State Funding 

for Community Colleges:

A 50-State Survey

What’s Inside

State Appropriations to

Community Colleges

General Finance Issues

Enrollment Funding and

Student Share of Cost

State Support for Special

Programs

Accountability

State Funding 

for Community Colleges:

A 50-State Survey

Center for Community College Policy

Education Commission of the States

D e n v e r, Colorado

November 2000
In a July 2000 constituent needs survey conducted by the Education Commission of the States (ECS), state

policymakers were asked to identify the top 10 postsecondary education policy issues they anticipate facing

in the future.The postsecondary education policy issue that concerned respondents most was the financing

of colleges and universities. Such a response from state education leaders suggests the release of this report

by the Center for Community College Policy is timely.

Community colleges play vital roles in meeting student, community and employer/employee needs,

serving as the point of access and providing choices to nearly one-half of the nation's postsecondary students. In July 1999, ECS established the Center for Community College Policy to serve as a focal point for a

range of policy services for state policymakers. Among other activities,the center operates a Web site 

(www.communitycollegepolicy.org) that provides information on each state's community college system,

as well as policy papers on emerging policy issues.The center also organizes workshops and policy forums,

conducts research and analysis, provides technical assistance, and facilitates state-level dialogues between

policymakers and community college leaders. Initial support for the center was provided by a three-year

$750,000 grant from the U.S. Department of Education (R215U990001-00).

The center wishes to acknowledge the support of a number of individuals without whose assistance this

report would have been impossible. We particularly wish to express our deep gratitude to the survey

respondents in the offices for community colleges or state community college associations from all 50

states. Much of the requested information was difficult to gather, and we deeply appreciate the thorough

and conscientious efforts of each respondent.When we re-contacted state respondents to clarify and

expand on our original survey instrument, they were kind enough to revisit their data to ensure that, as

much as is possible, we were able to compare “apples and apples.” The names of principal survey respondents are included in Appendix D on page 69.

We also want to acknowledge the support of the Council of State Directors of Community Colleges and the

Association of State Executives for Community Colleges without whose vision and encouragement this

report would not have been possible.Additionally, we appreciate the leadership of and support for the center provided by Jacqueline Woods, liaison to community colleges at the U.S. Department of Education, and

Clifford Adelman, Office of Educational Research and Improvement project manager at the department.

Several individuals reviewed and provided feedback on various drafts of the survey instrument and subsequent report, including Dale Campbell,director and professor of the Institute of Higher Education

Department of Educational Leadership at the University of Florida; David Honeyman, professor and director of the Center for Educational Finance at the University of Florida; Elizabeth Hodge,graduate student,

University of Florida; Frank Renz, executive director, New Mexico Community College Association; Jan

Motta, executive director, Massachusetts Community Colleges; Hans L’Orange,director of the State Higher

Education Executive Officers and National Center for Education Statistics Communication Network;

Richard Rhodes, vice president for business services, Salt Lake Community College; Richard Voorhees,

associate vice president for instruction and student services, Community Colleges of Colorado; and James

Palmer, associate professor, Illinois State University.

P R E FA C E

i i ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
Within ECS and the center, Judie Mathers was the policy analyst primarily responsible for the development,

implementation and analysis of the survey. ECS Policy Analyst Evelyn Waiwaiole and Center Director

Katherine Boswell assisted in the analysis and preparation of the final report. Special acknowledgment is

due to ECS Project Assistant Genevieve Hale, without whose doggedness in gently reminding state officials

to return their data, this survey would have been impossible. Editorial assistance was provided by Kim

Moyer, Sherry Freeland Walker and Josie Canales, and graphics were designed by Square One Creative.

Katherine Boswell

Director, Center for Community College Policy

i i i ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
C O N T E N T S

i v ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Section 1 State Appropriations to Community Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Subsection 1.1: The State Appropriations Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Subsection 1.2: State Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Subsection 1.3: Consideration of Program Costs in Determining Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Subsection 1.4: Use of Line Items in the Appropriations Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Section 2 General Finance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Subsection 2.1: Breakdown of General Operating Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Subsection 2.2: Local Revenue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Subsection 2.3: Capital Outlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Section 3 Enrollment Funding and Student Share of Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Subsection 3.1: Definition of FTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Subsection 3.2: Total Number of Credit-Generating FTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Subsection 3.3: Average Expenditure per FTE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Subsection 3.4: Comparison of Community College FTE and State Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Subsection 3.5: Student Share of Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Subsection 3.6: Student Tuition and Fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Subsection 3.7: Average Cost of Tuition and Fees Across Higher Education Sectors . . . . . . . . . . 24

Subsection 3.8: In- and Out-of-District/State Tuition Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Subsection 3.9: Determining a Full-Time Student in the Tuition Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Subsection 3.10: Tuition Overload Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Subsection 3.11: Tuition Waivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Section 4 State Support for Special Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Subsection 4.1: Noncredit Courses and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Subsection 4.2: Workforce Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Subsection 4.3: Dual/Concurrent Enrollment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Subsection 4.4: Remedial/Developmental Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Subsection 4.5: Adult Basic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Subsection 4.6: Distance Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Section 5 A c c o u n t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Subsection 5.1: Performance Measures and Community College Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Current and Emerging Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

C o n c l u s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Appendix A. State-by-State Community College Performance Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Appendix B. 1999 Community College Finance Policy Surv e y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Appendix C. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Appendix D. Community College Finance Survey Respondents by State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ta b l e s

Table 1: Uses of Formula Funding in Determining System Appropriations and Institutional Allocations. . . . . . . . 4

Table 2: Process for Developing and/or Changing Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Table 3: Drivers within the Funding Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Table 4: Additional Drivers for Funding Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Table 5: Program Costs Used To Determine Support for Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Table 6: Use of Line Items in State Appropriations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Table 7: Percentage Breakdown of General Operating Funds for 1998-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Table 8: Processes for Generating and Allocating Local Tax Revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Table 9: Alternative Local Revenue Sources Other Than Local Property Tax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Table 10: Average Percentage Breakdown of Sources of Capital Outlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Table 11: Alternative Definitions of Full-Time Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Table 12: Comparison of Credit-Generating Annualized Student FTE from Diff e rent Higher Education Sectors. . . . 17

Table 13: Average Expenditure per Student Annualized FTE 1998-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Table 14: Comparison of Average Expenditure per Community College Student FTE and 

State Support per Community College Student FTE 1998-99. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Table 15: High and Low Tuition by State (Tuition Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Table 16: High and Low Tuition and Fees by State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Table 17: Average Cost of Tuition and Fees Across Higher Education Sectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Table 18: State Support for Noncredit Programs, Customized Training and Lifelong Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table 19: Sources of Funding for Workforce Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 20: Dual/Concurrent Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Table 21: Methods of Funding Remedial/Developmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Table 22: Difference in Funding for Remedial/Developmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Table 23: Funding Sources for Adult Basic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Table 24: Summary of Performance Indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Table 25: Community College Performance Indicators and Their Link to Budget Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

C h a r t s

Chart 1: Comparison of Average Tuition Costs Between In-District and Out-of-District Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chart 2: Comparison of Average Cost of Tuition Between In-State and Out-of-State Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Chart 3: Student Groups That Are Most Often Eligible To Receive Student Tuition and Fee Waivers . . . . . . . . . 27

Chart 4: Funding for Adult Basic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Chart 5: Twelve Most Common Performance Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

TABLES AND CHARTS CONTENTS

v

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
Serving diverse purposes, a budget can be many things: a political act, 

a plan of work, a prediction, a source of enlightenment, a means of 

obfuscation, a mechanism of control, an escape from restrictions, 

a means to action, a brake on progress, even a prayer that the powers 

that be will deal gently with the best aspirations of fallible men.

– Aaron Wildavsky

The Politics of the Budgetary Process, 1964

Two-year colleges have existed in one form or another for nearly 100 years. But from their earliest days, they have tended to remain in the shadow of larger, more prominent, four-year colleges and universities, and public K-12 systems.

Some community colleges emerged as extensions of public high schools, while others had their origins in applied vocational and technical schools.Still other community colleges date back to the turn of the century, and many were a

product of the emphasis on providing higher education access to returning World War II veterans. In the heyday of

community college growth during the 1960s and ‘70s, a new college was opened every week somewhere in the United

States.

This mix of origins of these uniquely American postsecondary institutions has resulted in widely differing patterns of

public governance and support. Unlike their four-year counterparts,community colleges essentially have been a product of their local community, reflecting local priorities and resources.As a result,it has been extremely difficult to track

and report on how they are funded.

In the past decade,however, both state and federal government officials have taken an increased interest in community

colleges and expect them to assume a new and more prominent role in policy initiatives ranging from welfare reform to

economic development.As a result,state policymakers have joined local community and college leaders in seeking

ways to meet and finance the increased services demanded from community colleges in a highly competitive statefunding environment.

This financial challenge prompted the ECS Center for Community College Policy to survey postsecondary leaders in all

50 states to determine how they fund their community college systems.

Discussions with a few community college state directors,who were frustrated by the lack of data on how initiatives

such as distance education or workforce development are funded in different states, led to the development of a survey

instrument in the fall of 1999.The survey was sent to each state’s community college office in November 1999. In

February 2000, representatives from 24 states gathered in Washington, D.C.,to review the initial survey findings.

Through the course of their discussions,it became clear that, despite significant efforts to clearly define terms used in

the survey instrument, respondents had interpreted some questions differently. Thus,a revised survey instrument was

sent out for a second round of data collection.

Some data were collected from all 50 states.Data from only 45 states, however, are included in many parts of the report

because five states did not complete both versions of the survey instrument. It also is important to note that several

states have multiple community and/or technical college systems,and collected data may not represent all of those systems. For example,data from the state of New York was submitted by the State University of NewYork system community college leaders and does not represent the separate City University of NewYork system. Wisconsin data was provided by Wisconsin Technical College system officials and does not represent the two-year transfer institutions that are

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
branch campuses of the state university systems.Similarly, data from Georgia primarily reflect responses from the

Georgia Department of Technical and Adult Education and do not include community colleges that fall under the

Georgia Board of Regents.

Given these limitations and the natural differences among states,the ECS Center for Community College Policy does

not believe these survey findings provide a perfect comparison of how each state funds its community colleges. Rather,

it has reported the data provided.The data’s accuracy depend upon survey respondents’interpretation of the instrument’s questions and how reliable their information sources were.When text responses are included in certain tables,

ECS used the exact wording (within editorial limits) of respondents.Any editorial changes made for clarity purposes

are found in brackets.ECS made a deliberate choice not to use data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System, but rather asked respondents to provide current information.Finally, ECS recognizes this is an exploratory

report that may raise more questions than it will answer.

ECS believes,however, that the report provides a starting point for further research and hopes that as policymakers

and academic community leaders study these findings, they discover funding approaches that are worthy of consideration.ECS also intends that the policy questions included in each section of the report help guide state-level discussions about funding community colleges.

2

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
1 S TATE APPROPRIATIONS TO COMMUNITY COLLEGES

1.1 The State Appropriations Process

3

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Despite the establishment of public colleges and universities in the United States as early as the 1780s,the concept

of state appropriations to support these institutions did not emerge until after the Civil War. When the federal legislature established the Morrill Land Grant Act in 1862, decisionmakers in every state established tax-supported public

institutions of higher education (Chambers,1968).Throughout the 20th century, the bulk of state support for higher

education came from state appropriations.

Community colleges, the majority of which emerged after World War II, historically have relied upon a mixed funding

base. Survey respondents in 26 states report their community college systems depend on local tax funds, usually from

property taxes.The remaining 24 state community college systems receive the bulk of their fiscal support in annual or

biennial state legislative appropriations.Every state community college system, however, receives some level of state

appropriation.

Understanding each state’s appropriations process is central to understanding how each state finances its community

colleges.Therefore,survey respondents were asked to explain their states’process and how funds are allocated to

individual colleges.When it became apparent that formulas were used by a majority of states to determine appropriations,ECS asked additional questions to determine the factors included in such formulas,and which political body

has the authority to change the funding formula.

An examination of the findings suggests state policymakers should bear in mind several policy questions as they

consider the state appropriations process.Those questions include the following:

• How can state policymakers maintain appropriate fiscal accountability in the use of public resources while allowing

postsecondary institutional leaders flexibility to manage their institutions efficiently?

• Do state funding policies provide incentives or disincentives to community colleges to meet critical state needs?

(e.g., if community colleges are being called upon to meet the workforce training needs required under federal law,

should state appropriation policies fund colleges for the short-term, noncredit training typically required under

such programs?)

Survey findings indicate there are two primary methods for allocating appropriated funds to community colleges.

Many states use a funding formula developed through a legislative process or by the state higher education board.

Other states determine appropriations through legislative hearings and/or deliberations while considering state higher education board recommendations.

• Twenty-nine states report they use a funding formula to determine appropriations, including Arizona,Arkansas,

California,Colorado,Georgia, Illinois,Kansas, Louisiana,Maryland, Massachusetts,Michigan, Missouri,Montana,

North Carolina,Nebraska,Nevada,New Jersey, New Mexico, New York,Ohio,Oregon, Pennsylvania, South

Carolina,Tennessee, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming.

• Fifteen states (Alabama,Alaska, Connecticut,Delaware,Florida, Hawaii, Idaho,Indiana,Iowa, Kentucky, Maine,

Mississippi, Rhode Island,Virginia and Washington) report they do not have a funding formula to determine

appropriations.

Appropriations to community colleges are reflected in the state budget either by a single consolidated appropriation

to all community colleges in the state, as part of a consolidated higher education appropriation or as an appropriation to individual colleges.

• Twenty-four states report a single consolidated appropriation for all community colleges.They are Alabama,

Alaska,California, Colorado,Connecticut, Hawaii,Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland,Michigan, Mississippi,

Missouri,Montana, Nebraska,New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina,

Virginia, Washington and Wisconsin.
Uses of Formula Funding in Determining System Appropriations and Institutional Allocations 1

Table

Process for Developing and/or Changing Funding Formulas 2

Table

4

State Funding Formulas 1.2

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Formula Used to Determine:

Total funds to be allocated (pre-appropriation)

Allocation to individual institutions (post-appro p r i a t i o n )

Both pre- and post-appropriation

States

CO, GA, IA, MA, NM, NV, SC

IL, KS, NE, NJ, OH, OR, PA, TX, WI, WV

AR, AZ, CA, MD, MO, MT, NC, NY, TN, WY

In addition,officials in two states indicate their formulas are used to allocate new money to institutions.The

Michigan respondent said that state’s funding formula is ”used to allocate a percentage of the increase”stated in the

appropriation.The Utah respondent indicated that the state’s formula is used to determine “how new funding for

growth is distributed.”

An indicator of where the power and influence lies in making state-level fiscal decisions for community colleges may

be evident in the various processes states use to develop and/or change funding formulas.

Table 2 below presents the responses of 25 of the 29 states that reported having a funding formula offered short

descriptions of that process which are presented in Table 2 below. Respondents from Georgia, Louisiana, Missouri,

New Jersey and Texas did not describe the procedures by which their states change the funding formula.

• Twelve states (Arizona,Arkansas, Florida,Indiana,Louisiana, Massachusetts,Nevada,New Hampshire, New

Mexico, Tennessee, Texas and Utah) report that appropriations are allocated to individual institutions.

• Eight states (Georgia, Kansas, North Dakota,Ohio,Oklahoma, Rhode Island,Vermont and West Virginia) indicate

that community college budgets are included in a consolidated appropriation with all postsecondary institutions.

In general,there are two primary uses for a funding formula. It may be used to determine the total amount of funds

appropriated to community colleges (pre-appropriation), or it may be used to determine how allocated funds are distributed to individual institutions (post-appropriation). States either use their formulas in one of these two ways or

build a formula that serves both purposes. Table 1 below shows the states that use pre-appropriation or post-appropriation formulas and the states that use a combination of the two.

State

AR

AZ

CA

CO 

Description

Arkansas operates on a biennial budget cycle. For the 2001-03 biennium, funding policies were developed by the depart m e n t ’s Institutional Finance staff in consultation with the presidents and chancellors

of the state’s two-year institutions. Recommendations, based on those policy agreements, were made

to the Arkansas Higher Education Coordinating Board (AHECB). The AHECB’s recommendations were

then sent to the governor and the legislative council, a standing committee of the general assembly.

The value of each full-time enrollment (FTE) changes annually by dividing total current year

Maintenance and Operations appropriation by total FTE.

S t ru c t u re is prescribed by legislative direction. Details are developed and adopted as Administrative

Code (regulations). Board of Governors implements through re g u l a t i o n s .

All higher education governing boards are funded based on enrollment and performance. 

A change in this process would have to be initiated by the Colorado Commission on Higher

Education, the governor’s office or the general assembly.

Continued on next page
5

State

IL

KS

MA

MD

MI

MT

NC

NE

NJ

NM

NV

NY

OH

OR

PA

SC

TN

UT

WI

WV

WY

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Description

Minor revisions to the formula are made as new restricted grants are added. Significant changes 

are made by conducting a statewide survey and gathering input from community colleges.

Board of Regents staff collaborate with the Kansas Association of Community College Trustees. 

A proposal for change would go to the board. If the board supports a proposal, it would go to the

executive and legislative branches of government for consideration.

Discussion between Board of Higher Education, Community College Office and campuses.

Any interested party must work through the legislative process. A bill must be introduced, passed 

by the general assembly and signed into law by the governor.

The legislature can make changes to the formula with input from other state agencies and 

community colleges.

The legislature [makes funding formula changes].

Changes require state board and legislative approval.

Generally, the colleges develop a solution to a problem and bring it to the legislature.

Council of County Colleges develops the formula and forw a rds it to the state tre a s u rer for official appro v a l .

The Commission on Higher Education, in consultation with the institutions, develops recommendations

for changing or enhancing the formula. All changes [must] be approved by the legislature.

Formulas are legislative approved. Current formulas were approved in 1986. The legislature would

have to approve a new study to change the formulas.

The formula is legislated and can be modified only through regular and/or budget legislation.

The Instructional Subsidy Consultation is designed to provide a forum to discuss the Instructional

Subsidy formula. Campus representatives from all sectors serve as members to the consultation. 

The consultation considers potential changes to the formula and examines data to judge the impact 

of such changes. Changes are agreed to by informal consensus, and recommended changes are

then forwarded to the Higher Education Funding Commission. Policies agreed to by the commission

are then forwarded to the Board of Regents for final adoption before being forwarded to the governor

and the legislature.

The funding formula was developed in collaboration with the colleges. Changes and/or approval 

rest with the State Board of Education.

Change by legislation.

Commission on Higher Education has been given statutory authority for developing and/or changing

the funding formula.

Higher Education Coordinating Board establishes task force of Board of Regents and University 

of Tennessee systems to change process.

Utah System of Higher Education makes changes.

State board would recommend change to legislature, and legislature and governor would decide 

to accept/reject change.

Legislation.

Commission collaboration with colleges.

The survey results also reveal that three primary elements tend to drive funding formulas in the states: enrollment,

space utilization and comparison with peer institutions (see Table 3).Most respondents indicated that their state formula was focused on one of the drivers or a combination of two or three. Twenty states identified enrollment as the

critical component of community college funding formulas.
Drivers within the Funding Formulas 3

Table

Additional Drivers for Funding Formula 4

Table

Drivers

Enrollment

Space utilization

Comparison with peer institutions

Enrollment & space utilization

Enrollment & space utilization, & comparison with 

peer institutions

States

AZ, CO, GA, IL, KS, MD, MS, MT, NC, NE, NJ, 

NY, OH, OR, PA, SC, TX, UT, WA, WV

None

WY

CA, NM, NV

AR, MA, TN

6

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

On a related issue, s u rv ey respondents in states where enrollment figures are re q u i red in the formula were asked

whether projected enrollments or actual enrollment figures from the previous year are used to determine the appro p r i at i o n .

• Respondents in 20 states (Arizona, A r k a n s a s ,C o l o ra d o ,G e o rg i a ,I l l i n o i s ,K a n s a s ,M a ry l a n d ,M a s s a c h u s e t t s ,

M i s s i s s i p p i ,N e b ra s k a ,N ew Je r s ey, N ew Mexico, N ew Yo r k , North Caro l i n a ,O h i o , O re g o n , Te n n e s s e e ,Te x a s , Utah 

and West Vi rginia) said their state’s funding formula is based on actual enrollment from the previous ye a r.

• Decisionmakers in Montana,Nevada, Pennsylvania and South Carolina base their funding formula on enrollment

projections.

Respondents from two states report using drivers other than those listed above: 

• Michigan uses a “combination of enrollment administration need,student services need,instructional support

need [and] physical plant need.”

• Wisconsin’s respondent stated,“Operating costs [drive the funding formula] – enrollments [count], but costs are

paramount.”

Furthermore,seven states (California, Colorado, Illinois,Montana,Nebraska, New Mexico and Ohio) reported using

additional drivers in combination with the three primary drivers (see Table 4 below).Respondents in these states volunteered this supplementary information in addition to the specific information requested by the survey. It is likely

that other drivers also could be identified for other states.

State

CA

CO

IL

MT

NE

NM

OH

Description

G ross square feet and FTEs in leased facilities

P e rf o rm a n c e

Equalized Assessed Valuations, college costs, tuition revenue, other sources of re v e n u e

S u p p o rt level per FTE, state percent, minor fixed costs

Equalization factors based upon pro p e rty tax collection

Addition of space, library acquisitions, equipment inventory, utilities

Facility size
7

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Respondents also were asked to answer the following question: How closely does the final state appropriation reflect

what would be expected under the funding formula?

The responses indicated that no matter how accurate or generous the funding formula, there is a wide variation in

how state legislatures met obligations.Respondents’perceptions of how their state legislatures perform follow: 

• Arizona – Exactly.

• California – Relatively close.

• Colorado – Generally, every governing board gets full recognition for its enrollment gain or loss.The performance

formula only determines the share of the performance pool of money each governing board will receive.The general assembly determines how much the pool of money for performance will be.

• Connecticut – General fund and tuition resources,which are allocated by the Community College Board,currently

achieve funding for approximately 100% of instruction formula, 84% of physical plant formula and 94% of library

formula.

• Massachusetts – Varies from year to year, sometimes not at all.

• M a ryland – Unless reduced by the general assembly, the state appropriation matches the funding formula expectation.

• Michigan – The formula never has been fully funded,but is used as a guide to allocate new dollars.The actual

appropriations are 18-20% less than total need as determined by the formula.

• Missouri – Pretty close.

• Montana – Same.

• North Carolina – Legislature has always funded our FTE.

• New Mexico – Typically 100%, although not all of the formula funding factors are 100%.

• Nevada – Instruction function is usually funded at 100% of the formula.All other functions are funded at 0-50% of

the formula.

• New Jersey – The state is supposed to provide one-third of the funding for community colleges.The state share has

increased from a low of 22%,several years ago, to 33% more recently.

• NewYork – Very well,assuming the level of per FTE base state aid is relatively known and expected.If the base aid

for the state share is uncertain, it obviously creates a great deal of local uncertainty.

• Ohio – Uncodified law, which provides actual dollar figures to be used in calculating the various components of the

formula,accompanies the final state appropriation.Thus, the final appropriation closely reflects what would be

expected under the funding formula.

• Pennsylvania – The appropriation equals the anticipated student enrollments plus mandated capital projects.

• South Carolina – Historically, about two-thirds of the funding formula calculation.

• Tennessee – Funded at about 92%.

• Texas – Fairly close.Appropriations act required reporting full cost of education for two-year institutions but 

funded at 71% of full cost.

• Wisconsin – Perfectly.

• West Virginia – Generally less,around 77%.

• Wyoming – First use of the model in 2000; fully funded.
Program Costs Used To Determine Support for Courses 5

Table

Consideration of Program Costs in Determining Formula 1.3

8

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Unlike universities that generally have far greater resources, 80% to 85% of the average community college budget is

typically tied up in fixed personnel costs.As a result,two-year colleges perhaps are more influenced by fiscal incentives and disincentives in the budget process than their four-year counterparts. One of the issues reported on in the

survey revealed the rate at which states recognize and fund the varied costs associated with certain academic programs that may require expensive equipment or intensive laboratory experience versus the lower costs typically associated with a general education lecture course.

Officials from 16 states reported that program costs are used in calculating their state’s funding formula.Their

descriptions of that section of the formula are presented in Table 5 below:

State

AR

GA

IL

KS

KY

MA

MS

NC

NE

NJ

NM

OH

PA

SC

TN

UT

Description

Technical hours determined at 1.5 times general education; basic skills at two times general education; and health education at 2.4 times general education.

Personal services component of the formula based on five weighted program clusters. Each cluster

generates a diff e rent dollar amount per credit hour, based on the cost of programs within the cluster.

Community college system conducts an annual unit cost study. This study gathers year-end expenditure

and enrollment data for each community college district to develop an analysis of the costs of various

budget categories and instructional disciplines on a statewide level. The study provides the basic cost

i n f o rmation for determining a statewide credit-hour grant rate that is a primary source of funding for

community colleges.

The funding formula contains a multiplier of 1.75 per credit hour state aid for vocational pro g r a m s .

P rogram offerings have historically been considered in allocation of funds for both current and new

p rogram off e r i n g s .

C e rtain courses (including developmental education) carry more weight.

Associate Degree Nursing is weighted heavier in our formula due to its high cost nature .

Weighted FTE for five high-cost pro g r a m s .

Some state funds are distributed through an enrollment-driven formula wherein courses are weighted

in relation to costs. Academic transfer courses are weighted 1.0, light vocational courses are weighted

1.5 and heavy vocational courses are weighted 2.0.

[ P rogram Costs] But this is being phased out.

The “I” or Instruction portion of the formula contains diff e rent cost factors clustered around seven

b road categories of instruction. A separate Equipment Renewal and Replacement formula generates

funds for equipment renewal and replacement, based on inventory.

Costs are an integral part of the instructional subsidy formula. The subsidy assigns student enro l l m e n t s

into one of 15 models, defined by six ranks of instruction and within [each] rank of instruction, by academic program. Within each rank of instruction, the classification system distinguishes lower-cost programs, such as social science, from more expensive programs, such as natural sciences. Individual

student-unit re c o rds, campus finances, faculty data and space data, submitted annually by campuses,

a re used to determine the statewide average costs per full-time FTE for each of the 15 models.

T h e re are statewide programs, occupational, technical and advanced technology; an ad hoc group comprised

of PDE officials and community college occupational deans reviews the programs and determine classifications.

The cost of a program is usually associated with faculty salary.

Each course content area is funded based on the specific costs incurred for that are a .

The funding factor per student is aggregated based on six program clusters (e.g., high cost/low cost).
6 Use of Line Items in State Appropriations

Table

1.4 Use of Line Items in the Appropriations Process

9

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

The use of restricted line items in a community college system budget has a significant impact on the capacity of

institutions to be flexible in responding to system or state needs. Survey respondents were asked whether legislative

a p p roval was re q u i red to move funds between line items in their respective states. Table 6 summarizes their re s p o n s e s :

Does the legislature designate community college appropriations as a series of line items?

Yes 24 States – 

AL, AR, AZ, CA, DE, HI, IL, KS, MA, MS, NC, ND, NH, NJ, NM, NV, NY, OH, RI, SC, TX, UT, WA, WI

No 25 States – 

AK, CO, CT, FL, GA, IA, ID, IN, KY, LA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MT, NE, OK, OR, PA, 

TN, VA, VT, WV, WY 

Are salaries included as a separate line item?

Yes 8 States – 

DE, GA, HI, NM, NV, RI, SC, WA

No 41 States – 

AK, AL, AR, AZ, CA, CO, CT, FL, IA, ID, IL, IN, KS, KY, LA, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MS, MT,

NC, ND, NE, NH, NJ, NY, OH, OK, OR, PA, TN, TX, UT, VA, VT, WI, WV, WY

Is legislative approval required to move funds between line items?

Yes 13 States – 

AL, AR, CA, DE, IL, KS, MS, NH, NY, OH, UT, WA, WI

No 36 States – 

AK, AZ, CO, CT, FL, GA, HI, IA, ID, IN, KY, LA, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MT, NC, ND, NE, NJ,

NM, NV, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, VT, WV, WY
Percentage Breakdown of General Operating Funds for 1998-99 7

Table

Breakdown of General Operating Funds 2.1

GENERAL FINANCE ISSUES 2

10 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

From the early part of the 20th century to the present, there have been significant shifts in the sources of financial

support for community colleges.In 1918, local funds made up 94% of the support for junior colleges, with the

remaining 6% provided by tuition and fees (Cohen & Brawer, 1996).By 1992, local support to community colleges

dropped to 18%, state support increased to 46%, and student tuition and fees covered 20% of the sources of revenue

provided to two-year colleges. Federal and other sources made up 16%.

While colleges in 26 states still collect support from a local tax base, the trend for the past three decades has been for

states to assume an increasing percentage of community college operating costs.This trend has been further driven

by property tax limitation efforts in California,Arizona, Colorado, Hawaii,Illinois,Oregon and Washington (Cohen &

Brawer, 1996). Colorado has an unusual mixed system, where 13 of the 15 community colleges are governed under

the Colorado Community College and Occupational Education System Board, which receives the bulk of its revenue

from the state.The other two Colorado community colleges heavily rely on their local tax base and receive a much

smaller percentage of state dollars.

Beyond property tax limitation, another factor in the shift toward increased state funding has been concerns about

the significant variations in the ability of small communities to support local colleges. Dramatic differences in property tax valuations across a state can lead to large disparities in tuition rates between wealthier communities and poorer districts, because poorer districts may be forced to raise tuition and fees to meet their basic budgets.

The findings from this survey about general finance issues suggest a number of policy questions that state leaders

may consider as they review the funding of two-year institutions in their states.

Policy Questions for Consideration:

• How can states manage the mix of state appropriations and other revenue sources to ensure higher education vitality?

• To what extent does a strong reliance on local property taxes subvert the goal of providing equal access across the state?

• Does a shift away from local property taxes to state funding undermine a tradition of local control that has been

common to community colleges?

As mentioned earlier, there has been a significant shift in the breakdown of general operating funds for community

colleges over the past several decades, with an increase in the percentage of support coming from the state and a far

greater reliance on student tuition and fee revenue.As Table 7 suggests, however, significant variations exist across

the country. For example,Vermont’s community college system collects only 14% of its operating funds from the

state, compared to North Carolina’s system which collects 75%.

State Federal* State Local Tuition & Fees Other**

AK 0.60% 44.40% 16.90% 15.20% 22.90%

AL 22.04% 47.24% 9.71% 21.01%

AR 71.00% 3.00% 22.00% 4.00%

AZ 1.00% 21.00% 57.00% 20.00% 1.00%

CA 3.80% 50.90% 44.50% 0.80%

CO 16.00% 42.00% 1.00% 24.00% 17.00%

Continued on next page
11 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Federal* State Local Tuition & Fees Other**

CT 71.00% 19.00% 10.00%

DE 5.00% 57.00% 11.00% 17.00% 10.00%

FL 0.25% 68.51% 0.02% 23.06% 8.00%

GA 10.00% 63.00% 14.00% 13.00%

HI 2.70% 61.80% 16.80% 18.70%

IA 3.21% 45.66% 5.89% 38.97% 6.27%

ID 46.20% 30.10% 17.80% 5.90%

IL 0.08% 25.77% 43.24% 26.93% 3.97%

IN 62.30% 37.70% 0.00%

KS 2.00% 24.00% 40.00% 16.00% 18.00%

KY 15.61% 54.15% 0.01% 17.60% 12.63%

LA 17.00% 55.00% 21.00% 7.00%

MA 18.00% 42.00% 24.00% 16.00%

MD 26.90% 33.40% 35.70% 3.94%

ME 4.00% 46.00% 22.00% 28.00%

MI 0.30% 26.50% 25.00% 23.20% 25.00%

MN 62.40% 36.50% 1.10%

MO 2.00% 41.00% 26.00% 24.00% 7.00%

MS 5.09% 52.25% 12.48% 18.43% 11.75%

MT 43.00% 23.00% 20.00% 14.00%

NC 3.20% 75.20% 12.90% 8.20% 0.50%

ND 49.00% 23.00% 28.00%

NE 35.00% 37.00% 21.00% 7.00%

NH 13.00% 47.00% 40.00%

NJ 24.00% 30.00% 42.00% 4.00%

NM 1.80% 59.60% 25.30% 13.20% 0.10%

NV 7.78% 63.30% 0.28% 23.05% 5.59%

NY 5.70% 29.00% 31.30% 34.00%

OH 2.71% 45.29% 16.73% 32.21% 3.05%

OK 0.20% 59.70% 11.90% 19.80% 8.40%

OR 11.50% 39.90% 19.90% 16.20% 12.50%

PA 6.20% 35.70% 18.30% 35.70% 4.10%

RI 63.00% 34.00% 3.00%

SC 19.00% 45.00% 10.00% 24.00% 3.00%

TN 0.60% 66.50% 29.90% 3.00%

TX 14.40% 37.90% 17.90% 19.90% 9.80%

UT 0.00% 52.00% 25.00% 23.00%

VA 7.80% 57.7% 0.40% 30.70% 3.40%

VT 0.30% 14.00% 81.30% 4.40%

WA 5.00% 59.00% 17.00% 19.00%

WI 4.00% 21.00% 53.00% 16.00%

WV 22.00% 51.00% 21.00% 6.00%

WY 63.00% 18.00% 19.00%

*Includes all Perkins funds. 

**Includes federal financial aid and restricted funds other than Perkins.
Processes for Generating and Allocating Local Tax Revenue 8

Table

Local Revenue 2.2

12 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

The Center for Community College Policy asked respondents a series of questions concerning the varied sources of

revenue that support community colleges in their states.Analysis of the data indicates the following:

• Twenty-six states use local tax revenue as a funding source.(Colorado has two colleges that collect local tax revenue; the balance of colleges receive the bulk of their support from the state. See Table 8.)

• Eighteen states do not have access to local tax revenue,including Alabama, Connecticut,Delaware,Florida,

Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana,Louisiana, Massachusetts,Maine, Nevada, Rhode Island,South Carolina, Tennessee,

Texas, Utah, Washington and West Virginia.

Tables 8 and 9 further explain how local tax revenue is generated for and allocated to two-year institutions,as well as

the types of local revenue available other than property taxes, such as redevelopment funds,utility taxes,timber or

mineral severance taxes,and motor vehicle taxes.

Continued on next page

State Process Description

AK [An example from one community college in Alaska]. Annual grant requests from City of Valdez as a

Community Service Organization to its city council for allocation.

AR Local tax may be generated through local millage or city or county sales tax.

AZ Local community college districts levy primary and secondary property taxes.

CA Districts receive a portion of the 1% countywide property tax based on their proportional share of

property tax revenue received from their county prior to tax control (Prop. 13, 1978).

CO Recently acquired two local-district junior colleges into the state system. These colleges still receive some local

tax dollars that exclusively stay with those two colleges and are not allocated or spent at any other college.

IA Each community college receives 20-25% tax levy, based on assessed valuation. Additionally, each

community college may levy for projected needs, such as early re t i rement, equipment, unemployment, etc. 

ID Budget request generated and applied against the tax levy.

IL Process is handled at the local board level in accordance with statutory requirements.

KS Local board of trustees raises local taxes as determined by law. Only local boards may raise taxes

from the taxing district. The local board determines how the local funds will be allocated within the

institution’s budget.

KY Property taxes and/or specific allocation.

MD Local governments, with input from community colleges, generate and allocate funds. State funding

formula, however, requires current year local appropriations to be equal to or greater than [the] prior

year to be eligible for increased state funds.

MI College boards of trustees are authorized to submit millage requests to the voters in their legal college

district. They are allowed to collect property tax revenue on the approved millage.

MO Passing levies through local referendum.

MS The community and junior colleges have a ceiling of three mills and a floor of one mill, which is set by

state statute.

MT Local property tax in the community college district.

NC Counties must provide funds for plant operations and maintenance.

NE Local boards set local levies in the budget approval process based upon limitations in state statute.

NJ Colleges have annual negotiations with county government. All county dollars are property tax dollars.

NM Branch campuses of universities legally must assess one mill in their taxing district and “independent”

community colleges two mills. Each has the authority to tax up to five mills in a district pending voter

approval. Contiguous taxing districts can be added with voter approval. The minimum levy is taken as

a credit against the state allocation. All else approved above the minimum amount is available for the

budget. In some instances, the extra millage is voted on for a special purpose, such as tuition reduction, and it is used for that purpose.
9 Alternative Local Revenue Sources Other Than Local Property Ta x

Table

2.3 Capital Outlay

13 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Process Description

NY Locally controlled process whereby the county legislature (or legislatures for colleges representing

multiple county jurisdictions) determines the local budget share (“sponsor share”) for the community

college. The community college local budget share is included in the county budget the same as other

county agencies, including operating-budget line items.

OH Board of trustees of community colleges may request that the question of levying a tax on all taxable

property in the community college district be placed on the ballot. The levy can be used to provide

funds for the acquisition, construction or improvement of property, and for operating costs. If a majority

of the electors in the district approve the measure, the county auditor in the applicable county or counties places the levy on the tax duplicate, and the revenue is allocated to the community college. The

board of trustees is required to establish a special fund for all revenue derived from any tax levy.

OR The county tax assessors determine the property taxes that go to particular community colleges.

PA Local sponsors (county or school district) determine the amount they will contribute. In the case of

some of the colleges that are school district sponsored, the amount is determined by the number of

residents who attend from the school districts.

VA Certain expenses of the community colleges must be paid for by local revenues (not specifically tax

revenues); there is, however, no legislative or legal mandate for the localities to provide such revenues

and there is no fixed amount that is to be provided. The presidents of the colleges must work closely

with the local governments to sustain the willingness of the local governments to support the college.

WI Wisconsin Technical College System district boards each levy local property tax, up to a limit of 1.5

mills for operating cost. They also can levy for long-term debt payments.

WY Four mills in each college district by board action; one optional mill in each college district by board

action; five optional mills in each college district by vote of the people

State Revenue Description

AR City or county sales tax

AZ Monies paid in lieu of taxes from utility company

CA Redevelopment funds

IL Corporate Personal Property Replacement Tax revenue

MD Payroll taxes and utility taxes

MO Private gifts, private and federal contracts

MT Interest, tuition, carry-forward funds

NC Bonds

NM Revenue bonds, general obligation construction bonds

NY Sales tax (primarily)

OR Timber severance or privilege taxes

PA All counties and school districts utilize the property tax; others utilize occupational assessment 

taxes and income taxes

WY Motor vehicle taxes in each college district

Like general operating support, s o u rces of funding to support capital construction projects for community colleges are

varied across the country. In many states, such projects are wholly a local matter and are planned, a p p roved and funded by local sourc e s . Other states re q u i re that all higher education capital infra s t r u c t u re projects go through a state

“building board ”prioritization and approval process prior to being funded through a state-issued bonding pro c e s s .

State respondents were asked if allocations of state funds for capital outlay require local matching funds.Analysis of

their responses indicate the following:
Average Percentage Breakdown of Sources of Capital Outlay 10

Table

State Local Taxes/Bonds State Taxes/Bonds Other

MT 100.00%

NE 100.00%

TX 100.00%

WI 100.00%

WY 100.00%

IA 95.00% 5.00%

LA 95.00% 5.00%

SC 71.00% 27.00% 2.00%

MS 60.00% 40.00%

NC 59.00% 41.00%

AK 50.00% 50.00%

MI 50.00% 50.00%

NJ 50.00% 50.00%

NY 50.00% 50.00%

PA 50.00% 50.00%

MD 37.30% 62.70%

NM 27.60% 58.60% 13.80%

CA 10.00% 90.00%

OK 4.00% 6.00% 90.00%

CT 100.00%

DE 100.00%

FL 100.00%

14 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

• Eleven states require matching funds: California, Illinois, Kansas,Maryland,Missouri, North Carolina,New Jersey,

NewYork,Oregon, Pennsylvania and Virginia.

• Twenty-eight states do not require matching funds, including Alaska,Alabama,Arkansas,Arizona, Colorado,

Connecticut, Delaware, Florida,Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana,Mississippi, Nebraska,

New Mexico,Nevada, Ohio,Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, West Virginia

and Wyoming.

• Maine and Massachusetts require matching funds “sometimes.”

When asked if general state appropriations can be used for capital construction, respondents answered in the 

following ways:

• Twenty states may use general appropriations for capital construction, including Alabama,Alaska,Arizona,

California, Florida,Georgia,Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,Mississippi, New Mexico, Ohio,Oregon,

Pennsylvania,Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah,Virginia and Wyoming.

• Twenty-two states may not use general appropriations for capital construction: Arkansas,Colorado,Connecticut,

Delaware,Hawaii,Idaho,Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,Kentucky, Massachusetts,Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina,

Nebraska,Nevada, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina, Washington, Wisconsin and West Virginia.

Because support for capital outlay can vary greatly from year to year, respondents were asked to give a five-year average percentage breakdown of the different sources available in their state, calculated from 1994-99. Responses are

presented in Table 10 below. They have been ordered according to the percentage reliance on local versus state funds.

Continued on next page
15 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Local Taxes/Bonds State Taxes/Bonds Other

HI 100.00%

IN 100.00%

MA 100.00%

MN 100.00%

NV 100.00%

WV 100.00%

WA 95.00% 5.00%

CO 93.80% 6.20%

UT 80.00% 20.00%

ME 80.00% 20.00%

VA 65.00% 35.00%

ND 63.00% 37.00%

GA 55.00% 45.00%

TN 47.00% 53.00%
ENROLLMENT FUNDING AND STUDENT SHARE OF COST 3

16

An ongoing conflict from the earliest days of the “junior college” movement has been the question of how much

money students should pay to attend a two-year institution.The 1947 Truman Commission, which recommended the

establishment of a national system of two-year “community”colleges within commuting distance of every American,

stressed the importance of making public higher education free through grade 14 (Cohen & Brawer, 1996).Nonetheless, the decreasing availability of local support and a precipitous drop in state support for higher education in the

1980s has led to a significant reliance in nearly every state on student tuition and fees in all of higher education,

including community colleges.

With the end of the 1990s,however, there has been discussion in some state capitols and the White House that the first

two years of college education should be universally available at little or no cost. On August 5, 1997,the Clinton

Administration signed the Taxpayer Relief Act that provides for the federal tax credit called the “Hope Scholarship”

inspired by the merit-based scholarship program of the same name in Georgia.One of the goals of this federal tax

credit provides an opportunity for students to attend at least two years of college. Many states have initiated their own

merit programs to encourage greater participation in higher education.While applauding the goals of making access to

the first two years of postsecondary education universal,many community college leaders have expressed profound

concerns about the shift from need-based to merit-based financial aid programs that often do not benefit directly the

nontraditional and part-time community college student.

While battles over tuition and financial aid rage, students have continued to enroll at these lower-cost public two-year

institutions.According to the National Profile of Community Colleges 2000, between 1965 and 1996, community college

enrollment increased by more than 400%.According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 1997 more students enrolled at public community colleges than at public four-year colleges.At the same time, the percentage of high

school graduates who indicate they intend to continue on to higher education is now approaching 80%, suggesting

that at least some level of enrollment increases will continue.

These enrollment increases have sparked significant battles in some legislatures over the appropriate distribution of

limited state higher education resources.Fearing the significant potential for higher education funding to be dominated

by discussions of enrollment which have tended to benefit the two-year sector, leaders of many four-year colleges and

universities have raised questions about the appropriate balance between providing access at the expense of ensuring

quality at upper-division institutions.

These debates raise several questions policymakers should consider in shaping their states’policies on enrollment funding and student share of cost.

Policy Questions for Consideration:

• To what extent do significant differences in state support to two-year colleges versus state support to upper-division

institutions represent a state’s legitimate interests in creating a diversified system of higher education?

• To what extent do these differences represent inequities that are not in a state’s best interests and which may be

counter to the policy of providing affordable access to all citizens for a K-16 education?

• Is participation in public higher education a private or public good,and how is that reflected in a state’s policies and

practices?

• The U.S. Department of Labor has indicated that more than 80% of future jobs will require at least some postsecondary education, but less than a baccalaureate degree. If a state is committed to preparing a world-class workforce,

are there tuition incentives provided to encourage more of its citizens to participate in postsecondary education and

training opportunities?

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges & Universities Universities

AK 615 18,567

AL 48,842 44,774 58,024

AR 25,737 39,979 15,310

AZ 85,000

CA 960,081 273,928 161,400

3.2 Total Number of Credit-Generating FTE

Alternative Definitions of Full-Time Enrollment

3.1 Definition of FTE

11

Table

12 Comparison of Credit-Generating Annualized Student FTE from Different Higher Education Sectors

Table

17 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Continued on next page

While every state reports the full-time enrollment (FTE) of students attending higher education, the definition of 

an FTE varies across the country. Survey respondents were asked to explain how their states calculate FTE,and

responses from all 50 states were available for analysis.

• Thirty-seven states indicated that FTE equals 30 annualized credit hours.These states are Alabama,Alaska,

Arizona,Arkansas,Colorado,Connecticut, Delaware,Florida, Georgia,Hawaii,Idaho, Illinois,Indiana, Kansas,

Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,Minnesota, Missouri,Montana, Nebraska,Nevada,New Jersey, New

Mexico,New York, Ohio,Oklahoma,Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah,Vermont,Virginia,

Wisconsin and West Virginia.

• Thirteen states indicated some variance from this definition.These responses are presented in Table 11.

Having established the definition of FTE,the survey asked each respondent to report on the total number of creditgenerating FTE in each of the major higher education sectors.As indicated in Table 12,some states only reported on

FTE in the community college sector.

State Alternative Definitions of FTE

CA 15 student instructional contact hours per week over 35 weeks or

525 hours = one annualized FTE equivalent student 

IA 24 credit hours = one credit FTE

600 contact hours = one noncredit FTE

KY 32 credit hours = one FTE

MI 31 credit hours = one FYES (Fiscal Year Equated Student)

MS 24 credit hours = one FTE

NC 16 credit hours X 16 weeks = 256 hours = one FTE

512 per semester [not annualized]

ND 32 credit hours = one annualized FTE

NH 32 credit hours = one annualized FTE

OR 510 contact hours = one FTE [not annualized]

PA 24 credit hours = one annualized FTE

SD 32 credit hours = one annualized FTE

WA 45 quarter credit hours = one annualized FTE

WY 24 credit hours = one annualized FTE
18 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges & Universities Universities

CO 37,016 50,482 45,559

CT 18,427 22,640 17,199

DE 7,452 19,193

FL 183,603 114,244

GA 45,197

HI 29,101

IA 57,634

ID 2,325

IL 181,720 182,045 98,203

IN 29,914 59,434 99,230

KS 36,867 64,366

KY 20,702

LA 18,046 104,221 27,929

MA 41,476 31,307 44,516

MD 79,234 87,250

ME 4,804

MI 109,700

MN 61,491 45,336

MO 42,434 52,019 39,751

MS 64,310

MT 2,162 7,449 20,913

NC 107,321

ND 5,844

NE 23,323 42,641

NH 6,008

NJ 85,000 48,523 44,190

NM 32,622 6,845 30,588

NV 20,293 24,297

NY 136,459 91,889 63,710

OH 81,790 321,196

OR 89,626

PA 73,386 95,051 142,765

SC 44,160 35,138 38,197

TN 46,635 61,286

UT 34,545 17,635 38,255

VA 77,334

VT 2,645 4,146 8,500

WA 120,689 29,251 52,740

WI 57,667

WV 6,387 32,332 20,006

WY 13,675
Average Expenditure per Student Annualized FTE 1998-99

3.3 Average Expenditure Per FTE

13

Table

19

Survey respondents also were asked to report the average expenditure for each annualized student FTE in each of the

higher education sectors (see Table 13).The survey defined FTE expenditure as the total Education and General (E&G)

budget divided by the total number of FTE.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Continued on next page

State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges and Universities Universities

ME $13,292

WI $10,475

DE $10,441

CT $9,685 $11,101 $17,561

NY $9,383 $18,131 $25,579

AL $9,253 $17,286

MI $9,055 $12,869

MA $8,081 $9,078 $13,327

IL $7,774 $6,364 $6,019

LA $7,712

SC $7,578 $11,167 $28,671

MO $7,497 $10,072 $9,036

GA $6,571

MN $6,536 $6,611

OH $6,434 $11,280

AR $6,272 $8,187 $11,827

RI $6,202 $9,396 $11,424

AK $6,057 $6,138

ND $5,995

NV $5,796 $8,880

OK $5,725 $6,345 $10,695

NJ $5,614 $11,124 $15,905

TN $5,560 $13,201

NE $5,503 $6,504

CO $5,474 $6,691 $10,509

MD $5,473 $16,077

WY $5,378

NM $5,347 $8,528 $9,316

IN $5,287 $7,164 $10,281

UT $5,120 $5,980 $8,000

MT $5,045 $6,657 $6,657

AZ $5,018

WV $5,002 $5,700 $7,289

PA $4,813 $11,817 $21,673

FL $4,810 $8,421

VA $4,762

MS $4,752

OR $4,525

(The following table has been organized from highest dollar to lowest dollar expenditure.)
Comparison of Average Expenditure per Community College Student FTE 

and State Support per Community College Student FTE 1998-99 14

Table

Comparison of Community College FTE and State Support 3.4

20

The survey asked respondents to compare the average expenditure per student FTE with the level of state support per

FTE. Table 14 shows the results.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges & Universities Universities

NH $4,500

CA $4,017 $9,510 $19,574

VT $3,869 $9,230 $15,000

WA $3,863 $5,479 $9,275

NC $4,748 $10,494

HI $2,902 $13,120

State Average Expenditure Amount of State

per Student FTE Support per FTE

ME $13,292 $6,421

WI $10,475

DE $10,441 $6,166

CT $9,685 $7,678

NY $9,383 $2,050

AL $9,253 $3,840

MI $9,055 $2,568

MA $8,081 $3,233

IL $7,774 $1,560

LA $7,712 $3,360

SC $7,578 $3,135

MO $7,497 $3,267

GA $6,571 $4,140

MN $6,536

OH $6,434 $2,710

AR $6,272 $8,190

RI $6,202 $4,015

AK $6,057 $2,813

ND $5,995

NV $5,796 $6,511

OK $5,725

NJ $5,614 $1,470

TN $5,560 $3,828

NE $5,503 $8,652

CO $5,474 $3,159

MD $5,473 $1,738

WY $5,378 $3,238

(This table is organized from highest dollar expenditure to lowest dollar expenditure.)

Continued on next page
3.5 Student Share of Cost

3.6 Student Tuition and Fees

21 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Average Expenditure Amount of State

per Student FTE Support per FTE

NM $5,347 $3,348

IN $5,287 $3,427

UT $5,120

MT $5,045

AZ $5,018 $1,086

WV $5,002 $3,696

PA $4,813 $1,695

FL $4,810 $3,351

VA $4,762

MS $4,752 $2,464

OR $4,525 $2,465

NH $4,500

CA $4,017 $2,312

VT $3,869

WA $3,863 $3,560

NC $4,748 $3,818

HI $2,902 $2,280

Survey respondents were asked if their state has established a policy that sets a goal for the percentage of community

college general operating funds to be generated by student tuition and fees (student share of cost).Analysis of the data

showed the following results:

• Twenty-five states have no policy that sets a target percentage for student share of cost.Those states are: Alaska,

Alabama,Arizona, California,Hawaii, Idaho,Indiana, Iowa,Kansas,Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi,

Missouri, Montana,North Carolina,North Dakota, Nevada,New Mexico,South Carolina, Utah,Vermont,

Washington, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Two states (Wisconsin at 14.5% and Nebraska at 20%) have a policy target of having tuition set at less than 25% of

the cost of instruction.

• Seven states (Arkansas,Colorado, Florida, Georgia,Kentucky, Louisiana and Tennessee) have a policy that sets tuition

at no more than 25-30% of the cost of instruction.

• Four states (Connecticut,Illinois, New York and Ohio) have a target goal of 30-35%.

• Minnesota, Oklahoma and Pennsylvania have a target goal of one-third of the student cost.

• Rhode Island has a target goal of 35%-40%.

Information regarding ranges in tuition and tuition and fees within each state is documented in Tables 15 and 16.The

key finding is that there is great variation not only within each state, but also among states. For example,in Ohio,the

lowest community college tuition rate is $1,520 per year, while the highest is $2,836,a difference of $1,316 (Table 15). In

comparison, Nebraska’s lowest tuition is $1,158,and its highest is $1,238,a difference of only $80. Table 16 displays the

same type of comparisons,but includes fees.
High and Low Tuition by State (Tuition only) 15

Table

22 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Tuition Only- Tuition OnlyLow High

AK $1,448 $1,448

AL $1,200 $1,500

CA $288 $288

CO $1,320 $1,320

CT $1,608 $1,608

DE $1,380 $1,380

FL $1,072 $1,175

GA * $756 $756

HI $984 $984

IA $1,260 $1,584

IL $1,020 $1,620

IN $1,195 $2,394

KS $648 $912

KY $1,080 $1,080

LA $880 $1,074

MA $1,800 $1,920

ME $2,040 $2,040

MN $2,025 $2,130

MS $800 $1,050

MT $840 $1,156

NC $560 $560

ND $776 $776

NE $1,158 $1,238

NM $312 $732

NJ $1,482 $2,168

NY $2,150 $2,574

OH $1,520 $2,836

OK $708 $720

OR $1,470 $1,710

PA $1,080 $1,752

RI $1,566 $1,566

TN $1,130 $1,130

UT $1,101 $1,272

WA $1,584 $1,584

WI $1,778 $2,439

WY $970 $970

* Technical colleges only
16 High and Low Tuition and Fees by State

Table

23 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Tuition/Fees Tuition/Fees 

- Low - High

AK $1,556 $1,556

AL $1,200 $1,800

AR $840 $1,290

AZ $652 $1,140

CO $1,404 $1,876

CT $1,814 $1,814

FL $1,144 $1,428

GA * $782 $829

HI $994 $1,034

IA $1,368 $1,824

IL $1,020 $1,725

IN $1,995 $2,540

KS $960 $1,104

KY $1,280 $1,280

LA $1,056 $1,264

MA $2,070 $2,580

MD $1,650 $2,760

ME $2,150 $3,600

MI $1,230 $1,910

MO $1,200 $1,530

MS $848 $1,250

MT $1,512 $1,706

NC $598 $598

ND $1,552 $1,552

NE $1,278 $1,335

NH $3,520 $3,520

NJ $1,767 $2,558

NM $332 $820

OH $1,853 $3,096

OR $1,530 $1,800

PA $1,202 $2,602

RI $1,746 $1,746

SC $840 $1,320

TN $1,230 $1,254

UT $1,281 $1,574

VT $2,472 $2,472

WA $1,584 $1,734

WV $1,210 $1,486

WY $1,301 $1,301

* Technical colleges only
Average Cost of Tuition and Fees Across Higher Education Sectors 3.7

Average Cost of Tuition and Fees Across Higher Education Sectors 17

Table

24

Table 17 reports the av e rage cost of tuition and fees for each state. Once again, t h e re is great va r i a t i o n , not only within

each state among the different sectors of education, but also across the county. For example, the av e rage cost of tuition

and fees in Ohio for community colleges is $2,299, while the av e rage tuition and fees for four- year colleges and universities is $2,573, a difference of $274. In comparison, South Caro l i n a ’s av e rage cost of tuition and fees for community colleges is $1,072, while the av e rage tuition and fees for four- year colleges and universities is $3,408, a difference of $2,336.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges & Universities Universities

AK $1,556 $1,836

AL $1,235 $2,475

AR $917 $2,540 $3,181

AZ $831

CA $360 $1,889 $4,037

CO $1,557 $2,381 $3,825

CT $1,814 $3,667 $5,330

DE $1,380 $4,421

FL $1,342 $2,114

GA * $806/$1,180 $1,730 $2,310

HI $1,004 $2,050

IA $1,613 $2,867

IL $1,318 $2,540 $3,295

IN $2,268 $3,135 $3,627

KS $1,200 $2,300

KY $1,100

LA $1,147 $2,141 $2,841

MA $2,293 $3,104 $4,741

MD $2,188 $4,310

ME $2,910

MI $1,631

MN $2,064 $2,605

MO $1,378 $2,819 $4,504

MS $1,016

MT $1,619 $4,009 $4,009

NC $560 $1,416

ND $1,592 $1,906 $2,480

NE $1,346 $3,223

NH $3,520

NJ $1,904 $3,347 $4,906

NM $634 $1,748 $2,258

NV $1,230 $2,520

NY $2,354 $3,400 $3,400

OH** $2,299 $2,573 $4,379

OK $945 $1,485 $1,890

OR $1,688

Continued on next page
3.8 In- and Out-of-District/State Tuition Rates

25 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Community/Technical 4-Year State 4-Year Research

Colleges Colleges & Universities Universities

PA $2,042 $4,302 $5,872

RI $1,746 $3,260 $4,928

SC $1,072 $3,408 $3,669

TN $1,130 $1,906 $2,090

TX $808 $2,034 $2,340

UT $1,429 $1,953 $2,478

VA $1,385

VT $2,472 $3,924 $7,248

WA $1,584 $2,640 $3,460

WI $1,925

WV $1,348 $2,194 $2,662

WY $1,301

*Technical Colleges/Community Colleges

* *Amounts are simple unweighted average instructional plus general fees calculated by sector 

for in-state undergraduates enrolled full time.

The average cost of tuition per credit hour for a full-time community college student also varies within a state and

among states, depending on the students’designation.The following two charts illustrate the differences. Chart 1 contrasts the differences in average tuition rates for in-district and out-of-district students, while Chart 2 compares in-state

and out-of-state tuition rates.

1 Comparison of Average Tuition Costs Between In-District & Out-of-District Students

Chart
Comparison of Average Cost of Tuition Between In-State and Out-of-State Students 2

Chart

Determining a Full-Time Student in the Tuition Schedule 3.9

26

Determining when a student is considered full time in the tuition schedule also varies from state to state.

• Iowa’s and Michigan’s respondents noted that the decision is made locally, while Florida’s and Wisconsin’s respondents said their states have no breakpoint.

• Two states (Ohio and Oregon) consider students as full time if they take 15 or more credits.

• Thirty-two states consider students full time if they take a minimum of 12 credits.Those states are Alaska,Arkansas,

California,Colorado,Connecticut, Delaware,Georgia, Hawaii, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine,Maryland,

Massachusetts,Mississippi, Missouri,New Jersey, North Dakota, Nevada, New Hampshire,New Mexico, New York,

Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah,Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Virginia considers any student who enrolls for 12-15 hours as full time.

• Montana and North Carolina students are considered full time if they take a minimum of 14 credits.

• Washington considers students taking 10 credits as full time.

• Idaho considers students taking eight credits as full time.

• Three states (Arizona, Illinois and Nebraska) indicate that designating whether someone is a full-time student or not

varies across the district and/or state.

Tuition Overload Policies 3.10

T h e re also is variation among states in deciding at what point, if any, students are charged for taking an overload of cre d i t s.

• Sixteen states indicated there is no point in the tuition schedule when students are charged an overload: Arizona,

Arkansas, California,Colorado,Connecticut, Florida,Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan,North Carolina, North Dakota,

NewYork, Pennsylvania,Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
3.11 Tuition Wa i v e r s

27 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

The policy intent behind this design varies. For example,in California the public policy is to keep mandatory fees for

admittance into a class as low as possible.Colorado’s representative reported that no one group of students subsidizes

the cost of another group of students.North Carolina respondents stated that the policy intent was to keep costs low

for students,while the representative from NewYork declared that not implementing an overload charge rewards students for achievement and allows them to complete degree requirements in a shorter time.

• Six states (Illinois, Iowa, Kansas,Louisiana, Ohio and Oregon) noted that overload charges are locally determined or

decided upon at individual institutions.

• Three states (Idaho, Montana and Rhode Island) noted that overload charges are implemented at 19 credit hours.

I d a h o ’s respondent reported that the policy intent behind the overload charge was to encourage students to enroll in

f ewer than 19 credits to ensure their success. F u r t h e r m o re , the overload charge reduces the number of dropped classes.

• Three states (New Mexico, Utah and Washington) assess overload charges at 18 credit hours.

• Missouri implements overload charges at 15 credit hours, while New Hampshire implements charges at 12 credit hours

• Five states (Maine,Maryland,Minnesota, New Jersey and Virginia) report that all students are charged per credit

hour, regardless of how many hours they take. Virginia’s respondent noted that the policy intent behind this design is

to have the majority of students attend part time. In addition,using per-credit-hour rates allows students flexibility to

take as few or as many courses as needed.

• Three states (Kansas,New York and North Dakota) reported there is a differential in tuition costs for less-popular

afternoon/weekend or summer hours as opposed to classes offered in high-demand, prime-time hours on campus.

Respondents from both Kansas and NewYork noted that the differential varies among institutions. NewYork’s added

that the differential is generally applied to part-time study during off-peak times and that it is an effective method of

increasing enrollment during these periods.North Dakota’s representative also reported that the differential is minimal and is limited to summer courses.

State representatives also reported on how and when tuition and/or fee waivers are used.Chart 3 depicts the groups of

students that states report as being most often eligible to receive tuition and/or fee waivers.

3 Student Groups That Are Most Often Eligible to Receive Student Tuition and Fee Wa i v e r s

Chart
S TATE SUPPORT FOR SPECIAL PROGRAMS 4

28 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

In Spring 1998, ECS surveyed governors regarding their perceptions of how higher education should be transformed 

to meet their state’s needs in the 21st century. In considering the varied functions of higher education, 86% of the governors rated providing job training and employment skills as a very important or important function.When considering

what changes postsecondary institutions must make to meet the needs of students in the future, 97% reported encouraging lifelong learning as very important or important.Eighty-three percent rated allowing students to receive their

education any time and any place via technology as very important or important.The governors were less persuaded

that providing basic skills and remediation in higher education is a high priority, with only 54% rating it as very important or important.

Community colleges are well-situated to respond to these political priorities and have long been recognized for their

ability to meet emerging community needs.Reflective of their diverse origins,the mission of community colleges in

each state varies somewhat across the nation.Nonetheless, there are five widely accepted functions that are generally

recognized as the mission of the community college.They include providing the following:

• The first two years of a baccalaureate education in preparation for transfer to a four-year college or university

• Occupational certificate or degree programs to prepare students for employment

• Remediation or developmental education courses that prepare students for college-level work

• Training for business and industry

• Community service and support for lifelong learning.

As part of this study on how states fund their community colleges, the Center for Community College Policy asked

states about the funding mechanisms used to support the varied programmatic missions of the community college,

including noncredit programs, workforce development, remediation,adult basic education and distance education.

With the growing interest in K-16 initiatives to create more seamless transitions between K-12 and higher education,

the survey also asked questions about the funding of dual and concurrent enrollment programs,an area of increased 

policymaker interest.

The following policy questions are representative of the issues that should be considered regarding appropriate state

investments in these special programs.

Policy Questions for Consideration: 

• If an educated citizenry is the goal, how can a state change established funding mechanisms based on the full-time

enrollment of traditional-aged students to mechanisms that encourage participation in lifelong learning?

• What is the appropriate role for states in providing state support for workforce development? 

• How can a state use its funding leverage to encourage greater cooperation and more seamless transitions between 

K-12 and community colleges?

• As states direct more remediation/developmental education activities away from four-year colleges and universities 

to community colleges, is adequate financial support being provided to accomplish the work?

• As technology increasingly makes traditional notions of educational service areas irrelevant, what are the issues to 

be considered when deciding how to fund distance education?
State Support for Noncredit Programs, Customized Training and Lifelong Learning

4.1 Noncredit Courses and Programs

18

Table

29 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

It has been estimated that more than five million Americans participate in noncredit courses and programs at community colleges across the country. Despite the popularity of such programs, states vary widely in their approach to funding such programs.

When asked if noncredit enrollments generate any state support, 46% of survey respondents (21 states) answered “yes”

and 54% (25 states) responded “no.”

The survey also sought to identify the type of state support available for different types of noncredit programs,including noncredit certificate programs, customized training courses for business and industry, and noncredit lifelong learning courses.Their comments appear in Table 18.

Noncredit

Lifelong Learning Courses

Dollars per contract hour

Limited to basic skills, citizenship

and short - t e rm vocational education

None

Programs are self-supporting -

state and federal grants may 

be available

N o n c redit programs partially subsidized with state general funds

None

State General Funds

Personal interest courses 

NOT included in formula

Funds from nondetermined sourc e

Self-generating, tuition supports cost

Basic skills fully funded with state

and federal funds. Personal interest courses are self-supported by

student fees

Fees for service

Included in funding formula

Customized Training for

Business and Industry

Dollars per contract hour

CalWORKs Welfare Training (State

General Fund supported)

General fund dollars transferred

from the Colorado Office of

Economic Development

Programs are self-supporting -

state and federal grants may 

be available

Noncredit programs partially subsidized with state general funds

Workforce preparation/business

and industry grant

None

Contact and credit hours 

included in formula

Special legislature

Some 100% reimbursement of

costs, depending on provision

S u p p o rt on a pro j e c t - b y - p roject basis

$6.2 million in state support allocated on a pro j e c t - b y - p roject basis

State general fund support, business and community contributions, fees for service

If they are considered reimbursable, they are counted in the

regular formula

Training Challenge Grant

Included in funding formula

In-plant training funds from economic development if applied for

and applicable

Noncredit

Certificate Programs

Dollars per contract hour

General State Fund - funded at

around 2,100 per FTE

None

Programs are self-supporting -

state and federal grants may 

be available

Funded through a college's

base operating dollars for workforce development program

N o n c redit programs partially subsidized with state general funds

None

State General Funds

Contact and credit hours 

included in formula

None

[Supported by] third-party tuition

but not state [support]

State support of $3,485 per 

student FTE

Fees for service

If they considered reimbursable,

they are counted in the regular

formula

Included in funding formula

State

AR

CA

CO

CT

FL

HI

IL

MD

MI

MN

MO

MS

NC

ND

NE

NH

NJ

NM

Continued on next page
Workforce Development 4.2

30 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Noncredit

Lifelong Learning Courses

Tuition 

W h e re these generate FTE @ 1FTE

= 510 contact hours, they are

funded equally with other courses

t h rough the funding form u l a

Primarily self-support i n g

S h o rt - t e rm intensive training dollars

[ f rom the state]

N o n e

Student fees

General aid, if not a vocational

(hobby) courses

Customized Training for

Business and Industry

State budget includes a separate

$2 million line-item appropriation

for community college training

programs for business.

Regular funding for credit FTE

and tuition 

W h e re these generate FTE @ 1FTE

= 510 contact hours, they are

funded equally with other courses

t h rough the funding form u l a

Wo r k f o rce development, noncre d i t

courses receive 70% of the FTE

funding. Public safety courses

receive full funding. Vo c a t i o n a l ,

re c reational courses receive no

state funding

Primarily self-support i n g

State appro p r i a t i o n s

Custom-Fit Dollars [from the state]

Stated goal is for the state to provide 30% general fund support ;

not fully funded at this point

Contract dollars

Separate funding

Noncredit

Certificate Programs

Tuition

W h e re these generate FTE @ 1FTE

= 510 contact hours, they are

funded equally with other courses

t h rough the funding form u l a

Primarily self-support i n g

By state funding form u l a

ATCSR [Applied Te c h n o l o g y

Center Service Regions] dollars

Stated goal is for the state to provide 30% general fund support ;

not fully funded at this point

State general fund, tuition

General aid

State

NY

OH

OK

OR

PA

RI

SC

UT

VA

WA

WI

In the operating budget, the Jobs Challenge line item provides $8.7

million in FY 2000 to promote campus services to business and

industry, including noncredit instruction and customized training.

The Instructional Subsidy formula also contains a component that

rewards campuses for noncredit expenditures. In addition, the capital budget provides $6.3 million, awarded on a competitive basis,

to assist campuses to meet their capital needs for noncredit training services.

A traditional part of the community college mission, workforce development at two-year colleges is the fastest-growing

area of college services in many states.Many state policymakers are struggling, however, with deciding the appropriate

balance between using state dollars as a tool to encourage economic development and subsidizing what should be a

private-sector responsibility.

In the area of workforce development, state respondents were asked to identify which of three types of revenue sources

are used to fund workforce development activities in their states.The sources are: (1) specific funds dedicated to workforce development activities included as part of the state appropriation to community colleges; (2) other state funding

sources for which community colleges can apply to support these activities; and (3) nonstate funding sources for which

community colleges also may apply.

The majority of public funding sources that were not part of the direct community college appropriation came from

other state agencies or departments.These included state departments of labor, vocational education, economic development, commerce and human resources.

Sources of nonstate funding included federal sources such as Perkins funds and dollars from the Workforce Investment

Act, Title III and Adult Basic Education. Public sources from local communities and counties also were mentioned,as

well as private sources such as foundations.
31 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

The data in Table 19 report on the state and nonstate sources used to fund workforce development activities.Analysis

of the data showed the following:

• Nineteen states receive support for workforce development in dedicated specific funds as part of the community colleges’appropriation.Those states include California,Delaware,Florida, Georgia, Hawaii,Illinois,Kansas, Maine,

Mississippi,Missouri, Nevada,New York, North Carolina,Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Washington

and Wisconsin.

• Thirty-two states indicated that community colleges have access to other state funding sources to support workforce

development activities.These states are Alaska,Arkansas, California,Connecticut, Florida,Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho,

Illinois,Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana,Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,Michigan, Missouri,Nebraska, Nevada,

New Jersey, New Mexico, NewYork,North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania,Rhode Island, Utah, Washington,

West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Thirty-one states note they have other nonstate funding sources (e.g.,local, regional,private, federal) available for

community colleges to support workforce development activities.Those states are Alabama,Alaska,Arizona,

California,Colorado, Connecticut,Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana,Maine, Maryland,

Massachusetts,Michigan, Mississippi,Missouri, Nevada,New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina,Ohio,

Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Washington, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Thirteen states (California, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois,Maine,Missouri, Nevada, NewYork, North Carolina,Ohio,

Oregon, Pennsylvania and Washington) report using all three types of funding.

• Twelve states (Alaska, Connecticut,Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts,Michigan, New Jersey, New

Mexico, West Virginia and Wyoming, report their community college systems have access to other state funds beyond

their own appropriation, plus other nonstate funds.They receive no dedicated state appropriation to support workforce development.

• Alabama,Arizona, Colorado and Tennessee indicate they have only nonstate funds available to community colleges

to support workforce development.

• Indiana’s and Montana’s community college systems report having no access to state or nonstate funding to support

workforce development.

Survey respondents identified five current and emerging workforce development issues, which are listed below with the

states that identified each issue.Some state representatives identified multiple issues:

• Adequate funding — Idaho,Kentucky, Massachusetts,Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, NewYork,North Carolina,

Pennsylvania and West Virginia 

• Workforce Investment Act — Alabama,Alaska, Delaware, Georgia,Iowa,Maryland, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York

and Oregon

• Worker shortage (all employment areas) — Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington,

Wisconsin and Wyoming

• Coordination/collaboration — Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio,Tennessee and Virginia

• Technology (e.g.,access, capacity, faculty, available jobs) — Delaware, Hawaii, Mississippi, Texas and Washington
Sources of Funding for Workforce Development 19

Table

32 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State 1. State Funds – Part of 2. State Funds – From 3. Nonstate Funds 

Community College Other State Agencies

Appropriation

AK No Yes Yes

AL No No Yes

AR No Yes No

AZ No No Yes

CA Yes Yes Yes

CO No No Yes

CT No Yes Yes

DE Yes No No

FL Yes Yes No

GA Yes Yes Yes

HI Yes Yes Yes

IA No Yes Yes

ID No Yes No

IL Yes Yes Yes

IN No No No

KS Yes Yes No

KY No Yes Yes

LA No Yes Yes

MA No Yes Yes

MD No Yes Yes

ME Yes Yes Yes

MI No Yes Yes

MO Yes Yes Yes

MS Yes No Yes

MT No No No

NC Yes Yes Yes

NE No Yes No

NJ No Yes Yes

NM No Yes Yes

NV Yes Yes Yes

NY Yes Yes Yes

OH Yes Yes Yes

OR Yes Yes Yes

PA Yes Yes Yes

RI No Yes No

SC Yes No Yes

TN No No Yes

UT No Yes No

WA Yes Yes Yes

WI Yes No No

WV No Yes Yes

WY No Yes Yes
4.3 Dual/Concurrent Enrollment

33 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Education scholars suggest the United States has one of the most disconnected education systems in the world.

Unlike most nations, this nation does not have a centralized ministry of education with the mandate to set national

education standards and curriculum. Instead, the nation always has prided itself on its traditions of local education

control to meet local needs.As a result,however, K-12 and higher education systems across the nation have developed with different systems of governance and little coordination between sectors.

With increasing evidence of significant disconnects between the skills of students who graduate from high school

and the preparation that colleges and universities require to succeed in college-level work, state policymakers

increasingly are pushing for mechanisms to create more educational opportunities that better prepare high school

students for higher education. One type of postsecondary enrollment program that is gaining significant popularity

and attention is dual/concurrent enrollment.This type of program allows high school students to enroll in collegelevel courses while still in high school.

Such programs raise a number of policy issues.If a student is enrolled both in high school and college,which education sector collects state support for the student? Since a K-12 education generally is provided without cost to the

student, should college courses provided to a high school student also be provided at no cost? To answer some of

these funding questions,state respondents whose states have dual enrollment programs were asked to identify the

funding mechanisms used to support them.

Of 48 respondents, analysis of the survey data indicated the following:

• Thirty-one states report that dual/concurrent enrollment of K-12 students does generate state support to the community college offering the course.Those states are Arizona,Arkansas,California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois,

Kansas,Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota,Mississippi,Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico,New

York,North Carolina,North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,

Utah,Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming.

• In 19 of those 31 states (Arizona,California, Colorado, Illinois,Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New

York,North Carolina,North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas,Utah,Virginia and West

Virginia),dual/concurrent enrollment students are funded in the same manner as any other community college

student.

• The respondent from one state (Minnesota) reported that dual/concurrent enrollment students are funded at half

the rate of traditional students.

• Three states (Hawaii, Wisconsin and Wyoming) indicated that though dual/concurrent enrollment students do generate state funding,traditionally, other state program funds are used. For example, in Hawaii, funds from the

Career Opportunities Program, which provides training opportunities to high school students, are used.

• Twenty-five states indicated that school districts keep the full state aid for each concurrently enrolled student.

Those states are Alabama,Alaska,Arizona,Arkansas, California,Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois,Iowa, Kansas,

Michigan, Mississippi,Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, NewYork,North Carolina,Oregon, Pennsylvania,South

Carolina,Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Six states (Colorado, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, Washington and Wisconsin) do not collect full state aid for dually

enrolled high school students.

• Twenty-five states responded that concurrently enrolled students are charged tuition.Those states are: Alabama,

Alaska,Colorado, Connecticut,Delaware,Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho,Kansas, Maryland,Massachusetts, Michigan,

Mississippi,Missouri,Nebraska,Nevada, New Mexico,NewYork,Ohio, Pennsylvania,South Carolina, Tennessee,

Utah, West Virginia and Wisconsin.

• Respondents from five states (Arizona,Arkansas, California,North Carolina and Washington) note that students

are not charged tuition.

• Illinois, Kentucky and Wyoming respondents reported both “yes and no” for whether concurrently enrolled students are charged tuition.

Table 20 presents a state-by-state breakdown on funding policies for dual enrollment.
Dual/Concurrent Enrollment 20

Table

34 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Charged

Tuition

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

N/A

Yes

Yes

N/A

Party Paying Tuition

N/A

Varies

N/A

N/A

Students are subject to paying

an enrollment fee, but state law

authorizes a permissive waiver

Either school district or 

student — depending 

on district agreements

The community colleges operate

a High School Part n e r s h i p

P rogram to allow high school students who maintain at least a B

average to take up to two courses per semester. While no specific state support is provided for

this program, colleges annually

waive approximately $160,000 in

tuition and fee charg e s .

The high school or the student.

N/A

It varies. Sometimes HOPE,

school, students, Postsecondary

Option (this is a specific appropriated fund from the Georg i a

D e p a rtment of Education – 

s e c o n d a ry education).

Students

Usually the delivery is through a

contractual agreement with the

school district; the student does

not pay in these instances. If

the student enrolls independent

of a contractual agreement,

he/she usually pays.

Keep Full

State Aid

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

N/A

N/A

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

Level of Support

and Source

N/A

N/A

If Perkins federal requirements

are met

All FTEs are funded at the same

level. “An FTE is an FTE.”

Student instructional hours are

counted like other community

college students toward FullTime Equivalent Students (FTES)

D u a l / c o n c u rrent enrollment students are treated like any other

— 30 credit hours = 1 FTE. Each

resident FTE is equivalent to an

amount of general fund support

by the state. Any increase or

d e c rease in FTE is multiplied by

the support amount to determ i n e

the extent of new money for

e n rollment each fiscal year

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

The Career Opport u n i t i e s

P rogram (COP) provides training opportunities to high

school students. Appro x i m a t e l y

$300,000 is appropriated for

the COP program per year. The

State Department of Education

contracts with the Employment

Training Center to administer

the pro g r a m .

Enrollment does not drive state

support. Enrollment drives a

small portion of the distribution

of state general aid funds to

individual community colleges

in the state.

Generate

Support

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

State

AK

AL

AR

AZ

CA

CO

CT

DE

FL

GA

HI

IA

Continued on next page
35 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Charged

Tuition

Yes

Both -

local 

decision

N/A

Yes

Yes 

and 

No

Yes

Yes - 

i n s t i t u t i o n a l

discretion

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

N/A

No

Yes

Party Paying Tuition

Student

N/A

N/A

The student or other sources,

not the school district

Community Colleges – student

State allocation (very limited,

however; $1.2 million for all of

higher education)

Student

N/A

The K-12 district pays the

tuition out of their state aid.

Parents [students]

Student

N/A

N/A

Students

Keep Full

State Aid

Yes

Yes

N/A

Yes

No

N/A

N/A

Yes

No

Yes

N/A

Yes

Yes

Level of Support

and Source

N/A

Students enrolled in dual-cre d i t

courses generate credit hour

e n rollment data that is used in

the calculation of funding for the

community college system. Dualc redit-hour enrollments are tre a ted the same as regular enro l lments. Generated credit hours

f rom fundable courses are used

in a funding formula that uses the

higher of the actual credit hours

or a three-year average.

N/A

Dollar amount not available

Tuition and fees of the student

taking courses. Example: High

school seniors might enroll to

take freshman English.

N/A

A college may admit, and waive

tuition and fees for dual enro l lment students. Dual enro l l m e n t

students may enroll in pro g r a m s

or other college-level credit or

n o n c redit courses as determined individually by appro p r iate college and school off i c i a l s .

Students must be 16 or older.

N/A

Indirect support to the extent

that the contact and credit

hours generated by dually

enrolled K-12 students are

included in the formula

1 FYE = .5 FYE for state 

formula purposes

N/A

N/A

FTE generated by high school

students generates the same

level of funding

Only to the extent that it generates additional FTE. Students

and the state fully fund enrollment driven formulas — this

has not happened routinely for

some time.

Students taking a dual-credit

course are counted as aidgenerating students the same

as on-campus students.

Generate

Support

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

State

ID

IL

IN

KS

KY

MA

MD

ME

MI

MN

MO

MS

MT

NC

ND

NE

Continued on next page
36 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Continued on next page

Charged

Tuition

N/A

Yes -

in some

cases

Yes

Yes

Yes

Locally

d e t e rm i n e d

by each

college

Yes

N/A

Yes

Yes

In some

situations

No

Party Paying Tuition

N/A

About 1/3 of institutions waive or

pay tuition; about 1/3 of public

schools pay tuition; and about

1/3 of students pay tuition.

Student

Student

Student (if taking the course for

college credit only)

Student

Depends on the school 

district's policy

N/A

Student

Students, or at times, 

school districts

Sometimes student, sometimes

school district

N/A

Keep Full

State Aid

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

N/A

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Level of Support

and Source

N/A

N/A

Add to the total FTE when

applied to the formula

T h rough formula funding, the

eligible credit hours are included for instructional and support

s e rvices funding.

High school students taking

community college courses for

credit are included in the FTE

calculation, which is eligible

for state aid.

T h rough the state's PostS e c o n d a ry Educational

O p p o rtunity Program, high

school students may enroll at a

state college or university for

c redit. Generally, these students

e a rn the same subsidy as any

other student, and the students’

school district is charged an

amount, which is transferred to

the institution of higher education as an offset for tuition.

N/A

Dual credit FTE calculated at

510 contact hours = 1 FTE and

funded through the funding

formula

Regular FTE rate; state 

general fund

N/A

Generating enrollment FTE 

for funding formula.

Concurrent courses are funded based on specific costs as

are all other courses.

Concurrent enrollment on college campuses or via technology get the same state support as other college courses.

Dual enrollments are counted

as all other FTE credit students

and funded accordingly.

N/A

N/A

Generate

Support

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

State

NH

NJ

NM

NV

NY

OH

OK

OR

PA

RI

SC

TN

TX

UT

VA

VT

WA
21 Methods of Funding Remedial/Developmental Education

Table

4.4 Remedial/Developmental Education

37

The need for remedial/developmental education in higher education continues to grow across the country.

Many legislatures and state higher education authorities are struggling with questions of who should provide developmental education and how it should be funded. Policymakers in Arizona, New Mexico, South

Carolina and Virginia, as well as other states, have directed that developmental classes at four-year universities must be limited or self-supporting.State officials encourage students who require such classes to first

attend community colleges to gain the reading, writing and math skills necessary for college-level work.

If community colleges are to assume an even greater responsibility for such courses, states policymakers

must develop consistent funding mechanisms that allow colleges to provide these labor-intensive but

important courses. Results from the survey suggest such issues have yet to be resolved in many states.

Respondents were asked how remedial/development education was funded in their respective states. Many

reported that their states use a combination of funding support (see Table 21).

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Charged

Tuition

Yes

Yes

Yes 

and 

No

Party Paying Tuition

School district if student is

receiving high school credit.

Student if only enrolled for 

postsecondary credit

Varies - the student, the school

Depending on the school district – school district, BOCES,

student

Keep Full

State Aid

No

Yes

Yes

Level of Support

and Source

State support is indirect in that,

for dual enrollment under the

state's Youth Options Pro g r a m ,

the school district in which the

student is enrolled must pro v i d e

the enrolling technical college

district with a payment equal to

tuition and fees if the high school

student is being granted high

school credit as well as technical

college credit. Enrollment of high

school students in technical college under most other statutory

authorities (compulsory education, contracting, Yo u t h

A p p renticeship) is usually funded by the student’s school district through a contract with the

e n rolling technical college

Generates FTE

Does not “generate” state

funding, but colleges may use

state funding in programs. FTE

is most under new model

Generate

Support

Yes

Yes

Yes

State

WI

WV

WY

Type of Support States Using That Support

General State Funds AR, CA, GA, ME, MS, UT, VA, WI

Same Type of Support as Other FTE AK, AL, AR, AZ, CO, DE, FL, GA, IN, KS, LA, MD, 

MI, MO, MS, MT, NC, NE, NM, NY, PA, OH, OR, SC, 

WA, WV

Funding Formula GA, IL, MA, MD, MI, ND, NJ, NV, TN, TX
Difference in Funding for Remedial/Developmental Education 22

Table

38 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Further analysis suggests the following:

• Eight states report remedial courses are funded from general funds.They are: Arkansas,California, Georgia, Maine,

Mississippi,Utah,Virginia and Wisconsin.

• Twenty-six states fund remedial/developmental courses in the same way as other credit-generating community

college courses,although the levels at which they are funded may be different.Those states are: Alaska,Alabama,

Arkansas,Arizona,Colorado, Delaware, Florida,Georgia, Indiana,Kansas, Louisiana,Maryland, Michigan,

Mississippi, Missouri,Montana, Nebraska,New Mexico,North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania,Ohio, Oregon,

South Carolina, Washington and West Virginia.

• Ten states fund remedial/developmental courses through mechanisms within the state funding formula.These

courses may or may not generate the same funding as regular community college courses. States include: Georgia,

Illinois, Massachusetts,Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, North Dakota,Nevada,Tennessee and Texas.

• Seven states at least partly fund remedial/developmental education through some form of grants.Illinois uses a

combination of formula and grants.Maine combines general funds and grants.Remedial/developmental education

funding in Connecticut and Wyoming comes in the form of block grants.Alaska, Hawaii and Idaho fund remedial/developmental education through Adult Basic Education grants.Hawaii particularly noted that its grants come

through the Hawaii State Department of Education.

Respondents were asked if remedial/developmental courses generate the same level of state support in the funding

formula as regular credit courses,and if not, how it differed.

• Respondents from the following 17 states responded that the level of support for remedial courses in the funding

formula is the same as that for regular credit courses: Alabama,Alaska,Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Florida,

Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana,Maryland,Michigan, Mississippi, Montana,Nebraska, North Carolina, Pennsylvania

and Texas.

• Respondents from 10 states reported their states do not fund remedial/developmental courses at the same level as

regular credit courses.These states and the explanations of the differences are presented in Table 22.

State Difference in Funding

AR Weighted at two times general education funding.

CA For credit, but not degree applicable, courses are funded at the same level as other credit instruction;

noncredit (ESL/Basic Skills) instruction funded at half the level of what credit is funded.

GA The weight for developmental courses is significantly lower than the weights for other program costs.

HI Remedial courses at ABE [Adult Basic Education] level must be either paid for by state department of

education or student tuition. Developmental courses are part of community colleges budget.

IL The remedial/development courses do not generate the same level of state support in the funding formula as regular credit courses. The funding amount for the base-operating grant is broken into six

funding categories. Each funding category has a different funding rate. The funding categories are

Baccalaureate, Business, Technical, Health, Remedial and ABE/ASE.

MA Weighted at 1.5.

NJ Remedial courses get higher weight in funding formula, but this is being phased out.

NM They are separate funding cluster[s] in the formula. They generate more than some funding clusters

and less than others.

NV Generates more funding than nonremedial.

WY FTE, whatever the source, is not a driver in the budget model.
Funding for Adult Basic Education

4.5 Adult Basic Education

4

Chart

39

A closely related issue to the financing of developmental/remedial education is the funding of Adult Basic Education

(ABE).Historically, most states have operated their ABE programs under the auspices of state K-12 systems.But with

the increasing number of older community college students who require remediation or English as a Second Language

or who have come to the community colleges for job training related to state welfare reform requirements,teaching

ABE or basic skills training has become a common program at community colleges.In the 2000 legislative session,

Illinois’legislature moved state ABE programs out from under the State Department of Education to the Illinios

Community College Board. Other states are considering similar policy changes.

Survey respondents were asked how adult basic education is funded in their states. Six primary sources were identified

and are reflected in Chart 4.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Table 23 reports the detailed responses from each state on how Adult Basic Education is funded.
Funding Sources for Adult Basic Education 23

Table

40 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Response

AK Grants through Department of Labor.

AL Through the State Department of Education.

AR Adult education is funded through the Workforce Education Department.

AZ All contact hours/640 = 1 FTE (or FTSE). FTEs are funded the same as all other FTEs.

CA K-12 has primary responsibility, but in some areas of the state, responsibility has been transferred 

to community college districts by delineation of function. Also, noncredit FTEs [are funded] substantially

below credit per-FTEs apportionment.

CO Adult basic education enrollments are treated like any other — 30 credit hours equals 1 FTE. 

Each resident FTE is equivalent to an amount of general fund support by the state. Any increase 

or decrease in FTE is multiplied by the support amount to determine the extent of new money for

enrollment each fiscal year.

CT State Department of Education, not Department of Higher Education.

DE By allocation from the State Department of Education.

FL Through funding provided for Workers Development Program.

GA Adult Literacy Program — includes 37 service delivery areas throughout the state. Promotes and provides adult basic education and literacy programs, including the General Educational Development

Testing program which awards GED diplomas.

HI The State Department of Education is the designated recipient of ABE funds in the state.

IA Activities are funded through federal Adult Basic Education (BAE) grants.

ID State and federal funds.

IL Funded through Federal Adult Education funds and state appropriations. These funds go to all

providers — community colleges, regional offices of education and community-based organizations.

IN Funded through K-12.

KS The state matches the minimum required by federal law/grant programs.

KY Separate agency appropriation for Adult Education and Literacy, which contracts for providers.

LA As regular courses.

MA Through Department of Education funds — RFP process — no allocation directly to campuses.

MD Through the general funding formula.

ME Through secondary school funding mechanisms.

MI Adult education primarily is funded through the K-12 system via a categorical line item totaling $80

million this year. An additional $12 million in federal funds are available, of which most goes to the K12 system to supplement their regular operations.

MO Contact hour reimbursement through Department of Education’s Adult Education Division.

MS Adult Basic Education is funded primarily through federal funds; however, to a lesser degree, state

funds also are appropriated.

MT Community college districts can assess a local levy for adult basic education.

NC Formula — FTE and incentives: (1) FTE, (2) GED certificates, (3) adult high school diplomas, 

(4) population to be served, (5) population served.

NE As part of the formula.

NM T h rough a separate formula as part of funding allocated in the public school budget (though 95% goes

to the community colleges) and through federal funds distributed through competitive application.

NV Fees.

NY Funded the same as remedial/developmental education.

OH The state receives federal dollars to be used to benefit persons 16 years of age or older who have

completed eight years of schooling and are not enrolled in an instructional program. The monies support programs aimed at developing basic learning skills in these individuals and enhancing their

future employment opportunities.

OR Federal and state funds.

PA Federal funds and state adult literacy funds are distributed by the State Department of Education;

community colleges are included as institutions that receive these funds.

SC Same as other courses.

TN Through State Department of Education and local K-12 schools.

Continued on next page
4.6 Distance Education

41

Technology has revolutionized many aspects of education.According to John Seely Brown, chief scientist of the Xerox

Corporation and director of the Palo Alto Research Center, no one fully understands the tremendous force the Internet

will foster in transforming and creating new learning environments (Change, p. 13). Policymakers, however, are pressing colleges and universities to respond to these evolving opportunities,urging them to make educational offerings

available to students free from the constraints of time or place via distance education technology. Governors from 19

states have joined together in investing millions of public dollars to establish the Western Governors University to 

provide their citizens with online opportunities for education.

Funding distance-learning offerings at community colleges raises a host of policy questions because traditional funding

formulae typically distinguish between students based on physical boundaries (e.g., by state or district resident status).

In this survey, respondents were asked to report how their states assess tuition for distance education courses, and

whether these courses generate the same FTE and level of state support as courses offered in a more traditional format.

Regarding different tuition rates, distance education courses and on-campus courses for in-state students, respondents

reported the following:

• Respondents from 31 states said there is no difference between the tuition rate charged for distance education and

the rate charged for on-campus courses for in-state students.These states are Alabama,Alaska,Arkansas, California,

Connecticut,Delaware,Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho,Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,

Massachusetts,Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada,New York, North Carolina, Ohio,Oregon,South Carolina,Tennessee,

Texas, Utah,Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming.

• Nine states (Georgia,Iowa, Illinois,Kansas, Maryland,Missouri, Montana,New Mexico and Pennsylvania) report the

issue is generally a matter of local control.

• Ten states indicate there is a difference in the tuition rates for the two types of courses.Those states are: Arizona,

Colorado, Kansas, Maryland,Michigan, Montana,New Jersey, New Mexico, Pennsylvania and West Virginia.

Eight of these states offered some explanation:

n Kansas — Local boards may choose to do so (i.e., charge different tuition rates).

n Maryland — It depends on the institution, but generally distance education courses cost more.

n Michigan — The state’s 29 public community colleges are members of the Michigan Community College Virtual

Learning Collaborative.The collaborative is designed to allow community college students to take courses from

other member colleges while still receiving support services and maintaining their academic record at their designated home college.The collaborative established the following tuition structure: (1) in-district — $90/credit; (2)

out-of-district — $130/credit; (3) out-of-state — $170/credit.

n Montana — Each community college can assess specific course fees based on additional costs incurred.

n New Jersey — New Jersey recently established the New Jersey Virtual Community College Consortium.All of the

colleges joined the consortium and agreed to charge same tuition/fees for online courses — $80/credit for 2000-01.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Response

TX Some funding is through public education (K-12), averaging about $80/year/student. Most costs [are

absorbed] by community colleges [that] serve adult students.

UT K-12 system.

VA Through State Department of Education to localities. Not typically a community college function unless

contracted through the local school boards.

WA Just like college level education — no tuition support.

WI Adult Ed Act, general aid, local funds.

WV Through the State Department of Education, but not through higher education.

WY P a rtly through state block grants to the colleges and partly through the commission's federal appro p r i a t i o n .
42 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

n New Mexico — This varies by institution, but the state had been assessing a 150% tuition credit rate to institutions and an FTE reimbursement of “1” only if offered “out-of-service area.” Institutions may assess differential

tuition and fees to cover losses.

n Pennsylvania — Same rate for sponsored students.The tuition rate for nonsponsored students is a matter of local

control. Some colleges charge double tuition for nonsponsored students, and others charge the same as the rate

for sponsored students.

n West Virginia — Some charge an electronic fee.

Survey respondents also were asked whether their states have policies requiring that nonresident students enrolling

via distance education be charged out-of-state tuition.

• Twenty-nine states charge out-of-state tuition to nonresident community college students.They are: Arizona,

California, Delaware, Florida,Hawaii,Idaho, Indiana, Kansas,Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine,Maryland,

Massachusetts,Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri,Montana, Nebraska,New Mexico,New York, North Carolina, Ohio,

Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee,Virginia, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• Three states (Illinois, Iowa and Kansas) indicated the decision to charge out-of-state tuition was a local one.

• Sixteen states do not charge out-of-state tuition to nonresident community college students.They are: Alabama,

Alaska,Arkansas, Colorado,Connecticut, Georgia,Minnesota, Nevada,New Hampshire,New Jersey, North

Dakota, Oklahoma,Utah,Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin.

In addition, respondents from nine of the 16 offered the following comments:

n Colorado — A standard rate of $115 per credit hour is assessed to any student, resident or nonresident,taking a

class via distance learning.

n Connecticut — Regular in-state rates are used.

n Georgia — Same as other courses.

n Minnesota — All distance education tuition rates are market driven.

n North Dakota — Moving away from this standard in near future.

n Oklahoma — Resident tuition plus off-campus supplemental fee.

n Utah — Same as in-state.

n Washington — Most colleges wave nonresident tuition.

n Wisconsin — Out-of-state tuition for distance education courses may be reduced to as low as in-state tuition for

all out-of-state enrollees if the Wisconsin Technical College System (WTCS) district seeks a waiver from the state

director. Because of the huge differential between in-state and out-of-state rates, the WTCS expects out-of-state

students for distance education courses to be charged at a fee slightly above in-state rates.

Respondents also were asked whether distance-education students generated the same FTE and state support as oncampus students,and what the difference was if they did not.Initial analysis of the responses showed the following:

• Respondents from 31 states reported that distance education students generate the same FTE and state support as

on-campus community college students.These states are Alabama,Alaska,Arkansas,California, Connecticut,

Delaware, Florida,Georgia,Hawaii,Idaho, Indiana,Kentucky, Louisiana,Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi,

Missouri,Nebraska,Nevada,New York,North Carolina,Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah,

Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming.

• New Mexico — Through action in the last legislative session,the tuition credit level of 150% was reduced to 100%

so institutions would not lose extra revenue.

• O regon — Only those students from Wa s h i n g t o n ,I d a h o ,N evada and California [generate the same FTE and support].
5.1 Performance Measures and Community College Funding

5 A C C O U N TA B I L I T Y

43

One of the most common state policy trends affecting higher education across the nation is the growing demand from

governors and legislators for colleges and universities to be more responsive to state needs. Traditionally, there has

been a fundamental gap between policy initiatives and the realities of educational practice.But many state policymakers no longer are satisfied with providing incremental funding increases or using enrollment-driven formulas for public

colleges and universities that are not linked to results.

In many states,funding systems are being redesigned to include performance-based funding initiatives.This emphasis

on colleges and universities being held accountable to meet state needs reflects a significant change in practice from

long-held budgetary practices that were designed around states meeting institutional needs (Albright,1998).

Because it is clear that such changes have the potential to change the nature of state funding patterns for community

colleges,the survey instrument included a series of questions about performance indicators and their link to budgets.

Respondents were asked whether their states require reporting of specific performance indicators,and whether or not

performance on these indicators is linked to budget allocations. If outcomes on specific measures are linked to budget

allocations, respondents were asked to report on the percentage of the budget linked,and whether or not the source of

money tied to such allocations is from “new money”or funds reallocated from existing budgets.Finally, respondents

were asked about the existence of penalties or sanctions for low performance.

Increased emphasis on public accountability for higher education,particularly for community colleges, raises a number

of important policy issues that policymakers may consider.

Policy Questions for Consideration:

• Have state policymakers gone beyond the traditional “one-size-fits-all” approach to higher education policy to

design appropriate and meaningful performance indicators that reflect the unique mission of community colleges? 

• Do a state’s performance indicators take into consideration the distinctive differences among institutions (e.g., rural

or urban colleges with a heavy technological focus versus one with a tradition of transfer education)? 

• Are there meaningful incentives from “new money” sources that encourage and reward colleges for meeting state 

priorities?

Results from the survey indicate the following:

• Twenty-seven states require community colleges to report on specific performance indicators, including Arizona,

California,Colorado,Connecticut, Florida,Idaho, Illinois,Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,

Mississippi,Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina,Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas,

Utah,Virginia, Washington, West Virginia and Wyoming.

• In 10 states (Colorado,Florida, Illinois,Louisiana, Missouri,New Jersey, North Carolina,South Carolina,South

Dakota and Tennessee) performance on these indicators is directly linked to budget allocations.

• Respondents from an additional four states (California, Massachusetts, New Mexico and Virginia) indicated “not yet.”

For example, in California,the overall performance of the community colleges on their indicators has an impact on

the amount of “Partnership for Excellence” dollars appropriated,although performance on specific indicators is not

linked directly to dollars.

Of the states where policymakers have linked performance reporting and funding:

• Seven states are able to draw upon “new money” as a source for performance funding.They are: California,

Colorado,Florida, Illinois,Louisiana, Missouri and Tennessee.

• Four states (North Caro l i n a , N ew Je r s ey, South Carolina and South Dakota) are re q u i red to reallocate existing budgets

as a source for these funds.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
Twelve Most Common Performance Indicators 5

C h a r t

44 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

In response to questions on penalties or sanctions for poor performance on indicators: 

• Respondents from 11 states reported varied penalties and/or sanctions as a result of low performance on indicators.Those states are: Alaska, Colorado, Illinois,Louisiana, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, South

Dakota, Tennessee,Virginia and West Virginia. Reported penalties ranged from a 3-5% reduction in the institutional

allocation to “increased legislative scrutiny.” The representative from another state indicated that such a plan is

under consideration.

State community college systems have a wide range of performance indicators reflecting the significant variations in

traditional mission, state priorities and legislative concerns found across the states.Respondents from several states

indicated that an indicator system is still under development.

Chart 5 summarizes the number of states having the 12 most frequently used performance indicators.
24 S u m m a ry of Performance Indicators

Table

45

Table 24 summarizes performance indicators as reported by different states.In some cases, related indicators are

grouped for purposes of analysis. In other cases, unique indicators specific to one state were not included.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Number Indicator States

of States

17 Job Placement AZ, DE, FL, ID, IL, LA, MA, MD, MO, MS, NC,

OK, SC, TN, VA, WA, WY

16 Transfer Rates AZ, CA, DE, FL, IL, MA, MD, NJ, OH, OK, SC,

TX, UT, VA, WA, WY

16 Graduation Rates, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, ID, LA, MA, MD, MO, NJ, 

Certificates and Degrees Awarded OK, SC, TX, VA, WY

14 Retention/Time to Degree CA, CO, CT, IL, MA, MD, NC, NJ, OK, TN, TX,

VT, VA, WY 

11 Licensure Pass Rates CT, MA, MD, MO, MS, NC, OK, SC, TX, UT, WY

10 Remediation Activities AZ, CA, CT, MD, NC, OH, OK, TX, WA, WY

9 Follow-up Satisfaction Studies AZ, IL, LA, MA, MD, NC, SC, TN, WY

(student and employer)

9 Diversity/Service to Special Populations AZ, CO, FL, IL, MA, MD, MO, NJ, TX

8 Student Success after Transfer AZ, CA, IL, MD, MO, MS, NJ, WY

8 Workforce Development AZ, CA, CT, IL, MA, NC, OH, SC 

Activities/Service to Business

8 Faculty Workload, Productivity CO, CT, MD, MS, SC, TX, UT, VA

and Preparation

8 Student Learning Outcomes AZ, CO, CT, IL, MO, NJ, OK, TN

7 Institutional Efficiency CO, CT, LA, MA, NJ, SC, VA

7 Community Service AZ, CT, IL, MA, NJ, SC, WY

6 Noncredit Course Offerings CT, MA, MD, NJ, OH, SC

5 Access and Affordability CT, MA, MD, OH, SC

5 Enrollment DE, ID, MA, ME, NC

4 Fundraising Success MA, MD, NJ, SC

4 Partnerships with K-12 and CT, FL, MA, OH

Concurrent Enrollment

4 Percent of Local Population Served AZ, IL, MD, WY

4 Class Size CO, MS, NJ, SC

3 Financial Aid Awards AZ, CT, MA

3 Distance Education Activities CT, LA, MA

2 Occupational Program Participation AZ, OH 

and Completion

2 Number of Student Credit Hours DE, SC 

2 Number of Accredited Programs LA, TN

2 Use of Technology IL, SC

2 Articulation/collaborative efforts MA, SC

with four-year schools

Note: For a complete list of each state’s indicators, please refer to the appendix.
Community College Performance Indicators and Their Link to Budget Allocations 25

Table

46 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Table 25 reports the state representatives’ responses to the following questions:

1. Does your state require reporting of specific performance indicators for community colleges?

2. Is performance on these indicators linked to budget allocations?

3. What percentage of the overall budget is specifically linked to these indicators?

4. From what source is this percentage of funding derived?

5. Are there penalties or sanctions for low performance?

6. What are the penalties or sanctions?

Penalties or Sanctions

Potential legislative scru t i n y

No — however, a plan is

being developed should

the system fail to meet its

targets.

Colleges earn incentive

system dollars based on

high performance, low

performance results in

reductions of PBIS funding.

If performance targets

vary by more than +/- 5%,

state law allows the legislature to impose appropriate penalties on a caseby-case basis.

Are there

p e n a l t i e s ?

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Source of funding

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

% budget

tied to

indicators

100%

+/-2.5%

43%

2% to 5%

0.5%

None

quantifiable at

this time.

2%

Link with

budget

No

No

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Not yet

Are 

indicators

required?

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

State

AK

AL

AR

AZ

CA

CO

CT

DE

FL

GA

HI

IA

ID

IL

IN

KS

KY

LA

MA

Continued on next page
47 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Continued on next page

Penalties or Sanctions

Colleges must develop an

action plan for impro v e m e n t

and submit to state board

for monitoring.

The college loses a port i o n

of the 1% depending on

p e rf o rm a n c e .

Institutions that score in

the “Does Not Achieve”

and “Substantially Does

Not Achieve” categories

will receive disincentives

of 3% and 5% of their 

allocation, respectively.

Less allocation through

formula based upon number of completers and

wage rate of graduates.

Less percentage over

operating budget.

Are there

p e n a l t i e s ?

No

N/A

N/A

N/A

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Source of funding

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

Based on colleges 

"holding back” 2% for

carry-forward use

Derived from reallocation

of existing budgets

Derived from three sourc e s :

1. one-half of new funds

(higher ed appropriation for

new year in excess of appropriation for current year)

2 .1.75% of the allocation to

the institutions (including current year plus 1/2 of new year)

3. Funds derived from

institution within the sector

that score in the “Does Not

Achieve” or “Substantially

Doesn’t Achieve“

catagories.

Derived from reallocation of

existing budgets

Based on “new money”

added on top of existing

base budget

% budget

tied to

indicators

14%

2%

1%

5%

38%

5.45% over

operating

budget

Link with

budget

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No, but

planned

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Are 

indicators

required?

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No, but

pending

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

State

MD

ME

MI

MN

MO

MS

MT

NC

ND

NE

NH

NJ

NM

NV

NY

OH

OK

OR

PA

RI

SC

SD

TN

TX
48 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Penalties or Sanctions

Funding of requests for

new capital outlay cons t ruction are guided by

space utilization data;

achievement of management standards is re q u i re d

to be able to carry forw a rd

funding from one fiscal year

to another; at this point

other standards have been

published, only without

specific sanctions tied to

lack of achievement;

expectation: perf o rm a n c e -

based budgeting will be

m o re evident over next

b i e n n i u m .

I m p rovement plan must be

developed and possible

loss of Perkins funding.

Are there

p e n a l t i e s ?

Yes

No

Yes

No

% budget Source of funding

tied to

indicators

Link with

budget

No

No

No

No

Are 

indicators

required?

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

State

UT

VA

VT

WA

WI

WV

WY
CURRENT AND EMERGING ISSUES

49

While the finance survey was designed to take a snapshot of “what is”in regard to the current state of how states

finance their two-year sector, the Center for Community College Policy also was interested in what state officials see

coming down the road in terms of emerging policy concerns and issues around finance. From the 50 states surveyed,

the data on emerging policy issues reveal five familiar concerns: lack of adequate funding, support for workforce development, concerns about increasing tuition and fees, the high costs of technology/distance learning,and coping with

enrollment growth.

The following themes are ordered according to the number of times survey respondents identified the issue as an

emerging concern.

Adequate Funding

The most serious issues facing community colleges across the nation, according to the respondents from two-year college systems, deal with the dual challenges of increasing state and local financial support for community colleges and

improving the methods by which colleges are funded.

• Respondents in Michigan, Tennessee, Rhode Island and Texas report that efforts to increase funding levels are ongoing.Because of increased competition for scarce resources and the failure of many legislatures to fund formulas sufficiently, community colleges’concerns about inadequate funding to meet future demands have heightened.

• Additionally, respondents in nine states report that tinkering with the community college funding process is an

ongoing issue at the state level.Arkansas,Maryland and New York community college officials are working to convince legislators that their respective state funding formulae should reflect their unique institutional missions.

Mississippi and North Carolina respondents report that state policymakers are reevaluating their college funding criteria, which may result in a change to funding formulae with a major emphasis on support for FTE. Massachusetts,

Minnesota,Tennessee and Wyoming are in the process of reviewing and/or developing new community college

budgeting formulae.

• Finally, Alabama, Colorado,Connecticut, Hawaii,New Jersey, NewYork and Virginia respondents indicate that performance funding is and will continue to be a critical funding issue for two-year colleges in their states. Performance

budgeting and funding were cited as possible alternatives to traditional mechanisms used to fund community 

colleges.

Workforce and Economic Development 

Respondents in many states identified the need to improve state funding support for workforce and economic development activities as a primary concern for the future. They emphasized concerns about the lack of adequate funding for

the noncredit courses that are central to community college economic development efforts and about their ability to

remain competitive in offering this type of training for local businesses and industry. The long-term implications of

inadequate support for the economic development mission of the community college surfaced as a high priority for

many state community college leaders. Specific concerns in regard to workforce and economic development included

the following:

• Inadequate funding – California, Idaho,Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts,Michigan, Missouri,Minnesota, New

Mexico,NewYork,North Carolina, Pennsylvania,Virginia, Washington and West Virginia

• Workforce Investment Act – Alabama,Alaska,Delaware, Georgia, Iowa,Maryland, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York

and Oregon

• Worker shortages (all employment areas) – Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Pennsylvania,Utah, Washington,

Wisconsin and Wyoming

• Coordination/collaboration – Kentucky, Louisiana,Ohio, Tennessee and Virginia

• Technology (e.g. access, capacity, faculty, available jobs) – Delaware, Hawaii, Mississippi,Texas and Washington.

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y
50 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Tuition and Fees

Concern over an ever-increasing dependence and emphasis on tuition and fees to make up for inadequate state and

local funding for community colleges was identified as an emerging issue in seven states: Colorado,Connecticut,

Hawaii, Iowa,Vermont,Virginia,and West Virginia.As Iowa’s respondent noted, tuition and fees are rising as a percentage of the total operating funds for community colleges, while state general aid and federal support are declining.

Technology and Distance Learning 

Securing appropriate funding for community college distance-learning efforts and coping with the increasing costs of

technology are emerging policy issues for two-year colleges in six states: Colorado, Connecticut,Illinois, Missouri,

North Carolina and South Carolina.Support for the new statewide electronic or “virtual colleges”and concerns over

the replacement costs for high-cost instructional technology equipment also surfaced as emerging policy issues.

Enrollment 

Respondents in six states (Colorado, Illinois,Nevada,Oregon,Virginia and Washington) also cited significant enrollment growth projections as a pressing policy issue.Nevada in particular is facing a projected 130% increase in the

number of high school graduates by 2008.These significant projected increases in college enrollments in all but five

states across the nation are a reflection of the so-called “Tidal Wave II”– children of the Baby Boom generation who are

now approaching college age.Coping with increased enrollments are creating difficulties for community colleges in

many parts of the country, particularly in light of current inadequate funding for enrollment.
51 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

C O N C L U S I O N

“At the turn of the new century, the nation’s public two-year colleges 

stand at the financial crossroads. On the one hand, the need for the 

services and education they provide in a changing local, regional, national

and international environment continues to accelerate. On the other hand,

community colleges now draw less of their total operating revenues from 

taxpayers than at any other time in their histories. If these recent trends 

are harbingers, the finance of community colleges will become even 

more critical in the foreseeable future.”

Richard A.Vorhees

Financing Community Colleges for A New Century

As Vorhees notes,traditional revenue streams for community colleges have changed over time. It is clear from this

study that there are great variations in funding mechanisms and sources of revenue used to fund community colleges

across the nation. With more than 5.4 million students – nearly half of all students in American higher education –

attending community colleges in traditional credit programs and an additional five million in noncredit programs,

appropriate funding of these institutions is essential.In addition, state and federal initiatives such as welfare reform 

and an expanded emphasis on economic development are escalating demands on two-year colleges.

An increase in the numbers of students requiring remediation and the growing emphasis on dual/concurrent enrollment of high school students only add to community colleges’need for additional resources.These amplified resource

needs will have to compete with other state priorities and will result in increased pressures to find alternative revenue

sources.

This research suggests that there is much more work to be in done in assessing the true nature of community college

finance.The five concerns revealed in the current and emerging issues (adequate funding, workforce and economic

development, tuition and fees,technology and distance learning, and enrollment) will continue to be a source of concern for policymakers in the years to come.The Center for Community College Policy intends for this exploratory study

to provide a foundation for further research and to serve state policymakers as a useful tool to better inform their legislative efforts to provide financial support for their community colleges.
State-by-State Community College Performance Indicators

52 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

State Indicators

AK None

AL None

AR Performance indicators are not currently being used.

AZ 1. Participation rate

2. Ethnic and racial representation

3. Financial aid awards

4. Developmental education

5. Course availability

6. Occupational program participation and completion rates

7. Placement and wages

8. Employer satisfaction

9. Number of transfer students

10. Success of transfer students

11. Effectiveness of the New Transfer Model

12. Small business development centers

13. Social,economic and/or cultural development activities

14. Student learning outcomes

CA (Partnership for Excellence)

1. Successful course completion

2. Degrees and certificates awarded

3. Transfers to four-year institutions

4. Workforce development 

5. Basic skills improvement

6. Transfer preparedness

CO 1. Graduation rates and credits for degree

2. Faculty instructional productivity

3. Freshman persistence

4.Achievement rates

5. Lower-division class size

6.Approved and implemented diversity plan

7. Institutional support costs

8. Institutional selected indicator

9.Another institutional selected indicator

CT New requirement currently being developed and may include:

1. Student learning and academic excellence 

-Written,oral, reading and critical thinking skills

-Performance on licensure exams

2. Joining with elementary and secondary education 

-High school articulation

-Innovative projects with K-12

3.Access and affordability 

-Real price to students to attend institution

-Percent of operating expenditures from state support

-Percent of financial aid from federal support

-Distance education opportunities

4. Economic development 

-Credit-free headcount

-Numbers of employers and employees served,net revenue generated

-Programs to meet employer needs

APPENDIX A A
53 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

5. Responsiveness to societal issues 

-Headcount and grades of basic skills reading,writing, English students

-Headcount and grades of basic skills math students

-Sharing of resources with community

-Provision of specialized services to the community

6. Efficient use of resources 

-Percent of operating expenditures for instruction, public/community service, academic support,student

services and student financial aid

-Faculty productivity

-Retention rate

-Graduation rate

DE Even though the state does not require performance indicators, DTCC has established performance measures

that include but are not limited to:

1. Student enrollment

2. Credit awards

3. Degree recipients

4. Percent of students transferred to senior institutions

5. Percent of degree recipients of employees

FL 1.The outputs are AA degrees awarded,the number of dual-enrolled credit hours generated divided by 60,and

additional points are awarded for special population completers.

2.The outcomes are AA degree completers who transfer to a university or are placed in a job. Partial 

completers of AA degree who transfer are also counted as outcomes.

GA None

HI None

IA None

ID Idaho requires reporting performance indicators but there are not specific indicators that must be reported.

Typical indicators such as numbers of students,graduation rates, job placement, etc.are reported.

IL For the Illinois Community College System, there are six statewide indicators that account for 60% of the

Performance based Incentive System (PBIS) dollars and include:

1. Student satisfaction (12%)

2. Student education advancement (12%)

3. Student success in employment/continued pursuit of education (12%)

4. Student transfer to four-year institutions (8%)

5. Population served (8%)

6.Academically disadvantaged

7. Student success (8%)

District-based component funding accounts for 40% of PBIS dollars.The district-based component should

reflect autonomy, mission differentiation,and community needs. College officials choose one of the following

three areas to focus their local PBIS initiatives on over a five-year time span:

1. Responsiveness to local need

2. Technology

3. Workforce Development

IN Periodic reporting, along with four-year institutions. Measures vary and not reported every year.

KS Under development.

KY None

LA 1. Job placements

2. Percentage of programs accredited

3. Certificates awarded

4. Diplomas awarded

5. Percent administrative expenditures

6. Percent instructional expenditures

7. Number of distance learning sites

8. Student satisfaction indicator will be implemented in FY 2001-2002
54 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

MA 1. Percentage of community college system operational funding derived from state and local government

appropriations compared to national average

2. Community college system national ranking in average tuition and fees cost

3. Cost of education

4.Annualized unduplicated credit headcount

5. Unduplicated headcount of students enrolled in credit courses; number full-time and number part-time.

6. Total FTE

7.Annualized total number of enrollments in non-credit college offerings

8. Unduplicated credit headcount by gender 

9. Unduplicated credit headcount by race

10. Unduplicated credit headcount by 24 years and under; by 25 years and older

11. Unduplicated credit headcount with documented disability

12. Number of enrollments in credit programming offered by the college at off-campus locations

13. Percentage of total unduplicated credit student enrolled who receive federal financial aid

14. Course credit completion rate

15. Number of degrees and certificates awarded

16. Licensure exam pass rate

17. Percentage positive placement rate of career program graduates

18. Percentage of graduates from transfer programs who enrolled in another institution of higher education

19.Assessment of students' perceptions regarding achievement of their education goals from attending a

community college

20. Percentage of graduates of career-oriented programs who are employed in a related field or transfer 

within one year of graduation

21. Percentage of Massachusetts' employers who employ community college graduates

22.Annualized not-for-credit, workforce development/job skills training courses offered by the college

23. Number of annualized participants in not-for-credit, workforce development/job skills training courses at

the college

24. Percent of career-related degree and credit certificate programs that utilize advisory boards

25. Number of colleges with an established institutional process for economic and labor market analysis

26. Community service activities by campus

27. Percent of community colleges making the following types of services available to their local communities

(11 separate items)

28. Total education and general expenditures (not including federal/state student financial aid)

29. Percentage of education and general expenditures attributed to institutional support

30. Percentage of education and general expenditures attributed to instructional costs

31.Adaptation and renewal as percentage of replacement costs

32. Number of formalized current articulation agreements between community colleges and four-year 

public/private colleges and universities

33. Number of students participating in the Joint Admissions Program.

34. Collaborative/partnering arrangements and projects involving other community colleges and/or four-year

public/private colleges and universities

35. Percent of K-12 school districts in the service area with which the community college is

collaborating/working to provide educational related services

36. Description of community college-sponsored activities/projects targeted to K-12 in which community

colleges provide direct services to local school/school districts

37. Total gifts eligible for endowment match

38. Percentage of community colleges meeting or exceeding the endowment challenge goal

MD 1. Student satisfaction with job preparation

2. Employer satisfaction with CC graduates

3. Student satisfaction with transfer preparation

4. CC transfer student success: GPA first year

5. Second year retention rate

6. Second year retention rates of developmental students (placed)

7. Licensure exams passing rate

8. Four-year transfer and graduation rate

9. Number students transferring to MD public four-year institutions

10. Tuition and fees in state/county

11. Percent county population served
55 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

12. Continuing education (noncredit) registrations

13. Percent African-American of all undergraduates

14. Percent all minorities of all undergraduates

15. Percent African-American full-time core faculty

16. Percent women full-time core faculty

17. Percent African-American full-time executive/managerial

18. Percent women full-time executive/managerial

19. Transfer/graduation rate of African-American students

20. Transfer/graduation rate of all minority students

21. Percent LCD SCH generated by core faculty

22. Percent budget to instruction

23. Dollars in private giving

24. Dollars endowment value

ME 1. Enrollment

2. Success rates

3. Other factors

MI A generic process that is not published by the executive office.This is not an issue in Michigan - local control

and general appropriations are too strong.

MN None

MO 1.Assessment of graduates

2. Performance of graduates

3. Degree/certificate productivity

4. Success of underrepresented groups

5. Successful transfers

6. Successful job placement

MS 1. Cumulative grade point average of community college transfer students attending state Institutions of higher

learning will equal or exceed the GPA earned by native student in the same university system, 2.70

2. Average range of class,16-30

3. Percentage of CJC associate degree nursing graduates who pass the state board nursing exam on the first

write,95.16%

4. Percentage of full-time and adjunct faculty who met the criteria for academic and professional preparation,

99.95%

5. Percentage of vocation-technical students who complete or exit a program and are considered positively

place etc.,83.90%

MT None

NC 1. Progress of basic-skills students

2. Performance of college transfer students

3. Passing rates for licensure and certification exams

4. Passing rates of student in developmental courses

5. Success rate of developmental students in subsequent college-level courses (data dependent on Data

Warehouse project)

6. Program enrollment

7. Student satisfaction: completers and noncompleters

8. Goal completion of completers

9. Curriculum student progress and success

10. Employer satisfaction with graduates

11. Employment status of graduates

12. Client satisfaction with customized training

ND None

NE None

NH None
56 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

NJ Improved graduation rates:

1.Three-year SURE (+) combined graduation and/or transfer rate for a full freshman cohort.

2.Three-year SURE (+) comprehensive success rate for a full freshman cohort.

3.Three-year combined graduation and/or SURE (+) transfer rate for TAG recipients in the bottom two cells

of the TAG table (student at risk).

4.Three-year SURE (+) comprehensive success rate for TAG recipients in the bottom two cells of the TAG

table (students at risk).

5. Average time to completion of the degree.

Improved transfer and articulation:

1.Three-year SURE +() rate of transfer to senior institutions for freshmen in cc transfer programs.

2. Junior-year mean GOA of transfers to a senior public institution from a particular community college.

3. Graduation rate for cc students who transfer to a senior public institution.

Improved efficiency and effectiveness:

1. Percent of associate-degree programs with 25 or fewer students enrolled.

2. Collaboration - academic, administrative/student service, and community service.

3.Assessment of graduates

Diversified revenues

1. Increase in tuition

2. External funding

3. Continuing education revenue

NM Yet to be determined

NV None

NY A system of performance indicators and some degree of performance-based funding are under development.

OH 1.An appropriate range of career or technical programs designed to prepare individuals for employment in

specific careers at the technical or paraprofessional level

2. Commitment to an effective array of developmental education services providing opportunities for 

academic skill enhancement

3. Partnerships with industry, business,government and labor for the retraining of the workforce and the

economic development of the community

4. Noncredit continuing education opportunities

5. College transfer pro g rams or the initial two years of a baccalaureate degree for students planning to tra n s f e r

to institutions offering baccalaureate programs

6. Linkages with high schools to ensure that graduates are adequately pre p a red for post-secondary instruction

7. Student access provided according to a convenient schedule and pro g ram quality provided at an affordable price

8. Student fees charged by any institution are as low as possible, especially if the institution is being 

supported by a local tax levy

9.A high level of community involvement in the decisionmaking process in such critical areas as course

delivery, range of services,fees and budgets, and administrative personnel

OK 1. Graduation rates

2. Transfer rates

3. Time to degree completion

4. Certification/licensure pass rates

5. Employment rates

6. Remediation rates

7. Degrees conferred

8.Assessment activity

OR None

PA None

RI None
57 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

SC 1. Expenditure of funds to achieve institutional mission

2. Curricula offered to achieve mission

3.Approval of a mission statement

4.Adoption of a strategic plan to support the mission statement

5.Attainment of goals of the strategic plan

6.Academic and other credential of professors and instructors

7. Performance review systems for faculty to include student and peer evaluations

8. Post-tenure review for tenured faculty

9. Compensation of faculty

10. Availability of faculty to students outside the classroom

11. Community or public service activities of faculty for which no extra compensation is paid

12. Class sizes and student/teacher ratios

13. Number of credit hours taught by faculty

14. Ratio of full-time faculty as compared to other full-time employees

15. Institutional emphasis on quality teacher education and reform

16. Sharing and use of technology, programs,equipment,supplies, and source matter experts within the 

institution,with other institutions, and the business community

17. Cooperation and collaboration with private industry

18. Percentage of administrative costs as compared to academic costs

19. Use of best management practices

20. Elimination of unjustified duplication of and waste in administrative and academic programs

21.Amount of general overhead costs

22. SAT and ACT scores of student body

23. High school standing, gradepoint averages, and activities of student body

24. Post-secondary nonacademic achievement of student body

25. Priority of enrolling in-state students

26. Graduation rate

27. Employment rate for graduates

28. Employer feedback on graduates who were employed or not employed

29. Scores of graduates on post-graduate professional,graduate or employment-related examinations and 

certification tests

30. Number of graduates who continue their education

31. Credit hours earned of graduates

32. Transferability of credits to and from the institution

33. Continuing education programs for graduates and others

34.Accessibility to the institution of all citizens of the state

35. Financial support for reform in teacher education

36.Amount of public- and private-sector grants

SD None

TN 1. Testing of General Ed outcomes

2. Pilot evaluation of General Ed outcomes

3.Accreditation

4. Undergraduate and graduate program review

5. Major field-testing

6. Enrolled/alumni surveys

7. Retention/Persistence

8. Job placement

9. Strategic plan goals

TX 1. Rate at which students completed courses attempted

2. Number and types of degrees and certificates awarded

3. Percentage of graduates who passed licensing exams related to the degree or certificate awarded,to the

extent the information can be determined

4. Number of students or graduates who transfer to or are admitted to a public university

5. Passing rates for students required to be tested under Section 51.306

6. Percentage of students enrolled who are academically disadvantaged

7. Percentage of students enrolled who are economically disadvantaged

8. Racial and ethnic composition of the district's student body
58 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

9. Percentage of student contact hours taught by full-time faculty

UT 1. Faculty instructional workload

2. Transfer efficiency with 4-year institutions

3. Time to graduation (where appropriate)

4. Student scores on norm-referenced licensure exams

VA 1. Graduation rate

2. Progressions rate (students returning to same institution at higher level)

3. Retention rate (returning students,but not progressing to higher level)

4. Persistence rate (students returning regardless of program placed level)

5. Transfer rate to four-year institutions

6. Graduates employed in program-related work

7. Graduates pursuing further study

8. Instruction as percent of educational and general expenditures

9.Achieving management standards (clean audit,prompt payments, etc.)

10. Percent occupancy - classrooms

11. Weekly room use hours - classrooms

12. Percent occupancy - class labs

13. Weekly room use hours - class labs

14. Weekly station use hours - classrooms

15. Weekly station use hours - class labs

16. Total credit hours per full-time equivalent faculty

VT None

WA 1. Number of transfer students from 35,000-50,000/year

2. Number of job-ready student from 14,0000-25,000/year

3. Increase % students with basic skills gains from 37% to 80% 

WI None

WV None

WY 1. Student goal attainment

2. Persistence 

3. Degree completion rates

4. Placement rate in the workforce

5. Employer assessment of students

6. Licensure/certification pass rates

7. Client assessment of programs and services

8. Demonstration of critical literacy skills

9. Demonstration of citizenship skills

10. Number and rate who transfer

11. Performance after transfer

12. Success in subsequent, related coursework

13. Participation rate in service area

14. Responsiveness to community needs
B APPENDIX B

59 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1999 Community College

Finance Policy Survey

Center for Community College Policy

Education Commission of the States

State Name: ___________________________

Person Completing Survey:

Name: ____________________________________________________

Title: _____________________________________________________

Organization:______________________________________________

Address: _________________________________________________

City/State/Zip: _____________________________________________

Phone: ______________________ Fax: ________________________

E-mail: ___________________________________________________

Web Site: _________________________________________________

Directions: 

Please fill out the following survey and return to the Education Commission of the States by

Wednesday, May 17, 2000. Thank you for your time and assistance.

Please return completed questionnaire to: Judie Mathers, Policy Analyst

Center for Community College Policy

Education Commission of the States

707 17th Street, Suite 2700

Denver, CO 80202

Phone: 303-299-3691

E-mail: jmathers@ecs.org
G o v e r n a n c e I

S e c t i o n

60 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1. States use different methods for appropriating funds for community colleges.

Please describe your state’s process for the following:

a) How are total state appropriations for community colleges determined by the legislature?

b) What procedures are used to apportion funds to individual community colleges?

2. Please describe what role, if any, each of the following policy bodies have in developing and 

approving community college budgets in your state?

❍ Legislature

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ State community college board

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ State board of education

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ State postsecondary board

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ Local community college boards

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ Local school boards

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

❍ Other – Please specify:

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. How are state appropriations for community colleges reflected in the state budget?

❍ In a single consolidated appropriation for all community colleges

❍ As part of a consolidated appropriation with all postsecondary institutions

❍ Allocated to individual institutions

❍ Other – Please specify:

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. a) Does the legislature designate community college appropriations as a series of line items?

b) Is legislative approval required to move funds between line items?

c) Are salaries included as a separate line item?

Funding formula issues will be addressed in the next section. Please send either a written explanation or copies of

documents that explain your state formula for funding of community colleges.
II General Finance

S e c t i o n

61 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1. a) What are the current state revenue sources for community college appropriations in your state ?

b) What other sources have been used in the past? 

c) What additional sources are being considered for use in the future? 

d) What other state funds can community colleges apply for or access?

2. a) Do you receive local tax revenue?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, what is the process for generating and allocating local tax revenue?

c) Other than the property tax,what are other sources of local tax revenue?

3.What was the percentage breakdown of general operating funds for community colleges in your state for 1998-99?

4. a) Because it can vary greatly from year to year, what is the average percentage breakdown from different sources

for capital outlay funds for community colleges in your state from 1994-1999?

b) Do allocations of state funds for capital outlay require local matching?

❍ Yes

❍ No

c) Can your general state appropriation be used for capital construction?

❍ Yes

❍ No

5.What was the total number of credit generating students (annualized) in each of the following sectors in 1998-99?

General Operating Funds: 1998-99 % of Total Dollars

Federal (include all Perkins funds) %

State %

Local %

Student Tuition Fees %

Other: (please specify) (include federal financial aid %

and restricted funds other than Perkins here)

Total amount of general operating funds $

Sources Percentage

Local taxes/bonds %

State taxes/bonds %

Other (please specify) %

Level of Institution Unduplicated Head Count FTE

Vocational Schools

Community/Technical Colleges

4-year State Colleges and Universities

4-year Research Universities
62 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Level of Institution FTE Expenditure*

Vocational Schools

Community/Technical Colleges

4-year State Colleges and Universities

4-year Research Universities

*Definition: FTE expenditure = total E&G / total FTE

6. a) What was the average expenditure per student FTE (annualized) for 1998-99? 

b) What is the amount of state support per FTE?

c) How is FTE calculated? (e.g. 15 credit hours = 1 FTE)

d) If different than FTE, please explain.

7. a) What,if any, is the target percentage goal of the total cost of community college instruction in your state 

to be funded by student tuition and fees (student share of cost)? (e.g.one-third state,one-third local,

one-third student tuition and fees,etc.)

b) If there is not an explicit goal, is there an implied target for student share of cost?

❍ Yes

❍ No

c) If so, what is that target?

8. a) Is a funding formula used to determine appropriations for community colleges in your state?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, what is the process for developing and/or changing the formula?

c) Is your funding formula used:

❍ To determine the total funds that should be allocated to community colleges, or 

❍ To determine how the allocated funds are distributed to the individual institutions, or 

❍ Other: _____________________________________________________________________________________

d) How closely does the final state appropriation reflect what would be expected under the funding formula?

e) What drives the formula?

❍ Enrollment

❍ Space utilization

❍ Comparison with /peer institutions

❍ Other: _____________________________________________________________________________________

f) If your formula is based on enrollment,are your community colleges funded based on:

❍ Projected enrollment 

❍ Previous year’s enrollment 

g) If your formula funds on the basis of projected enrollment,what are the consequences of not meeting 

the projected enrollment target?
63 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

10. a) Are specific program costs used as a factor in the funding formula for determining the level of state support for

different courses of study offered by community colleges (e.g. an add-on for high-cost vocational/technical programs)? 

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, please describe.

11. a) Does dual/concurrent enrollment of K-12 students generate any state support for community colleges?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, please describe the level of support and its source.

c) Do school districts keep full state aid for each concurrently enrolled student?

❍ Yes

❍ No

d) Are concurrently enrolled students charged tuition?

❍ Yes

❍ No

e) If yes, who pays the tuition?

9. a) Do non-credit enrollments generate any state support?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If so, what specific state support is available for the following types of educational offerings?

Type of Offering Type of Support

Noncredit certificate areas (programs

that award certificate of completion)

Customized Training for Business

and Industry

Noncredit community lifelong learning

(individual courses)
Student Tuition & Fees III

S e c t i o n

64 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1. For the 1998-99 academic year, for a full-time in-state student,what is the range (low to high) of community 

college tuition & fees per academic year across institutions in your state?

(tuition only) $ ____________________ to $ ____________________

(low) (high) 

(tuition & fees) $ ____________________ to $ ____________________

(low) (high)

2.What is the average cost of tuition & fees per full-time undergraduate student for 1998-99 at each of the following

types of institutions?

3.What is was the average cost of tuition per credit hour for a full-time community college student in 1998-99?

(Tuition only; do not include fees.)

4. a) At what point in the tuition schedule are students considered full-time?

b) Is there a plateau in the tuition schedule that provides an incentive for students to take a targeted number of

credit hours? If so,where is it?

c) At what point in the tuition schedule are students charged for overload,or enrolling in courses over and above

the number considered the maximum for a full-time student?

d) What is the specific policy intent behind this design,if any?

5. a) Is there a differential in tuition costs for less-popular afternoon/weekend or summer hours as opposed to classes

offered in high demand prime-time hours on campus?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, what is that differential and how successful is it in managing desired enrollment patterns?

6. Describe how and when tuition and/or fee waivers are used in your state.

Type of Institution Average Cost of Tuition

Vocational Schools $

Community/Technical Colleges $

4-year State Colleges and Universities $

4-year Research Universities $

*Definition: FTE expenditure = total E&G / total FTE

Student Designation Semester or Quarter Average Cost Per Credit Hour

In-district $

Out-of-district $

In-state $

Out-of-state $
IV Performance-Based Funding

S e c t i o n

65 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1. Does your state require reporting of specific performance indicators for community colleges 

(e.g.graduation rates, successful job placements,etc)?

❍ Yes

❍ No

2. If your state has performance indicators for community colleges:

a) What are those indicators?

b) Is performance on these indicators linked to budget allocations?

❍ Yes

❍ No

c) If yes, what percentage of the overall budget is specifically linked to these indicators?

_________%

d) Is this percentage of funding:

❍ Derived from reallocation of existing community college budgets 

❍ Based on "new money" added on top of the existing base budget

❍ Other – (Please specify) _______________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________

e) Are there penalties or sanctions for low performance?

❍ Yes

❍ No

f) If yes, what are the penalties or sanctions?

3.Apart from state performance indicators,are there specific incentives to encourage community colleges 

to meet state goals?
Remedial/Developmental Education VI

S e c t i o n

Workforce Development V

S e c t i o n

66 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Workforce development is defined as those educational programs,both credit and noncredit,which are targeted at supporting

individuals and businesses in the attainment of specific job skills for entry-level positions,retraining as a consequence of worker

dislocation or customized training for business and industry.

1. a) Do community colleges in your state receive specific funds dedicated to workforce development activities as part

of their appropriation?

❍ Yes

❍ No

2. a) Are there other state funding sources for which your community colleges can apply to support workforce development activities?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, describe the source of these funds and the application/allocation process.

3. a) Are there other non-state funding sources for which your community colleges can apply to support workforce

development activities (e.g. local, regional, private,federal)?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If yes, describe the source of these funds and the application/allocation process.

4. What are the current and/or emerging issues around workforce development in your state?

1. Describe how remedial/developmental education is funded in your state?

2. a) Do remedial/development courses generate the same level of state support in the funding formula 

as regular credit courses?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If no,how are they different?

3. How is adult basic education funded?

4. What are the current and/or emerging issues around remedial/developmental education in your state?
VII Emerging Issues

S e c t i o n

67 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

1. a) Do you charge a different tuition rate for distance education courses versus on-campus courses for 

in-state students?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If no, describe the difference.

c) Is out-of-state tuition charged to nonresident community college students enrolling via distance education?

❍ Yes

❍ No

d) If no,describe the tuition and/or fees structure used.

2. a) Do distance education students generate the same FTE and state support as on-campus students?

❍ Yes

❍ No

b) If no, what is the difference?

3. What are the current and/or emerging policy issues around community college finance in your state?

4. Are there any significant changes being considered in how community colleges are funded in your state?

❍ Yes

❍ No

If yes,please describe.
R e f e r e n c e s

APPENDIX C C

68

Continued on next page

ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

Albright,Brenda Norman (1998) “The Transition from Business as Usual to Funding for Results: State Efforts to Integrate

Performance Measures in the Higher Education Budgetary Process.”Denver, CO: State Higher Education Executive Officers.

Brown, J.S. (2000, March,April).“Growing Up Digital: How the Web Changes Work, Education and the Way People

Learn.”Change.

Chambers, M.M.(1968). Higher Education: Who Pays? Who Gains? Danville, IL: The Interstate Printers & Publishers,Inc.

Cohen,Arthur M., and Brawer Florence B. (1996). The American Community Colleges (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass Publishers.

Education Commission of the States (ECS) (1998). Transforming Postsecondary Education for the 21st Century. Denver,

CO: ECS.

Phillippe,Kent A., and Patton, Madeline (2000). National Profile of Community Colleges: Trends and Statistics (3rd ed.).

Washington,DC: Community College Press,American Association of Community Colleges.

Vorhees, R.A. (Forthcoming,2001). Financing Community Colleges for a New Century. New York City, NY: Agathon Press.
Community College Finance Survey Respondents by State

69 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A 50-State Surv e y

D APPENDIX D

State Respondent Organization

Alabama Debbie Dahl, Vice Chancellor for Fiscal & Department of Postsecondary Education 

Information Services

Alaska Mark Johnson, Prince William Sound Community College

Business Manager

Arizona Thomas Saad, Associate Executive Director State Board of Directors for 

of Business and Finance Community Colleges

Arkansas Edward Franklin, Executive Director Arkansas Association of Two-Year Colleges

Rita Fleming Arkansas Department of Education

California Scott Lay, Associate Director of Community College League of California

Governmental Relations

Colorado Brad Baca, Director of Budgets Colorado Community College and

Occupational Education System

Connecticut Victoria J. Greene, Connecticut Community College System

Director of Finance

Delaware Diane Evans, Assistant Delaware Technical and Community College

Vice President for Finance

Florida Ed Cisek, Deputy Director, Florida State Board of Community Colleges

Finance & Information Services

Georgia Laura Boalch, Georgia Department of Technical &

Budget Director Adult Education

Hawaii Michael Rota, Vice Chancellor University of Hawaii Community Colleges

for Academic Affairs

Idaho Rolland Jurgens, Vice President for North Idaho College

Administrative Services

Illinois Don Wilske, Chief Financial Officer Illinois Community College Board

Indiana Mike Baumgartner, Associate Commissioner Indiana Commission for Higher Education

for Facilities and Financial Affairs

Iowa Evelyn Anderson, Bureau Chief of the Iowa Department of Education Division of 

Bureau of Community Colleges Community Colleges & Wo r k f o rce Pre p a r a t i o n

Kansas Joe Birmingham, Deputy Executive Director Kansas Board of Regents

Kentucky Wendell Followell, Director of Budget Kentucky Community and Technical 

College System

Louisiana Joe Marin, John Hough, and Louisiana Community and 

Kim Kirkpatrick - LCTCS staff Technical College System

Gene Fields - Board of Regents staff

Maine Lynn Olson, Director of Finance and Maine Technical College System

Administration

Maryland Geoffrey Newman, Policy Analyst Maryland Higher Education Commission

Massachusetts Janice Motta, Executive Officer Massachusetts Community Colleges 

Michigan Debbie Lonik, Specialist in Office of Michigan Department of Career Development

Postsecondary Services 

James Folkening, Director in Office

of Postsecondary Services

Minnesota Patrick Opatz, System Budget Director Minnesota's State Colleges and Universities

Mississippi Deborah Gilbert, Associate Executive Mississippi State Board for Community and 

Director for Finance and Administration Junior Colleges

Missouri Terry Barnes, Assistant Commissioner for Missouri Coordinating Board for

Community Colleges and Technical Education Higher Education

Montana Rod Sundsted, Associate Commissioner O ffice of the Commissioner of Higher Education

Nebraska Sharon Howell, Assistant Director Nebraska Community College Association

Nevada M a rtin Kyte, Budget and Planning Coord i n a t o r University and Community College

System of Nevada

Continued on next page
70 ECS | State Funding for Community Colleges: A Fifty-State Surv e y

State Respondent Organization

New Hampshire Scott Westover, Director of New Hampshire Regional Community

Technical Public Information College System

Mary Milliken, Chief Financial Officer

New Jersey Lawrence Nespoli, President New Jersey Council of County Colleges

New Mexico Frank Renz, Executive Director New Mexico Association of

Community Colleges

New York Robert T. Brown, Vice Chancellor State University of New York

for Community Colleges

North Carolina Larry Morgan, Director of North Carolina Community College System

Budgeting & Accountability

North Dakota Laura Glatt, Vice Chancellor for North Dakota University System

Administrative Services

Ohio Deborah Gavlik, Dire c t o r, Ohio Board of Regents

Budgets & Resource Planning

Oklahoma Hans Brisch, Chancellor Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education

Oregon Tom Hughes, Financial Analyst Department of Community Colleges & 

Workforce Development

Pennsylvania Patricia Krebs, Interim Director Pennsylvania Commission for 

Community Colleges

Rhode Island Ruth Barrington, Business Manager Community College of Rhode Island

South Carolina Harvey Studstill, Director of South Carolina State Board for Technical

Financial Reporting and Comprehensive Education

South Dakota Ken Gifford, Director of Western Dakota Western Dakota Technical Institute,

Technical Institute 

Terrence Sullivan, Director of Southeast Southeast Technical Institute

Technical Institute 

Gary Williams, Director of Lake Area Lake Area Technical Institute

Technical Institute

Tennessee George Malo, Assistant Vice Chancellor Tennessee Board of Regents

of Research/Assessment

Texas D r. Glenda O. Barron, Assistant Commissioner Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board

Utah Gary S. Wixom, Assistant Commissioner Utah System of Higher Education

Norm Tarbox, Associate Commissioner

Vermont Bob Nicol, Chief Financial Officer Vermont State Colleges System

Virginia Karen J. Peterson, Vice Chancellor for Virginia Community College System

Administrative Services

Washington Scott Morgan, Director of Financial Services Washington State Board for Community and

Technical Colleges

West Virginia James L. Skidmore, Vice Chancellor for State College and University Systems

Community and Technical College Education of West Virginia

Wisconsin Janet Washbon, Director of Policy and Wisconsin Technical College System Board

Government Relations

Wyoming William Lovejoy, Dean of Information, Wyoming Community College Commission

Planning and Policy Analysis
707 17th Street, Suite 2700

Denver, Colorado 80202-3427

www.ecs.org