of the system parameters necessary

for more efficient and safer flame retardation of thermoplastic

materials. In addition, the results of this work could provide the basis

for new studies into the role of antimony oxide in flame retardant

formulations

70
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution; Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Grant No .NB79NADA0014

TitleDetermination of Fuel Parameters for Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator: Dr. Archibald Tewarson

Applied Research Department

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

Other Professional Personnel: Mr. James L. Lee, Research Specialist

Mr. Russell F. Pion, Associate Research

Scientist /Engineer

NBS Scientific Officer: D. D. Evans

Technical Abstract:

A study program is proposed for obtaining relationships between

fuel parameters useful for fire modeling and the chemical structure of

the fuels over a wide range of experimental conditions. The proposed

study program is an application of the principles and techniques

developed by Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) for the Products

Research Committee (PRC)

The study program will use the ’Flammability Apparatus’ developed

for PRC, in which fuel samples of about 0.008 m^ are used and a larger

version of the apparatus developed by the Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) in which fuel samples about 0.09 m^ are used.

In the study, fuels will be selected reflecting a wide variation

in chemical structure, i.e., aliphatic, aromatic and highly chlorinated

type fuels. The fuels used will be granular and foamed. Fuel parameters

will be obtained for individual fuels as well as for their combinations.

The experimental variables in the study will include: 1) combinations of external heat flux and oxygen concentration; 2) ratios of mass

of fuel vapor to air used in combustion; 3) dilution of products captured

in the sampling duct; 4) fuel sample size; and 5) natural versus forced

air flow.

71
The fuel parameters in the study will include: 1) fuel surface

temperature and ’effective^ energy for the ignition of fuel vapor /air

mixture; 2) ’effective’ heat of gasification of the fuel, ’effective’

fuel surface reradiation loss, and critical mass loss rate or kinetic

parameter for ignition; 3) flame convective and radiative heat flux to

the fuel surface; 4) combustion efficiency of the fuel vapor and con- vective and radiative fractions of the theoretical stoichiometric heat

release rate for complete combustion of the fuel vapor; 5) fraction of

carbon and other major elements in the fuel converted to CO 2 , CO, gaseous

hydrocarbons, carbon, and H2O; 6) the ratio of optical density per

unit path length to mass concentration of the fuel vapors.

Thermodynamics and heat and mass balances will be used for data

analyses. An attempt will be made to apply proposed mathematical modeling principles to a few selected experiments in the study for

a fuel.

72
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Grant /Contract No ; G7-9011

Title ; The Home Fire Project (joint with Harvard University)

Principal Investigator ; Dr. R. Friedman (FMRC) , joint with

Prof. H. W. Emmons

(Harvard)

Other Professional Personnel ; Task 1 - Leader, Dr. F. Tamanini

Task 3 - Leader, Dr. A. T. Modak

Task 4 - Leader, Dr. G. H. Markstein

NBS Scientific Officer ; Dr. J. Rockett

Introduction ; In this multi-task project with Harvard University,

Factory Mutual is responsible for tasks 1, 3, and 4. Abstracts of

these tasks follow.

73
Task : Burning of Pool Fires in Vitiated Air

Task Leader : Dr. Franco Tamanini

Technical Abstract : The purpose of this task is to determine the effect

of decreased oxygen concentration of the ambient air on the burning

characteristics of pool fires. In particular, we plan to focus on the

following quantities: radiation flame temperature, absorption co- efficient, total radiation, gas-phase burning rate distribution in the

flame, flame shape, combustion incompleteness (composition of the

products). Construction of a 1.2-m diameter water-cooled enclosure, in

which experiments will be run, is almost completed at the time of this

writing. This facility is designed so that the air supply can be

diluted with the products from a propane flame.

While waiting for the completion of the new apparatus, we have

verified the feasibility of a technique for measuring the amount of

unbumt fuel present at different ?ieights in a fire plume. The

technique is based on the use of a quencher (a car radiator for our preliminary tests) through which the flame gases are aspirated: the

amount of suction is adjusted so as to reduce the disturbances induced

in the flame under the quencher itself. By measuring the flow rate and

the composition of the stream captured by the quencher, when positioned

at different heights in the fire plume, we will determine the vertical

distribution of the burning rate in the flame. We have purchased gas

analysis equipment to measure O 2 , CO, CO2 , H2O and total hydrocarbons;

we have completed the design of the gas sampling system and we are about to begin its assembly. We anticipate that this program will

provide needed data to verify integral models of turbulent combustion,

which are presently under development [1,2].

Our plans for experimental work in the 1.2-m diameter enclosure

contemplate using the .38-m diameter gas burner developed by L.Orloff

for another task of the Home Fire Project: however, in order to fine

tune the instrumentation needed for the measurements of radiative

properties of flames, we have carried out a series of tests with plastic

pools in a smaller enclosure (.76-m diameter) built with Internal funds.

These experiments Involved ;.3-m diameter PMMA fires burning in air

diluted with nitrogen. The data [3] show that:l)rate of pyrolysis, total

radiation, flame emittance, and radiated fraction all decrease with

decreased oxygen concentration; however, 2) the equivalent (Schmidt)

flame temperature is only weakly dependent on the oxygen content of the

air in the range tested (from 21% to 18% by volume). Flame photographs

are currently being digitized to determine the path length associated

with each emittance data point and , therefore , obtain information on the

flame absorption coefficient. Comparison of the results from tests in

plain air with the data obtained by Markstein shows differences which

are probably due to the effect of confinement on the fires used in

this program.

Reports and Papers : 1. Tamanini, F. , "Outline of Integral Model for Fire Plumes", F>jRC

Memorandum, April 4 , 19 79.

2. de Ris , J. , "Combustion of Turbulent Fuel Jets and Plumes", FMRC

Memorandum, May 15, 1979.

3. Santo, G.

, "Influence of Oxygen Depletion on the Radiative Properties

of PMMA Flames", FMRC Technical Report (in preparation).

74
Task : Radiation from Pool Fires

Task Leader: Dr. Ashok T. Modak

Technical Abstract : The shapes of flames above a pool significantlyl

affect the burning rate of pool fires and the radiation therefrom. To

study flame shapes in pool fires, two water cooled sintered metal

burners of diameter 0.4 and 0.8 metres were constructed. These burners

are being used to measure the radiation (external to the fire and to

the pool base) from gaseous fuels burning at different flow rates and to

provide photographic^correlations for flame shapes in pool fires. A 0.73

metre diameter pool with automatic feedback level control device was constructed to control the level of the fuel surface. This pool will be

used to study large pool fires of plastic materials.

A numerical model to compute the radiative flux in pool fires was

developed. This model can account for nonhomo gene ous distributions of

combustion products and for nonisothermal effects in pool fires. The

input parameters required by this model are the radiative properties3-6

of the flames and flame shapes. Radiative properties are being measured

in an accompanying program (Task 4) by Marksteln. The computation costs

of the numerical model were reduced to affordable levels (i.e., a couple of minutes of CPU time on an IBM 370/158) through efficient

numerical schemes and by providing simple yet accurate analytic formulas

for the radiative flux to the base of a pool fire. The accuracy of the

analytic formulas was verified against numerical calculations.

The effects of non-gray radiation due to the presence of molecular

emitters (such as CO2 and H2O) in fire gases were studied. A computer

program 7,8 for nongray radiation calculations was developed.

Reports and Papers : 1. de Rls , J., "Recent Advances in Radiation from Fires," Invited Paper

#2, Eastern Section of the Combustion Institute, Miami Beach,

Florida, November-December 1978.

2. Orloff, L. ,"Lip Effects in Pool Fires," Paper #33, Canadian Section

of the Combustion Institute, May 3-4, 1979, Kingston, Ontario.

3. Orloff, L., Modak, A.T. and Marksteln, G.H ., "Radiation from Smoke

Layers," XVII Symposium (International) on Combustion, The

Combustion Institute, 1979 (in press).

4. de Ris, J.,"Flre Radiation-A Review, "XVII Symposium (International)

on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 1979 (in press).

5.

Modak, A.T., Editor , "Influence of Enclosures on Fire Growth, Volume II.

-Analysis," FMRC Technical Report 0A0R3.BU, RC78-BT-24, July 1978.

6. Modak, A.T. and Mathews, M.K. , "Radiation Augmented Fires Within

Enclosures," J. Heat Transfer: 100 , 544 (1978).

7. Modak, A.T., "Radiation from Products of Combustion," Fire Research,

1979 (in press)

.

8. Modak, A.T., "Exponential Wide Band Parameters for the Pure

Rotational Band of Water Vapor," J. Ouant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer 21, 131 (1979).

75
Task : Study of Radiation from Flames and Smoke Layers

Task Leader : Dr. George H. Markstein

Technical Abstract : In many fires, energy transfer from the flame to

the fuel and the surroundings occurs predominantly by thermal radiation.

Knowledge about the spatial distribution of radiation sources within a fire is important for the quantitative evaluation of radiative transfer.

A scanning radiometer is being used in this task for obtaining this

information.

Measurements with this scanning radiometer on plastics pool fires

have been continued. Because of the highly fluctuating nature of the

radiation from turbulent flames, determination of reliable mean distributions of radiation sources requires averaging over many repeated scans. It was found that about 100 horizontal scans across the flame

at each constant height are needed to obtain good average data. To

record the large number of data obtained in this way within a reasonable

time, the data acquisition system of the scanning radiometer has been

upgraded by the use of a fast calculator (HP9825A) and a nine-track

tape drive. With this system, 100 scans, each comprising 500 data

points, can be recorded in about one minute.

Several alternative simplified models have been investigated for

reducing the measured radiance distributions, to obtain a radial distribution of a suitable quantity .For the simplest model of an optically

thin flame, hn Abel integral inversion of the averaged radiance

distribution yields a radial distribution of volumetric radiant power.

It was found, however, that for .38 m diameter PMMA pool fires the

implied neglect of self-absorption introduces considerable error. For this reason, models assuming either constant absorption

coefficient or constant flame temperature have been examined. The

latter model, which yields a radial distribution of the emissionabsorption coefficient, appears more realistic than that of constant

absorption coefficient. As a further alternative, a model that

interprets the measured radiance in terms of a radial distribution of

the probability density for the presence of flame elements of constant

absorption coefficient and constant flame temperature is now under

s tudy

.

The Interpretation of the scanning data clearly can be aided

substantially by Independent measurements of the local absorption

coefficient. An Instrument for this purpose, consisting of a watercooled and nitrogen-purged fiber-optic probe and a corner-cube

reflector has been built and is now undergoing Initial tests. In this

device, the absorption over an effective path of about 60 mm is

measured by means of a square-wave-modulated infrared-emitting diode source and a silicon photodiode sensor. Reports and Papers : 1. Markstein, G.H., "Radiative Properties of Plastics Fires," 17th

Symposium (International) on Combustion (in press) ; FMRC Technical

Report RC78-BT-20, July 1978.

2. Markstein, G.H. , "Distribution of Radiant Power in Plastics Pool

Fires," Presented at the Fall Meeting, Eastern Section, The

Combustion Institute, November 29-December 1, 1978, Miami Beach,

Florida.

76
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution; School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of

Technology

Grant/Contract No; G8-9003

TitleInvestigation of Smoke Formation by Polymeric Materials;

Smoke Reduction Methods and Chemical Characterization.

Principal Investigator; Dr. Ben T. Zinn, Regents' Professor

School of Aerospace Engineering

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, GA 30332

Other Professional Personnel; Dr. R. F. Browner, Assistant Professor,

School of Chemistry

Dr. E. A. Powell, Assistant Professor

Dr. K. T. Joseph, Post Doctoral Fellow

Dr. M. Pasternak, Post Doctoral Fellow

Mr. C. Ndubizu, Graduate Research Asst.

Mr. R. 0. Gardner, Graduate Research

Assistant, School of Chemistry

NBS Scientific Officer; Dr. George Mulholland

Technical Abstract

This research program is primarily concerned with the development of

means for the reduction of the smoke produced by commonly used polymeric

materials during fires. This experimental research program consists of a systematic investigation of the properties and amounts of smoke produced by

burning polymers when different additives are introduced into different

parts of the pyrolysis region between the polymer and the flame. The choice

of additives has been dictated by current understanding (and conjectures)

of the mechanisms of smoke formation. The investigated classes of additives

include (1) organic compounds that are believed to be precursors to smoke

formation and are expected to increase smoke generation; (2) inorganic

compounds that are expected to retard smoke formation by ionic

and/or chemical mechanisms; and (3) inert diluents that might affect smoke

formation by changing the thermal and diffusion conditions within the flame

region. During the first year the investigations are primarily concerned

with the smoke production by polypropylene, and in subsequent years the

smoke production by other polymeric materials will be investigated. The

results obtained under this program are expected to result in improved

understanding of the mechanisms of smoke generation by polymeric materials

77
and the development of recommendations for the use of specific additives in

the substrate material that will result in a reduction in the smoke

generated by the investigated polymers. A major contributor to this

research program are the chemical analysis efforts that are concerned with

the identification of the various classes of compounds present within and on the surface of the collected smoke particulates. These results will

contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of smoke formation as well as identify toxic compounds that may be present in the smoke.

Investigation of the Effect of Additives Upon Smoke Formation by a Polymeric Diffusion Flame. The experimental apparatus to be used for

studying the effect of additives on smoke formation was assembled and used

for trial tests. In these tests a known weight of the pure polymer was heated in a stainless steel cup. As the resin pyrolyzed an atomized

solution of the additive was injected into the pyrolysis gas stream at a controlled rate. The mixture was then burned in a diffusion flame attached

to the mouth of the pyrolysis cup. The amount of smoke formed was determined by measuring the optical density and also by collecting and

weighing the smoke particulates. Results of these trial tests indicated

that several modifications of the experimental apparatus were necessary.

These changes were necessitated by the need for (1) a stable diffusion

flame, (2) a more reliable method for introducing additives into the

flame, (3) good mixing of the pyrolysis gases with the additive solution,

(4) and more reliable and repeatable smoke collection procedures. Much time

and effort was devoted to improving the apparatus to meet these criteria,

and the improved version of the apparatus is shown in Figure 1.

Preliminary measurements have been made using the modified apparatus

for polypropylene using calcium nitrate and barium chloride as additives.

The results of this study are encouraging, hence more careful measurements

will be made with these and several other additives. These additives

include two categories of inorganic salts: (a) those that are known to

reduce smoke in experiments with gaseous fuels and (b) those that are currently being used in polymers and other applications as flame

retardants. Physical properties as well as the chemical composition of the

smoke particulates with and without additives will be measured. These

measurements will be used to answer the questions as to how the additives

function to reduce smoke and also whether the additives would increase or reduce smoke toxicity and other harmful effects.

Chemical Characterization of Smoke Particulates. As one of the major

efforts for the Chemistry Group, the studies on volatile species adsorbed

onto smoke particulates has continued. The instrumentation has now been

fully modified and tested so as to provide a very compact system with

minimal possibility of sample loss in transfer lines. The basic

configuration has been improved by shortening transfer lines and using

teflon surfaces at all points in the system other than the gas switching

valves so that sample loss between the combustion chamber and the

collection filter and also between the collection filter and the solid

adsorbant trap has been found to be negligible. The entire system is heated

to minimize condensation losses during collecting.

78
In order to coordinate our current work with the detailed studies

carried out during the last grant period on polynuclear aromatic species

found in PVC smoke particulates, the same PVC sample formulations have been

used in this work. These formulations include the pure PVC resin along with

formulations containing the stabilizer lead sulfate, the plasticizer 6,10

phthalate, fillers calcium carbonate and alumina hydrate, and antimony

oxide

.

One of the most important features of this current study is to

correlate the concentrations of species found adsorbed onto the

particulates with the concentrations found in the vapor phase of the smoke.

Consequently, recent work has concentrated on two main goals; (1)

identification of the major components in the gas phase of the PVC

combustion, and (2) comparison of these components with the components

released readily from the particulates (i.e. weakly adsorbed species).

Experimentally, as mild conditions as possible are used to release the

volatiles from the smoke particulates. Heating to 80 C in a flow of He is

found to release the volatile species nearly quantitatively, without any

trace of thermal decomposition products induced by the r^leasin^ process.

Release at a series of higher temperatures, namely 100 C, 120 C, 140 C,

produced no significant improvement in release efficiency and gave rise to

the possibility of contamination from decomposition products. Consequently

80 C was selected as release temperature for all further studies. Results

of these studies show that the plasticizer has the greatest effect on the

vapor phase gas chromatograms for PVC, altering significantly the relative

ratios of the compounds produced. In addition, as would be anticipated, the

species found in greatest amounts adsorbed on the particulates are the

least volatile components of the vapor phase.

Work is continuing to obtain quantitative data on the compounds

present and also to examine other PVC samples. When complete, studies will

be made of other pol3nner types, such as polyurethane and polypropylene,

etc. In addition, attention will be focussed on the absorbed concentrations

of HCl and HCN with all these sample types.

As part of our continuing effort to obtain meaningful and reliable

data on the chemical composition of the smoke particulates generated from

burning polymers, we have devoted much effort to developing and using a new

separations scheme. A very great deal of effort has been used in order to ensure reliability of this scheme and separation efficiencies have been

checked at each state. In addition, where derivitization has proved

necessary in order to obtain chromatographic separations (i.e. of acids,

bases, etc.) the reliability of the procedures used has been thoroughly

tested in order to ensure that no major compounds are lost due to

incomplete reaction or derivative instability. This separations scheme has

been used in the analysis of smoke from polyurethane foam which has long

been an intractable problem due to the particular chemical nature of the

compounds formed and the great complexity of the combustion products

mixture. As a result, we have now obtained what we believe to be the first

really reliable (although as yet incomplete) data on polyurethane.

79
Potential Applications The results obtained during this research

program are expected to identify which additives are most effective in

reducing the smoke production by burning polymeric materials. This

information along with the results of the chemical analysis of smoke

particulates will aid in the development of safer commercial materials and

thus reduce the losses of life and property due to smoke produced in

building fires.

Reports and Papers;

1. Zinn, B. T. , Bankston, C. P. , Browner, R. F. , Powell, E.A. , Joseph,

K. T. , Pasternak, M. , Gardner, R. 0., and Kailasanath, K.

,

"Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion Products

Generated By Building Fires," Final Report of National Bureau of

Standards Grant No. G8-9003, November 1978.

2. Bankston, C. P., Zinn, B. T. , Browner, R. F., and Powell, E. .A,

"Fundamental Aspects of the Mechanisms of Smoke Generation by

Burning Materials," presented at the Combustion Institute Meeting

(Eastern Section) on Chemical and Physical Processes in Combustion,

Miami Beach, Florida, November 29- December 1, 1978 (Submitted for

publication in Combustion and Flame ).

TO VACUUM

Figure 1. Modified Smoke Generation and Measurement Apparatus.

80
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution: Harvard University

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Grant No: NBS Grant 79011

Grant Title: Home Fire Project

Principal Investigators: Professor Howard W. Emmons

Division of Applied Sciences

Harvard University

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

617-495-2847

R. Friedman

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Norwood, Massachusetts 02062

617-762-4300 X570

Other Professional Personnel: Dr. H. Mitler

Mr. Richard Land

J. Backovsky, Ph.D. Candidate

A. Atreya, Ph.D. Candidate

S. C. Tan, Ph.D. Candidate

J. Ramsdell, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: John Rockett

Technical Abstract

The Home Fire Project is directed toward the production of a fire

code capable of computing a fire in a building from a drawing of the

building and a description of its furniture. This consists of two

parts

:

1. The writing and testing of the equations and computer program

itself, and

2. The development of the required understanding of the component

phenomena which makes the computer program possible.

Each of the tasks of the Home Fire Project is reviewed in the folowing

:

81
Task 2: The Prediction of a Fire - H. Hitler and H. Emmons

The Harvard Computer Fire Code has now been under development for

almost three years, and has reached a substantial level of sophistication and reliability. This is a mathematical model which "predicts"

the development of a fire ignited on a horizontal surface, in a vented

enclosure. The calculations can be carried forward through burnout and

cooldown. Thorough discussion of the problem, plus a bibliography, are given in our Technical Report #37, "The Physical Basis for the Harvard

Computer Fire Code".

Progress has been made during the last year both in the application of physical laws to the dynamics of enclosure fires, and in the

structure of the program which implements these. Some of the improvements and extensions to the physics were: the flame structure has been

made more internally consistent. A correction was introduced to take

into account the burning of the sides of a slab. Almost all the radiative flux calculations needed improvement, and got it. Also, all the

significant fluxes which had not yet been calculated, were. The vent

area is now taken into account in the heat transfer calculations. New,

more general subroutines have been written for the pool fire and burning slab (includes now the possibility of burn-through in the center)

.

We now have a subroutine which permits ignition of a target. Finally,

a new subroutine has been prepared which calculates the CO, ^^

2

’ smoke (including hydrocarbon) concentrations in the layer, as well as the 0„ concentration.

It has been found that a (fifth) vent regime is sometimes needed

for a single vent in a single enclosure. The five regimes now used

are:

1. cold flow only, driven by gas expansion (by the fire);

2. both hot and cold flow out, driven by gas expansion augmented

by buoyancy;

3. hot gas out, cold gas in, when buoyancy outflow exceeds the gas

expansion;

4. hot gas out, cold gas in, when under 3. the hot layer falls

below the vent sill. This is choked flow and the fire is

ventilation limited;

5. the fifth regime is hot gas only flowing out. It occurs for a small height vent high in the wall. It occurs when the buoyancy outflow is not sufficient to provide the required gas ex- pansion. This regime is of short duration since the oxygen

in the room is soon depleted and the fire slows down until

regime 4. replaces 5.

If a vent connects two rooms, each of which may have hot and cold

layers, the vent flow will depend upon two layer depths, four gas densities, in addition to its sill and lintel positions. There are a total of seventy possible flow regimes. A new approach to vent flow has

been devised, coded, and checked as the above described calculations

for a single vent in a single room. The new approach is not as complex

as the above and is capable of identifying and calculating all seventy

cases. The new vent subroutine will replace the entire present VENT

subroutines as soon as it has been adequately checked out.

The program structure has been improved in the following ways:

82
an INPUT routine has been written; also an alternative, more convenient

output format. The debugging options have been expanded and made more

flexible. The indexing scheme has been generalized and improved. Better predictors for a new time-step have been used, the degree and frequency of rescaling has been optimized, as well as the use of the most

powerful but slowest mode, NWTN. The program has been made reasonably

machine-independent

.

There have been many other small changes, too numerous to mention,

in both the physics and the programming. All of these have resulted in

substantial improvement in the accuracy of prediction of the measured

variables, with a simultaneous reduction in running time. As of June 1,

the program is essentially version IV, and is available on tape.

A number of further developments, both in the physics and in the

numerical procedures, are underway; some of these may be ready for presentation at the August meeting. We may say that the program is evolving at a reasonably satisfactory rate.

83
Task 5: The Effects of External Radiation and Vitiated Air on Fires

Task 5a: Experimental and Theoretical Study of Horizontal Fire

Spread on Wood - A. Atreya

To prevent home fires it is necessary to have an understanding of

how fire spreads on wood, under the conditions of external radiation

(from a hot layer and other fires) and vitiated air. A literature re- view was done on both fire spread and pyrolysis of wood. A plane sec- tion (defined by depth in the solid and direction of spread) of partially burned wood has a layer of charcoal followed by a semi-pyrolyzed re- gion and finally virgin wood. A mathematical formulation of the com- plete solid and gas phase problem is quite complex. In view of these

complexities a simplified model using a pyrolyzing surface approximation

is proposed.

Before attempting to solve the proposed model, experimental work

was started with an aim to determine:

1. mass pyrolysis rate;

2. flame spread velocity;

3. mass burning rate;

with radiation and eventually vitiation as parameters.

The procedure consists of:

a. instrumenting a slab of wood (sugar pine) with thermocouples;

b. placing it on a weighing table under a desired radiapt flux;

c. igniting at the center with a pilot flame and measuring con- tinuously the above mentioned quantities, as fire spreads on the horizontal slab of wood.

This turns out to be fairly hard to do experimentally.

At surface temperatures below 150° to 160° C a sustained combustion

was not obtained. Above these surface temperatures a sustained combustion is possible, but depending on the temperature profile inside the

wood either continuous or disjoined propagating flame fronts are obtained. To obtain a continuous growing fire on a plane slab it is found to

be necessary to allow the temperature of the entire slab to reach above

150°C. Even under these conditions a regular repeatable spread geometry

has yet defied several trials. A probable cause is a high sensitivity

of the fire growth to the detailed properties of the wood. A correlation between the total burnt area and the mass pyrolysis loss exists.

Experimental work on this is in progress.

84
Task 5b. Experimental and Theoretical Study of Horizontal Fire

Spread on Plastics - S. C. Tan

This task is in the literature review and equipment design (modification) stage. It will supply much needed additional data on fire

growth on plastic materials.

Task 5c .

Perfect the Fire Spread Research Equipment - R. Land

The 28 m enclosure (Sears storage shed) used as a fire test chamber is being used for fire tests. The weighing system for measurement

of the rate of pyrolysis is working excellently. The air flow distribution below the floor is still not wholly satisfactory since the flames

still slightly lean preferentially in one direction. The rate of burning will be measured by oxygen depletion and heat release. An integrating hot wire thermometer has been installed in the exhaust duct taking

advantage of a nearly flat velocity profile in that location. Thus the

energy of the exhaust gases may be computed from the mean veloci|''’^ and

the hot wire reading when properly calibrated. The present .2W/cm ra- diant external flux is being increased by more than an order of magnitude by new radiant units and a larger power supply.

^ A few burning tests have been performed with 4ft. enclosure inside

of the fire test enclosure. It was arranged with a small door and a closeable hole in the ceiling. With the hole closed, the fire grew at

a linear rate after 160 seconds. With the hole open it grew exponentially with a 20 second doubling time. This rapid fire growth occurred

because of increased ventilation in spite of the fact that the open

hole at first decreased the hot layer. The importance of roof ventilation to fire fighting suggests that ceiling ventilation be added to our Computer Fire Code in the near future. Roof ventilation is important not only because of the immediate removal of the interior hot and

smoky gases but also because of the danger to firemen who go to the

roof to cut the hole.

Task 5d. The Theory of Boundary Layer Burning with Radiation -

J. Backovsky

The investigation of radiative effects in laminar, steady-state,

boundary layer burning in forced and free convection was continued in

these directions:

1. The parametric study in forced-convection burning with Pr = 0.73 was expanded, the previous results with Unity Prandtl number being

significantly different. Among the physical quantities obtained were

the mass pyrolysis rate, the burning rate, the flame radiative heat

flux Incident on the fuel surface, and the ratio of the radiative to

the total heat flux transferred to the fuel surface.

2. Corresponding results were obtained specific to fourteen (14)

real liquid fuels burning in forced convection. The fuels include alcohols, hydrocarbons, cyclic compounds, and such common organic com- pounds as acetone, napthalene and toluene, and it is hoped that a wide

range of radiative characteristics are represented. While it was found

that (for a given fraction of the heat evolved at the flame transferred

as radiation) the ratio of radiative to the total heat flux absorbed by

the fuel surface varies up to a factor of 3, the radiant heat flux incident on the fuel surface varies only 20% among these fuels: i.e.,

the heat generated at the flame by the various fuels varies only by

85
20%. So a larger radiative fraction would be needed to account for a substantial difference in the radiant output of a flame—as is observed

for turbulent flames. Flame temperatures and their decrease caused by

radiative cooling is obtained, and correlations between the various

radiative effects can be made. The sensitivity of the above results

to the fuel surface absorptivity was also determined.

3. Work is in progress on the effects of variation of some transport properties as compared to the calculated radiative effects. The

specific heat and viscosity are included as dependent on temperature

and composition, with other transport properties varied in accordance

with keeping the Prandtl and Lewis numbers constant.

Task 6 . The Use of the Mathematical Model

Copies of the Computer Fire Code III have been made available to

a few potential users. We have started some systematic uses to explore

its usefulness and its weaknesses. So far only two subprograms have

been supplied by others and both of these worked after some modest adj ustments

.

Reports and Papers

Emmons, H. W. "Fire," 8th National Applied Mechanics Congress, UCLA,

June, 1978

Emmons, H. W. "A Note on Minimizing the Unknowns for Computation of a Large System of Equations," Home Fire Project, Tech. Report #26,

Harvard Univ. July 1978

Emmons, H. W. , "The Prediction of Fires in Buildings," 17th Symposium

(Inter.) on Combustion Aug. 1978

Shih, T. M. , "Fire Characteristics Under the Influence of External Radiation," Home Fire Project, Tech. Report #33, Harvard Univ. Aug.

1978

Mitler, H. E., "The Physical Basis for the Harvard Computer Fire Code"

Home Fire Project, Tech. Report #34, Harvard Univ. Oct. 1978

Emmons, H. W. , MacArthur, C., Pape, R. , "The Status of Fire Modeling in

the U.S.-1978," 4th U.S./ Japan Coop Program on Nat. Resources,

Tokyo, Feb. 1979

Mitler, H. E., "Users guide for the Harvard Computer Fire Code," Home

Fire Project, Tech. Report #37, Harvard Univ. Apr. 1979

Emmons, H. W. , "Scientific Progress on Fire," Annual Reviews of Fluid

Mechanics, 1979

86
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution: IIT Research Institute

Grant/Contract No.: NB79SBCA0068

Title

:

Preflashover Room Fire Model: Parametric Sensitivity Analysis

and Development of a Submodel for Burning Furniture Items

Principal Investigator: Ronald Pape

Fire and Safety Research

IIT Research Institute

10 West 35th Street

Chicago, IL 60616

312/567-4786

Other Professional Personnel: Mr. Thomas E. Waterman

Mr. Thomas V. Eichler

NBS Scientific Officer: V. Babrauskas

Technical Abstract

A two phase program has been undertaken to develop a model for burning furniture items within an enclosure. The model will be designed to

be incorporated into a room fire computer model such as IITRI’s RFIRES

code. Phase 1 embodies the preliminary work required to establish the

specific approach which will be followed in developing the model. Pertinent literature related to furniture item burning is being reviewed and

summarized. The literature includes acticles describing flame spread

models as well as pertinent literature on small scale and full scale ex- periments. NBS has been contacted to determine ongoing work at NBS and

elsewhere. The literature review is to help identify the controlling

phenomena and parameters which must be considered in developing the model

as well as to identify existing submodels and applicable analytical techniques.

The burning item model must be compatible with the overall room fire

model. In order to assure that the needs of the submodel can be satisfied and that the submodel generates the proper data required by the

overall model, the structure of the RFIRES code will be evaluated. The

output variables of interest will be identified, the governing equations

will be outlined, and the hierarchies of phenomena will be developed

based on the RFIRES model. The literature survey and discussions of on- going research with NBS personnel will reveal certain areas where

87
information or understanding is lacking. Some simple experiments will

be necessary to help supply missing data required early in the program

and to identify dominating phenomena. During Phase 1, much of the instrumentation required in later phases will also be set-up and checked.

The Phase 1 effort will result in a report documenting the work performed. This report will Include a plan for developing the burning item

model in Phase 2. Phase 1 is scheduled for completion at the end of

August 1979.

Phase 2 is to develop a preliminary burning item model. Phase 2 will begin with a parametric sensitivity analysis of the RFIRES code.

This will identify parameters which must be predicted accurately by the

burning item model, as opposed to insensitive parameters for which less

accuracy is acceptable. In addition, sensitive and insensitive parameters for other aspects of the overall model will be identified. Based

on the plan developed in Phase 1, a preliminary burning item model will

be developed. Experimentation required to support the model development

will be accomplished where appropriate. Phase 2 will result in a report

describing the burning item model. A revised users manual for the RFIRES

code will also be produced in order to consolidate the information presented in previous reports on the model.

At the conclusion of this two phase effort, a burning furniture

item model will have been developed. The model will not be extensively

tested, nor will it be Incorporated into the overall room fire model.

In a follow-on effort, the burning furniture item model should be validated and Incorporated into an enclosure fire model. The complete room

fire model, including the furniture item submodel, should be comprehensively tested.

The development of the burning furniture item model in a manner that

it can be incorporated into a room fire model is expected to lead to the

development of one or more furniture standard tests which characterize

the fire hazard in a truly meaningful way. The tests will be defined by

the requirements of the analytical model and the model can be used to

correlate the test results to the full scale real fire situation.

88
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; The Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and

Public Health

Grant No .G8-9001

Grant Title: Evaluation of Toxicity of Combustion Products

Principal Investigator; Zoltan Annau, Ph.D.

The Johns Hopkins University

School of Hygiene and Public Health

Department of Environmental Health Sciences

615 North Wolfe Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21205

(301) 955-3029

Other Professional Personnel ; Patricia McGuire, Ph.D., Research

Associate

John Campbell, Research Technician

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Merritt Birky

Project Summary; It is the purpose of this project to measure the

potential toxicity of combustion products. We have developed an animal model in which we have evaluated the effect of the combustion

products of flexible polyurethane foam on continuous avoidance behavior in rats. Rats trained to lever press to avoid a mild electric

shock were exposed to four concentrations of polyurethane foam com- bustion products. As the concentration of toxic gases increased, the

performance of the animals declined progressively. When the smoke

was cleared from the chamber, performance of the animals returned to

control in 30 minutes

Progress Report; The behavioral paradigm has been described in previous progress reports. Briefly, rats are trained to press a lever

to avoid a shock to the feet. Each lever press postpones the shock

by 30 seconds. If the animal fails to respond, shocks are delivered

every 5 seconds. A trained animal will. produce a continuous rate of

responding with few shocks received during the experimental session.

The avoidance chambers were placed inside a 200 liter plexiglas com- bustion chamber. This chamber was 58.8 x 58.8 x 58.8 cm with a modified Potts furnace underneath a 6 cm opening in the middle of its

base. The avoidance chambers were placed approximately 20 cm from

the top of the combustion chamber, 2 on each side. A stainless steel

cone was placed over the quartz beaker holding the sample in order to

89
contain the flames during combustion. The combustion chamber was designed to be a static system with a pressure relief balloon attached to one side. Gas sampling lines, return lines, and thermocouples were

connected through airtight connectors at the level of the animal's

chambers. A thermocouple inside the beaker was used to determine temperature at the bottom of the beaker. Carbon monoxide and oxygen con- centrations were monitored at five minute intervals throughout the

experiments, with the gas return lines ensuring constant conditions

inside the chamber. Three 7 cm ports, two at the sides, one at the

top were opened at the end of the 30 min experimental protocol in

order to vent the combustion products. The entire combustion chamber,

and furnace were placed Inside a chemical hood connected to the ex- haust system of the building.

Rats performing on the avoidance schedule described previously

(see above), were exposed to 2.0, 4.0, or 8.0 grams of flexible polyurethane foam (PUF) (GM-21) . Each rat was used for only one exposure.

The furnace controller was set to rise to 650°C. This provided a temperature ramp which, although not linear, was constant across exposure

(Fig. 1). During the first five minutes there was little increase in

the furnace temperature. From 5 minutes to 17 minutes the furnace

temperature increased at approximately 30°C per minute. Smoke was

first apparent 10 minutes, and the PUF burst into flames at 17 minutes

The furnace temperature increased to approximately 650°C during flaming. At the end of flaming the furnace temperature decreased around

50°C and then continued to increase at a lower rate (10-15 min) until

it was turned off at the end of 30 minutes. The time course for com- bustion was consistent across concentrations of PUF and across exposures. When the furnace was turned off at 30 minutes, the chamber was cleared via the air ports described previously. Rats remained in the

chamber performing on the avoidance schedule for an additional 30 minutes .

The heat generated from the furnace and from the combustion process caused an increase in the chamber temperature during the 30 minute exposure period (Fig. 2). At all concentrations, there was a slight increase in the chamber temperature during the first 17 minutes

of the exposure. As is shown in Fig. 1, when flaming occurred, the

chamber temperature increased as a function of the amount of PUF. Fol

lowing flaming, the chamber temperature decreased, but remained at a temperature higher (33-35°C) than the chamber temperature at the beginning of the exposure (25°C) . To control for the possible effects of

chamber temperature, one group of animals was exposed to a temperature

gradient which simulated the increase which occurred with burning 8

grams PUF.

Results

Response rate during the 30 minute exposure period was not significantly affected at any of the concentrations of PUF tested. Shock

rate showed a consistent increase of approximately 100% over control

90
rate, regardless of concentration (Fig. 3). In the 30 minute period

following the exposure, response rate showed a dose related decrease.

Shock rate was also increased during the post-exposure period to 803%

and 565% control at 6 and 8 g PDF, respectively.

The 60 minute session was divided in 5 minute intervals and the

total number of responses or shocks in each 5 minute interval is shown.

The effects of 2, 4 and 6 g PUF on both shocks and responses was inconsistent and showed considerable variability across animals. With 8 g

PUF, there was a large increase in shocks and decrease in responses

in the 30 minute period following exposure.

Increasing the chamber temperature by itself had little effect

during the initial 30 minute period. There was a slight increase in

response rate and decrease in shock rate in the 30 minute following

the temperature increase. Response distribution was unaffected during

the heat exposure but showed a slight increase in responses toward the

end of the 30 minute post-exposure. Shock distribution was unaffected

by the temperature changes.

Carbon monoxide and oxygen levels were determined at 5 minute intervals during the smoke exposure period (Figures 4 and 5). During

the first 15 minutes (prior to flaming) there was no effect on either

CO or O 2

. Following flaming (17 minutes) CO levels increased during

the subsequent 15 minutes. The extent of the increase was related to

PUF concentrations with an increase to greater than 2000 ppm at 8 g

PUF. O

2 levels decreased in a concentration related manner during the same time period.

The disruption in behavior under these experimental conditions is

less than those reported with restrained animals in a leg-flexion

avoidance paradigm. These findings emphasize the importance of com- paring behavioral disruption under different procedures. Exposure in

the present studies were conducted using a temperature ramp with the

exposure duration timed from the point when the furnace was turned on. The consequence of this was a total shorter period of exposure to the

PUF. This could in part account for less behavioral disruption.

Secondly, animals in our studies were unrestrained and whole body ex- posures were used. The more severe disruption seen in restrained

animals using only nose exposures may represent enhanced toxicity of

PUF as a consequence of intense stress.

Reports and Papers:

Society of Toxicology 18th Annual Meeting, March, 1979. Effects Of

Heat And Carbon Monoxide On Continuous Avoidance Performance.

W.F. Sette and Z. Annau, Dept, of Env. Hlth. Sci. , Johns Hopkins Univ.,

Sch. of Hyg. & Pub. Hlth., Baltimore, Md. 21205 Sponsor: R. Rubin

Abstract No. 407.

91
CHAMBER

FURNACE

TEMPERATURE

(®C)

TEMPERATURE

(®C)

FIGURE 1

600-

500 ^

400-

300-

FLAMI

( 17-minutes),

200 -

lOO-l

SM0KE-2_

( lO-mlnutes)'

10 15 20 25

TIME (MINUTES)

FIGURE 2

92
Vo

CONTROL

FIGURE 3

• = RESPONSES

A = SHOCKS

HEAT 20 4.0 6.0 8.0 HEAT 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

GRAMS OF POLYURETHANE FOAM (GM-21)

93
CO

(ppm)

FIGURE 4

EXPOSURE TIME (MINUTES)

0 = 2 grams P U F • = 4 grams PUF

A = 6 grams PUF

=8 grams PUF

FIGURE 5

94
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : The Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory

NBS Grant No : G7-9016

Title : Fire Casualty Study

Principal Investigators : Walter G. Berl

Byron M. Halpin

Applied Physics Laboratory

The Johns Hopkins University

Laurel, Maryland 20810

(301) 953-7100

Other Professional Personnel : Y.M. Caplan (Toxicology) * O.J. Deters (Mathematics)

J.J. Diana (Chemistry)

R.S. Fisher (Pathology) * R.M. Meyers (Medicien) *

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. M. Birky

A. FIRE CASUALTY STUDY

An overall review of the results of the study since its initiation

in 1970 has been prepared (Ref. 1) . An important goal of detailed

studies is to gain an understanding of the causes of death and thereby

to develop practical methods for reducing them in the future. Based

on the Maryland study, it is evident that attention should be given to

those sources that contribute the largest share to the fatal fire incidents, i.e. cigarettes. Bedrooms and living rooms in residences are

the predominant areas of fire starts. Most of the incidents occur at

night and most of the victims are found in bedrooms. The strong involvement of alcohol, causing accidental ignition and preventing adequate escape should be noted. The excess of fire deaths among black

urban children and of the older generation in general identifies

specific groups at higher than normal risk.

It was concluded that most of the directly traceable fire fatalities

(80%) occur within six hours of the fire incident. In most cases (75%)

the toxic gas inhalation was either solely or a strong contributing

factor to the fatal outcome. Carbon monoxide is the predominant cause

of acute death (48%) with some contribution by hydrogen cyanide.

Corrosive and other irritating combustion products acting on the pulmonary system, contribute importantly to the fatal outcome of delayed

deaths

.

*Part Time 95
B. FIRE INJURIES

Since the formal initiation of the study (May 1978) the complex

organizational arrangements for a cooperative effort (of which the most

important is the referral of fire injuries to the Shock/Trauma Center

of the Medical Institute for Emergency Medical Services by the fire

jurisdiction of Baltimore City and 4 large surrounding counties) have

been refined. An initial number of fire inhalation injuries and carbon

monoxide inhalation cases have been dispatched to the Shock/Trauma

Center for treatment and follow-up. A total of 32 serious fire injuries

(of which 2 ended in delayed deaths) , 22 carbon monoxide inhalation, were analyzed.

At this time, in only a few cases were all the clinical input data

obtained, i.e. simultaneous analysis for carbon monoxide and hydrogen

cyanide for blood samples taken at the fire scene and at different times

during the detoxification treatment, breath analysis at the fire scene

for carbon monoxide, detailed investigations of the fire scene for the cause of the fire and identification of the most likely materials involved in the generation of toxic products.

Figure 1 shows the trend toward increased referrals since the

initiation of the program.

Figure 1 The intent of the Fire Casualty Study is to develop treatment methods

for serious ’smoke' inhalation injuries. These treatments require that

the causes of the injuries are understood so that the most appropriate

countermeasures can be designed. The causes, in turn, are intertwined

with the nature of the fire and the materials that are involved.

Reports and Papers : Berl , W.G. ^ Halpin, B.M.

,

"Human Fatalities from

Unwanted Fires" NBS-GCR-79-168 (Accepted for publication Fire Journal)

96
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University

Grant Number : NBS Grant G7-9016

Grant Title : Fire Problems Research and Synthesis, Combustion Research

Principal Investigators : Drs . R. M. Fristrom and L. W. Hunter

Applied Physics Laboratory

The Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins Road

Laurel, MD. 20810

Other Professional Personnel : C. H. Hoshall, Engineer

NBS Scientific Officer : R. Gann

I. Polymer Flammability (L. W. Hunter)

I. (A) Technical Abstract

The effort divided into studies of ignition, propagation and

steady burning.

An ignltability test for plastics was developed (Ref. 10).

The test measures the delay time to ignition of a slab sample of the

plastic in the wake of an 02~rich flame. The result is reproducible to

better than 5%. The delay time may be expressed in terms of the thermal

conductivity of the plastic and a surface temperature at ignition. The

latter correlates with the surface temperature at the onset of flammable

gas evolution, measured in a gas chromatograph with a flame ionization

detector

The role of surface oxidation in flame spread over plastics

was studied (Refs 7-9) . Evidence obtained in the low pressure Moving

Wire Technique suggests that no net absorption of O2 occurs ahead of the

flame front under conditions of horizontal flame spread over PVC (Ref. 9).

The steady state structure of a PVC flame was studied by the

low pressure Moving Wire Technique (Refs. 3-5). Temperature and composition profiles were measured. In support of these experiments, a technique

for measuring the heat transferred to the moving wire was developed

earlier (Refs. 1 and 2).

97
I. (B) Reports and Papers

(1) L. W. Hunter, C. H. Hoshall, C. Grunfelder, and R. M. Fristrom,

"Moving Thermocouple Measurements of Heat Transfer in Hot Gases,"

Proceedings of the 10th Materials Research Symposium, Gaithersburg,

(Sept. 1978).

(2) L. W. Hunter and C. Grunfelder, "Heat Transfer Measurements in the

Moving Wire Technique for Studying Polymer Flammability," Comb.

Flame . 265-274 (1979).

(3) L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder, C. H. Hoshall, and R. M. Fristrom,

"Combustion of Polyvinyl Chloride Studied by a Low Pressure Moving

Wire Technique," Comb. Flame . 55 , 169 (1979).

(4) L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder, C. H. Hoshall, and R. M. Fristrom,

"Combustion of Polyvinyl Chloride Studied by a Moving Wire Technique,"

Proceedings of the Fall Technical Meeting (on Chemical and Physical

Processes in Combustion) of the Eastern Section of the Combustion

Institute, Miami Beach (November 1978), 4 pp.

(5) L. W. Hunter, C. Grunfelder, C. H. Hoshall, and R. M. Fristrom,

"Combustion of Polyvinyl Chloride Studied by a Low Pressure Moving

Wire Technique, Topical Report of Fire Problems Program, APL/JHU

(August 1978)

(6) L. W. Hunter, "Extinction of Flame Propagation in a Mixture of

Flammable Gas and O2 with a Steady Concentration Gradient," Topical

Report of Fire Problems Program, APL/JHU (January 2, 1979).

(7) L. W. Hunter, "On the Role of Surface Oxidation in Flame Spread

Over Solids," Topical Report of Fire Problems Program, APL/JHU

(January 2, 1979).

(8) L. W. Hunter, "Fire Propagation with the Flow Inside a Thin-Walled

Insulated Duct," Topical Report of Fire Problems Program, APL/JHU

(February 14, 1979).

(9) L. W. Hunter and C. H. Hoshall, "Gaseous O2 Concentration Profiles

Ahead of a Propagating Polymer Flame," Topical Report of Fire

Problems Program, APL/JHU (April 19, 1979).

(10) L. W. Hunter and C. H. Hoshall, "An Ignition Test for Plastics,"

Topical Report of Fire Problems Program, APL/JHU (June 1979)

II. Flame Inhibition and Extinction (R. M. Fristrom)

R. M. Fristrom, C. H. Hoshall, and L. W. Hunter in collaboration

with N. J. Brown (Un. of Calif., Berkeley) and P. J. Van Tiggelen

(Laboratoire de Physico - Chimie de la Combustion, Universite de Louvain,

Louvain la Neuve, Belgium)

98
II. (A) Technical Abstract

Flame inhibition and extinction have been examined using

simple models which allow the inclusion of realistic chemistry for

oxygen flames with C-H-X fuels and additives. The two zone model has

been applied to an HCl inhibited hydrogen flame (Ref. 1, Fig. 2).

Using a normalize inhibition index, 0 = (V-Vj^)02/(V In) , it was found that self-consistent additive atomic indices could be derived

which would predict the index for any H-C-X molecule in a given flame

0 = 0^+0j^+Np0 (Fig. 2). The variation of halogen indices between flame

system was interpreted in terms of the kinetics of two processes:

(1) scavenging in which a reactive radical is converted into a (relatively)

unreactive radical or a saturated molecule, (2) recombination in which

two radicals recombine to form a saturated molecule. Both processes

depress the radical concentration which controls burning velocity. An

analytical expression was derived relating the atomic index with scavenger

stoichiometry and the ratio of halogen atom assisted recombination rate

to the rate of branching 0(X) = [Np+kx/k]Kp. Inhibition has thus been

quantitatively connected with the rates of elementary chemical reactions.

The zonal model has been extended to the complex chemistry of

C-H-O-X flames (Ref. 3). This was accomplished using a modification of

an existing Rocket Combustion Thermodynamic program. Burning velocity

and flame microstructure can be calculated for any flame in this family.

Excluding graphing the computational costs are less than $1 per flame.

The initial linear model using literature values for kinetics and transport with no adjustable parameters predicted burning velocities in five

test cases which when compared with experimental values were systematically

30% low with a dispersion of 15% (see Table I)

Flame extinction can occur by two mechanisms. A physical one

in which more than a critical amount of heat is lost and a chemical one

in which radical generation mechanisms are disturbed. The physical

mechanism commonly occurs when the burning velocity drop increases the

flame thickness to the same order as the apparatus. This is called

quenching and usually occurs when the burning velocity falls below a few

cm/sec. Two chemical mechanisms were identified (Ref. 4): Q) Scavenging

in which an added molecule converts all of the reactive radicals produced

by the oxygen into unreactive species, (2) Recombination competition

in which the kinetic constants and species concentrations are such that

everywhere in the flame the rates of radical recombination exceed the

rate of branching by H+O

2

. These mechanisms are being examined quantitatively using the new zonal model. Preliminary computations suggest

that, (1) Fuel rich methane and ethane flammability limits result from

scavenging by methyl radical, (2) The fuel rich limits of hydrocarbon

flames beyond propane are due to competition between H + O

2 branching

and H + O

2 + M recombination (Fig. 3), (3) The fuel lean limits of

hydrocarbons (with air) are due to quenching resulting from their low

burning velocities. (4) The extinction limit of hydrogen (40% in air)

by bromine may be due either to scavenging or to reduction of the burning

velocity below the critical limit (Ref. 4)

99
The concentration gradient apparatus for studying flame extinction has been constructed and is presently (June) undergoing tests. The

theory of flame propagation in gradients has been examined CRef. 5 ) to

determine the regime of gradient in which the limit will approach that

of a homogenous mixture.

II. (B) Reports and Papers

(1) N.J. Brown and R.M. Fristrom, "A Two Zone Model of Flame Propagation Applied to H^-Air and HCl Inhibited Flames", Fire and

Materials , No. 3 117 (1978)

(2) R.M. Fristrom and P.J. VanTiggelen, "An Interpretation of the

Inhibition of C-H-0 Flames by C-H-X Compounds", Seventeenth

Symposium on Combustion, presented August 1978, (in Press 1979).

(3) R.M. Fristrom

(a) "A Thermodynamic Method for Calculating Stages in the

Equilibration Zone of a Flame with Complex Chemistry"

Internal memo (May 1979) .

(b) "A Zonal Model for Flames with Complex Chemistry"

Internal memo (May 1979) .

(4) R.M. Fristrom

(a) "Flammability Limits and the Extinction of C-H-0 Flames

by Halogenated Compounds" Internal memo (April 1978)

.

(b) "An Interpretation of the Flammability Limits of HydroCarbon-Oxygen Flames" Internal memo (June 1979)

.

(5) L.W. Hunter "Extinction of Flame Propagation in a Mixture of

Flammable Gas and Oxygen with a Steady Concentration Gradient",

Topical Report of the Fire Problems Program APL/JHU (Jan. 2> 1979)

Table I Comparison Between Calculated and Experimental Burning Velocity

V Calc. V Exp.

(cm/sec) (cm/sec)

46 54 Air 185 250

10 CH^, 20 O

2

, 70 Ar 41 64

41 H

2

, 57 Air, 2 Br

2 170 245

10 CH

4

, 20 O

2

, 70 Ar 40 64

100
Fig. 1 Calculated propagation velocity v (cm/sec)

as a function of HCl con- centration (mole fraction)

.

FrS« 2 Comparison between calculated and ex- perimental inhibition indices for the methane-air

and hydrogen-air systems.

Fig. 3 Comparison of Theoretical Limits For Three Mechanisms

With Experimental Values For Fuel Rich Hydrocarbon Flames I

101
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No; P. 0. 812464

Grant Title; Fire Growth Experiments - Toward a Standard Room Fire

Test

Principal Investigator; Professor Robert Brady Williamson

507 Davis Hall

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

(415) 642-5308

Other Professional Personnel; David Van Volkinburg, received Master of

Engineering, 12/78

Wai-Ching Teresa Ling, Ph.D. candidate

Fred L. Fisher, Development Engineer

NBS Scientific Officer; William Parker

Technical Abstract

There is a growing trend to use full scale room fire experiments,

but there is not yet a standard version of the room fire test. The

exact details of the standard room fire test are still being debated by

working groups within ASTM, but it appears to be focusing in on an

8 X 8 X 12 foot test compartment. The place of departure is the

ASTM E603-77 Guide for Room Fire Experiments (1) which discusses the

choices available for such parameters as compartment design, ignition

source, instrumentation, test procedure, analysis of data and reporting

of results. The current thinking favors a test compartment with a single door and the ignition source placed in one corner of the interior,

away from the door. The exact size of the room, the doorway, the test

specimen and particularly the ignition source have not been established

The test specimen could consist of complete panel assemblies that would

form both the walls and ceiling of the test room.

(1) Annual Book of ASTM Standards. American Society for Testing and

Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadephia, PA.

102
The current project focuses on a series of six room fire experiments that are conducted in an 8 x 12 x 8 foot test compartment with

the following wall and ceiling lining materials on all walls and

ceilings

:

Test No. Wall Ceiling

1

23

4

5

6

Gypsum Wallboard

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

Plywood

Glass Fiber Insulation

Plywood

Gypsum Wallboard

Glass Fiber Insulation

Glass Fiber Insulation

Gypsum Wallboard

Plywood

Plywood

Three experiments have been conducted at this time (Tests 1, 2, and

4) and the remaining three are planned for July 1979. The ignition

source for these experiments has been a gas burner in the corner with

4.9 CFM of CH4

. Measurements have been made of (.i) the oxygen depletion

in the exhaust gases leaving the room (ii) the average upper air temperature in the room, (iii) the pressure and temperature profile from floor

to ceiling in the center of the room, (iv) the surface temperature at

the center of the ceiling and on a wall above the ignition source, and

(v) heat fluxes at several locations.

The emphasis of this project has been to conduct experiments in

which the contribution of the wall and ceiling finish material to the

fire growth are measured by techniques which are practical for a standard room fire test method. The temperature measurements, heat flux, and

photographic records have proven satisfactory during the first three

experiments. The oxygen depletion measurements have been extensively

modified since these first three experiments to allow a more accurate

determination of the flow and oxygen content of the exhaust gases. An

8’ X 8' collection hood has been constructed outside the doorway of the

test compartment and the oxygen cell has been moved to the duct on top

of the building. It is expected that the final three experiments will be

a critical test for the new duct and measurement apparatus.

Reports and Papers (This includes papers written under earlier projects

but published during the current year)

"Toward a Standard Ignition Source," by D. R. Van Volkinburg, R. B.

Williamson, F. L. Fisher, & H. Hasegawa, LBL Report 8306, presented at

the Western States Section, The Combustion Institute, Fall Meeting,

Laguna Beach, California, October 16-17, (1978), Paper No. 78-64.

"Post-Flashover Compartment Fires: Basis of a Theoretical Model," by

V. Babrauskas & R. B. Williamson, Fire and Materials, 2, 2: pp. 39-53,

(1978)

.

103
"The Historical Basis of Fire Resistance Testing, Part II," by

V. Babrauskas & R. B. Williamson, Fire Technology , 14 , 3: pp . 1B4-194,

(1978)

.

"Temperature Measurement in Fire Test Furnaces," by V. Babrauskas & R. B. Williamson, Fire Technology , 14 , 3: pp . 226-238, (.1978).

"Installing ABS and PVC Drain Waster and Vent Systems in Fire Resistant

Buildings," by R. B. Williamson, Fire Journal , Vol. 73, No. 2,

March 1979, pp. 36-45.

"The Historical Basis of Fire Resistance Testing, Part II," by

V. Babrauskas & R. B. Williamson, Fire Technology , 14 , 4: pp . 304-316,

(1978)

.

"Application of Fault Tree Analysis to Ignition of Fire," by T. Ling & R. B. Williamson, Fall Meeting of the Western States Section, The Combustion Institute, Laguna Beach, California, (1978), Paper No. 78-65.

104
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-2h, 1979

Institution: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No. : 809252

Grant TitleFire Modeling

Principal Investigator: Professor Patrick J. Pagni

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 9^720

Telephone: (^15) 6U2-0729

Other Professional Personnel: Charles M. Kinoshita, Ph.D. Candidate

Steven Bard, Ph.D. Candidate

Richard A. Beier, Ph.D. Candidate

Karen Den Braven, Ph.D. Candidate

Arthur Ortega (now at Sandia

Laboratories

)

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Howard Baiam

Technical Abstract:

The overall goal of this project is to develop physical and mathematical models of the detailed combustion phenomena which control a fire's growth within a compartment of origin and its subsequent propagation through a structure. These experimental and theoretical studies

may provide bases for development of test methods and for evaluation of

the real fire hazard of materials. This work is divided into three

broad categories: (l) extensions and applications of excess pyrolyzate

,

(2) soot volume fractions in diffusion flames, and (3) flat flame

burner design.

1. Excess Pyrolyzate: Several papers have been published describing the effect of fuel which is not cons\amed locally in the flame that

produced it [l-3]. Emphasis has now shifted from the unburnt fuel as

a fraction of the pyrolysed fuel to the flame height, since height is

always indicative of excess pyrolyzate and is easier to measure. The

following table gives predicted laminar flame extensions in units of fuel

slab height, i.e. = h^^/i , for typical PRC Sample Bank foams and

cellulose. The samples are assumed to be flush mounted in a vertical

wall with either free or forced flow with = 0.23, 1^ = 293 K and

property data obtained from Tewarson.

105
Material Y /If Q Y -h

/ p ow w,^ BY^, -sY /ft o°° ^ wall wall

(PRC No.) W Y„ ' 0 0 fw

^ L

^ ^ 1+B ^ ' >v

' plume wake

Polystyrene

(GM-i^ 9 ) 0.12 1.7 0.61 4.8 11 24

Polystyrene

(gm-Ut)

0.15 1.1 0 .i49 4.1 8 15

Polyurethane

(GM-21 ) 0.22 1.1 0.47 4.7 5 8.5

Polyurethane

( GM-29

)

Polyiso0.31 0.7 0.34 4.3 3 4.5

cyanurate

( GM-Ul

)

O.U3 O.k 0.23 4.0 2 3

Cellulose

(filter paper

0.60

) 0.8 0.33 6.9 1.5 2

The key parameter is the mass consirmption number, r. As r decreases, the flame height - and presumahly the hazard of propagation

beyond the compartment of origin - increases. This is a simple, easyto-use criterion for ranking materials; its accuracy is constrained by

the fact that turbulence and radiation remain to be incorporated [?].

The details of the analyses and additional predictions are given in Ref.

[3]. It is intended in the coming grant period: a) to obtain some ex- perimental verification of these predictions, b) to add both external

and flame-generated radiation to the analysis, c) to assess expected

effects of turbulence, d) to consider energy feedback and oxygen vitiation in compartment configurations, e) to fit our numerical flame height

results with simple functionals - X*£ (r,B,A), and finally f) to explore

incorporating these results in computational schemes currently under

development elsewhere.

2 . Soot VolTome Fractions

:

Experimental values of f^ , the volume

fraction of small t-urbulent diffusion flames occupied by combustion generated carbon particulate, have been reported [ 5 ]. Measurement of the

attenuation at several wavelengths of monochromatic laser beams passing

through a flame also determines approximate detailed size distributions

for the carbon particles within the flame. Calculations of flame radiation back to polyurethane in a pool fire geometry yield good agreement

with experimental mass pyrolysis rates [U]. Flame radiation is well

accepted as the dominant heat transfer mode in fiill scale fires. This

radiation is in turn controlled by the amount of soot in the flame which

now can be measured in both laboratory and full scale flames by the

106
techniques developed here. As discussed in Ref. [5], the next step is

to examine the spatial variation of the volume fraction within a given

flame and to determine proper scaling laws to allow small scale laboratory results to be accurately extrapolated to full scale fires.

3. Flat Flame B-urner: The detailed temperature and velocity

fields around a cooling coil embedded in a porous plug bixrner have been

predicted assuming a low Reynolds number media [8]. The flat flame

burner described is now in use in several laboratories and will permit

useful comparisons of detailed flame structiore experiments. Future

work should examine the possibility suggested by the analyses that

silversoldering the cooling coil to the upstream side of the porous plug

may be as effective as embedding the coil within the sinter. It re- mains to examine the flow downstream of the plug as a field of interacting jets emanating from the pores. Alternatives to a water cooled

porous plug as a flame stabalizer should also be considered. Our study

of heat and mass transfer in wet concrete will be published shortly [6].

The conclusion is that there is not sufficient free water in concrete

to cause significant departures from temperatures calculated under fire

conditions assuming a dry medium. No further work in this area is

planned

Reports and Papers:

1.

T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Laminar Mixed-Mode, Forced and Free,

Diffusion Flames," Journal of Heat Transfer, 100 , 253-259, 1978.

2. T. M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Analytic Incorporation of Probability

Density Functions in Turbulent Flames," International Journal of

Heat and Mass Transfer , 21 , 821-82U, 1978.

3. C.M. Kinoshita and P.J. Pagni, "Laminar Wake Flame Heights,"

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Paper No. 79-HT-68, 1979.

ij-. S. Bard, K.H. Clow and P.J. Pagni, "Combustion of Cellular Urethane,"

Combustion Science and Technology , 19 , 1^1-150, 1979*

5. P.J. Pagni and S. Bard, "Particulate Volume Fractions in Diffusion

Flames," Proceedings of the Seventeenth Symposium (int’l) on Combustion, in press.

6. M.S. Sahota and P.J. Pagni, "Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media

Subject to Fires," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer , in press.

7. T.M. Shih and P.J. Pagni, "Excess Pyrolyzate in Turbulent Wake

Flames," in preparation.

8. P.J. Pagni, A.R. Ortega and R.Toossi, "Flat Flame Burner Analyses,"

in preparation.

107
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley

Grant NO . : NBS Contract 805180

Grant Title : Polymer Combustion and Flame Chemistry

Principal Investigators : Dr. Nancy J. Brown

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

(415) 642-0289

Professor Robert F. Sawyer

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

(415) 642-5573

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Robert W. Schefer

William J. Pitz, Ph.D. Candidate

Minna W. Chan, undergraduate student

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. R. G. Gann

Project Summary :

Polymer combustion, flame inhibition, and flame chemistry have been

investigated experimentally and theoretically. Fundamental characteristics

of polymer combustion (extinction limits, burning rates, mass transfer

numbers and flame structure) have been measured with the objective of

relating basic chemical and physical polymer properties to flammability.

The flame inhibition studies have been directed toward gaining an improved understanding of inhibition mechanisms which prevail in different

combustion environments

.

Technical Abstract :

A modelling study of chemical flame inhibition has been completed

for the inhibitors HCI and HBr. The following variables were considered

in the study: 1) inhibitor concentration 2) fuel type 3) fluid mechanics 4) equivalence ratio and 5) pressure. Perfectly stirred reactor

equations were solved for a series of residence times and the corresponding compositions and temperatures between the blowout condition and thermodynamic equilibrium were obtained. Reaction rates and heat release

rates for the various reactions considered were examined at the blowout

condition. Computational studies of inhibited mixtures reacting in

plug flow were completed. Quantities of interest were induction times.

108
radical profiles, temperature profiles and heat release profiles. The

complex trade-off between reaction exothermicity and radical scavenging

ability for various inhibitor reactions was responsible for differences

between HCl and HBr. Inhibitor effectiveness was found to be dependent

upon fuel type.

Major emphasis has been placed upon obtaining flame structure meas- urements for polyethylene, burning in an opposed flow diffusion flame.

A gas chromatograph analytical system has been constructed, tested and

calibrated. A new aerodynamic nozzle for oxidizer flow which provides

a uniform velocity profile and a laminar-type flow across its exit has

been constructed and characterized. The nozzle provides a very flat

flame which greatly facilitates making composition measurements. The

experimental variables considered in the structure studies were oxidizer

flow velocity and the mole fraction of oxygen in the oxidizer flow.

Profiles were obtained for flames near and far away from extinction con- ditions. Examination of the profiles revealed that little oxygen is

transferred through the flame zone.

The gradient in oxygen concentration at the surface determines

whether or not oxygen is transported to the polymer surface. Oxygen

transported to the surface can oxidize the polymer, heterogeneously.

Analysis of the structure data indicated that the oxygen gradient near

the surface was zero for flames near extinction and very small for

flames far away from extinction. As one approached extinction, CO/CO^

ratios were found to increase significantly.

Reports and Papers :

1. Brown, N. J., Eberius, K. H. , Fristrom, R. M. , Hayermann, K. H. and

Wagner H. Gg. "Low Pressure Hydrogen/Oxygen Flame Studies," Combustion and Flame 35 , 151 (1978)

2. Brown, N. J. and Fristrom, R. M. "A Two Zone Model of Flame Propagation Applied to H2 + Air Flames and HCl Inhibited Flames," Fire

and Material s 117 (1978)

3. Brown, N.J. and Schefer, R. W. , "A Computational Study of Physical

and Chemical Flame Inhibitors," Western States Section/The Combustion Institute, Paper No. 78-43, 1978; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-6899, revised and in press.

4. Schefer, R. W. , Brown, N. J. and Chan, M. W., "A Comparative Study

of HCl and HBr Inhibition, " (in preparation).

5. Pitz, W. J. and Sawyer, R. F., "Inhibition Effects on Extinction

of Polymer Burning," Western States Section/The Combustion Institute,

Paper No. 78-32; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-6898.

6. Pitz, W. J., Sawyer, R. F., and Brown, N. J., "Flame Structure Measurements of Polymer Burning," (in preparation).

109
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-2k, 1979

Institution : Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,

Berkeley

Grant No. : 809253

Grant Title: Thermal Radiation of Luminous Flames and Smoke

Principal Investigator : Professor Chang-Lin Tien

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, California 9^720

Telephone

Other Professional Personnel : G. L.at

S. C. G. S.

T. ¥.

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Takashl

(Ul5) 61+2-0877

Hubbard (now Assistant Professor

Penn State)

Lee (Ph.D, Candidate)

Shiralkar (Ph.D. Candidate)

Tong (Ph.D. Candidate)

Kashiwagi

Technical Abstract :

The overall goal of this project is to establish a simple physical framework for complex fire and smoke radiation calculations. The

basic research approach is based on developing approximate formulations by systematically experimenting and analyzing the fundamental

aspects of the problem. The present research is focused on three

topics: (l) experimental investigation on soot radiation in flames,

(2) analysis of radiative heat transfer in scattering media, and (3)

computation of fire radiation and plume convection in an enclosure.

Experiments on Soot Radiation : Measurements of optical and infrared radiation attenuation in small-scale flames of solid plastics

are being carried out to provide more Information on soot radiation

and other related characteristics [l]. Of particular interest are the

effects of various soot parameters such as optical constants, particle sizes, and particle number density on flame radiation. The

experimental system is a modified version of the infrared radiation

apparatus used by Buckius and Tien [2]. Major modifications include

a large test chamber (3' x 3.5'W x 5'H nominal), addition of a visible-laser system, controlled ventilation, controlled oxidizer

content of feed-in gas, and computerization of the data system.

110
Analysis of Radiative Transfer with Scattering : Soot and smoke

particles absorb and scatter visible and infrared radiation. Radiative heat transfer in flames and smokes can be modeled on the basis

of dispersed particles acting as independent absorbers and scatterers

in the gaseous medium. Simple, convenient representation of the absorption field has been successfully made recently [3,^]. The scattering field is given by the Mie solution and the phase function for

each scatterer is often expressed in a series of Legendre polynomials. The first term of the series characterizes isotropic

scattering, while the first two terms represent linear anisotropic

scattering [5]. The mean beam length formulation for Rayleigh and

linear anisotropic scattering in planar geometry has been established,

and extensions to cylindrical and spherical geometries is being con- ducted at present. Resistance network representation of an absorbingscattering system has also been developed on the basis of the two-flux

model. Current effort is directed to further improvement in the

modeling of anisotropic scattering and in the realistic computation

of flame and smoke radiation.

Computation of Enclosure Convection and Radiation : Different

computation schemes for enclosure convection (elliptic-type) have been

examined carefully with their respective strengths and limitations

[6]. Proposed refinements include more effective ways of handling

boundary conditions [?] and the formulation of higher-order differencing schemes [8]. Progress has also been made in achieving

simple approximate solution for radiation heat transfer in one-dimensional, non-planar geometries [9] and multi-dimensional geometries

[10]. Interaction between enclosure convection and radiation is being

pursued currently.

Reports and Papers

1. W. W. Yuen and C. L. Tien, "A Simple Calculation Scheme for the

Luminous-Flame Emissivity," Proceedings of the l6th International

Combustion Symposium, 1U8I-IU87 (1977)-

2. R. 0. Buckius and C. L. Tien, "infrared Flame Radiation," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 20_, 93-106 (1977)»

3. J. D. Felske and C. L. Tien, "The Use of the Milne-Eddington

Absorption Coefficient for Radiative Heat Transfer in Combustion

Systems," Journal of Heat Transfer, 99.5 458-U65 (1977)-

k. G. L. Hubbard and C. L. Tien, "Infrared Mean Absorption Coefficients for Luminous Flames and Smoke," Journal of Heat Transfer,

100, 235-239 (1978).

5. A. Dayan and C. L. Tien, "Heat Transfer in a Planar Medium with

Anisotropic Scattering," Journal of Heat Transfer, 97.5 391-396

(1975).

Ill
6. L. C. Chow and C. L. Tien, "An Examination of Four Differencing

Schemes for Some Elliptic-Type Convection Equations," Numerical

Heat Transfer, 1., 87-100 (19T8).

7. L. C. Chow, Y. K. Cheung and C. L. Tien, "A New Finite-Difference

Representation for the Vorticity at a Wall with Suction," Numerical Heat Transfer, _1, 417-^23 (1978).

8. L. C. Chow, Y. K. Cheung and C. L. Tien, "A Higher-Order Difference Scheme for Convective-Diffuse Equations," AIAA Paper No.

79- 1^ 66 .

9. W. W. Yuen and C. L. Tien, "Approximate Solutions of Radiative

Transfer in One-Dimensional Non-Planar Systems," Journal of

Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 1£, 533-5^9

(1978).

10. W. W. Yuen and C. L. Tien, "A Successive Approximation Approach

to Problems in Radiative Transfer with a Differential Formulation," Journal of Heat Transfer, in press.

112
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution; Loyola University of Chicago

Grant No .

;

G8-9017

Grant Title; Behavioral Analysis of the Life Safety Code

Principal Investigator; Dr. Leonard Bickman, Director

Applied Social Psychology Program

Loyola University of Chicago

6525 N. Sheridan Road

Chicago, IL 60626

Other Professional Personnel; Mr. David Rivers

NBS Scientific Officer; B . Levin

Project Summary; The Life Safety Code, NFPA Standard No. 101, is one

of many model codes that is used by various government agencies to

establish minimum requirements for building fire safety. The Code is

based on engineering and technical knowledge in the field of fire

safety. However, behavioral and psychological perspectives were

generally lacking in the development of the Code.

This research project consists of a behavioral analysis of

selected provisions of the Life Safety Code. Each provision is analyzed

according to the assumptions of and implications for human behavior.

Research findings are cited which either support or contradict the

provision. Aspects of the Code for which there are no relevant

behavioral data available are noted as well as possible directions for

future research.

In addition the results of a content analysis of the Code based

on Bickman et al.'s (1977) "Model of Human Behavior in a Fire Emergency"

are presented and discussed. Finally, the behavioral and content

analyses are summarized and conclusions are drawn.

113
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-2U, 1979

Institution: National Electrical Manufacturers Association

Contract No: Future Contract

Title: NEMA Fluid Filled Transformer FlammaUility Study

Principal Investigator: John H. Motherway

Power Equipment Division

NEMA

2101 L St., N.W., Suite 300

Washington, D.C. 20037

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. Richard G. Gann

Technical Abstract

The overall purpose of this program is to simulate catastrophic

failures of transformers containing substitute fluids for polychlorinated

biphenyls to provide a technical basis for future fire safety testing.

The cost of definitive series of full-scale transformer tests involving

electrically induced disruptive failure is prohibitively high. Thus

explosive charges will be used here instead. The energy release and

time duration of the charges will be based on arc-induced failures.

Transformer tanks filled with several fluids and heated to various

temperatures will be thus exploded. The effect of saturation of

the fluids with flammable gases will also be studied. High speed movies

will indicate the extent of ignition of the expelled fluid and provide

for comparison with prior data on arc-induced explosions . Combustible

materials will be located at fixed positions around the transformers

to indicate the ignition potential from expelled, flaming droplets. If

successful, this study would lead to test transformer rupture.

114
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; National Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA

Contract No. ; DOC A0-A01-78-001004

Contract Title : Investigation and Analysis of Major Fires

Principal Investigators : A. Elwood Willey, Director - Project Manager

Richard L. Best, Fire Analaysis Specialist

James R. Bell, Fire Analaysis Specialist

David A. Moore, Fire Analysis Specialist

Fire Investigations Department

Fire Information and Systems Division

National Fire Proection Association

470 Atlantic Avenue

Boston, MA 02210

(617) 482-8755

Other Professional Personnel : James K. Lathrop, Life Safety Code

Specialist

David P. Demers, Fire Protection Engineer

Wilbur Walls, Flammable Gases Specialist

Robert Benedetti, Chemical Specialist

Joseph Redden, Director, Public Protection Division

NBS Scientific Officer : Richard L. P. Custer

(COTR: Thomas Klem, U.S. Fire Administration,

National Fire Data Center)

Project Summary : Under a cost-sharing contract between the National

Fire Protection Association, National Bureau of Standards and U.S. Fire

Administration, in-depth field investigations are conducted of selected

fire incidents. For each investigation an analysis is made of fire

causal factors, spread factors, materials contributing to fire and

smoke propagation, recreation of people movement and actions taken,

fire propagation as a function of time, factors affecting fire propagation, performance of fire protection equipment, key life safety and

property protection problems and of contributing factors resulting in

loss of life and property damage. In addition to field work by investigators with fire protection engineering backgrounds, other specialists

are consulted, including NBS researchers. In some cases, samples from

fire scenes are tested for fire hazard characteristics at NBS and

results included in reports.

This in-depth investigation and analysis activity gives an improved understanding of fire growth and development, smoke development

and spread, and the actions of people in actual fire situations.

115
Following submittal of contract reports to USFA/NBS, reports are published and distributed by NFPA to ensure that the facts and lessons

learned are made available to the fire community in a timely manner.

In addition to the literature, background data from the investigations

is available at NFPA for research purposes.

Progress Report : A total of 14 incidents have been investigated

under this contract, twelve of which were conducted since submittal of

the last report in July, 1978. Reports have been submitted to USFA and

NBS for eight of the twelve investigations and four investigations are currently ongoing.

Reports have been completed on the following incidents:

• A supermarket fire in Brooklyn, New York on August 2, 1978 in

which roof collapse killed six fire fighters

• An apartment house fire in Dallas, Texas where fire-blocked

exits contributed to the deaths of four adults and two children

on September 12, 1978

• The September 25, 1978 mid-air collison of a commercial airliner and a single-engine aircraft in San Diego, California

which killed all occupants of both planes and seven ground

victims

• A fire in a wood-frame resort hotel in Ayer's Cliff, Quebec

which resulted in eleven fatalities on October 1, 1978

• A department store fire in Des Moines, Iowa on November 5, 1978

where ten employees preparing to open for the day were killed

• A hotel fire in Greece, New York on November 26, 1978 which

took the lives of ten guests

• The December 9, 1978 fire in an Ellisville, Mississippi mental

hospital dormitory resulting in the deaths of 15 residents

• An incendiary fire in a tenement building which killed six in

Hoboken, New Jersey on January 20, 1979

Accomplishments : This contract is the fourth in a series of NFPA/NBS

fire investigation contracts since 1972. The two most recent contracts

have also involved the USFA, with funding shared between the two

agencies and NFPA in a cooperative effort. Since the original contract, 68 incidents have been investigated and reports prepared.

Selected abstracts of recent studies are included below:

116
On Wednesday, August 2, 1978, six New York City fire

fighters died while fighting a fire at Waldbaum's Supermarket at 2892 Ocean Avenue, Brooklyn, New York. The fire

fighters died of burns received when the roof of the supermarket they were working on collapsed without warning. The

roof system structurally consisted of seven 100-foot long

medium-weight wood segmental trusses. At the time of roof

collapse, there were approximately 24 operating personnel

of the New York City Fire Department on the roof. The com- bination of a major fire in the combustible truss area,

building construction features, the apparent lack of recognition by fire department operating personnel of the wood

truss construction involved in this incident and the hazards

associated with it, and the exposure of large numbers of

fire fighters to those hazards were the primary factors

that lead to the fatalities.

* * *

A Pacific Southwest Airlines Boeing 727 aircraft.

Flight 182, collided in mid-air with N7711G, a Cessna 172, over San Diego on September 25, 1978. Both aircraft crashed

into a residential area of San Diego, resulting in the

deaths of all aircraft occupants and seven victims on the

ground. A total of 144 persons died as a result of the

crash. Approximately eight residential buildings were

totally involved in fire following the crash and another

four buildings were ignited.

The County of San Diego had developed Emergency Medical

Services Advisory Planning Committees covering San Diego

County and eight Emergency Medical Service areas. A Medical/

Health Emergency Disaster Plan was developed by the Office

of Emergency Medical Services and had been distributed,

but not fully implemented, when the air disaster occurred.

The overall County jresponse to the disaster was adequate,

despite a breakdown in the planned communications system.

The performance of the Disaster Plan was the focus of the

study

.

•k k k

On October 1, 1978, eleven people died in a fire at

the Ripplecove Inn in Ayer's Cliff, Province of Quebec,

Canada. The wood frame hotel was equipped with a manual

fire alarm system and single station battery powered smoke

detectors. Extremely rapid fire development due to highly

combustible interior finish, an open stairway, and weather

conditions were the most significant factors leading to the

fatalities

.

117
Even though the smoke detectors were of the type intended for one and two family dwellings, they did help to

limit the total number of fatalities. The manual fire alarm

system, as far as can be determined, was never activated.

* * A

On Sunday, November 26, 1978, at 2:38 a.m., a fire was reported at the Holiday Inn - Northwest in Greece, New York,

a suburb of Rochester. Ten occupants died in this fire which

was most likely incendiary in nature. The building was equipped with a fire alarm system. Initiating devices included manual pull stations and combination rate of rise,

fixed temperature thermal detectors. Ttffese alarm-initiating

devices were located only in the corridors and the alarm

system was not connected directly to the fire department.

There was one fire alarm bell per corridor.

The report analyzes the primary factors that led to

fatalities in this incident. These factors included highly

combustible interior finish, unprotected openings that

existed in the stairway and inadequate alerting of occupants.

Extensive rescue efforts by fire fighters prevented a much

higher life loss.

AAA

On December 9, 1978, a fire originating in a clothing

storage room in a residential custodial care dormitory at

a mental hospital outside Ellisville, Mississippi killed

15 and hospitalized 16 of 63 residents. Smoke spreading

from the storage room simultaneously exposed two wards on

the top floor of the two story fire resistive building.

Primary factors resulting in the fatalities were the lack

of compartmentation and automatic sprinkler protection of

the storage room, lack of subdivision of the facility by

a smoke stop partition, ,lack of automatic detection and

alarm system, and lack of automatic alarm transmission to

the fire department. Additional contributing factors to the

loss of life included the lack of illumination during the

evacuation of residents, limited fire service resources,

and the mental and physical handicaps of the residents.

Potential Applications : The information gained from in-depth investigation and analysis of fire incidents has many uses both in the

field and in the research environment.

118
Reports contain commentary on the performance of fire detection

and extinguishing equipment, building assemblies and systems and

various measures of fire control. The studies provide an opportunity

to measure the performance of requirements in national consensus fire

safety codes and standards. Lessons learned from these investigations

are of use to fire safety practitioners and researchers. Indicators

for additional research are often included in reports.

In addition to the use of information by NFPA technical committees and in technical programs, information from investigations is

utilized in training films and slide packages for use by the fire

service and fire safety practitioners.

Future Milestones : Investigations are in progress on four incidents

and reports will be prepared. These active studies include:

• A fire which occurred in a restaurant undergoing renovation in Lubbock, Texas resulted in the deaths of three

fire fighters on March 25, 1979. Factors related to the

fatalities, including self-contained breathing apparatus

problems, are being examined.

• Another fire involving a fire fighter fatality which

occurred in Los Angeles on May 12, 1979 is being investigated. Factors related to the death of the fire fighter

is also the focus of this study.

• Two multiple death boarding home fires are under investigation, including the Farmington, Missouri fire of April

2, 1979 and the Washington, DC group care facility fire

of April 11, 1979. Facility design, fire growth and

development, staff actions and other people factors are being examined in these studies.

Reports and Papers : The following investigation reports have been

submitted to USFA/NBS

Bell, James R. , "Fifteen Resident Fatalities - Ellisville State

School - Ellisville, Missouri - December 9, 1978."

Best, Richard L. , "Aircraft Collision and Crash - San Diego,

California - September 25, 1978."

Best, Richard L., "Apartment House Fire - Hoboken, New Jersey - January 20, 1979 - 21 Fatalities." (Letter report)

Demers, David P., "Ayer's Cliff, PQ, Canada - Hotel - 11 Fatalities - October 1, 1978." (Letter report)

119
Demers, David P., "Hotel Fire - Greece, New York - Ten Fatalities

- November 26, 1978."

Demers, David P. , "Six Fire Fighter Fatalities - 2892 Ocean Ave- nue - Brooklyn, New York - August 2, 1978."

Lathrop, James K. , "Apartment House Fire - Six Fatalities - Dallas, Texas - September 12, 1978."

Lathrop, James K. , "Younkers Department Store Fire - Ten Fatalities - Des Moines, Iowa - November 5, 1978."

Published reports:

Best, Richard L. , Reconstruction of a Tragedy - Beverly Hills

Supper Club Fire , NFPA, 1978.

Demers, David P. , Fire in Syracuse: Four Fire Fighters Die, NFPA,

1979.

A Study of the Baptist Towers Housing for the Elderly Fire , NFPA,

1973.

Articles in NFPA publications:

Best, Richard L. , "The San Diego Air Crash," Fire Command , February, 1979, NFPA.

Demers, David P. , "Fire in Quebec Hotel Kills Eleven," Fire

Journal , May, 1979, NFPA.

Demers, David P., "Brooklyn Roof Collapse Claims Six Lives,"

Fire Command , December, 1979, NFPA.

Demers, David P. , "Four Fire Fighters Die in Syracuse Fire,"

Fire Command , October, 1978, NFPA.

Fire Investigations Department, "Hotel Fire Kills Ten," (Greece,

New York) Fire Command , June, 1979, NFPA.

Fire Investigations Department, "Six Die in Dallas Fire," Fire

Command , March, 1979, NFPA.

Major Presentations:

Bell, James, "The Ellisville State School Fire," presented at

the NFPA Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Missouri, May 14-17, 1979.

120
Best, Richard, "PSA Crash in San Diego and Beverly Hills Supper

Club Fire," presented at the Michigan Building Officials Conference in Kalamazoo, Michigan, February 14-15, 1979.

Demers, David P., "Syracuse Fire Fighter Fatalities," presented

at the FDIC, Memphis, Tennessee, March 22, 1979.

Willey, A. Elwood, "Fire Investigations For Loss Prevention

Purposes," presented by Dr. John L. Bryan, University of Maryland,

at the United States - Japan Panel on Fire Research and Safety,

Tokyo, Japan, February 5-9, 1979.

Case Study NFPA Films and Slide Packages based on contract investigations ;

Case Study Slide Packages:

SL - 13, "LP-Gas Explosion, Kingman, Arizona, July 5, 1973"

SL - 22, "Hospital Fire, Osceola, Mo., Dec. 3, 1974"

SL - 26, "Three Nursing Home Fires" (Wincrest Nursing Home,

Chicago, Illinois, January 30, 1976; Cermak House,

Cicero, Illinois, February 4, 1976; Plaza Nursing

Centre, Niles, Illinois, February 18, 1976)

SL- 38, "Reconstruction of a Tragedy - The Beverly Hills

Supper Club Fire"

Films

FL - 35, "Incendiol" (High-rise fire, Sao Paulo, Brazil,

February 1, 1974)

FL - 50, "The Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire

Code Enforcement"

A Case for

121
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution; North Carolina State University

Grant/Contract No; DA-0012

Title; Occupant Response Variability in Escape From Residential Fires

Principal Investigator; Richard G. Pearson, Professor

North Carolina State University

Dept, of Industrial Engineering

Box 5511, Raleigh, North Carolina 27650

Other Professional Personnel; Mahmoud A. Ayoub, Associate Professor

NBS Scientific Officer; Bernard Levin

Technical Abstract

A two-year program of research is proposed in which response times

and behaviors of residential occupants to simulated fire emergency

situations will be evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. A

variety of egress scenarios will be used to provide data relative to

such factors (constraints) as human physical and sensory ability characteristics, alertness, environmental designs, level of visibility,

personal needs adjunct to egress, and responsibility for others and for

property. Studies will involve emergency egress from a "living facility" laboratory containing two bedrooms and a hallway, from residential

homes and apartments, from sorority dormitories, from a high-rise

senior-citizens apartment building, and from a sleep state as confirmed

by EEG recordings. Based upon collected data, a computerized simulation model will be developed for predicting the total time for egress

under various conditions of fire behavior, building design, and occu- pant characteristics.

The descriptive behavioral data are expected to have educational

value relative to occupant guidance for fire emergency egress. Response

time data for egress, including specific component times, would be re- lated to probabilities of successful egress. The sleep study will provide data on "sudden-awakening" behaviors and on signal characteristics

required for subject arousal. Finally, the simulation model should

have value in predicting total egress times under a variety of environmental and human constraints as related to fire survival.

122
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution: The Pennsylvania State University

Grant/Contract No: NBS Grant 7-9020

Grant Title : An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal

Ceiling

Principal Investigator : Professor G.M. Faeth

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Pennsylvania State University

214 M.E. Bldg.

University Park, PA 16802

Other Professional Personnel : H-Z. You, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: H. Baum

Technical Abstract

The structure and heat transfer characteristics of turbulent

fires and fire plumes impinging on a horizontal ceiling is being

investigated in order to provide a more complete understanding of

unwanted fires within buildings. The results of the study have

application to modeling fires within structures, to determining heat

transfer rates to structural members during fires, and to estimating

the environment of fire detectors and fire suppression devices mounted

near a ceiling.

Measurements are being m.ade of convective and radiative heat

fluxes to the ceiling and radiative heat fluxes to the ambiance. Detailed measurements of the structure of the flow are also being undertaken in order to provide a better understanding of flame radiation

properties, air entrainment rates, energy release rates, rates of fuel

consumption and ceiling heat transfer rates. These measurements include profiles of mean velocities and turbulent fluctuations using a laser Doppler anemometer, mean temperature using fine-wire thermocouples, mean concentrations of gaseous species (CH^, C^H^, H^, CO

2

, CO, H

2 O, O

2 and N

2

) using sampling and gas chromatography, and flame

shape using dark-field photography. Wherever possible, the results

are correlated with simple expressions that can be employed by the

nonspecialist

.

The experiments employ a laboratory-scale apparatus involving

ceiling diameters of 610-1000 mm, ceiling heights of 58-940 mm, fire source diameters of 10-107 mm, flame heat release rates of 54-14250 W,

and curtain wall lengths (to simulate confined ceilings within a 123
structure) as large as the ceiling height. Fire sources are being

simulated by liquid fuels burning from horizontal wicks as well as natural gas flames having low initial momentum leaving a cylindricalscreened duct.

The experiments have yielded correlations for flame shape and

convective heat flux to the ceiling for both confined and unconfined

ceilings. Free flame heights, H^, could be

method suggested by Steward (Comb. Sci. and

correlated according

Tech. 2, 203, 1970):

to a

Hp/D = 10.96 (1)

with

Q^(r + N

- CO ^ 2_ 2 ,5

Poo Qc gD (1 - (2)

and

00 = [1 + QJt C T

]~^

s p

°° (3)

where D = source diameter, Q

= energy release rate, r = mass of air

per mass of fuel for stoichiometric combustion, Q

= !^eat of combustion,

g

= acceleration of gravity, C = specific heat, = ambient temperature, and and p are gas densities of the ambiance and at the fire

source, respectively. The length of impinging flames along an unconfined ceiling, Hj^, could be correlated in terms of the free flame

height, as follows:

D Q'^7

Hj^/D = 0.502[(H^ - H)/D] (4)

where H = ceiling height. A clear trend of the influence of degree of

confinement could not be established for confined ceilings. The

ceiling layer composition depends upon whether the fire plume has

entrained sufficient oxygen for complete combustion upon entering the

layer. If the fire plume is fuel-rich, flame length is controlled by

the consumption of entrained oxygen, while if it is lean, flame length

is controlled by the consumption of fuel. Overall, the measurements

could be correlated as follows:

Hj^/D = 0.692[(H^ - (5)

yielding flame lengths up to 40 percent longer than for unconfined

ceilings

.

Ceiling heat fluxes in the stagnation region, r/H < 0.2, where

r = radial distance from center of fire, could be correlated quite

simply,

q"H^/Q = 31.21 Pr'^'^^Ra"^^^ (6)

. 2 3

where Ra = g3QH /pCp\^

9 14

for Hp/H < 1.5, Pr ^ 0.7 and Ra in the range 10 - 10 . In Eqs. (6)

and (7), q” = heat flux, Pr = Prandtl number, 3 = coefficient of

124
thermal expansion and v = kinematic viscosity. Larger flame lengths

resulted in lower heat fluxes due to lower velocities and temperatures in the core of the fire. These natural convection heat flux

values were only 25-40 percent of the values obtained for forced flows

under comparable conditions. Ceiling heat fluxes in the ceiling jet

region, r/H > 0.2, could be correlated as follows for an unconfined

ceiling:

q"H^/Q = 0.04(r/H)"^^^ (8)

for Ra in the range 10^^ - 2 x 10^^, Pr ^ 0.7 and H^/H < 0.6. The

results were not much different for flame impingement H£/H < 2.5.

Ceiling heat fluxes were somewhat higher for confined ceilings, but

Eq. (8) still provides a reasonable fit of the data.

Current activities are devoted to measurements of flow structure

and radiative properties. In order to provide stable, long-term

operating conditions, these measurements are being undertaken with the

natural gas fueled fire source. Four operating conditions are being

examined involving heat release rates of 0.38, 1.52, 7.13 and 14.25 kW

from a 55 mm diameter burner with a 400 mm ceiling height. These

conditions span the topological possibilities for the process: plume

impingement, incipient flame impingement, flame at the start of the

ceiling jet and flame in the ceiling jet region.

The results of this research provide heat transfer parameters that can be used in building design to reduce potential fire losses. Completion of structure measurements provide benchmark data obtained for

well-defined conditions. This information can be employed to test both

simplified and sophisticated models of fires within structures, advancing model development in order to reduce the need for expensive large

scale tests for fire hazard evaluation.

Reports and Papers

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G.M., "An Investigation of Fire Impingement on a Horizontal Ceiling," The Pennsylvania State University, 1978.

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G.M., "Fire Impingement on a Ceiling," 1978 Technical Meeting, Eastern Section of the Combustion Institute, Paper No.

9, November 1978.

Liburdy, J.A. , Groff, E.G. and Faeth, G.M., "Structure of a Turbulent

Thermal Plume Rising Along an Isothermal Wall," Trans. ASME, Series C,

J. Heat Transfer , Vol. 101, 249-255, 1979.

Ahmad, T. and Faeth, G.M., "Turbulent Wall Fires," Seventeenth Symposium (International) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, in press.

You, H-Z. and Faeth, G.M., "Ceiling Heat Transfer During Fire Plume

and Fire Impingement," submitted to J. of Fire and Materials.

125
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Princeton University

Grant No ; NBS Grant 7-9004

Grant Title : An Experimental Investigation of Flame Spread Over

Condensed Combustibles: Gas Phase Interactions

Principal Investigators : Professor I. Glassman, Dr. F.L. Dryer, and

Dr. A.G. Fernandez-Pello

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Princeton University

Princeton, N.J. 08544

(609) 452-5199

Other Professional Personnel : S.R. Ray, Ph.D. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : B. McCaffrey

Technical Abstract

A research program has been undertaken to study the mechanisms

controlling the process of fire spreading over solid materials. Modes

of fire propagation with the oxidizer flow (natural or forced) opposing the direction of spread are currently being studied. The pathways of heat transfer for horizontal fire spread in natural convection

have been analyzed for flames spreading over a thermally thick fuel.

The effect of oxygen concentration of a forced gas flow on the fire

spread rate has been studied for flames propagating over thick fuel

sheets. In order to corroborate the conclusions of the above studies,

further research will be performed for flames spreading over thermally thin fuels.

a). Heat transfer mechanisms in horizontal flame spread.

An experimental study has been performed of the magnitude of the

different mechanisms by which heat is transferred from the flaming re- gion to the unburnt fuel ahead of the flame for flames propagating

horizontally over the surface of PMMA sheets 2.5 cm thick in a natural convective environment. The experiments are carried out in a quiescent test cell, with the operation of the experiment automatically controlled from outside the test cell to avoid perturbations in

the flame Induced flow field by environmental air currents. The ex- perimental facility combines a two-dimensional laser doppler velocimeter, a thermocouple and radiometry probing set up and an optical

indicator of flame location. Simultaneous measurements of the flame

126
spread rate, the gas flow velocity, the solid and gas phase temperatures and arrival of the flame at the location of the measurements are obtained and recorded in a real time data acquisition system. Radiant fluxes at the fuel surface are measured by several independent

techniques to corroborate the results . Measurements of the heat transfer parameters ahead of the flame in a particular case of laboratory

scale are used to construct energy balances along control volumes in

the gas and solid phases to determine the magnitude of the different

heat fluxes. The results show that, for this particular case, although heat conduction through the solid is dominant (up to 60% of the

total heat transferred) , radiation from the flame contributes significantly to the heat transfer process (up to 40%) . An analysis of the

development of the fire indicates that there is a transition in the

mechanisms of heat transfer as the fire grows. While in the early

stages of the fire, heat conduction through the solid is dominant,

radiation from the flame becomes of increased importance as the size

of the fire increases.

b) . Effect of the oxygen concentration of a forced flow on the

spread rate.

The rate of fire spread over the surface of thick PMMA sheets has

been measured as a function of the velocity and oxygen concentration

of a forced gas flow opposing the direction of flame propagation. The

experiments are performed in a small scale wind tunnel with the gas

flow provided by independently metered flows of oxygen and nitrogen.

Gas velocities in the test section of the tunnel are measured with a laser doppler velocimeter. Maximum gas velocities attainable with the

present experimental installation are 200 cm/sec . The flame spread

rate is obtained by timing the time interval required for the flame

front to pass markings on the fuel surface previously ruled at fixed

intervals. For the experiments where the spread rate is very fast,

a motorized photographic camera in combination with an electric clock

is used to determine the velocity of flame propagation. The experimental results show that for low oxygen concentrations, after an initial region where the spread rate is practically constant, the velocity of flame propagation decreases as the velocity of the gas flow

increases. However, for high oxygen concentrations the dependence is

reversed, with the spread rate increasing with the flow velocity. Some

characteristic parameters related to the flame spread process such as surface temperature and gas velocity in the boundary layer near the

fuel surface are analyzed in order to provide further information about

the effect of the gas flow on the flame spread process. Phenomenological arguments in conjunction with simplified analytical expressions describing the different mechanisms involved in the flame propagation process are used in an attempt to explain the nature of the

results. It is shown that gas phase chemical kinetics plays a critical role in the mechanism of flame propagation particularly at low

oxygen concentration. Two counteracting effects, one chemical and the

other thermal, are Identified as controlling mechanisms. As the opposing gas velocity increases, the chemical effects tend to decrease

the spread rate, while the thermal effects favor the spread rate. The

relative Influence of both mechanisms determines the increase or

127
decrease of the flame spread rate. The experimentally measured flame

spread rate is correlated nondimens ionally as a function of the

Damkohler number (describing chemical effects) and of a nondimensional

spread rate (describing thermal effects) . Since for large opposed

flow velocities gravity effects are negligible, the results of the

present work apply to any fuel orientation.

A nondimensional correlation of the flame spread rate, such as the one obtained in this work, not only provides physical insight into the

fire propagation problem, hut represents a potential tool for predicting fire spreading behavior. It appears that it is possible to

predict in nondimensional terms such effects as the influence of am- bient pressure, oxygen concentration, velocity of the gas flow, gravity and initial temperature of the system. Such a predictive capability could simplify considerably the estimations of the development

of fires under a variety of environmental conditions and could facilitate the extension of the flammability ratings for materials to con- ditions not currently tested.

Reports and Papers

Ray, S.R., Fernandez-Pello , A.C. and Classman, I, (1978), "An Experimental Study of the Pathways of Heat Transfer in Horizontal Flame

Spread", presented at the 1978 Fall Technical Meeting, Eastern States

Section, The Combustion Institute, November 29-30, Miami Beach, Fla.

Fernandez-Pello , A.C., Santoro, R.J., Dryer, F.L., and Classman, I. (1978), "Experimental Investigations of Flame Spread Over Condensed

Combustibles: Cas Phase Interactions". Technical Report 1418,

Princeton University, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

Fernandez-Pello, A.C. (1979), "Flame Spread in a Forward Forced Flow",

Combustion and Flame (In press). Also 1978 Fall Meeting, Western

States Section, The Combustion Institute, October 16-17, Laguna Beach,

Ca.

Fernandez-Pello, A.C. and Classman, I. (1979), "The Effect of Oxygen

Concentration on Flame Spread in an Opposed Forced Flow", presented

at the 1979 Spring Meeting, Western States Section, The Combustion

Institute, April 23-24, Provo, Utah.

Ray, S.R., Fernandez-Pello, A.C. and Classman, I. (1979), "An Analysis

of the Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Horizontal Flame Propagation". Accepted for presentation at the ASME/AIChE 18th National Heat Transfer

Conference, August 6-8, San Diego, Ca . ASME publication 79-HT-25.

128
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

InstitutionPrinceton University

Grant: 4-9026

Title

Smoldering Combustion Studies

Principal Investigator:

Prof. I. Glassman

Aerospace & Mech. Engr. Dept.

Engineering Quadrangle

Princeton University

Princeton, NJ 08540

Dr. T. J. Ohlemiller

Aerospace & Mech. Engr. Dept.

Forres tal Campus

Princeton University

Princeton, NJ 08544

Other Professional Personnel : F. E. Rogers

NBS Scientific Officer: Dr. J. Rockett

Technical Abstract

Objectives and Approach : Smoldering of loose-fill cellulosic insulation in residences has emerged as a significant fire safety problem in

the past few years. This has prompted the present study of the underlying thermophysics and chemistry of smolder initiation and propagation

in these materials. Our objective is a greater \inders tan ding of the

conditions required to start self-sustaining smolder reactions and of

the overall mechanism whereby these reactions propagate onward, producing toxic gases and the potential for flaming combustion.

For convenience of study, we have separated the ignition and

propagation processes. Ignition is studied in a simple hot plate

apparatus according to a technique first suggested by Bowes & Townshend

( Brit . Appl . Phys . 13 , 1962, p. 105) . The procedure of application

is designed to yield the minimum plate temperature that just produces

ignition in a layer of a given thickness. This mode of testing coupled

with the one -dimensional heat flow produce a situation for which thermal

ignition theory provides an approximate model and thereby a framework

for interpreting the results

Smolder propagation in realistic situations (e.g., an attic floor

installation) is not closely describable by any simple analysis. It

yields a complex wave structure that is only beginning to be studied.

Prior to undertaking this examination of the 2-D propagation process, we

129
have looked at the extreme opposite 1-D cases of forward and reverse

smolder. (In the former, smolder propagation is in the same direction

as the airflow; in the latter, they are in opposite directions.)

Approximate models have more utility here in aiding our understanding of

factors controlling propagation.

Thermal analytical techniques (TGA/DSC) complement the above

studies of overall behavior. These provide a direct picture of the

effects of smolder retardants on the oxidative degradation of the cellulosic material. They also facilitate the development of simplified

kinetic schemes describing the overall weight loss and heat release

processes; these kinetics are used in modeling overall behavior.

Summary of Progress ; Using the hot plate apparatus, we have examined

the thi ckness -dependent , minimiom ignition temperature of three insulation compositions: unretarded material, the first plus 20% add-on of

boric acid and the first plus 20% add-on of elemental sulfur. Boric

acid is a widely used smolder retardant; elemental sulfur is an experimental retardant previously found effective in some other tests. The

insulation layer thicknesses ranged from 3 to 7 cm with the maximum

thickness dictated by 1-D heat flow requirements in the apparatus. The

extremes of minimum ignition temperature over the whole test series were

265 C to 325 C but the variation was much less among compositions at a fixed layer thickness. Elemental sulfur had no retarding effect in

these tests and boric acid only raised the minimum ignition temperature

by about 20°C.

These results can be extrapolated to layer thicknesses of more practical interest (e.g., 20-30 cm) utilizing the thermal ignition

theory model of Bowes and Townshend. This extrapolation implies that

the minimum ignition temperatures at 30 cm may drop to 200-230 C but

that the relative ordering of the three conpositions will be about the

same. Close examination of some of the assumptions in the Bowes and

Townshend model (particularly neglect of reactant consumption) indicates

that these extrapolated temperatures may be too low. Extrapolation

using TGA-derived kinetics yields temperatures some 20 C higher.

Thermal analysis sheds more light on the ignition and propagation

processes. We find that the oxidative degradation of these materials

is describable by two overall steps, both of which are exothermic.

Both steps then have the potential for producing smolder ignition in some circumstances but the second step, which we call char oxidation, is

significantly slower. The results implicate the first overall reaction

step as the cause of smolder initiation in practical cases. Retardant

action should be focused on this step. Both steps are slowed by boric

acid addition, especially the second. Sulfur addition effects cannot be

reliably assessed by these techniques since it sublimes out of the

sample at low temperatures.

Kinetic analysis of TGA results is greatly facilitated by improved

procedures which suggest the most appropriate class of rate law and

uniquely define best-fit kinetic parameters for that rate law. The

130
kinetics thus derived have aided the above analyses.

We have also examined 2-D smolder propagation through the same insulation compositions as given above. In particular, we determined

the minimum layer thickness that just supported lateral smolder propagation. The critical depths ranged from 3 cm for unretarded material to

6 cm for material with 20% boric acid add-on. 20% sulfur increased the

critical depth only slightly.

We have examined, in a preliminary manner, the structure of the

lateral smolder propagation wave and find that it resembles a combination of the two 1-D cases (forward and reverse smolder) . At present it

appears that the forward smolder section in the front of the wave is

most responsible for its propagation and that this involves only the

first overall oxidation step. However, there is a clear assist from the

reverse smolder region in which char is oxidized. Because both steps

are involved to some extent in propagation, the effects of additives may

be different here than in ignition.

Potential Applications : A knowledge of smolder initiation and propagation mechanisms coupled with a knowledge of how retardants affect these

mechanisms are clearly of benefit in the attempt to produce materials

with minimal smolder tendency and attendant life hazard.

Reports and Papers ;

F. E. Rogers and T. J. Ohlemiller, "Minimizing Smolder Tendency in Flexible Polyurethanes," Journal of Consumer Product Flammability , Vol. 5 (June 1978) , p. 59.

T. J. Ohlemiller and F. E. Rogers, "A Survey of Several Factors Influencing Smolder Combustion in Flexible and Rigid Polymer Foams," Journal

of Fire and Flammability , Vol. 9 (October 1978) , p. 489.

T. J. Ohlemiller, J. Bellan and F. E. Rogers, "A Model of Smoldering

Conbustion Applied to Flexible Polyurethane Foams," to be published in

Combustion and Flame.

F. E. Rogers and T. J. Ohlemiller, "Smolder Characteristics of Flexible

Polyurethane Foams," to appear in January 1980 issue of J. of Fire and

Flammability.

F. E. Rogers and T. J. Ohlemiller, "Pyrolysis Kinetics of a Pol;y ure- thane Foam by Thermogravimetry; A General Kinetic Method," submitted to

Journal of Macromolecular Science.

131
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; SRI International

Contract No : EO-AOl-78-00-3559

Title : The Effect of Fire Retardants on the Heat Release Rate

of Building Materials

Principal Investigator : Stanley B. Martin, Director

Fire Research Department

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Other Professional Personnel : Robert G. McKee, Jr.

Raymond S . Alger

NBS Scientific Officer: William J. Parker

Technical Abstract

Fire losses are a direct result of heat released by burning

materials during the course of fire. Therefore, it would be of great

practical utility to know how to modify materials to limit their ability

to release heat during fire exposure. It may be unrealistic to expect

to reduce appreciably the time-integrated quantity of heat released (per

unit mass of material) when a material suffers prolonged fire exposure,

sufficient to oxidize even the most resistant chars, but it is well

within the current state-of-the-art knowledge of fire retardant technology to markedly slow the rate of release by enhancing char formation.

It has been assumed that the main effect of char-yield enhancement is

to reduce the carbon content of the volatiles produced; however, charenhancing additives in cellulose also increase the rate of volatilization (reduce both the activation energy and the heat of gasification)

.

Accordingly, it is equally plausible to suggest that the main effect of

char-yield enhancement (at least a major contributing effect) is the

establishment of an insulating layer to retard heat transfer to undecomposed material, thereby slowing the rate of volatile fuel supply.

The objective of this research effort is to evaluate experimentally the

relative Importance of these effects of char production in cellulose.

Experimental techniques are being developed to permit measurements

of rates of char development and heat conduction in cellulose, with and

without addition of inorganic char-yield enhancing additives (such as Na2 B407 and MgNH4 P 04 ) , during determination of rates of heat release in

132
the SRI/HRR Calorimeter. Residual chars will be analyzed for their

elemental composition, and thermochemical heats of combustion will be

ascertained.

Techniques of sample preparation, including pulp casting and lamination of sheets with cellulose ethers and related carbohydrate derivatives are presently being developed. Not only are such techniques

needed to provide means for transducer implanting in the cellulose matrix,

but also to provide specimens of sufficient size and thickness that

their conduction will closely approximate one-dimensional conduction in

a semi-infinite solid. Non-aqueous solvent systems for the application

of additives are also being sought to minimize such side effects as swelling.

As of this writing, we have no experimental results to report.

Reports and Papers

None.

133
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : SRI International

Contract No : EO-AOI-78-00-3569

Contract Title : Continuation of Decision Analysis Studies in Fire

Hazard Analysis

Principal Investigator : Dr. Fred L. Offensend

Decision Analysis Group

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Ave

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Burke E. Robinson

Mr. Daniel A. Levlnthal

NBS Scientific Officer : Benjamin Buchbinder

Technical Abstract :

The objective of this project is to develop and demonstrate

methodology for setting fire safety policy. The project is being

performed jointly by SRI International and the Center for Fire Research,

using a decision analytic approach. The underlying methodology

provides an integrating framework for taking into account the many

technical, social, and economic factors that must be addressed in

setting fire safety policy. Provision is made for the explicit

treatment of uncertainty and value trade-offs.

The methodology is being demonstrated with applications to three

separate fire safety problems. The first application, begun under a previous contract, addresses the problem of upholstered furniture fire

safety. The analysis compares and evaluates three alternatives for

reducing upholstered furniture fire losses: a policy of taking no formal action at all, a policy requiring at least one smoke detector in

all U.S. residences, and the proposed upholstered furniture standard

currently under consideration by the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

Probabilistic models have been developed to assess the losses occurring

under each alternative. Cost assessments are also made of each intervention strategy. The analysis shows that the most attractive strategies over a broad range of input assumptions are either the proposed

standard or detector alternative. A final report will be Issued in

early summer, 1979.

134
A second demonstration of the methodology is conducted for the

electric transformer fluids fire safety problem. Several alternatives

are considered ranging from testing and inspection programs to fluids

specifications to vaulting requirements. A probabilistic model that

addresses failure and subsequent fire spread is developed for assessing

the losses under each intervention strategy. Estimates are made of the

costs of each alternative. The resulting analysis shows that the most

attractive alternative is very sensitive to risk attitude, the degree

to which one is willing to pay to avoid major losses. A final report

will be issued in summer, 1979.

A third investigation is developing a framework for evaluating

strategies for reducing residential fire losses. A generic framework

is being developed that sequentially addresses the public acceptance

and Implementation of the intervention strategy, ignition, detection,

evacuation, suppression, and ultimate loss. This framework will be

demonstrated with the pilot evaluation of three to five representative

intervention strategies.

Reports and Papers

Helzer, S.G., Buchbinder, B., and Offensend, F.L., "Decision Analysis

of Strategies for Reducing Upholstered Furniture Fire Losses," available

from Center for Fire Research, Summer 1979.

Offensend, F.L., Helzer, S.G., and Buchbinder, B., "Evaluation of Strategies for Reducing Upholstered Furniture Fire Losses," in preparation

for Fire Journal .

Levinthal, D.A. , "Application of Decision Analysis to a Regulatory

Problem: Flammability Standards for Liquid Insulated Transformers,"

available from Center for Fire Research, Summer, 1979.

135
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : SRI International

Contract No : Future contract

Title : Polymer Degradation During Combustion

Principal Investigator : Dr. S. K. Brauman

Polymer Sciences Department

SRI International

333 Ravenswood Avenue

Menlo Park, CA 94025

NBS Scientific Officer: R. G. Gann

Technical Abstract

Although the degradation of synthetic polymers under fire conditions Is Important to fuel production and combustion. It has received

little attention, mostly because of experimental limitations. SRI has

developed a novel drlven-rod, radiant pyrolysis apparatus that can be

used to study steady-state linear regression of vertically mounted

pol5mier rods degrading under nonflaming conditions that simulate those

of combustion. Absence of the flame simplifies experiments and analysis.

We propose to use this technique to study the degradation of polystyrene

under fire conditions. The Investigation will entail: (1) steadystate linear regression rate studies to relate the radiant pyrolysis

situation to the combustion situation, and to provide samples and

Information (temperature profiles, oxygen Involvement) needed for analysis; (2) characterization of radiant pyrolysis residues and off-gases

to provide mechanistic Information of the condensed-phase degradation

processes; and (3) kinetic analysis of the degradation rates. Results

should provide understanding of the detailed degradation processes

occurring In the condensed phase of a burning pol3mier and allow prediction of the effect of certain thermal or chemical variables on the

mechanism or rate. With this knowledge, understanding of the effectiveness of and even prediction of Improved fire retardants used to control

fires by altering fuel production become possible.

136
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

Grant NoG8-9010

Grant Title; Measurement Of Air Flow Around Doors Under

Standardized Fire Test Conditions

Principal Investigator; Robert M. Berhlnlg

Underwriters Laboratories Inc.

333 Pflngsten Rd

Northbrook, IL 60062

312-272-8800

Other Professional Personnel ; G. T. Castlno

Managing Engineer

Fire Protection Department

NBS Scientific Officer; Lionel Issen

Technical Abstract

The goal of this Investigation Is to measure the

volume of air flow between a door and door frame during a standardized fire test method. The test method Is

entitled "Smoke Control Door and Shutter Assemblies - High

Temperature Tests" proposed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO-DP5925) . The test method

provides for a 9 ft high by 9 ft, 6 In. wide collection

hood mounted on the unexposed surface of the test sample.

The collection hood Includes a 12 In. diameter outlet to

which Is mounted a venturi. The collection hood also

Includes movable top and bottom sections to permit venting

of heated air from within the hood during the test.

The test method requires the furnace pressure to be

10 Pascals above ambient at the top of the door being

tested. The general principle of the test method assumes

the positive furnace pressure will result In air flowing

through the openings between the door and the door frame.

Into the enclosure and out of the enclosure through the

venturi. The velocity of the air flowing through the

venturi Is measured and, thus, the volume of air flowing

through openings between the door and door frame Is

137
calculated

To date, two tests have been conducted. The door

assembly for both tests was a 3 ft by 7 ft hollow metal

type, stiffener design without glass. The first test was

conducted on June 13, 1978.

During this test, the air velocity measured at the

center of the venturi was much lower than anticipated,

yet emission of smoke through the upper half of the

venturi indicated that a significant outward flow existed

there. This suggests that countercurrent flows occurred

in the venturi with air leaving at the top and entering at

the bottom. This phenomenon is a consequence of the

higher temperature, and lower density, of the air inside

the hood, as compared with ambient conditions. There were

also problems brought about by deflection and leakage in

the hood itself.

To further Investigate this effect, the second test

was conducted with sturdier hood and 40 additional thermocouples Installed in the hood and venturi.

A cursory review of data from the January 25 test

indicates that steady state conditions did not occur

within the collection hood when the ventilation doors

were closed. For example. Table I shows temperatures

measured in the venturi during the period when the

ventilation doors were closed.

138
TABLE I Time Temperatures In Venturi (F)

(Min : Sec) U££er Quarter Center Lower Quarter

40:02 94 94 93

40:07 112 112 110

40:12 129 130 127

40:18 144 145 140

40:23 159 155 148

40:29 169 161 148

40:34 178 164 142

40:39 185 168 138

40:45 190 164 133

40:50 194 160 128

40:56 198 158 123

41:01 200 157 119

41:07 202 156 114

41:12 203 153 111

41:17 206 150 107

41:23 207 146 104

41:28 207 144 101

41:34 208 140 98

41:39 209 139 97

41:44 210 137 94

41 : 50 211 134 93

Future work under the grant is dependent upon the

results of the data analysis currently being conducted by

the Bureau.

Reports and Papers

:

None

.

139
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : The University of Arizona

Grant/Contract No ; NBS Grant 8-9016

Title : Evaluation of the Combustion Toxicology of Several Polymeric

Materials

Principal Investigator : J. Wesley Clayton

Professor of Toxicology

Toxicology Program

The University of Arizona

Room 303 Biosciences West

Tucson, AZ 85721

Other Professional Personnel : J. R. Sehr, M.S. candidate

NBS Scientific Officer: Merritt Blrky

Objectives

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the combustion

toxicity of 5 types of polymeric materials (Douglas fir, wool, PTFE,

modacryllc and polylsocyanurate)

.

The field of combustion toxicology, or more precisely stated, the

inhalation toxicology of combustion products, is in developmental

stages. Thus, the parameters for evaluating toxicity have not yet been

firmly established in a systematic way. It may even be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to arrive at a "standard" test procedure

because of the complexities which inhere in this special area of

inhalation toxicity.

Accordingly, investigations need to be conducted in order to assess toxicity and identify polymers which yield products of unusual

toxicity. The objective of this research is to determine the acute

inhalation toxicitles of the designated samples and to assess the

relative toxicitles from the data which emerge from the experiments in

accordance with the classification system proposed by NBS.

Methods

Polymer samples of the desired weight were cut from stock supplied

by NBS. Samples were decomposed at two temperatures: 15 °C below the

predetermined autoignition point, and 25°C above the autoignition

point, flaming being assured by addition of several drops of ethanol

and a hot-wire ignition source.

140
Six male, Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed for a duration of 30

minutes in a 60-liter octagonal, static exposure chamber (University of

Utah type), and observed for gross behavioral changes during exposure.

Four rats per exposure were wired for a conditioned avoidance response,

and time to loss of the response was noted.

Chamber atmosphere analyses for CO, CO 2 and 02 were conducted at

5 minute intervals, and additional gasses, depending on polymer type, were analyzed at regular intervals.

Each animal was given a behavioral examination immediately

following exposure to assess: corneal reflex, righting response,

character of respiration, chromorrhlnorrhea, and lacrimation. Animals

were followed for two weeks after exposure to measure weight changes

and any obvious change in health status.

Gross necropsies were conducted at time of death or at two weeks.

Results and Discussion

LC 50 Determinations (Data Summary, Table I)

Preliminary results are presented in Figure I for the smoldering

mode, and in Figure II for the flaming mode for acute lethality. From

the Miller-Tainter plot in Figure I, the LC50 of smoldering combustion

of Douglas fir is 17 g/m^. This compares favorably with results obtained in an Identical system at the University of Utah, which found an

LC 50 of 19 g/m3. The LC 50 for smoldering decomposition of wool is

found to be 12 g/m^.

From Figure II, we calculate the LC 50 for Douglas fir in the

flaming mode to be 40 g/m3. This is nearly twice the LC50 of 24 g/m^

found at the Flammability Research Center, but considering the different strains of rats used in each laboratory, and inherent biological

variation within each strain, the difference is not considered to be

significant

Also conducted, but not represented in Figures I and II, are the

results of experimentation on Teflon ®PTFE resin (tape form, small

chunks) in both modes, and the LC 50 results for wool in the flaming

mode

The lethal effect of flaming combustion of wool leaped from 0%

lethality at a level of 20 g/m3 to 100% lethality at a level of 40 g/m^, a truly unexpected finding. For this reason, and because of difficulties in incorporating this result onto the Miller-Tainter Plot,

these data are not presented in that form. Further experimentation is

planned to elucidate the true lethality of flaming combustion of wool.

The investigations so far completed on Polytetrafluoroethylene

have shown extreme toxicity. We have encountered 100% lethality at all

levels between 5 g/m3 and 1.25 g/m3 in both experimental decomposition

modes. Once again, further experimentation is expected to elucidate

the actual value of the LC50 in both modes.

Loss of Conditioned Avoidance Response (EC 50 Determinations)

Miller-Tainter Plots of data for loss of the conditioned

avoidance response are shown in Figures III and IV.

141
For Douglas fir, we found the EC 50 for smoldering decomposition to

be approximately 9.4 g/m^, which once again compares favorably with the

5 g/m^ obtained at the University of Utah.

Loss of conditioned avoidance response for rats exposed to the

products of smoldering decomposition of wool follows a steeper curve

than does that of Douglas fir. Consequently, though wool shows a lesser effect than Douglas fir on the response at low dose levels

(below 3.5 g/m3), it nevertheless shows greater effects at higher

doses and, consequently, the EC50 is lower - 6 g/m^.

As with lethality, Polytetrafluoroethylene shows a much higher

level of toxicity than does either Douglas fir or wool. We found the

EC 50 for pyrolysis of PIPE in the smoldering mode to be approximately

3.5 g/m3. Further experimentation is expected to allow the value to be

estimated more precisely.

Figure IV, loss of avoidance response for flaming combustion,

follows the same sequence as do the pyrolysis data.

We estimate the EC50 for flaming combustion of Douglas fir to be

20 g/m3, once again a favorable comparison is made with data obtained

at the University of Utah (13 g/m3).

Wool is estimated to have an EC 50 of 11.3 g/m3 and PTFE to have an

EC50 , in the flaming mode, of 5 g/m3, thus iterating the high inhalation toxicity for Polytetrafluoroethylene

.

SUMMARY* TABLE I. DATA *

Material

Douglas Fir

Wool

PTFE

Douglas Fir

Wool

PTFE

* University o

50 (incapacitation)

Smoldering Mode

9.4 g/m^ (5 g/m^)

6 g/m^

3.5 g/m^

Flaming Mode

20 g/m^ (13 g/m^)

11.3 g/m^

5 g/m^

Utah data in ( )

.

LC50 (lethality)

17 g/m^ (19 g/m^)

12 g/m^

<1.25 %/m

40 g/m^ (24 g/m^)

<40 g/m^

<1.25 %/m

Work is continuing on this project to more accurately define the

LC 5 Q of wool in the flaming mode; to find the LC 50 of PTFE in both

modes; and to assess toxicity of two further materials: modacrylic and

polyisocyanurate

.

142
LETHALITY

Figure I. Mortality Data, Smoldering Mode

143
LETHALITY

Figure II. Mortality Data, Flaming Mode

90

80

70

60

1.25 2.5 ~ 5.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS CONCENTRATIONS (g/m^)

144
Vo

LOSING

AVOIDANCE

Figure III. Loss of Avoidance Data, Smoldering Mode

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS CONCENTRATION (g/m3)

145
Vo

LOSING

AVOIDANCE

Figure IV. Loss of Avoidance Data, Flaming Mode

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS CONCENTRATIONS (g/m^)

146
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : University of California, San Diego

Grant No : NBS Grant G8-9005

Grant Title : Studies of Flame Extinction in Relationship to Fire

Suppression

Principal Investigator : Professor Forman A. Williams

Department of Applied Mechanics

and Engineering Sciences

University of California, San Diego

La Jolla, California 92093

(714) 452-3172

Other Professional Personnel : Tohru Mitani, Graduate Student

Cia Sohrab, Graduate Student

Paul Clavin, Visiting Professor

Alvin S. Gordon, Adjunct Professor

NBS Scientific Officer: T. Kashiwagi

Technical Abstract

The objective of this work is to develop an improved understanding of mechanisms of fire suppresion by studying flame extinction in

the presence of suppressive agents. Main suppressants considered are nitrogen, halons and powders. Principal configurations studied are the

downward propagation of premixed flames through quiescent mixtures

contained in tubes and the counterflow diffusion flame produced by

directing an oxidizing gas stream, containing suppressant, downward

onto the burning surface of liquid or solid fuel. Data include concentrations (obtained by sampling and gas chromatographic analysis),

temperature profiles (measured with thermocouples), flame shapes, flame

speeds and extinction conditions. Results are interpreted on the basis

of theory which specifies a critical Damkbhier number of extinction.

Plan is to apply the theory to extract overall chemical kinetic information under conditions near extinction, to attempt to relate such

information to chemical kinetic mechanisms underlying suppresion, to

ascertain differences in the thermal, flow and kinetic aspects of

extinction by the different agents, and to develop theoretical descriptions of cellular structures that occur under premixed conditions and

of their influence on extinction.

147
Most of the progress made during the past year concerns studies of

premixed flames in mixtures of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Progress

made in studies of diffusion flames includes setting up a dye laser for

measuring OH and observation of counterflow extinction of flames above

polyethylene and polyformaldehyde in flows of mixtures of oxygen with

nitrogen. Since this work is still in progress, results will not be

discussed here. Preliminary indications through spectroscopic observations have suggested that the yellow-orange emissions observed when

CF sBr is added arise mainly from a carbon continuum rather than from

line emissions by species containing bromine. In future work, plans

are to reintensify efforts to study diffusion flames, with attention

directed toward investigation of chemical kinetics with and without

halon addition, measurements with HBr application and analysis of

effects of radiation and of high molecular weights of fuels. Also, if

time permits, studies will be initiated on dry-powder extinction in the

diffusion-flame apparatus. The rest of this report addresses the

results obtained in the studies of premixed flames.

Theoretical formulas, based on activation-energy asymptotics,

have been obtained for propagation velocities of two-reactant flames.

These formulas have been checked and compared with results of other

investigators and are used in interpreting experimental results on flame speeds in hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen mixtures. The results suggest

that the theory provides an adequate description of these flames even

though the steady-state approximations needed for their justification

clearly are invalid, especially for H atoms.

The linear stability of two-reactant flames that leads to cellular

structure was analyzed within the framework of the thermal -diffusive

flame model . Effects of properties of deficient and abundant com- ponents were investigated with activation-energy asymptotics. The

stability of two reactant flames is governed by the perturbations of

the temperature and of the concentration of the abundant component at

the perturbed flame front. The former depends on the departure of the

Lewis number of the deficient component from unity. The latter is

controlled by the stoichiometry of the mixture, the difference between

Lewis numbers of two components and the reaction order for each

reactant. The perturbation of the abundant components becomes important either near the stoichiometric point or for a mixture whose deficient component has a Lewis number very close to unity. The results

show that the stability behavior of two-reactant flames can be related

to that of one-reactant flames by introduction of a reduced Lewis

number and that cellular instability in the flame appears if the re- duced Lewis number is sufficiently small. The results account for

preferential diffusion of reactants in a system with a large excess of

diluent. Cell sizes calculated from the theory were found to be in

good agreement with measurements on hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen systems,

in view of uncertainties in Lewis numbers and in the experimental

definition of cell diameter. The comparison is shown in the figure,

where the solid points are data and the lines theory, the cell diameter

being given in units of the flame thickness.

Downwardly propagating flames in pyrex tubes 66 cm long, with

148
diameters of 2.5 cm and 5.1 cm, were studied experimentally under

conditions near the flammability limit, viz. at volume-based nitrogen

percentages ranging from 60% to 84%, at flame temperatures ranging

from 900°K to 1400°K and at flame speeds ranging from 10 cm/s to 40

cm/s. The pressure was maintained at 1 atm and the initial temperature

at 295°K. Cell sizes were measured photographically to demonstrate

the decrease in cell diameter with decreasing hydrogen-oxygen ratio;

the cells are made visible by addition of less than 0.4% CFsBr. Other

measurements that were made include the nitrogen dilution required to

prevent flame propagation, as a function of the hydrogen-oxygen ratio,

the flame speed as a function of nitrogen dilution for various

hydrogen-oxygen ratios, approximate profiles of temperature through

flames, obtained from measurements with fine thermocouples, the

maximum flame temperature as a function of nitrogen dilution for various hydrogen-oxygen ratios, the rate of decrease of temperature behind

the flame, resulting from conductive heat-loss, and the amount of

hydrogen remaining after flame passage, as a function of dilution for

various hydrogen-oxygen ratios, obtained through sampling followed by

gas-chromatographic analysis.

A theory was developed for estimating the magnitudes of conductive

heat-losses from cellular flames and for obtaining the influence of

such losses on flame propagation and extinction. Consistency was found

between measured leakage of hydrogen through flames and measured flame

temperatures, on the basis of theoretical ideas. In addition, measured

rates of decrease of temperature behind flames were found to be largely

consistent with theoretical estimates. From these results, an explanation was developed for the observation that the peak in the curve of

nitrogen dilution required for extinction occurs at fuel-lean

conditions. In general, the present work has achieved some clarification of mechanisms whereby cellular-flame structures influence nearlimit and extinction behavior of downwardly propagating premixed flames

in tubes

.

Information obtained from these results ultimately may afford

improvements in techniques for fire supression, derived from increased

understanding of mechanisms of flame extinction, taking into account

interactions between chemical kinetics, fluid flow and heat transfer.

These studies present the possibility of extracting basic information

on both the fluid mechanics and the chemical kinetics of combustion

near extinction, which may be useful in analyzing extinctions under

widely different conditions of burning and of suppressive action.

Consequent improvements in fire supression may reduce fire loss.

Reports and Papers

Bregeon, B., Gordon, A. S. and Williams, F. A., "Near-Limit Downward

Propagation of Hydrogen and Methane Flames in Oxygen Nitrogen Mixtures",

Combustion and Flame, 33, 33-45 (1978) .

149
Seshadri, K. and Williams, F. A., "Structure and Extinction of Counterflow Diffusion-Flames above Condensed Fuels; Comparison between Polymethylmethacrylate and its Liquid Monomer, both Burning in NitrogenAir Mixtures", Journal of Polymer Science; Polymer Chemistry Edition,

1^, 1755-1778 (1978)

.

Seshadri, K., "Structure and Extinction of Laminar Diffusion Flames

above Condensed Fuels with Water and Nitrogen", Combustion and Flame 33,

197-215 (1978)

.

Mitani, T., "Studies of Premixed Hydrogen Flames", Ph.D. Thesis,

University of California, San Diego, 1979.

Mitani, T., "Propagation Velocities of Two-Reactant Flames", submitted

for publication, 1979.

Joulin, G. and Mitani, T., "Linear Stability Analysis of Two-Reactant

Flames", in preparation , 1979.

Mitani, T. and Williams, F. A., "Studies of Cellular Flames in HydrogenOxygen-Nitrogen Mixtures", in preparation, 1979.

150
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-2A, 1979

Institution : University of Florida

Grant/Contract No : Pending

Title : Network Models of Building Evacuation

Principal Investigator : Professor Richard L. Francis

University of Florida

Department of Industrial and

Systems Engineering

303 Weil Hall

Gainesville, Florida 32611

Other Professional Personnel : Professor Luc G. Chalmet

Graduate student to be determined

NBS Scientific Officer: Leonard Cooper

Technical Abstract

The research deals with the further development of the EVACNET

approach as presented in the report NBSIR 79-1593, "EVACNET: Prototype

Network Optimization Models for Building Evacuation." Basically, the

author proposes to develop modeling guidelines to help make EVACNET

accessible to non-technlcal users, and to develop simpler auxiliary

models of building evacuation.

In brief, EVACNET work to date has consisted of a pilot project

conducted to analyze the evacuation of buildings by means of computerized network flow optimization models. A major effort during this study

involved constructing such an evacuation model of Building 101, an eleven-floor building located at the Gaithersburg, Maryland campus of

the National Bureau of Standards. A "skeletal" network model of the

building has been constructed which represents the following entities

(as well as paths of movement between them): workplaces, halls, doors

between workplaces and halls, stairwells, doors between halls and stairwells, doors between stairwells and the lobby, and lobby doors. The

model determines by itself an evacuation routing of the people in the

building so as to minimize the time to evacuate the building. Further,

the model is dynamic, in the sense that it represents the pattern of the

building evacuation over time. Just as one might Imagine photographing

an actual building evacuation using automatic time-lapse cameras which

take pictures of relevant evacuation activities over regular time inter151
vals, so the model depicts the evacuation of the building as it changes over time: time is divided into discrete time periods, and the model

indicates the changes in the evacuation status during each time period,

as well as the evacuation status at the end of each time period.

Data for the model include such things as the numbers of people in

workplaces prior to evacuation, stairwell flow-rate capacities, hall and

lobby flow-rate capacities, as well as static capacities such as the

total number of people a hall, workplace, or stairwell can accommodate.

By making repeated computer runs of the model with different data sets,

"what if" questions of Interest, such as the following, can readily be

addressed

• What if there is a fire on the tenth floor?

• What if we could use "express elevators" to facilitate

evacuating the building?

• What if a fire blocks a stairwell and/or some halls?

• What if we add more building exits?

• What if we add more stairwells?

• What if we want to Identify evacuation bottlenecks?

• What if we want to determine the minimum time to evacuate the

building, as well as routes people could follow so as to evacuate the building in the minimum time?

The fact that the model is computerized greatly facilitates asking such

"what if" questions: answering them usually entails only changing model

data and then making a computer run. Such data changes can often be

made by an operator sitting at a remote computer terminal. Computerization permits answering such questions quickly, and is particularly useful when the model is large enough to be unwieldy if dealt with manually.

Such a computer model has clear advantages over such other approaches as the use of graphical models, pictorial representations of building evacuation, and actual trial building evacuations: the computer model is

often quicker, cheaper, can handle larger problems, and greatly facilitates the comparison of many alternatives. In the long run, it is hoped

that such computer models will facilitate the study of the interrelationships of building evacuation with building design, building redesign,

and building evacuation standards, and also will lead to improvements in

design for evacuation.

While the particular model we have studied (to date) is for a specific building, the modeling methodology we have developed is rather

general, and should facilitate modeling the evacuation of other buildings .

152
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution ; University of Maryland, Gollege Park

Grant No ; NBS Grant 7-9014

Grant Title ; The Determination of Behavior Response Patterns in Fire

Situations, Project People II.

Principal Investigator ; Dr. John L. Bryan, Professor and Chairman

Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 454-2424

Other Professional Personnel ; Mr. Philip J. DiNenno, Research Assistant

NBS Scientific Officer; Dr. Bernard Levin

Technical Abstract

The study involves the identification and analysis of the behavior

patterns of building occupants in fire situations. Intensive in-depth

open-ended interviews are conducted with participants, supplemented with

a structured questionnaire. The interviews have been conducted by the

research study personnel at the scene of the fire incident between one

to four weeks following the fire incident.

The study population is currently limited to health care and educational occupancies, with other significant occupancy fires within the

following criteria for the selection of fire incidents; 1. Any known

nursing home or hospital fire in the State of Maryland that involved

staff procedural action, the evacuation of one or more rooms, the operation of a fire extinguisher, or the occurrence of any personnel injuries. 2. Any known school fire that involved the evacuation of the

students, and procedural extinguishment action by the public fire

department. 3. Any known fire in a business, residential, mercantile

or public assembly occupancy that involved the evacuation of more than

200 occupants.

The detailed information from the interviews and the questionnaires is studied to determine the behavior response patterns of the

participants, and the psychological, sociological, educational, and

physical variables influencing the predisposition to the adopted

response. Thus, the total interactional context of the individual, the

153
functional population, the time variables, the parameters of the fire

incident, and the physical environment of the structure in relation to

detection, alarm, protection and evacuation variables is being studied.

The study has obtained data on minor or successful fires, in which the

fire incident was successfully controlled by personnel without the as- sistance of the public fire department. The behavior response patterns

from the fire incidents of the non- threatening type are being compared

with the fire incidents which were perceived to be threatening to the

extent the assistance of the public fire department was requested by the

occupants. The concept of realms and episodes, with mapping techniques

developed by Lerup have been applied to these studies.

A total of forty-five fire incidents were under study and analysis

as of May 1, 1979, with a total of thirty- two reports having been

submitted to the Center of Fire Research.

Reports and Papers :

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno , An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at St. Joseph’s

Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa. on August 10, 1977 . College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, May 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Kensington Gardens Nursing Home on January 1, 1978 . College Park: University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Manor

Care, Hyattsvllle Nursing Home on January 10, 1978 . College Park:

University of Maryland, Fire Protection Engineering, June 30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Kitchen Fire Incident at the

Manor Care, Adelphi Nursing Home on March 1, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

July 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Patient Room Fire

Incident at the Manor Care, Adelphi Nursing Home on March 1, 1978 . College Park: Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, July 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Harford Memorial Hospital on March 9, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

July 31, 1978.

154
Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Sacred Heart Home on March 19, 1978 . College Park: Department

of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, July 31,

1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Magnolia Gardens Nursing Home on April 2, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

July 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Lorlen Nursing Home on May 7, 1978 . College Park: Department of

Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, August 31,

1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Allegany County Infirmary on May 16, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

August 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

American Nursing Home on May 11, 1978 . College Park: Department

of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, August

31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Sligo Gardens Nursing Home on June 10, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

August 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Manor Care, Largo Nursing Home on May 9, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

^August 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the St . Anne's Infant Home on June 20, 1978 . College Park: Department

of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, September

30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Manor Care, Largo

Nursing Home on August 14, 1978 . College Park: Department of

155
Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, September

30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Avalon

Manor Nursing Home on June 16, 1978 . College Park: Department of

Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, October 31,

1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Anne

Arundel General Hospital on May 1, 1978 . College Park: Department

of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, October 31,

1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

North Arundel Hospital on September 4, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

October 31, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

University of Maryland Hospital on April 26 to May 8, 1978.

College Park: Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, November 30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Anne

Arundel General Hospital on May 11, 1978 . College Park: Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

November 30, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Manor Care, Towson Nursing Home on October 18, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

December 22, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Anne Arundel General Hospital on November 14, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

December 22, 1978.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Shepphard Pratt Hospital on October 25 and 26, 1978 . College

Park: Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of

Maryland, January 31, 1979.

156
Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Washington Adventist Hospital on December 22, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

January 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Spring Grove Hospital on January 31, 1979 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

January 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Southern

Maryland Hospital on January 2, 1979 . College Park: Department of

Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, February 28,

1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Lafayette Square Nursing Home on October 24, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

February 28, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Washington Adventist Hospital on December 9, 1978 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

March 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Shepphard Pratt Hospital on February 7, 1979 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

March 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

Ellicott City Middle School on February 14, 1979 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland,

March 31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of

the Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the

University of Maryland Hospital on February 6, 1979 . College Park:

Department of Fire Protection, University of Maryland, March

31, 1979.

Bryan, John L. and Philip J. DiNenno, An Examination and Analysis of the

Dynamics of the Human Behavior in the Fire Incident at the Georgian

Towers on January 9, 1979 . College Park: Department of Fire

Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, April 30, 1979.

157
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Grant/Contract No : G7-9010

Title : Flame Suppression by Chemical Inhibitors

Principal Investigators : Professor James C.W. Chien

Department of Polymer Science & Engineering

Materials Research Laboratory

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Professor Marcel Vanpee

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, MA 01003

Other Professional Personnel : J.K.Y. Kiang, Ph.D. Completed

J.L. Fan, Ph.D. Candidate

G. Riska, Ph.D. Candidate

J. Scagnelli, Ph.D. Candidate

C.Y. Leung, M.S. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : W.G. Mallard

Technical Abstract

Chemically bound chromium has been found to be extremely effective

(at ca. 1%) in suppressing oxidative pyrolysis of poly(propylene) by

raising the self-ignition temperature by ca. 150°C and the activation

energy by ca. 10 kcal . mole"^. From the product distribution with and

without chromium, the mechanism of action appears to be one of catalyzing recombination of peroxy radicals, and of dehydrogenation and/or

dehydration, the latter leading to the formation of crosslinks and char

Synthetic procedures for the hydroxylation of poly(isoprene) and

subsequent reaction to chemically incorporate various transition metal

ions have been developed. This should enable the investigation of many

other metal elements as solid phase chemical inhibitors for polymer com

bustion.

In the area of polymer combustion, extinction data has been obtained for poly(methylmethacrylate) ABS and flame retarded poly(propylene). The results showed that burning of the polymer in our equipment

is the same as the conventional method. This gave us the confidence

158
to carry out spectroscopic measurements. Spectra of polymer flames

have been obtained and their electronic transitions assigned. Flame

structure is important to the understanding of the combustion mechanism.

We have purchased and set up a GC apparatus to probe the flame structure.

Technical Report

I . Chemical Inhibition

A. Objective

Current flame retardants are limited to a few elements and their

efficiencies are low, thus requiring large levels of additives to impart

flame retardancy to a polymer. It is the principal objective of this

work to evaluate other elements which may offer new mechanisms for inhibition. The emphasis is on mechanistic study to obtain basic knowledge about chemical reactions involved in the inhibition.

B. Results

Poly(propylene) has been reacted with chromyl chloride (Etard re- action) to chemically bound chromium to the polymer. The thermal pyrolysis and oxidative pyrolysis of poly(propylene) with and without

chromium have been compared using an interfaced pyrolysis GC peak

dentification system. The effect of chromium on oxidative pyrolysis

is the suppression of all major products; no new product was detected.

Chromium increases the activation energy of oxidative pyrolysis by 10

kcal . mole'^ and promotes char formation. The behavior suggests possible catalysis by chromium in the termination processes. The combustion properties of poly(propylene) are significantly modified by the

bound chromium. At only 1.5% level of chromium, the poly(propylene) has

a limiting oxygen index of 26.4 and a self-ignition temperature of 400°C

in air as compared to 17.4 and 250°C, respectively, for normal poly(propylene). The results showed chemically bound chromium is very effective

in retarding oxidative pyrolysis and flammability of poly(propylene)

.

One of the possible mechanisms of action for the chromium is the

scavenging of R02 ‘ radicals.

R02‘ + Cr Cr(R02')

Cr(R02’) + RO 2

' —^ Cr + products

We are testing this mechanism by EPR technique. Firstly, one can compare the R02 * radical concentration of poly(propylene) with chromylated

poly(propylene) in O

2 at 250°C. If the hypothesis is correct there

should be a small RO2

' signal in the latter material. Furthermore, we

would find out the oxidation state of the chromium from EPR, and maybe

even detach the Cr(R02O species. We expected the EPR signals from RO2

', Cr, Cr(R02‘’) to all have different £-values.

159
Another possible mechanism if the decomposition of hydroperoxide,

i .e. Cr + ROOM CrO + ROM

We are in the process of studying the reaction of chromylated poly(propylene) with t-butyl hydroperoxide and followed the [t-BuOOH] by iodometric titration.

We have used both ERR and hydroperoxide determination in many of our previous research projects.

The Etard reaction is inapplicable to metal ions other than Cr.

We thougiit a general substrate would be hydroxylated polyisoprene. The

relevant reactions are:

0

^^3 CH3COOH y -{CH2“C‘=f)H —CH2~^

^ OH OH

f«n

>, -i CH2" C - C -CH2 -jThe synthetic procedure has been worked out for the incorporation of

Ti, Cr, V, Co and Fe in poly(i soprene)

Meanwhile, we need to know the mechanism and kinetics of pyrolysis

and oxidative pyrolysis. Oxidative pyrolysis of poly(isoprene) has

been carried out in a carrier stream of helium gas from 315 to 384°C.

The products were on-line identified and quantitatively analyzed by an interfaced pyrolysis GC peak identification system. The first order

rate constant for pyrolysis is 1.1 x 10"^ sec"^ at 384°C with an overall activation energy of 41 kcal. mole"^. The main products are i so- prene and 1 -methyl -4-isopropenyl cyclohexene. The dominant initiation

process has been shown to be a chain scission leading to two allylic

radicals. The former product is derived from their unzipping reaction,

the latter together with 1 ,5-dimethyl-5-vinylcyclohexene are the main

Cio products from the allylic radicals. All the other minor products

can be accounted for by simple chain propagation reactions with or without intramolecular hydrogen transfers.

II . Polymer Combustion Studies

A. Objective

This program's objective is to develop a better understanding of

the mechanism of polymer combustion and of its inhibition by selected

additives. The principal combustion configuration used in these

160
studies is the counter-flow diffusion flame produced by directing an oxidizer gas stream downward onto the surface of a burning polymer.

Two types of data are or will be obtained. I. Flame extinction data:

These are used as the main criterion to characterize flammability as by

plots of oxygen mass fraction at extinction versus oxidizer velocity at

extinction. The higher the oxygen mass fraction at a particular velocity, the less flammability. The same criterion will be used to assess inhibition effectiveness of retardant formulations, i.e. the molar

merit number and mass merit number will be determined. An attempt will

be made to extract from these data overall kinetic parameters; that is

the frequency factors and energies of activation of the combustion

process, in the presence and absence of inhibitors. II. The microstructure of the flame will be investigated. Concentration profiles

obtained by gas chromatography will include stable molecular species:

CO2

, N 2 , H 2 O, O 2 , CxHy, up to x=5 and y=8. As the flames obtained

with the counterflow diffusion burner are flat, they are also well

suited for a spectroscopic analysis of the reaction intermediates and

excitation mechanisms.

B. Results

Progress on various parts of this program has been accomplished.

These include: 1) extinction data on a variety of polymers, 2) a spectroscopic survey of polymer combustion, 3) construction of the combustion apparatus and of the sampling device for the study of the microstructure of polymer flames.

1 . Extinction Data

The following polymers were investigated: polymethylmethacrylate,

polypropylene with flame retardant (SA595 Profax), and T-1000 cycolac.

The last two polymers were furnished by Borg-Warner Chemical and were

tested to obtain base data for our combustion apparatus. These samples

were compression molded into cylindrical specimens 5 cm in diameter and

1.5 cm in height. These samples were used in the countercurrent diffusion burner. The oxidizer gas passed through a gas duct,

containing wire screens, so that a flat velocity profile is obtained.

The gas duct is placed above the polymer surface at a distance of about

15 mm. A flat flame is obtained between the gas duct and the polymer

surface. The flow rates of oxygen-nitrogen are measured at extinction.

Based on this data, a plot of oxygen mole fraction against oxidizer

velocity can be obtained. The plot is linear from oxygen mole fraction

of 0.153 to 0.195 and oxidizer velocity from 0.4 to 1.3 m sec-^.

2. Spectroscopy of Polymer Flames

The data reported herein constitute a first survey of the spectra

emitted by burning polymers. Two types of flame configurations were

used: a) candle flames and b) counter-flow diffusion flames.

a. Candle Flames

161
To obtain controllable and easily reproducible polymer flames, a modified candle method was first used. Sticks of the polymers (5" x 1/2" X 1/4") were positioned horizontally and ignited at one end. The

flame from the burning polymer was focused onto a 50u entrance slit of

a McPhearson Spectrometer , Model 760. The spectrometer utilized a plane reflection grating of 12,Q00 lines ^cm“^. A filter (Corning 3060) was used in the region of 5000 A - 6500 A to cut off the second order

light from the U.V. region. The spectral region investigated included

the ultra-violet, the visible and some of the near infrared. The spectra were recorded on 35 mm Kodak film. The polymers investigated by

this method were: 1) polystyrene (100% polystyrene) , 2) blendex 565

(70% styrene, 30% acrylonitrile), 3) blendex 211 (55% styrene, 24%

acrylonitrile, 21% butadiene).

Polystyrene gives a spectrum similar to the conventional hydrocarbon air flames with predominantly C2, CH and OH bands. To be noted

is the occurence of CH and NH bands in the blended polymers due to the

presence of bound nitrogen in the original polymer. In addition to

the assignable electronic transitions, all three blends gave a continua

in the region of 5000 A - 6^00 A due to incandescent carbon and a con- tinua in the 3000 A - 5000 A region due to the CO + C recombination

reaction.

b. Counterflow Diffusion Flames

Three polymers were investigated with the counterflow diffusion

flame apparatus: 1) polypropylene, 2) polypropylene with flame retardant (SA 595 Profax) and 3) polymethyl methacrylate. The spectra were recorded either photographically or spectrophotometrical ly using an

R IP28 photo multiplier tube and amplifier, connected to a strip chart

recorder.

At low oxygen concentration the flame is blue-colored with little

or no soot formation. The prominent emissions are again those of OH,

CH and Co. The spectra of polypropylene with flame retardant addition

showed the appearance of the Sb atomic lines. No SbO bands could be

observed. These observations tend to indicate that most of the antimony in the flame is present in the atomic state.

3. Flame Structure

In an attempt to obtain more information concerning the chemical

kinetic mechanisms underlying the combustion process, temperature profiles and concentration profiles will be measured as a function of distance above the burning surface. To perform these measurements, a Varian 3700 gas chromatograph was acquired with funds from the NBS

grant and University matching funds. This instrument was received in

January.

A new combustion apparatus similar to the one used for the extinction measurements has since been constructed. The microprobe and

162
assembly for sampling with drawing is now nearly completed. Our first

experiments will concentrate on polymethyl mechacrylate.

Reports and Papers

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Pyrolysis and Oxidative Pryolysis of

Polypropylene", in "Stabilization and Degradation of Polymers", Eds.

D.L. Allara and W.L. Hawkins, Adv. in Chem. , Vol . 169 (1978).

Kiang, J.K.Y., Uden, P.C. and Chien, J.C.W. , "Polymer Reactions VII.

Thermal Pyrolysis of Polypropylene", J. Polym. Degrad. Stab. , accepted

for publication.

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Polymer Reactions VIII. Oxidation

Pyrolysis of Polypropylene" , Makromol . Chem. , submitted.

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Polymer Reactions IX. Effect of Polymer-Bound Chromium on Oxidative Pyrolysis of Polypropylene", Macromolecules , submitted.

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Polymer Reactions X. Thermal Pryolysis of Polyisoprene" , Eur. Polym. J. , accepted for publication.

Chien, J.C.W. and Kiang, J.K.Y., "Polymer Reactions XI. Oxidative

Pyrolysis of Polyisoprene", Macromolecules , submitted.

163
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution: University of Massachusetts

Grant No : DA 0001

Title: Waking Effectiveness of Household Smoke and Fire Alert

Detector Devices

Principal Investigator: E. Harris Nober

Other Professional Personnel: Henry Pierce, Arnold Well, Charles Clifton,

Charles Johnson

NBS Scientific Officer: Richard Bright

Technical Abstract

This investigation has three major goals:

Goal 1 asseses intensity-frequency characteristics of several smoke

alert detector signals ( Experiment A) . Overall dBA levels of detector

acoustic signals will be obtained at 10 feet from the source in an anechoic chamber and at other sample locations equivalent to typical

household placement sites. Smoke alarm signals will be analyzed at nine

octave bands with central frequencies 63, 125, 250, 1000, 2000, 4000,

8000,-16000 Hz; refined analyses will Include 1/3 octave bands. Also

Fast Fourier Transformation analyses will be conducted to determine peak

values in select frequency bands.

Goal 2 is achieved using two experiments (B, C) that will profile

and quantify sleep-waking behavioral performance relative to the alarm

signals and extraneous environmental noise background. Experiment B

employs a young college age population programmed to receive electronically controlled stimuli while Experiment C is the field study of actual

smoke alarm units in sampled family constellations and households. In

both. Experiment B and ^ subject responses are the waking-time trial

duration latencies from "signal-on" presentation (electronically programmed) to the subject-initiated "signal-off" response. Furthermore,

Experiment B includes a number of variables, i.e., three' alarm sound

pressure levels (85, 70, 55 dBA), air-conditioner noise, hours into

sleep, night of the week, etc. The three SPL values equate to alarm

means calculated earlier from a ten-foot radius (85 dBA), at pillow site.

164
bedroom door open (70 dBA) and at pillow site, bedroom door closed

(55 dBA) . SPL is controlled by using a tape recorded smoke detector

alarm signal of a current Kobishi-type electromechanical horn, similar

to those used in most household dwellings. One dwelling member serves

as respondent and performs two tasks when (or if) awakened by the alarm,

(1) deactivate the automated apparatus and (2) phone the Amherst Fire

Department. Both responses will be recorded and quantified (second

units) as S-R latency values. The same person also fills out a pre-alarm

and a post-alarm questionnaire that contains pertinent behavioral and

other supplemental environmental data.

Experiment C is the direct household test efficiency component that

will also compare the waking effectiveness of two prevalent alarm types,

the electromechanical horn used in Experiment B and the newer piezoelectric alarms that are gaining in usage. The piezoelectric alarm has

a distinctively different audible sound than the electromechanical and

the two clearly differ in acoustic characteristics. Piezoelectric alarms

will also be laboratory analyzed, as outlined in Experiment A . Thus,

Experiment C serves as the extended field-test of current detector alarms,

actually installed in representative dwellings and sample families.

Goal 3 explores the most efficacious acoustic auditory stimuli for

different household sleeping conditions and different population types.

Further tests will examine different signal temporal patterns re maximum

arousal (Experiment D) . Other signal variations will consider a speech

signal or combination of speech and tone, etc.

Progress Report

Since the study commenced recently, progress is limited to administrative and experimental preparations. The only hard data still available at this moment are the original SPL measures of several household

alert units obtained in the pilot studies. Pilot data showed acoustic

energy of electromechanical alarms concentrated between 500-4000 Hz. In

a second pilot study, alarms were installed in household hallway areas

and SPL measures were taken from three sites: (1) the hallway installation area (10 feet), (2) in bedrooms with bedroom door open and (3) same bedrooms, door closed. Mean dBA values were 87, 71, and 56 dBA, respectively at the three pillow (ear level) sites; ranges rarely exceeded +

five decibels. Hence, if a room air conditioner, radio or TV were

producing 65-70 dBA, there could be formidable masking to auditory perception, particularly with sleeping subjects.

Experiment A should be completed by late August or conference time.

Accomplishments

Administrative and experimental preparation.

165
Potential Applications

Latency response measures and the other behavioral and statistical

data gleaned from the two questionnaires should collectively provide an index of anticipated and expected behavior to the current and future

alarms employed in household detectors. Data should profile stressreaction patterns of individuals and families when suddenly awakened

from nighttime sleep re: different living conditions, day(s) of the week

alarm levels, alarm modes, alarm installation sites, environmental noise

masking conditions, age. Clearly these data are pertinent for local

fire departments and other agencies. Several manufacturers have articulated intentions to consider the data for future changes and improvements

Future Milestones

Organize and implement the research program.

Reports and Papers

None.

166
Goals—Objectives—Experiments

Time Summary Flow Chart

Goals Objectives Experiments

167

I
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812

Grant No . : NBS Grant G8-9011

Grant Title : Ignition and Fire Spread of Cellulosic Materials

Principal Investigator : Professor Fred Shafizadeh

Wood Chemistry Laboratory

University of Montana

Missoula, MT 59812

406-243-6212

Other Professional Personnel : Dr. Allan G. W. Bradbury

Thomas W. Aanerud

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. Richard Gann

Technical Abstract

Objectives

The current objective of this project is to investigate the chemical mechanism and kinetics of the smoldering combustion and the related

inhibitors in order to provide a chemical description of the processes

involved in the ignition and fire spread of cellulosic materials.

Experimental Approach

Detailed studies have been made on the mechanism and kinetics of

the oxidation and thermal degradation of cellulose at temperatures below

and above 300°C; the effect of various smolder inhibitors or promoters

on the combustion characteristics of cellulose, including thermal analysis, charring and heat release, the reactivity and combustion characteristics of the char produced at different temperatures, including the

free radicals (unpaired electrons), the surface area, oxygen chemisorption and ignition temperature; and the effect of smolder inhibitors or promoters on the combustion of the char including the ignition temperature, ratio of CO/CO2 , ^he heat of combustion.

Results

The resulting data show that the heat flux required for propagation

of smoldering combustion is derived mainly from oxidation of the char.

Chars containing smolder inhibitors are harder to ignite. They provide

168
a ratio of C0/C02> 1 , and lower rates of oxidation and heat release (see

Table 1). The reverse is true for smolder promoters which also promote

glowing ignition of the char.

Chars prepared by heating of cellulose in nitrogen irreversibly

adsorbed oxygen. Maximum surface area and chemisorption was observed

for chars prepared by pyrolysis of cellulose for 1.5 minutes at 550°C

(Figure 1), which corresponds to the temperature of smoldering combustion. The rate of chemisorption increased with temperature and followed

the Elovich equation for activated chemisorption over the temperature

range of 70-230°C. The activation energy for oxygen chemisorption on a typical char varied linearly from 13 to 22 kcal/mole with surface coverage of 0 to 0.06 mmole 02/gm char (Figure 2). The rate of chemisorption

at a given surface coverage was also related to the oxygen concentration

(Figure 3). Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetry

indicated an initial heat of chemisorption of ca. 120 kcal/mole O 2 , leveling off to ca. 75 kcal/mole at a higher surface coverage. The con- current carbonyl and hydroxyl formation on chemisorption was shown by

infrared analysis.

It was found that the heat released by the exothermic chemisorption

process could ignite cellulose chars at temperatures as low as 270°C in

oxygen, or in the presence of a suitable inorganic catalyst, at 250°C in

air. However, the temperature of char ignition could be raised to over

400°C in oxygen if the chemisorption was allowed to take place at lower

temperatures.

Conclusion

Incomplete pyrolysis of cellulosic materials produces a pyrophoric

char that is characterized by its high affinity for chemisorption of

oxygen, and capability to ignite at relatively low temperatures. In low

density cellulosic batting and insulation, where oxygen could penetrate

by diffusion and the heat loss is restricted, the heat of chemisorption

is intense enough to induce ignition and the subsequent combustion of

the reactive char at low temperatures provides sufficient heat flux for

propagation of the smoldering combustion.

The flame retardants and inorganic materials could inhibit or promote the smoldering, although they generally lower the pyrolysis temperature and enhance the char production. This is because some cationic

compounds such as boron, phosphorus, and sulfur oxides could react with

the oxidized groups (hydroxyl) and the active sites. Consequently,

oxidation of the char produces more CO and less heat, thus hindering the

smoldering process. On the other hand metallic anions could aid dissociation of the absorbed oxygen and produce rapid and more complete

oxidation of the char which promote the smoldering process. The effectiveness of these materials should also be related to the surface area

of the catalyst and its distribution.

Since suppression of the smoldering combustion is achieved by incomplete oxidation of the char, the concentration of CO in the

169
combustion gases should be considered in evaluation of smolder inhibitors.

Reports and Papers

Recent Publications

Shafizadeh, F., Lai, Y. Z., and C. R. McIntyre, "Thermal Degradation of

6-Chlorocellulose and Cellulose-Zinc Chloride Mixture," J. Appl . Polym.

Sci . , 1183-1193 (1978).

Shafizadeh, F., "Combustion, Combustibility, and Heat Release of Forest

Fuels," AIChE Symposium Series No. 177, 7^, (1978).

Shafizadeh, F. and Bradbury, A. G. W., "Thermal Degradation of Cellulose

in Air and Nitrogen at Low Temperatures," J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 23,

1431-1442 (1979).

Susott, R. A., Shafizadeh, F., and Aanerud, T. W., "A Quantitative

Thermal Analysis Technique for Combustible Gas Detection," J. Fire/Flamm

10, 94-104 (1979).

Recent Manuscripts

Bradbury, A. G. W. and Shafizadeh, F., "The Role of Oxygen Chemisorption

in Low Temperature Ignition of Cellulose," submitted to Combustion and

Flame .

Bradbury, A. G. W. and Shafizadeh, F., "Chemisorption of Oxygen on Cellulose Char," submitted to Carbon.

170
Surfoce

area,

m^/g

Table III. Effect of Pre-Pyrolysis Additives on Heat and Rate of Char

Oxidation and CO/COg Ratio at 450°C in Air.

Addi tive

i mole®/

162 gm

d(C0+C0,) at ASO'C dt max , , mmole g char' min.'

COo yield

at 450°C Vkcal1

. g

cl

- 5.7 1.01 5.1

HBO

3

B 4.6 1.69 3.1 Na^B^O^ B 6.1 1.03 3.8

(NH^)2HP04 P 2.9 1.71 3.6

(NH4)2S04 S 3.9 1.43

ZnCl^ Zn 5.1 0.90 4.1

AICI

3

A1 5.3 0.95 3.9

NaCl*’ Na 13.9 0.70 -

Na^SO^'’ Na 15.2 0.86 -

600 r

I Ql 1 1 1 1 400 500 600 700 800 900

HTT, “C

Fig. 1 Comparison between total surface area calculated from CO? adsorption

at 25°C (curve a) and that occupied by surface oxides calculated from oxygen chemisorption at ESO^C (curve b).

171
2.5

Fig. 2 Chemisorption of oxygen on cellulose chars (HIT 550“C).

Fig. 3 Effect of oxygen concentration on instantaneous rates of chemisorption.

I

172
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Grant No . : NBS Grant G7-9021

Grant Title : The Psychology of Arson: Theoretical Analyses with

Suggestions for Application

Principal Investigator : Marcus B. Waller, Ph.D.

Department of Psychology

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514

Other Professional Personnel : Robert G. Vreeland, Ph.D.

Research Associate and Project Director

E. Earl Baughman, Ph.D.

Associate in Personality Theory

NBS Scientific Officer: Bernard Levin, Ph.D.

Technical Abstract

The major purpose of the project has been to gain some systematic

knowledge about the psychology of arson: the type of person likely to

set a fire and the circumstances surrounding the firesetting act. In

the first year of the project, we reviewed and systematically organized

current knowledge about firesetting in children, adolescents, and

adults. Although much of our information came from the literature, we also reported information obtained from meetings and conferences, and

from personal contact with researchers, clinicians, and investigators.

In the second year of the project, we have been concerned with

interpreting what is known about firesetting in a context of current

psychological theory. The most important objectives are an improvement

in existing classification and diagnostic schemes, an evaluation of the

potential contributions of various personality and behavior theories to our understanding of firesetting, and specific suggestions for the

application of our findings to the clinical treatment and management of

firesetting. We also plan to suggest fruitful directions for future

research.

Our review of the literature concentrated on common factors which

appear to be characteristic of a wide range of types of firesetters.

173
The traditional psychoanalytic view has emphasized the sexual roots of

firesetting, and a great deal of attention has been paid to the relationship between firesetting and sexual problems. However, we have

found firesetters' problems to be considerably more extensive. Among

adult firesetters of all types (arson-for-profit excluded), marital,

occupational, and drinking problems, as well as other criminal

activity, have been prevalent. Children and adolescents who set fires

have also typically shown a variety of other types of problem behaviors, including running away from home, truancy, stealing, hyperkinesis, and aggression. The "typical" firesetter in many ways appears

to be similar to other types of criminals and delinquents. One major

difference, however, has been the general finding that adult arsonists 1

commit more offenses against property (firesetting excluded) and fewer I offenses against persons than do other types of criminals. The extent 1

to which these findings apply to arson-for-profit firesetters is open

to question, since we know very little about this type of firesetter.

Taken together, the findings reviewed thus far have led us to

emphasize a social learning model of firesetting behavior, in which ;

; firesetters are viewed as deficient in the skills, particularly social ;

. .

• skills, necessary to obtain rewards from the environment. Having

failed to gain sufficient control over his environment through appropriate interpersonal skills, the individual may turn to interpersonally i less direct means for gaining a great deal of control over his environ- '] ment, firesetting being one such way. Thus, the social learning model i emphasizes the interaction between the person and the environmental ! factors which control his deviant behavior. The processes involved in

the social learning model were briefly explained in our earlier review

of the literature (Vreeland & Waller, 1978) . In the second year of

the project we are examining these processes more fully and formally.

While we have thus far concentrated mainly on factors common to

most groups of firesetters, there are also important differences. The

first year's report (Vreeland & Waller, 1978) proposed the development

of a functional classification system for firesetting. The development

of such a system and the interpretation of different types of firesetting within that system may aid in suggesting optimal treatment and

case management strategies for different types of firesetters. It is

also important that future research strategies to fill gaps in current

knowledge be identified.

Reports and Papers

Vreeland, R. G. and Waller, M. B., "The Psychology of Firesetting: A

Review and Appraisal," prepared for the National Bureau of Standards,

U.S. Department of Commerce, NBS-GCR-79-157 , 1978.

17A
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution

University of Notre Dame

Grant No .

NBS Grant 7-9002

Grant Title: Fire and Smoke Spread

Principal Investigators : Professor K. T. Yang

Professor J. R. Lloyd

Professor A. A. Szewczyk

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical

Engineering

University of Notre Dame

Notre Dame, IN 46556

Other Professional Personnel ; H. G. Ghiou, Ph.D. Candidate

C. J. Huang, M.S. Candidate

NBS Scientific Officer : J. Quintiere

Technical Abstract

The development of the three-dimensional UNDSAFE (University of

Notre ^ame ^moke ^nd J^ire in Enclosure) code for predicting smoke and

fire spread in compartments is now continuing. This code represents a direct extension of the two-dimensional code (UNDSAFE-II) based on finite-difference differential-field calculations employing primitive

variables and taking into account turbulence, compressibility, buoyancy

and one dimensional thermal soot and gaseous radiation. However, the

algebraic turbulence model for UNDSAFE-II has now been replaced by

three transport differential equations for the turbulence kinetic energy,

the dissipation function, and the mean-square temperature fluctuation,

together with appropriate algebraic formulae for the Reynolds stresses

and the components of the turbulent heat flux. The current progress

may be summarized as follows:

1. The complete three-dimensional code has been written in a modularized form to provide flexibility for future updating and refinement. A variety of commonly encountered boundary conditions have been

incorporated.

2. A series of debugging computer runs have been carried out. For

the case of zero velocities, the code reduces to that for threedimensional unsteady conduction, and has been successfully tested for

175
the case of unsteady heat conduction in a long bar of square cross section with combinations of constant surface temperatures and insulated

surfaces. The momentum equations have also been tested successfully in

terms of the code structure by means of physically trivial cases of unsteady channel flow. Also, the tridiagonal matrix algorithm which forms

the basis for all transport equation calculations in the code, has been

verified with test cases available in the literature. Test runs have

also been initiated on a complete three-dimensional laminar internal

flow case for the specific purpose of debugging the pressure-correction

algorithm in the code.

3. Considerable effort in the recent past has been placed on the

development of the turbulence model to be used in the 3-D UNDSAFE code.

While the differential transport field equations for the turbulence

kinetic energy (k), the dissipation function (e), and the mean-square

temperature fluctuation (g) represent one of the most general turbulence

field models currently available, there are several difficulties in

using such a model in the field calculations for three-dimensional flows.

Both the boundary conditions or wall functions and the initial conditions

for K, e, and g are not adequately known. Also, it is difficult to find

a rational basis for adjusting the large number of constants in the

turbulence model for the three-dimensional problem. A major effort has

been placed in the recent past on an extensive search of the experimental

literature for meaningful representation of these functionals k , e and

g. Several sets of data are available only for two-dimensional channel

flows, but the corresponding wall functions are quite sketchy. It is

decided that these data, together with available experimental data for

the wall region for external flows will form the basis for the development of our analytical representations. Initial efforts on computer

runs will address the simpler three-dimensional channel-flow problem.

Efforts on the three-dimensional enclosure problem will then follow.

It is generally recognized that fire losses can be reduced in

instances where the physical phenomena of fire and smoke spread are better understood and can be adequately predicted in advance. Research

efforts in the area of mathematical fire modeling specifically address

this problem by the development of zone models as well as field models,

of which the present study is one example. Despite early controversies,

there is a general agreement now that both the zone and field models

should be developed simultaneously and complementary to one another.

While field models are not yet ready for general application, they

nevertheless can serve the good purpose of providing needed additional

detailed information to the development of the zone model which are easier to use and are now on the verge of being applied to realistic

fire problems.

Reports and Papers

N. P. Lynch, "An Experimental Study of Fire and Smoke Spread in RoomCorridor Geometries," M.S. Thesis, Department of Aerospace and

Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN.,

July 1979.

176
ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

AUGUST 22-24, 1979

Institution : University of Pittsburgh

Grant No: NBS Grant NB79NADA0009 (formely NBS Grant 5-9005)

Grant Title: Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products

Principal Investigator : Professor Yves Alarie

Department of Industrial

Environmental Health Sciences

Graduate School of Public Health

University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, PA 15261

Other Professional Personnel : Rosalind C. Anderson, Ph.D.

NBS Scientific Officer : M.M. Birky, Ph.D.

Technical Abstract:

Methodologies are being developed to investigate the toxicological effects of thermal decomposition products from polymers;

the end-points selected, which are of relevance in preventing

escape from a fire as well as recovery following exposure to smoke

are

i) sensory irritation of the eyes, nose,

and throat.

ii) physiological stress due to smoke exposure

iii) development of asphyxiation due to smoke

inhalation

iv) acute lethality due to smoke inhalation

v) pulmonary irritation during and following

smoke inhalation.

177

(j
Summary :

The results obtained with the methodologies developed have

permitted us to rank the potency of smoke from polymers and to

make comparisons with either a reference material such as wood or

to compare among materials as given in Table 1. Also, we have

started the development of an Acute Lethal Hazard (ALH) index to

compare materials used for the same function, i.e. insulation.

These results are presented in Table 2. This information should

provide good guidelines for better material used in reducing fire

facilities due to smoke inhalation.
TABLE 1

Classification of thermal decomposition products from

tested materials in comparison to wood*

TOXICITY

INDICES

MEASURED AS

CLASSIFICATIONS

MUCH MORE

THAN WOOD

MORE

THAN WOOD

SIMILAR

TO WOOD

LESS

THAN WOOD

ACUTE

MORTALITY

LC5o=0.2-2.0g

PTFE

LC50=2-20g

All Materials

except

PTFE and Wood

_C50=20-200g

Wood

LC5o>200g

None found

PHYSIOLOGICAL

STRESS

(siloo)

SIioO=*012-.12g

None Found

SIioO=.12-1.2g

GM 29, GM 31

,

GM 35, GM 37,

GM 41 , GM 43,

UF, PVC-A

SIioo=1.2-12g

GM 21 , GM 23,

GM 25, GM 27,

GM 47, Wood

siioo>''2g

GM 49

SENSORY

IRRITATION

(RDbo)

RD5 o=.l-lmg

None found

RD5o=l-10mg

GM 21 , GM 23,

GM 25, GM 27

RD5Q=10-100mg

GM 31 , GM 35,

GM 37, GM 47

GM 49, UF,

PTFE, PVC-A

RD5Q>100mg

GM 29, GM41

GM 43, GM 57

* Wood taken as Douglas Fir. Basis for the classification as given in Anderson, R.C., and Alarie, Y., - Approaches to the

Evaluation of the toxicity of decomposition products of polymeric materials under thermal stress. J. Comb, Toxicol.

214-221, 1978.

179
Table 2

Classification of materials for acute lethal hazard (ALH)* in

comparison to fiberglass, when used for insulation purposes.

CLASSIFICATIONS

MUCH

MORE THAN

FIBERGLASS

MORE THAN

FIBERGLASS

SIMILAR TO

FIBERGLASS

LESS THAN

FIBERGLASS

ALH>240 ALH=24-240 ALH=2.4-24 ALH<2.4

PTFE D. Fir, Cellulose

UF, GM 25, GM 35,

GM 37, GM 57

GM 21 , GM 23,

GM 27, GM 29,

GM 31 , GM 41

,

GM 43, GM 47,

GM 49

None found

* Calculated as given in Alarie, Y., and Anderson, R.C.

,

Toxicologic

and acute lethal hazard evaluation of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural polymers. Toxicol. Appl . Pharmacol.,

Submitted, May 1979 and NBS third quarterly progress report for

1979.

180
PUBLICATIONS

(since last report)

Anderson, R.C., and Alarie, Y. - Approaches to the evaluation of the

toxicity of decomposition products of polymeric materials under thermal

stress, J. Comb. Toxicol. 214-221, 1978.

Anderson, R.C., Dierdorf, J., Stock, M.F., Matijak, M. , Sawin, R., and

Alarie, Y. - Use of experimental materials to assess the ability of

toxicological testing schemes in rating the hazards of polymeric materials under thermal stress. Fire and Materials, 136-140, 1978.

Anderson, R.C., and Alarie, Y. - An attempt to translate toxicity of

polymer thermal decomposition products into a toxicological hazard

index and discussion of the approaches selected, J. Comb, Toxicol. 5,

476-484, 1978.

Barrow, C.S., Lucia, H., Stock, M.F., and Alarie, Y - Development of

methodologies to assess the relative hazards from thermal decomposition

products of polymeric materials. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 408-423,

1979.

Barrow, C.S., Lucia, H., and Alarie, Y. - A comparison of the acute

inhalation toxicity of hydrogen chloride versus the thermal decomposition products of polyvinylchloride. J. Comb, Toxicol. 6, 3-12, 1979.

Anderson, R.C., Stock, M.F., Sawin, R. , and Alarie, Y. - Toxicity of

thermal decomposition products of urea formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde foams. Toxicol. Appl . Pharmacol., in press.

Alarie, Y. and Anderson, R.C. - Toxicologic and acute lethal hazard

evaluation of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural

polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. - Submitted, May 1979.

181
ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF FIRE RESEARCH

CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GAITHERSBURG, MARYLAND

August 22-24, 1979

Institution : Flammability Research Center, University of Utah

Grant No: NBS Grant G8-9012

Grant Title : Indepth Considerations of the Toxicological Effects of

Combustion Products

Principal Investigator : Professor J. H. Futrell

Flammability Research Center

University of Utah

391 South Chipeta Way

P. 0. Box 8089

Salt Lake City, Utah 84108

Other Professional Personnel : D. G. Farrar, B.Pharm.

F. D. Hileman, Ph.D.

NBS Scientific Officer : Dr. M. M. Birky

Technical Abstract

The objectives of the current work fall into three basic research

areas. These are:

a) the study of certain practical aspects of the proposed NBS

combustion toxicity test method;

b) the study of the potential contribution of sensory irritants

to incapacitation; and

c) the study of the contribution of the particulate phase of

combustion product atmospheres to observed toxicity in the

rat

a) NBS Protocol

1) the effect of chamber configuration on combustion product

distribution

Differences in the toxicological potency of combustion product

atmospheres have been identified with certain materials when tested

using similar protocols. The two protocols included the same furnace

and the same toxicological endpoints, but employed exposure chambers of

differing volume and configuration. Experiments are underway to

I

,182
I determine whether these differences were due to variations in product

distribution within the chambers.

The vertical distribution of both CO 2 and HCl in the 200-liter

chamber has been examined by various laboratories. These studies showed

minimal stratification within the chamber. These observations have been

extended to include the horizontal distribution with time of selected

components of the combustion product atmosphere from nonflaming Douglas

fir (molecular weights of methane acetaldehyde). The conclusion from

the initial study was that the product distribution in the 200-liter

"NBS" rectangular chamber was good, especially in relation to low molecular weight compounds (b.pt. < 30°C). The early distribution of higher

molecular weight compounds (e.g., acrolein) tended to show greater run- to-run variability. However, the products were not consistently higher

or lower at any given position within the chamber. Thus the problem

may not be one of mixing, but of the reproducible combustion of materials in the test furnace.

2) the effect of the variation of the intensity of the electrical

stimulus on the sensitivity of the leg-flexion avoidance

response to combustion products

Differences in the sensitivity of the leg-flexion avoidance re- sponse to certain combustion product atmospheres have been reported from

different laboratories using the paradigm in similar protocols. The

possibility that these differences may be due to variations in the

practical use of the paradigm is being studied. The most variable

aspect of the use of the response may lie in the degree of incentive

(electrical shock) used to train rats to perform the response. In

practice in our laboratory, this is controlled by the voltage output

from the stimulus source. The degree of shock received by the animal is

more a function of the current applied between the stimulating electrodes. Measurements in-house have shown that the routine intensity of

the shock employed is between 3.5 to 8.5 mV.

Using this shock intensity, it has been shown that the leg-flexion

response is sensitive to the sensory irritant component of certain

combustion product atmospheres. Further experiments are planned to

determine the relationship between the shock intensity and the sensitivity of the model to experimental atmospheres of acrolein and the

nonflaming combustion products of Douglas fir. It is anticipated that

the study will provide adequate data to allow a more precise definition

of the conditions required to train rats to perform this response.

Hopefully, this will lead to improved repeatability between laboratories

in the use of this endpoint in the determination of the incapacitating

effects of combustion products.

3) materials evaluation

As the "NBS" protocol approaches the status of inter-laboratory

review, the role of "trouble-shooting" becomes imperative. Problems

with any given .system will only come to light when the protocol is

stretched to the limits of its proposed application by a variety of

laboratories. In an attempt to preempt some of these problems, the

183
laboratory has continued to expand the range of types (both physical and

chemical) of material tested for combustion toxicity. Currently under

consideration are PTFE resin, wool fiber and modacryllc fabric.

Differences in potency obtained with PTFE (Table 1), when compared

to comparable data from NBS, have highlighted a potential problem with

the protocol, i.e., the determination of the autoignition point. The

autoignition point determined at FRC was 700°C, whereas that at NBS was

Table 1

Inter- laboratory Comparison of Combustion Toxicity Data Obtained

for PTFE Using the "NBS" Protocol

Utah Data

Temperature °C

EC50 (gm/m3)

LC50 (gm/m3)

NBS Data

Temperature °C

EC50 (gm/m3)

LC50 (gm/m3)

Nonflaming

680

0.53 0.12

0.25 0.05

595

0.004

Flaming

720

0.37 0.01

0.21 0.05

645

0.004

620°C. This resulted in the fact that the experiments with PTFE were conducted at the two institutions at different temperatures. Additional

preliminary experiments with PTFE using the same furnace have shown that

the potency of its combustion products is highly dependent on the temperature of combustion used, and that small differences in temperature

(of the order of 25-50°C) may lead to large differences in potency.

Therefore, the criteria by which the autoignition temperature is determined becomes a highly significant component in materials evaluation

using this system. This problem needs to be resolved.

b) Sensory Irritants as Incapacitating Agents

In the context of combustion toxicology, a model of incapacitation

should detect those combustion products likely to delay the egress of

man from a fire scenario. The exact role of sensory Irritants in this

context is unclear, but it is acknowledged that those irritants having

profound effects in the eye could be classified as incapacitating

agents. A current animal model showing extreme sensitivity to sensory

irritants (reduction in the respiratory rate of the mouse) may not

rationally discriminate between Irritants that have profound effects in

the eye and others that have less profound effects. A second animal

model that may be sensitive to the effects of sensory irritants (i.e.,

leg-flexion response) may also show the same lack of discrimination.

To explore this possibility, the effects of four sensory irritants

of relevance to combustion atmospheres (acrolein, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde and hydrogen chloride) on a range of endpoints in the rat will be

184
studied. The endpoints selected include objective and subjective measurements of eye irritation, leg-flexion response, acute changes in lung

function, post-exposure changes in lung function, pulmonary edema and

14-day mortality. The relative sensitivities of these endpoints to the

different irritants may lead to a more complete understanding of the

role of sensory irritants as incapacitating agents.

c) Contribution of Particulates to Combustion Product Toxicities

The particulate phase of combustion product atmospheres has two

potential functions of toxicological significance. Firstly, the particles may in themselves have intrinsic toxicity. Secondly, they may act

as carriers of absorped toxicants that are normally found in the gas

phase of combustion atmospheres. Toxicological observations have been

made recently with the combustion products of certain materials that may

be related to the particulate component of the atmosphere. Generally

the involvement is observed during the post-exposure period and is manifested as profound and prolonged losses in body weight, significant

post-exposure mortality and the occurrence of inflammatory lung lesions

in surviving rats. One such material to cause these effects is GM-21

(a flexible polyurethane foam)

An empirical experiment will be conducted to determine the role of

the particulate component of this atmosphere in causing these responses.

In this experiment, the particles will be filtered out of the atmosphere, whilst maintaining the levels of the Individual components of

the gas phase. The effect of this modification of the atmosphere on the

resulting toxicological profile will be established. If a causal relationship can be established between the particulate and the responses it

is anticipated that the study will be expanded to consider the overall

contribution of the particulate entity involved.

Reports and Publications

Farrar, D.G., "The effect of the sensory irritant component of a com- bustion atmosphere derived from Douglas fir on the leg-flexion avoidance

response of the rat," Proc. IVth Int . Conf. on Fire Safety , San

Francisco, January 1979, pp. 139-141 (to be published in J . Comb . Tox . )

Farrar, D.G. and Galster, W.A., "Biological endpoints for the assessment of the toxicity of products of combustion of materials," Proc . Interflam '79 , Guildford, U.K., March 1979, pp. 63-65 (to be published

in Fire and Materials) .

Farrar, D.G., Blank, T.L. and Galster W.A."Toxicity of the com- bustion products of a phenolic foam and a urea-formaldehyde foam,"

presented at Vllth Int. Congress of Pharmacology, Paris France, 1978.

Farrar, D.G., Galster, W.A. and Hughes, B.M., "Toxicological evaluation of material combustion products," Final Report to National Bureau

of Standards, 1979.

185
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NBS-114A (REV. 9-781

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO.

NBSIR 79-1916

?. R«ci|St6nt's Access ion No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Third Annual Conference on Fire Research

5. Publication Date October 1979

f. Perfoffiting Organization Ckide

7. AUTHOR(S)

Ileana M. Martinez, Editor

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, DC 20234

10. Pr©(e<^/Tasd«/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS rsfreet, cuy. St^te, ziP)

same as No. 9

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final Report

14. ^?onS<»'lng Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES none

I I Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

16. ABSTRACT (A 200~word or /e«s factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or

literature survey, mention it here.)

This report contains extencied abstracts of grants and contracts for fire research

sponsored by the Center for Fire Research, National Bureau of Standards, as well

as descriptions of the internal programs of the Center for Fire Research.

17. KEY WORDS fs ix to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name;

separated by semicolons) Chemistry of fire; combustion products; fire hazards; fire modeling; fire research;

human behavior in fires; physics of fire; toxicity of combustion products.

18. AVAILABILITY QUnlimited 19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

21. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

1 1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS UNCLASSIFIED 186

1 1 Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

20402, SD Stock No. SN003-003-

20. SECURITY CLASS

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22. Price

^Tvl Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161 UNCLASSIFIED $9.00

USCOMM-DC

<yU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-311*046/302
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