PUBUCATIONS / 0 / y 1-"

NBSIR 75-925

FINAL SUMMARY REPORT

STUDY OF THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

1972-75

Raymond C. Sangster

Office 0! the Deputy Director

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado 80302

NBSIR 75-92&

FINAL SUMMARY REPORT

STUDY OF THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

1972-75

Raymond C. Sangster

Office of the Deputy Director

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder. Colorado 80302

December 1976

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Elliot L Richardson, Secretary

Edward 0 Vetter, Under Secretary

Dr Betsy Ancker Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ernest Ambler. Acting Director
FOREWORD

The concept of a National Measurement System has, for many years,

provided a useful focus for the considerations important to physical

measurements in our technology intensive economy. Dr. R. D. Huntoon,

in his October 6, 1967, article in Science , emphasized the basis for a systems viewpoint in interrelated measurements activities and the idea

has continued to evolve. Today, we think of the U.S. National Measurement

System in terms of all the intellectual, functional and institutional

activities which enter into measurements throughout our society. Moreover, we seek to understand more completely the structural nature of this

system and its architectural needs.

There haye been a number of approaches to the study of our national

system for physical measurements. The present series of studies was initiated in 1972 by Dr. Ernest Ambler, then Director of the Institute

for Basic Standards. It was Dr. Ambler's purpose to organize the essential information necessary for the effective management of NBS resources

and to promote the direct interaction between IBS staff members and the

communities of users they serve.

This document reflects the results of the intensive studies carried

out during the period from 1972 - 1975. It is important to recognize

that the National Measurement System is extremely complex having widely

distributed elements and impacts. The detailed analysis of this system

is well beyond the state-of-the-art of econometric modeling, and therefore, any study, no matter how intensive, is necessarily incomplete.

Nevertheless, the information which is now in hand provides an important

addition to our capability for planning and implementing the programs

of IBS. It also represents a growing foundation upon which we can continue our efforts to build a more effective structure.

A. 0. McCoubrey

Director, Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

August 1976

ii
PREFACE

The 1972-75 Study of the National Measurement System by the NBS Institute

for Basic Standards has been a massive effort involving many people in all divisions of the Institute. The information compiled in this document is one of the

results of this effort, and could never have been developed without the contributions of a large number of knowledgeable individuals.

The Study was organized around a central coordinator and a group of "National

Measurement System Study representatives" from the technical divisions of the In- stitute. The initial central coordinator was Dr. James R. Seed, a Presidential

Interchange Executive from the Dow Chemical Company, on temporary assignment to

the National Bureau of Standards. Dr. Seed was responsible for the initial formulation of the tactical plans for this Study, and carried the project through

to the generation of a complete set of comprehensive reports on the structure and

operation of the various portions of the System, in December 1973. In August 1974,

I took over the central coordinator position, and worked with the Study representatives from the divisions of the Institute, to round out the pattern of the Study

and to develop the final reports which are being issued by NBS for the different

areas of measurement interest. Dr. David T. Goldman, Deputy Director of this NBS

Institute, provided direct managerial guidance and made many contributions, both

broad and specific, to all aspects of this study.

Any summary report of the efforts of many contributing authors is bound to

involve use of the words of those authors without explicit acknowledgement. This

has certainly occurred in this document, especially in sections 3.4 and 3.5. At

least the following individuals must be acknowledged as coauthors of these sec- tions of the report: Howard E. Morgan, Barry W. Poulson (University of Colorado),

Allan S. Risley, John W. Lazar, John D. Ramboz, Russell D. Young, James R. Whetstone, Donald E. Marlowe, William C. Haight, Peter L. M. Heydemann, James F. Schooley, Arnold Wexler, Max Klein, Thomas M. Flynn, Norman B. Belecki, Francis X. Ries, Paul A. Hudson, David S. Pallett, Henry J. Kostkowski , William H. Venable.Jr.

,

William R. Ott, Dennis A. Swyt, Robert J. Mahler, Arthur V. Phelps, John W.Cooper,

Cedric J. Powell and Randall S. Caswell (all of NBS except where noted parenthetically as otherwise). In addition, these contributing authors also had collaborating

authors, so that the ultimate origin of a particularly apt formulation of a specific point in sections 3.4 and 3.5 could well trace to still some other individual.

The original reports from which the material in these sections was taken are cited

and listed in the References section.

No report of this sort could be generated without many hours spent at the

typewriter. This one would not exist without the competent and unstinting

efforts of my secretaries and everyone else whom they could obtain to support

them, and I wish to thank them, one and all: Carol Ciufolo, Marty Tyner,

Pamela Killian, Angela DiGiallonardo, Sheila Aaker, Sue Randolph, Nancy Mills,

Kay Stephenson, Shirley Deeg, and Doris Schaffner.

We trust that the availability of this document will be useful to many

readers who need only an overview of the results of our Study of the National

Measurement System. For those who want more detailed information about any

part of this study, we have provided a "Report Request Card" at the back of

this document, which can be used to request the specific reports wanted.

Raymond C. Sangster

September 1976
CONTENTS

FOREWORD. ii

PREFACE iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

1. INTRODUCTION. 3

1.1 Concept of a National Measurement System 3

1.2 Background of Present Study 3

2. IMPLEMENTATION OF STUDY 5 2.1 Organization of Study 5 2.2 Approaches to Study 6

2.3 Techniques for Observing the System 6

3. FINDINGS OF STUDY 7 3.1 Model of the System 7 3.2 Status of the System 9

3.3 Trends of the System 9

3.3.1 Increased Complexity 9

3.3.2 Increased Integration of the System 10

3.3.3 Improved Quality Control in the System 10

3.3.4 Improved Information Resources for the System 11 3.3.5 Automation of Measurements 11 3.3.6 Metrication 11 3.3.7 Science 12

3.4 Economic Analysis of the National Measurement System 12

3.5 Assessments by Microstudies of Major System Trends and Needs; Programmatic

Impacts of the Study 13

3.5.1 Time and Frequency 13

3.5.2 Length and Related Dimensional Measurements 14

3.5.3 Vibration and Shock 14

3.5.4 Surface Finish 14

3.5.5 Mass, Volume, and Density 15

3.5.6 Force 15

3.5.7 Fluid Flow 15

3.5.8 Pressure 16

3.5.9 Temperature 17

3.5.10 Humidity and Moisture 18

3.5.11 Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids 18

3.5.12 Cryogenics 19

3.5.13 Electricity 20

3.5.14 Electromagnetics 21 3.5.15 Medical Ultrasonics 21 3.5.16 Acoustics 21 3.5.17 Radiometry and Photometry 22

3.5.18 Spectrophotometry 23

3.5.19 Far Ultraviolet Radiometry 24

3.5.20 Optics 24

3.5.21 Lasers 25

3.5.22 Physical Properties of Atoms and Molecules 26

3.5.23 Surface Properties 26

3.5.24 Ionizing Radiation 27

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 31 REFERENCES 35

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Techniques used for observing the National Measurement System 6

Table 2. Realized measurement accuracies 8

Table 3. Examples of Federal regulatory agencies 9

Table 4. Measurement intensity of principal using industries, 1963 12

Table 5. Economic growth of measurement-intensive industries 12

iv
FINAL SUMMARY REPORT

STUDY OF THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Raymond C. Sangster

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

December 1976

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The National Measurement System consists

of all of the activities and mechanisms that

provide physical measurement data to allow

creation of the objective, quantitative knowledge required by our society.

In 1972, the Assistant Secretary of Com- merce for Administration directed the preparation of a study of "the NBS standards of

measurement to determine if their accuracy

is sufficient for the needs of U.S. industry."

This request led to initiation of a threeyear study of the National Measurement System for the purpose of developing answers

in depth to the questions posed. The internal motivation for the activity was to:

1. Provide management with enough information to allooate limited resources to most timely, significant programs.

2. Assist in obtaining our resources by

demonstrating clear concept of responsibi 1 ities. .

.

3. Motivate our own people to improve the

management of puhlia funds spent on

techno logical programs.

Implementation involved a macroeconomic

study of the cost of measurements in our

economy and a series of microstudies in the

following technical areas: Time & frequency Electromagnetics

Length & related dimen- Medical ultrasonics

sional measurements Acoustics

Vibration and shock Radiometry & Surface finish photometry

Mass, volume & density Spectrophotometry

Force Far ultraviolet

Fluid flow radiometry

Pressure Optics

Temperature Lasers

Humidity & moisture Physical properties

Thermodynamic properties of atoms & moleCryogenics cules

Electricity Ionizing radiation

The structure of the system has been

depicted by a model with five levels:

I. The conceptual system , the intellectual foundation that defines the measurement

quantities and units.

II . The basic technical infrastructure

that provides the tools and techniques and

agreements that allow the conceptual system

to be reduced to practice.

III. Realized measurement capabilities , i.e., abilities to measure specific quantities to known accuracies under defined con- ditions.

IV. The institutional dissemination and

enforcement network ; components include NBS,

state and local weights and measures agencies, standards laboratories, and some regulatory agencies.

V. End-use measurements , which all other

levels of the system exist to «;unnort. Supporting all of these levels is a central pillar of measurement science, know-how,

and trained people.

Interactions among different institutional

sectors of the system have been described by

a direct measurements transactions matrix.

Measurements cost an estimated 6% of GNP.

About 85% is for labor. All 78 major industrial sectors, all levels of government, and consumers buy measurement equipment or labor.

Federal, state and local governments are the largest user sector, about 35% of the

total. Other service industries, principally

trade, utilities, transportation and communication, account for about 25%. "High technology" manufacturing industries spend a larger share of their value-added but relatively few actual dollars. Preliminary correlations of measurement intensity with

economic growth and productivity data for

major industrial sectors reveal a significant positive correlation.

The technical microstudies reveal a number of serious deficiencies, especially

in areas associated with governmental regulation for healthy safety , and environmental

protection. They provide information used

by NBS to define new program directions.

Even in such basic areas as measurement

of time, length, and mass, there are needs

for improvements, for example, in mass mea- surements for inventory control of fissionable nuclear materials. Economics is a prime
motivator for a number of dramatic technological changes: satellite time and frequency

broadcasts, electronic distance-measuring sur- veying equipment, and automated digital grocery store scales. The major problems are those of scaling to large or small magnitudes,

e.g., very precise navigational positioning,

measuring the volume of oil in a supertanker

or the breadth of a line in an integrated circuit.

On the other hand, there are deficiency

areas where it is hard to say that a national

measurement system even exists: Surface properties (of importance in such diverse areas

as catalytic petroleum refining and microelectronics) and medical ultrasonics (used

for detecting cancer and monitoring the un- born), fields which have blossomed dramatically very recently. Far ultraviolet radiometry (used in phototherapy of newborn infants

and for monitoring the earth's shielding ozone

layer), a field in which measurement standards

have existed only recently. Spectrophotometry

(of importance in all fields of color and

appearance and lighting), because of a lack

of national leadership until recently. Electromagnetic interference phenomena (of importance in virtually all uses of electronics),

because of the subtlety and complexity of the

measurement problems.

The most critically important deficiency

area identified is in the measurement system

needed for the safeguards program for special

(fissionable) nuclear materials, and NBS has

initiated a major program here in collaboration with ERDA and NRC.

Other areas in which improvements in the

system are needed include the following:

1. A firm base for measurement under

dynamic, time- varying conditions, of force,

fluid flow, pressure, temperature, humidity,

electrical quantities, and tohers.

2. Standards support to high speed,

dynamic, automated measurement systems, in

electronics and electromagnetics.

3. Measurements made under hostile environmental conditions, such as the measurement

of temperature, pressure, neutron flux, and

fission rates inside nuclear reactors.

4. Precision characterization of many

kinds of measurement transducers, especially

for temperature and pressure.

5. Non-contacting, on-line, manufacturing

instrumentation for measurement of surface

finish parameters.

6. Flow measurements in the field, such

as low air velocities for mine ventilation,

water supply and waste water flows for pollution control, metering of natural gas, and

mul ti -component flow.

7. Measurement assurance for auto tire

pressures and aircraft altimeters.

Electronic medical thermometry.

9. Measurement of moisture in grain (in

conjunction with the Dept. of Agriculture).

10. Gathering and predicting measurement

data on the thermodynamics of fluids, especially complex mixtures in support of such

fields as the chemical and petroleum refining

i ndustries

.

11. A measurement system and data for

liquified natural gas, and for superconductivity^in the electrical power industry.

' 12. Measurement techniques for monitoring

noise to support its regulation and control.

13. Widely available 1% end-use measurements in radiometry and photometry, where 20%

is conmon today, in support of many new areas of lighting and optical technology.

14. Improvement of measurement of ionizing

radiations used in medicine, to which workers

are exposed, or present in the environment.

The major trends of the System are these:

Increased complexity , resulting from the

ever-increasing scope of science and technology, from the development of the information

economy, and from the challenge of mastering

the ever-growing complexity of our society.

Improved quality control.

Improved information resources.

Automation.

Metrication y to bring the U.S. into line

with the rest of the world.

Consolidation of the scientific revolution

in the basis of the system--the shift from

dependence on artifacts to natural phenomena

as our basic standards.

The most significant deficiency lies in

! the lack of adequate mechanisms for quality

' assurance throughout the measurement system.

Closely related is the wide-spread need for

I more "how-to" information at the working

I level. Inversely, NBS and other infrastrucI tural institutions need more knowledge of

I real needs of the system.

As the central measurements standards

'.institution in this country, NBS contributes

to every aspect of the National Measurement

System. Its two primary unique functions are custody of the national standards of physical

measurement and promotion of the health of

I the entire National Measurement System.

I

1 NBS is currently responding to most of the

measurement systems needs identified by this

study. Most especially, NBS is moving to

meet the needs of a new major sector of the

system: measurements for establishment of,

I enforcement of, and compliance with, governmental regulations. The major challenge

: facing the Bureau is that of wise deployment

I of our resources, as other demands are put on

j NBS expertise__, to support the needs of a coni stantly expanding National Measurement System.

2
1. INTRODUCTION 1.2 Background of Present Study

1.1 Concept of a National Measurement System

The "Concept of a National Measurement

System" has been discussed by NBS authors and

spokesmen for a number of years. In the October 6, 1967, issue of Science, [1], Dr. R. D. Huntoon wrote:

"Concurrently with the growth and industrialization of this nation, there has developed

within it a vast, complex system of mea- surement which has made possible the very

growth that brought the system into being.

This National Measurement System stands

today as one of the key elements in a world-wide measurement system that links

all major nations together in a consistent,

compatible network for communications and

trade.

"Our National Measurement System is one of a number of mutually interacting systems

within our technologically based society

that form the environment in which the

individual citizen must live and function.

Familiar examples are the communication,

transportation, educational, medical and

legal systems "

"The National Measurement System, which

evolved in this country with little

formal recognition as a system, is now

being examined... at the National Bureau

of Standards (NBS)... partly because of

the all -pervasive nature and great eco- nomic importance of the nation's measurement activities, and partly because of

the challenge to NBS in putting its splendid new facilities to optimum use for the

benefit of the nation. Such optimum use

can be approached only when the National

Measurement System, of which NBS is a central element, and the services it

requires for effective operation are sufficiently well understood." [1]

Today, we define the U.S. National Measurement System as comprising all of the activities and mechanisms--intel lectual and operational, technical and institutional--used by

this country to produce the physical measurement data needed to create the objective,

quantitative knowledge required by our society. This knowledge is used to describe,

predict, communicate, control, and react, in

many aspects of our personal and social lives,

science and technology.

•^Figures in brackets indicate the literature

references at the end of this report.

In a memorandum dated April 12, 1972, the

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Administra

tion directed the preparation of a study of

"the NBS standards of measurement to determine

if their accuracy is sufficient for the needs

of U.S. industry."

In response to this request, two actions were taken. One was to prepare an immediate

reply based on the evidence then available.

The second was to initiate a three-year study

of the National Measurement System for the

purpose of developing answers in depth to

the questions posed. This report is a sum- mary of the resulting study. Currently relevant excerpts from the immediate reply [2] are quoted below:

"Compatibility of measurement through standards is a fundamental aspect of a world

organized for the interchange of goods

and ideas, i.e., of a civilization....

The immediate origins of the modern system of standards are to be found in the

late 19th century, that period when the

full flowering of America as an industrial

society was occurring. [3] To agrarian

concerns over diversity of measures for

weight, fluid volume and land area would

shortly be added the need to meter electrical energy, to know the heating value

of fuels and the lighting value of illuminants, and to assure the interchangeability of manufactured parts."

"The creation of a national system of measurements to which all could repair seems quite

analogous to the struggles towards a uniform currency which were occurring in the same era and which culminated in the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. A rational, selfconsistent system of physical measurements

is the 'currency' of science and technology

"The physical measurement system cannot measure its own value to society... standardization is inextricable from the whole

apparatus by which social life is organ- . ized, and it stands or falls with the

society as a whole." [2]

The specific questions posed in the Departmental memorandum of April 1972, and excerpts

from the NBS answer of July 1972, are the following [2]:

"Do NBS Standards Meet the Needs of U.S.

Industry ?

"Whether we relate the above question to industry only or construe it more broadly,

the answer is qualitatively the same:
NBS standards do appear to meet moat needs.

However^ technology continually advances

by means of new discoveries ^ and at any

given time there will be new needs in certain areas that require attention.

"Since 1946, new needs have tended to appear

first in the programs of government agencies using advanced technologies (e.g.,

defense, aerospace, and atomic energy),

from where they have diffused into client

industries and then to civilian industry."

"More recently, a different pattern has

emerged in which the measurement needs

are being generated by public concern for

well-being and safety. These are finding

expression in recent legislation and in

the regulatory measures being promulgated

by such bodies as the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Labor,

and the Bureau of Radiological Health....

"However, some measurements needs do arise

directly from civilian industry. Following are some current examples:

0 High voltage. .

.

0 Photometry...

0 Electronic thermometers..."

"In cases where the standards should be improved, how much should they be improved,

what would be the benefits of improving

the standards and how much would it cost?"

"obtaining... answers is one of the main

goals of the three-year study now under way."

"What role do NBS standards play in increasing

U.S. industry's ability to compete in

foreign markets 7 Are there standards

,

presently unavailable or capable of improvement, that would give U.S. industry

a competitive edge in fvreigyi markets?"

"It is essential for a nation exporting advanced industrial products to use an internationally recognized and com- patible system of units, to possess standards of such measurement units, and to

have procedures for referring all critical

measurements to those standards.... This

is especially true of high-technology products, which today are the healthiest

sector of U.S. export trade."

"Ave there predictable technological developments that would create a need for NBS

standards not now available?"

The answer to either of two possible versions

of this question in "Yes:"

"Are there predictable developments=in mea- surement technology of such importance to

the improvement of measurements that NBS

could not responsibly neglect them?"

"Can we identify beneficial future technologies that cannot be brought to full fruition unless appropriate new kinds of standards are provided by NBS?"

'yhat is the NBS plan for improving and re- fining the accuracy of standards in the

future ?"

"We feel it is inportant to discuss this

question much more broadly, i.e., in terms

of meeting needs , not just in terms of

'improving accuracy.'"

"We have set in motion an extensive planning

exercise to be vigorously pursued during

FY 73-75 by all units of IBS. It employs

many of the techniques and inputs used in

the past. This long-range planning study

amounts to a detailed analysis of what we have often referred to as the National Measurement System [4]. This is being accom- plished simply by bringing a much larger

NBS workforce to bear on the problem and

by developing and drawing on a much more extensive body of outside contacts." [2]

The 1972-75 IBS Study of the National Measurement System was initiated in 1972 by Dr. Ernest Ambler [5^. The stated aim was to

undertake a drastic speedup in the extent

and depth of Institute program justification

efforts so as to accomplish an across-theboard analysis of the entire scope of Institute measurement and dissemination concerns. The approach to the study involved analysis

of the totality of the physical measurements

performed in this country to answer the question of the quality of the measurements being

made by the system and whether NBS dissemination procedures are adequate for its needs.

The motivation for the activity was to:

"1. Provide management with enough information to allocate limited resources to

most timely, significant programs.

2. Assist in obtaining our resources by

demonstrating clear concept of responsibilities. . .demonstrating that we have

evaluated the needs, considered the

alternatives; employed good management

practices

.

3. Motivate our own people to improve the

management of public funds spent on technological programs. " [6]

4
2. IMPLEMENTATION OF STUDY

2.1 Organization of Study

A. A series of "microstudies" of specific

aspects of the system was initiated, defined

on the basis of the technical measurement

fields with which the Institute deals. Thus,

the total system was examined with respect to

a series of different, specific kinds of measurements.

Implementation of the microstudies was delegated by the division chiefs to "study

representatives." Typically these study

representatives were chiefs of the sections

responsible for the kinds of measurement being studied. These study representatives

often enlisted support from many others in

their divisions, so that the total number of

study contributors and report authors was quite large.

The final roster of microstudies and of

all fa-^-^i- r'spi-cset-.t 2ti-j<e3 associated with

them is this [numbers in brackets reference

the key reports generated]:

Time and Frequency - Allan S. Risley (Time and

Frequency Division) [7]

Length and Related Dimensional Measurements - John W. Lazar (Mechanics Division) [8]

Vibration and Shock - John D. Ramboz (Mechanics Division) [ 9 ] Surface Finish - Russell D. Young (Mechanics

Division) [10]

Mass, Volume and Density - James R. Whetstone,

James A. Simpson, B. Nelson Norden (Mechanics Division) [11]

Force - Donald E. Marlowe (Mechanics Div.)[12]

Fluid Flow - William C. Haight, Philip R. Compton (Mechanics Division) [13]

Pressure - Peter L.M. Heydemann (Heat Div.)[14]

Temperature - James F. Schooley (Heat Div.)[15]

Humidity and Moisture - Arnold Wexler (Heat

Division) [16]

Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids - Max

Klein (Heat Division) [17]

Cryogenics - Thomas M. Flynn (Cryogenics

Division) [18]

Electricity - Norman B. Belecki (Electricity

Division) [19]

Electromagnetics - Robert A. Kamper, Francis

X. Ries, Wilbur J. Anson (Electromagnetics

Division) [20,21]

Medical Ultrasonics - Paul A. Hudson (Electromagnetics Division) [22]

Acoustics - David S. Pallett (Institute Office) [23]

Radiometry and Photometry - Henry J. Kostkowski,

Bruce W. Steiner (Optical Physics Div.)[24]

Spectrophotometry - William H. Venable, Jr.,

(Optical Physics Division) [25]

Far Ultraviolet Radiometry - William R. Ott

(Optical Physics Division) [26]

Optics - Dennis A. Swyt (Mechanics Div.) [27]

Lasers - Robert J. Mahler (Time and Frequency)

(note that the final report on the laser

study has been integrated into that for the

electromagnetics study) [21,28]

Physical Properties of Atoms and Molecules - Arthur V. Phelps (Laboratory Astrophysics

Division), John W. Cooper (Optical Physics

Division) [29]

Surface Properties - Cedric J. Powell (Optical Physics Division) [30]

Ionizing Radiation - Randall S. Caswell

(Center for Radiation Research) [31]

B. A central coordinator for all of the

studies was appointed soon after they began.

Dr. James R. Seed, a Presidential Interchange

Executive from Dow Chemical Company, on temporary assignment to the National Bureau of

Standards. Dr. Seed returned to Dow Chemical

Co. in early 1974. Dr. Raymond C. Sangster of

NBS (the present writer) took up the coordination responsibilities in August 1974.

C. A macroeconomic study was undertaken

of the cost dimensions of measurement-related

activities in our economy. Dr. Paul U. Pawlik,

working under the guidance of Dr. Howard E. Morgan, an NBS staff economist, conducted a study to define the gross "value-added" eco- nomic dimensions of the national measurement

system. [32,33] Later, Dr. Morgan extended

the macroeconomic study to include analysis

of capital investment and current expenditures

for measurement instrumentation. [34]

D. During final phases of the study, support was enlisted of Charles W. Howe, Bernard

Udis, and Barry W. Poulson of the University

of Colorado, Department of Economics; and of

Charles T. Stewart, Mary A. Holman, James R. Barth, and James T. Bennett, of the Department of Economics of George Washington University. The objectives of this support were

to provide critiques and guidance directly to the authors of the microstudies, to strengthen

the economic aspects of their reports. During

the course of their involvement with the microstudy authors, this group of economists developed additional insight into the macroeconomic

aspects of the national measurement system,

and Prof. Poulson was retained to write a summary report on the economic aspects of the

total 1972-75 study [35].

5
2.2 Approaches to Study

There was an obvious effort made to graft

the new national measurement system microstudies onto ongoing efforts of a similar

nature. As a matter of deliberate management

policy, few formal procedural requirements

were imposed on the separate microstudies

during their first 18 months. As a result,

initial interim reports generated in December 1973 exhibited a substantial variety in

their approaches to the studies. During this

first 18 months or so, coordination was effected by the analysis of two annual plans and

of one substantial written report for the microstudies; by personal counseling between

the central coordinator and the study representatives; by a major workshop in which all

participants described their approaches and

results to date; and by discussion at semiannual major division chiefs' meetings.

The current phase under Dr. Sangster began

with personal conferences with the division

chiefs and their study representatives. The

interim reports were used as a data base for

an inductive development of a master model of

the national measurement system. This model was then used to develop a draft outline for

the final measurement system study reports,

and to evaluate the existing reports. Another workshop was held to comnunicate these

results and to reach a meeting of the minds

about the nature of what needed to be done

to complete the study.

The central coordinator has also had a responsibility of interacting with the rest

of the measurement system, to represent the

measurement system study as a whole, both

by personal contact and by study and analysis of the literature.

2.3 Techniques for Observing the System

The techniques for observing the system

are of primary importance in the methodology

of the study. They can be described in terms

of:

(1) the selection mechanisms that are

used to determine the sources of information

or validation;

(2) the contact mechanisms and transmission media used to obtain the actual data;

and

(3) the specific sources of data that are actually used.

The actual mechanisms and sources used are displayed in table 1, in an approximate order

or importance, averaged over the total study.

Table 1. Techniques Used for observing the

National Measurement System (in approximate order of importance).

Mechanisms for selection of sources

Staff judgment or wisdom

Analyses of NBS clientele

Analyses of instrumentation industry

Analyses of membership of National

Conference of Standards Laboratories

Analyses based on Standard Industrial

Classification codes

Other (statistical reports, etc.)

Sources of information or validation for study

Private companies, directly

Instrumentation industry

Staff wisdom & publications;

previous studies

Federal government agencies, nonregulatory

Professional & technical societies

& publishers

Documentary standards bodies; laws

NBS evaluation panels

Academia - people & organizations

Trade associations

Other NBS units

Federal regulatory agencies

Standards & testing laboratories

& services

Trade press, including advertisements

International & foreign organizations

National Conference of Standards Labs.

State & local government agencies

State & local Offices of Weights & Measures; Nat'l Conf. W & M

Reference data & materials

organizations

Popular press, including ads

Consumer organizations

Contact mechanisms & transmission media

Literature search (all varieties)

Telephone

Visits to sources' sites

Correspondence

Conferences & meetings, general

Visitors & trainees at NBS

Special conferences, etc.,

NBS sponsored

Round robins, intercomparisons

Formal polling, canvass, questionnaire

Exhibits by NBS - trade shows, etc. Consultants

Delphi or other special technological

forecasting techr.iques.
3. FINDINGS OF STUDY

This section summarizes the major findings

of the 1972-75 IBS Study of the National

Measurement System.

3.1 Model of the System

The model of the National Measurement

System developed by induction from interim

microstudy reports prepared in December 1973

and from previous literature on this subject

[1,4,36-48] can be considered to have five

major levels:

I. The intelleotual foundation is the

conceptual system that defines the measurement quantities and units. The measurement

system of the United States is founded upon

one basic conceptual system of phenomena,

quantities, and properties (established by

international agreement), and upon two systems of units, the "Customary" system based

on old English measurement units, and the

modernized metric system, the Systeme International (abbreviated SI) [37,38,49-69].

II. The basic technical infrastructure

provides the tools and techniques and agreements that allow the conceptual system to be

reduced to practice. The technical infrastructure elements have been defined to encompass

1. A documentary specification system

[70-76],

2. An instrumentation system of physical

standards, techniques, and instruments, supported by an instrumentation

industry [34,77-80].

3. A reference data system [81-84].

4. A reference materials system [47,85-91].

5. A central core of supporting knowledge

and science.

III. Realized measurement capabilities - the ability to measure specified quantities

to known precisions and accuracies under

defined circumstances - form the heart of

the measurement system. The whole system

centers on this level. The lower levels are meaningful only as they result in realized

measurement capabilities. The higher levels

can achieve no more than these capabilities

allow. (See table 2.) [38,50,57,60,77,92-105].

IV. The dissemination and enforcement

network exists to make the realized measurement capabilities available to the ultimate

users and to enforce the adequacy of their

use where this is called for by law or accepted practice. This network provides

the iy-atituticruxl ir.frastructure of the system. Since one function of the national

measurement system is to allow compatibility

in international commerce, both national and

international institutions are relevant.

The general kinds of institutions involved

can be described as the central standards

authorities responsible for physical measurements, the state and local offices of weights

and measures, standards and testing laboratories and services, and those regulatory

agencies that must specify measurable physical requirements in the field that they are regulating [36].

As the central measurement standards

authority in the U.S., the National Bureau

of Standards is broadly responsible for

monitoring and supporting the health of the

entire measurement system [3,39,44,55,80,

104,106-116]. Other institutions in

this country have only secondary central

measurements standards roles; the most important of these is the provision of astronomical time of day by the U.S. Naval Observatory [7]. Our ultimate central standards

authority is a supranational organization,

the International Bureau of Weights and

Measures [54,61,63,68].

Legal responsibility for enforcement of

justice in use of weights and measures in our domestic commercial marketplaces lies

with state and local offices of weights and measures. The National Conference of Weights

and Measures is the central coordinating

body for operating agencies in this field.

Its paid staff and executive secretariat

are provided by the NBS Office of Weights

and Measures [3,55,58,77,117-130].

Standards and testing laboratories and

services function as "miniature NBS's" to

provide physical standardization services to specific portions of the National Measurement System. The National Conference of

Standards Laboratories (NCSL) is the central

organization in the field. NBS provides the

central secretariat for this organization

[10,92,105,131-136].

With the development of modern technology

and the increase in the complexity of society,

more and more regulatory roles have been as- sumed by the formal governmental structure.

Table 3 indicates some of the Federal regulatory agencies, both within the Executive

Departments and located independently.

Actions of the regulatory agencies have

a major impact on the measurement system,

since promulgation of optimal regulations

requires a measurement capability that

allows the necessary data to be obtained and

sound decisions to be made in such areas as
Table 2. Realized measurement accuracies

Estimated Measurement Quantity _ Accuracy

Time and frequency:

NBS-5 1-2 X 10

(Parts per unit)

13 Commercial Cs beam devices

Length: Kr-86 lamp, NBS

NBS end-std. calib. : 25 cm

1 mm

Geodetic surveying

Surface Finish:

Mass:International comparisons

Class M laboratory weights

Commercial test weights

Volume: Laboratory use Density: NBS

Force:

1 X 10

-11

1-2 X 10

3 X 10

3 X 10

1 X 10 2.5 nm

-9

-3

-6

2-3 X 10"

5 X 10'

1 X 10"

5 X 10"

5 X

10"

2 X NBS deadweight standards, 10' a lu r corrected for air buoyancy 1 x lO'g

Working calibration standards 5 x lO" Vibration: NBS 1 x 10'^

Fluid Flow: Air flow, NBS 1.5 x 10_

Pipelines, liquid and gas 1-3 x 10 Water, open conduits 5 x 10 Pressure:

NBS standards 3-6 x 10 Military maintenance stds. 1 x 10 Temperature: Water triple point 1 x 10' Commonly used sensors 1 x 10' to 5 X 10"

Humi di ty

NBS 1 X 10 Commercial humidity meters 1 x 10

-2

-4

Moisture: In grain

Thermodynamic properties

of fluids:

Cryogenics:

up to 2 X 10

1 X 10 to 5 X 10

-3

-21

-4

-3

-2 Pressure transducerscommercial 5;10 X 10

2 Temperature- -commercial 10" to 10",

FI0W--NBS research facility 1 x 10'

Measurement Quantity

Electricity

DC voltage, NBS

RMS voltage, 10 kHz, NBS Capacitance, NBS Resistance, NBS Electromagnetics

Impedance

Attenuation

Phase delay

Power Voltage

Noise

Field Strength

Medical Ultrasonics: power Acoustics:

Sound pressure, NBS Noise exposure, commercial

Radiometry and photometry:

NBS Field workers

Estimated

Accuracy

(Parts per unit)

1 X 10

2 X 10

1 X 10 8 X 10

-5

-8

1 X lO'i

to 2 X 10'' ^0-3 5-10 X 10 5

. 1-10 X 10'f

10" to 2 X 10"' 5-300 X 10",

3-20 X 10'

5 X 10-2

10 3-30 X 10

-3

-2

1-5 X 10 5-10 X 10 Spectrophotometry:

Transmi ttance, NBS Reflectance, NBS

Far ultraviolet radiometry:

Detectors, NBS Sources, NBS Optics:

Resolution limits

Optical density

Lens diopters, NBS Lasers

Frequencies, NBS Power and energy, NBS

Physical properties of atoms and molecules

-2

3 X 10"

5 X 10'

6-10 X 10" 5-10 X 10"

1000 1 ines per mm

5 X 10:^

10

^

10'^° to 10"?

1-7 X

10'*^

Energy levels

Atomic hyperfine separation

Cross sections, electrons

Cross sections, atoms/ions

Oscillator strengths

Electron drift velocity

5 X 10

to 1 X 10

1 X 10 3-20 X 10 1-2 X 10 1-5 X 10

5 X 10

-12

-6

13 -2

-1

-3

Surface composition: 0.1? of an atomic layer

0.1 ,im lateral resolution

Ionizing radiation: NBS 1-5 x 10

8
Table 3. Examples of Federal regulatory

agenci es

Civil Aeronautics Board

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Environmental Protection Agency

Federal Communications Commission

Federal Power Commission

Federal Trade Commission

Food and Drug Administration

Interstate Conmerce Commission

Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration

National Highway Traffic Safety Admin.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Occupational Safety and Health Admin.

the feasibility of enforcement; enforaement

by the regulator requires comparison of actual conditions with the prescription of the

regulations, and this often means measurements; contliance by the regulatee similarly

requires an ability to measure; and adjudiaation requires measurements that will stand

up in court.

V. The ultimate level in the system con- sists of the end-use measurements made and

used in the "Measurements market-place". It is this level that all other elements in the

system exist to support. The technique that

has been chosen for displaying these and

other measurement activities is a measurement

transactions matrix, which displays the

di rect interactions among the various suppliers and users of measurement information,

data, goods, and services [137].

3.2 Status of the System

While the U.S. national measurement system is overall in reasonably good health,

there are both systematic and specific deficiencies that can and should be corrected.

There are several specific areas (detailed

below) in which the measurement system will

be subjected to severe strains in the foreseeable future, unless appropriately responsive steps are taken during the next several

years.

The strengths of the U.S. National Measurement System are many. For example, the

U.S. instrumentation industry is strong--

exports exceed imports by a factor of two,

at the billion dollar level [78]. The

country has a strong measurement institutional infrastructure: NBS, the state and

local weights and measures agencies, the

industrial and governmental standards laboratori es.

The most fundamental structural deficiency

in the system lies in its frequent lack of

adequate stabilizing "feedback" mechanisms.

Simply, there are not enough provisions in

the system to assure that the measurement

data needed are actually provided with the

necessary quality, at minimum cost, or to assure that information about measurements

is available to the people who need it.

The main systematic teahnological deficiency in the system lies in the lack of

support by NBS of a wide variety of practical measurements: Measurements of quantities under dynamic conditions, where the

measurement variable is changing during the

measurement process. Measurements under a variety of environmental extremes: temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. Measurements

made by convenient but poorly characterized

transducers. System needs in this general area have been recognized during many of the

microstudies, and a number of program activities have been initiated toward satisfying

them.

The primary institutional deficiency in

the system is in the area of measurements in

support of technological regulations, where

neither the regulatory agencies nor those

. being regulated have an adequate institutional focus on their measurement problems^ _

3.3 Trends of the System

Continuing NBS activities in long standing

program areas such as static force and analog

electrical measurements assure that these

portions of the measurement system are adequately supported. The emerging technologies

typically have problems. There are rapidly

rising measurement demands associated with

the recent dramatic expansion of governmental

regulatory activities in the fields of en- vironmental protection, occupational safety

and health, consumer protection, and radiation safety.

The major trends of the national measurement system can be described under the following headings:

3.3.1 Increased Complexity .

Increased complexity is the result of three

major driving forces: (a) advancements in

science and technology, (b) the development of the information economy [138], and

(c) the challenge of mastering the ever- growing complexity of our society as a whole.

9
The growth of the information economy in- creases pressures on the National Measurement

System. Data created by physical measurements comprise one major source of input

information. An apparent "saturation" of

the economy by information activities [138]

increases the importance of an ability of

the measurement system to deliver exactly

the data needed, when it is needed, with

exactly the required quality.

The issue of managing the ever-growing com- plexity of our society is probably the greatest single driving force that the measurement

system faces today [139,140]. Our society can

no longer afford the complexity introduced by

poor, inadequate, or excessive measurements.

The measurement system provides the foundation

of data about the physical universe that allows the industrial system and society to

function. Confusion about these data introduces confusion and complexity at the most

fundamental level. The social driving force

for reduction of social complexity means that

confusion in the physical measurements data

base will become increasingly intolerable.

We must have the data we need, and we must

know that it has the reliability that we

need, no more and no less. We will increasingly be unable to afford to guess about the

validity and adequacy of our fundamental data.

Specific examples of the need for quality

control of measurement data occur in such areas as the enforcement of pollution control

regulations. The Environmental Protection

Agency is acutely concerned about this problem. Development and application of methods

uf ensuring that the recorded data base is

meaningful is expensive and complex, but

without these methods gross mistakes can be

made. A few years ago several monitoring

stations on a major lake reported about a twenty percent jump in the level of a pollutant. The obvious action decision was to

seek out the pollutors who had gone out of

control. In fact, inquiry to the monitoring

stations revealed that they had just put a new and more accurate measurement method into

service. But ten years from now, will anyone examining the recorded data base know

this? And will they jump to the wrong con- clusions regarding the historical pattern

of pollution in this lake? (For example,

"despite all the efforts..., in 197_ a major

pollution surge occurred; obviously, the

control efforts had been futile!").

Because of such problems, EPA factors in- to its assessment of any pollution data reported to it an intuitive adjustment factor for

the reliability of its source, which may

range from awful to quite good. And whenever

any enforcement actions are anticipated, a

team goes in to make under very carefully

validated conditions any measurements that are needed to provide data that may need to

be used in court. The routine monitoring

data simply aren't reliable enough.

f

3.3.2 Increased Integraton of the System

Increased integration of the measurement

system is essential to provide most economically and effectively the measurement data

required by our society. Two primary opportunities exist for such integration. One is

in the substantial expansion of the significance of measurements for Federal government

operations, which suggests that a coordinated

integrated approach could yield substantial

dividends in operating efficiency. The sec- ond is at the state level where a vast expansion of regulatory measurement responsibility

is taking place. Looking at the total needs

within a state at the state and local levels,

and at all available resources, can lead to a state measurement system network that gets the

job done at far less cost than would occur if

every new need were met by developing a new measurement capability specifically to meet

it.

3.3.3 Improved Quality Control in the System

With one major exception, the historical

orientation of the institutional infrastructure of the national measurement system has

been passive, that of making it possible

for people to make the good measurements

that they need. It has been assumed that

the people making the end-use measurements

would achieve whatever measurement quality

they needed, if they were simply provided

an inherent capability to make the needed

measurements. Providing systematic quality assurance mechanisms has been largely neglected. The one major exception to this

rule has been in the commercial weights

and measures field, where there is adequate

historical evidence that inaccuracies tend

to favor the sellers [3], and society has

since Biblical times reacted to enforce mini- mum quality standards for weighing and mea- suring operations in conmercial transactions.

As a general rule, where significant quality control feed-back loops exist in the National Measurement System, the system is

functioning adequately. Where they do not

exist, it is not functioning adequately.

Examples of quality control loops that do

work are the following:

"^Report by Denver EPA representatives at

meeting of Colorado section of the Precision Measurements Association, Jan. 25,

1977.
(1 ) In weights and measures enforcement . In addition to classical enforcement methods

of certifying equipment and spot checking

the product, newer techniques are in use:

(a) Cooperation with the original packager

(manufacturer) to assure adequate and legally

certified measurement quality can eliminate

the need for inspection of his products in a multitude of localities.

(b) Some states are developing an approach

to shift the responsibility for assuring ac- curate weights from the weights and measures

agency to the weigher. A program that helps

the weigher to achieve good weights and that

rewards him for it (among other things, by a reduced frequency of inspections) is inherently a positive approach to optimizing the

workings of the measurement system [121].

(2) In technological measurements . Neither the manufacturer nor the buyer really

cares about the exact measurement values

achieved in the dimensions and surface finish of a cylinder of an automobile engine,

for instance. But they do care that the

engine works. Inadequate measurements will

lead to engines that don't work properly and

to parts that will not fit, a problem made

more acute by the fact that a given manufacturer may rely on many other manufacturers

for parts that will fit together properly

in the final product. There are inherent

feedback mechanisms here that drive the

measurement system toward producing the

quality of measurements needed. External

policing is not needed.

(3) The NBS-sponsored Measurement Assur- ance Programs . Over the past decade or so, the concept of

measurerieKt assurance has grown up wi thi n the community revolving around the National

Bureau of Standards, the National Conference

of Standards Laboratories, and the National

Conference on Weights and Measures. The objective is to provide key elements of the

national measurement system not only a capability of making good measurements, but also

tools that would provide quality assurance

information so that they would know in fact

whether or not they were making measurements

of adequate quality. These prograjns calibrate all aspects of a client's specific

measurement operation. Succinctly, the client is provided measurement objects which

he proceeds to handle with his own instruments and personnel. The measurement data

generated are analyzed by NBS and the client

is told how well his measurement system is

operating [141].

3.3.4 Improved Information Resources for

the System

Other major stabilizing feedback loops

that are often inadequate are in the area of

the flow of measurement information:

(a) The people making measurement frequently do not have adequate information ac- cessible to them. They often are unaware of

the capabilities of the National Bureau of

Standards or other central agencies, and are not aware of the assistance that they can

get. The "how-to" knowledge that they need

is often hard to find.

(b) The people in NBS and other central

institutions are often only partly aware of

the real needs of the people making end-use

measurements. They may not know how they

can, in fact, provide the optimum assistance

to the end-use parts of the system.

This study is, of course, a specific step

to improve the situation in this knowledgeflow area, especially from the system to NBS.

Furthenrore, the most consistently over- whelming action conclusion reached by the

various microstudies is of the need for more publications by NBS of the "how-to"

variety, to get the needed information out

into the hands of the users. NBS is responding, through such means as metrology guides

and self-study manuals [142-144].

3.3.5 Automation of Measurements

The application of automatic data taking

and processing techniques is having as revo- lutionary an impact on the field of measurements as the applications in many other areas

of our culture. The machine is augmenting both

man's brain power and his hands in the field

of measurements. Today, the machine can control the measurement process, sense the raw data, compute meaningful data output, and

feed the results back into the control function to optimize the ultimate product. The

computer is allowing both new kinds of mea- surement and new approaches to measurement,

which were previously impractical or impossible.

3.3.6 Metrication

With the passage of the Metric Conversion

Act of 1975 a major trend in the system is

clearly confirmed: The customary U.S. set

of measurement units will be substantially

supplanted by the metric, SI units. This

conversion to the metric system will have

significant measurement system impacts in

11
the areas of education, publicity, industrial

standards, and instrumentation modification,

and will provide an opportunity for a general "housecleaning" of the system as the

metric changeover occurs - a reduction in

the number of standard sizes, elimination

of obsolete equipment, and the like [145].

3.3.7 Science

The measurement system is in a scientific

revolution, which is replacing mechanical

artifacts as reference standards with atomic

wavelengths and similar invariant natural

phenomena, and which is providing a similar

revolutionary basis of measurement technology [37,38,50,57,59,64,146,147].

3.4 Economic Analysis of the National

Measurement System

A macroeconomic study was conducted of the

cost of labor and equipment used for making

measurements in each of 78 major industry

groups [33,34]. The Department of Labor

made available staffing schedules and job

analysis sheets, for 1967-72, Estimates

of the proportion of labor time devoted to

physical measurements were based on the job

analysis sheets, and staffing schedules

allowed extrapolation to estimate labor

costs for major industrial groups. Information on expenditures for selected classes

of measurement devices was obtained from the

1963 Input-Output model of the U.S. economy,

the latest data available at the time this

study was done. Table 4 summarizes some of

the results of this study.

The making of physical measurements was

found to be ubiquitous in the econon\y. All

sectors incurred substantial expenditures for

measurement equipment and labor.

Measurement cost an estimated 6% of gross

national product (6NP), or $36 billion, in

1963. About 85% of this was for labor.

Mechanical and controlling instruments

ranked highest in the value of instrumentation output in 1963, at $1.3 billion. Most

of these devices measure derived units of

length, mass, or heat. The motor vehicle

manufacturing industry was the largest

buyer, followed by aircraft manufacturers

and electric/gas/water utilities. Electrical measuring and test equipment ranked

second at $939 million; major customers

^ were government, electric utilities, the

telephone industry, and radio/TV/communications equipment manufacturing. Engineering

and scientific instruments, and industrial

controls, ranked third and fourth.

Measurement intensity data have been com- pared [35] against industrial output and productivity data [148,149]. Table 5 indicates

a summary comparison. The results are in

accordance with expectations, namely, that

greater measurement intensity should be

associated with newly developed products and

growth in industrial output, and new production processes and increases in productivity.

Table 4. Measurement intensity of principal using industries, 1963

(ranked by amount and percent of value added by measurements)

Table 5. Economic growth of

measurement-intensive industries

Measurement-intensive industries

All Manufacturing

Industries Ranked by Dollar

Amount of Value Added

Industries Ranked by Percent

of Value Added

Rank Industry Value Added Rank Industry Percent

1 Government $11,342 M 1 Radio & TV Broadcasting 27.0

2 Trade 4,256 2 Government 20.6

3 New Construction 1,348 3 Aircraft Mfg. 16.8

4 Ele. , Gas & Water Util

.

1,149 4 Electronic Comp 16.5

5 Aircraft Mfg. 1 ,106 5 Office Equipment & Computers 16.4

6 Transport & Warehsg. 981 6 Radio, TV & Commun. Eqpt. 16.3

7 Radio, TV & Commun. Eqpt. 970 7 Plastics 12.2

8 Finance & Insurance 817 8 Chemicals 11.4

9 Telephone & Telegraph 809 9 Elec. Trans. & Dist. Mfg. 10.6

10 Primary Iron & Steel 802 10 Textiles & Floor Cover 10.3

Increase in Output

1960-66 1964-70

Increase in Productivity

1960-66 1964-70

11.6%

8.4%

5.3%

4.9%

5.5%

4.2%

2.7%

2.4%

12
The Metric Study is the only other substantial source of macroeconomic data on the

quantitative dimensions of the National Measurement System [150]. This Study examined

the effects on the United States of increased

world-wide use of and conversion by the U.S.

to the metric system. Estimates of costs of

metrication are subject to a wide range of

error, and the evidence is that they are

biased upwards [151]. However, a net impression remains that the macroeconomic dimensions of the measurement system suggested

by the Metric Study are remarkably consistent with those derived by Morgan and Pawlik

[33,34]. For example, government's share

of the costs of metrication is estimated at

36%; its share of total estimated measurement cost is 35%.

The overall economic study [35] has em- phasized that measurement is part of the

knowledge or Information sector. This is an area where economic analysis is in its

infancy. As additional theoretical and

empirical work becomes available, relating

to the production of knowledge, it is important to examine the relation of measurement

information to the information sector as a whole.

The analysis of the costs and benefits of

measurement in the private sector reveals a basic weakness in the methodology of the

microstudies . Their perspective is that of

the physical scientist and the specific mea- surement function he is concerned with, i.e.,

length, mass, time, etc. An alternative

approach would be to focus on the user of

measurement. To understand measurement in

production one might choose a particular

firm or industry and attempt to understand

measurement problems from that perspective.

For example, by focusing on the machine tool

industry, one would find measurement problems that cut across many of the microstudies.

In particular, the analysis of measurement

from the standpoint of consumers has been

left almost untouched in the microstudies.

The perspective of producers or consumers would make it easier to explore secondary

impacts of costs and benefits or measurement for the society as a whole.

3.5 Assessments by Microstudies of Major

System Trends and Needs; Programmatic

Impacts of the Study

3.5.1 Time and Frequency [7]

A. Three changes in the measurement system can now be predicted:

(1) One or more networks of clocks maintained in synchronism to within 1-10 ys will

be developed in the private sector or by

the FAA in support of the telephone industry, electrical power industry and aircraft

collision avoidance systems. The proposed

NBS satellite time broadcast service would

provide adequate support for almost all

such systems.

(2) There will be a significant increase

in the market for frequency equalization at

levels of 1 x IQ-^ and better. Users will

include the telephone industry, standards

laboratories, some versions of collision

avoidance systems, the TV broadcast industry (if more stringent frequency control

requirements are imposed by the FCC, which

appears likely), and the military's Global

Positioning System. The NBS TV "color

burst" system is technically suited to meet

such needs for all but the last area.

(3) A public demand for a more widespread

watch time calibration service accurate to about 0.1 s is likely to materialize, since

the newer quartz watches have digital displays

with the seconds indication always syncronized vtVth the minutes. No substantial technical innovations are needed, simply provision

to the public at large of time signals of a quality now readily available.

B. Substantially this total program is

based on the results of the National Measurement System Study and its predecessors. The

current microstudy shows clearly the areas that need to be monitored in future studies.

Noteworthy in the new directions already

taken have been the increased broadcast

schedule for radio station WWVB, and efforts

to reduce the operating expenses at WWv/

WWVH/WWVB. In the first instance, it was found that many users (especially electric

power companies and seismologists) need the

WWVB signals in a reliable and uninterrupted

fashion, and as a result, equipment at WWVB

was provided to avoid the former routine,

off-the-air maintenance period. In the

second instance, plans to reduce costs at

the stations are being undertaken which involve a survey of the users, initiated as a part of the National Measurement System Study.

This survey has revealed features of our services which are not longer needed and are being discontinued with a net cost saving.

The satellite broadcast service, when

implemented, will be doubly important; it

will significantly reduce the cost burden

for an essential service, and also provide a time synchronization service highly compatible with the first area of probable change

mentioned in (1) above.

13
A new technique for evaluating certain

systematic errors in beam-type frequency

standards has been developed. It appears

that, using this technique, cormercial cesium

standards can--in effect--be made accurate to

better than 1 x 10-^2. jhis technique should

be further evaluated.

3.5.2 Length and Related Dimensional

Measurements [8]

A. The system is under control, in a state of dynamic equilibrium. No major deficiencies exist, and many improvements are being made as new technologies are applied

to let "old" measurements be made with more precision, more accurately, more rapidly, more inexpensively, and in more detail. The

most demanding NBS thrust in this area in

recent years has been in the field of simultaneous multi-dimensional linear measurements, such as those associated with complex

laser-controlled machine tools and with the

production of very intricate, finely detailed

masks for integrated circuit manufacture.

B. The first exhibit ever by NBS at the

International Machine Tool Show occurred in

September 1974 in Chicago. Some 4000 industry representatives visited the booth, 460

of which requested over 1300 specific technical papers, bringing NBS closer than ever

before to the people in a major part of the

National Measurement System.

NBS calibration procedures written at the

technician level provide the type of document

most useful to the metrology corrmunity that we serve. A list of available papers will be

published in various trade magazines with information on how and where to obtain them.

Plans for the immediate future call for

adapting more of our standard calibrations

to our three-dimensional measurement facility.

A short range (0-4 in.) gage block comparator

was recently designed and at present is

under evaluation. Another, a long range

(4-24 in.) comparator is currently being

completed.

3.5.3 Vibration and Shock [9]

The most serious problem in measurement of vibration and shock is the general

lack of applicable knowledge as to how to select the proper instrumentation, install

it adequately, and interpret the results

correctly. Certain measurement parameters,

such as mechanical impedance and dynamic

force, lack standards and the measurement

technology to allow them to be fully utilized.

Complete and adequate specifications and

general knowledge regarding vibration isolators is lacking. Vibration testing of home

appliance and automobiles needs to be approached as seriously as has been testing of

military equipment in the past.

The microstudy has identified a number of

areas of growing civilian interest in a field

long dominated by military and space applications, and a corresponding redirection of

the NBS efforts has occurred. Significant

work remains to be done to refine the shock

calibration service.

3.5.4 Surface Finish [10]

A. Four measurement needs in surface

finish have been identified: 1) A broad

industrial educational program on new parameters for characterizing the topography

of surfaces, 2) U.S. studies on the relationship between the surface finish of a part and its function, 3) the need for non- contacting, on-line instruments for measuring component finish during manufacture and,

4) the need for improved calibration and

measurements in the tenth micrometer range.

The U.S. has fallen far behind other

countries in the characterization of surfaces. NBS must work hard to transfer its

recently gained expertise in characterization to appropriate industries.

Needs are developing in some newer fields

of high technology, such as microelectronics,

for the measurement of single atom steps,

and NBS is developing instrumentation for

this purpose. A number of on-line instruments are under commercial development in

this country to meet the developing needs in

automation of the production line.

B. NBS joined the industry trade group

CIRP (International Institute for Production

Engineering Research), and is reshaping its

program with new inputs. NBS priorities

have been redefined to give characterization

of surfaces priority second only to maintenance of existing calibration services.

The third priority will go to development

of certain advanced instrumentation. When

requested, customer calibration reports now provide surface roughness characterizing parameters in addition to the usual

arithmetric average roughness value.

Proposed new NBS programs and some recom- mended actions are the following:

a) Calibration of surface finish instrumentation with precision reference specimens:

Continue to encourage industry to make improved precision reference specimens by upgrading our ability to measure and characterize them.
b) Definition and testing of surface characterization parameters.

c) Improvement of resolution of surface

instrumentati on.

d) Development of scratch and dig standards

of optical surfaces. These standards are

under revision by an ASTM conmittee and may

be sufficiently well defined in the new standard that NBS should consider providing a calibration service.

3.5.5 Mass, Volume, and Density [11]

A. The measurement system for mass,

volume, and density is the most stable and

most "adequate to the needs" of those for

any of the major measurement quantities.

Only a few gaps require attention. The

difficulties uncovered are for the most

part at the very highest levels of the

system and are of importance to only a minute fraction of the physical science

community. Adequately supported work is now in hand to straighten them out.

At the parts per million level, there is

evidence that the mass scale of conmerce may

be offset from the theoretical unit.

Water, for various reasons, including

variations in isotopic conposition, presents

difficulties for use as an absolute density

standard. The International Union of Pure

and Applied Physics has taken the lead to

clear up these difficulties. It is the

position of NBS that these problems are best

met by development of a scale based on single

crystal silicon density artifacts.

There are powerful economic-politicalsocial forces at work such as U.S. participation in the International Organization for

Legal Metrology (01 ML) which drive toward

a more tightly governmental ly controlled mea- surement system which would result in new responsibilities for NBS which it may, or

may not, be able to meet within its present

bounds of organization, funding, and staff.

In the absence of major change imposed on the structure by these forces, the program

level at NBS is sufficient, but further de- creases in staff size, as over the last few

years, would be unwise.

At the practical level, the problem of

mass measurements for inventory control of

fissionable nuclear materials is the most

urgent one uncovered during this study.

3.5.6 Force [12]

A. A round robin calibration of static

force transfer standards which will eventually include 30 government and corporate

metrology laboratories is being conducted.

Preliminary results show that the use of

transfer standards may introduce excessive

errors even at the first levels of their use.

It is feared that further degradation in

measurement accuracy will occur at each level

in the eystem. The pilot study is substantially complete with the more extensive program extending into fiscal year 1977.

B. The system of standards and measure- ment techniques for dynamic force is substantially nonexistent. Uncertainties due

to the rapid application of forces have

large economic and safety ramifications

where they affect such diverse fields as the

metal -forming industry; in-motion weighing

operations; impact testing for automotive

vehicle and tire safety; testing of skidresistance of highway pavement; weapons

testing; and testing of the safety, reliability, and efficiency of load-carrying

systems. Extension of NBS work in dynamic

force measurement and standards is planned.

C. The measurement of very small static

and dynamic forces has also been identified

as an area in which measurement techniques

are inadequate. Such measurements are important to fields such as biomechanics,

acoustic measurements, and mechanical properties of thin fibers.

D. Torque has been identified as an element of the Force Measuring System that

is served only indirectly by NBS. The actual

dimensions of this subsystem have not been

determined. Further study to determine

whether this subsystem is adequately served

by NBS is under consideration.

E. Metric conversion will lead to problems that range from confusion over what

measurement unit will be adopted for the re- vised customary usage to how to overcome the

problem of the high current investment in

very durable, long-lived non-metric measurement and testing equipment. Testing machines

and rolling mills 30 years or more old are common.

3.5.7 Fluid Flow [13]

A. New flow standards, recommended practices, and instrumentation are needed for the

measurment of low velocities of air and

water. Occupational safety and health needs

for coal mine safety, industrial ventilation,

and indoor circulation require precise mea- surements at air velocities as low as 0.4 m/s,

which in turn requires a 1% calibration at 0.05 m/s at NBS. Measurements of low velocity circulatory water motions are critical
in environmental studies; for example, those

required for environmental impact statements

required for power plant siting.

Improvements in unsteady air flow measurement capability, and development of calibration capability for the dynamic response of

wind speed measuring instruments are urgently

needed. Wind gusts can be very destructive

to buildings, bridges, signs, automobiles,

and aircraft.

Universally used standards for fluid flow

metering that would constitute a national

reference system do not exist. For example,

some 85% of all natural gas in the U.S.

today is metered with orifice meters, amounting to current annual transactions of about

$18 billion. These meters have uncertainties in published values of their discharge

coefficients ranging up to approximately

3%, and large economic inequities can result.

A responsive program is underway at NBS.

New flow standards, recomnended practices,

and instrumentation are needed for water

resource and waste water measurements. For

instance, restriction of municipal growth

by a few percent due to inaccuracies in

establishing sewage plant throughput can

be very costly.

NBS has established responsive programs in

all the above areas. Other areas of potential activity include:

Multi -phase or multi-component flow technology is finding increasing application in

hydraulic and pneumatic transport of materials such as coal, and in pipelining of

solid wastes and sewage sludge, and is important in industrial processes, for example,

in the paper/pulp industry and dredging.

Another type of flow being encountered

with increasing frequency is that in which

minute amounts of long-chain polymers are added as a drag reducing agent in water.

Important technological problems have

arisen from the use of electrically conducting fluids, and especially liquid metals, as the cooling medium, heat transfer agent or

the working fluid in proposed thermo-nuclear

power and magnetohydrodynami c (f^D) devices.

Measurement of fluid flows under hostile

environmental conditions poses a wide range

of new technological problems. Today's

velocity measuring instruments are not re- liable enough for long-term use in place.

Trouble can be associated with fouling, wind,

waves, ice, or debris. There is no adequate

means of measuring flow in high-velocity

flood channels carrying heavy debris. The

national need for energy conservation places

emphasis on evaluation of fuel metering

equipment under the varying conditions of

fuel temperature and engine vibration found

in motor vehicles.

New measurement capability is needed in

both very small and very large rates of flow.

For example, the automotive industry is targeting for fuel flow calibrations at approximately 0.4 g/s. with +0.2% uncertainty. The

nuclear power industry requires measurement

of cooling water flows on the order of 10

5

1/s.

Several accomplishments in fluid flow

studies at NBS can be directly related to

the National Fluid Flow Measurement System

study. These include:

(1) Preparation in July 1973 of an internal report entitled "A Survey of Flow Measurements in Water Pollution Control". The

survey provides a direct means to establish

and improve communications with instrument

users in the field.

(2) NBS (Mechanics Division) sponsored

a conference on "Flow Measurements as Related to National Needs" in February 1974.

Speakers and attendees of over 170 represented views from industry and trade associations, governments, regulatory agencies,

instrument manufacturers, standards laboratories and users of instruments.

(3) "Wastewater Flow Measurement [Federal]

Interagency Group Discussion of Standards

and Methods of Measurement" was hosted by

the Mechanics Division in June 1974.

(4) A meeting was held in September 1974

with the "Fluid Meters Standards" committee

of the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers

Association, to discuss potential establishment of a national reference system for flow

measurement.

(5) A guidebook to standards and methods

for the measurement of water flow was published in fiscal year 1975.

(6) New technical programs and facilities have been initiated as mentioned

above, in many of the areas of need identified during the study.

3.5.8 Pressure [14]

A. No major improvements in existing NBS

primary standards for static pressure measurement are expected to be needed for the fore16
seeable future. A slow extension of NBS

capability at the high pressure end of the

range is expected to be needed and to occur,

in support of new technologies in powder

metallurgy, metal forming, coal gasification,

and synthesis of materials; unmet needs will

exist in such fields as geophysics, equation

of state studies, and explosives development.

B. The primary deficiencies in the

pressure measurement system lie in its performance at the end-use level and under nonideal conditions. Dynamic pressure measurements are without central calibration support, as are measurements under extreme con- ditions of vibration, temperature, radiation,

or corrosion. The automobile tire pressure

measurement system is out of control; there

is no practical way today for the motoring

public to assure itself of the proper inflation of automobile tires. A measurement

assurance program is needed in support of

the aircraft altimeter portion of the system---

the present uncertainties may not be compatible with the 1000 foot elevation separations

between planes that are standard; calibration liaison with the airlines has been improved by NBS and such a program is being

developed. Pressure measurements associated

with nuclear reactors are inadequate. Many

new pressure transducers are coming into

widespread use whose performance and calibration behavior are not reliably known.

C. Improved error analyses and personnel

capabilities in the lower echelons of the

calibration chains can improve the performance of the existing pressure measurement

system far more than anything done at the

primary standards level. Both NBS and other

agencies are at work on this approach.

Training courses for U.S. Navy technical

personnel have been created and are given by

NBS to all aomers. Improved texts and other

courses are being developed. A new pressure

measurement data evaluation service allows

all who wish it to use NBS computational

capabilities at very modest cost. A similar transducer evaluation service also

exists. A Measurement Assurance Program

in pressure is under development. A laboratory evaluation service is being considered.

D. Vacuum measurements for the medium

and high vacuum ranges have been without

central support in the national measurement

system for at least the past twenty years.

The large industry dependent upon vacuum measurements has been getting along without

any driving force to provide uniformity in

the vacuum measurement system. Expert

opinions exist which state that this situation represents a severe and unnecessary

handicap to American industry. A Delphi

study to date has established the need for vacuum transfer standards, primarily for low

and medium vacuum and to a much less extent

for high and ultrahigh vacuum, thus enabling

NBS to respond to real needs and avoid a marginally valuable effort.

3.5.9 Temperature [15]

A. Use of electronic thermometers and

thermistors has created a whole new domain

of problems in medical thermometry, to which

NBS is responding by creating a comprehensive

program to measure the relatively unknown

characteristics of thermistors and small re- sistance thermometers, and to provide technical leadership for medical standardization.

Regulatory agencies find themselves with

many temperature measurement problems. Reducing automobile pollution and increasing

mileage requires precision thermometry.

Nuclear power has been handicapped by inadequate in-reactor thermometry. Commodity manufacturing has its thermometry-related

problems, but these are not often exposed

to outside view.

Major changes are occurring in the worldwide production and use of energy. Most

studies indicate that new extensions of

existing thermometry capabilities will be

necessary if the U.S. is to develop appreciable new sources of energy. Relevant areas include superconductive power transmission,

geothermal sources, enhancing the efficiency

of present power production facilities, effective safety and control of fast breeder

reactor plants, thermocline oceanographic

heat pump power generation, controlled thermonuclear reactors, and solar power plants.

Work on the temperature scale should

be continued. The gas thermometer investigation of the scale integrity should be

pressed to an ultimate overlap with radiation thermometry. The extension of the

scale through the cryogenic range should

be brought to fruition--if necessary,

through NBS initiation of an international

discussion to this end. Another area of

temperature scale research involves the

convenient, accurate measurement of temperatures in the 600-2000°C range; at present,

neither thermocouple nor resistance thermometry is completely satisfactory.

B. In the area of industrial standards,

NBS is undertaking basically a liaison role

which has two tasks. First, to catalog the

standardization activities of the various

17
groups, and second, to comnunicate directly

with the individual industries and with the

"standards industry" so that they can co- operate in writing standards if they wish.

We found that many conmodity manufacturers are interested in thermometry primarily

as it relates to the efficiency of manufacture; they show little interest in thermometry applied to the ability of the product

to perform its function or to its durability.

Tools which can be used to change this situation include a reference service for thermometry expressly intended and publicized to

offer technical information on sensors and

measurement techniques and locator information on geographic availability of calibration and engineering laboratories, and a well -planned Measurement Assurance or Measurement System Calibration program to sample thermometry competence in "willing",

selected facilities.

The major new NBS program in medical

thermometry has been mentioned above.

NBS has initiated a Feasurement Assurance

Program in thermistors, encompassing users,

manufacturers, and instrument makers.

Renewed emphasis has been placed on the

NBS Precision Thermometry Seminar, with the

result that attendance has tripled over the

previous average.

3.5.10 Humidity and Moisture [16]

A. The measurement of very low water

vapor content is, at best, crude. Such

measurements are needed in both the earth's

upper atmosphere and in other planetary

atmospheres, and in the petrochemical,

nuclear reactor, and compressed gas industries. Humidity measurement technology is

inadequate also for very high water vapor

contents and for measurements at both very

high and very low pressures, with corrosive

gases, or under dynamic, rapidly fluctuating

conditions. Calibration procedures are needed for the long path-length spectroscopic techniques.

B. Improved methods are needed for

measurement of product moisture content,

especially for agricultural crops, NBS has

initiated a substantial program in support

of measurements of moisture in grain.

C. The rise of consumer information and

protection requirements suggests that in the

future some consumer products may be required

to be labelled to specify moisture content.

Such a development would bring state and local weights and measures agencies into this

field and would demand rapid methods of

test and inspection. Products of specific

current interest include peat moss and firewood (if sold by weight).

3.5.11 Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids [17]

Systems of technological interest are almost invariably mixtures, often multiphase. Experimental determination of all of

the needed data is precluded by the large

number of systems of possible interest and

of thermodynamic states needed to characterize each. Predictive methods based on theoretical models are essential. Especially

useful are those models which result in

equations of sufficient simplicity to be

used in engineering calculations.

A good theory of pure liquids is needed,

upon which to build mixture theories. Theoretical expansions are needed of mixture properties around those of pure species, including development of understanding of the limitations of usual "mixing effect" approaches.

Growing demands exist for data for systems under conditions which are hard to obtain and to control in the laboratory, for

instance, of reacting heterogeneous systems

at elevated temperatures. Needs are clear in

such areas as fire research, chemical process

plant design, coal gasification, military

weaponry, and nuclear reactor safety. Since

many applications in this area require calculations which are of only an interim

nature, a range of theoretical models providing varying degrees of accuracy is an ultimate goal

.

Development and validation of predictive theories requires a solid data base

regarding the properties of specific real

substances, pure and mixed, which substances

can be chosen to be also of prime technological importance. Mixing effect data are extremely important and may represent a very

small difference between two large numbers,

so that high precision in measurement is

essential. NBS expertise in and dedication

to precision measurement make it an especially

appropriate source for this data. Lack of

an adequate data base has resulted in very

slow progress in the development of predictive methods.

Even with the reduction in data-taking

demands made possible by predictive methods,

the volume of data that must be generated

by actual measurement is still extremely

large. Automation is essential. Particular emphasis is required for pressures,

18
compositions and high temperatures. NBS ac- tivity in this field is essential and underway, but needs considerable expansion.

Data are of particular importance con- cerning immiscibi lity diagrams, in the

vicinity of critical lines and critical

points of various orders. Further, work is

needed on the development of a single unified description of the entire PVTX surface,

eliminating the separate nature of the descriptions around critical points. Data are needed to allow testing of present indications that relatively simple methods can be

developed for the prediction of thermodynamic

properties of fluids at temperatures above

approximately twice the critical temperature.

NBS has contributed both broadly and deeply

in the development of methods for the description of thermodynamic properties in the

critical regions of material systems.

In recent years, optical methods have

been developed for measurement of thermodynamic and transport properties of fluids.

These methods have considerable potential in

situations where equilibrium states are hard

to obtain and to maintain. The future will

see the development and use of many such

methods, and they will become a major part

of the NBS program.

Many industrial applications are for data

to be used under conditions of (at best) transient thermodynamic equilibrium. Further,

transient equilibrium experiments are of con- siderable use in obtaining data at very high

temperatures. The development of an extensive set of transient equilibrium measurement

techniques would be of considerable utility.

This program area works in close cooperation with the National Standard Reference

Data System activity of NBS.

3.5.12 Cryogenics [18]

A. A complete and comprehensive measurement system for the liquefied natural gas industry needs to be developed, with special

emphasis on quantity gaging in storage and

ship tanks, flowmetering for determination of

both mass and heating value, and basic mea- surements of thermal and mechanical properties of structural materials.

Superconductivity connects cryogenics

measurements and data to the electrical power

industry, for power transmission, generation.

and storage. Knowledge needed includes heat

transfer rates, behavior of helium refrigerant flow systems {including the response to

instabilities), and the degradation of the

superconductors with time and stress.

Some parts of the cryogenic measurement system seem to be characterized by

adequate quality assurance, but it appears

one should have less confidence in other

parts of the system. Pressure measurements,

which are probably the measurements most

widely made in all of cryogenics, specifically need attention. Especially glaring

at this time is the need for a new kind of

measurement, namely one that describes the

"quality" or "availability" of the commodity;

specifically, we refer not to the flow mea- surement of liquefied natural gas, for ex- ample, but to the need to measure its potential heating value.

B. The cryogenics case study of the

National Measurement System (the history of

liquid nitrogen flowmetering program) documented the complete process that must be

undertaken to provide a complete measurement

service. As a result, all new work proposals

are now deliberately constructed to include

all three necessary elements: Measurement

Science, Data Base, and Technology Transfer

(including safety, interstate and international cooperation, effective use of the NBS

Office of Weights and Measures, and training).

This program area has become more sensitive to the measurement system concept in

all its activities. For instance, an inventory of our measurement services is the first

step in a deliberate process which will either

revalidate existing programs or stimulate

changes in our measurement services.

Market impact and issue studies have

long been a way of life for this program

area. However, the National Measurement

System study differs markedly from previous

efforts. First, it included a backward

look--our first--to document a completed

program. Second, we approached it not only

as a study of the System, but also as a study of how to study the System (research

on research). Thirdly, we emphasized the

measurement system and measurement science,

rather than technological impact. Without

the impetus of the Study, we would most

likely have lost the understanding we now

have of a "complete" program, and our role

in the infrastructure of the measurement

system.
3.5.13 Electricity [19,152]

A. The field of precision static electrical measurements is substantially under

control through NBS continued efforts. The

major need is for the publication of tutorial

material by the current senior generation to

pass its expertise along to the younger generation. The system is presently ill equipped

to face the future of dynamio measurements.

Automatic test and control systems require

the introduction of time as a measurement

parameter. Specifically critical areas include pulsed component characteristics, dynamic performance characterization for modern

signal conditioning and data conversion devices, and methodology for characterizing

precision AC and DC sources and measurement

devices with respect to settling time.

The emergence of electrical measurements

into the "real world" of the production line

via the automatic system has introduced a host of new parameters. Areas requiring

significant effort include the investigation of transportable standards for validation of static and dynamic system performance,

techniques for characterizing sources and

measurement devices with respect to switched

or dynamic loading, prediction of long-term

performance reliability and lifetime from

short-term evaluations, noise standards and

methodologies, improved transportable DC

standards and dissemination at higher voltage levels, characterization of the AC line

voltage (waveforms, transients, etc.), inclusion of a capability for environmental

control and variation in calibration systems,

and extension of Measurement Assurance Programs in these fields.

Recent work at the leading edge of measurement technology for electronics has resulted

in the need for new or higher-accuracy mea- surements in such areas as dielectric hysteresis, phase differences, power, non-sinusoidal

high-crest-factor signals, and reduction of

AC calibration uncertainties to 10 ppm, at

least over the audio range.

Longer term, "frontier" areas include mea- surement problems at the systems level; evaluation and standardization of system software;

calibration of medical equipment; replacement

of standard cells; measurements of impulse

noise and other parameters; basic work on the

physics of dielectric absorption, component

drift, device noise, failure mechanisms,

switches, and relays, and provision of improved accuracy for virtually all dynamic

measurements for in-process probing of integrated circuitry during manufacture.

In general, NBS needs to provide the same measurement leadership in these newer areas of dynamic electrical measurements as it has

in the older ones of static measurements.

The electronics community needs to be kept

informed about NBS work-in-progress.

B. The microstudy has led to the initiation of an effort within this program area through reprogramming to address the metrology problems associated with high speed

measurement of electrical parameters. In September 1974 a workshop involving the

manufacturers and users of electronic mea- surement components, modules and instruments

was sponsored by the Electricity Division to

identify the scope of the problem and areas of opportunity for investigation. The workshop revealed (1) traditional metrology ser- vices are still needed (some areas can stand

improvement), (2) standardized and valid test

procedures for determining the temporal

characteristics as well as the accuracy of

devices under dynamic conditions are sorely

needed, and (3) methods for determining

pulse conditions must be developed [152].

Investigations are proceeding to establish standards and instrumentation to investi

gate high-speed and analog-to-digital and

digital-to-analog conversion modules; to es- tablish methodology for the proper support

and implementation of electronic test equipment of high accuracy; and to provide an ac- curate measurement base for the semiconductor

industry at the 10-volt level.

A program has been started to generate a series of tutorial publications covering vari ous aspects of electrical metrology useful to

personnel of a typical standards or calibration laboratory. An effort is being made to

establish an Electricity Division newsletter

and to publish overview articles in other

periodicals.

A strong program in dielectric loss tangent measurements for superconducting transmission cables is being undertaken with the

support of the Energy Research and Development Administration.

The study led to work in new areas of Measurement Assurance Program activities, among

them inductance, dc voltage at 10 volts, and

energy.

Th^re is an increased awareness by the

division staff members of market analysis

techniques and tools, and the collection

of economic data.

20
3.5.14 Electromagnetics [20,21]

In the past, the National Electromagnetic

Measurement System made an essential contribution to the development and maintenance of

the military systems for early warning radar,

side-looking radar, the guidance of terrainfollowing airplanes, the guidance of weapons,

navigation, and telecommunication on which

our defensive posture relies very heavily.

As usual, commercial technology has followed

the military lead, so that today six trends

can be seen that will determine the development of electromagnetic measurements and

standards in the next few years:

1. the rapid expansion of satellite communi-

-i cations into a world-wide system;

2. the rapid expansion of electro-optic

technology, particularly fiber-optic

communication systems;

3. the full exploitation of electromagnetic

remote sensing, particularly in agriculture;

4. increasing reliance on electronic servo

control of industrial processes and

vehicles

;

5. worsening of the problem of electromagnetic interference, leading to stricter

regulation of both sources and victims;

6. increasing public awareness of non-ionizing radiation hazards.

In response to these trends, the NBS Electromagnetics Division is being reorganized

into five programs:

1. Guided Wave Metrology, which provides the

basic rf and microwave measurement and

calibration services, and develops standards and measurement technique for

millimeter wave systems and fiber optics;

2. Electromagnetic Sensing Metrology, which

performs the research and development

necessary to enable electromagnetic

waves to be used for remote sensing and

characterization of inaccessible dielectric anomalies;

3. Electromagnetic Interference/Radiation

Hazards, which develops standards and

measurement techniques to determine the

emission and susceptibility of devices

of and to interfering fields, and the

strength of fields to which people and

equipment are exposed;

4. Signal Waveform Metrology, which develops

standards and measurement techniques to

characterize transient and modulated

waveforms, and systems designed to transmit them in the time domain;

5. Antenna Systems Metrology, which develops

measurement techniques and provides mea- surement services to characterize complex

antennas and associated systems used for

satellite communications.

This reorganization is a direct response

to information collected for this study of

the National Electromagnetic Measurement

System.

3.5.15 Medical Ultrasonics [22]

A. The national measurement system for

medical ultrasonics is presently fragmented,

uncoordinated, and inadequate. Commercial

instruments to measure ultrasonic power are not yet on the market. The accuracy of the

commercial scanning systems for the measurement of ultrasonic beam profile and field

pattern is not yet known. NBS initiated a program in this field several years ago, and

has begun to supply the central measurements

and standards capability that will allow this

system to take an adequate shape.

B. Within a year, NBS will have developed

a new calorimetric power standard to supplement our present technique and a scanning

system which will provide the information on transducer field pattern, intensity, distribution over the beam area and other quantities of interest. There needs to be developed simpler systems for use in the field. A very high priority item is a reliable, rugged, low-cost transfer standard for ultrasonic power so that NBS accuracy can be

disseminated to users on the broadest possible basis. This transfer standard should

be developed at NBS and subsequently manu- factured by private industry.

C. Ultimately, NBS should provide a mea- surement assurance program in ultrasonics with

manufacturers, Bureau of Radiological Health,

and other principle laboratories such as universities and major medical centers. These

latter laboratories could then provide mea- surement support to hospitals and other users.

3.5.16 Acoustics [23]

A. The current NBS program in acoustics

and noise is a direct result of studies similar in intent to, but preceding, the National

Measurement System Study. These studies

indicate the significant increase in the num- ber and scope of legislative actions directed

toward noise control which have recently

taken place. It is likely that this increase

will continue. In order to ensure the promulgation and enforcement of equitable noise

21
emission and workplace noise regulations,

technically well-based noise measurement

procedures are required. Continued attention on the accurate and objective collection of noise emission data bases and the

evolution of improved acoustical measurement

methodologies is needed.

There are numerous identifiable deficiencies in the structure and interconsistency

of acoustical measurement procedures and

documentary standards; simplification and

consistency are badly needed.

Neglect of technical and economic impacts and large magnitudes of inaccuracy and

imprecision have long characterized the field

of acoustical measurements; attention to

these matters is essential. The imprecisions

inherent in existing measurements may introduce inequities in trade. The promulgation

of Federal noise control legislation has

forced the relevant Federal agencies and affected private sector groups to consider the

impacts of noise emission and workplace

noise levels.

Similarly, lack of understanding of the

performance limitations of measurement and

analysis instrumentation has led to incorrect usage and technically unreliable data.

There is a continuing demand for improved

accuracy and precision in both the development and calibration of acoustical measurement instrumentation and in the evolution

of improved measurement methodologies. In particular, procedures for the verification

of proper performance of cormonly used

instrumentation, such as sound level meters,

integrating noise exposure monitors, and

audiometers, are urgently needed.

Proposed changes in occupational safety

and health regulations would require a major increase in the number of audiometers,

and trained audiologists and otologists.

Damping materials to control noise are

not well characterized largely due to inadequate measuring technology. Complete

and adequate specifications and general

knowledge regarding vibration isolators

is lacking.

Ultrasonic flaw detection is badly in need

of more reliable and more precise means of

system calibration. The compatibility in

results of ultrasonic non-destructive testing between plants and between companies

range from good (at best) to entirely unacceptable. Needed are the development and

dissemination of evaluated measurement methodologies, well-characterized physical standards, and reliable technical data.

B. A number of elements are suggested for

incorporation in the existing NBS program in

order to adapt to the changing needs of the

technology. These elements include:

(1) Thorough study of the effects of

environmental factors such as temperature and

humidity upon the properties of acoustical

measurement systems and system elements.

These factors become increasingly important

as interest is extended to include acoustical measurements conducted over long time

periods.

(2) Provision of performance testing ser- vices for acoustical measurement systems such

as sound level meters.

(3) Strengthening of the NBS program of

research in the relevant basic physical

phenomena, and the provision of important

measurement facilities for this research.

The absence at the NBS Gaithersburg site of

semi-anechoic, airborne sound transmission

loss, and structure-borne sound test facilities has proven to be a severe handicap,

not only to NBS involvement in the infrastructure, but also to continued professional

growth of the staff.

The National Measurement System study

has helped to stimulate the acoustical

calibration program for audiometers, and

plans are underway to develop a measurement

assurance program for audiometer manufacturers. If this is successful, it will be

extended to include the large number of

laboratories calibrating audiometers for

industrial use. The need for a detailed

manual on audiometer care and calibration is

to be studied. The proper calibration,

maintenance and operation of this type of

acoustical measurement instrumentation will

become increasingly irrportant to our society

as hearing conservation programs become man- datory and more widespread. Audiometry standards are needed to measure what really is a measure of loss of hearing.

Continued interaction with the national

and international acoustical measurment

standards community provides an important

means to reduce system deficiencies by the

dissemination of NBS acoustical measurement

expertise, and contributes toward expansion

of the technology and promulgation of equitable noise regulations.

3.5.17 Radiometry and Photometry

A. Radiometric and photometric measure- ments are difficult to make, expensive, and

generally have very poor accuracy. This is

due in part to the nature of the measurements.

22
but the situation is much worse than necessary due to the lack of inexpensive standards

and of adequately trained people to make the

measurements. NBS is responding in both

areas.

B. The major result of the Study was creation of the Council for Optical Radiation

Measurements (CORM). CORM is an organization

of several hundred members which has served

to focus attention on the needs for measurements in the field of optical radiation and

to provide programmatic guidance to NBS.

A specific result was stimulation of the

CORM report "Pressing Problems and Projected

National Needs in Optical Radiation Measurements--A Consensus of Services Desired of

NBS".

A new NBS program in the field of optical

radiation measurements has evolved, by reor- ganization and reprogrammi ng. It includes

a five-year program plan, intentions of further internal division and Institute shifting

of funds, and attraction of visiting scientists. This new NBS program emphasizes the

creation of new spectral and detector standards, the development of a new photometric

SI unit based on radiometry, and the establishment of well -documented, efficient calibration service and Measurement Assurance

Program (MAP). Finally, and possibly of

greatest importance, plans are now being

carried out to produce a Self-Study Manual

to provide the training in basic concepts

and laboratory techniques required in the

national measurement system.

NBS arranged two Optical Society of

America technical group discussion sessions.

It conducted an international meeting focused

on upgrading the U.S. meteorological radiometric network. Further, NBS organized a radiometry workshop at Electro-Optics Conference and Exhibit in New York, two symposia

for fall 1974 meeting of the Optical Society

of America, and workshops on radiometry and

photometry for the November 1974 ElectroDesign Conference.

By 1980, NBS will have made significant

progress in its program of "making 1% accuracy in radiometry commonplace". Commercial

instruments will have reached a new level

of sophistication and efficiency. A wide

variety of solid state sources and detectors

and electrically calibrated pyroelectric

radiometers will be packaged with appropriate

mini-electronics and computers for "shirt

pocket portability". Quantitative applications of optical radiation will begin to

increase substantially. Remote sensing.

Solar energy applications, medical therapy,

and industrial processing will begin to use routinely what is now considered state-of-theart radiometry and photometry. Day-to-day

demands made on NBS relative to radiometry

and photometry will increase significantly.

Further, as the NBS Measurement Assurance

Program verifies that 1% measurements are being made, applications and demands requiring 0.1% will begin to emerge.

3.5.18 Spectrophotometry [25]

A. The more complex measurements and

those in which high accuracy is required are generally not too successful. Promotion of

these measurements to their fullest potential requires careful study by workers with

sufficient radiometric training to be able

to recognize the significance of the fine

points of the measurements. Such workers

can determine the appropriate techniques and

equipment for the measurement and translate

them into equipment which can be used under

ordinary laboratory conditions by the present

laboratory personnel. They can provide clear

instructions and appropriate standards to back these personnel in their work.

A major driving force in this field stems

from performance and economic benefits to be

gained by replacement of human observers by

machines, in the repetitive inspections re- quired in such areas as quality control.

B. The microstudy defined the fact that

inadequacies in NBS efforts in this field

during the later 1960's had led to a situation where a major segment of the measurement

system was substantially out of control, with

NBS doing virtually nothing about it.

In 1971 NBS initiated by reprogramming a response to the needs defined above:

a. A Measurement Assurance Program

b. Thorough evaluation of procedures

specified in existing documentary standards,

to separate sense from nonsense.

c. Provision of key material standards,

either directly or through non-NBS suppliers.

d. Various lines of cormiunication have

been set up with the spectrophotometric com- munity, including working relationships with

instrument manufacturers through the Council

on Color and Appearance (MCCA), a trade organization of manufacturers of instruments, and

participation in CORM and the self-study manual program of the Optical Radiation Section.

e. Resolution of discrepancies in the

scales of absolute reflectance among NBS,

NRC (Canada), and PTB (Germany), of particular importance for support of the paper

industry.

23
The National Measurement System in Spectrophotometry is currently far from living

up to its potential value. A relatively

modest program in NBS, multiplied by active

cooperation with instrument manufacturers

and corimercial laboratories, can provide the

support which is required for full realization of this potential.

3.5.19 Far Ultraviolet Radiometry [26]

A. Primary radiometric standards, both

sources and detectors, exist throughout the

far ultraviolet spectrum (wavelengths less

than 300 nm) and are fairly well developed.

However, they are usually too complicated

or specialized to be applied in practical

situations. Transfer or secondary standards

are absolutely necessary. Transfer sources

are not very well developed in this region;

no reliable sources exist below 115 nm, and

there are currently no known plans to develop

them. Uncertainties in the standards for the

wavelength region between 115 and 250 nm are typically no better than 5%. Transfer detectors are fairly well developed and are cur- rently available from 19 to 320 nm with un- certainties in the 5-10% range.

The primary significant deficiency in the

field is the lack of suitable interactions

among almost all of the areas identified as having a measurement need or responsibility

and organizations possessing the available

primary and secondary transfer standards. In particular, very little use has been made of

the resources and leverage that could be obtained by working closely with the secondary

standards laboratories and the instrumentation industry. One possible explanation for

this situation is that the basic standards

are still largely in the research stage, and

those that do exist have not been sufficiently publicized. That is to say that, in essence, the measurement network is still in

the development stage.

If NBS is to meet its responsibility as a key component of the ultraviolet radiometry

national measurement system as it is now

evolving, it must maintain its present ex- pertise and consider the following immediate

programs where it is deficient.

(1) Develop reliable transfer source

standards (a) in the region 110-165 nm, with

uncertainties of 1%, and (b) below 110 nm, with certainties of 10%.

(2) Develop a special irradianae source

standards for the region 110-250 nm, with un- certainties of 1%.

(3) Develop both the hydrogen arc source

and the NBS synchroton (storage ring) as complimentary primary sources of absolute

spectral radiance.

(4) Extend the calibration range of detectors to fully cover the range 5-400 nm, with uncertainties of 1% above 115 nm and

10% below 115 nm.

(5) Support a program where standards

from the different sections within NBS can

be cross-calibrated and intercompared.

(6) Initiate more workshops with various

interest groups similar to successful meetings

which involved the health and safety regulatory agencies, NASA, and fusion scientists.

Photochemistry and biomedical application

should be the first fields where NBS should

generate a new initiative.

(7) Initiate a formal measurement assurance program (MAP) for all ultraviolet radiation services.

B. We have identified a wide variety of

users of ultraviolet radiation with whom we

had little, if any, contact before this study.

Upon close examination of the radiometric

requirements of this rather large group we have decided: (1) to reprogram our standard source effort in order to emphasize the

development of transfer standards of spectral

irradiance; (2) to reprogram our standard

detector effort to include wavelengths up to

400 nm; (3) to push for uncertainty levels

approaching 1%; (4) to coordinate more closely the independent efforts of the various

sections within NBS working on uv standards.

Previous to this study, most of our work was directed toward extending the wavelength

region of our primary standards to as short

a wavelength as possible; we concentrated

mostly in standards of spectral radianae\

we assumed that 5-10% uncertainties would

satisfy just about any conceivable user.

3.5.20 Optics [27]

A. The field of photography has problems with measurement of low photographic

densities which stem from the use of opal

glass in light collection systems instead

of integrating spheres. New primary calibrated standards are required. Extension of the

range at the high density end is also needed.

The graphic arts industry is getting by

on the reflection density standards that

are available, albeit not too happily.

Microfilm industry people are happy with the

24
microscopy resolution chart, but not about

its price. High resolution lens testing

and standardization has room for improvement. It is recommended that NBS:

a. Continue the development of a primary calibration facility with its intended

purpose of satisfying users' needs in transmission density measurements.

b. Acquire a new reflection densitometer, develop suitable primary reference

standards and have them calibrated by the

appropriate NBS group.

c. Maintain the present lens test

measurement service without further direct

investment in it.

d. Continue the program of expanding

the application of microdensitometry into

allied fields, such as the general evaluation of photographic images and interferograms.

e. Continue efforts to develop a physical standard applicable to optical and

electron microscope dimensional measurements.

Recommendations for actions when time and resources become available are:

a. Determine the appropriateness of

and industry interest in an active users'

group in the optical industry.

b. Investigate the feasibility and

desireabi 1 ity of NBS standard reference

materials for reflection density applicable

to graphic arts and related fields.

B. The results of this present study

have been

a. The definition of the relationship

of NBS to the users of its measurement services. Little had been known by NBS of the

composition, nature, and dependency on NBS

of its customers.

b. The discovery by NBS, in the graphic

arts industry, of a group of potential users of NBS services in reflection densitometry.

Since there is no mandatory dependency on this group at NBS, its use of density standards was unknown.

c. The knowledge of its users which

allows NBS to place in context the services

asked of it by the Council on Radiation

Measurement.

d. The redirection of NBS programs

toward measurement applications of optics,

such as the use of optical microscopes for

measuring line widths on integrated circuit

masks, rather than optical testing per se.

3.5.21 Lasers [21,28]

A. Measurement technology will expand

from measurements on lasers to measurements

on laser systems. The short term need in

power and energy is for an inexpensive service to assure standards maintenance at the

user's site; the long term need is for the

development of self-calibrating systems with

an automatic or remote check against SI

standards. High power measurements, in-beam

profile measurement technology, and picosecond pulse metrology all need to be established or substantially improved.

In the longer term, integrated optics

will become a reality and measurements of the

lasers in such devices will be necessary;

new instrumentation will come into existence:

optical ammeters, ohmeters, phase meters, and

network analyzers.

International competition will require

increased U.S. participation in international

laser standards groups.

B. The measurement of laser frequencies is

almost a sole source effort of NBS because

of the direct traceability of these measurements to SI standards. The NBS-developed

technology leads the field, and at present

is far ahead of its time.

An NBS role in measurements for lasers

for use in power generation systems has

been developed as part of NBS' response

to the energy crisis.

Needs for NBS development of critical

data and measurement technology required for

the development of high power lasers, for

laser isotope separation in the near term

and for laser fusion in the far term, have

been documented, and additional marketplace

needs for these types of laser have been

identified and quantified.

Laser parameter measurements other than

frequency, power, and energy are not based

on SI units, and measurement responsibilities

have passed to the private sector. It is not

expected that NBS will become heavily involved in the other parameters unless a severe measurement conflict is encountered

in the private sector involving a federal

agency. At the present time, none has been

identified, and none can be projected.

It is estimated that the laser parameter measurements requirements for NBS will

remain significant for three to five years,

and begin to reduce to a caretaker role and

eventually to a self-calibrating service

through the direct dissemination of an SI

standard. The next major measurement and

standards activity involving lasers should

be the measurements and standards on laser

systems. At this time, the informationprocessing and communication applications

of integrated optics is the number one choice for future NBS measurements and

standards efforts.

25
3.5.22 Physical Properties of Atoms and

Molecules [29]

A. Surveys of the data wanted by potential users indicate that some scientific

areas very important to current technology,

e.g., electron transport coefficients, are

being ignored by the U.S. research community.

Without improved data sets as the basis for more effective modelling and for more effective analytical and diagnostic measurements,

development of such technologies as con- trolled thermonuclear power and high power

lasers for isotope separation will be handicapped.

Basically, the service to be provided

by the NBS atomic and molecular portion of

the measurements system is to focus the output of the atomic and molecular physics com- munity into the generation of an adequate

and reliable data base for mathematical

representation of the principal properties

of plasma devices and to permit mathematical

analysis of factors that determine efficiency.

Corresponding application of the data base

will occur in the sciences, notably plasma

physics, aeronoPTy, astrophysics, and aerodynamics.

This will involve the invention of new measurements to obtain properties of various

species of atoms and molecules not measurable

by traditional methods, and will be concen- trated on the data needs of the following

areas:

(1) Controlled Thermonuclear Research.

Current research efforts in this field have

a need for new data, particularly properties

of multiply-ionized atoms.

(2) Laser development and applications.

Atomic and molecular data, particularly on molecular and atomic excitation cross sec- tions by electron impact for various species,

are currently needed.

(3) Industrial processes requiring

atomic data. This is an areas in which NBS

has not been substantially involved in the

past but to which it is currently making con- tributions (e.g., work on MHD coal-fired

generators and comnercial lighting). Applications of this type require close personal

contact with industrial research and development efforts and NBS staff specializing in

this type of problem.

(4) Comnercial measuring devices which

require atomic data for their design or interpretation. While there appear to be a number of such devices currently in use

(electron spectrometers for chemical analysis

[ESCA], microprobes, comnercial spectrometers

of all types, etc.) very little has been said

of their need for atomic and molecular data

generation services simply because these needs

have not been assessed, and users or developers of these devices are not closely coupled

to atomic and molecular data generation

activities either at NBS or elsewhere.

(5) Aeronomy and atmospheric science.

NBS activity directed to these areas will

probably decrease as a result of high priority of other areas.

B. Specifically recommended are:

(1) Improvement of the NBS coordination

with gruops developing and testing methods of

using atomic and molecular data for industrial

design of new plasma devices and for introducing inproved efficiency factors in ex- isting devices.

(2) Re-examination and expansion of its

atomic and molecular data compilation, evaluation and dissemination activities to ensure

that maximum effective utilization is made of

the data output potential of the entire

atomic and molecular community, the needs of

the most urgent development projects are met

by development and issuance of specialized

data sets, and that the goal of realizing

a generally accessible, generally useful and

thoroughly reliable base of data and methodology directed to the needs of the industrial

and scientific conmunities be kept in view.

(3) Continuation of NBS support of

measurement activities of the entire atomic

and molecular physics community through

development and testing of measurement techniques for properties needed by and not

available to the user communities; execution

of selected benchmark measurement programs;

re-examination of transfer standards for

measurement of gas density and radiant flux;

and continuation and strengthening of NBS

sponsorship of critical reviews and evaluated compilations.

3.5.23 Surface Properties [30]

A. Most of the measurement methods now

in use for surface characterization have be- come comnerical ly available within the past

ten years. At this time, there is a total

lack of standards, standard procedures, and

standard materials to support surface characterization measurements. In short, there

is no established measurement system for the

measurement of surface properties. The major

range of applications of this measurement

26
techno! ogy--energy, defense, advanced materials development, environment, health and

safety, productivity, and transportation--

clearly indicate that a functioning system is

needed.

B. Many surface properties and processes (e.g., electrical properties, optical

properties, adhesion, bonding, catalytic

activity, plating, durability, corrosion,

decoration, grain-boundary segregation, lubrication, surface reactions, and biocompatibility) are being related to three

types of surface characterization, namely

surface composition, surface atomic structure, and surface electronic structure.

Conversely, improved surface properties and

processes result from the control, design,

and measurement of surface composition,

surface atomic structure, and surface electronic structure. It is recommended that

NBS stimulate the growth of surface science

and technology by showing and exploiting the

relationships between surface characteristics

and surface properties or processes.

C. Other forms of surface character

ization (e.g., nature and distribution of

defects on a surface, the surface topography,

and the nature and area of exposed facets)

are expected to be required in the future

for particular scientific and technical applications. It is recommended that NBS

maintain an awareness of such needs and be

responsive to them.

D. No standards or standard procedures

now exist for the reliable measurement of

surface composition. It is recommended that

NBS support the recently extablished ASTM

Committee E42 on Surface Analyses in

its efforts to develop needed surface

standards

.

E. Many measurement needs exist for

the popular electron-spectroscopic methods

for determining surface composition (Augerelectron spectroscopy and X-ray photoel ectron

spectroscopy) before quantitative results are possible. Proposed NBS programs to meet

these needs have been endorsed by instrument

manufacturers and users. It is recommended

that NBS respond to these needs with a vigorouse program.

F. Surface atomic structure is currently

being determined by low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) for ordered surfaces; the

potential exists for the determination of

local atomic structure from the angular

distributions of photoemitted electrons or

of Auger electrons. It is recommended that

NBS not be involved at this time in the

development of LEED on account of the cost

and of similar work being performed elsewhere. The potential of the other techniques for determining local atomic structure should be explored on account of their

likely suitability for general applications.

G. Many techniques are being used to determine surface electronic structure but

considerable uncertainty remains in the

proper interpretation of the measurement

data. It is recommended that NBS theoretical and experimental effort be used to re- solve these measurement problems.

H. Most methods for the characterization of surfaces can be employed only in an ultra-high vacuum environment and some of

these methods can only be employed on relatively ideal (i.e., single-crystal) surfaces.

It is recommended that NBS develop measure- ment methods that can be used in less ideal

circumstances. Specifically, it is recom- mended that NBS develop measurement methods

for the characterization of highly dispersed

catalysts in their working atmosphere.

I. Many of the present and potential

users of surface-characterization instruments

do not have extensive experience in surface

science or technology and have difficulty in

selecting instruments to meet their needs or

in operating these instruments satisfactorily.

It is recommended that NBS sponsor short courses or workshops, perhaps in collaboration with educational organizations, to solve this problem.

J. Conflicts might arise in the future

between surface standards developed in the

United States and those that might be developed in other countries, unless channels

of communication are established to avoid

this possibility. It is recommended that NBS

maintain an awareness of surface standards

developed in other countries and act to

prevent confl icts.

3.5.24 Ionizing Radiation [31]

A. External trends producing new needs

to force changes in the measurement system

include the expansion of nuclear power; the

breeder reactor program; fusion research; concerns for safeguarding nuclear fuel

materials; the expanding needs of regulatory

agencies, especially at the state level;

expanding use of radioactivity in medicine;

new radiations being proposed and tried for

radiation therapy of cancer; environmental

concerns; and concern for the safety of

personnel working in this field.

27
Many users in the field are not achieving

the accuracy of measurements that they need.

This has led to an extremely strong trend

at NBS: transfer of enhanced calibration

accuracy out to the users, through a very

vigorous activity in measurement assurance,

establishment of secondary standards laboratories, and development of high-quality

transfer instruments.

All regulators of radiation need to be

on the same measurement scale. The great

majority of state health departments with

responsibility for radiation control would

be benefited by a program of technical assistance in radiation measurement. A highquality measurement assurance laboratory is

needed to test personnel radiation monitoring

services. Monoenergeti c neutron calibration

fields are needed to test existing, and for

use in developing improved, neutron personnel

monitors. The medical radiation conmunity

needs wider dissemination of NBS dosimetry

calibrations through further development of

a regional calibration laboratory system,

development of primary absorbed dose standards where they do not now exist (for high

energy X-rays and for fast neutron radiotherapy), extension of a system of quality

control throughout the approximately 10,000

institutions doing nuclear medicine; and

straightening out of problems with dose

calibrators in collaboration with manufacturers and by provision of appropriate check

sources. The measurement system for radionuclides used in medicine is out of control.

A rigorous measurement system to prevent

unauthorized diversion of nuclear fuels is

essential. In the nuclear fuels measurement system, the dominant needs for highaccuracy measurement are for nuclear safeguards, not for buyer-seller equity, and

the nuclear industry's major need is

for a comprehensive, nationally-based mea- surement assurance system for demonstrably

viable fuel material measurements.

In the area of reactor design data and

operations, needs are for standards for neutron cross-section measurement in support of

the liquid metal fast breeder reactor, the

high temperature gas-cooled reactor, and

thermal neutron power reactor programs; and

for measurement standards for in-reactor

measurements of neutron flux and spectra and

fission rates in fuel elements. For fusion

reactors, data will be needed for shielding,

heat transfer element design, tritium breeding design, neutron cross sections, integrity

of structural materials, and induced radioactivity problems.

Radiation measurement for national defense has needs in the area of high-intensity

pulse X- and gamma-radiation measurement,

and high flux d.c. electron measurements.

Needs exist for environmental radioactivity

standards and measurement assurance testing.

For science, a data compilation effort on charged-particle stopping powers, ranges,

straggling, and delta-ray production below

about 10 MeV is needed. Adequate safety measures in the use of radiation equipment is

the chief need in the large variety of miscellaneous applications of radiation.

In summary, there is often a need for new NBS ionizing standards where they do not

exist; existing standards are usually satisfactory. There is a great need for measure- ment assurance, especially where regulatory

requirements exist. A need exists to help

the poorly-qualified user--training, convenient laboratory standards, handbooks for

guidance. A single measurement system under

NBS leadership is needed to help both regulators and users. Needs for NBS to play its

traditional "independent third party" role are often found.

B. Although the Ionizing Radiation study

has played a role in the impacts listed below,

it must be recognized that none of them or- iginated from the study. The role of the

study has been to confirm needs previously

recognized; to give quantitative information

on needs and the structure of the measurement

system; and to give coherence, completeness,

and logical structure to the sometimes fragmented efforts on evaluation of needs and

preparation of NBS responses to those needs.

The study has also identified areas where a response has not yet been fully developed:

(1) in the area of Miscellaneous Radiation

Applications, how does NBS respond to the

need for adequate safety measures in the use

of the radiation equipment? (2) extension of

X-radiation calibration traceable to NBS to

all hospitals and clinics (see 4b below);

(3) a need to extend a system of radioactivity measurement quality control throughout

the 10,000 institutions doing nuclear medicine (2 and 6 below are partial answers).

Some of the specific impacts, are:

1. Assessment of the Nuclear Fuel

Materials Measurement System. This specific

study was instigated to develop better understanding of the measurement needs related to

the nuclear fuel cycle. The program resulting has become the top priority new program

in NBS at this time.

28
2. Proposal of a National Radiation

Measurements Calibration System. In co- operation with the Conference of Radiation

Control Program Directors of the States, a program was developed for NBS to help the

States in upgrading the radiation measurement capability. The program includes:

(1) detailed assessment of equipment, staff,

capabilities, and needs of the various State

health departments resulting in a detailed

plan for the remainder of the program, (2)

development of prototype transfer standard

instruments and radiation sources, and (3)

provision of specific standards and necessary training to States and regional calibration laboratories.

3. Development of a Calibration Facility for Neutron Personnel Monitoring. With

the support of the former AEC, NBS has developed beam-filter sources of neutrons at

2, 25, and 144 keV using the NBS reactor.

Initial calibrations are being made.

4. Identification of "Honest Broker" or

"Independent Third Party" Roles for NBS.

a. Quality Assurance program for

suppliers of personnel monitoring services.

The NBS role here, as worked out with the

States, the Bureau of Radiological Health,

and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, will

not be to furnish this service to the suppliers, but to supervise and assure the NBStraceability of another laboratory which will

actually carry out the service function.

b. Extension of reliable radiation

calibrations to hospitals and clinics. Although the radiation measurements for X-ray

and electron treatment at many of the larger

institutions are in satisfactory shape through

calibrations by NBS, the two existing regional calibration laboratories or by consulting

radiological physicists, there are thousands

of smaller hospitals and clinics where the

calibrations are non-existent or out of date.

The NBS role here appears to be to activate

the system through having codes of good medical practice and/or State regulatory re- quirements which require calibration of

instruments and X-ray machines at appropriate

intervals (e.g., two years for good quality

instruments). This role is being developed

in cooperation with chiefly the medical

physics comnunity.

c. Environmental radioactivity measurements. The Nuclear Regulatory Cormission

(NRC), the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), the States, and the reactor-operating

electric companies all have a stake in the

environmental radioactivity measurements.

At the beginning of this study, the various

interested groups were proposing various

schemes of duplicating measurements to check

up on each other, a highly cost-ineffective

procedure, to say nothing of the political

squabbles which could result. This has been

effectively resolved by choosing NBS to play

the role of the "independent third party"

and by both NRC and EPA agreeing to establish

traceability to NBS, and the States being

traceable to one of them. This is now written in NRC agreement-State contracts.

In the event of disagreements on measurements, NBS will be called in to resolve

the dispute as an "independent third party".

5. Establishment of a Measurement As- surance Program for Traceability to NBS of

Radiation Measurements Made for Regulatory

Control. In connection with 4c above, a measurement assurance program has been es- tablished with the NRC Health Services Laboratory in Idaho, the EPA NERC-LV laboratory

in Las Vegas, and some measurement assurance

tests have been carried out for nuclear

reactor operating power companies (in con- nection with the standard reference materials

program). Under this program the States are made traceable usually to the NRC, rather

than directly to NBS.

6. Establishment of a Standards and

Measurement Assurance Research Associate

Program for Radiopharmaceutical Manufacturers.

Through the Atomic Industrial Forum and the

support of the number of radiopharmaceutical

companies, an NBS Research Associate from

industry has been acquired who will help the

radiopharmaceutical manufacturers to establish and test their own measurements.

7. Confirmation of the Need of a Neutron Standards Program for Nuclear Reactor Design Data and Operations. The NBS

Neutron Standards program was started based

on an Issue Study done in 1971. The present

study confirms needs identified earlier, but

with more emphasis on those related to the

controlled thermonuclear reaction program for

nuclear energy using fusion reactors. The

neutron standards program has been funded

by both NBS and ERDA, and is now at full

strength.

8. Development of High-Intensity X-Ray

Calibration Sources for Defense Department,

for Intense Exposure from Nuclear Bomb

Blasts.

9. New Types of Standard Reference

Materials (Radioactivity Standards) Developed for Environmental Protection. In res- ponse to needs for standards to calibrate

instruments used in environmental protection and environmental matrix standards

for realistic calibrations for environ29
mental materials, new kinds of standards have

been developed. In addition, standards for

many new nuclides have been produced. The

mixed radionuclide standards (about seven

or nine radionuclide gamma-ray emitters in

water solution) are extremely useful and

widely bought because they enable the user

to calibrate the efficiency vs. energy of

his scintillation or solid state radiation

detector in one measurement. Natural sediment standards (river bottom) are used to

calibrate and check detectors for soil

samples and gaseous standards for air measurements. These new standards have been

extremely successful and are making a major impact on the accuracy of environmental radioactivity measurements.

30
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The NBS Institute for Basic Standards exists to provide the central basis for a complete and consistent system of physical measurements in this country, to coordinate

that system with those of other nations, and

to provide essential services that will allow accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific

community, industry, and commerce. The

1972-75 Study of the National Measurement

System represents an effort to comprehend

the totality of the clientele system that the

Institute exists to support. Such comprehensive understanding is necessary if the

Institute is to optimize its program.

The national system for physical measurements involves every individual and every

organization performing measurements. The

act of measurement is estimated to require

perhaps six percent of the total gross national product, or some $90 billion annually.

In contrast, the NBS Institute for Basic

Standards employs some 850 people and has an annual operating budget of around $45 million.

Deploying limited resources with care in support of such a massive system is necessary.

At the conclusion of any study of this

kind, the question naturally arises, "What

is different in your program or operations

as a result of this study?"

* The most important difference is a rnajor

increase in awareness of the rneasurement

needs of this country, on the part of a significant number of senior ^IBS staff members. This increase in avareness of needs

has led to a substantial improvement in

the couplinj of !!BS programs with user needs,

on a broad front, and the establishment of

new dissemination mechanisms for NBS interac'io-ns with measurement needs in the field.

Examples of this broadly improved coupling

include participation on a continuing basis

in the International Machine Tool Show, via

an NBS exhibit, beginning in 1974; receipt

of some 12,000 questionnaires from users to provide the basis for decisions regarding

continuation and discontinuation of the

services of NBS time and frequency radio

stations; joining by NBS of the International Institute for Production Engineering

Research, for liaison on surface finish

problems; NBS leadership in U.S. participation in the International Organization

for Legal Metrology; NBS sponsorship in

February 1974 of a conference on "Flow

Measurements as Related to National Needs;"

use of a Delphi study to establish U.S. needs

for vacuum measurement standards; a 1974

workshop on critical measurement needs and

standards for modern electronic instrumentation; stimulation by NBS of the creation

of the Council for Optical Radiation Measurements; establishment of working relationships with the Council on Color and Appearance; development of contacts between the

NBS atomic and molecular physics groups and

industrial users; a wide range of NBS

activities in the ionizing radiation area; and coordinated voluntary standards participation interaction with regulatory agencies

prior to the promulgation of mandatory standards.

* Reciprocally3 people outside of NBS are more aixure of NBS' interest and capability

to serve, and are making more effective use of NBS.

Most of the examples just cited also apply

here. For instance, some 4000 industry representatives visited the NBS booth at the

September 1974 International Machine Tool

Show, 460 of which requested over 1300 specific technical reports. The Council on Optical Radiation Measurements has generated

a report "Pressing Problems and Projected

National Needs in Optical Radiation Measurements-- A Consensus of Services Desired of

NBS." Examples of a different kind include

the training courses in pressure measurement

developed for U.S. Navy technical personnel

and offered by NBS to all comers; the 1976

Symposium at NBS/Gaithersburg of the National

Conference of Standards Laboratories entitled

"The National Measurement System--Today and

Tommorrow, an Anniversary Review of our na- tional industrial measurement system" for

which the present writer was Associate Chairman; establishment of contact by the NBS

far ultraviolet radiometry group with a wide

variety of users of ultraviolet radiation

with whom we had little, if any, contact

before this study, plus reprogramming of

effort to meet the needs of this group;

and recognition by the Nuclear Regulatory

Commission, the Energy Research and Development Administration, and the Environmental

Protection Administration of the central

role of NBS in the ionizing radiation mea- surements field.

* The study has had a number of specific

programmatic impacts:

Establishment of the NBS program for mea- surement problems associated with special

(fissionable) nuclear materials, including

identification of a Program Manager for Nuclear Safeguards Measurements, has been the

largest single example to date of new pro-
grams undertaken as a result of this study.

It is also the major item receiving support

from the Department of Commerce for expanded

funding for the Institute in future Federal

budgets. It has backing from the Nuclear

Regulatory Commission, ERDA, the State Department, and industry.

Among the proposed major program efforts

1n FY 78 that are a direct result of this

study and its immediate predecessors are the

following:

1. Work toward establishment of a permanent satellite time and frequency service,

including joint studies with NASA.

2. Development of non-destructive optical

methods for calibration of surface roughness.

3. Provision of traceability to national

standards of mass for dynamic weighing devices used, for example, for weighing meat

in packing plants.

4. Participation with medical standards

authorities in writing instrument specifications based upon results of NBS medical thermometry research.

5. Provision of needed thermodynamic data

on methane and methane-hydrocarbon mixtures

for the liquified natural gas and natural

gas processing industries, which data will

also play a key role in the development of

predictive methods for fluid mixtures.

6. Extension of laser interferometry to

permit determination of the volume of liquified natural gas tanks to the precision needed

for international exchange.

7. Characteristics of dielectric insulation for underground superconducting electric

power transmission lines.

8. New methods for characterizing analogto-digital and digital-to-analog converters.

9. Development of a sampling alternating

current voltmeter for low frequency (les^

than one hertz), low-level voltages encountered as outputs from vibration testing

transducers.

10. Extension of capabilities for testing

the susceptibility of components and electric

systems to high frequency electromagnetic

interference.

11. Measurement Assurance Program for

users of NBS-developed near-field antenna

scanning techniques.

12. Measurement of sound transmission

through floor/ceiling assemblies or exterior

walls of buildings.

13. Guidelines for the measurement of

ultrasonic instrument parameters, to establish uniformity in instrumentation.

14. Creation of a spectroradiometer with

an uncertainty significantly less than one percent for determining solar energy variations over long (e.g., ten year) periods of

times, to help understand environmental

changes.

15. Development of spectral reflectance

and transmittance reference linstrumen ts needed for remote sensing of earth resources from

aircraft and satellites.

16. Development of transfer-standard ultraviolet detectors for fusion energy programs.

17. Creation of a laser Measurement Assurance Program for high power Industrial type

lasers.

18. Completion of a study of requirements

for regional calibration laboratories for the

ionizing radiation field.

• The priorities defined in the fall of 1976

for the Institute for Basic Standarda are a

direct outgrowth of and completely consistent

with the conclusions of this study of the

national measurement system:

• Measurement standards and services required

for technology regulation

- Nuclear fuel safeguards

- Ionizing radiation

- Optical radiation

- Acoustical radiation

• Time domain measurements and standards

(automated measurements and systems,

communications, control)

• Coordinated modeling and measurement of

critical properties of matter.

• The specific Institute program expansion

objectives likewise follow directly from the

study:

• Nuclear safeguard measurements

• Ionizing radiation measurements

- therapeutic dosimetry

- transfer standards for state programs

• U.V. measurements

- atmospheric modification

- industrial and medical applications

• Noise

- EPA, OSHA, DoT requirements

- building technology

• Mathematical methods

- sampl ing methods

- statistical methods

- mathematical models

• Electrical measurements for power transmission and distribution

• Methods of physical measurements for air

and water quality

• Time resolved measurements for atomic and

molecular energy systems.

• Similarlyy the current vision of the con- ceptual features of the future Institute for

Basic Standards has been substantially molded

by the results of this study:

• Discipline dominated organization for

generation of services - similar to

present.

32
• Specialized offices at Institute level

for programmatic management of outputs

to major communities of need and for

urgent national problems.

• Continuing emphasis on R&D for

- realization of basic units

- methods to transfer units

- methods of measurement

- properties of matter

• Emphasis on new programs for

- architectural development of measurement system

- stimulating growth of external institutional capabilities

• Increasing involvement in

- recognizing new needs for measurement

which are national in scope

- planning coordinated multi-agency programs for meeting such needs

• Increasing involvement in legislative

processes which generate measurement

needs

- comnittee staff assistance

- impact statements

- expert testimony as appropriate

• Declining involvement in long established

- standards for highly derived units

- routine measurement services

• Increasing liaison at high management

levels of federal agencies which

generate measurement needs.

• Greater balance in generation of user specialized publications.

• Industrial measurements traceable to

national standards (IBS) through

hierarchical systems of Measurement

Assurance Programs.

• Commercial measurements traceable to national standards (IBS) through

states along present lines.

• State and/or regional capabilities for

measurement services involving regulated quantities.

A question that is more difficult to answer is "Hod rany of the results of the

study would have come about in any case,

'jhet'tier or net the study had been undertaken?" Obviously, the study built upon

earlier and on-going efforts that would

have had significant effects in any case. Further, many of the conclusions reached were sufficiently inescapable that they

• would have been forced upon this Institute

sooner or later, no matter what we did.

Nevertheless, it seems fair to say that

the study has played a iva^'or role in supportive: the Institute to corrprehend national measurenefit needs and its role in meeting them

in 'I comprehensive and integrated fashion

that would not have been achieved by the

earlier, piecemeal efforts, or by any pattern

or merely responding to demands thrust upon

us from outside. The National Measurement

System Study has established a prototype

method of strategic planning, that has become

a part of the normal way that the divisions

of the Institute for Basic Standards do their

long range planning. It has generated en- lightenment regarding the importance of doing

a total "market analysis", on both retrospective and forward-looking bases, rather than

only fragmented studies with a specific,

usually short range, "selling" orientation.

The microstudies have been used in con- nection with many reprogramming decisions

at all levels within the Institute for

Basic Standards, and the microstudy reports

have been sources of information for these

and other purposes. These studies have provided reassurance to Institute management

regarding the adequacy of a number of loweffort sustaining programs; the most notable

example of such reassurance is in the area of mass and density measurements, where a few manyears of effort support a tremendous

portion of the measurement system. They

have led to creation of new institutional

mechanisms, most notably the Council for

Optical Radiation Measurements.

The measurement system study concept and

results are being integrated into NBS interactions with Federal, state, and local governmental units. For instance, it is clear

that proliferation of measurement responsibilities, especially in the newer health and en- vironmental regulatory agencies at state and

local governmental levels, is creating situations within many states where substantial improvements in efficiency of measurement- related governmental activities can be effected if

the state measurement system can be seen as a whole and if conscious steps can be taken to promote cooperation and mutual support among

different segments of the system. California

has been a leader here, through its Measurements Advisory Committee.

The Study as such has drawn to a close,

and has been metamorphosized into a basic

element in the long range planning of the

Institute and its Divisions. Given the cur- rent definition of the mission of the Institute--which can be simply summarized as to

support and strengthen the national measurement system--all long range or strategic

planning in the Institute must henceforth be

able to answer the obvious questions: What

is the state of the System? What are its

needs? How will the proposed efforts support

and strengthen the System? How will we disseminate the results of our work? What alternative uses ceuld be made of the resources

required, and would the pay-off for the System

be higher for any of these alternatives?

33
The study has achieved its objectives.

It has affected a drastic speedup in the

Institute's ability to describe the rationale

for its programs. It has effected an across- the-board analysis of the entire scope of

the Institute's measurement and dissemination

concerns. It has provided information to

management to improve the allocation of limited resources, and changes in allocation of resources have occurred at all managerial

levels. It is providing support to Institute

efforts to obtain new resources, by demonstrating that the Institute has a clear con- cept of its responsibilities. It has both

been an effective tool in itself in planning

for the, future, and has established a con- tinuing mechanism for such planning. It is

leading to improvement of the architecture

of our evolving National Measurement System.

34
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House of Representatives, Sept. 16, 21-23, 28, 1971, 387 pages (U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,

Washington, D.C., 1971).

[110] Branscomb, L. M. , to help advance our Nation's science & technological capabilities

for the greatest public benefit. Mater. Res. Stand. 1_2, No. 5, 8-12 (May 1972).

[Ill] Willenbrock, F. K. , We can never afford to be technically wrong. Mater. Res. Stand.

12, No. 5, 34-36, 71-72 (May 1972).

[1127 National Bureau of Standards, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 397, 64 pages

(June 1974).

[113] National Bureau of Standards annual report: Fiscal Year 1974, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.),

Spec. Publ. 418, 32 pages (Mar. 1975).

[114] National Bureau of Standards at a Glance, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), booklet, 46 pages

(Aug. 1975).

[115] National Bureau of Standards annual report: FY 1975, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec.

Publ. 437, 32 pages (Dec. 1975).

[116] Ambler, E. Looking back: a 75 year preview of things to come, an address on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the National Bureau of Standards, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.),

booklet, 28 pages (March 4, 1976).
'117] The National Conference on Weights and Measures, its organization and procedures,

booklet, 10 pages (U.S. Dept. Commerce, about 1973).

'118] Mission, Office of Weights and Measures, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau

of Standards, booklet, 6 pages (about 1973).

'119] The weights and measures men, a pamphlet for consumers (National Conference on Weights

and Measures, about 1973).

'120] Koeser, R. L., ed. , Report of the 54th National Conference on Weights and Measures 1969

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ . 318, 270 pages (Nov. 1969).

121] Bell, F. C, and Wollin, H. F. , ed. , Report of the 55th National Conference on Weights

and Measures 1970, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 342, 315 pages (April 1971).

122] Hatos, S. L., U.S. Metric Study Interim Report: Commercial Weights and Measures,

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 345-3, 116 pages (July 1971).

123] Bell, F. C, and Wollin, H. F. , ed. , Report of the 56th National Conference on Weights

and Measures 1971, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 358, 252 pages (Mar. 1972).

124] Bell, F. C, and Wollin, H. F. , ed. , Report of the 57th National Conference on Weights

and Measures 1972, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 379, 216 pages (May 1973).

125] Wilson, S. J., and Smith, R. N., ed.. Report on the 58th National Conference on Weights

and Measures 1973, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 291, 208 pages (May 1974).

126] National Directory of Weights and Measures Personnel (Dept. Commerce, NBS, May 1974).

127] Minnick, D. J., National census of weights and measures personnel, preliminary report,

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) (June 1974).

128] Edgerly, S. J., ed. , Report of the 59th National Conference on Weights and Measures

1974, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 407, 284 pages (June 1975).

129] Weights and measures directory, list of state, commonwealth, district, and major local

weights and measures offices of the United States, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), directory

(Mar. 1976).

130] Edgerly, S. J., ed. , Report of the 60th National Conference on Weights and Measures

1975, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 442, 272 pages (May 1976).

131] National Conference of Standards Laboratories, booklet, 8 pages (undated, app. 1975).

132] A Directory of Standards Laboratories (National Conference of Standards Laboratories,

1976).

133] Van de Houten, J., The standards laboratory as an element in the national measurement

system. Preliminary report at 22nd Annual Meeting of the Standards and Metrology Division,

American Ordnance Association (April 12-13, 1967).

134] Mason, H. L., ed. , Making Valuable Measurements (Proc. 1968 Standards Laboratory

Conference, NBS, Boulder, Colo., Aug. 26-29, 1968), Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec.

Publ. 313, 177 pages (May 1969).

135] The National Conference of Standards Laboratories, ASTM Standardization News 2, 18-22

(Nov. 1974).

136] International quality assessment, ASTM Standardization News 2, 23-28 (Nov. 1974).

137] Sangster, R. C. , Transactions Matrix description of the national system of physical

measurements, NBSIR 75-943, 88 pages (Aug. 1976).

138] Porat, M. U., Defining an information sector in the U.S. economy, second year project

report (Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.,

Nov. 1974).

139] Noble, D. E. , The challenge of intelligent decision making, Proc. Rome Air Development

Center 20th Anniversary Celebration: The Next Twenty Years--the Promise and the Challenge,

pp. 65-74 (Rome Air Development Center, June 9-11, 1971).

140] Anibler, E. , Keynote address to National Conference of Standards Laboratories

Syp;posiuni (Oct 6, 1976).

141] Ambler, E. , A major innovation is our Measurement Assurance Program, Mater. Res. Stand.

12, No. 5, 18-23 (May 1972).

1427 Nicodemus, F. E., ed. , Self-study manual on optical radiation measurements: Part 1--

concepts. Chapters 1-3, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 910-1, 93 pages (Mar. 1976).

143] Jones, R. N., The Measurement of Lumped Parameter Impedance: a Metrology Guide,

Ed. W. J. Anson, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Monogr. 141, 211 pages (June 1974).

144] Arthur, M. G. , The Measurement of Noise Performance Factors: A Metrology Guide,

Ed. W. J. Anson, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Monogr. 142, 202 pages (June 1974).

145] America joins a metric world, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Dimensions/NBS 60, No. 2, 6-9

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146] Langenberg, D. N., and Taylor, B. N., ed. , Precision Measurements and Fundamental

Constants, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 343, 543 pages (Aug. 1971).

147] Cohen, E. R. , and Taylor, B. N., Specifications of the physical world: new values for

the fundamental constants, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), DiTOns ions/NBS , 5 pages (Jan. 1974).

39
[148] Kendrick, J., Postwar Productivity Trends In the United States 1948-1969 (Columbia

University Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research, New York, N.Y., 1973).

[149] U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Labor Statistics

(1973).

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(U.S.), Spec. Publ. 345, 188 pages (July 1971).

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[152] Richman, P., ed. , Critical electrical measurenent needs and standards for modem electronic instrumentation, report of a workshop sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards,

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(May 1975).

40

USCOMM • EAL
NBS-IUA (REV. 7 7 3)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 1. PI Hl.K A I'ION OK Kl.POK I' NO. 2. Gov't Acct-ssion BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA .„,^T,^ ^

No. SHEET NBSIR 75-925

4. i ri i.i: ANi^ srH i I I

Final Summary Report

Study of the National Measurement System

5. Publication Date December 1976

ill/ /\ /"I 6. Kt-rlormm^ ()r>;an i zat ion Codt* 270.00

7. ArTHORf-<i

Raymond C. Sangster

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PI;RI"0RM1N(.. ORC.A.N'I/ATION NA.MI- AND ADDRKSS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project /Task 'Work Unit No. 2700916

11. Contract / Cirant No.

12. Sp(..n.>;orinf; CVgiinization N.>mc and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

National Bureau of Standards

oco Droaaway

Boulder, Colorado 80302

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final. iq7?-7«;

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SLPFl.i:.MK.NTARY .N'OThS

16. ABSTR.'VC r (A 200-word or less factual summary of most sigriificant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) Jh i 5 iS the SUmiTiary repOrt fOr the 1972-75 NBS

Study of the National Measurement System; I.e., the activities and mechanisms that

provide physical measurement data for creation of objective, quantitative knowledge

for use in our personal lives, society, science, and technology. It includes structural and economic overviews of the system and summarizes results of microstudies

of specific measurement sectors. The structural model of the system has five levels:

conceptual system, basic technical infrastructure, realized measurement capabilities,

institutional dissemination and enforcement network, and end-use measurement activities. Transactions in the system have been described in a matrix format. Measurement-related activities account for about 6% of Gross National Product and pervade

all economic sectors. Indicative cost-benefit analyses are described. Measurement

sectors covered by 24 microstudies include time and frequency; mechanical, thermal,

electrical, electromagnetic acoustic, and optical quantities, and ionizing radiation.

Major system trends are toward increased complexity and integration, improved quality

control and information resources, automation, metrication, and consolidation of the

recent scientific revolution in metrology. Deficiencies exist in assurance of measurement quality, communication of needs and capabilities, missing structure in newer measurement fields, measurements for technical regulations, and measurements made

with many newer transducers or under dynamic or adverse environmental conditions.

NBS is the central measurements standards institution supporting our National

Measurement System.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first tetter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons) Acoustics; economlcs of measurement; electrical quantities;

electromagnetic quantities; ionizing radiation; measurement needs; measurement system

structure; mechanical quantities; National Measurement System; optical quantities;

thermal quantities; time and frequency.

18. AVAILABILITY [X Unlimited

1 For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS •

L ' Order From Sup. of Doc, U.S. Government Printing Office WashinKton. D.C. 20402. SD Cat. No. CI

1 X ! Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCLASSIFIED

21. NO. OF PAGES

45

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

22. Price

$4.00

USCOMM - EW." USCOMM-DC 29042-P74

REQUEST CARD FOR REPORTS OF NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (NMS)

925 FINAL SUMMARY REPORT 929 FORCE

943 TRANSACTIONS IN NMS

947 COLL. EXEC. SUMMARIES

948 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS NMS

930 FLUID FLOW

931 PRESSURE

932 TEMPERATURE

949 STRUCTURE/FUNCTIONS NMS 933 HUMIDITY & MOISTURE

345-1 TIME & FREQUENCY

926 LENGTH & DIMEN. MEAS.

;

VIBRATION & SHOCK

927 SURFACE FINISH

928 MASS, VOLUME, DENSITY

934 THERMODYNAMICS OF FLUIDS

825 CRYOGENICS

935 ELECTRICITY

936 ELECTROMAGNETICS

STUDY ( Circle No's wanted )

937 MEDICAL ULTRASONICS

938 ACOUSTICS

939 RADIOMETRY/PHOTOMETRY

940 SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

941 FAR UV RADIOMETRY

942 OPTICS

944 PHYS. PROP. ATOMS/MOL.

945 SURFACE PROPERTIES

946 IONIZING RADIATION

REQUEST CARD FOR REPORTS OF NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (NMS)

925 FINAL SUMMARY REPORT 929 FORCE

943 TRANSACTIONS IN NMS

947 COLL. EXEC. SUMMARIES

948 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS NMS

949 STRUCTURE/FUNCTIONS NMS

345-1 TIME & FREQUENCY

926 LENGTH & DIMEN. MEAS.;

VIBRATION & SHOCK

927 SURFACE FINISH

928 MASS, VOLUME, DENSITY

930 FLUID FLOW

931 PRESSURE

932 TEMPERATURE

933 HUMIDITY & MOISTURE

934 THERMODYNAMICS OF FLUIDS

825 CRYOGENICS

935 ELECTRICITY

936 ELECTROMAGNETICS

STUDY ( Circle No's wanted )

937 MEDICAL ULTRASONICS

938 ACOUSTICS

939 RADIOMETRY/PHOTOMETRY

940 SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

941 FAR UV RADIOMETRY

942 OPTICS

944 PHYS. PROP. ATOMS/MOL.

945 SURFACE PROPERTIES

946 IONIZING RADIATION

REQUEST CARD FOR REPORTS OF NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM (NMS)

925 FINAL SUMMARY REPORT

943 TRANSACTIONS IN NMS

947 COLL. EXEC. SUMMARIES

948 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS NMS

949 STRUCTURE/FUNCTIONS NMS

345-1 TIME & FREQUENCY

926 LENGTH & DIMEN. MEAS.;

VIBRATION & SHOCK

927 SURFACE FINISH

928 MASS, VOLUME, DENSITY

929 FORCE

930 FLUID FLOW •

931 PRESSURE

932 TEMPERATURE

933 HUMIDITY & MOISTURE

934 THERMODYNAMICS OF FLUIDS

825 CRYOGENICS

935 ELECTRICITY

936 ELECTROMAGNETICS

STUDY ( Circle No's wanted ;

937 MEDICAL ULTRASONICS

938 ACOUSTICS

939 P;\DIOMETRY/PHOTOMETRY

940 SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

941 FAR UV RADIOMETRY

942 OPTICS

944 PHYS. PROP. ATOMS/MOL.

945 SURFACE PROPERTIES

946 IONIZING RADIATION

41
FROM: NAME;

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ADDRESS;

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Place

Stamp

Here

TO: PROGRAM INFORMATION OFFICE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BOULDER, COLORADO. USA 80302

FROM: NAME:

TITLE;

ORGANIZATION:

ADDRESS:

CITY/STATE:

COUNTRY/ZIP:

Place

Stamp

Here

TO: PROGRAM INFORMATION OFFICE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BOULDER, COLORADO, USA 80302

FROM: NAME:

TITLE:

ORGANIZATION:

ADDRESS:

CITY/STATE:

COUNTRY/ZIP:

Place

Stamp

Here

TO: PROGRAM INFORMATION OFFICE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BOULDER, COLORADO, USA 80302

42
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