1 IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF KANS AS

N o . 111,599

M ARK B ULLOCK , Appel lee
,

v

.
BNSF R AILWAY C OMPANY , Appell ant

.

SYLLABUS BY THE COUR T 1.
K.S.A. 60

- 451 prohibits the admission of subsequent remedial measures to prove negligence or culpable conduct.

2.
Post

- event employee discipline constitutes a subsequent remedial measure, and it is barred by K.S.A. 60

- 451 when used to prove negligence or culpable conduct.

3.
Post

- event investigative reports or tests are not subsequent remedial measures that
fall within K.S.A. 60

- 451's purview.

4. When otherwise admissible evidence includes information that is barred by K.S.A.
60

- 451, the trial court should exclude whatever portions of the evidence are subsequent remedial measures and any evidence that would trespass inferentially into K.S.A. 60

- 451.2

5.
While K.S.A. 60

- 451 bars evidence of subsequent remedial measures to establish negligence or culpable conduct, such evidence is admissible for other relevant purposes.

6.
K.S.A. 60

- 451 bars subsequent remedial measures evidence to establish causation because it is a necessary element of negligence, which itself is prohibited under the statute from being proven by such evidence.

7. When no fault other than that of the plaintiff and defendant is to be compared,

s ubsequent remedial measures evidence is not admissible to rebut the defense of plaintiff's contributory negligence because evidence that tends to exculpate the plaintiff of necessity places fault upon the defendant.

8.
Remarks of cou nsel in a civil case result in reversible error when, because of them, the parties have not had a fair trial.

9. The reasonable probability test announced in State v. Ward , 292 Kan. 541, 569, 256 P.3d 801 (2011), applies to claims that improper argument prevented a fair civil trial. So reversal of a jury verdict is appropriate when there is a reasonable probability that the error will or did affect the trial's outcome in light of the entire record.

10. Juries are tasked with deciding cases based on the evidence presented and the law provided by the court's instructions, not with protecting their communities through their3

verdicts. So comments that appeal to community interests, like those made by counsel in this case, are improper.

Review of the judgmen t of the Court of Appeals in an unpublished opinion filed August 7, 2015. Appeal from Wyandotte D istrict C ourt; D AVID W. B OAL , judge . Opinion filed August 4 , 20 17. Judgment of the Court of Appeals reversing and remanding to the district court is affirmed. Judgment of the district
court is reversed
, and the case is remanded for further proceedings.

Craig M. Leff

, of Yeretsky & Maher, LLC
, of Overland Park, argued the cause
, and Gregory F.
Maher and Spencer L. Throssell , of the same office, were with him on the briefs for appellant.

Daniel J. Cohen , of Law Offices of Daniel J. Cohen, of St. Louis, Missouri, argued the cause, and Davy C. Walker, of Law Offices of Davy C. Walker, of Kansas City, was with him on the brief for appellee.

The opinion of the court was delivered by

N USS , C.J.: To recover for his injuries sustained after slipping on diesel fuel spilled by a coworker, Mark Bullock sued his employer under the Federal Employers ' Liability Act (FELA), 45 U.S.C. § 51 et seq. (2012). Over the object ion of his employer BNSF Railway Company (BNSF), Bullock introduced evidence at trial that the coworker had been disciplined for his conduct in contrast to BNSF's concession that it had not disciplined Bullock.

The jury found BNSF to be 100 percent at fau lt based on the coworker's actions and awarded Bullock $1,720,000 in damages. But the Court of Appeals panel held the evidence of the coworker's discipline was admitted in violation of K.S.A. 60

- 451. Bullock
v. BNSF R ailway . Co. , No. 111,599, 2015 WL 48790 54 , at *8 (Kan. App. 2015) (unpublished opinion). The panel also held the admission was harmful enough to require4

reversal of the verdict and remand for a new trial. We granted Bullock's petition for
review under K.S.A. 60

- 2101(b) (review of Court of Appea ls decision).

We agree with the panel. Evidence of employee discipline qualifies as a subsequent remedial measure, and K.S.A. 60

- 451 prohibits its admission when offered to prove "negligence or culpable conduct in connection with the event." Because the
d isciplinary evidence was admitted for those improper purposes here, and because the error was not harmless, we reverse and remand for a new trial.

We also agree with the panel that some statements Bullock's counsel made to the jury during his closing argu ment were improper. But because we already are reversing and remanding on the disciplinary evidentiary issue, we need not determine whether this
additional error was harmless.

F ACTS AND P ROCEDURAL H ISTORY

Bullock worked as a cab carpenter for BNSF. While working on coupled locomotives at a maintenance facility he walked through what he recognized to be diesel
fuel. After call ing to report the spill, Bullock continued his duties. As he stepped from the running board of one locomotive to another, his foot slipped, and he fell in the gap and was injured

. It was later discovered that the fuel had been spilled by Bullock's coworker,
Chris Wise , while changing fuel filters

. BNSF Mechanical Foreman, Levi McNeely,
conducted an i njury i nvestigation, and the ensuin g "McNeely report" listed two causes of Bullock's injuries: (1) Wise left fuel on walkways creating a slip, trip, and fall hazard; and (2) Bullock's "inability to perform a proper risk assessment after walking through the
fuel."

Bullock sued BNSF for negl igence under FELA, and BNSF's defenses included a claim that he was contributorily negligent.5

At trial, evidence was introduced showing Bullock was not disciplined for his conduct. Evidence was also introduced regarding the injury investigation and showing that Wise was later subjected to a disciplinary process

— "alternative handling" that would not appear in his personnel record. Relevant to this appeal, BNSF objected to the evidence that Wise was subjected to alternative handling, arguing the discipline wa s a subsequent remedial measure barred by K.S.A. 60

- 451. This objection encompassed testimony from Wise and his supervisor, General Foreman Mark Stockman, concerning the alternative handling as well as several documents. Some of these documents included:

 A letter BNSF sent to Wise after he " acknowledged accountability " and accepted disposition by alternative handling. The letter outlined the disciplinary details, including a requirement that he "accept full responsibility" because his actions were in "clear v iolation" of rules and his "failure to clean up the residual fuel contributed to the injury of a fellow worker." It further required that he work with Stockman to create an alternative handling plan and encouraged Wise to make this a "learning experience t hat will help eliminate at risk behavior and prevent future
incidents

. "

 An email drafted by Stockman containing a script Wise was required to read to his fellow employees as part of the alternative handling. Through that script, Wise admitted, " [M] y negli gence contributed to an injury to another employee." Among other things, the script also expressed: "In the future, it is my hope that each employee remembers this statement, and by my speaking to you today, will help draw attention to the need to protect yourselves and your coworkers against slip, trip and fall hazards."6

The district court overruled BNSF's objection, holding that evidence of post

- accident employee discipline was not a subsequent remedial measure prohibited by the statute.

The jury found that BNSF negligently caused Bullock's injuries and that he was not contributorily negligent. It awarded $1,720,000 in damages

— comp osed of $136,500
for economic loss to date ; $1,208,500 for future economic loss ; $230,000 for
noneconomic loss to date ; $145,000 for future noneconomic loss ; and $0 for future medical expenses.

BNSF filed a motion for new trial, again arguing

— in part

— that Wise's discipline was a subsequent remedial measure. BNSF claimed this evidence was overly prejudicial
because Bullock contended this discipline was "tantamount to an admission of liability" in contrast to BNSF's decision not to discipline Bullock. The district court denied the
motion
, holding, among other things, that Wise's disciplinary proceedings were relevant
to BNSF 's defense that Bullock was contributorily negligent.

The Court of Appeals panel held the evidence of Wise's discipline was a subsequent remedial measure barred by K.S.A. 60

- 451 when admitted to prove negligence or culpable conduct. The panel also held tha t this evidence was not admissible to show lack of Bullock's contributory negligence, to show causation, or for impeachment purposes. Because the panel held a reasonable probability existed that the jury would have apportioned the parties' fault differentl y absent admission of such evidence, it ruled
the error was not harmless. So it reversed and remanded for a new trial. Bullock , 2015
WL 4879054 , at *8

- 13

.

In its analysis, the panel distinguished between (1) employee discipline and (2) the post

- event inve stigation which is not considered a subsequent remedial measure barred from admission. To the extent the discipline overlapped with the investigative7

conclusions, the panel suggested that redactions may be required to ensure that the impermissible discipli ne evidence was not presented to the jury through the investigation evidence. But the panel declined to apply its holding to the evidence admitted at trial, leaving it to the parties and district court to apply the rules on remand.

Even though the panel's evidentiary ruling alone was enough for reversal and remand to the district court, the panel also addressed BNSF's claim that Bullock's counsel improperly appealed to the conscience of the community during closing argument. The panel agreed the comments w ere improper but did not determine whether that error independently required reversal.

Bullock petitioned for this court's review of some of the issues presented to the panel. Those petitioned issues and our analysis appear below. The remaining issues
obv iously are not among those granted for review by this court and
, therefore
, are not currently before us, e.g. , use of disciplinary evidence as impeachment. See Supreme Court Rule 8.03(h)(1) (2017 Kan. S. Ct. R. 56) ("[T]he issues before the Supreme Court include all issues properly before the Court of Appeals which the petition for review or

cross

- petition allege were decided erroneously by the Court of Appeals." ).

A NALYSIS

Issue 1 : P ost

- accident employee discipline is a subsequent remedial measure under

K.S.A. 60

- 451.

Bullock argues evidence of post

- accident employee discipline is not a subsequent remedial measure, so it does not fall within K.S.A. 60

- 451's scope. He also argues even if the statute does apply, the disciplinary evidence nevertheless was admitted for permissible purposes

— to prove causation and to rebut BNSF's defense of his contributory negligence. He further argues some of the disciplinary evidence is8

admissible to provide context for other evidence, e.g. , the accident investigation. Tak ing each argument in turn, we disagree with them all.

Standard of r eview
Bullock's cause of action arises under FELA. Under this federal law, evidentiary and procedural questions are determined by the law of the forum, so Kansas law governs
them here. St . Louis Southwestern R. Co. v. Dickerson , 470 U.S. 409, 411, 105 S. Ct. 1347, 84 L. Ed. 2d 303 (1985) ("As a general matter, FELA cases adjudicated in state courts are subject to state procedural rules, but the substantive law governing them is
f ederal.").

Our review of evidentiary decisions is "guided by the character of the question
considered." City of Wichita v. Denton , 296 Kan. 244, 257, 294 P.3d 207 (2013). Because

t he issue here centers on the district court's interpretation of K.S.A. 60

- 451 , our review of its admissibility decision is de novo

. See Schlaikjer v. Kaplan , 296 Kan. 456, 467, 293 P.3d 155 (2013) (d istrict court's admissibility determination based on statutory interpretation )

.

Post

- e vent e mployee d iscipline is a s ubsequent r emedial m easure

.

K.S.A. 60

- 451 prohibits the admission of subsequent remedial measures to prove negligence or culpable conduct :

" When after the occurrence of an event remedial or precautionary measures are taken, which, if taken previously would have tended to m ake the event less likely to occur, evidence of such subsequent measures is not admissible to prove negligence or culpable conduct in connection with the event. "9

Two primary reasons have been given for this exclusion. First, "[s]ubsequent
remedial measure s do not constitute admissions of culpability, and evidence of such conduct is inherently unreliable." DiPietro v. Cessna Aircraft Co. , 28 Kan. App. 2d 372, 378, 16 P. 3d 986 (2000). Second, public policy should "encourage potential defendants

to remedy ha zardous conditions without fear that their actions will be used against them ." 28 Kan. App. 2d at 378 (citing TLT

- Babcock, Inc. v. Emerson Elec. Co.
, 33 F.3d 397, 400 [4 th Cir. 1994]).

Previous Kansas appellate courts have not addressed the specific question of
whether post

- accident employee discipline constitutes a subsequent remedial measure
under K.S.A. 60

- 451 . Perhaps for this reason, the panel focused on federal court decisions interpreting Federal Rule of Evidence 407 which concerns the same subject.
Bullock , 2015 WL 4879054, at *5

- 6 (discussing, e.g. , Specht v. Jensen , 863 F.2d 700,
701

- 02 [ 10th Cir. 1988 ] ). Bullock takes exception to this federal caselaw reliance by the panel.

We start our analysis with a focus on K.S.A. 60

- 451. A dopted in 1964, this statute
is identical to Rule 51 of the uniform rules committee of the National C onference of
C ommissioners on Uniform State Law. The committee was chaired by Kansan Spencer A. Gard, and its only comment to the rule was, "This states th e well [

- ] settled common
law rule." Uniform Rules of Evidence Rule 5 0 , comment (1953) (later renumbered as Rule 51)

.

The well

- settled common law rule appeared to include prohibiting admission of post

- accident employee discipline:

"The [subsequent remedia l measures ] rule finds its most common application in respect to evidence of subsequent repairs . . .
, but it has been applied as well to changes in operating rules and to the discharge of an employee charged with causing an injury

.10

As drawn, Rule 51 appears broad enough to cover any situation which, by existing law , is within the sweep of the exclusionary principle." (Emphas e s added.) Falknor, Extrinsic Policies Affecting Admissibility
, 10 Rutgers L

. Rev

. 574, 591 (19 56 ) (citing case s at n.74).

We observe, for example, in one of the law review article's cited cases, the Washington Supreme Court stated in 1893 that, "We are also of the opinion that the court should not have permitted the respondent to show that the car driver was disc harged by appellant
soon after the accident occurred." Christensen v. Union Trunk Line
, 6 Wash. 75, 83, 32 P. 1018 (1893); see also, e.g. , Hewitt v. Taunton St. Ry. Co. , 167 Mass. 483, 486, 46 N.E. 106 (1897) (employer's taking precaution of a virtual disc harge of employee driver after accident is not admissible as employer's implied admission for purpose of showing negligence; " [ t ] o hold otherwise would tend to discourage the adoption of additional safeguards, by improving the quality and raising the standard of the service") ; a ccord Rynar v. Lincoln Transit Co. , 30 A.2d 406 , 410 ( N.J. 1943) ("Evidence that a driver has been discharged soon after an accident is not competent as an implied admission that the driver had been careless.") ; c f. Turner v. He arst , 115 Cal. 394, 401, 47 P. 129 (1896) (error to allow plaintiff to prove newspaper's discharge of reporter in libel case; analogous to proof of precaution taken post

- accident).

Based upon the well

- settled common law rule incorporated in Rule 51

— and t hus incorporated in Kansas' adoption of Rule 51, i.e. , K.S.A. 60

- 451

— we conclude post

accident employee discipline constitutes a subsequent remedial measure barred by the statute when used to prove negligence or culpable conduct in connection with Bullock' s event. It therefore must be excluded from evidence.

In addition to this statutory analysis and resultant conclusion, we agree with the panel's analysis that considered how federal cou rts have addressed the question under
Fe deral Rule of Evidence 407. Th at rule states:11 " When measures are taken that would have made an earlier injury or harm less likely to occur, evidence of the subsequent measures is not admissible to prove:

•negligence; •culpable conduct ; •a defect in a product or its design; or
•a need for a warning or instruction.

" But the court may admit this evidence for another purpose, such as impeachment or

— if disputed

—

proving ownership, control, or the feasibility of precautionary measures. " (Emphasis added.)

This rule and K.S.A. 60

- 451 have be en viewed as embodying the same requirements, although Rule 407's language admittedly is not identical. As one noted
commentator on K.S.A. 60

- 451 has concluded: "Federal evidence rule compared. Federal Rule 407 is the same, but it adds the obviously impli ed provision that such evidence is not excluded when it tends to prove facts other than negligence or culpable conduct." 4 Gard, Casad, & Mulligan, Kansas C

. Civ. Proc. 5 th Annot. § 60

- 451 (2012) ;

a ccord
, Advisory Committee Notes to Fed

. R . Evid. 407 ("For comparable rules, see Uniform Rule 51;

. . . Kansas Code of Civil Procedure § 60

- 451.").

The fundamental purposes underlying the Kansas statute and the federal rule are essentially the same. As Gard , Casad, and Mulligan provide in the commentary to K.S.A

. 60

- 451:

"Even though the subsequent conduct of a party may seem to support an inference of consciousness of wrong, or amount to an admission of negligence, public policy stands in the way of the subsequent measures taken to prevent further injuries fro m being used as evidence for such purpose. The policy considerations are strong and very12

generally recognized." 4 Gard, Casad, & Mulligan, Kansas C. Civ. Proc. 5th Annot. § 60

- 451 (2012)

.
In the same vein, the Advisory Committee Notes to Rule 407 provide: "The rule incorporates conventional doctrine which excludes evidence of subsequent remedial measures as proof of an admission of fault." And the advisory committee cites with approval the same law review article that supports Rule 51. Specificall y, the subsequent remedial repair principle has been applied to exclude evidence of "changes in company rules, and discharge of employees , and the language of the present rule is broad enough to encompass . . . them. See Falknor, Extrinsic Policies Affecti ng Admissibility, 10 Rutgers L. Rev. 574, 590 (1956)." (Emphasis added.) Fed. R . Evid. 407 , advisory
committee notes

.

Similarly, t he federal rule favor s "encouraging people to take, or at least not discouraging them from taking, steps in furtherance of ad ded safety." Fed. R. Evid. 407, advisory committee notes. And per Rule 51 , and thus K.S.A. 60

- 4 51, "The tenable basis for exclusion is, therefore, not lack of probative worth, but the impact of an extrinsic social policy, that of encouraging, or not discou raging, the taking of immediate s teps to prevent further harm by the offending instrumentality." 10 Rutgers L. Rev. at 59 0

- 9 1.

While we are not bound by federal interpretations of the federal rule , we may consider federal authority when it is based on a s imilar rule of evidence. See State v.
Robinson , 303 Kan. 11, 222, 363 P.3d 875 (2015) (considering federal and similar state counterparts to analyze what constitutes "the writing itself" under the best evidence rule
when the evidence is stored electronical ly). Given these similarities between the two in language and purpose , federal court decisions evaluating whether post

- accident employee discipline is a subsequent remedial measure is quite informative to our view of K.S.A.
60

- 451

.13

As the Bullock panel observed, t he Tenth Circuit held evidence of post

- accident employee discipline was properly excluded under Rule 407 in Specht , 863 F.2d at 701

. Specht was a civil rights action against police for an allegedly illegal search and seizure

o f plaintiffs' home and office. The city investigated the events underly ing the law suit and
summarized its findings in a pr ess release that concluded " the officers involved exercised poor judgment in failing to read the writ of assistance thoroughly, and th at appropriate disciplinary action would be taken." 863 F.2d at 701

. The Tenth Circuit found no abuse of discretion in excluding the press release because the release "sets out remedial

measure s taken by the City to prevent the recurrence of the poor judgm ent the investigation revealed, and is therefore within the ambit of Rule 407." 863 F.2d at 701 ;

s ee also Nolan v. Memphis City Schools , 589 F.3d 257, 273

- 74 (6th Cir. 2009) (citing Hull v. Chevron U.S.A., Inc. , 812 F.2d 584, 586

- 87 [10th Cir. 1987]); Hull , 812 F.2d 58 7 ; Maddox v. City of Los Angeles , 792 F.2d 1408, 1417 (9th Cir. 1986) (disciplinary proceeding constituted inadmissible remedial measures under Rule 407); Rocky Mountain Helicopters. v. Bell Helicopters , 805 F.2d 907, 918

- 19 (10th Cir. 1986); Hochen v. Bobst Group, Inc. , 193 F.R.D. 22, 24 ( D . Mass

. 2000) (if defendant had discharged the bus driver after the accident, or required him to undergo additional safety training, evidence of these steps would fall squarely within the rule excluding evid ence of subsequent remedial measures) ; 23 Wright & Graham, Fed eral Prac tice and Pro cedure: Evidence § 5284) (1980).

More recently, as the panel observed, the United States District Court for the District of Kansas excluded the post

- accident suspension and termination of an employee as subsequent remedial measures under Rule 407. Caravan Ingredients, Inc. v. Azo, Inc.
, N o . 13

- 2592

- JTM, 2015 WL 1279531, at *5

- 6 , 8 (D. Kan. 2015) (citing Hull , 812 F.2d at
5 86

- 87). And the United States District Court for the District of Columbia excluded evidence of disciplinary proceedings against a bus driver involved in an accident as14

su bsequent remedial measures under Rule 407. Mahnke v. Washington Metro politan Area
Transit , 821 F. Supp. 2d 125, 150

- 52 (D.D.C. 2011).

To defeat this authority, Bullock relies primarily on two cases . He f irst cites a federal case, Bonds v. Dautovic , 725 F. Supp. 2d 841 (S.D. Iowa 2010) , where the plaintiff arrestees asserted claims of police assault and violations of their constitutional rights under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. They sought a ruling allowing them to introduce portions of the police chief's deposition, to which the defendant city objected as evidence of subsequent remedial measures under Rule 407.

But the Bonds court was not asked to decide whether employee discipline constituted a subsequent remedial measure . Its plaintiffs specified they were not see king
to introduce the evidence that the officers later resigned in the face of a choice to resign
or be fired. Rather, the issue was the admissibility of the post

- accident investigation and
the chief's later statements about the officers' inappropriate use of ASP batons

. As the
Bullock panel held

— and we discuss in more detail below

— there is " a distinction between the actual disciplining of employees for their conduct, which could constitute a remedial measure, and the investigation that precedes a disciplin ary process ." Bullock v. BNSF Ry. Co. , No. 111,599, 2015 WL 4879054 , at *7 (Kan. App. 2015) (unpublished opinion)

.

Bullock also cites an Oregon Court of Appeals case, Ensign v. Marion County , 140 Or. App. 114, 914 P.2d 5 (199 6 ). There, the county argued the trial court erred in allowing the deputy's post

- accident reprimand into evidence because it was a subsequent
remedial measure. But t he appellate c ourt decided the issue by simply assuming error and then holding it was harmless . 140 Or. App. at 120 ("As suming without deciding that the reprimand was a subsequent remedial measure , in this case failing to exclude evidence about the reprimand would not affect a substantial right of the county.").15

So like the panel, we conclude from the federal caselaw addre ssing the similar Rule 407 that evidence of post

- accident employee discipline is a subsequent remedial measure prohibited by K.S.A. 60

- 451 when offered to show negligence or culpable
conduct.

And like the panel, we further observe that employers may choos e to not administer discipline if they know such evidence will be admitted to show their culpability. Such a reaction would be contrary to K.S.A. 60

- 451's purpose of encouraging potential defendants to take remedial action without fear that their actions w ill be used against them. 2015 WL 4879054, at *6; see Columbia Railroad Co. v. Hawthorne
, 144 U.S. 202, 208, 12 S. Ct. 591, 36 L. Ed. 405 (1892) (allowing subsequent changes as evidence of prior negligence " ' virtually holds out an inducement for continued negligence ' "); see also DiPietro , 28 Kan. App. 2d at 378.

The employer's refusal to administer discipline under such circumstances can cause the employer another set of problems. Deciding not to discipline can mean the problem repeats, subjecting the empl oyer to the possibility of punitive damages. Under
K.S.A. 60

- 3701(d)(1), punitive damages are allowed against an employer when an employee's conduct is authorized or ratified by persons expressly empowered to do so on behalf of the employer.

This court ha s noted with approval that "jurisdictions with statutes similar to 60

- 3701(d)(1) have held that knowledge of an employee's wrongful conduct, coupled with failure to discipline the employee , amounts to implied ratification or authorization." (Emphasis added .) Smith v. Printup
, 254 Kan. 315, 340, 866 P.2d 985 (1993) (citing cases). Among other things, the Smith court concluded:16

"Ratification under the provisions of 60

- 3701(d)(1) may be either express or implied and may be accomplished before, during, or afte r the employee's questioned conduct. It may be based on an express ratification or based on a course of conduct indicating the approval, sanctioning, or confirmation of the questioned conduct. " (Emphasis added.)
254 Kan. at 342.

We acknowledge that the federal courts have unanimously held that punitive damages are not recoverable in FELA cases. McBride v. Estis Well Serv., L.L.C. , 768 F.3d 382, 388 (5th Cir. 2014) (" No case under FELA has allowed punitive damages,
wheth er for pers onal injury or death."). But failing to discipline Wise could subject BNSF to the added risk of punitive damages in future cases, e.g. , should a visitor slip in spilled liquids and fall

— while actually disciplining him could have subjected BNSF to a greater risk of liability for compensatory damages in the instant case. These are the makings of a
dilemma.

Evidence of an employer's post

- event investigation is admissible

.

Bullock next argues that evidence of an employer's post

- event investigation is
admissib le because it is not a subsequent remedial measure. And, according to Bullock, because the conclusions from BNSF's investigation are sometimes mingled with the employee discipline evidence, the latter is admissible to provide necessary context to
some of t he investigation evidence.

Considerable evidence regarding BNSF's post

- event investigation was admitted at trial. This included testimony by BNSF employee, Mechanical Foreman Levi McNeely, who reported to the scene immediately after learning of Bullock's injuries and attempted

to re create what happened. Evidence also included the McNeely report containing his investigative conclusions for BNSF. McNeely's testimony and report identified two "root causes" of Bullock's injuries. The first was Wise's failure to clean up the spilled fuel, and17

the second was Bullock's failure to perform a proper risk assessment after walking through the fuel

.

The panel held that post

- event investigative tests and reports were not excluded by
K.S.A. 60

- 451. But it declined to determine which specific parts of all the previously admitted evidence would be permitted on retrial, stating:

" Both parties acknowledge some distinction between remedial measures and investigatory reports, but neither party attempts to apply that distinction to all of the challenged e vidence here. Neither shall we. Instead, we set forth our ruling in general

terms ." Bullock , 2015 WL 4879054, at *7.

The panel then directed that on remand the parties

— obviously with the district court's guidance

— "should redact any evidence of discipline or other remedial measures from the evidence of the investigation." 2015 WL 4879054, at *8.

We generally agree with the panel

— and both parties

— that post

- event investigative tests and reports are not subsequent remedial measures and are admissible
as evide nce. See 2 Weinstein & Berger, Weinstein's Federal Evidence § 407.06[1] &
nn.1

- 2 ( 2d ed. 2017 ) (collecting cases regarding Rule 407). The 10 th Circuit Court of Appeals explains why:

"It would strain the spirit of the remedial measure prohibition in Rule 407 to extend its shield to evidence contained in post

- event tests or reports. It might be possible in rare situations to characterize such reports as 'measures' which, if conducted pr eviously,
would reduce the likelihood of the occurrence. Yet it is usually sounder to recognize that such tests are conducted for the purpose of investigating the occurrence to discover what might have gone wrong or right. Remedial measures are those actio ns taken to remedy any flaws or failures indicated by the test. In this case, the remedial measure was not the18

[study of the helicopter part] but rather the subsequent redesign of the [part]." (Emphasis added.) Rocky Mountain , 805 F.2d at 918.

But as the panel suggested, it is not unusual for some evidence to include information that is permissible, such as investigative conclusions, and information that is impermissible, such as employee discipline. See, e.g. , Specht , 863 F.2d at 701

- 02 (city's press rele ase properly excluded when it concluded officers erred and addressed subsequent remedial measures taken) ; Rocky Mountain , 805 F.2d at 918 (investigative report included some subsequent remedial measures). In such a situation, a trial court should exclude p ortions of the evidence that are subsequent remedial measures to avoid admission of any evidence that would "trespass inferentially into the Rule 407 prohibited terrain of proof of culpable conduct." (Emphasis added.) Hull , 812 F.2d at 587.

After the pane l declined to determine what parts of this mixture of evidence on remand would be excluded as disciplinary under K.S.A. 60

- 451, leaving redaction of discipline to the parties, Bullock petitioned this court for review
, arguing that redacting "makes no pract ical sense." Of all the evidence to be reviewed upon remand, his petition focuses exclusively on the Stockman script read aloud by Wise. While the parties do not identify every piece of evidence about which they argue

— documentary and testimonial

— for this script they do make sufficient argument enabling us to make a specific determination of admissibility on remand.

Bullock's Exhibit 5 entered into evidence was a copy of an email that Stockman drafted and sent to himself. As enumerated by Bullock, it stat es in full:

"Stockman, Mark A

" From: Stockman, Mark A

" Sent: Tuesday, December 09, 2008 3:01 AM19

" To: Stockman, Mark A

" Subject: Chris Wise Alt Handling statement.

"[1] Good morning,

" [2] My name is Chris Wise, I am a 3rd shift machinist, and recently I was involved in a situation where my negligence contributed to an injury to another employee. [3] I was working an M92 day inspection at the DSF, when I failed to clean up a diesel fuel spill that I created by changing the primary fuel filter on a GE locomotive. [4] It was my responsibility to clean up the fuel spill. [5] I failed to recognize the hazards associated with spilt fuel on the running board. [6] I also failed to recognize the potential hazard to my fellow coworkers and myself.

"[7] I n the future, it is my hope that each employee remembers this statement, and by my speaking to you today, will help draw attention to the need to protect yourselves and your coworkers against slip, trip and fall hazards. [8] Please take the time to protect yourselves and others against potential injuries.

" Thank you
,

" Chris Wise"

In Bullock's petition for review, he cites the second sentence in which Wise admitted his negligence contributed to Bullock's injury. He argues it reflects BNSF's post

- event inve stigative conclusions, so (1) the script is admissible along with (2) the context of the script

— Wise's alternative handling, i.e. , his discipline

. By contrast, BNSF points out that the script "was the culmination of the disciplinary process" and BNSF's

goa l was to encourage work safety, which BNSF notes is "plainly a remedial goal."

Additionally, Wise and Stockman specifically testified about the circumstances surrounding the script and Wise's presentation to his coworkers. That testimony included20

a readin g to the jury of Wise's deposition transcript where he had read the email into the
record.

We agree with Bullock that the substantive content of the email, i.e. , the words Wise spoke to his coworkers, is admissible evidence as post

- event investigative

con clusions. In it, Wise admits that "my negligence contributed to an injury to another employee . . . when I failed to clean up a diesel fuel spill that I created by changing the primary fuel filter on a GE locomotive." It generally echoes a "root cause" con clusion in McNeely's report

— admitted into evidence without BNSF objection

— that " [a] nother employee [Wise] had performed M92 inspection and while changing fuel filters out left fuel on walkways creating a slip, trip
, and fall hazard."

What is not admissibl e, however, is the email format language preceding this substantive content. A jury knowing that Wise's supervisor, General Foreman Stockman, created the first person narrative of Wise and sent the email to himself could easily
conclude that Stockman wrote it exclusively for Wise. After all, the subject line expressly identifies it as the "Chris Wise Alt Handling statement." And with the jury also knowing from the format language that this statement was created 6 months after McNeely's June "Injury Investig ation
, " it could easily conclude that Wise's verbatim reading aloud of this prepared script was a condition of his discipline. Accordingly, this portion of the email would "trespass inferentially" into K.S.A. 60

- 451's "prohibited terrain of proof of culpab le conduct." Hull , 812 F.2d at 587.

We also reject Bullock's argument that some of the disciplinary evidence is admissible to provide context for the script. I n his petition for review he argues, "It would be unfair to Bullock to leave the jury with the i mpression that Wise himself wrote the script, because that would allow BNSF to distance itself from and/or deny its own conclusions." Bullock's concerns about unfairness are eliminated by other evidence, e.g. ,21

supervisor McNeely's report that expressly con cludes a BNSF employee

— Wise

— "creat[ed] a slip, trip
, and fall hazard" by leaving fuel on walkways.

As for any concerns that the last two sentences of the script should be redacted because they are part of Wise's disciplinary process, a jury will not readi ly draw that
conclusion. W hen combining them with the previous sentences containing Wise's various forms of fault admissions, a jury instead could well conclude the entire statement is simply Wise's apology and contains his hope that his coworkers will lea rn from his mistakes before anyone else gets injured. For we further note that in Bullock's Exhibit
1

— Wise's handwritten statement given as part of the investigation 6 months earlier to which BNSF did not object

—he stated in part, "I am incredibly sorry for what happened to Mr. Bullock and I wish something would have happened differently and this could
have been avoided."

The e vidence is n ot a dmissible for other p urposes advanced by Bullock in t his c ase

.

Although evidence of subsequent remedial measures to establish negligence or culpable conduct is barred by K.S.A. 60

- 451, "it is admissible when offered for other relevant purposes." Siruta v. Hesston Corp. , 232 Kan. 654, 668, 659 P.2d 799 (1983). We
have previously recognized that evidence of subsequent remedial measures can be admitted to show feasibility of design, the condition at the time of the event, who bore responsibility for repairs, or who was in control. 232 Kan. at 668 (feasibility of design
ch anges); Huxol v. Nickell , 205 Kan. 718, 723, 473 P.2d 90 (1970) (condition at time of accident, responsibi lity for repairs, or control).

Bullock asks us to hold that subsequent remedial measures also are admissible to prove causation and to rebut a contri butory negligence defense. We disagree for the
reasons stated below.22

Causation

A plaintiff seeking recovery under FELA must "prove the traditional common

- law negligence elements of duty, breach of a duty, foreseeability of injury, and causation
with its attendant relaxed burden." (Emphasis added.) Smart v. BNSF Railway Co. , 52 Kan. App. 2d 486, 491, 369 P.3d 966 (2016); see also CSX Transp., Inc. v. McBride , 564 U.S. 685, 691

- 92, 131 S. Ct. 2630, 180 L. Ed. 2d 637 (2011) (comparing tort litigation
causati on with relaxed causation standard under FELA). In Kansas, plaintiffs alleging negligence bear the burden of proving the same basic four elements: (1) existence of a duty, (2) breach of that duty, (3) injury, and (4) "a causal connection between the duty breached and the injury suffered." (Emphasis added.) Thomas v. Board of Shawnee County Comm ' rs , 293 Kan. 20 8, 220

- 21, 262 P.3d 336 (2011).

Recognizing that K.S.A. 60

- 451 prohibits admission of this evidence when offered to "prove negligence or culpable co nduct," Bullock agrees the statute is meant to exclude evidence admitted to show the negligence elements of duty and a breach of that duty but argues it is admissible to establish the element of causation. The panel did not reach the
merits of the issue be cause it held that causation was not in dispute. The panel held:

"[H]ere there is no causation issue that evidence of Wise's discipline could rebut. The parties agree that the accident was caused by Bullock's stepping in diesel fuel that Wise had spilled on the locomotive's running board, then attempting to move to another locomotive. Wise does not dispute that he spilled the diesel fuel, nor does Bullock show
that BNSF asserted another cause of Bullock's accident that admission of Wise's discipline could rebut." 2015 WL 4879054, at *8

.

In Bullock 's petition for this court's review, he argu es that the panel erred because causation was disputed. He principally refers to an expert witness BNSF did not call to23

testify at trial and he cites remarks from his counsel during motions hearings

. Neither argument is persuasive because it is a fundamental principle in our justice system that the jury may only consider evidence that is admitted. PIK Civ. 4th 102.03 (2010 Supp

. ). And

c ounsel's remarks are not evidence. State v. Bennington , 293 Kan. 503, 530, 264 P.3d 440 (2011) (noting that remarks made during voir dire, opening statements, or closing arguments are not evidence); see also Gannon v. State , 298 Kan. 1107, 1126, 319 P.3d
11 9 6 (2014).

Finally, Bullock cite s testimony that BNSF employees could not recreate the slip as described by Bullock given the configuration of the locomotives. Specifically, McNeely testified that he reported to the scene immediately after Bullock was injured. He
visited with Bullock to try to determine what happened and then tried to reproduce the injury through a reenactment while the locomotives were in the same position. McNeely testified that the locomotive's coupler prevented him from falling all the way down
between the two units. He concluded that he was unable to determine how Bullock cou ld
have fallen as he described.

BNSF's counsel's closing argument demonstrates that the McNeely testimony was admitted at least in part to dispute causation :

"Now, how did he fall? There is only one witness to that incident, and it is Mr.
Bullock. And in judging whether he fell, how he fell, what his body did, what hurt, you again have one source of information , and that's Mr. Bullock.

"[Bullock's counsel] said we didn't bring anyone in here to say that it couldn't have happened the way Mr. Bullock described. We didn't need to. Mr. Bullock did that
for us. He sat up and described a series of body movements and contortions that defies physics. You know, after this accident, and the railroad invest igated it, they took Mr. Bullock at his word. They scratched their head, and wondered if it could have happened that way. They tried to recreate it and they couldn't . . . ." (Emphas e s added.)24

Consequently, the panel erred by holding BNSF did not dispute causation. So we review the merits of Bullock's claim that subsequent remedial measures are admissible to prove that element

. We begin by addressing the cases forming his primary reliance for the argument: Brazos River Authority v. GE Ionics, Inc. , 469 F. 3d 416 (5 th Cir. 2006)
, and Wetherill v. University of Chicago , 565 F . Supp. 1553 ( N .D. Ill. 1983).

The panel correctly recognized that Wetherill is no longer good law to support Bullock's argument. But it acknowledged that Brazos supports his proposition without analyzing the merits of that case. Bullock v. BNSF R ailwa y. Co. , No. 111,599, 2015 WL
4879054 , at * 8 (Kan. App. 2015) (unpublished opinion)

.

The authorities are split on whether the federal rule, Rule 407, or its analog in our sister states prohibits admission of subsequent remedial measures when admitted to prove causation. Compare Brazos , 4 69 F.3d at 429 (evidence admissible to rebut theory of proximate cause but not to prove culpability in a breach of warranty case) , and Bailey v.
Kawasaki

- Kisen , K.K. , 455 F.2d 392 , 395

- 96 (5th Cir. 1972) (evidence of remedial measures admissible in limited circumstances, such as when exclusion resulted in false impression of causation)
, with Werner v. Upjohn Co., Inc. , 628 F.2d 848, 853

- 54, 856,
858

- 59 (4th Cir. 1980) , and McIntyre v. Colonies

- Pacific, LLC , 228 Cal. App. 4th 664 , 673

- 74, 175 Cal. Rptr . 3d 440 (Cal. App. 2014).

As explained below, we conclude the weight of authority prohibiting admission is more persuasive. And we note th is conclusion is consistent with recent trends. See 2
McCormick on Evidence § 267, p. 346 (7 th e d. 2013) ("The older cases allowed such evidence to prove that the faulty condition later remedied was the cause of the injury by showing that after the change the injurious effect disappeared, but recent cases are more skeptical that this is an appropriate use of such evidence.")

.25

In Brazos , a river development authority contracted with the defendants to retrofit equipment used to reduce the water's salt conten t. Problems occurred after the retrofit that culminated in fires, and Brazos sued for breach of warranty. The defendants argued Brazos caused the fires through poor maintenance, and the district court excluded evidence rebutting that claim under Rule 407. Without much analysis, the Fifth Circuit held that "subsequent remedial measures can be introduced on the issue of causation if that is in controversy," and the evidence should have been admitted. 469 F.3d at 429. The
Brazos court relied exclusively on the Fifth Circuit's earlier decision in Bailey

.

In Bailey , the issue was whether a falling boom that caused injury dropped because a ship's crew was negligent or if it resulted from some other cause. Plaintiff sought to admit e vidence that the boom fell again shortly after he was injured, under conditions which a jury could infer were identical to those existing at the time he was injured. Because the trial judge excluded evidence of repairs done after a second fall as a subsequ ent remedial measure, the jury knew only that the boom dropped once and had only one explanation for that

— the crew's negligence. The Fifth Circuit reversed. Although "the general rule [is] that evidence of subsequent corrective measures is not admissible," the court found this case one of a number of "very limited situations [in which] the policy favoring repair must be subordinated to the necessity for getting at the
truth." 455 F.2d at 395

- 96. The court cautioned that jurors should be instructed as to the purpose for which such evidence is admitted. 455 F.2d at 396.

This analysis stands in contrast to a recent California case
, McIntyre v. Colonies

Pacific, LLC . California, like Kansas, adopted Uniform Rule of Evidence 51 (1953). Therefore, th at state's co urt considered statutory language virtually identical to the Kansas statute. Leonard, The New Wigmore: A Treatise on Evidence: Selected Rules of Limited Admissibility § 2.5, p. 155 n.3 (2002) (com paring California's and Kansas'26

enactment of Uniform Rule of Evidence 51 (1953) on subsequent remedial measures, noting California differs only in "punctuation and in the substitution of 'inadmissible' for
'not admissible'").

The McIntyre court rejected an argument that "negligence" as used in California's
subse quent remedial measures rule referred only to the existence of a duty and breach of duty, but not causation. McIntyre , 228 Cal. App. 4th at 670

- 74 . The court found the term "negligence" could be interpreted either as meaning only the existence and breach o f duty or as including all elements of the tort. The court first considered the history of the statutory provision, which codified common law, and second the public policy behind the provision, which encourages remedial conduct. The court then rejected pla intiffs' argument that subsequent remedial measures should be admissible to establish causation because "[w]hether the issue is couched in terms of the due care or causation aspect of a negligence cause of action, admission of evidence [of subsequent remed ial measures] would discourage others similarly situated from undertaking such measures, an outcome that would thwart public policy." 228 Cal. App. 4th at 673

.

The California court is not unique in its approach. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit also rejected the argument that an exception should exist for proof of causation
, reasoning that such an exception "would promote substance over form and subvert the policy behind excluding evidence of subsequent remedial
measures." Werner , 628 F.2d at 858

- 59 ; see also Chesapeake Louisiana, L.P. v. Innovative Wellsite Sys tems , Inc. , No. 12

- 2963, 2015 WL 339022, at * 2

- 3 (W.D. La. 2015) (unpublished opinion) (refusing to allow evidence of subsequent remedial measures as proof of causation and distinguishing Brazos ); Kendall v. Bausch & Lomb,
Inc. , No. Civ. 05

- 5066

- KES, 2009 WL 1740008 , at *8 (D.S.D. 2009) (unp u blished opinion) ("Th e court will not read into Rule 407 an exception for causation, especially in27

cases where jurors may easily draw in ferences from the post

- accident remedial measures to a party's negligence or the defectiveness of a product.").

The Supreme Judicial Court of Maine similarly rejected a request to extend an exception to allow evidence of subsequent remedial measure s to es tablish causation:

" Evidence of causation is a necessary element of a negligence claim [ c itation omitted] , and
, therefore
, any evidence used to prove causation is also used to prove negligence. Thus, evidence of subsequent repairs intended to prove causat ion is evidence offered to prove negligence. The plain language of Rule 407(a) bars use of evidence of subsequent remedial measures to prove negligence. " Freeman v. Funtown/Splashtown
, USA, 828 A.2d 752, 754 (Me. 2003).

We are persuaded by the reasoning of sister courts that the plain meaning of the statute precludes the use of subsequent remedial measures to prove causation

— an essential element of the tort of negligence. Thus, as the Maine court concluded, "evidence of subsequent repairs intended to prov e causation is evidence offered to prove negligence," and as such should be excluded. 828 A.2d at 754. This approach supports the policy underlying K.S.A. 60

- 451 and similar state and federal rules of evidence:

" The tenable basis for exclusion is, therefore, not lack of probative worth, but the impact of an extrinsic social policy, that of encouraging, or not discouraging, the taking of immediate steps to prevent further harm by the offending instrumentality." 10 Rutgers L.
Rev. at 59 0

- 9 1.

Contribu tory n egligence
At trial, BNSF claimed Bullock was contributorily negligent. In FELA cases, contributory negligence does not bar an employee's recovery. But it does diminish the amount of recoverable damages "in proportion to the amount of negligence attr ibutable to28

such employee." 45 U.S.C. § 53 (2012). Bullock argues, and the district court held, that evidence of Wise's discipline was admissible to prove Bullock was not contributorily negligent. Bullock's apparent strategy was to contrast his lack of dis cipline with Wise's receipt of discipline in an attempt to show that BNSF

— the entity deciding whether discipline is to be imposed

— believes only Wise was negligent despite McNeely's report
listi ng two causes for the accident.

Whether subsequent remedial co nduct is admissible to rebut a comparative fault defense, i.e. , the plaintiff was contributorily negligent, is an issue of first impression for this court. But our Court of Appeals rejected its admissibility for that purpose in DiPietro v. Cessna Aircraft Co. , 28 Kan. App. 2d 372, 16 P.3d 986 (2000). There, DiPietro fell into a drainage ditch while examining an airplane. He sued
, alleging Cessna was negligent for not providing protective measures. Cessna defended by arguing DiPietro was fully aware of the d itch because it was an open and obvious hazard.

After DiPietro's fall, Cessna erected a fence around the ditch. DiPietro argued that evidence was admissible to rebut Cessna's allegation of his comparative fault, even though it was a subsequent remedial me asure. The panel held that exceptions to the general rule "should be allowed with great caution" so the policy will remain intact: " to encourage potential defendants to remedy hazardous conditions without fear that their actions will be used against them. TLT

- Babcock, Inc. v. Emerson Elec. Co. , 33 F.3d 397, 400 (4th Cir. 1994)." 28 Kan. App. 2d at 378.

With this in mind, the DiPietro panel reasoned that "evidence that tends to exculpate plaintiff in a comparative fault case
, " i.e. , rebutting the defendant 's claim that plaintiff was contributorily negligent, "places fault upon the defendant, and evidence of29

subsequent remedial conduct to prove negligence is prohibited by K.S.A. 60

- 451." 28
Kan . App. 2d at 378.

Bullock attempts to distinguish DiPietro becau se its cause of action did not arise under FELA. He argues FELA cases are different because the employer has control of both employees so the discipline or lack thereof is evidence of who the employer believes
was at fault. He cites two older FELA cases: Panger v. Duluth, W. & P. Ry. Co. , 490 F.2d 1112 (8th Cir. 1974); and Hval v. S outhern Pacific , 39 Or. App. 479, 592 P.2d 1046 (1979). Neither case is persuasive.

The Panger plaintiff was injured when he jumped from a moving railroad
motorcar to avoid an approaching train. He sought to introduce evidence

— both that the motorcar operator was disciplined but plaintiff was not

— to " negate the Railway's contention that Panger was in sole charge of the work crew and motorcar." 490 F.2d at 1117. In other words, the railway alleged that he was "acting in a supervisory capacity" so that all negligence should be imputed to him. 490 F.2d at 1115.

The court confirmed that the admissibility of evidence of the failure to discipline Panger, i.e. , that the Railway failed to find him responsible, was inconsistent with the railway's trial assertion that Panger was solely responsible for the crew and car. In short, this evidence went to the issue of control. And as the panel of our Court of Appeals recognized, "Although Pang er was decided before the adoption of Rule 407, the rule 'explicitly recognizes that evidence of subsequent remedial measures may be admitted to prove ownership or control of the object or premises causing an injury.' 2 Weinstein's Federal Evidence § 407.0 4[2]." Bullock
, 2015 WL 4879054, at *9.

Although not as clear, admission of the evidence of the operator's discipline also appeared to go to the issue of operational control. We reach this conclusion because after30

specifically acknowledging Panger used th e evidence at trial to negate the contention he was in sole charge of the crew and car, the Eighth Circuit held that on remand, "If plaintiff lays a proper foundation we believe that this evidence, if it does indicate the Railway found someone other than P anger responsible, would be admissible." Panger , 490 F.2d at 1117

- 18

.

Our Court of Appeals panel held that control is not in issue in Bullock's case. Because Bullock has not sought our review of that holding, it stands. He is therefore prevented from argu ing the evidence is admissible on that unchallenged basis. See Supreme Court Rule 8.03(a)(4)(C) (2017 Kan. S. Ct. R. 54) ("The court will not consider issues not presented or fairly included in the petition [for review].").

The Hval court, relying largely on Panger as "directly [ on ] point," held that evidence of one employee's receipt of discipline and the plaintiff's lack of discipline could be admissible if a proper foundation were laid. 39 Or. App. a t 485 . Unlike Panger , the Hval court did briefly consi der whether such disciplinary evidence should be excluded as a matter of public policy, i.e. , as a subsequent remedial measure. And the court held it could be admitted to rebut the employer's claim of plaintiff's comparative or contributory negligence. " [ W ] e conclude that rule of exclusion is not available where the evidence is used to contradict the assertion at trial that plaintiff was negligent." 39 Or. App. at 486

.

The Bullock panel reviewed Hval and concluded "[o]ur research has located no case citing this statement of the law from Hval or any legal authority commenting [ on ] it." 2015 WL 4879054, at *9. And the panel declined to adopt its reasoning because of its court's policy of adopting exceptions to K.S.A. 60

- 451 with great caution. 2015 WL
4879054 , at *9 (citing DiPietro ). We have similarly looked for additional support of the
Hval court's analysis during the past 38 years and have found none.31

We conclude that the rationale of DiPietro remains valid. Specifically, when a plaintiff argues that the evidence of discipline is admissible to rebut defendant's claim of plaintiff's contributory negligence, this particular use of the evidence can have the effect of proving defendant's negligence, e.g. , degree of negligence. We reach this conclusion because negligence is a zero sum game when only two parties are involved. D i Pietro , 28 Kan. App. 2d at 378 ("Evidence that tends to exculpate plaintiff in a comparative fault case places fault upon the defendant

. "). Per K.S.A. 60

- 451, "evidence of such subsequent measures is not admissible to prove [defendant's] negligence or culpable conduct in connection with the event." (Emphasis added.) And FELA is a comparative negligence

statute. Bullock
, 2015 WL 4 879054, at *9 (citing 45 U.S.C. § 53 [2012]) ("[T]he fact that the employee may have been guilty of contributory negligence shall not bar a recovery, but the damages shall be diminished by the jury in proportion to the amount of negligence attributable to such employee.")

.

Accordingly, claims of contributory negligence in a FELA case do not relax the requirements of K.S.A. 60

- 451.

Harmlessness

Our holding that the evidence of Wise's discipline was improperly admitted because it was barred by K.S.A. 60

- 45 1 brings us to the question of the magnitude of that error. The panel held the error was prejudicial and required remand for a new trial, stating:

" We find that Bullock has failed to meet his burden of demonstrating
harmlessness. We are unable to find th at the erroneously admitted evidence of Wise's discipline played no part in the jury's finding Bullock 0% negligent, in light of the32

emphasis that Bullock placed on that issue during his presentation of the evidence and in his closing argument. We instead find a reasonable probability that without the evidence of Wise's discipline and the attendant arguments, the jury would have apportioned the fault differently. We do not do so lightly, understanding that this trial took 9 days to try and involved multiple witnesses and exhibits and immense amounts of time and labor for all involved. But given the facts of record, we must reverse and remand for a new trial, and vacate the judgment ." Bullock , 2015 WL 4879054, at *13

.

Bullock has not sought review of the pan el's harmlessness analysis and holding. So we do not address harmlessness but remand for a new trial. See Supreme Court Rule 8.03(a)(4)(C), ( h ) (1) (2017 Kan. S. Ct. R. 53 ).

While Bullock's second issue regarding his counsel's comments during closing

argum ent could now be disregarded because of our reversal and remand on K.S.A. 60

- 451 grounds, like the panel we will address it to provide guidance for retrial. See In re
Care & Treatment of Foster , 280 Kan. 845, 861, 127 P.3d 277 (2006) (citing State v.
Kunel lis , 276 Kan. 461, 476, 78 P.3d 776 [2003]).

Issue 2: Counsel's statements during closing argument were improper.

Additional f

acts
During his closing argument to the jury , Bullock's counsel remarked:

"'I can' t tell you how important your verdict is, because what a verdict does is it re[s]olves disputes about what' s true. It takes the dispute bet ween the two parties about
what' s true and what ' s not, and it identifies the truth. That ' s critically important. And then more importantly, it bestows and rend ers justice on that dispute. It takes something that was wrong, and it makes it right, and your verdict is going to bring justice. That' s incr edibly important. I can' t tell you how important your role is going to be when you33

deliberate and you bring back a verdict, whichever way your verdict goes, however your verdict goes.

" Now, I talked about justice. Justice is just an abstract ideal. It is an em pty shell. You can't just say, ' I am going to bring justice to b ear on this dispute.' Well, what’s justice? W here are you coming up with these concepts? And the answer is, it comes from your values

. " (Emphasis added.)

BNSF 's counsel objected . During the bench conference
, he contended Bullock's counsel was improperly arguing "justice is the values of the communit y, " stating:

" Your Honor, this is the justice is the values of the community argument, which is improper. The decision rendered is based on the facts, not by their own personal views or their own personal stake or the values of the community. I know exact ly where this is going, and their sense of justice, they are supposed to follow the instructions and follow
the law. "

The court overruled the objection. And Bullock's counsel continued with this
theme:

" Justice is an ideal that is given meaning by your values

. You decide what justice is based on what you feel and what values you have, and you learn those values within your community . And your verdict, whatever your verdict is , the justice you decide upon will reflect your values and the values of this co mmunity

. It will speak to the values of how an employer should treat an employee, what kinds of conditions of work and employment

. . . a person in this community is entitled to , and that ' s really important
stuff. " (Emphas e s added.)

The panel agreed with BNSF that this argument was impermissible. But because it was already reversing and remanding on the K.S.A. 60

- 451 issue, it declined to address34

whether this error was harmless. Bullock petitioned for our review of the panel's analysis
and now contends the argument was proper but, if not, it was harmless error

.
Standard of review
In the criminal law context, this court has clearly established a two

- step process to determine whether a prosecutor's comments have created reversible error: error and prejudi ce. State v. Kleypas
, 305 Kan. 224, 31 6 , 382 P.3d 373 (2016).

"[1] To determine whether prosecutorial error has occurred, the appellate court must decide whether the prosecutorial acts complained of fall outside the wide latitude afforded prosecutors to conduct the State's case and attempt to obtain a conviction in a manner that does not offend the defendant's constitutional right to a fair trial. [2] If error is found, the appellate court must next determine whether the error prejudiced the
defendant's d ue process rights to a fair trial." State v. Sherman , 305 Kan. 88, 109, 378 P.3d 1060 (2016)

.
Our steps for analyzing counsel's comments in the civil context have not been stated that concisely. But our civil caselaw demonstrates several similarities to the criminal arena. See, e.g. , Walters v. Hitchcock
, 237 Kan. 31, 32

- 33, 697 P.2d 847 (1985) (conducting error and prejudice analysis of counsel's comments in closing argument)

.

More specifically, as in the criminal context, in civil cases counsel are granted latitude in making arguments. " ' This court has consistently followed the general rule against imposing narrow and unreasonable limitations upon argument of counsel made to the jury. ' " Walker v. Holiday Lanes, Inc.
, 196 Kan. 513, 519, 413 P.2d 63 (1 966).

And if counsel has exceeded that latitude, i.e. , if error is determined to exist, the civil court then determines whether the error prejudiced a party's right to a fair trial:35 "Under what circumstances do remarks of counsel result in reversible er ror? An
uncontradictable answer must be: they are reversible error when, because of them, the parties have not had a fair trial. Factors necessary to a fair trial are an adequate hearing before an impartial tribunal based on legally admissible evidence re levant to the issues involved, free from bias or prejudice." (Emphasis added.) Smith v. Blakey, Administrator
, 213 Kan. 91, 9 6 , 515 P.2d 1062 (1973).

See also In re Foster , 2 80 Kan. at 857 (reversing and remanding for new trial in civil case involving Sexually Violent Predators Act because of counsel's improper comment in opening statement and closing argument) (citing Blakey ).

What has not been clear historically in the civil context is identifying the specific process or test to use for determining r eversible error, i.e. , when a party has been denied the right to a fair trial. Compare State v. Ward
, 292 Kan. 541, 569, 256 P.3d 801 (2011) (specifying different harmlessness tests in criminal cases for when the error infringes upon a right guaranteed by the United States Constitution and when it does not). But clarity recently was provided by this court in several civil matters. See, e.g. , Siruta v.
Siruta , 301 Kan. 757, 772, 348 P.3d 549 (2015) (wrongful death); Foster v. Klaumann
, 296 Kan. 295, 305, 294 P.3d 223 (2013) (medical malpractice)

.

In Siruta , we found the trial court erred in allowing two jury instructions over the plaintiff's objection and in declining to provide one he requested. As our standard of
review we cited the criminal case of Ward
, 292 Kan. at 569

— so reversal of a civil jury verdict is appropriate when "there is a reasonable probability that the error will or did affect the outcome of the trial in light of the entire record." Siruta , 301 Kan. at 772

- 73. This particular test from Ward was based in large part upon K.S.A. 60

- 261

— an "error consequence" statute that has been applied not only to civil cases but also those criminal cases not involving federal constitutional rights. 292 Kan. at 552

- 66.36

The particular Ward reasonable probability test has not been applied by this court to claims of improper argument in civil cases. But our caselaw demonstrates this basic standard has been applied in such situations

. As we said more than 30 years ago "[t]o
constitute reversibl e error there must be a likelihood that the improper remarks changed
the result of the trial ." (Emphas e s added .) Walters
, 237 Kan. at 33 (citing State v. Dill
, 3 Kan. App. 2d 67, 589 P.2d 634 [1979]); a ccord Sledd v. Reed, 246 Kan. 112, 117 , 785 P.2d 694 ( 1990) (citing Walters) ; s ee also Walker
, 196 Kan. at 519 ( C ounsel's closing arguments "refer to matters clearly outside the evidence, and under the circumstances were reasonably calculated, and their probable effect was, to produce a prejudicial
attitude o n the part of the jury toward the plaintiff.") ( E mphasis added

. ); Taylor v. F.W.
Woolworth Co.
, 151 Kan. 233, 242, 98 P.2d 114 (1940) ("the only purpose and the probable effect of the improper comments . . . were to produce a prejudicial attitude toward the defendant on the part of the jury and thus prevent a fair and impartial trial")

. ( E mphasis added

. )

Accordingly, Ward 's reasonable probability test is applicable to Bullock's assertion that no prejudicial error occurred in his counsel's closing argument.

Analysis

The panel held counsel's comments were improper on two grounds. First, he was inviting the jury to decide the case based on the juror's subjective feelings of what amounts to justice instead of the rule of law provided in the instructions. Second, he appealed to community interests and argued the verdict could negatively impact the community. Bullock
, 2015 WL 4879054, at *16

- 17 . We agree w ith the panel's well

reasoned ana lysis and draw heavily from it.37

We disapproved of an instruction that encouraged the jury to act on the ir feelings
about what was fair in State v. McClanahan
, 212 Kan. 208, 215

- 16, 510 P.2d 153 (1973)

. The instruction stated:

"' [I]t is difficult to draft legal statements that are so exact that they are right for all conceivable circumstances. Accordingly, you are entitled to act upon your conscientious feeling about what is a fair result in this case and acquit the def endant if you believe that justice requires such a result. '" 212 Kan. at 209.

The McClanahan court explained that this instruction was troubling both in theory and in practice because the jury's duty is to follow the law

— after the court has defined it. We
held :

" The tenor of the instruction militates against our generally accepted law as to the diverse functions of court and jury. The instructions to the jury should fairly and impartially set forth the law to govern the jury in its deliberations

. . . . Th e administration of justice cannot be left to community standards or community conscience but must depend upon the protections afforded by the rule of law . The jury must be directed to apply the rules of law to the evidence even though it must do so in the face of public outcry and indignation. Disregard for the principles of established law creates anarchy and destroys the very protections wh ich the law affords an accused." (Emphasis added.) 212 Kan. at
215

- 16

.

Bullock's jury argument is troubling for the same reasons. McClanahan was concerned about " community standards or community conscience " because such language suggested the jury could improperly decide the case based on something other
than the law contained in the instructions . 212 Kan. at 216. And Bullock's counsel made a similar argument by telling the jury it could achieve justice based on "community
values" :38

"You decide what justice is based on what you feel and what values you have, and you learn those values within your community. And your ver dict, whatever your verdict is, the justice you decide upon will reflect your values and the values of this community."

We similarly disapprove of counsel's related comments that the jury's verdict would "speak to the values of how an employer should trea t an employee, what kinds of conditions of work and employment .

. . a person in this community is entitled to ." (Emphasis added.) Juries are tasked with deciding cases based on the evidence presented by counsel and the law instructed by the court, not wit h protecting their communities through their verdicts. See State v. Finley , 273 Ka n. 237, 245, 42 P.3d 723 (2002) (It is improper to " appeal to community interests " by arguing a verdict " would have some sort of neg ative impact on the community." )

. As the panel explained:

"'[T] his remark could appeal to passion or prejudice by encouraging the jury to consider the good of the community rather than the merits of the case. See In re Walker v. Holiday
Lanes , 196 Kan. 513, 519, 413 P.2d 63 (1966) (finding impro per a statement that a plaintiff's verdict would hurt the reputation of the locality and drive businesses away
because it referred ' to matters clearly outside the evidence and under the circumstances were reasonably calculated, and their probable effect wa s, to produce a prejudicial attitude on the part of the jury towards the plaintiff' ); Ward , 35 Kan. App. 2d at 378 (holding an argument which could appeal ' to the jurors' personal fears for the safety of the community's children or their own children ' was ' highly improper ' ); City of Dodge City v. Ingram , 33 Kan. App. 2d 829, 840, 109 P.3d 1272 (2005) (finding reversible error in prosecutor's telling the jury it was the '" conscience of the community, "' and suggesting if the jury did not find the defendant gu ilty, the police could no longer take action in similar cases; the remarks were improper because they were not based on the evidence and could appeal to the passion and prejudice of the jury). " Bullock , 2015 WL 4879054, at *18.

Bullock argues th ese particular jury argument prohibitions ha ve been limited to
the criminal law context and should not be extended to civil cases. But as mentioned, the general goal is the same in civil cases as it is in criminal: to provide fair trials to the39

litigants. See Smith , 213 Kan. at 96. Consistent with that same fair trial goal, this court
has previously extended its prohibition of particular improper closing arguments in
criminal cases to the civil context. In a medical malpractice case, this court held:

" ' In argument to the jury the prosecutor should not use statements calculated to inflame the passions or prejudices of the jury. He should refrain from argument which would divert the jury from its duty to decide the case on the evidence, by injecting issues broader than the guilt or innocence of the accused under the controlling law, or by making predictions of the consequences of the jury's verdict. ' " Sledd
, 246 Kan. at 116 (quoting State v. Kelley , 209 Kan. 699, Syl. ¶ 4, 498 P.2d 87 [1972]).

The Sledd co urt relied upon this criminal law language to rule as inappropriate the defense counsel's closing argument

— that if the jury did not find the defendant doctor free of negligence there would be no one to treat the jurors

.

Based upon these authorities, we ho ld those comments of Bullock's counsel in closing argument were inappropriate. Because we are already reversing and remanding
on the K.S.A. 60

- 451 issue, we do not need to decide whether the error requires reversal. But counsel is prohibited from making such arguments to the jury on remand. See In re
Foster , 280 Kan. at 861 ("On retr ial, such statements by counsel and associated evidence are prohibited.")

.

C ONCLUSION Evidence of Wise's discipline should have been excluded under K.S.A. 60

- 451. And certain comments made by Bullock's counsel during his closing argument should not
have been allowed. Because the evidentiary error alone is reversible, the Court of40

Appeals decision reversing the district court is affirmed ; the judgment of the district court is reversed; and the case is remanded to the district court for a new trial

.

L UCKE RT , J., not participating.