NBSIR 88-3807

Lights of New York Harbor

James A. Worthey

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Building Technology

Building Environment Division

Lighting Group

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

June 1988

Sponsored by

Coast Guard Research and Development Center

U.S. Department of Transportation

Avery Point

Groton, Connecticut 06340-6096

75 Years Stimulating America’s Progress 1913-1988

NBSIR 88-3807

LIGHTS OF NEW YORK HARBOR

James A. Worthey

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Engineering Laboratory

Center for Building Technology

Building Environment Division

Lighting Group

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

June 1988

Sponsored by

Coast Guard Research and Development Center

U.S. Department of Transportation

Avery Point

Groton, Connecticut 06340-6096

U.S, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, C. William Verity, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

ABSTRACT

This report presents photometric measurements on shore lights of

the New York harbor area, taken from three observation points.

In particular, measurements were made of the illuminance at the

observation point due to distant lights, considered to be point

sources. This is a measure of point source intensity

appropriate to this situation, and quantifies what a mariner

will see sailing into or out of New York harbor at night. The

measurements are of interest because lights on shore make it

hard to see the lights maintained by the U. S. Coast Guard as

aids to navigation. One conclusion is that most of the

interfering lights are high-pressure sodium vapor lamps used to

light the streets, roads, and docks. The distributions of the

lights in intensity, position, and color are presented

graphically.

KEY WORDS: Aids to navigation; Aiming device; Buoy; Lighthouse;

Photometry; Signal lights.

i
DISCLAIMER

Where commercial products are mentioned by brand name, this is

for identification only, and does not imply that they are

endorsed by the government, or are the best available.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special appreciation is due to Charles Bulik who assisted in the

development of the apparatus and took part in every measurement.

Thanks are due as well to Noel Nazario who put in one long night

on the beach at Sandy Hook, and to Dr. Marc Mandler, the

sponsor's technical representative, who lent us apparatus,

visited the observation sites, and was extremely helpful at

every stage of the work.

FOREWORD

This report documents the results of National Bureau of

Standards (NBS ) in support of the United States Department of

Transportation Coast Guard, in fulfillment of USCG/NBS Contract

# Z51100-7-00003 . This report summarizes work done from

February 1987 to February 1988.

0 0 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 . Overview 1 1.1. Background - Visual Clutter in Big City Harbors 1 1.2. Nature of this Report 1 1.3. Observation Sites 2

Chapter 2 . Data 3

2.1. General Description of Data-Taking method 3

2.1.1. Instrument and its Sensitivity . 3

2.1.2. Objective Lens and Apertures 3

2.1.3. Point Sources. 3

2.1.4. Measuring Point Sources with the Pritchard Telephotometer. 4

2.1.5. Data Collection Procedure. 5

2.2. The Raw Data 5

2.2.1. Detailed Format 5

2.2.2. File SANDY. 001 10-28-87 ll:41p 6

2.2.3. File SANDY. 002 10-29-87 2:56a 8

2.2.4. File GOVISL.002 10-20-87 4:43a 11

2.2.5. File GOVISL.003 10-21-87 4:45a 12

2.2.6. File GOVISL.004 10-22-87 3:35a 18

2.2.7. File GOVISL.005 10-23-87 6:27a 22

2.2.8. File GOVISL.006 10-24-87 12:57a 27

2.3. Photographs 29

Chapter 3. Analysis of Data 30

3.1. Sandy Hook. 40° 2811 N, 73° 5919 W, height 12 ft 30

3.2. Governor's Island, North Sector, 40° 411247 N 74° 11493 W, height

77 ft. 35

3.3. Governor's Island, North Sector, Rainiest Points Excluded. . 41

3.4. Governor's Island, South Sector, 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W, height

68 ft. ... 46

3.5. Nature of the Interfering Background Lights 51

3.6. Summary and Conclusions 55

Chapter 4. Photometric Theory 58

4.1. Introduction 58

4.2. Extended vs. Point Sources 58

4.3. Measuring Illuminance Due to a Point Source 58

4.4. Practical Calibration and Use of Eq. (4.1) 59

4.5. Mean Luminance of a Sector with Point Sources 60

Chapter 5. Spherical Trigonometry 62

5.1. Introduction 62

5.2. Derivation. ....... 62

Chapter 6. Apparatus 66

6.1. Introduction. 66

6.2. The Telephotometer. 67

6.3. The Aiming Device. , 68

6.4. Computer and Joystick. 69

iii
Chapter 7

7.1.

7.2.

7.3.

7.4.

7.5.

7.6.

7.7.

7.8.

7.9.

7.10

Chapter 8

8 . 1 . 8 . 2 . 8.3.

Software _ 71

Overview 71

Technical Tidbits 71

File NAVIG.H, the Application-Specific Header File 72

File TRYJOY.C, the Main Program 73

File JOYSTK.C, Containing Routines Pertaining to Joystick. . 73

File TRIG.C, Mainly Routines that Deal with Trigonometry. . . 73

File LITES.C, Just Routines Pertaining to Reading in the Light

List. 76

File MOTOR. C, Motor Control Routines and Much of the Window Code. 76

Data File LIGHT. LST . 77

Program FILTER. C, Self-Contained Program to Translate

Ampersands 78

Recommendations for Future Work. . 80

Apparatus Improvements. . 80

Further Data Analysis 81

Summary and Conclusions. The summary and conclusions are not in

this chapter, they are in Section 3 . 6 ............ . 81

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1. The distribution of illuminances at the observation point . 31

Figure 3.2. The distribution of log^o ( illuminance) at the observation

point, Sandy Hook 32

Figure 3.3. The distribution in azimuth of the lights seen from the Sandy

Hook observation point 33

Figure 3.4. The distribution in altitude of the lights seen from Sandy

Hook 34

Figure 3.5. Mean luminance in rectangular areas near the horizon and 2°

wide x 1° high, Sandy Hook 35

Figure 3.6. Distribution in illuminance of all lights in the Governor's

Island "north sector." 37

Figure 3.7. Distribution in logio(illuminance) of all lights in the

Governor's Island "north sector." 38

Figure 3.8. Distribution in azimuth of lights in the Governor's Island

"north sector." 39

Figure 3.9. Distribution in altitude of all lights in the Governor's Island

"north sector." 40

Figure 3.10. Mean luminance in 2° x 1° rectangles due to all point sources

within the rectangle, Governor's Island "north sector." 41

Figure 3.11. Distribution in illuminance, Governor's Island north sector,

rainiest points excluded. .......... 42

Figure 3.12. Distribution in logio(illuminance) , Governor's Island north

sector, rainiest points excluded. ... 43

Figure 3.13. Distribution in azimuth, Governor's Island north sector,

rainiest points excluded. ........... 44

Figure 3.14. Distribution in altitude, Governor's Island north sector,

rainiest points excluded 45

Figure 3.15. Mean Luminance in rectangles 2° wide x 1° high, Governor's

Island north sector, rainiest points excluded. 46

Figure 3.16. Distribution in illuminance, Governor's Island, south sector. 47

Figure 3.17. Distribution in log^Q ( illuminance) , Governor's Island, south

sector 48

Figure 3.18. Distribution in azimuth, Governor's Island, south sector. 49

Figure 3.19. Distribution in altitude, Governor's Island, south sector. 50

Figure 3.20. Mean luminance in rectangular areas 2° wide x 1° high,

Governor's Island, South Sector 51

Figure 3.21. Distribution of colors in azimuth, Sandy Hook 53

Figure 3.22. Distribution of colors in azimuth, Governor's Island, North

Sector. ........ .... 54

Figure 3.23. Distribution of colors in azimuth, Governor's Island, South

Sector. ......... . 55

Figure 5.1. Diagram for derivation of the azimuth and great circle distance

from one point to another near the surface 63

Figure 5.2 Diagram for the plane trigonometry problem of finding the

angular altitude a and distance D . . 64

v
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Working Calibration Formulas .......... 5

Table 3.1: Summary of Light Colors 52

Table 6.1: True Diameters of Apertures 68

vi
Chapter 1 . Overview

1.1. Background - Visual Clutter in Big City Harbors. Vessels entering a harbor such as New York must steer to their destination, while avoiding

obstacles such as shoals and the shore, and possibly staying within dredged and

marked channels. To help them do this, the Coast Guard maintains numerous

"aids to navigation," such as buoys of different sizes, traditional

lighthouses, and lights on shore towers. At night, these aids are visible as point light sources.

To help mariners identify them, lighted aids differ in color and flash

characteristic. White, red, and green are the most common colors, while

typical flash characteristics are "fixed" (100 percent duty cycle) or flashing

once every few seconds. For instance, Volume 1 of the Atlantic Coast Light

List tells us that along Sandy Hook Channel, south of New York City, at 40°

27! 2 north latitude*, 73° 56! 3 west longitude, Lighted Gong Buoy 1 flashes

green at intervals of 2.5 s. This buoy is visible at up to 4 nautical miles.

Other aids which are brighter and on taller structures may be visible at ranges

up to 19 nautical miles.

Clearly in the dark of night these aids provide important information at

distances which are far too great for the mariner to see the supporting

structure. They appear as point sources on a black field, distinguished only

by their color and flash characteristics. Since most of these aids are not

"mighty beacons," but may have only a 30-watt incandescent bulb with a highquality Fresnel lens, they are not consistently brighter than sources on the

shore behind them, such as streetlights. In urban areas, where lights on the

shore are numerous, mariners report that at night it is often difficult or

impossible to distinguish the aids from shore lights.

The U. S. Coast Guard is concerned about increasing the visibility of aids at

night, by making them more visually dissimilar from the shore lights. An

important first step is to gather information regarding shore lights in a harbor where visibility of aids is a problem.

1.2. Nature of this Report. The larger responsibility for studying what

makes a light visually distinctive from its background, and of inventing and

testing improved aids, rests with the Coast Guard Research and Development

Center at Avery Point, Connecticut. The present report concerns only the

limited task of physical measurements on the lights of New York harbor. The

raw data are presented in Chapter 2; some simple graphical analysis of the

data appears in Chapter 3; and the underlying theory, apparatus, and datataking software are described in Chapters 4-7.

In nautical usage, latitude and longitude are usually given in degrees,

minutes, and decimal fractions of a minute, with seconds of arc not being used.

The usual precision is 0!1, that is a tenth of a minute. It is common for the

minute symbol to be applied to the whole number, and written over the decimal

point, as in 3! 3 or 3! 3.

1
1.3. Observation Sites. Data were taken in three sets, from locations around

New York harbor. The exact spots were found through on-the-spot searches, in

consultation with Dr. Marc Mandler from the Coast Guard Research & Development

Center. The intention in each case was to get a view similar to that which

might be seen from a ship entering New York. Two of the locations were

actually in the same building on the west side of Governor's Island. One of

these gave a view similar to that seen in sailing past Governor's Island and

the Statue of Liberty and up the Hudson River between New Jersey and Manhattan

Island. The other gave a view that might be seen in following this same course

the other way. The third location, on the beach at Sandy Hook, New Jersey,

gave a view similar to that which might be seen in sailing from the open

Atlantic toward Staten Island or toward the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge and points

north

.

2
Chapter 2. Data

2.1. General Description of Data-Taking method. For the benefit of impatient

readers, the data will be presented in this chapter, ahead of the detailed

description of the apparatus and so forth. Hence, a brief description of the

method is needed here. (Extremely impatient readers may want to skip ahead to

Chapter 3 on the analysis of data, but this is not recommended.)

2.1.1. Instrument and its Sensitivity. The measuring instrument used was a telephotometer, a model 1980 version of the Spectra-Pritchard pho tome ter ^ , made

by Photo Research Division of Kollmorgen Corporation. Simple manipulation of

handbook data and the instrument specification shows that the instrument with

its normal lens can give a full-scale response to the dimmest visible signal

light. (The original specification for the current project said we should

measure lights down to 2x10"^ footcandles illuminance at the observation point,

in close agreement with the working threshold for lighthouses given by Wyszecki

and Stiles , 0.5 photopic mile-candles. When the Pritchard is used to measure

point sources, its best full-scale sensitivity is 2x10"^ footcandles.)

2.1.2. Objective Lens and Apertures. The Pritchard photometer is a telescopic instrument, which in its general appearance and method of aiming

resembles a camera. Most of the light entering the objective lens simply

passes through and out an eyepiece. By looking in the eyepiece, the operator

can aim and focus the lens, based on the image which he sees of the object to

be measured. In the center of that image, the operator sees a black spot which

is actually a hole ("aperture") in a mirror that is part of the through optical

path. The light that falls through the aperture strikes the photomultiplier

tube and is measured.

The standard objective lens of the photometer used has a focal length of 7

inches. With this lens, the apertures which can be rotated into place give

circular measurement fields having diameters of 3° (180 minutes), 1° (60 min),

20 min, 6 min, and 2 min. There is also one rectangular aperture which was not

used. The lens actually used for all measurements was an 84 inch Cassegrain

objective; the magnification gained by this telescopic objective is

(84 inches/7 inches) = 12, therefore the actual measurement field diameters

were 1/12 of the nominal values. Of course, the aperture wheel on the

instrument is labelled with the nominal values. Therefore, the apertures will

always be referred to by their nominal sizes, but in calculations, the

magnification must be accounted for.

Note that if the resolution of human vision is 1 minute, any lights that were

measured with the 6 min or 2 min apertures had actual subtenses of less than

0.5 min or 0.17 min and were true point sources to the naked eye. Even lights

measured with the 20 min aperture were near the limit of resolution.

2.1.3. Point Sources. If a point source is measured in the laboratory, it

may be characterized by its luminous intensity in a given direction, defined as

the flux over a small solid angle subtended at the source, divided by that

solid angle. For point sources spotted through a telescope, the solid angle

subtended by the entrance pupil of the measuring instrument at the source is

unknown, because the distance is unknown; a different measure of point source

3
intensity is needed. A practical one is the illuminance at the measuring

instrument due to the point source.

In this context, illuminance means exactly what it always means: luminous flux

incident on a surface, per unit area of that surface. The surface in this case

is the entrance pupil of the measuring instrument. What is perhaps unfamiliar

is that this is not the cosine- integrated illuminance routinely measured with a "foot-candle meter," but only that part of total illuminance which is due to

one distant source. If you are standing on the beach at Sandy Hook, New

Jersey, this illuminance is the answer to the question "how much is one of the

mercury vapor lights on the Verrazano bridge going to help me read the

newspaper?" The answer of course is "not much," and it is to be expected that

these numbers will be in the range of tiny fractions of a lux. (1 lux =

1 lumen / m^)

2.1.4. Measuring Point Sources with the Pritchard Telephotometer. The

Pritchard photometer is designed to measure luminance of extended sources.

Given one technical assumption and the proper interpretation of the data,

however, it is perfectly suitable for measuring illuminance at the measuring

instrument due to a point source. The raw data to be presented in this chapter

include values of "luminance reading." This is the actual reading from the

luminance readout on the photometer, and is NEVER a meaningful luminance. In a few cases, where the comments indicate that the "luminance calibration" was in

effect, and the source filled the aperture, then actual luminance =

10 . Ox ( luminance reading). Most data, however, are point-source measurements,

and a more complicated calculation is required to recover illuminance due to

the point source, Let L be the luminance reading , let B be the actual luminance,

let E be the illuminance at the meter due to the point source, and let Apert be

the nominal aperture diameter in minutes. Then, Table 2.1 gives the working

formulas from which B and E may be computed:

Table 2.1

Fills? Calibration

Yes Luminance

Yes Point source

No Luminance

No Point source

: Working Calibration Formulas

Working Formula

B = 10. 0L

B = 15.94L

E = 4,625x10"^ ( Apert

E

~ 7.373x10”^ ( Apert

The "Yes" or "No" is the answer to the question whether the light being

measured fills the aperture, as seen in the eyepiece of the Pritchard. A

special column of the data gives this information. The question of whether

"Luminance" or "Point source" calibration was used is answered among the

comments to the data. Most data were taken with the "Point source" calibration

and the lights did not fill the aperture. What makes a light a point source

for present purposes is that it does not fill the aperture . It is incidental

which calibration (gain setting) was used , so long as the proper formula from

Table 2.1 is applied . The derivation of the formulas in Table 2.1 appears in

Chapter 4, along with some tutorial discussion of measuring point sources.

4
2.1.5. Data Collection Procedure. A special two-axis mount was devised for

the Pritchard, with stepper motors to* set azimuth and altitude. The steppers

were interfaced to the computer used to collect the data. The data collection

program incorporated a procedure for calibrating azimuth and altitude. The

instrument could then be aimed by keyboard commands or by a joystick, and the

computer always kept track of the absolute azimuth and altitude.

To measure a light, an operator generally spotted it first with the naked eye,

then spotted it through the Pritchard with its telescopic objective, and

finally, by watching through the eyepiece and making small moves with the

joystick, covered the light's image with the measurement aperture.

2.2. The Raw Data. As will be explained in more detail later, all data were

taken directly into a computer. This includes the date, time, azimuth and

altitude, which the computer had direct access to, as well as numbers and text

which were typed in by the operator. Although nearly all the information was

written to disk in a standardized way via the interactive program used to aim

the instrument, that program also allowed the operator to branch to a text

editor and enter free-form comments, or correct errors in data.

The data were stored so as to create an orderly table, easily read into a spreadsheet program or perhaps into a specially written computer program,

provided that the comments and directional calibration information are first

deleted. The calibrations for azimuth and altitude, while obviously important,

were given immediate effect in the recorded values and are only background

information so far as the tabulated data are concerned. Comment lines are few,

although the first file presented begins with one. Comments begin with an

asterisk (*)

For convenience in printing out the data, one row of the data table was stored

as two or three lines in the data file. Each logical row starts with an

ampersand character (&) . A short filter program, presented in Chapter 7,

suffices to replace the ampersands with newline characters and eliminate all

other newlines, creating a "wide" version of the file.

2.2.1. Detailed Format. The data as presented below have not been edited,

except for the few changes that were made during the measurement session the

night the data were taken. They were imported with the word processing program

to become part of this report.

Lines beginning with an asterisk are comment lines.

Each calibration report occupies 5 lines. The first of these is just

the line:

&"Calibration:

Line 2 of the calibration report gives simple descriptions of the observation

point ("Here:") and the distant point used as a direction calibration

("There:"). Line 3 gives the serial numbers and flash characteristics

approximately as they appear in the Light List‘d. (As the light list computer

5
file in Section 7.9 illustrates, real lights in the New York area have numbers

in the range of 32000-33000; other points not in the Light List have

arbitrarily invented serial numbers far from that range.) Line 4 gives the

latitude and longitude of Here and There. Line 5 gives the vector from Here to

There. Logically, the heights above mean high water should have been included

for the calibration locations, but by an oversight, they are not given. They

are available in Section 7.9.

Where a calibration appears in the file, it was given immediate effect in the

calibration of the following data points. Points occurring prior to any

calibration shown in the file are also calibrated, but the calibration was done

before the file was opened.

The data set for a photometric measurement begins with an ampersand and a blank, then the following:

1st line: date and time; azimuth [decimal degrees]; altitude [decimal

degrees]; a terse description of the light;

2d line: color; nominal aperture diameter [minutes]; did the light fill the

aperture? [yes or no]; luminance reading : flash rate; duty cycle; comment.

Luminance reading is recorded in power-of-10 notation. With just a couple

exceptions, significant figures and exponent are exactly as displayed on the

instrument, the point being to avoid a false appearance of precision. The

stated precision is fictitious anyway, however, because of the large

fluctuation of many of the lights. No attempt was made to document this

fluctuation, but it is probably due to the atmosphere and increases with

distance

.

By convention, a steady light ("fixed" in Coast Guard parlance) has flash rate

0.0 and duty cycle 1.0. If the comment would make the second line too long, it

appears by itself on a third line.

All recorded colors are judgments of one human observer with normal color

vision

.

Because the Governor's Island data include some questionable values, demanding

discussion, the easier- to-understand Sandy Hook data will be presented first.

Otherwise, data will be grouped in files and kept chronological. The following

paragraph headings include the file name and the last date and time the file

was closed the MSDOS "time stamp."

2 . 2 o 2 „ File SANDY. 001 10=28-87 ll:41p. All the data at Sandy Hook were taken

in one night, from a high point on the beach, some 300 feet hack from the

water, using power from a portable generator . Height of eye for this location

was taken to be 12 feet . (See Section 3.19.) The first four data points

evaporated when power to the computer was momentarily lost; after that, care

was taken to hack up the files frequently . The file begins with a terse

statement that this is the second attempt to get going

*Second try 21:57

6
& "87-10-28, 22:12:46" 325.130 -0.185 "1 Light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 10.00E-2 0.00 1.000 "" 6c"Calibration: " "Here: Beach I - along path There: Romer Shoal Light " "Serial: 99999 Chr: NA Serial: 32370 Chr: FI (2) W 15s

"Loc: 40° 281100 N 73° 591900 W Loc: 40° 301800 N 74° 01800 W

"Vector, Az : 345° 461792 E of N, Alt: 0° 71178, Dist: 2.8 naut . mi."

& "87-10-28, 22:23:45" 325.215 0.125 "1 Light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.75E-2 0.00 1.000 "another similar; pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 22:24:59" 325.275 0.085 "1 Light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 14.70E-2 0.00 1.000 "another similar; pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:27:45" 325.270 -0.130 "4 lights"

"Orange" "180" "no" 0.97E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:30:27" 325.510 -0.130 "4 lights"

"Orange" "180" "no" 0.60E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:33:26" 325.675 -0.130 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.50E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:34:33" 325.800 -0.130 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.20E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:38:03" 326.085 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 4.40E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:38:35" 326.205 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 3.60E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:39:50" 326.345 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 4.20E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:40:40" 326.500 -0.145 "2 lights"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.10E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:42:49" 326.800 -0.135 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.00E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 22:43:36" 326.920 -0.135 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.25E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:44:21" 327.010 -0.135 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 9.80E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:45:37" 327.150 -0.135 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 6.90E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:46:35" 327.295 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 11.60E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:48:25" 327.455 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.45E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:49:24" 327.720 -0.145 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 12.00E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:51:14" 327.935 -0.115 "5 Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 1.53E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:53:40" 328.390 -0.135 "1 It"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.90E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:55:20" 328.870 -0.115 "4 Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 0.65E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 22:57:59" 329.230 -0.125 "3 Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 1.25E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 22:59:50" 329.470 -0.165 "1 It"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.40E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

7
& ”87-10-28, 23:00:31" 329.610 -0.165 "1 It"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.70E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:01:12" 329.825 -0.165 "1 It"

"Orange" "60" "no" 6.60E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:02:51" 330.015 -0.150 "4 Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.00E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:07:21" 330.315 -0.165 "2 Its"

"Grnsh+Orng" "60" "no" 1.50E-1 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:09:20" 330.670 -0.165 "4 Its"

"3 orng + grnsh" "180" "no" 2.25E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:12:20" 330.920 -0.160 "5 Its"

"2 orng, 3 grnsh" "180" "no" 2.80E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:14:41" 331.195 -0.140 "6 Its"

"2 orng, 4 whitsh" "180" "no" 1.90E-1 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:17:33" 331.385 -0.180 "3 Its"

"2 whtsh, 1 orang" "60" "no" 2.00E0 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:20:50" 331.680 -0.190 "3 Its"

"1 yelsh, 2 orng" "180" "no" 1.30E-1 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:23:31" 331.910 -0.195 "4 Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.85E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:24:51" 332.190 -0.195 "sm cluster (5?"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.70E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:26:23" 332.470 -0.195 "several Its"

"Orange" "180" "no" 1.45E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:28:43" 332.870 -0.195 "cluster"

"Orange" "180" "no" 3.00E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

& "87-10-28, 23:30:12" 333.430 -0.145 "cluster"

"Orange" "180" "no" 1.65E-2 0.00 1.000 " pt src cal"

6c "87-10-28, 23:35:56" 334.090 -0.050 "rotating It"

"White" "60" "no" 7.00E0 6.00 0.333 " pt src cal"

2.2.3. File SANDY. 002 10-29-87 2:56a. The file wasn't open when the

calibration was done, so a comment line notes the calibration . A later comment

calls attention to the fact that the mercury vapor lights along the cables of

the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge were switched off at 01:00 hours, leaving only

some red aircraft warning lights near the towers, and the streetlights along

the roadway.

^Recalibrated on Romer Shoal Light

6c "87-10-29, 0:22:26" 334.755 -0.060 "small Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 2.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:25:27" 334.935 -0.060 "2 Its"

"grn + orange" "60" "no" 8.90E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:26:48" 335.415 -0.100 "1 It"

"orange" "60" "no" 6.35E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:28:00" 335.900 -0.100 "grp little dots"

"orange" "180" "no" 2.25E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:31:22" 336.925 -0.110 "grp little Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 3.20E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:33:21" 337.330 -0.110 "grp little Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 2.30E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

8
& "87-10-29, 0:36:40" 338.330 -0.110 "group of Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 5.70E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

& "87-10-29, 0:38:37" 339.125 0.085 "array on pole"

"orange" "60" "no" 12.50E-1 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:40:00" 339.285 0.085 "1 It"

"greenish" "60" "no" 1.75E-1 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:41:11" 339.390 0.075 "array on high pole"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 10.25E-1 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

oc "87-10-29, 0:42:47" 339.480 0.080 "array on high pole"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 8.10E0 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:44:02" 339.755 0.055 "array on high pole"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 14.30E0 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:44:44" 340.075 0.060 "array on high pole"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 16.80E0 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:46:31" 340.340 0.060 "array on high pole"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 10.70E0 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:47:44" 340.780 -0.070 "group of Its"

"White" "180" "no" 2.70E-2 0.00 1.000 "pt src cal"

6c "87-10-29, 0:49:41" 341.165 -0.050 "group of Its"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 0.74E-2 0.00 1.000

"pt src cal; at Staten Island end of Verrazano bridge."

6c "87-10-29, 0:52:56" 342.065 0.115 "Its on VZ cable"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 1.70E-2 0.00 1.000

"pt src cal; at Staten Island end of Verrazano bridge."

6c "87-10-29, 0:55:43" 342.885 0.470 "11 Its on cable"

"10 Grnsh , 1 red" "180" "no" 1.77E-2 0.00 1.000

"pt src cal; on cable leading to west tower."

6c "87-10-29, 0:59:20" 343.030 0.540 "10 Its on cable"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 1.57E-2 0.00 1.000

"near west support (top of the cable). After this reading, grnish Its out."

6c "87-10-29, 1:14:00" 343.705 0.135 "2 Its on roadway"

"Greenish" "20" "no" 1.86E-1 0.00 1.000

"These are 2 on a pole; a sample of lights all across the bridge."

6c "87-10-29, 1:19:07" 343.750 0.420 "2 Its on cable"

"red" "20" "no" 1.30E-2 0.00 1.000

"These red lights remain on after green lights were turned off."

6c "8 Its"

"whtsh 6c orng" "180" "no" 4.80E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 1:45:04" 349.715 -0.045 "group Its"

"whitish" "180" "no" 2.35E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 1:47:18" 351.695 -0.030 "group Its"

"orng 6c whtsh" "180" "no" 2.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

9
& "87-10-29, 1:49:27" 351.920 0.030 "group Its"

"whitish" "180" "no" 6.20E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

& "87-10-29, 1:51:16" 352.170 -0.065 "streetlights"

"greenish" "180" "no" 3.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "8 Its"

"whtsh 6c orng" "180" "no" 4.80E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn

6c "87-10-29, 1:45:04" 349.715 -0.045 "group Its"

"whitish" "180" "no" 2.35E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 1:47:18" 351.695 -0.030 "group Its"

"orng 6c whtsh" "180" "no" 2.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn
& "87-10-29, 1:49:27" 351.920 0.030 "group Its"

"whitish" "180" "no" 6.20E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

& "87-10-29, 1:51:16" 352.170 -0.065 "streetlights"

"greenish" "180" "no" 3.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

& "87-10-29, 1:53:39" 353.505 -0.055 "streetlights?"

"orange" "180" "no" 2.70E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

& "87-10-29, 1:58:17" 354.630 -0.035 "group of Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 1.98E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:01:52" 355.110 -0.025 "4 Its"

"whitish" "180" "no" 6.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:03:34" 355.830 -0.060 "6 Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 1.30E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:05:06" 356.220 -0.055 "8 Its"

"orange" "180" "no" 1.55E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:06:19" 356.540 -0.060 "2 Its"

"orange" "60" "no" 1.46E-1 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:08:30" 356.925 -0.050 "6 Its"

"orange" "60" "no" 1.53E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:10:54" 357.310 0.010 "1 streetlight"

"greenish" "60" "no" 1.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:11:55" 357.370 0.010 "1 streetlight"

"greenish" "60" "no" 7.40E-2 0.00 1.000 "In Brooklyn."

6c "87-10-29, 2:14:39" 357.420 0.755 "2 on world trade"

"red" "60" "no" 1.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "Now in Manhattan."

6c "87-10-29, 2:16:06" 357.460 0.755 "4 Its + windows"

"red, white" "180" "no" 1.94E-2 0.00 1.000

"Row of red warning Its + some windows, nr top of World Trade."

& "87-10-29, 2:20:23" 358.400 0.395 "lited crown bldg"

"whitish" "60" "no" 8.02E-2 0.00 1.000 " Cone shaped."

6c "87-10-29, 2:23:00" 358.495 -0.030 "9 streetlight"

"orange" "180" "no" 6.90E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:24:39" 358.930 -0.025 "14 streetlights"

"orange" "180" "no" 4.20E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:26:16" 358.965 0.205 "4 Its"

"orange" "60" "no" 2.21E-1 0.00 1.000 "high on building."

6c "87-10-29, 2:28:13" 359.410 -0.015 "group"

"orange" "60" "no" 6.70E-2 0.00 1.000 "streetlights."

6c "87-10-29, 2:29:38" 359.735 -0.070 "streetlights"

"orange" "60" "no" 3.40E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:32:38" 359.880 -0.030 "streetlights"

"orange" "60" "no" 1.95E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:35:14" 0.630 -0.055 "1 streetlight"

"orange" "60" "no" 6.65E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:36:55" 0.850 0.195 "light atop bldg"

"whitish" "60" "no" 6.50E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:40:43" 0.870 -0.055 "streetlights"

"orange" "60" "no" 1.90E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:42:16" 1.165 -0.050 "streetlights"

"orange" "180" "no" 6.20E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:45:06" 1.485 -0.050 "streetlights"

"6 orange, 1 whts" "180" "no" 3.40E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-29, 2:51:15" 1.965 0.290 "It on bldg"

11
ft tl IV &

orange" "60"

"87-10-29,

"orange" "60"

"no" 12.60E-2 0.00 1.000

2:53:00" 2.085 0.610 "Empre St 1 It"

"no" 6.65E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

2.2.4. File GOVISL.002 10-20-87 4:43a. This first night on Governor's

Island served as a shakedown for our measuring techniques . Some time was spent

just in finding a light to calibrate on. As indicated in the comments , many of

the measurements were taken through one or another window pane. Apart from the

obvious loss of light to reflection at the surfaces of the glass, varying with

the angle of incidence , this was terribly unsatisfactory because of the

distortion of images. The Cassegrain objective lens has an entrance pupil

perhaps 250 times larger than that of the unaided eye; the window pane's

undulations over this area distort a point source into an unrecognizable shape.

In the analysis in Chapter 3, these data are not lumped with the better data

taken on later nights. Height of eye for this location was taken to be 77

feet

.

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-roora 516 There: Battery Light " "Serial: 99998 Chr: NA Serial: 15 Chr: Iso R 6s

"Loc: 40° 41 ! 247 N 74° 1!493 W Loc: 40° 421017 N 74° 01928 W

"Vector, Az : 29° 51733 E of N, Alt: - 0° 401878, Dist: 0.9 naut. mi."

Sc "87-10-20, 2:38:19" 29.095 -0.680 "Battery red light iso 6s"

"red" "6" "yes" 10.00E1 6.00 0.500

"Time on = 3s, lum . value is during on-segment of cycle."

6c "87-10-20, 2:52:19" 29.095 -0.680 "Battery red light iso 6s"

"red" "2" "yes" 2 . 60E2 6.00 0.500

"Time on = 3s, lum. value is during on-segment of cycle. Note better overfill."

Sc "87-10-20, 3:11:55" 24.535 -0.595 "Typical orange streetlight (Na?)"

"orange" "2" "yes" 1 . 30E3 0 . 00 1 . 000

"Many of these lights in the battery. Reading fluctuates 1-1.6"

6c "87-10-20, 3:16:37" 24.535 -0 . 595* "Typical orange streetlight (Na?)"

"orange" "6" "yes" 6 . 00E2 0.00 1.000 "Same as prev. , still appears to fill."

6c "87-10-20, 3:18:19" 24.535 -0.595 "Typical orange streetlight (Na?)"

"orange" "20" "no" 7.17E1 0.00 1.000 "NOW, the dot eclipses the light"

6c "87-10-20, 3:22:38" 23.880 -0.545 "Streetlight with branch"

"orange" "20" "no" 3.30E1 0.00 1.000 "NOW, the dot eclipses the light"

6* "87-10-20, 3:50:34" 344.630 -0.080 "2 Na lamps in Jersey"

"orange" "60" "no" 13.50E-1 0.00 1.000 "Through the window pane."

6c "87-10-20, 4:10:06" 350.260 1.075 "1 light atop bldg"

"red" "2" "yes" 0.04E2 0.00 1.000

"Through the window pane, ' nearly' fills aperture."

6c "87-10-20, 4:13:52" 350.355 1.075 "1 light atop bldg"

"red" "2" "yes" 0

.

04E2 0.00 1.000

"Through the window pane, 'nearly' fills aperture. Next in row,"

6c "87-10-20, 4:16:20" 350.530 1.075 "1 light atop bldg"

"red" "2" "yes" 0.04E2 0.00 1.000

"Through the window pane, 'nearly' fills aperture. Next in row,"

6c "87-10-20, 4:17:18" 350.660 1,075 "1 light atop bldg"

"red" "2" "yes" 0.04E2 0,00 1.000

"Through the window pane, 'nearly' fills aperture. Next in row."

12
& "87-10-20, 4:18:28" 350,900 1.075 "1 light atop bldg"

"red" "2" "yes" 0.04E2 0.00 1.000

"Through the window pane, 'nearly' fills aperture. Next in row."

& "87-10-20, 4:20:34" 350.205 0.585 "Avg lum of 7 stories"

"yellowish" "180" "no" 0.55E-1 0.00 1.000 "Average lum. of bldg.

6c "87-10-20, 4:25:52" 349.565 0.585 "Avg lum of 8 stories"

"yellowish" "180" "no" 0.62E-1 0.00 1.000 "Average lum. of bldg.

& "87-10-20, 4:33:37" 349.680 -0.085 "2 of row of lights"

"orange" "60' 'no" 0.83E0 0.00 1.000 "Average lum. of 2 lamps."

Thru pane .

Thru pane .

6c "87-10-20, 4:37:41" 349.680 -0.225 "Water reflection of previous"

"yes" 0.14E0 0.00 1.000 "Not a sharp image, right?"

4:40:21" 349.515 -0.080 "2 lamps (street?)"

"no" 1.32E0 0.00 1.000 "Through window, avg lum 2 lights."

"orange" "60'

6c "87-10-20,

"orange" "60'

2.2.5. File GOVISL.003 10-21-87 4:45a. This second night, we stopped

looking through the window glass, but it was raining. This is also a poor way

to take data, and these numbers should be considered as a separate group from

those taken under clear conditions . The remainder of the nights Wednesday

,

Thursday , and Friday were fortunately clear. Note that the formula given for

point source calibration is NOT CORRECT. It has the right form, but the wrong

constant in front. See Section 4.4 for a discussion of point source

measurements

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-room 516 There: Battery Light " "Serial: 99998 Chr: NA Serial: 15 Chr: Iso R 6s

"Loc: 40° 411247 N 74° 1 ! 4 9 3 W Loc : 40° 421017 N 74° 01928 W

"Vector, Az : 29° 51733 E of N, Alt: - 0° 401878, Dist: 0.9 naut. mi."

6c "87-10-20, 20:38:12" 16.070 3.620 "1 It of horiz row atop bldg"

"white" "6" "no" 18.00E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt source calib! Illuminance = 0.00023 *(lum rdg) ; No window glass. W of

Worl"

6c "87-10-20, 20:44:22" 16.070 3.590 "1 It of horiz row of 24, lower."

"white" "6" "no" 3

20E0 0.00 1.000

"Pt source calib! Illuminance = 0.00023 *(lum rdg) ; No wndo gls; E side of

bldg"

6c "87-10-20, 20:48:11" 15.825 3.640 "1 It of horiz row, S side bldg."

"white" "6" "no" 10.00E0 0.00 1.000 "Pt srce calib!; No wndo gls;"

6c "87-10-20, 20:50:00" 15.825 3.640 "Same light, different ap"

"white" "20" "no" 11.70E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt srce calib!; No wndo gls; ilium = 0.00023 * rdg * (20/6)

A 2"

6c "87-10-20, 20:56:32" 15.670 3.675 "Upper row, fcng S, 1 of 24"

"white" "6" "no" 8.30E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt srce calib!; No wndo gls; ilium = 0.00023 * rdg"

6c "87-10-20, 20:58:57" 15.670 3.675 "Same It, 1 of 24"

"white" "20" "no" 1.16E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt srce calib!; No wndo gls; ilium = 0.00023 * rdg * (20/6)

A 2"

6c "87-10-20, 21:07:56" 16.415 2.450 "Brt isolated It (wndo?)"

"white" "2" "yes" 10.00E1 0.00 1.000 "Pt srce calib!; (incorrect appl.)"

6c "87-10-20, 21:10:49" 16.415 2.450 "Brt isolated It (wndo?)"

"white" "6" "yes" 3.00E1 0.00 1.000

f

13
"Pt srce calib!; light ALMOST fills aperture."

& "87-10-20, 21:12:23" 16.415 2.450 "Brt isolated It (vmdo?)"

"white" "20" "no" 3.67E0 0.00 1.000

"Pt srce calib!; It DOES NOT fill ap ; but slight add' 1 It reflected from

windows?

& "87-10-20, 21:14:29" 16.415 2.450 "Brt isolated It (wndo?)"

"white" "60" "no" 3.90E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt srce calib!; It DOES NOT fill ap ; rdg now more stable over time."

^''Calibration : " "Here: High rise #877-room 516 There: Battery Light " "Serial: 99998 Chr: NA Serial: 15 Chr: Iso R 6s " "Loc: 40° 41 ! 247 N 74° 1 ! 493 W Loc : 40° 42!017 N 74° 0!928 W

"Vector, Az : 29° 5 ! 7 3 3 E of N, Alt: - 0° 40!878, Dist: 0.9 naut. mi."

& "87-10-20, 21:59:59" 16.415 2.450 "Brt isolated It"

"white" "180" "no" 6.52E-2 0.00 1.000

"Last of test series - stepping aperture."

6c "87-10-20, 23:01:31" 14.960 2.830 "Window as pt src"

"white" "20" "no" 8.45E-2 0.00 1.000

"All windows on this bldg look yellowish; tinted glass?"

6c "87-10-20, 23:07:55" 14.955 2.505 "Another wndo as pt src"

"white (yellowish" "20" "no" 12.83E-2 0.00 1.000

"All windows on this bldg look yellowish and alike."

6c "87-10-20, 23:14:28" 14.795 2.305 "A brighter wdo as pt src"

"white (yellowish" "20" "no" 6.78E-1 0.00 1.000

"All windows on this bldg look brighter. Ilium = rdg * .00023 * (20/6)

A 2 we

thin"

6c "87-10=20 , 23:19:10" 14.790 2.870 "2d wdo, same bldg"

"white (yellowish" "20" "no" 9.80E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still all data this evening taken with the pt src calibration,"

6c "87-10-20, 23:27:08" 14.715 -0.400 "Streetlight"

"white (Hg?)" "60" "no" 12.45E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still all data this evening taken with the pt src calibration. Clearly see

glob"

6c "87-10-20, 23:32:07" 14.675 -0,325 "Streetlight"

"white (Na?)" "20" "no" 6.69E1 0.00 1.000

"Lt almost fills aprt . Still pt source!"

6c "87-10-20, 23:39:47" 20.645 -0.550 "Streetlight"

"white (Na?)" "60" "no" 2.09E0 0.00 1.000

"Well defined in telescope; 27 of these in a row in Battery Park,"

6c "87-10-20, 23:44:28" 21.620 -0.575 "Streetlight"

"white (Na?)" "60" "no" 4.49E0 0.00 1.000 "Another of the 27."

6c "87-10-20, 23:52:42" 16,280 -0.420 "Fluor It in window"

"white (greenish?" "20" "no" 9.11E-1 0.00 1.000

"To the naked eye, this looks like it might be a green nav. aid!"

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877 -room 516 There: East twin stack

"Serial: 99998 Chr: NA Serial: 17 Chr: Dark

"Loc: 40° 41 ! 247 N 74° 1 ! 493 W Loc: 40 e 42!857 N 74° 2!120 W

"Vector, Az: 343 e 331267 E of N, Alt: 0

e 6!924 s Dist: 1,7 naut. mi."

6c "87-10-21, 0:42:04" 343,630 0.550 "Isolated It nr E twin stack"

"yellowish" "20" "no" 5.84E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still pt src calib. Altitude zeroed by spirit level just previously."

14
& "87-10-21, 0:58:53" 6.055 0.060 "Highway It in haze"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 2.65E-2 0.00 1.000

"Steady drizzle puts this light in haze. Apparently a highway up the Jersey

shor " & "87-10-21, 1:02:44" 5.630 0.055 "Brighter It in same string"

"orange (Na?)" "60" "no" 3.61E-2 0.00 1.000

"Steady drizzle puts this light in haze. Apparently a highway up the Jersey

shor"

6c "87-10-21, 1:11:04" 0.450 0.405 "Bright It in Jersey"

"white" "60" "no" 19.80E-1 0.00 1.000

"Shower is blowing away; still pt src calib."

& "87-10-21, 1:15:44" 358.030 0.010 "Lt on Jersey shore"

"green" "20" "no" 7.66E-1 0.00 1.000

"Shower is blowing away; still pt src calib."

6c "87-10-21, 1:21:11" 357.395 0.000 "Lt on Jersey shore"

'20" "no" 17.96E-2 0.00 1.000 "Still not clear; pt src cal."

38" 349.760 -0.045 "Na streetlight"

1 "no" 2.34E0 0.00 1.000

pt src, no glass; same lt last nt thru glass."

23" 349.680 -0.040 "Na streetlight"

1 "no" 10.54E-1 0.00 1.000

pt src, no glass; same lt last nt thru glass."

29" 349.570 -0.040 "Na streetlight"

' "no" 2.25E0 0.00 1.000 "Drizzle; another in a row."

;55" 349.535 -0.040 "Na streetlight"

' "no" 17.52E-1 0.00 1.000 "Drizzle; another in a row."

:46" 349.480 -0.040 "2 streetlts seen as 1"

1 "no" 2.57E-1 0.00

349.395 -0.040

>" 4.63E-1 0.00

349.330 -0.040

"greenish white" '

6c "87-10-21, 1:30:

"orange (Na)" "20'

"Still drizzling;

6c "87-10-21, 1:34

"orange (Na)" "20'

"Still drizzling;

& "87-10-21, 1:36

"orange (Na)" "20'

& "87-10-21, 1:37

"orange (Na)" "20'

6c "87-10-21, 1:39

"orange (Na)" "60'

6c "87-10-21, 1:41:49"

"orange (Na)" "60" "m

6c "87-10-21, 1:43:39"

"orange (Na)" "20" "n<

6c "87-10-21, 1:46:22"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7

"Still in row near water.

6c "87-10-21, 2:09:19" 349

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 3

"Still in row near water.

6c "87-10-21, 2:11:35" 349

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2

"Still in row near water.

6c "87-10-21, 2:13:26" 349

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 3

"Still in row near water.

6c "87-10-21, 2:14:50" 349

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 3

"Still in row near water.

1.000 "Lts overlap in this view."

"3 streetlts as 1"

1.000 "Lts overlap in this view."

"1 streetlight"

" 11.29E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still in row near water."

349.245 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

" 7.65E-1 0.00 1.000

Rain picking up. May quit for night."

175 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

32E0 0.00 1.000

Rain letting up; note time gap

125 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

79E0 0.00 1.000

Rain letting up."

090 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

89E0 0.00 1.000

Rain letting up."

100 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

89E0 0.00 1.000

Rain letting up."

Pt src cal .

6c "87-10-21, 2:15:52" 349.075 -0.040 "2 streetlts as 1"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 10.37E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain letting up."

6c "87-10-21, 2:17:18" 349.045 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 3.01E0 0.00 1.000

( 15
"Still in row near water. Rain letting up."

& "87-10-21, 2:18:47" 348.990 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7.75E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain letting up."

& "87-10-21, 2:20:32" 348.925 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 18.20E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain letting up."

& "87-10-21, 2:21:58" 348.920 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "6" "yes" 18.43E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain letting up."

& "87-10-21, 2:23:32" 348.875 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2 . 94E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has nearly stopped."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:26:07" 348.825 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 8.00E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain getting heavier."

& "87-10-21, 2:32:58" 348.725 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 11.83E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:34:27" 348.665 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.70E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

6c "87-10-21, 2:35:52" 348.620 -0.035 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2 . 96E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:37:04" 348.500 -0.035 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 12.22E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:38:23" 348.450 -0.035 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.26E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:39:24" 348.400 -0.035 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.27E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21 , 2:41:07" 348.290 -0.035 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 12.38E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:42:35" 348.250 -0.030 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.37E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:43:50" 348.205 -0.030 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 12.63E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:45:31" 348.085 -0.030 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 11.15E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:47:07" 348.045 0.085 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 16.62E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

Sc "87-10-21, 2:48:33" 347.990 -0.030 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.69E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

16
& "87-10-21, 2:50:18" 347.880 -0.030 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na) " "20" "no" 11.09E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

6c "87-10-21, 2:52:03" 347.765 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 11.94E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:53:13" 347.580 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 17.24E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

6c "87-10-21, 2:54:33" 347.480 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.08E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:58:04" 347.425 0.070 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7.01E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 2:59:39" 347.385 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2 . 34E0 0.00 1.000

"Still in row near water. Rain has let up again."

& "87-10-21, 3:01:49" 347.375 -0.070 "1 streetlight"

"white (Hg?)" "20" "no" 4.22E0 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src !

6c "87-10-21, 3:03:50" 347.300 -0.040 "2 streetlts as 1"

"orange (Na?)" "60" "no" 8.99E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:05:58" 347.195 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 6.08E0 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:07:26" 347.135 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 6.25E0 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:08:30" 347.085 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 3.57E0 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:09:32" 346.970 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 12.15E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:10:52" 346.890 -0.040 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 3.57E0 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:11:56" 346.900 0.085 "1 streetlight"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 11.09E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still near water. Pt src!"

6c "87-10-21, 3:13:43" 347.040 0.660 "bright It on bldg"

"orange (Na?)" "20" "no" 7.68E-1 0.00 1.000

"Up away from the water now. Little rain."

6c "87-10-21, 3:17:22" 346.680 0.755 "window (?) in vert line of 8"

"yellow (incand)" "6" "no" 3 . 94E0 0.00 1.000

"Up away from the

6c "87-10-21, 3:20

"white (Hg)" "20"

"Up away from the

& "87-10-21, 3:22

"white (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-21, 3:24

"white (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-21, 3:25

"white (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-21, 3:26

"white (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-21, 3:28

water now. Little

56" 346.855 -0.015

"no" 9.71E-1 0.00

water now. Little

49" 346.790 -0.020

"no" 10.68E-1 0.00

42" 346.795 0.025

"no" 2.65E0 0.00 1 51" 346.675 0.025

"no" 2.99E0 0 . 00 1 55" 346.680 -0.025

"no" 9.21E-1 0.00

14" 346.575 0.020

rain.

"bldg light"

1.000

rain.

"bldg light"

1.000 "" "bldg light"

.000 "Same bldg."

"bldg light"

.000 "Same bldg."

"bldg light"

1.000 "Same bldg."

"bldg light"

17
"white (Hg)" "20" "no"

& "87-10-21, 3:29:40"

"white (Hg)" "20" "no"

6c O CM H

I""- OO 3:31 CM oo

II greenish wht (Hg "20

& "87-10-21, 3:34 34"

II greenish wht (Hg "60

6c "87-10-21, 3:38 28"

II orange (Na)" "60 "no

6c "87-10-21 , 3:43 37"

II greenish wht (Hg "20

& "87-10-21, 3:46 18"

If orange (Na)" "20 "no

& "87-10-21, 3:49 09"

If orange (Na)" "20 "no

6c "87-10-21, 3:50 47"

II orange (Na)" "20 "no

& "87-10-21, 3:53 21"

It orange (Na)" "20 "no

& "87-10-21, 3:55 51"

VV orange (Na)" "20 "no

& "87-10-21, 3:57 47"

"greenish (Hg??)" "20"

& "87-10-21, 4:01:09"

"orangish red (Ne" "20

2.71E0 0.00 1.000 "Same bldg."

346.575 -0.025 "bldg light"

2.84E0 0.00 1.000 "Same bldg."

346.605 -0.010 "bldg light"

" "no" 11.44E-1 0.00 1.000 "Same bldg."

346.225 -0.045 "outdoor light"

" "no" 2.73E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 345.795 0.270 "outdoor light"

" 9.90E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 345.415 0.060 "outdoor light on bldg"

" "no" 2.14E-1 0.00 1.000 "one of several on bldg

345.245 -0.055 "outdoor light on bldg"

" 3.66E0 0.00 1.000 "another of several"

345.060 -0.065 "outdoor light on bldg"

" 6.29E0 0.00 1.000 "another of several on bldg"

345.040 0.040 "outdoor light on bldg"

" 2.09E0 0.00 1.000 "another of several on bldg"

344.620 -0.040 "outdoor light on bldg"

" 3.23E0 0.00 1.000 "another of several on bldg"

344.560 -0.040 "outdoor light on bldg"

" 12.56E-1 0.00 1.000 "another of several on bldg

344.435 0.010 "outdoor light on bldg"

"no" 4.65E0 0.00 1.000 "" 344.440 0.625 "Neon clock line @ 6 o'clock"

" "no" 8.40E-2 0.00 1.000

fl

»l

"Clock has lines not numerals. Pt src cal & msmt."

& "87-10-21, 4:04:28" 344

"white" "60" "no" 7.46E-2

"no 1 343

"no 1 343

"no 1 342

"no'

342

"no

342

"no

341

"no

341

"no

340

"no

340

"no

340

it 2

6c "87-10-21 , 4:09 : 46"

r1 greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21 , 4:11 : 47"

!1'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21 , 4:13 :46"

f 'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21 , 4:15 : 32"

t'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21 4:17 : 46"

r'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21 , 4:20 : 37"

f 'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21., 4:22 : 07"

« 'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21., 4:23 : 09"

r1 greenish (Hg?)" "20"

& "87-10-21., 4:26 : 26"

i 'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

& "87-10-21., 4:28 : 57"

?'greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-21., 4:31 : 19"

9 ‘orange (Na?" "20 " "no

6c "87-10-21., 4:33 : 21

f 'greenish (Hg)" " 20" "

735 0.690 "letter 'ate' of Colgate billboar"

0.00 1.000 "Billboard has 1 word Colgate."

150 0.005 "outdoor light"

3.65E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 540 0.035 "outdoor light"

4.63E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 135 0.035 "outdoor light"

18 . 9QE-2 0.00 1.000 "" 675 0.065 "outdoor light"

2.57E0 0.00 1.000 "" 395 0.065 "outdoor light"

1 2.08E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 125 0.105 "outdoor light"

; 18.51E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 765 0.070 "outdoor light"

1 19.13E-2 0.00 1.000 "" 535 0.025 "outdoor light"

1 15.00E-2 0.00 1.000 "" 825 0.135 "light on pole"

1 2.32E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 775 0.090 "light on pole"

1 14.46E-2 0.00 1.000 "" 355 0.010 "outdoor light"

26E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 320 0.115 "outdoor light"

2.27E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

18
& ”87-10-21, 4:35:11" 340.235 0.145 "outdoor light"

"greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 6.44E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 4:37:00" 340.125 0.120 "outdoor light"-

"greenish (Hg) " "20" "no" 12.43E-2 0.00 :_.000 "Still pt src cal."

6c "87-10-21, 4:38:22" 340.120 0.015 "outdoor light"

"orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.22E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still pt src cal."

6c "87-10-21, 4:40:20" 338.715 0.115 "outdoor light"

"greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 1.11E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still pt src cal."

6c "87-10-21, 4:42:28" 338.140 0.235 "backlighted clock as pt src"

"white" "180" "no" 10.44E-2 0.00 1.000 "Still pt src cal."

2.2.6. File GOVISL.004 10-22-87 3:35a. Avoiding Che shots through the

window pane means that we must aim our fat telescope through the narrow open

windows of the apartment we're using; only a narrow sector of the horizon can

he sighted from a given tripod position . To get started on this file, we had

to use a trick method of calibration , as the comment lines note:

Calibration done by a secondary std based on last night's data when

*we were calib'd on the red light at the Battery. See handwritten notes.

*1987 Oct 21, 19:59

6c "87-10-21, 20:07:10" 11.730 -0.320 "6 Streetlights in a row as pt"

"Whitish (Hg?)" "60" "no" 3.13EO 0.00 1.000

”W side Manhattan along roadway near water."

6c "87-10-21, 20:12:50" 11.640 -0.295 "10 streelts in a row as pt"

"Whitish (Hg?)" "60" "no" 3.12E0 0.00 1.000

"W side Manhattan along roadway near water. Clear nt. Pt src cal since start."

6c "87-10-21, 20:18:45" 11,570 -0.280 "5 streetlts in a row as pt"

"Whitish (Hg?)" "60" "no" 13.71E-1 0.00 1.000

"W side Manhattan along roadway near water. Clear nt . Pt src cal since start."

6c "87-10-21, 20:21:16" 11.480 -0.265 "5 streetlts in a row as pt"

"Whitish (Hg?)" "60" "no" 11.57E-1 0.00 1.000

"W side Manhattan along roadway near water. Clear nt. Pt src cal since start."

6c "87-10-21, 20:23:24" 11.275 -0.255 "2 streetlts"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 5.45E-1 0.00 1.000 "Near water on Manhattan W side."

6c "87-10-21, 20:27:17" 11.035 0.010 "1 streetlt on high pole"

"Orange (Na) " "60" "no" 2.14E0 0.00 1.000 "Near water on Manhattan W side."

6c "87-10-21, 20:30:54" 11.315 0.085 "Strip of fluorescents as pt"

"White" "180" "no" 15.50E-2 0.00 1.000

"Recall ilium = 0.00023 * rdg * (180/6)

A 2."

6c "87-10-21, 20:42:22" 10.070 -0.060 "Front ct of apt bldg as pt"

"Orange & White" "60" "no" 9.42E-1 0.00 1.000

"Recall ilium = 0.00023 * rdg * (180/6)

A 2. A sodium and a mercury."

6c "87-10-21, 20:55:13" 9.365 0.035 "Streetlight, 1st in a row"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 11.00E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 20:58:50" 9.275 0.025 "Streetlight, next in row"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 5.45E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:00:15" 9.150 0.025 "Streetlight, next in row"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 8.06E-1 0.00 1.000 "Following roadway in Jersey."

6c "87-10-21, 21:01:49" 9.180 0.110 "Streetlight, parallel road"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 1.87E-1 0.00 1.000 "Road in back of 'orange' road."

6c "87-10-21, 21:04:00" 9.015 0.010 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.65E-1 0.00 1.000 "Back on orange road."

19
& "87-10-21, 21:05:53" 8.960 0.130 "Streetlight"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 1.92E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:07:30" 8.855 0.020 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.45E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:09:16" 8.685 0.020 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.18E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:12:23" 8.310 0.020 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 5.13E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:13:49" 8.110 0.020 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.96E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:15:07" 7.920 0.030 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 5.63E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:19:41" 7.710 0.030 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7.25E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:21:14" 7.505 0.030 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 5.30E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:22:21" 7.380 0.165 "Streetlight"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 18.00E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:25:08" 7.340 0.030 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 6.60E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:27:28" 7.230 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 9.00E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:29:10" 7.115 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 6.Q8E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:31:21" 6.990 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na) " "20" "no" 7.44E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-21, 21:32:18" 6.860 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 6.02E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:33:59" 6.765 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7.55E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:35:15" 6.680 0.025 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 7.01E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:36:35" 6.625 0.035 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 5.28E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:39:55" 6.510 0.010 "2 streetlights as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 4.10E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:42:51" 6.445 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 6.72E0 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:44:40" 6.365 0.025 "3 streetlights as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 3.40E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-21, 21:46:42" 6.300 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 12.75E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 21:48:53" 6.225 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 8.09E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 21:50:01" 6.155 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.92E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 21:51:19" 6.085 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 6.35E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 21:53:06" 6.000 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 2.82E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 21:54:18" 5.925 0.025 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na) " "20" "no" 4.25E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

20
& "87-10-21, 21:56:02" 5.840 0.015 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 13.25E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

& "87-10-21, 21:57:02" 5.755 0.015 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 8.87E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

& "87-10-21, 22:00:30" 5.590 -0.005 "1 strtlt + another bright 1"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 4.16E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:36:53" 5.515 0.035 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 9.90E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:39:32" 5.420 0.035 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 1.59E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:41:42" 5.235 0.040 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na) " "20" "no" 5.19E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:43:22" 5.145 0.040 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 16.00E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:45:45" 5.050 0.040 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 13.00E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:47:37" 4.965 0.040 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 4.33E0 0.00 1.000

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson. Still clear out."

6c "87-10-21, 22:49:43" 4.880 0.040 "2 streetlights as a pt"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 8.50E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:51:36" 4.770 0.040 "2 streetlights as a pt"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 11.65E-2 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:53:29" 4.620 0.025 "2 streetlights as a pt"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 13.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:55:07" 4.540 0.050 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 11.24E-1 0.00 1,000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:57:21" 4.000 0.050 "1 streetlight"

"White (Hg)" "20" "no" 1 . 88E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 22:59:28" 3.845 0.040 "1 streetlight"

"White (Hg)" "20" "no" 3.82E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "$7-10-21, 23:01:18" 3.500 0.035 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 9.25E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:07:20" 3.865 0.365 "2 streetlights"

"Orange + Greenis" "60" "no" 6.00E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:09:30" 3.985 0.340 "3 streetlights"

"Greenish (Hg)" "60" "no" 1.17E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:10:50" 4.195 0.345 "1 streetlight"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 1.62E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:13:32" 4.400 0.360 "2 streetlights"

"Greenish (Hg)" "60" "no" 1.81E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:15:08" 4.495 0.360 "3 streetlights"

"Greenish (Hg)" "60" "no" 1.37E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson. Still clear. Still pt src cal."

6c "87-10-21, 23:17:29" 4.570 0.315 "3 streetlights"

"Greenish (Hg)" "60" "no" 1.51E-1 0.00 1.000

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson. Atmospheric fluctuations have dropped =>

steadier"

6c "87-10-21, 23:19:49" 4.755 0.320 "1 streetlight"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20" "no" 2.61E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

6c "87-10-21, 23:22:38" 4.920 0.310 "cluster of streetlights"

21
"White (Hg) " "60"

& "87-10-21

"Red" "20"

& "87-10-21

"Red" "20"

6c "87-10-21

"Red" "20"

6c "87-10-21

"Red" "20"

6c "87-10-21

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no"

6c "87-10-21, 23:47:26" 1 'Greenish (Hg)" "60"

"87-10-21, 23:49:31

'Greenish (Hg)" "60"

"87-10-21, 23:50:55

'Greenish (Hg)" "60"

no" 5.21E-1 0.00 1.000

27:58" 6.340 0.635 "marker

5.42E-2 0.00 1.000 "Still

31:31" 6.380 0.635 "marker

5.59E-2 0.00 1.000

33:06" 6.415 0.625

7.22E-2 0.00 1.000

445 0.625

0.00 1.000

860 0.045

2.99E-1 0.

605 0.310

no" 2.44E-1

1.450 0.260

23

'no 1 23

'no'

23

'no'

23:34:17" 6

'no" 7.22E-2

23:43:28" 1

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

It atop bldg"

Jersey shore of Hudson."

It atop bldg"

Jersey shore of Hudson."

It atop bldg"

Jersey shore of Hudson."

It atop bldg"

Jersey shore of Hudson."

"cluster of highway lights"

00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson,

"cluster of highway lights"

"Still

'marker

"Still

'marker

"Still

6c "87-10 -21, 23 : 53

:

29"

t 'White (Hg)" It 60" "no"

6c "87-10 -21, 23 : 56

:

55"

t 'Orange (Na) tt "60'1 "no

6c "87-10 "21, 23 : 59

:

27"

t'Orange (Na) tt "60'' "no

6c "87-10 -22, 0 : 01

:

02"

t’Orange (Na) tt "20’' "no

6c "87-10 -22, 0 : 02

:

53"

t 'Orange (Na) tt "20'' "no

& "87-10 -22, 0 : 06

:

06"

1 'Orange (Na) tt ”20'' "no

& "87-10 -22, 0 : 12

:

: 04"

t'White (Na)" n 60" "no"

& "87-10 -22, 0 : 31

:

; 11"

no" 2

1.365

no" 1 1.365

69E-1

0.240

03E-1

0.115

0.00 1.000

"cluster 3

0.00 1.000

"cluster 3

0.00 1.000

"cluster 3

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson,

hway Its"

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson,

hway Its"

"Still Jersey shore of Hudson

hway Its"

6.74E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

1.165 0.195 "cluster 4-5 hway Its"

" 13.82E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

1.025 0.035 "2 hway Its as pt"

" 6.73E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

0.875 0.045 "1 hway It"

Jersey shore of Hudson."

0

0

"Still

It"

"Still

It"

"Still

Jersey shore of Hudson

Jersey shore of Hudson,

2.22E0 0.00 1.000

710 0.065 "1 hway

1.44E0 0.00 1.000

375 0.065 "1 hway

" 1.36E0 0.00 1.000

0.400 0.375 "1 bright It"

3.52E0 0.00 1.000 "Still Jersey shore of Hudson."

0.190 0.385 "Neon sign etc. as pt"

"Orangish Red" "60" "no" 3.18E-1 0.00 1.000

"Eye does not resolve details well, though this looks slightly bigger than a pt

6c "87-10-22 , 0:42:36" 359.615 0.185 "3 window Its, bldg"

"Yellow" "60" "no" 12.38E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-22, 0:46:05" 359.265 0.235 "Lamp on bldg"

"no" 2.24E0 0.00 1.000

clear, still pt src calibration."

358.735 0.450 "Lamp on bldg"

"no" 6.93E-1 0.00 1.000 "" 370 0.460 "Lamp on bldg"

00 1.000 "" "Lamp on bldg"

00 1.000 ""

"Greenish (Hg)" "20"

"Still Jersey, still

6c "87-10-22, 0:48:57"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-22, 0:52:18"

"Greenish (Hg)" "20"

6c "87-10-22, 1:03:16"

"Greenish (Hg) " "20"

6c

358

"no"

358

6c

6c

3 OO 1

I-* o 22, 1 : 06

:

o o Orange (Na) tt "60’' "no

"87-10-22, 1 : 08

:

13"

Orange (Na) tt "20 r' "no

"87-10-22, 1 : 09

:

47"

Orange (Na) tt e CM b’ "no

"87-10-22, 1 : 10

:

54"

358

" 6

358

" 6

358

5.13E-1 0

370 0.460

5.75E-1 0

455 0.180

10

10

68E280

29E210

16.56E-1

"4

0.00 1 170 "1

0,00 1 175 "1

0.00

lights on bldg"

.000 "" light on bldg"

.000 "" light on bldg"

1 . 000 "

358.155 0.185 "1 light on bldg"

22
II II "Orange (Na)" 1

: "87-10-22, 1 "Greenish (Hg)

c "87-10-22, 1 "Greenish (Hg)

20" "no" 14.80E-1 0.00 1.000

14:25" 357.980 -0.015 "1 light on post"

"60" "no" 12.00E-1 0.00 1.000 "Compare to last night"

23:17" 357.355 -0.025 "1 light on bldg"

"20" "no" 15.68E-1 0.00 1.000

"Compare to last night? 1.568(clear) / . 1796 (rainy)

& "87-10-22, 1:33:44" 349.895 -0.070 "Streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 14.51E0 0.00 1.000

"Compare to last night: 14.51(clear) / 2 ,,25 (rainy) " & "87-10-22, 1:51:23" 351.110 1.100 "Marker light on bldg"

"Red" "20" no" 3.94E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 5"

& "87-10-22

"Red" "20" "no

& "87-10-22

"Red" "20"

& "87-10-22

"Red" "20"

& "87-10-22

"Red" "20"

6c "87-10-22

"Red" "20"

6c "87-10-22

1:53:47" 350.870 1.100 "Marker light on bldg"

1 of 5"

1 no 1

1 no'

2

4.08E-1 0.00 1.000

1:54:55" 350.720 1.100 "Marker light on bldg"

no" 2.79E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 5"

1:56:16" 350.540 1.085 "Marker light on bldg"

no" 3.10E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 5"

57:08" 350.445 1.095 "Marker light on bldg"

4.12E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 5"

59:32" 351.180 0.775 "Marker light on bldg"

1.57E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 4"

01:05" 351.290 0.775 "Marker lights on bldg"

"Red" "20" "no" 3.42E-1 0.00 1.000

"2 of 4, only can be resolved through the telescope."

6c "87-10-22, 2:03:13" 351.400 0.775 "Marker lights on bldg"

"Red" "20" "no" 2.14E-1 0.00 1.000 "1 of 4"

6c "87-10-22, 2:27:28" 349.800 0.620 "Windows of bldg in Jersey"

"Yellowish" "180" "yes" 2.42E-1 0.00 1.000

"Now LUMINANCE calib. Lum. = 10*(reading) . Mean over 5 stories of 16-storey

bid"

6c "87-10-22, 2:32:09" 350.445 0.465 "Windows of bldg in Jersey"

"Yellowish" "180" "yes" 1.96E-1 0.00 1.000

"Now LUMINANCE calib. Lum. = 10*(reading) . Mean over 5 stories of different

bid"

6c "87-10-22, 2:40:47" 7.850 0.250 "Windows of bldg in Jersey"

3.19E-1 0.00 1.000

Lum. = 10*(reading) . Mean over 22 stories."

6c "87-10-22, 2:45:28" 8.435 0.260 "Windows of bldg in Jersey"

"Yellowish" "60" "yes" 7.02E-1 0.00 1.000

"Now LUMINANCE calib. Lum. = 10*(reading) . Mean of 5 stories

6c "87-10-22, 2:51:28" 15.165 2.670 "Windows in Manhattan"

"Yellowish" "180" "yes" 8.15E-2 0.00 1.000

"Now LUMINANCE calib. A prominent bldg from here. Avg over 3 stories."

6c "87-10-22, 2:57:25" 4.880 1.225 "Sky in W over Jersey"

"Gray" "180" "yes" 1.00E-2 0.00 1.000 "Now LUMINANCE calib. Just the sky."

"Yellowish" "60" "yes'

"Now LUMINANCE calib

new bldg .

2.2.7. File GOVISL.005 10-23-87 6:27a. Now we move to a more south- looking

apartment in High-rise #877 . Height of eye at this location was taken to be 68

feet. Again, we don't have a documented aid to navigation to calibrate on. We

calibrate for azimuth on the northwest tower of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge,

which is shown clearly on nautical charts, then calibrate for altitude on the

23
roadway of Che bridge, whose height can be estimated because the charts give

the clearance under the span.

0 Later we calibrate on the Robbins Reef Light, a 30-watt bulb, 2.7 nautical

miles toward Staten Island, that flashes one second in six. It took us over an

hour of searching against the background of sodium vapor lights in New Jersey

to spot this lighthouse so that we could calibrate on it. Of course, a mariner

does not have so much time to spot each aid.

&"Calibration:

"Here: High rise #877-room

"Serial: 99997 Chr : NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74°

"Vector, Az : 194° 481462 E

&"Calibration:

"Here: High rise #877-room

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74°

"Vector, Az : 194° 481462 E

6c "87-10-22, 21:48:21" 196.

"Greenish (Hg?)" "20" "no"

"Pt src cal.; ilium =

6c "87-10-22, 21:54:55"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "20"

"Just sample a few of

& "87-10-22, 21:58:55"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-22, 22:02:29"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-22, 22:05:15"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "20"

6c "87-10-22, 22:08:24"

427

11455 W

of N, Alt

427

There: NW light of VZ bridge

Serial: 18 Chr: Iso 2s

Loc: 40° 361255 N 74° 31183 W

0° 451038, Dist: 5.1 naut . mi."

4.50E-1 0

325 0.190

4.94E-1 0

820 0.110

1 Or, 3 Greenish" "60" "no" 5.61E-2

Just something on Staten Island. Pt

There: Cars below NW light VZ

Serial: 19 Chr: Going by

11455 W Loc: 40° 361255 N 74° 31183 W

of N, Alt: 0° 121064, Dist: 5.1 naut. mi."

590 0.175 "Streetlight on VZ bridge"

"no" 6.66E-1 0.00 1.000

0.00023 * rdg * (20/6)

A 2 ; State Isl end of bridge"

196.290 0.235 "Light on cable of VZ"

"no" 14.40E-2 0.00 1.000

these lights on the cable and then on the roadway."

195.945 0.405 "Light on cable of VZ"

"no" 7.00E-2 0 . 00 1.000 "Another sample."

196.040 0.210 "Light on rdway of VZ"

00 1.000 "Another sample."

Light on rdway of VZ"

00 1.000 "Another sample."

4 Its as pt, Stat Isl"

0.00 1.000

src cal 1

196.

"no"

197.

6c "87-10-22, 22:11:40" 198.400 0.005 "1 It"

"Orange (Na)" "20" "no" 18.00E-1 0.00 1.000

"Just something on Staten Island. Pt src cal!"

6c "87-10-22, 22:14:51" 198.970 0.160 "14 Its as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 4.21E0 0.00 1.000

"Just something on Staten Island. Pt src cal!"

6c "87-10-22, 22:18:55" 199.215 0.165 "17 Its as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 4.45E0 0.00 1.000 "All 17 sodium.

6c "87-10-22, 22:23:12" 200.045 0.155 "15 Its as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 3.77E0

6c "87-10-22, 22:25:33" 200.645 0

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no"

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-room

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 41 ! 218 N 74°

"Vector, Az: 194° 48!462 E

6c"Calibration: "

as

0.00 1,000 "All 15 sodium.

155 "17 Its as pt"

3.95E0 0.00 1.000 "All 17 sodium.

427

1 ! 455 W

of N, Alt:

There: Cars

Serial: 19

Loc: 40° 36 ! 255 N

0° 12 ! 064 , Dist:

below NW light VZ

Chr: Going by

74 s 31183

. 1 naut . mi

.

1 W

24
"Here: High rise #877-room 427 There: Cars below NW light VZ

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial: 19 Chr: Going by " "Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W Loc: 40° 361255 N 74° 31183 W

"Vector, Az : 194° 481462 E of N, Alt: 0° 121064, Dist: 5.1 naut. mi."

& "87-10-22, 23:10:36" 198.145 -0.050 "Cluster of 12 as pt"

"Org 6c greenish" "180" "no" 7.86E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island?"

6c "87-10-22, 23:14:52" 198.065 -0.050 "Cluster of 3 as pt"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "180" "no" 5.89E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island!"

6c "87-10-22, 23:18:35" 198.350 -0.060 "Cluster of 6 as pt"

"3 grnsh + 3 orng" "180" "no" 4.59E-2 0.00 1.000

"Pt src calib; Staten Island!"

6c "87-10-22, 23:20:43" 198.615 -0.265 "Cluster of 5 as pt"

"orange" "180" "no" 5.83E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island!"

6c "87-10-22, 23:24:32" 199.975 -0.075 "Cluster of 12 as pt"

"2 Grnsh + 10 Org" "180" "no" 2.85E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt src calib; Staten Island!"

6c "87-10-22, 23:28:42" 201.050 -0.010 "Cluster as pt"

"1 red + Gr + Or" "180" "no" 1.44E-1 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island!"

6c "87-10-22, 23:34:15" 201.275 -0.020 "5 lights"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 1.68E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt src calib; Staten Island. Note that this stuff is some 5 miles away."

6c "87-10-22, 23:38:37" 201.955 -0.030 "Cluster as pt"

"White 6c Orange" "180" "no" 2.63E-1 0.00 1.000

"Pt src calib; Staten Island. Note that this stuff is some 5 miles away."

6c "87-10-22, 23:42:44" 202.575 -0.055 "Cluster of 6 as pt"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 1.03E-1 0.00 1,000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island."

& "87-10-22, 23:47:11" 202.230 -0.215 "2 lamps"

"1 Orang, 1 Grnsh" "60" "no" 1.66E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island."

6c "87-10-22, 23:51:46" 202.695 -0.030 "2 lamps"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 3.12E0 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib; Staten Island."

6c "87-10-23, 0:07:14" 203.800 -0.030 "1 light"

"Greenish (Hg)" "60" "no" 16.63E-1 0.00 1.000

"Last of this series; we're bumping the window frame."

6c"Calibration : " "Here: High rise #877-room 427 There

Liberty's Torch If "Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial : 2 Chr

White? 11 "Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W Loc

40° 411350 N 74° 21700 W

tf "Vector, Az: 277° 571988 E

6c"Calibration: " of N, Alt: 1° 171807, Dist: 1 . 0 naut . mi

If

"Here: High rise #877-room CN There

Robbins Reef Light ft "Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial : 32275 Chr: FI W 6s If "Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W Loc

40° 391400 N 74° 41000 w

tf "Vector, Az: 226° 431766 E

6c"Calibration: " of N, Alt: - . 0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut. mi. If

"Here: High rise #877-room 427 ThereRobbins Reef Light tt "Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial : 32275 Chr: FI W 6s It "Loc: 40° 411218 N. 74° 11455 W Loc

40° 391400 N 74° 41000 w

tf "Vector, Az: 226° 431766 E of N, Alt: - 0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut. mi. ft

6c "87-10-23, 2:53:40" 226.740 -0.080 "Robbins Reef Light"

"White" "60" "no" 10.00E-1 6.00 0.083

"Luminance is peak from oscilloscope. Light is near a streetlight."

6c "87-10-23, 3:11:53" 226.690 -0.015 "Streetlight"

25
"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 3.97E-1 0.00 1.000

"Very near to Robbins Reef light; makes it hard to see."

& "87-10-23, 3:18:38" 234.750 -0.185 "Cluster'of 4"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 8.07E-1 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal."

& "87-10-23, 3:20:59" 234.350 -0.185 "Cluster of 3"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 2.60E0 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal. Somewhere

& "87-10-23, 3:33:31" 231.755 -0.395 "Buoy"

"Red" "60" "no" 14.00E-2 4.00 0.125

"Luminance given is peak; it varies as buoy bobs."

& "87-10-23, 3:50:29" 230.980 -0.260 "Buoy"

"Red" "60" "no" 4.00E-2 4.00 0.125

"Luminance given is peak. Apply pt src cal!"

& "87-10-23, 3:53:54" 230.260 -0.095 "2 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 3.92E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 3:56:39" 229.935 -0.070 "4 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 9.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 3:58:42" 229.050 -0.075 "3 streetlights as pt

"2 Or, 1 greenish" "180" "no" 5.78E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:00:39" 228.065 -0.070 "4 streetlights as pt

"3 Or, 1 greenish" "180" "no" 3.13E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:02:00" 227,335 -0.070 "4 streetlights as pt

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 10.02E-2 0.00 1.000 "" &"Calibration:

in Jersey.

"Here: High rise #877-room 427 There: Robbins Reef Light " "Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial: 32275 Chr: FI W 6s

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W Loc : 40° 391400 N 74° 4!000 W

"Vector, Az : 226° 431766 E of N, Alt: - 0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut. mi."

& "87-10-23, 4:28:15" 226.990 -0.135 "1 streetlight"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 16.00E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:30:48" 226.625 0,185 "7 streetlights as pt"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 5.52E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:32:37" 226.340 0.185 "Cluster of 10"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 7.02E-2 0.00 1,000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:35:03" 226.180 0.325 "Cluster of 3"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.43E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:36:51" 225.935 -0.075 "Cluster of 3"

"Orange" "180" "no" 8.53E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:38:10" 225.890 0.115 "Cluster of 5"

"Greenish" "180" "no" 4.73E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:39:15" 225.690 -0.050 "2 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 2.20E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:40:27" 225.480 -0.005 "3 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 7.18E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:42:28" 225.540 0.125 "2 streetlights"

"Greenish" "60" "no" 1.25E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:44:38" 225.205 -0.060 "several lights"

"Greenish + Orang" "180" "no" 7.02E-2 0.00 1,000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:47:06" 224.855 -0.015 "6 Its on a pole"

"Orange (Na) " "180" "no" 3.33E-1 0,00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:51:40" 224,460 -0.030 "5 Its on a pole"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 7.40E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:53:33" 224.300 0.245 "3 lights"

26
If It "2 Or + 1 Gre" "180" "no" 2.67E-2 0.00 1.000

6c "87-10-23, 4:55:25" 224.150 -0.035 "1 light"

"Orange" "60" "no" 5.04E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 4:57:37" 223.910 0.185 "6 Its on bldg"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.13E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 4:59:18" 223.800 -0.010 "2 Its"

"Orange" "60" "no" 2.43E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 5:02:29" 223.385 -0.035 "9 streetlights"

"Orange" "180" "no" 15.63E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 5:04:21" 223.075 -0.055 "5 streetlights"

"Orange" "180" "no" 13.34E-2 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 5:07:08" 222.515 -0.020 "9 streetlights"

"Orange" "180" "no" 2.18E-1 0.00 1.000 "" & "87-10-23, 5:09:47" 222.285 -0.060 "8 streetlights"

"4 Orang, 4 grnsh" "180" "no" 8.67E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:11:40" 222.080 -0.060 "2 streetlights"

"2 Greenish (rig" "60" "no" 11.66E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:16:28" 221.715 0.020 "7 streetlights"

"4 Oran, 3 grnsh" "180" "no" 9.15E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c " 8 7 - ? 0 - 2 3 , 5:18:23" 221.420 0.020 "12 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 2.65E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:20:41" 221.050 0.020 "11 lights"

"10 Ora + 1 red" "180" "no" 1.26E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:23:50" 220.970 0.300 "Sign clock, Chemica Bank"

"White + red" "180" "no" 3.47E0 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:27:48" 220.795 -0.160 "6 lights"

"yellowish (inc?)" "60" "no" 4.14E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:30:17" 220.655 0.000 "7 lights"

"orange (Na)" "180" "no" 10.30E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:31:47" 220.100 0.000 "6 lights"

"orange (Na)" "180" "no" 5.52E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:33:59" 219.935 0.035 "6 lights"

"orange (Na)" "180" "no" 5.50E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:35:59" 219.315 -0.120 "1 light"

"Greenish (Hg?)" "60" "no" 5.73E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 5:40:02" 218.575 -0.050 "1 light"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 13.00E-1 0.00 1.000

"This whole night has been clear."

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-room 427 There: Robbins Reef Light " "Serial: 99997 Chr: NA Serial: 32275 Chr: FI W 6s

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W Loc : 40° 391400 N 74° 41000 W

"Vector, Az: 226° 431766 E of N, Alt: - 0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut. mi."

6c "87-10-23, 6:12:28" 217.795 -0.160 "3 Its"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 5.13E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 6:14:40" 216.635 -0.160 "5 Its"

"Greenish (Hg)" "180" "no" 2.09E-1 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 6:17:50" 216.350 -0.170 "5 Its"

"Greenish (Hg)" "180" "no" 6.82E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 6:19:29" 215.990 -0.170 "5 Its"

"Greenish (Hg)" "180" "no" 8.35E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

27
II If & "87-10-23, 6:21:26" 215.720 -0.155 "8 Its"

"4 Or, 4 Gr" "180" "no" 12.30E-2 0.00 1.000

& "87-10-23, 6:23:19" 215.430 -0.130 "5 its"

"4 Or, 1 Gr" "180" "no" 5.07E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

6c "87-10-23, 6:25:14" 215.495 0.480 "1 It"

"Greenish" "60" "no" 13.50E-2 0.00 1.000 "resume here; clear night."

2.2.8. File GOVISL.006 10-24-87 12:57a. Just a short night of actual

measurements , and then some calibrations related to picture taking. When you

know exactly where to look, it's not so hard to spot the Robbins Reef Light.

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-room 427 There: Robbins Reef Light " "Serial: 99997 Chr : NA Serial: 32275 Chr : FI W 6s

"Loc: 40° 41 ! 218 N 74° 1 ! 455 W Loc : 40° 391400 N 74° 41000 W

"Vector, Az : 226° 431766 E of N, Alt: - 0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut . mi."

6c "87-10-23, 20:11:02" 215.170 -0.080 "2 streetlights?"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 1.38E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

& "87-10-23, 20:17:34" 214.155 -0.080 "4 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 2.08E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

6* "87-10-23, 20:19:35" 213.645 -0.080 "10 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 8.42E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

6c "87-10-23, 20:23:56" 213.400 -0.050 "11 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 9.49E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

& "87-10-23, 20:25:40" 212.980 -0.050 "4 streetlights"

"3 Orang, 1 Grnsh" "180" "no" 6.29E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

6c "87-10-23, 20:29:12" 212.655 -0.050 "4 streetlights"

"4 Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 17.42E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

6c "87-10-23, 20:31:32" 212.425 -0.100 "2 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 12.72E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src calib"

6c "87-10-23, 20:39:35" 212.275 -0.210 "buoy 24 or 26"

"red" "60" "no" 4.00E-2 4.00 0.125

"Pt src calib; lum is peak from oscilloscope; there is a strip chart for this

one"

6c "87-10-23, 20:54:40" 212.060 -0.030 "9 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 1.69E-2 0.00 1.000 ""

& "87-10-23, 21:04:27" 211.705 -0.030 "3 lights on ship"

"Greenish (Hg) " "180" "no" 6.00E-2 0.00 1.000 "Ship was stopped,"

6c "87-10-23, 21:11:19" 211.210 0.300 "1 light on bldg"

"Greenish Wht" "60" "no" 18.00E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal."

6c "87-10-23, 21:14:38" 210.410 -0.005 "3 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 3.37E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal,"

6c "87-10-23, 21:18:35" 209,865 -0,050 "4 streetlights"

"3 Orng , 1 Whitis" "180" "no" 5.73E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal."

6c "87-10-23, 21:21:29" 209.005 -0.030 "14 streetlights"

"13 or, 1 wht" "180" "no" 6.60E-2 0.00 1.000 "Pt src cal."

6c "87-10-23, 21:25:31" 208.715 -0.030 "22 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 14.99E-2 0,00 1.000

"Pt src cal; looks like these lights may be on a ship."

6c "87-10-23, 21:31:01" 208.425 -0.040 "13 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 2.66E-1 0.00 1.000

28
"Pt src cal; these seem to be on the same ship."

& "87-10-23, 21:34:50" 207.840 -0.010 "14 lights"

"8 grnsh , 6 or" "180" "no" 15.77E-2 0.00 1.000

"Pt src cal; can't ;ell if these are on land, or on another ship."

•^"Calibration : " "Here: High rise #877-room 427

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W

"Vector, Az : 226° 431766 E of N, Alt:

&"Calibration:

"Here: High rise #877-room 427

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74° 11455 W

"Vector, Az : 226° 431766 E of N, Alt:

& "87-10-23, 22:17:56" 202.850 -0.005

"Greenish wht" "60" "no" 14.20E-1 0.00 1.000 "Pretty sure it's a mercury

& "87-10-23, 22:21:09" 203.100 -0.020 "19 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 12.00E-2 0.00 1.000

"Pretty sure these are on a ship."

There

Robbins Reef Light If Serial

32275 Chr: FI W 6s ft Loc

40° 391400 N 74° 41000 W

ft

- 0° 31959, Dist

2 . 7 naut . mi .

There

Robbins Reef Light ft Serial

32275 Chr: FI W 6s ft Loc

40° 391400 N 74° 41000 W

tf

- 0° 31959, Dist

2 . 7 naut . mi .

1 light ft

& "87-10-23, 22:23:31" 203.350 -0.035 "6 lights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 7.44E-2 0.00 1.000

"Pretty sure these are on the same ship."

6c "87-10-23, 22:25:32" 203.230 0.055 "1 light"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 5.00E-1 0.00 1.000 "Still seems to be the same ship."

& "87-10-23, 22:33:11" 205.385 -0.030 "1 light"

"Orange (Na)" "60" "no" 6 . 54E0 0.00 1.000 "On land."

& "87-10-23, 22:35:04" 206.045 -0.030 "4 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 3.48E-1 0.00 1.000 "On land; pt src cal."

& "87-10-23, 22:37:00" 206.365 -0.030 "6 streetlights"

"Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 1.36E-1 0.00 1.000 "On land; pt src cal."

6c "87-10-23, 22:41:59" 206.610 0.105 "1 streetlight"

"Greenish Wht" "60" "no" 7.39E-1 0.00 1.000 "Possibly on a ship."

"87-10-23, 22:47:20" 207.850 -0.080 "12 lights"

5 Na + 7 Wht" "180" "no" 15.20E-2 0.00 1.000

Black background (a ship in the night?)"

"87-10-23, 22:50:46" 208.625 -0.040 "24 lights"

Orange (Na)" "180" "no" 12.30E-2 0.00 1.000 "Probably on a "87-10-23, 22:54:33" 209.905 -0.105 "4 lights"

3 Orange 1 whtsh" "180" "no" 4.44E-2 0.00 1.000

A dup with 87-10-23, 21:18:35; az was 209.865."

Calibration:

427 There: NW

Serial: 18

11455 W Loc: 40°

ship

6c"Here: High rise #877-room

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74°

"Vector, Az : 194° 481462 E of N, Alt:

6c"Calibration: " "Here: High rise #877-room 427

"Serial: 99997 Chr: NA

"Loc: 40° 411218 N 74°

"Vector, Az: 226° 431766 E

6c"Calibration: "

light of VZ bridge

Chr: Iso 2s

361255 N 74° 31183 W

11455 W

of N, Alt:

0° 451038, Dist: 5.1 naut. mi. 1

There: Robbins Reef Light

Serial: 32275 Chr: FI W 6s

Loc: 40° '391400 N 74° 41000

0° 31959, Dist: 2.7 naut. mi.’

W

29
Chapter 3. Analysis of Data

3.1. Sandy Hook. 40° 28!1 N, 73° 59 ! 9 W, height 12 ft. The observation point

is on "North Beach" in the National Park area, along the path to the beach,

next to the snow fence enclosing the bird sanctuary. All data were taken on

the night of 1987 October 28. From this point, Romer Shoal light appears to

bisect the span between the towers of the Verrazano bridge. The height of the

sand at this point, and the latitude and longitude, were determined on an

earlier date (1987 September 24) by observations with a rented surveyor's level

and rod. Since the heights of the aids in the Light List^ are given as height

above mean high water, the height of this point was determined with the level

and rod as height above the high water mark on the beach. Latitude and

longitude were determined by sighting visible landmarks such as Romer Light,

the Verrazano Bridge, and the standpipe on Sandy Hook, whose position can be

found on the nautical chart. The latitude and longitude here may be less

accurate than those for Governor's Island, while the height may be more

accurate. Certainly latitude and longitude are within traditional navigational

accuracy of Oil.

Various graphical analyses of the data were produced with a spreadsheet

program. This program operates in such a way that the number associated with a

histogram bin is the upper limit of the bin. The graphs appear in this

chapter, some without comment in the text.

30
Li

gilt

3

/

Illuminance

bin

16

Dist. of Illuminance, Sandy Hook

/

15 - /

14 -i /

/

13 - /

/

12 -

7\ /

11 - / /

/ /

10 - / /

9 - / / __ / / /

8 - / / /

/ / /

/ / / / / /

6 - / / n / / n /

/ / / / / / /

5 - / / / / / / /

4 - / / / / / / /

/ / / / / / / /

3 - / / / / / / / / n

? _ / / / / / / / / /

/ / / / / / / / / /

1 - / / / / / / / / / / FH

n / / / / / / / / / / / /

/

/

/M

/

/

/l/l /

-i r 1 -i r- 0.00001 0.00002

Illuminance, Log Lux

0.00003

Figure 3.1. The distribution of illuminances at the observation

point, due to lights seen across the water, Sandy Hook.

31
Lights

/

Illu

rn i

nance

bin

Dist. of Log Illuminance

Sandy Hook

Illuminance, Log Lux

Figure 3.2. The distribution of

observation point, Sandy Hook. This

about the same information as given in

logiQ ( illuminance)

is a more revealing

Fig. 3.1.

at the

plot of

32
lights

/

2

degrees

Distribution in Azimuth

Sandy Hook

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3.3. The distribution in azimuth of the lights seen from

the Sandy Hook observation point. Note that the limits of azimuth

shown here define the limits of the observations made.

Measurements were made over a limited range in azimuth, based on the plan

negotiated with the Coast Guard contract monitor, Dr. Mandler. At Sandy Hook,

the forty degree azimuth range is intended to span directions along the likely

courses of ships coming in off the open Atlantic. Azimuths immediately to the

east of north have been represented as angles greater than 360°

,

which is about

the only way to handle this graph in the spreadsheet program.

33
#

Lights

Dist. of Altitudes, Sandy Hook

Altitude, Degrees

Figure 3.4.

Sandy Hook,

most lights

The distribution in altitude of the lights seen from

This distribution is about what one would expect, with

near the horizontal.

34
Mean

Luminance,

cd/m«2

Mean Luminance, 2 deg Sectors

Sandy Hook

Azimuth, Left Side of Sector, deg

Figure 3.5. Mean luminance in rectangular areas near the horizon

and 2° wide x 1° high, Sandy Hook. In this case, the rectangular

areas extend in altitude from -0.2° to +0.8°. No lights were

measured outside this range. When similar graphs are given below

for the Governor's Island data, the vertical extent will be

slightly different, and some lights will actually be excluded by

the 1° vertical limitation. (Cf. Fig. 3.4.) For the method of

calculation used to derive this figure, see section 4.5.

3.2. Governor's Island, North Sector, 40° 411247 N 74° 11493 W, height 77 ft.

Governor's Island is entirely occupied by a Coast Guard base. After a few

hours' search for a suitable observation point, on the afternoon of 1987

October 19, we settled on two temporarily vacant apartments in Building 877, a high-rise for family housing. Chart 12335** shows this structure as a rough Tshape, near the northwest-facing seawall, toward the southwest end of the

island. Latitude and longitude of the two rooms were determined from the

chart. One room was used to measure a "north sector," looking up the Hudson

Nautical charts are available from Distribution Branch (N/CG33) , National

Ocean Service, Riverdale, Maryland 20737-1199; Ph: 301-436-6990.

35 i
River, while the other was used to measure a "south sector," looking down

toward Staten Island.

Even the widest flat picture window would permit the photoneter to scan only

180° of the horizon. Taking data from these apartments was made difficult by

the fact that the sashes that could be opened were only two or three feet

between aluminum posts; were bounded by the brick wall on one side or the

other; and were near to a heater that interfered to some extent with

positioning of the tripod. It was necessary to bring the tripod feet together,

and to reposition the tripod repeatedly. Repositioning the tripod meant redoing the calibration in altitude and azimuth, based on some landmark visible

from the new position. This in turn meant identifying a suitable landmark.

One finds, for instance, that the chart gives a latitude and longitude for the

Statue of Liberty's torch, or for certain stacks in New Jersey, but no height.

The compensating advantage of being indoors was that we could lock the doors

and leave the equipment assembled during the day.

North sector measurements were taken primarily from High Rise 877, room 516,

40° 41 '. 247 N, 74° 11493 W, height 77 feet.

36
xn i

20000

o

/

s-m^n

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Illuminance

Illuminance, lux

Figure 3.6. Distribution in illuminance of all lights in

Governor's Island "north sector."

the

37
lights

/

0.1

log

urxit

24

22

20 H

18

16 -

14 -

12 -

10 -

8 -

6 -

4

2

0

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Log Illuminance

/ R A

/ / 7 7

/ / / 7 7

/ 7 / / 7

7 7

/ 7 / 7 7 / 7 7

/ 7 7 7 7

/ / / / 7 /

/ / / 7 7 7

/ / 7 7 7 7

/ / 7 / / 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7

/ / / 7 7 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7

/ / / / 7 7 7

/ / 7 7 7 7 7~ 7

/ / 7 / 7 7 7 7

T~ / / / / 7 7 7 7

7 / / 7 / 7 7 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7 7 7

/ / / / 7 7 7 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7 7 /

/ / / / / 7 / 7 7

/ / / / 7 7 7 7 7

/ / / / / 7 7 7 7

/ / / 7 7 7 7 7 7

/ / 7 7

V'

17-1/1

7

77

/ / r / / AV\ ////

6.8

/

//// 7 PI

Illuminance* log lux

Figure 3.7. Distribution in log^gC illuminance) °f all lights in

the Governor's Island "north sector."

i 38
liglits

/

2

degrees

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Azimuth

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3.8. Distribution in azimuth of lights in the Governor's

Island "north sector."

39
lights

/

2

degrees

130

Distribution in Altitude

Governor’s Island, North Sector

Altitude, degrees

Figure 3.9. Distribution in altitude of

Governor's Island "north sector." The range

Sandy Hook because we are closer to some of the

all lights in the

is greater than at

lights here.

40
Mean

Luminance,

cd/mX*2

Mean Luminance, 2 x 1 degree sectors

Governor’s Island, North Sector

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3.10. Mean luminance in 2° x 1° rectangles due to all point

sources within the rectangle, Governor's Island "north sector."

The rectangles extend in altitude from -0.1° to +0.9°.

3.3. Governor's Island, North Sector, Rainiest Points Excluded. As will be

seen from the comments in the original data in Chapter 2, some of the

Governor's Island data were taken during a rain. While the rain was perhaps

just a drizzle to a man with an umbrella, it was a source of considerable

attenuation and uncertainty to a man measuring lights in New Jersey through a telescope. Reference to the section 2.2.7 shows that three lights taken on the

following clear night were believed to be duplicates of ones measured in the

rain. The repeat measurements were those taken at 87-10-22, 1:14:25; 87-10-22,

1:23:17; and 87-10-22, 1:33:44. Based on these data, it can be estimated that

the transmitted fraction from the New Jersey shore through the rain, was about

0.1, with fluctuation over time. The next five figures repeat the analyses in

the preceding five, but now with 25 data points excluded the 25 for which the

comments clearly indicate heavy rain.

41
xn l

20000

‘ O

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Illuminance, Rainless

Illuminance, lux

Figure 3.11. Distribution in illuminance, Governor's Island north

sector, rainiest points excluded.

42
lights

/

0.1

log

unit

Governor's Island, North Sector

Dist. in Log Ilium., Rainless

Illuminance, log lux

Figure 3.12. Distribution in log]_o( illuminance) , Governor's Island

north sector, rainiest points excluded.

43
lights

/

2

degrees

50

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Azimuth, Rainless

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3,13. Distribution in azimuth, Governor's Island north

sector, rainiest points excluded.

44
1

i

g

U

t

s

/

2

degrees

Distribution in Altitude

Governor's Island, North, Rainless

Figure 3.14. Distribution in altitude, Governor's Island north

sector, rainiest points excluded.

45
Mean

Luminance,

cd/m«2

Mean Luminance, 2x1 degree sectors

340 360 380

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3.15. Mean Luminance in rectangles 2° wide x 1° high,

Governor's Island north sector, rainiest points excluded. The

vertical extent of the rectangles is -0.1 s to +0,9°.

3.4. Governor's Island, South Sector, 40° 41!218 N 74 & 1!455 W, height 68 ft.

Viewing conditions were clear for all of these observations. As explained in

Chapter 2, and particularly Section 2.2.7, some of these data depend on a lessthan-ideal altitude calibration.

46
lights

/

0.00002

lux

60

Governor's Island, South Sector

Distribution in Illuminance

Illuminance, lux

Figure 3.16. Distribution in illuminance, Governor's Island, south

sector

47
lights

/

0.1

log

on

it

Governor's Island, South Sector

Distribution in Log Illuminance

Illuminance, log lux

Figure 3.17. Distribution in loglO ( illuminance) . Governor's

Island, south sector.

i 48
lights

/

2

degrees

Governor's Island, South Sector

All Lights

Azimuth, degrees

Figure 3.18. Distribution in azimuth, Governor's Island, south

sector

49
lights

/

2

degrees

Distribution in Altitude

Governor's Island, South Sector

Altitude, degrees

Figure 3.19. Distribution in altitude, Governor's Island, south

sector

.

50
Mean

L'nminance,

cd/rn**2

Mean Luminance, 2x1 degree sectors

Governor's Island, South Sector

Figure 3.20. Mean luminance in rectangular areas 2° wide x 1°

high, Governor's Island, South Sector. The 1° in altitude extends

from -0.4° to +0.6°.

3.5. Nature of the Interfering Background Lights. A bonus accrues from using

the Cassegrain objective a reflecting telescope to make the measurements.

The observer can resolve details through the instrument that would not be seen

by the mariner's naked eye. In particular, this enabled us to include with

nearly all the data a statement as to the nature of the light source. Table

3.1 gives a summary of the colors of individual lights seen through the

telescope, based on a reasonable interpretation of the comments. In many cases

the image of a group of lights was dropped into the Pritchard's aperture and

measured as one point source; at the same time, some note was made of the type

of lights in the group. Some of the notes are unambiguous, such as "6 orange,

1 wht," while others are more sketchy, because of the limitation on what could

be seen through the telescope. In some cases, the lights measured as a group

may have been resolvable by the naked eye, in other cases not. Therefore, the

totals in Table 3.1 must be regarded as estimates of the relative numbers of

lights in different categories, and not as exact counts of lights that would be

seen from a particular observation point with the naked eye.

51
Table 3.1: Summary of Light Colors

Sector Orange White Green Yellow Red

Sandy Hook 228 38 42 1 8

Governor '

s

Island

,

North 218 101 82 21 29

Governor '

s

Island

,

South 418 15 104 6 6

It can be said that most of the interfering lights were- vapor discharge

streetlight s , or similar vapor discharge lights illuminating parking lots or

piers. These were either high-pressure sodium vapor lights, recorded as

"orange" or "orangish," and high-pressure mercury vapor lights, recorded as

"white" or "green." Whitish lights may also have been metal halide, rather

than mercury vapor, but metal halide usually has only specialized outdoor uses,

such as sports arenas. Incandescent lights might have been recorded as whitish

or yellowish, but again, they would be expected to be few.

One exceptional case was noted at 87-10-20, 23:52:42. A fluorescent light was

seen through what must have been a tinted window. It looked green, and to the

naked eye really looked like a green navigational aid.

The distribution of light colors in azimuth, based on the same counting process

as Table 3.1, is given in Figures 3.21-3.23.

52
liglits

/

2

degrees

Distribution in Color and Azimuth

Sandy Hook

Azimuth, degrees [/ XI Orange 1\ \] White V/'/A Green KSNXj Yellow

[XX] Red

Figure 3.21. Dis tribution of colors in azimuth, Sandy Hook. In

many cases, a group of lights was measured as a single point

source. This figure and the next two are based on the colors of

the lights within such groups, as recorded in the comments.

53
lights

/

2

ciegr

Governor's Island, North Sector

Distribution in Color & Azimuth

ATirnnth

I7Z1 Orange (S3 White

'

' Greer,

^

Yellow

IX XI Red

Figure 3.22. Distribution of colors in azimuth, Governor's Island,

North Sector.

54
U

1

i

g

1

»ts

/

2

degrees

80

Governor's Island, South Sector

Distribution in Color & Azimuth

_ Azimuth, degrees lZZj Orange l\\l White V//A Green KSX Yellow

L^:Xi Red

Figure 3.23. Distribution of colors in azimuth, Governor's Island,

South Sector.

In any event, if navigational aids are to be made more conspicuous, an

important step will be to make them look different from streetlights, in color

or other properties. The chromaticities (x,y) of some representative

streetlights are, high pressure sodium vapor: (0.512, 0.421); high-pressure

mercury vapor deluxe: (0.385, 0.400); cool-white fluorescent: (0.365, 0.366)^;

incandescent: (0.452, 0.409)^.

3.6. Summary and conclusions. Most of the interfering lights on shore are

streetlights, or similar lights on the docks. Although no instrument was

available to us for colorimetry at a distance, we can reasonably infer that the

chromaticities of the streetlights are those of standard sodium-vapor and

mercury-vapor lights, for the most part.

Among the data taken for all locations, very few measurements were made on

navigational aids themselves. Many of the aids are difficult to aim the

instrument at, because they have a low duty cycle they are off most of the

time. For the same reason, they are harder to measure than steady lights.

Most importantly, we took our assignment to be measurement of background

55
lights, not measurement of aids. Having said all this, it is of interest to

make some comparison of a measurement on an aid to those on other lights.

Among the lights in the Governor's Island south sector is the Robbins Reef

Light House, measured at 87-10-23, 02:53:40 (file GOVISL.005). The

l°g! 0

( illuminance) for this light is -4.58. Comparison with Figure 3.17 shows

that from the observation point on Governor's Island, 68 feet up, Robbins Reef

light sits squarely in the middle of the distribution of illuminances. This

particular aid is known to be an unfiltered incandescent lamp, therefore not

very different in color from the high-pressure sodium lights on the streets or

docks of Staten Island that are behind it. It flashes one second in six.

Robbins Reef light is the same light that we used for aiming calibration, that

we spent such a long time picking out on the horizon. It flashes once in six

seconds for about a second. We were observing it from 2.7 nautical miles

distance. Since it is offshore, and along the route from The Narrows up the

Hudson, many vessels will pass nearer to it than 2.7 nautical miles, where they

may see it as distinctly larger or brighter than lights on shore; also, they

will see it moving relative to the shore lights. Certainly they should see it

before they run aground on the reef. On the other hand, according to the

standard calculations used by the Coast Guard, this light should be visible up

to nine nautical miles away under clear conditions^. Thus, the background

lights reduce the useful range of this light from nine miles to perhaps one

mile or so, a considerable loss. Chart 12334 shows that there are other aids

near to Robbins Reef, flashing yellow, red, and green, so this discussion has

concerned only part of wh^t a mariner sees.

Three red buoys were also measured in this sector, at 87-10-23, 3:33:31;

87-10-23, 3:50:29; and 87-10-23, 20:39:35. Log illuminances for these lights

are -5.4, -6.0 and -6.0. These values put them near the bottom of the

distribution in Figure 3.17, but this would be expected a priori for red

lights, which are created by filtering out the green and yellow-green light to

which light meters are most sensitive. It is well known, of course, that light

meters underestimate the brightness that a human will perceive in a strongly

colored light. The red aids may well be the most conspicuous because of

chromatic brightness and the fact that few of the background lights are red.

This raises visual science questions about chromatic brightness and conspicuity

which are beyond the scope of this report^ * ^

.

For navigational aids to stand out from this background, they must be

distinguishable from streetlights in some way. The traditional limitations on

signal lights apply: shape cannot be manipulated, since the lights must be

seen at distances up to 20 nautical miles, where any reasonable-sized light

will be discerned only as a point (see Section 4.2). Only spectral

composition, intensity, and flash characteristic can be manipulated, and these

cannot be changed in ways that increase power consumption.

While this project was not intended to research novel aids, a few suggestions

can be made. Sources such as lasers or LED's could give combinations of

efficiency and saturated color that are not possible with filtered incandescent

sources. In the bargain, the other properties of lasers could be exploited,

such as polarization and coherence.

56
Suppose, for instance, that a red laser beam is split and emitted as two

parallel beams from apertures 20 cm apart. At 0.5 kilometer, these two sources

can be resolved and appear as twin red points. At greater distances, when the

two lights are imaged as one on the retina, a Young's double-slit interference

setup is created, and simple calculations indicate that at 10km, the

interference fringes, spaced some 30mm apart, can be experienced as flashing

that depends on side-to side movement of the head (or ship). Of course, to

move the fringes farther apart, you would move the beams closer together.

Exactly how this will work in practice with intervening atmospheric disturbance

remains to see; and engineering problems arise in designing a buoy that splits

a laser beam into numerous pairs of parallel beams.

57
Chapter 4. Photometric Theory

4.1. Introduction. The Pritchard photometer^ is intended to measure

luminance, so its use for this purpose alone would require little discussion.

This chapter will explain the use of the Pritchard to measure illuminance due

to point sources.

4.2. Extended vs. Point Sources. Imagine a tugboat with a large Lambertian

(perfectly diffuse) source on the afterdeck, say a circular electroluminescent

panel. Standing on the eastern shore of Governor's Island on a clear night,

you watch the boat as it eases slowly away down the Buttermilk Channel. As the

distance of the source increases, the solid angle subtended at the source by

your eye's pupil diminishes. Hence, the light received by your eye decreases,

as the square of the distance. However, the solid angle subtended by the

source at your eye also decreases, meaning that the image area on your retina

decreases, as the square of the distance. Hence, the luminous flux per unit

area on your retina, within the image of the source, remains constant as the

tugboat moves away. This suggests that an intensive light-radiating quality

could be defined for such a surface, independent of its exact size and shape.

That quantity, of course, is luminance [= luminous f luxx(area) " ^x(steradian

subtended at the source)"^].

Now as the tugboat plows leisurely away, you walk on down to the southern end

of Governor's Island, where you can watch it recede toward The Narrows and

beyond. Assuming that the source diameter is one meter, you will see it get

smaller and smaller until it is some 2 nautical miles away. Then it will

subtend less than one minute of arc, and will appear only as a point of light.

After that, the image of the light on your retina is limited by your eye's

optics, and will get no smaller; but the luminous flux reaching your eye

continues to decrease, so you will now see the point get dimmer and dimmer,

rather than smaller and smaller. The light source is no more a geometrical

point than it was in the Buttermilk Channel, but for practical purposes of you

looking at it, it has become a point source. Luminance is no longer a helpful

concept; instead you need a measure of the total light available to your eye

from the source. That quantity is the illuminance at the observation point due

to the source [= luminous flux (area)"^].

4.3. Measuring Illuminance Due to a Point Source. The key to measuring

illuminance due to a point source with the Pritchard telephotometer is to

realize that "illuminance at the observation point due to the source" is also

defined and meaningful when the source is an extended one rather than a point.

Suppose we set up the Pritchard along the seawall on Governor's Island and

adjust the aperture to have subtense 9. If necessary, 9 includes any

magnification correction because of a nonstandard lens on the instrument, and

is the true angular subtense of a circular object that just fills the aperture.

Now we get on the two-way radio with the master of the electroluminescent

source, and keeping the Pritchard aimed at him while he moves slowly away, we

ask him to stop when the source just fills the aperture. We now note in a

handbook that the illuminance E due to a circular source of luminance L and

o subtense 9 is given by°

:
E = n L sin2 (0/2) . (4.1)

Now, the Pritchard will display the source luminance L, since the source fills

the aperture. Hence, illuminance at the instrument due to the source is given

by Eq. (4.1), where L and 0 can be read from the meter. (If the source

overfills the aperture tugboat too near Eq . (4.1) applies with the more

abstract interpretation that E is the illuminance due to the part of the source

covered by the aperture.)

Now suppose that a member of the tugboat crew turns off the electroluminescent

source and turns on a much more compact incandescent bulb, which we see against

a black background. We aim the Pritchard at this source, and then using the

two-way radio again we get the crewman to adjust the point source intensity

until the meter again reads L, as it did with the circular source.

We may now reason that if the meter reads the same, the same luminous flux is

reaching the photomultiplier tube (with spectral correction filters) , meaning

that the flux per unit area at the entrance pupil of the objective lens is the

same. This means in short, that E is still given by Eq . (4.1), with L now

taken to mean the luminance reading. We can ignore the fact that L is no

longer a meaningful luminance of an extended source.

Suppose that our helpful seaman now sets up his point source on a pier in

Brooklyn where it will remain steady., We center a small aperture, say the 6'

one, over the source and note the reading. Now we adjust the aperture to the

larger sizes, 20', 60', 180'. As we do this, the luminous flux reaching the

photomultiplier tube from the one source remains constant, since its light

always drops through the aperture. However, the reading on the instrument

console will drop with each movement of the aperture wheel, and be diminished

by a factor of approximately 900 when we reach the 180' aperture. This occurs

because presumably the instrument really responds to E, but incorporates in its

circuits a compensation for Eq . (4.1). If we apply Eq. (4.1) each time as we

change apertures, the computed values E can be expected to remain approximately

constant

4.4. Practical Calibration and Use of Eq. (4.1). To convert the raw data to

measurements of illuminance at the observation point, we must apply Eq . (4.1)

along with a number of corrections for other factors:

1.

) With the Cassegrain objective in use for ordinary luminance

measurements, the console does not read directly in luminance units. The

reading must be multiplied by 10 to get luminance in cdxm” 2

.

2.

) Most of the data were not taken with the photometer gain set to give

4.99 in the "CALIB" function, as called for in the case of luminance

measurements. Instead, the gain was adjusted to a lower value, to give

3.13 in the "CALIB" step. The reason for this had to do with an alternate

method of interpreting the data that was considered but rejected. Data

taken with the lower gain setting must be multiplied by (4.99/3.13).

59
3.) The aperture settings as marked on the aperture wheel of the

instrument and recorded in the data files apply when the 7 -inch objective

lens is in place. Thus, the 84- inch Cassegrain objective has a magnification of 12, which reduces the area in object space to which the

aperture projects. The effective aperture is thus the size relative to

the 7- inch lens, divided by 12. (There is a further problem that the

diameters stated on the aperture wheel differ slightly from the true

diameters. This can't be put in the formula, but must be dealt with

through a table look-up. See the description of the apparatus.)

Applying Eq. (4.1) while correcting for these factors and applying the smallangle approximation, gives E =

7rx ( reading )xl Ox (4 . 99/3 . 13)xsin2 ((2O'/12)/2)x(0/2O'

)

2

. That is £ =

2 . 94x10" ^ ( $

• /20 ' ) ^

,

where 9' is the aperture in minutes , before accounting for

magnification. Equivalently, E = 7.35x10“^ $

'

. For the corresponding formula

when the gain was set for "luminance calibration," it is only necessary to omit

the factor (4.99/3.13), giving E - 1 . 85x10" ^ (

9

' /20 ') ^ = 4 . 625xl 0

~

f

.

The most questionable assumption underlying the formulas just derived is that

the sensitivity is uniform over the Pritchard's measuring aperture. In some

applications, when the photometer is to be used for point-source measurements,

a special calibration is done with a small source centered in the aperture.

For our measurements, the objects actually measured were clusters of lights,

not necessarily centered. No correction for non-uniform sensitivity over the

aperture can really be made, and we must accept this non-uniformity as a source

of random error.

Finally, it should be noted that the formula given as a comment in the data

files, similar to those just derived, is not correct.

4.5. Mean Luminance of a Sector with Point Sources. Even though luminance is

not a helpful concept for point sources, mean luminance can be computed for an

area containing point sources. Luminance is defined as flux per unit area of

the source and per unit solid angle subtended at the "source" (1) by the

"receiver" (2)^:

2

L = — (4.2)

cL4^ cose^ dc^i

where

:

dAf = area of surface element of source

€ 1 = angle between given direction (1) - (2) and the normal

nj to dAi .

du>i = element of solid angle with apex (1) at the source.

F = luminous flux.

Now we are interested in the case where the "source" (1) is a sector on the

horizon, a few degrees wide by a few degrees high, as seen from the observation

point; and the "receiver" (2) is the entrance pupil of the telephotometer.

60
Define

A\ = source area, total

A2 = receiver area, total

R = distance from source to receiver

toi = total solid angle subtended by the receiver at the source

cl> 2 = total solid angle subtended by the source at the receiver

Now the total flux is given by

F = JdA]_ J*do>]_ L cose^ (4.3)

A1 W1 In general, the indicated integrals need to be broken into multiple integrals

and L and e would be functions of the variables of integration, but here we

take cose}_ = 1 and we want L to be an average, hence not dependent on the

variables of integration. Thus,

F = . (4.4)

o o Now wi = A2R~ ^ , by the definition of solid angle, and similarly, A

= • Thus

F = (w2-£^) (^2-^"2)L = a)2-A2-^ (4.5)

The (mean) illuminance at the receiver is thus

E = F/A2 = «2-^ > (4.6)

or

L = £cj2

-1

• (4.7)

If E, the illuminance at the observation point, was measured for N individual

point sources in the sector cc>2

,

N

L = a>2

_1 Z E ; (4.8)

J=1

Now let

0 = angle of elevation

<t> = azimuth angle.

Then if a sector extends from 0 q to and covers angle 4>q in azimuth,

A\ = R^<J>o(sin9i - sin0Q) (4.9)

to 2 = A^R"^ = <^Q(sin0]_ - sin#o) (4.10)

For instance, in the analysis of the Sandy Hook data, it was convenient to use

<t> = 2° = 0.035 radian, = 0.8°, 0 q = _ 0.2°. Then u>2 = 6.092x10*^ steradian

or to 2 ~^ = 1641 sr*^. (Note that because of the small-angle approximation, u>2

would be virtually unchanged if a small constant were added to and 0 q to

give, for instance, 6\ = 1.0°, 02 = 0.0°.)

61
Chapter 5. Spherical Trigonometry

5.1. Introduction. The light intensity measurements are accompanied by true

azimuth and altitude of the light, as seen from the actual observation point.

The calibration for azimuth and altitude was done as a step in the data-taking

process, by spotting landmarks of known position through the telephotometer.

The Light List J gives the latitude and longitude (to the nearest 0!1) and the

height above mean high water (to the foot) for many aids to navigation. The

latitude and longitude of aids and of other landmarks such as the torch on the

Statue of Liberty, the mast on the Empire State Building, and so forth, can be

read to finer precision than 0!1 from nautical charts, but the charts give the

heights of only a few aids, and no heights for other landmarks.

Initially it was envisioned that many of the data would be taken from the

outdoor observation decks of Robbins Reef Light (40° 3914 N, 74° 0410 W, height

56 ft) and Romer Shoal Light (40° 3018 N, 74° 0018 W, height 54 ft), so that

the observing position would be known, and numerous other aids would be visible

for the aiming calibration. In fact, the data were taken from positions that

needed to be determined in an additional step. Also, the instrument could

sometimes not be swung through wide angles from a calibration landmark to the

observing direction, which complicated the calibration process. Nevertheless,

the approach of calibrating by landmarks did prove workable. By one or another

method, we did determine the latitude and longitude of the observation points,

and find some distant landmarks to use, as detailed in Chapter 2.

5.2. Derivation. The mathematical task then is this: Given the latitude,

longitude, and height above mean high water for two points 1 and 2, find the

vector from 1 to 2, expressed as azimuth , altitude and distance. Refer first

to Figure 5.1. Smart' s^ formula (A) applied to this triangle gives

cose = cosa co sb + sina sinb cosC

c -- cos”^(cosa cosh + sina sinb cosC)

(5.1)

(5.2)

62
f'lotf'lJl Polfi.

9Cf'Jeii

90° -JUfc

2.

b e^uri^j £f= ©£ A)^

Figure 5.1. Diagram for derivation of the azimuth and great circle

distance from one point to another near the surface of a spherical

earth. Given are the latitude and longitude of points 1 and 2

(alias B and A) . Both the sides and the angles of a spherical

triangle may be expressed in angular units; the sides are great

circles. The north pole is made one vertex of the triangle, so

that sides a and b are the colatitudes of points 1 and 2, and

vertex angle C is the difference in the longitudes. We then seek

c, which can be thought of as an angle subtended at the center of

the earth, or as a great circle distance in nautical miles, equal

to angle c in minutes; and we seek azimuth B, expressed as east of

north

If c is expressed in minutes, it is the great circle distance from 1 to 2 in

nautical miles.

Now we know all three sides and we can use the same cosine formula in its

alternate form

co sb = co sc cosa + sine sina cos5 (5.3)

to derive

B — c o

s “ 1 r cos b

- cos c cosa -i (5 4 ) L sine sina

63
Angle B is the bearing of point 2 with respect to point 1, expressed as east of

north. A problem of quadrant arises if 2 is west of 1, but this is easilycorrected in the computer program.

To derive the vector length and altitude, we refer to Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Diagram for the plane trigonometry problem of finding

the angular altitude a and distance D, given the height of the

observer, hi, the height of the light, , and the great-circle

distance c. Point e is the center of the earth; R is the earth

radius, taken as 360*60*6080/( 2n) = 20901500 feet.

We define

R = radius of earth = 20901500 feet (based on a spherical earth of

circumference 360*60 nautical miles)

.

hi = height above mean high water at point 1 .

hj? = height at point 2 .

64
And we define the auxiliary variables:

R ' = R + h1

h

= b.2 ~ hi

We then write the law of cosines (plane trigonometry) as

D

2 = R

>2 + ( R'+h ') 2 - 2R' (R' +h' ) cosc . (5.5)

O

Simplifying and applying cosc ~ 1 - (c^/2) to avoid subtracting numbers that

are nearly equal, we get

D

2 = (R'^+R'h')c^ + h' 2

. (5.6)

Altitude a is defined as positive above the horizontal, so that in Fig. 5.2,

q<0. Applying the (plane) law of sines to triangle e-1-2 then we find

a = sin" 1

[ (R+h2) sinc/D] - 7r/2 . (5.7)

65
Chapter 6. Apparatus

6.1. Introduction. A major part of the effort on this project went into

development of the apparatus, and the choice of apparatus had a large effect on

where the uncertainties appear in the data.

Limited consideration was given to collecting the data with some sort of

imaging device: film or a television camera, or some sort of electronic

imaging device with greater sensitivity and flexibility than normal television.

These are devices often used by astronomers for a similar task: making

measurements through a telescope on distant point sources of light. Using an

imaging device for the measurements would limit uncertainty in the relative

positions of neighboring lights. With only a crude idea of the direction that

the imaging device were pointed, one luminance-calibrated image might provide

an interesting sample of, say, the New Jersey shoreline, with accurate relative

positions of lights.

The drawback to imaging devices is that we did not know of a commercial device

intended to be used for luminance measurements, and with a wide dynamic range.

A decision to use an imaging device would have led to an open-ended task of

device selection and calibration, with some risk that in the end, we still

might not have detected the dimmest of the lights visible to mariners.

A sure way to get sensitivity, wide dynamic range, and luminance calibration

was to measure individual lights with a Pritchard telephotometer^ , which is

what we did. The Pritchard, with its normal 7-inch lens, can give a full-scale

reading to a point source at the threshold of detection by a human. Its

dynamic range in full-scale luminance reading, at a fixed aperture setting, is

10®. This is also the approximate dynamic range for point source measurements,

since the light collected from a point source is independent of aperture.

(Dynamic range for actual luminance measurements is extended by the effect of

the aperture to 10^ overall.) By contrast, an 8-bit image only has one fullscale setting; if the brightest light gives a reading of 2®-l = 255, the ideal

case, all other lights give less- than-full scale; hence on the same basis used

for the Pritchard, the digitized image has a dynamic range of 10^ = 1.

Assuming no dark current or noise, we can consider that the dimmest light

detected gives a reading of 1 . By redefining dynamic range we can say that the

dynamic range of the 8-bit image is 255 = Even by this dishonest

comparison, the imaging device falls short of the Pritchard's range by 10®“^-^

= IQ 5 - 6

.

In short then, it seemed safest to take data with the Pritchard telephotometer

in this initial study. This determines what the actual dynamic range of

illuminances is, and any future scheme to take the data a different way can be

guided by this information. An added feature of the Pritchard was the option

of using the 84-inch telescopic objective lens, which in the event we used for

all data. Thus, we were able to use an instrument with both light sensitivity

and angular resolution better than those of a human.

To aim the Pritchard at each light, with fine motion control and with

calibration in azimuth and altitude, a special two-axis aiming device was

66
constructed. Each axis was driven by a stepping motor, under computer control.

This large motorized tripod head was also used to take still photographs, and

could be used with other meters and cameras.

6.2. The Photometer. As previously mentioned, the light meter was a Pritchard photometer, model PR-1980A, made by Photo Research Division of

Kollmorgen Corporation. Its detector is a photomultiplier tube.

In using the Pritchard, the operator looks into an eyepiece and sees an image

of the object being measured and its surroundings, just as he might in aiming

other telescopic instruments, such as a theodolite or camera^-. The image is in

fact brighter and sharper than one sees in a common 35 millimeter camera,

because it is an aerial image with no ground glass in the path. A

distinguishing feature of this image is that in its center a circular area is

black. The black area is an image of an aperture in a mirror which is part of

the optical path to the eyepiece. The mirror can be rotated, and any of six

apertures brought into position, including five circular ones and a special

rectangular one. Only the circular ones, with nominal measuring field

diameters of 2', 6', 20', 1°, and 3° were used in this study. The operator can

clearly see the object being measured in its surroundings, but of course loses

sight of a point source when he actually covers it with the aperture.

The instrument also has a spectral correction filter wheel, which was always

set for photopic sensitivity V\, and a neutral density filter wheel, which was

set to ’’open’1 (= 0 density), for nearly all measurements. The measurement

electronics senses the settings of the aperture and neutral density wheels and

ordinary luminance measurements are automatically corrected for their effects.

Point source measurements must, in effect, have the aperture correction

calculated back out; see Chapter 4. The reading on the Pritchard console

comprises three or four significant figures and a power-of-ten multiplier. In

the raw data of Chapter 2, the data are recorded in just this way with the

power of ten and other digits as displayed. The computer program was written

to record the data in this way, and indeed to constrain the power of ten to the

instrument's actual range; unfortunately, the program restricted the range too

much, so a few data are recorded with a factor of 0.1 absorbed into the

significant digits, and a corresponding addition of 1 to the exponent.

The standard lens of the Pritchard has a focal length of 7 inches. The fields

measured have approximately the subtenses marked on the aperture wheel when the

7-inch lens is focused at infinity. An optional accessory is an 84-inch

Cassegrain objective; this is a reflecting telescope with a folded optical path

that is fortunately much less than 84 inches in external length. Obviously,

substituting this objective lens introduces a relative magnification of 12,

reducing the field diameter of each aperture by this factor.

67
Even with the 7- inch lens in place, the aperture diameters are not all exactly

equal to the nominal values. Table 6.1, taken from the instruction manual^

gives the true and nominal diameters. The true diameters as given in this

table were used in ’computing the graphs in Chapter 3.

Table 6.1:

Label on "MEASURING FIELD"

Selector (Nominal Value)

2

' 6

' 20 '

1

° 3°

True Diameters of Apertures

Actual Value of

Measuring Field Angle

(7 -inch Standard Objective

Lens, focussed at Infinity)

1.9'

6 . 0

' 19'

1 . 0

° 3.2°

6.3. The Arming Device. When the Cassegrain objective is mounted to the

photometer head, the combined mass is some 13 kg, and the overall length is

some 87 cm. With the twelve x magnification of the Cassegrain, the smallest

measurable field subtends 2'/12 = 0.17'. While this represents a level of

resolution beyond the real needs of the project, it does mean that an aiming

precision of a fraction of a minute of arc is desirable. The aiming device

that was built has the strength, rigidity, and fine motion to swing the

instrument as required, with four limitations:

1. The setup must be protected from any wind in excess of a few knots.

(On the beach at Sandy Hook, for instance, shelter was provided by a

tent .

)

2. The instrument must be mounted with its center of gravity as near as

possible to the center of motion.

3. For greatest accuracy, backlash in the gears would have to be taken

into account, with all points approached from the same direction.

4. For improved repeatability, the stepper motors and the driver

assembly (but not the control electronics or software) would have to

be replaced, to increase the motor torque. As it is, the stepper

motors operate very near to slipping, and indeed seem to slip in the

course of a series of measurements.

Rotation at fine resolution is provided in two axes by identical rotary tables,

model 20801-P, made by Daedal Corporation of Harrison City, Pennsylvania. The

device cradles the Pritchard photometer in such a way that the center of

gravity of the photometer- telescope combination is close to both axes of

rotation. The rotary tables accept small stepper motors of NEMA frame size 23.

68
Two stepper motors and attendant electronics were purchased from Rogers Labs

Inc., of Santa Ana, California. Five hardware items are necessary to run the

stepper motors:

1. The stepper motors themselves.

2. The driver module, a small circuit card that actually switches the

power to the motor windings

3. A power supply to supply 12-14 volts DC to the driver board (item 2).

4. A stepper controller, in the form of a card that resides in an IBM

PC-compatible computer.

5. The PC-compatible computer itself.

Subject to various compatibility constraints, any one of these units can be

replaced by an alternate model with some effect on overall performance. In the

system we assembled, we used a top-quality controller card (item 4), but

bottom-quality stepper motors and driver module (items 1 and 2). The problem

of the slipping stepper motors, previously mentioned, could probably be solved

by substituting larger stepper motors and a more sophisticated driver module.

The larger motors, which would be longer but present the same mechanical

interface, would provide higher maximum torque. The better driver would

prevent the rapid decline of torque with speed.

Each rotary table is geared to turn once for 180 revolutions of its stepper

motor. If the motors are run in half -step mode, they make one revolution per

400 half-steps. Thus, the nominal precision of aiming is 1/200 degree, or

0.3'. This precision represents a true ability to adjust aiming in small

steps, but accuracy cannot be this good because of unavoidable backlash.

Depending on the direction of movement, backlash can be several half-steps. A

microstepping drive could improve nominal precision, but not reduce backlash.

6.4. Computer and Joystick. The stepper motor controller card is plugged

into the bus of a Compaq portable computer, an early model based on the 8088

chip. This computer incorporates a carrying handle and a monochrome monitor,

and is distinguished by its sturdy chassis and housing. Although it is an

older model, it was upgraded to a recent version of the ROM BIOS, 640K of RAM,

an 8087 math chip, and an internal 20 megabyte hard disk.

Also added to this computer were a joystick interface (gameport) and a joystick

with two buttons. A joystick driver subroutine was written in the C language,

and then software was provided by which the operator, while sighting through

the Pritchard, could control its movement by the joystick. The driver reads

out joystick position by means of a timing loop, which may not run quite as

fast as it would if coded in assembly language. This means that only about 15

discrete positions can be read out for each axis. Because of this crudeness,

and other reasons having to do with unavoidable computing delays and the need

to ramp motor speed up and down, joystick control of the motors does not give

the smooth, quick response that one might hope for; however, a software

69
linkage was developed between the joystick and the motors which did give the

operator useful control.

The operator is able to calibrate azimuth and altitude against a visible

landmark, and then aim the photometer either by keyboard commands or by the

joystick. The computer program maintains the calibrated values for azimuth and

altitude through all movements and automatically stores them with the other

data. This makes the data files humanly readable (Chapter 2) and simplifies

later analysis. The only limitations to calibration are mechanical ones such

as backlash in the gears, slippage of the stepper motors, and slippage of the

tripod on its footing. Where the tripod sat on an interior floor, on

Governor's Island, a bag of chains and a bag of sand were used to immobilize

two of the legs. At Sandy Hook, only a thin cloth tent floor separated the

tripod from the beach, so its feet were effectively dug into the sand; this was

assumed to give a non-slippery footing.

70
Chapter 7 . Software

7.1. Overview. All functions of calibration, aiming, and recording of data

are integrated into a single interactive program, for which the executable code

is called tj . exe . Code from various sources was integrated into the one large

program

1. The main application- specif ic code, written in C by James A. Worthey.

2. A purchased library of utilities called Vitamin C, which provides

screen windows and other user- interaction facilities.

3. Assembly and object code provided by Rogers Labs to permit control of

the stepper-motor interface from a C program.

In addition, one feature available to the user was to branch temporarily to a file editor, which was PCWrite, a commercial program. So, in a sense, PCWrite

became a part of the software. Furthermore, PCWrite includes an "exit"

function, so that it was possible to branch to PCWrite and thence to DOS,

without stopping the program and losing calibration.

Consideration was given to including the novel source code, item 1, in this

chapter. Unfortunately, all this wonderful code would have doubled the length

of the report. Therefore, only two short files and part of a third are

presented which may be particularly revealing of how the task was approached.

Other files are described briefly. A draft of the chapter with the code

included may be available to interested readers. (Please contact the author.)

In addition to the main program, a final section of this chapter gives the

filter program needed to make the data files compatible with the spreadsheet

program Lotus 1-2-3.

7.2. Technical Tidbits. The Aztec C compiler (from Manx Software) was used,

along with the Aztec assembler, and an Aztec utility to put object files into

the proper format for the Microsoft linker. Then the Microsoft linker was used

to create the final file tj . exe . This somewhat roundabout approach was used

because one of the modules from Rogers Labs was supplied only as an object file

suitable for the Microsoft linker. In principle, this method should work

efficiently; the extra conversion step takes only a few seconds and can be

invoked automatically by the MAKE utility. However, consistency problems arose

related to the assembler pseudo-ops that pass commands to the linker, the

result being that the executable code would crash. This bug took some serious

effort to eliminate. Anyone starting on a similar project might be well

advised to buy the C compiler assumed by the stepper motor vendor. At a

minimum, that would make the bugs easier to trace, since a symbolic debugger

could be used.

The code grew so large that it had to be compiled with the compiler's "large

code" option. This is simple in principle, but forced substitution of

libraries and some rewriting of the vendor-supplied assembly code.

f 71
It was discovered in the field at Sandy Hook that simply flushing the output

buffer with the fflush() call does not protect a file if power is lost before

closing it. Manual backups were done at Sandy Hook, but some more automatic

backup procedure could be added to these programs

.

7.3. File NAVIG.H, the Application-Specific Header File. Most of the new

code makes use of these declarations and definitions.

struct ptsph

{ double wlong, nlat, height ; /* W longitude, N latitude, elev mn hi wtr */

char *name ; /* e. g. , "Empire State" */

) ; typedef struct ptsph ptsph_t ;

struct vcsph

{ double dist, bearing, alt ; /* naut mi, deg E of N, deg above level */

char *nm_tail, *nm_head ;

} ; typedef struct vcsph vcsph__t ;

struct stick{int x,y ; int btnl , btn2 ;

) ; typedef struct stick stick__t;

stick_t *joy(), *ctrO() ;

typedef struct sp{int xcen, ycen ; int xfac, yfac ;

} stkpm__t ;

typedef struct

{long int serial ; char name [ 51 ]

;

ptsph_t loc ; /* location in 3-D on sphere */

char flash[21] ; /* (flash) characteristic */

int range ; /* range in nautical miles */

} light_t ;

typedef struct

{COUNT movit ; /* window number for movit window */

COUNT calib ; /* window for calib procedure */

COUNT count ; /* x & y counts */

COUNT check ; /* window to check calibration */

COUNT dir ; /* current aim direction, az & ait */

COUNT general /* general menu */

COUNT indat ; /* input the actual data */

COUNT ii ; /* light list window */

COUNT revdat ; /* data review window */

COUNT stick ; /* window for joystick setup only */

COUNT drive ; /* drive to direction */

72
COUNT status ; /* you guessed it */

} vc_window_number_t ;

#ifndef WDO_SETUP

extern vc_window_number_t wno ; #else

vc_window_number_t wno ; #endif

char *dmstr() ; double degmin_in() ; int stk_actv(), upd_count(), upd_dir() ; long int az2ct(), alt2ct(), ang2ct() ;

#define PI (double) 3 . 14159265358979

#def ine FT 7 (double) 57 . 29577951308232 /* 180/tt */

#define R (double) 20901500 . 0 /* radius of Earth in feet */

#define GAMEPORT 0x201

#define DM2DD(deg,min) (deg>=0.0 ? (deg)+(min)/60 . 0 : (deg) - (min)/60 . 0)

7.4. File TRYJOY.C, the Main Program. As the name implies, this started out

with a routine to test the joystick routines, which became the main routine.

This is in the spirit of a one-time project.

7.5. File JOYSTK.C, Containing Routines Pertaining to Joystick. The user

must be allowed to adjust the potentiometers on the joystick, for hardware

centering. Then software centering must be done so that the joystick output

can be converted to an interval centered on (0,0). Finally, the actual

joystick readings must be taken, and optionally converted to zero-centered

form. These chores are handled by the routines in this file.

7.6.

File TRIG.C, Mainly Routines that Deal with Trigonometry. Some of the

shorter and more interesting routines in this file are reproduced here,

including the one that does the spherical trigonometry, getvecQ.

/**********************************/

*/

*/

/*

/*

/*

/* trig, etc. */

/* */

/* Jim Worthey, 1987 August 14 */

file trig.c

catch-all for routines that

deal with deg, min, spherical */

trig, etc.

#include <math,h>

#include <vcstdio.h>

#include <time.h>

#include "navig.h"

#define ABS(X) (X>=0?X: - (X)

)

73

f
/* function dmstr(), returns a pointer to a string in which a degree value */

/* is expressed as degrees, minutes, and decimal fractions of a minute. */

/* Jim Worthey, 1987 June */

***********••*•£•*•*•*•A’

-*-*- /

char *dmstr (degree)

double degree;

{ int wholdeg ; int j j , c ; double minute ; static char buff [33], sign ; /* >= seems to fail w/ double: */

if (ABS (degree) > (double) 999 . 0) return(NULL) ; sign = (( float ) degree >= 0.0) ?

'

'

:

; wholdeg = (degree = fabs (degree) ) + 0.5/60000.0 ; /* round up within 010005

*/

minute = 60 . 0*(degree-wholdeg) ; if ( (f loat)minute < 0.0) minute = 0.0 ; sprintf (buff , "%c%3d %6 . 3f" , sign, wholdeg, minute) ; buff [4] = 248 ; for ( j j=0 ; c = buff [ j j ] ; jj++)

{ if ( c = '.') buff [ j j ] = '!'

;

} return(buff) ;

74
./*

/*

/*

/*

/*

/*

getvec() */

finds vector between 2 points */

on a sphere, working structure */

*/

*/

*/

to structure.

Jim Worthey, 1987 June

-Jr •k-&-k-Jc-Ji:-k'k-k'k‘k-Jc'k'k'k-k-k'k'k'k'jek'k'k'$rk'k'k'k'k

/

getvec(tail, head, vector)

ptsph_t *tail, *head ; vcsph_t ^vector ;

{ double A, B, C, a, b, c; /* cf. diagram 87 May 14 */

double rprime, hprime, D, alfa ;

a = (90.0 - tail->nlat) / FT7 ; b = (90.0 - head->nlat) / FT 7 ; C = (tail->wlong - head->wlong) / FT7 ; c = acos (cos (a)*cos (b) + sin(a)*sin(b)*cos (C) ) ; B = acos((cos(b) - cos (a)*cos (c) )/(sin(a)*sin(c) ) ) ; if (C<0 . 0) B = 2 . 0*PI - B ; vector->dist = FT7*60.0*c ; /* result in nautical miles */

vector->bearing = FT7*B ; /* Now do a round-earth determination of altitude in degrees: */

rprime = R + tail->height ; hprime = head->height - tail->height ; D = sqrt( (rprime*rprime + rprime*hprime)*c*c + hprime*hprime) ; alfa = (-PI/2.0) + asin( (R+head->height)*sin(c)/D );

alfa = ( (R+head->height) > (rprime/cos (c) ) ) ? fabs(alfa) : -fabs(alfa)

vector->alt = FT7*alfa ; vector->nm_tail = tail->name ; vector->nm_head = head->name ;

^•k-k-k-k'k'k'k-k-k'k'k-k-k-k'k'k-k-k-k-k'k-k-^-k-k-k-k'k'k'k'k'k-k-k'k-k'k'k-k-k'k'k-k-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-k'k-k-k'k-k-kirk-k'k-k'k/

/* dmnumQ, convert (double)degrees to (double)whole_degrees */

/* and (double)decimal_minutes . */

/*

/*

/*

/*

/*

Note that the reverse function is a macro in navig.h,

DM2DD(deg,min) . */

*/

Jim Worthey, 87 Aug 28 */

*/

*/

void

dmnum(deg , wholdeg , decmin)

double deg, *wholdeg, *decmin ;

{ double ad, wd, dm ;

75
#define ZERO (double)O.O

ad = fabs(deg) ; wd = deg >= ZERO ? floor(ad) : -floor(ad) ; dm = (ad - fabs(wd))*60 ; *wholdeg = wd ; *decmin = dm ;

}

^•k-k-k-k-kk^k'k'k-k-k-krk-k-k'k-k-k-k-k-k-k'k-k-k /

/* char *Casio() */

/* returns date and time */

/* as a string in Japanese */

/* watch format . */

/-k 'k /

/* Jim Worthey */

/* 87-09-20, 22:11:04 */

^•k-k-k-k-k^c'k'k-k'k-k-k-k'k^-k-k-k'k'k-k'k'k /

/* #include <time.h> {this is @ top) */

char * Casio (

)

{struct tm tim ; static char buf[19] ; dostime (&tim) ; sprintf (buf , "%2d-%02d-%02d , %2d: %02d: %02d"

,

tim, tm__year , tim. tm_mon+l , tim. tm_mday , tim. tm_hour , tim. tm__min, tim, tm_ sec ) ; return buf ;

}

7.7. File LITES.C, Just Routines Pertaining to Reading in the Light List.

Since the calibration depends on knowing the latitude and longitude of distant

landmarks (say 1-10 nautical miles away), data on some aids to navigation and

other landmarks are read from a file named LIGHT, LST, by a routine in this

file.

7.8. File MOTOR. C, Motor Control Routines and Much of the Window Code. The

original rationale of this file was to collect the routines that directly

control the stepper motors, but it grew far beyond that. All stepper control

is done through movitQ. This lets the other routines use signed long integers

(32 bits) to represent movements, while the actual motor control subroutines

(in assembly language) demand unsigned integers (16 bits) plus a separate

direction control parameter. Long integers xcount and ycount are the integer

versions of true azimuth and altitude, with 72000 counts to a full circle.

Several of the routines to display the windows need access to xcount, ycount,

so the windowing code is included here. This is by far the longest file.

76
7.9. Data File LIGHT. LST. This is typical of the files from which light list

information was read. Different versions were used at different times in the

field. Lines beginning with asterisks are comment lines that are ignored when

the information is read in. The second comment is the key to the data lines.

* NEW YORK HARBOR (Chart 12327)

* No., Name & location, N/W, Characteristic, Ht , Range

** Ambrose Channel

32095, Lighted Whistle Buoy A, 40 28.8 73 53.7, Mo (A) W, 0, 6

32100, West Bank (Range Front) Light, 40 32.3 74 02.6, See LL, 69, 16

32105, Staten Island (Range Rear) Light, 40 34.5 74 08.6, F W direc, 231, 18

32275, Robbins Reef Light, 40 39.4 74 04.0, FI W 6s, 56, 9

32340, Sandy Hook Light, 40 27.7 74 00.1, F W, 88, 19

32370, Romer Shoal Light, 40 30.8 74 00.8, FI (2) W 15s, 54, 13

32385, Scotland Lighted Horn Buoy S, 40 26.5 73 55.0, Mo (A) W, 0, 0

32480, Sandy Hook Point Light, 40 28.3 74 01.2, Iso W 6s, 38, 15

23, Bug Light, 40 28.59 74 1 . 07 , FI 2 . 5s , 25 , 6 * Chapel Hill South Channel

32485, Range Front Light, 40 25.3 74 03.4, Iso G 6s, 45, 0 * Old Orchard Shoal

32700, Old Orchard Shoal Light, 40 30.7 74 06.0, See LL, 51, 8

32710, Great Kills Light, 40 31.3 74 07.9, FI W 4s, 35, 6

32850, Atlantic H'lnds Brkwtr Light, 40 25.1 74 01.2, FI W 4s, 29, 7

16, Coney Island Light, 40 34.59 74 00.73, FI R 5s, 75, 16 * Our Viewing Points

99999, Beach I - along path, 40 28.1 73 59.9, NA, 12, 0

99998, High rise #877-room 516, 40 41.247 74 1.493, NA, 77, 0 * Landmarks not on the Light List (some heights are guesses)

15, Sandy Hook Standpipe, 40 28.1 74 00.5, Dark, 100, 0

18, NW light of VZ bridge, 40 36.255 74 3.183, Iso 2s, 500, 0

19, Cars below NW light VZ, 40 36.255 74 3.183, Going by, 200, 0

21, SE light of VZ bridge, 40 36.493 74 2.32, Iso 2s, 500, 0

22, Cars below SE light VZ, 40 36.493 74 2.32, Going by, 200, 0

20, Parachute Tower, 40 34.372 73 59.0883, 303, 0

1, Empire State Bldg, 40 44.9 73 59.17, Red??, 1054, 0

2, Liberty's Torch, 40 41.35 74 02.7, White?, 200, 0

4, Brooklyn Pier 2, 40 41.967 74 0.02, F G, 43, 0, 0

5, Brooklyn Pier 2, 40 41.978 73 59.922, F R, 54, 0, 0

6, Brooklyn Red Hook, 40 40.853 74 1.045, Quick G, 0, 0

7, Brooklyn Red Hook, 40 40.9 74 0.883, Iso G 6s, 0, 0

8, World Trade South Bldg, 40 42.65 74 0.817, Red??, 1200, 0

9, World Trade North Bldg, 40 42.717 74 0.82, Red??, 1200, 0

10, Chrysler Bldg, 40 45.088 73 58.545, Red??, 1000, 0

11, Ritz Bldg, 40 45.69 73 58.233, Red??, 800, 0

13, Bkln Br NW Tower, 40 42.428 73 59.687, ??, 400, 0

14, Bkln Br SE Tower, 40 42.237 73 59.687, ??, 400, 0

-1

77
7.10. Program FILTER. C, Self-Contained Program to Translate Ampersands. The

data files were recorded just the way they appear in Chapter 2, with the

ampersands (&' s) and newline characters. To make the data readable by Lotus 1-

2-3, it is necessary to eliminate all comments and calibration notes, then to

eliminate some of the newlines, so that each data set appears on one long line.

The comments and calibration notes are easily deleted with a line editor; the

following filter program eliminates all newlines except those followed by an

ampersand

.

The "file import" function in 1-2-3 has the limitation that it can only accept

files up to 8192 characters long. To help cope with this, FILTER puts an extra

blank line after about 7900 characters. With the blank line as a marker, it is

easy to break up the longer data files with the help of a line editor.

/* This program is adapted from cat.c on p. 154 of the

Kernighan and Ritchie text

*/

#include <stdio.h>

main(argc, argv) /* filter: revise data files */

int argc;

char *argv[ ]

;

{ FILE *fp , *fopen();

if (argc = 1) /* no args ; copy standard input */

f ilecopy (stdin)

;

else

while (--argc >0)

if (( fp = fopen(*++argv , "r" ) ) = NULL) { fprintf (stderr

,

"filter: can't open %s\n" , *argv)

;

exit(l)

;

} else { fiiecopy(fp)

;

fclose (fp)

;

} exit(0)

;

)

f ilecopy (fp) /* copy file fp to standard output */

FILE *fp;

{ int c , d, nchars ,bigenuf , notyet=l

;

#define RETURN 13

#def ine LINEFEED 10

if ( (d = getc(fp) ) = EOF)

return 0 ; nchars = 1 ; while ((c = getc(fp)) ! = EOF)

{bigenuf = (nchars-H- > 7900) ; switch(d)

78
{case RETURN:

break

case LINEFEED:

if (c = '&')

{ putc (RETURN , stdout)

putc (LINEFEED , stdout);

if(bigenuf && notyet)

{putc (RETURN , stdout) ; putc (LINEFEED , stdout) ; putc (RETURN, stdout) ; putc (LINEFEED , stdout) ; notyet = 0 ;

}

} break

default

putc (d , stdout)

} d = c ;

}

)

79
Chapter 8. Recommendations for Future Work.

8.1. Apparatus Improvements. As mentioned previously, a shortcoming of the

apparatus was that the stepper motors barely had the torque to move the

Pritchard plus its objective lens without slipping (losing the count). Some of

the data may be contaminated by slippage on the order of tens of pulses.

Remembering that there are 72000 pulses per revolution in either axis, this

slippage does not destroy the significance of the data.

Except for this slippage, the apparatus must be considered a successful design.

The aiming device as built seems to represent a fair compromise between

rigidity and light weight. (It is now about at the limit of tolerable weight

and unwieldiness for field equipment.) The software permits the data to be

taken quickly, and gives some flexibility to correct errors and otherwise deal

with the unexpected.

Therefore, if further data on distant lights are sought in the future, it would

make sense to use the same apparatus, but to deal with the problem of slippage.

The best way to do this is to replace the stepper motors and the driver module.

A constant-current driver could be used, along with motors that have about

twice the stall torque and are matched to the electrical characteristics of the

new driver. These parts can be substituted while leaving the other hardware

and the software unchanged. The constant- current driver is distinguished by

its ability to maintain full torque at high speed; therefore, the speed

settings could be increased, giving a quicker response to aiming commands,

while still reducing slippage.

An additional improvement to the aiming device would be to use stepper motors

with shaft encoders and provide position feedback to the software. This would

be much more complicated to implement, involving extensive hardware and

software problems, and is not recommended.

With the aiming device improved in reliability, further data-taking should be

approached a little differently. Measurements should be scheduled in seasons

when the air is clear, either spring or fall, but when it is not too cold to

work out of doors. Data can be taken most quickly at an unobstructed out-ofdoors location, such as a roof or a beach. In spite of any speed-up, much more

time should be budgeted for the actual data-taking, to permit a more

painstaking approach and to allow for bad weather.

A totally optional apparatus improvement would be to let the computer get the

luminance reading directly from the Pritchard. A binary-coded-decimal signal

is available as parallel TTL voltages on the particular instrument used. The

hardware cost would be small. New software would be needed, not only to decode

the signal, but also to compute a time-average at the proper moment. This

would be justified if much larger sets of data were to be collected. It would

not have been justified for the present project.

Any future scheme to collect data with an imaging device such as a sensitive

video camera should still use the aiming device and its software because of the

overriding benefits of true calibration of azimuth and altitude. With true

80
aiming calibration, you can kick the tripod or take a three-day break for bad

weather, or anything, then recalibrate and have data that will make sense with

a minimum of questions on how to splice the data sets together.

8.2. Further Data Analysis. An obvious conclusion from the data is that most

of the background lights which interfere with vision of navigational aids are

streetlights. Streetlights will of course differ with respect to lamp wattage

and type, lens design, and orientation. In spite of these complications, it

might be interesting to see how well the data can be explained by assuming that

all streetlights are alike and that all illuminance differences are due to the

inverse square law and atmospheric attenuation. The distances to the

streetlights measured could be estimated using maps and the azimuths at which

they were seen. Such an explanation of the data could lead a rule-of-thumb

formula for interfering illuminances, involving just the distance to lit

streets on shore.

8.3. Summary and Conclusions. The summary and conclusions are not in this

chapter, they are in Section 3.6.

81
REFERENCES

1. Richard A. Walker, "Optical systems for defining the viewing and measuring

fields in luminance/radiance meters," Applied Optics 9, 2060-2068, 1972.

2. Gunter Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles, Color Science , first ed. (John Wiley,

New York, 1967), p. 569.

3. Department of Transportation, United States Coast Guard, Light List,

Volume 1: Atlantic Coast , COMDTINST M16502.1 (U. S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, 1987).

4. James A. Worthey, Global Features of Color Rendering and Vision

Difficulties under Fluorescent Lights, Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana

University (Bloomington), 1981.

5. Gunter Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles, Color Science , first ed. (John Wiley,

New York, 1967), p. 47.

6. Gerald L. Howett, Emergency vehicle warning lights , National Bureau of

Standards Special Publication 480-16, 1978.

7. Gerald L. Howett, "The coming redefinition of photometry," Journal of the

Illuminating Engineering Society 15, 5-18.

8. Gunter Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles, Color Science , first ed. (John Wiley,

New York, 1967), p. 390.

9. Gunter Wyszecki and W. S. Stiles, Color Science, first ed. (John Wiley,

New York, 1967), p. 373.

10. William Marshall Smart, Textbook on Spherical Astronomy , Sixth Edition

revised by Robin Michael Green (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

1977).

11. Photo Research Division, Instruction and Maintenance Manual for the

Spectra Pritchard Photometer (Photo Research, Burbank, 1973).

82
NBS-114A (REV. 2-80

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

NBSIR 88-3807

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Lights of New York Harbor

2. Performing Organ. Report NoJ 3.

5. AUTHOR(S)

Publ ication Date

JUNE 1988

James A. Worthey

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than NBS, see in struction s) 7. Contract/Grant No.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 8. Type of Report & Period Covered

GAITHERSBURG, MD 20899

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City. State, ZIP)

Coast Guard Research and Development Center

U.S. Department of Transportation

Avery Point

Groton, Connecticut 06340-6096

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

3 Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11.

ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bi bl iography or literature survey, mention it here)

This report presents measurements on shore lights of the New York harbor area, taken

from three observation points. In particular, measurements were made of the illuminance

at the observation point due to distant lights, considered to be point sources. This

is a measure of point source intensity appropriate to this situation, and quantifies

what a mariner will see sailing into or out of New York harbor at night. The meas—

urments are of interest because lights on shore make it hard to see the lights maintained by the U. S. Coast Guard as aids to navigation. One conclusion is that most of

the interfering lights are high-pressure sodium vapor lamps used to light the streets,

roads, and docks. The distributions of the lights in intensity, position, and color

are presented graphically.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries ; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons)

Aids to navi.agtion; Aiming device; Buoy; Lighthouse; Photometry; Signal lights.

13. AVAILABILITY 14. NO. OF

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